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wide . The outer layer ran vertically and the inner layer horizontally . Her armor was backed by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of oak , vertically oriented , and two layers of 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 191 mm ) of pine , alternating in direction . The bottom of the casemate was some 20 inches ( 508 mm ) from the waterline and its top was 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) above the waterline . The pyramidal pilothouse was armored in the same way and had room for two men . The upper portion of Atlanta 's hull received two inches of armor .
The rectangular casemate was pierced with eight narrow gun ports , one each at the bow and stern and three along each side . Each gun port was protected by an armored shutter made of two layers of iron riveted together and allowed the guns to elevate only to a maximum of + 5 to + 7 ° . Atlanta was armed with single @-@ banded , 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) Brooke rifles on pivot mounts at the bow and stern . The middle gun port on each side was occupied by a single @-@ banded , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 163 mm ) Brooke rifle . The 17 @-@ caliber , seven @-@ inch guns weighed about 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) and fired 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) armor @-@ piercing " bolts " and 110 @-@ pound ( 50 kg ) explosive shells . The equivalent statistics for the 18 @.@ 5 @-@ caliber , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch gun were 9 @,@ 110 pounds ( 4 @,@ 130 kg ) with 80 @-@ pound bolts and 64 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) shells . Atlanta was also armed with a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , solid iron , ram that was reinforced by a series of vertical steel bars . In front of the ram was a spar torpedo that carried 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of black powder on a wooden pole connected to an iron lever that could be raised or lowered by means of pulleys .
On 31 July 1862 , under the command of Lieutenant Charles H. McBlair , Atlanta conducted her sea trials down the Savannah River toward Fort Pulaski . The ship proved to be difficult to steer , and the additional weight of her armor and guns significantly reduced her speed and increased her draft . This latter was a real problem in the shallow waters near Savannah . She also leaked significantly , and her design virtually eliminated air circulation . One report said that " it was almost intolerable on board the Atlanta , there being no method of ventilation , and the heat was intense . " Scales commented in his diary , " What a comfortless , infernal and God @-@ forsaken ship ! ! "
Attempts were made to fix the problems and were at least partially successful in stopping many of the leaks . The ship was commissioned on 22 November and became the flagship of Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall , commander of the naval defenses of Georgia . Under pressure from Mallory to engage the blockading ships , Tattnall attempted to engage them before any ironclads arrived on 5 January 1863 , but army engineers could not clear the obstacles blocking the channel in a timely manner , despite early coordination being made by Tattnall to do so . It took another month to actually clear the obstacles and two monitors arrived before the end of January . Nonetheless Tattnall attempted to pass through the obstructions during high tide on 3 February , but high winds prevented the water from rising enough to allow the ship to do so . After Atlanta successfully passed through them on 19 March , Tattnall planned to attack the Union base at Port Royal , South Carolina while the monitors were attacking Charleston . Deserters revealed Tatnall 's plan while he was waiting at the head of Wassaw Sound and he was forced to retreat when three monitors augmented the defenses at Port Royal . Dissatisfied with Tattnall 's perceived lack of aggressiveness , Mallory replaced Tattnall as commander of the Savannah squadron later that month with Commander Richard L. Page . Page , in his turn was relieved in May by Commander William A. Webb ; Atlanta remained the squadron flagship throughout this time .
Webb demonstrated his aggressiveness when he attempted to sortie on the first spring tide ( 30 May ) after taking command , but Atlanta 's forward engine broke down after he had passed the obstructions , and the ship ran aground . She was not damaged although it took over a day to pull her free . He planned to make another attempt on the next full tide , rejecting Mallory 's idea that he wait until the nearly complete ironclad Savannah was finished before his next sortie . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel F. Du Pont , commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron , had ordered the monitors Weehawken and Nahant into Wassaw Sound . Commander John Rodgers in Weehawken had overall command of the two ships .
In the early evening of 15 June , Webb began his next attempt by passing over the lower obstructions in the Wilmington River and spent the rest of the night coaling . He moved forward the next evening to a concealed position within easy reach of the monitors for an attack early the following morning . Webb planned to sink one of the monitors with his spar torpedo and then deal with the other one with his guns . The gunboat Isondiga and the tugboat Resolute were to accompany him to tow one or both of the monitors back to Savannah .
A lookout aboard Weehawken spotted Atlanta at 04 : 10 on the morning of 17 June . When the latter ship closed to within about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the two Union ships , she fired one round from her bow gun that passed over Weehawken and landed near Nahant . Shortly afterward , Atlanta ran aground on a sandbar ; she was briefly able to free herself , but the pressure of the tide pushed her back onto the sandbar . This time Webb was unable to get off and the monitors closed the range . When Weehawken , the leading ship , closed to within 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) she opened fire with both of her guns . The 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) shell missed , but the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) shell struck the ironclad above the port middle gun port , penetrated her armor and broke the wooden backing behind it , spraying splinters and fragments that disabled the entire gun crew and half the crew of the bow gun , even though it failed to cleanly penetrate through the backing . The next shot from the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun struck the upper hull and started a small leak even though it failed to penetrate the two @-@ inch armor there . The next shell from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren glanced off the middle starboard gun shutter as it was being opened , wounding half the gun 's crew with fragments . The final shell was also from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren and it struck the top of the pilothouse , breaking the armor there and wounding both pilots in it . By this time , Atlanta had been able to fire only seven shots , none of which hit either Union ship , and was hard aground with high tide not due for another hour and a half . Weehawken and Nahant were able to freely maneuver into positions from which the Atlanta 's narrow gun ports would not allow her to reply and the damage already inflicted by the former ship made further resistance futile . Webb surrendered his ship within 15 minutes of opening fire , before Nahant even had a chance to fire . Of the ironclad 's 21 officers and 124 enlisted men , one man was killed and another sixteen were wounded badly enough to require hospitalization .
= = In the Union Navy = =
Atlanta was easily pulled free by the Union ships and she reached Port Royal under her own power . Not badly damaged , she was repaired and bought by the Union Navy . The prize money of $ 350 @,@ 000 was shared between the crews of Weehawken , Nahant and the gunboat Cimarron , the only ships within signaling distance . The ship retained her name and was commissioned again on 2 February 1864 , rearmed with a pair of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifles in the bow and stern and 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch , 100 @-@ pound Parrott rifles amidships . The 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifle weighed 16 @,@ 500 pounds ( 7 @,@ 500 kg ) and was 17 calibers long . The 100 @-@ pounder weighed 9 @,@ 800 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) and was 20 calibers long . It fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shell a distance of 6 @,@ 900 yards ( 6 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of + 25 ° . All four of her Brooke rifles are currently located in Willard Park in the Washington Navy Yard . Atlanta was assigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the ironclads of the James River Squadron . On 21 May 1864 , she and the gunboat Dawn fired on and dispersed Confederate cavalry that was attacking Fort Powhatan and she was deployed further upriver in February 1865 after the Battle of Trent 's Reach to better blockade the Confederate ironclads at Richmond .
After the end of the war in April , Atlanta was decommissioned in Philadelphia on 21 June 1865 and placed in reserve at League Island . She was sold to Sam Ward on 4 May 1869 for the price of $ 25 @,@ 000 and subsequently delivered to representatives of Haiti on 8 December by Sydney Oaksmith , a lawyer who had received an advance of $ 50 @,@ 000 on her purchase price of $ 260 @,@ 000 . The ship was briefly seized by the Customs Service , possibly for violations of neutrality laws as she had just loaded four large guns and a number of recruits for the forces of Sylvain Salnave , President of Haiti , who was embroiled in a civil war . Atlanta was released and sailed for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince three days later . She broke down in Delaware Bay and had to put in at Chester , Pennsylvania for repairs . The ship , now renamed either Triumph or Triumfo , departed on 18 December 1869 and vanished en route , apparently sinking with the loss of all hands , either off Cape Hatteras or the Delaware Capes .
= Jacqueline Fernandez =
Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant . As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant . She graduated with a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney , and worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka .
While on a modelling assignment in India in 2009 , Fernandez successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy drama Aladin , which marked her acting debut . Fernandez ' breakthrough role was in Mohit Suri 's psychological thriller Murder 2 ( 2011 ) , her first commercial success . This was followed by glamorous roles in the ensemble @-@ comedy Housefull 2 ( 2012 ) and its sequel Housefull 3 , and the action thriller Race 2 ( 2013 ) , all of which were box @-@ office successes . Her performance in the first of these garnered her an IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination . In 2014 , Fernandez played the leading lady in Sajid Nadiadwala 's Kick , which is one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time .
One of the most popular actresses in India , she was the recipient of the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Female in 2010 . Alongside her screen acting career , Fernandez has participated in stage shows , and is active in humanitarian work .
= = Early life and modeling career = =
Fernandez was born on 11 August 1985 , in Manama , Bahrain , and was raised in a multi @-@ ethnic family . Her father , Elroy , is Sri Lankan , and her mother , Kim , is of Malaysian descent . Her grandfather , on her mother 's side of the family , is Canadian and her great grandparents were from Goa , India . Her father , who was a musician in Sri Lanka , moved to Bahrain in the 1980s to escape civil unrest between the Tamils and Sinhalese and subsequently met her mother who was an air hostess . She is the youngest of four children with one elder sister and two elder brothers . She hosted television shows in Bahrain at the age of fourteen . After receiving her early education in Bahrain , she pursued a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney in Australia . After graduating she worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . She also attended the Berlitz school of languages , where she learnt Spanish and improved her French and Arabic .
According to Fernandez , she had aspired to become an actress at a young age and fantasized about becoming a Hollywood movie star . She received some training at the John School of Acting . Although , she was a television reporter , she accepted offers in the modeling industry , which came as a result of her pageant success . In 2006 , she was crowned the winner of the Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant and represented Sri Lanka at the world Miss Universe 2006 pageant held in Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview , Fernandez described the modeling industry as " a good training ground " and said : " It is a medium that is about shedding your inhibitions , knowing your body , confidence " . In 2006 , she appeared in a music video for the song " O Sathi " by music duo Bathiya and Santhush .
= = Acting career = =
= = = 2009 – 2013 = = =
In 2009 , Fernandez traveled to India for a modeling assignment . She studied acting under the mentorship of theatre director Barry John , and successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy film Aladin ( 2009 ) her acting debut . She played the love interest of Riteish Deshmukh 's character , a role based on the Princess Jasmine character . Fernandez garnered mixed reviews for her performance . Anupama Chopra of NDTV called her a " plastic debutant [ e ] " , and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN felt that she was : " easy on the eyes and appears confident but has precious little to do " . Although the film was a critical and commercial failure , she won the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year - Female .
In 2010 , Fernandez appeared opposite Deshmukh in the science fiction romantic comedy Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai . She was cast as a girl from Venus , who lands on Earth in search of love . The film , along with Fernandez 's performance , received poor reviews ; Rediff.com 's Sukanya Verma noted : " She gamely makes a fool
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, approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . Setting out from Wave Hill on 23 April , Eaton led a ground party across rough terrain that reached the crash site four days later and buried the crew , who had perished of thirst and exposure . Not a particularly religious man , he recalled that after the burial he saw a perfect cross formed by cirrus cloud in an otherwise clear blue sky above the Kookaburra . The Air Board described the RAAF 's search as taking 240 hours flying time " under the most trying conditions ... where a forced landing meant certain crash " . In November 1930 , Eaton was selected to lead another expedition for a missing aircraft near Ayers Rock , but it was called off soon afterwards when the pilot showed up in Alice Springs . The next month , he was ordered to search for W.L. Pittendrigh and S.J. Hamre , who had disappeared in the biplane Golden Quest 2 while attempting to discover Lasseter 's Reef . Employing a total of four DH.60 Moths , the RAAF team located the missing men near Dashwood Creek on 7 January 1931 , and they were rescued four days later by a ground party accompanied by Eaton . Staying in nearby Alice Springs , he recommended a site for the town 's new airfield , which was approved and has remained in use since its construction .
Eaton was awarded the Air Force Cross on 10 March 1931 " in recognition of his zeal and devotion to duty in conducting flights to Central Australia in search of missing aviators " . The media called him the " ' Knight Errant ' of the desert skies " . Aside from his crash landing in the desert while searching for the Kookaburra , Eaton had another narrow escape in 1929 when he was test flying the Wackett Warrigal I with Sergeant Eric Douglas . Having purposely put the biplane trainer into a spin and finding no response in the controls when he tried to recover , Eaton called on Douglas to bail out . When Douglas stood up to do so , the spin stopped , apparently due to his torso changing the airflow over the tail plane . Eaton then managed to land the aeroplane , he and his passenger both badly shaken by the experience . In December 1931 , he was posted to No. 1 Aircraft Depot at Laverton , where he continued to fly as well as performing administrative work . Promoted squadron leader in 1936 , he undertook a clandestine mission around the new year to scout for suitable landing grounds in the Dutch East Indies , primarily Timor and Ambon . Wearing civilian clothes , he and his companion were arrested and held for three days by local authorities in Koepang , Dutch Timor . Eaton was appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 21 Squadron in May 1937 , one of his first tasks being to undertake another aerial search in Central Australia , this time for prospector Sir Herbert Gepp , who was subsequently discovered alive and well . Later that year , Eaton presided over the court of inquiry into the crash of a Hawker Demon biplane in Victoria , recommending a gallantry award for Aircraftman William McAloney , who had leapt into the Demon 's burning wreckage in an effort to rescue its pilot ; McAloney subsequently received the Albert Medal for his heroism .
Following a 1937 decision to establish the first north Australian RAAF base , in April 1938 Eaton , now on the headquarters staff of RAAF Station Laverton , and Wing Commander George Jones , Director of Personnel Services at RAAF Headquarters , began developing plans for the new station , to be commanded by Jones , and a new squadron that would be based there , led by Eaton . The next month they flew an Avro Anson on an inspection tour of Darwin , Northern Territory , site of the proposed base . Delays meant that No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron was not formed until 6 February 1939 at Laverton . Jones had by now moved on to another posting but Eaton took up the squadron 's command as planned . Promoted to wing commander on 1 March , he and his equipment officer , Flying Officer Hocking , were ordered to build up the unit as quickly as possible , and established an initial complement of fourteen officers and 120 airmen , plus four Ansons and four Demons , within a week . An advance party of thirty NCOs and airmen under Hocking began moving to Darwin on 1 July . Staff were initially accommodated in a former meatworks built during World War I , and life at the newly established air base had a " distinctly raw , pioneering feel about it " according to historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark . Morale , though , was high . On 31 August , No. 12 Squadron launched its first patrol over the Darwin area , flown by one of seven Ansons that had so far been delivered . These were augmented by a flight of four CAC Wirraways ( replacing the originally planned force of Demons ) that took off from Laverton on 2 September , the day before Australia declared war , and arrived in Darwin four days later . A fifth Wirraway in the flight crashed on landing at Darwin , killing both crewmen .
= = World War II = =
Once war was declared , Darwin began to receive more attention from military planners . In June 1940 , No. 12 Squadron was " cannibalised " to form two additional units , Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin and No. 13 Squadron . No. 12 Squadron retained its Wirraway flight , while its two flights of Ansons went to the new squadron ; these were replaced later that month by more capable Lockheed Hudsons . Eaton was appointed CO of the base , gaining promotion to temporary group captain in September . His squadrons were employed in escort , maritime reconnaissance , and coastal patrol duties , the overworked aircraft having to be sent to RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , after every 240 hours flying time — with a consequent three @-@ week loss from Darwin 's strength — as deep maintenance was not yet possible in the Northern Territory . Soon after the establishment of Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin , Minister for Air James Fairbairn visited the base . Piloting his own light plane , he was greeted by four Wirraways that proceeded to escort him into landing ; the Minister subsequently complimented Eaton on the " keen @-@ ness and efficiency of all ranks " , particularly considering the challenging environment . When Fairbairn died in the Canberra air disaster shortly afterwards , his pilot was Flight Lieutenant Robert Hitchcock , son of Bob Hitchcock of the Kookaburra and also a former member of Eaton 's No. 21 Squadron .
As senior air commander in the region , Eaton sat on the Darwin Defence Co @-@ ordination Committee . He was occasionally at loggerheads with his naval counterpart , Captain E.P. Thomas , and also incurred the ire of trade unionists when he used RAAF staff to unload ships in Port Darwin during industrial action ; Eaton himself took part in the work , shovelling coal alongside his men . On 25 February 1941 , he made a flight north to reconnoitre Timor , Ambon , and Babo in Dutch New Guinea for potential use by the RAAF in any Pacific conflict . By April , the total strength based at RAAF Station Darwin had increased to almost 700 officers and airmen ; by the following month it had been augmented by satellite airfields at Bathurst Island , Groote Eylandt , Batchelor , and Katherine . Handing over command of Darwin to Group Captain Frederick Scherger in October , Eaton took charge of No. 2 Service Flying Training School near Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . His " marked success " , " untiring energy " , and " tact in handling men " while in the Northern Territory were recognised in the new year with his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . Eaton became CO of No. 1 Engineering School and its base , RAAF Station Ascot Vale , Victoria , in April 1942 . Twelve months later in Townsville , Queensland , he formed No. 72 Wing , which subsequently deployed to Merauke in Dutch New Guinea , comprising No. 84 Squadron ( flying CAC Boomerang fighters ) , No. 86 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers ) . His relations with North @-@ Eastern Area Command in Townsville were strained ; " mountains were made out of molehills " in his opinion , and he was reassigned that July to lead No. 2 Bombing and Gunnery School in Port Pirie , South Australia .
On 30 November 1943 , Eaton returned to the Northern Territory to establish No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , comprising No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons ( flying Bristol Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Bristol Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . He developed a good relationship with his Dutch personnel , who called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , Eaton 's forces participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 , in which he regularly flew on missions himself . Through March – April , his Beaufighters attacked enemy shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . On 19 April , he organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , employing thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters to destroy the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , the results earning him the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole , for his " splendid effort " . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment in the days leading up to it . In June – July , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . Eaton was recommended to be mentioned in despatches on 28 October 1944 for his " Gallant and distinguished service " in NWA ; this was promulgated in the London Gazette on 9 March 1945 .
Completing his tour with No. 79 Wing , Eaton was appointed Air Officer Commanding Southern Area , Melbourne , in January 1945 . The German submarine U @-@ 862 operated off southern Australia during the first months of 1945 , and the few combat units in Eaton 's command were heavily engaged in anti @-@ submarine patrols which sought to locate this and any other U @-@ boats in the area . The Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , considered the sporadic attacks to be partly " nuisance value " , designed to draw Allied resources away from the front line of the South West Pacific war . In April , Eaton complained to Bostock that intelligence from British Pacific Fleet concerning its ships ' movements eastwards out of Western Area was hours out of date by the time it was received at Southern Area Command , leading to RAAF aircraft missing their rendezvous and wasting valuable flying hours searching empty ocean . There had been no U @-@ boat strikes since February , and by June the naval authorities indicated that there was no pressing need for air cover except for the most important vessels .
= = Post @-@ war career and legacy = =
Eaton retired from the RAAF on 31 December 1945 . In recognition of his war service , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau with Swords by the Dutch government on 17 January 1946 . The same month , he became Australian consul in Dili . He had seen an advertisement for the position and was the only applicant with experience of the area . While based there , he accompanied the provincial governor on visits to townships damaged in Allied raids during the war , taking care to be circumspect about the part played by his own forces from No. 79 Wing . In July 1947 , Dutch forces launched a " police action " against territory held by the fledgling Indonesian Republic , which had been declared shortly after the end of the war . Following a ceasefire , the United Nations set up a commission , chaired by Eaton as Consul @-@ General , to monitor progress . Eaton and his fellow commissioners believed that the ceasefire was serving the Dutch as a cover for further penetration of republican enclaves . His requests to the Australian government for military observers led to deployment of the first peacekeeping force to the region ; the Australians were soon followed by British and US observers , and enabled Eaton to display a more realistic impression of the situation to the outside world . The Dutch administration strongly opposed the presence of UN forces and accused Eaton of " impropriety " , but the Australian government refused to recall him . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949 , he became Australia 's first secretary and chargé d 'affaires to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In 1950 , he returned to Australia to serve with the Department of External Affairs in Canberra . After retiring from public service in 1951 , he and his wife farmed at Metung , Victoria , and cultivated orchids . They later moved to Frankston , where Eaton was involved in promotional work .
Charles Eaton died in Frankston on 12 November 1979 . Survived by his wife and two sons , he was cremated . In accordance with his wishes , his ashes were scattered near Tennant Creek , site of his 1929 forced landing during the search for the Kookaburra , from an RAAF Caribou on 15 April 1981 . His name figures prominently in the Northern Territory , commemorated by Lake Eaton in Central Australia , Eaton Place in the Darwin suburb of Karama , Charles Eaton Drive on the approach to Darwin International Airport , and the Charles Moth Eaton Saloon Bar in the Tennant Creek Goldfields Hotel . He is also honoured with a display at the Northern Territory Parliament , and a National Trust memorial at Tennant Creek Airport . At the RAAF 's 2003 History Conference , Air Commodore Mark Lax , recalling Eaton 's search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions between the wars , commented : " Today , we might think of Eaton perhaps as the pioneer of our contribution to assistance to the civil community — a tradition that continues today . Perhaps I might jog your memory to a more recent series of rescues no less hazardous for all concerned — the amazing location of missing yachtsmen Thierry Dubois , Isabelle Autissier and Tony Bullimore by our P @-@ 3s that guided the Navy to their eventual rescue . My observation is that such activities remain vital for our relevance in that we must remain connected , supportive and responsive to the wants and needs of the Australian community . "
= Tina Fey =
Elizabeth Stamatina " Tina " Fey ( / feɪ / ; born May 18 , 1970 ) is an American actress , comedian , writer , and producer . She is best known for her work on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live ( 1998 @-@ 2006 ) , for her impression of former Alaska Governor and 2008 Vice @-@ Presidential candidate Sarah Palin , and for creating acclaimed series 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ( 2015 – present ) . She is also well known for appearing in films such as Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , Baby Mama ( 2008 ) , Date Night ( 2010 ) , Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 ) , and Sisters ( 2015 ) .
Fey broke into comedy as a featured player in the Chicago @-@ based improvisational comedy group The Second City . She then joined SNL as a writer , later becoming head writer and a performer , known for her position as co @-@ anchor in the Weekend Update segment . In 2004 , she co @-@ starred in and wrote the screenplay for Mean Girls , which was adapted from the 2002 self @-@ help book Queen Bees and Wannabes . After leaving SNL in 2006 , she created the television series 30 Rock for Broadway Video , a situation comedy loosely based on her experiences at SNL . In the series , Fey portrays the head writer of a fictional sketch comedy series . In 2008 , she starred in the comedy film Baby Mama , alongside former SNL co @-@ star Amy Poehler . Fey next appeared in the 2010 comedy film Date Night and the animated film Megamind . In 2015 , she created and produced the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , originally for NBC and eventually for Netflix . Her recent films include Sisters and Whiskey Tango Foxtrot .
Fey has received eight Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , five Screen Actors Guild Awards , and four Writers Guild of America Awards and was nominated for a Grammy Award for her autobiographical book Bossypants , which topped The New York Times Best Seller list for five weeks . In 2008 , the Associated Press gave Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year award for her satirical portrayal of Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin in a guest appearance on SNL . In 2010 , Fey was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor , becoming the youngest @-@ ever recipient of the award . On January 13 , 2013 , Fey hosted the 70th Golden Globe Awards with her long @-@ time friend and fellow comedian , Amy Poehler , to critical acclaim . The duo hosted again the following two years , generating the highest ratings for the annual ceremony in a decade and receiving similar acclaim .
= = Early life = =
Fey was born on May 18 , 1970 , in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania , a suburb of Philadelphia . Her mother , Zenobia " Jeanne " ( née Xenakes ) , is a brokerage employee ; her father , Donald Henry Fey ( died 2015 , age 82 ) , was a university grant proposal writer . She has a brother , Peter , who is eight years older . Fey 's mother , who was born in Piraeus , Greece , is the daughter of Greek immigrants : Vasiliki Kourelakou , Fey 's maternal grandmother , left Petrina , Laconia , Greece on her own , arriving in the United States in February 1921 .
Fey 's father had English , German , and Northern Irish ancestry ; one of Fey 's paternal great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfathers was John Hewson ( 1744 – 1821 ) , a textile manufacturer who immigrated to America with the support of Benjamin Franklin , enabling Hewson to quickly open a quilting factory in the Kensington neighborhood of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . According to a genealogical DNA test arranged by the television series Finding Your Roots , Fey 's ancestry is 94 % European , 3 % Middle Eastern , and 3 % from the Caucasus .
Fey was exposed to comedy early :
At age 11 , Fey read Joe Franklin 's Seventy Years of Great Film Comedians for a school project about comedy . She grew up watching Second City Television , and has cited Catherine O 'Hara as a role model .
Fey attended Cardington @-@ Stonehurst Elementary School and Beverly Hills Middle School in Upper Darby . By middle school , she knew she was interested in comedy . Fey attended Upper Darby High School , where she was an honors student , a member of the choir , drama club , and tennis team , and co @-@ editor of the school 's newspaper , The Acorn . She also anonymously wrote the newspaper 's satirical column , The Colonel . Following her graduation in 1988 , Fey enrolled at the University of Virginia , where she studied play @-@ writing and acting and was awarded the Pettway Prize . She graduated in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama .
After college , she worked as a receptionist during the day at the Evanston YMCA and took classes at Second City at night .
= = Career = =
= = = Saturday Night Live ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = =
While performing shows with The Second City in 1997 , Fey submitted several scripts to NBC 's variety show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , at the request of its head writer Adam McKay , a former performer at Second City . She was hired as a writer for SNL following a meeting with SNL creator Lorne Michaels , and moved to New York from Chicago . Fey told The New Yorker , " I 'd had my eye on the show forever , the way other kids have their eye on Derek Jeter . " Originally , Fey " struggled " at SNL . Her first sketch to air starred Chris Farley in a Sally Jessy Raphael satire . Fey went on to write a series of parodies , including one of ABC 's morning talk show The View . She co @-@ wrote the " Sully and Denise " sketches with Rachel Dratch , who plays one of the teens .
Fey was an extra in a 1998 episode , and after watching herself , decided to diet and lost 30 pounds . She told The New York Times , " I was a completely normal weight , but I was here in New York City , I had money and I couldn 't buy any clothes . After I lost weight , there was interest in putting me on camera . " In 1999 , McKay stepped down as head writer , which led Michaels to approach Fey for the position . She became SNL 's first female head writer that year .
In 2000 , Fey began performing in sketches , and she and Jimmy Fallon became co @-@ anchors of SNL 's Weekend Update segment . Fey said she did not ask to audition , but that Michaels approached her . Michaels explained that there was chemistry between Fey and Fallon , though the decision was " kind of risky " at the time . Her role in Weekend Update was well received by critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote : " ... Fey delivers such blow darts – poison filled jokes written in long , precisely parsed sentences unprecedented in Update history – with such a bright , sunny countenance makes her all the more devilishly delightful . " Dennis Miller , a former cast member of SNL and anchor of Weekend Update , was pleased with Fey as one of the anchors for the segment : " ... Fey might be the best Weekend Update anchor who ever did it . She writes the funniest jokes " . Robert Bianco of USA Today , however , commented that he was " not enamored " of the pairing .
In 2001 , Fey and the rest of the writing staff won a Writers Guild of America Award for SNL 's 25th anniversary special . The following year at the 2002 Emmy Awards ceremony , they won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Program .
When Fallon left the show in May 2004 , he was replaced on Weekend Update by Amy Poehler . It was the first time that two women co @-@ anchored Weekend Update . Fey revealed that she " hired " Poehler as her co @-@ host for the segment . The reception was positive , with Rachel Sklar of the Chicago Tribune noting that the pairing " has been a hilarious , pitch @-@ perfect success as they play @-@ off each other with quick one @-@ liners and deadpan delivery " .
The 2005 – 2006 season was her last ; she departed to develop 30 Rock for Broadway Video . At the time she left , the 117 episodes she co @-@ hosted made her SNL 's longest @-@ serving Weekend Update anchor , a mark that would later be passed by her replacement , Seth Meyers . In Rolling Stone Magazine 's February , 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date , Fey was ranked third in importance ( behind John Belushi and Eddie Murphy ) . They credited her with " salvaging ' Update ' from a decade @-@ long losing streak , " and " slapping SNL out of its late @-@ nineties coma . "
= = = 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = =
In 2002 , Fey suggested a pilot episode for a situation comedy about a cable news network to NBC , which rejected it . The pilot was reworked to revolve around an SNL style series , and was accepted by NBC . She signed a contract with NBC in May 2003 , which allowed her to remain in her SNL head writer position at least through the 2004 – 2005 television season . As part of the contract , Fey was to develop a prime @-@ time project to be produced by Broadway Video and NBC Universal . The pilot , directed by Adam Bernstein , centered on Liz Lemon , the head writer of a variety show on NBC , and how she managed her relationships with the show 's volatile stars and the new head
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Saprang is the youngest of 9 children of Lieutenant Colonel Sri ( Thai : ศรี กัลยาณมิตร ) and Phenkaew Kalayanamitr ( Thai : เพ ็ ญแก ้ ว กัลยาณมิตร ) . Sri was the eldest of the 8 children of Phraya Sucharitraksa , ruler ( Chao Muang ) of the northern border city of Tak .
The Kalayanamitrs are a military aristocratic family with Chinese ( Hokkien ) -Northern Thai roots . Saprang 's ancestor , Luang Phichai Waree ( original name Ung Mang , Thai : หลวงพิไชยวารี , มั ่ ง แซ ่ อึ ้ ง ) migrated to Siam during the reign of King Taksin plying the samphao trade , and was given a feudal title during the reign of King Rama I.
Saprang has evoked his aristocratic background in order to increase his credibility in public confrontations . Saprang is married to Viphada ( Thai : วิภาดา ) and has 3 sons : Army Cadet Ekawee ( Thai : เอกวีร ์ ) , Air Force Cadet Akharawat ( Thai : อัครวัต ) , Air Force Cadet Ekwarit ( Thai : เอกวริษฐ ์ ) .
= = Trivia = =
Saprang stands 161 centimeters tall and as of March 2007 , weighed 52 kilograms .
= Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video =
The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos . The Grammy Awards ( Grammys ) is an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and was originally called the Gramophone Awards ; awards are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category , which was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced with two awards ; Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . Criteria changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Concept Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Performance Music Video . Best Concept Music Video award recipients were the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " and the American singer " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video .
= = Background = =
The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Grammy Award for Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees Michael Nesmith for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) and Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued in 1984 when MTV established the MTV Video Music Awards whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . For the 26th Grammy Awards the Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form , and Best Video Album . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and awards for the categories Best Concept Music Video , and Best Performance Music Video were presented . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form , and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video , and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively .
= = Recipients = =
For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Concept Music Video nominees included0 David Bowie for " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , Kate Bush for The Whole Story , the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " , David Lee Roth for David Lee Roth , and Janet Jackson for Control – The Videos Part II . The music video for Bowie 's " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , directed by Julien Temple , included " offending " scenes such as a man urinating on Ronald Reagan 's Hollywood Walk of Fame star , which was edited out for television broadcast . Bush 's " imaginative " video sampler accompanies her greatest hits album of the same name and includes music videos for songs throughout her career to that point . The music video for " Land of Confusion " , a song included on the band 's 1986 album Invisible Touch , contained Spitting Image puppets of Ronald Reagan , Margaret Thatcher and other notable individuals . David Lee Roth 's self @-@ titled video consisted of promotional clips created for his debut solo EP Crazy from the Heat and album Eat ' Em and Smile . Jackson 's video collection , which was certified gold in the United States , contained six promotional videos recorded for singles from her album Control . Awards were presented to members of Genesis ( Tony Banks , Phil Collins , and Mike Rutherford ) as the performing artists , Jim Yukich and John Lloyd as the video directors , and Jon Blair as the video producer .
Nominees for the 31st Grammy Awards were the Hampton String Quartet for " Get a Job " , George Harrison for " When We Was Fab " , the American rock band Talking Heads for Storytelling Giant , " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " , and Neil Young for " This Note 's for You " . " Get a Job " , a song recorded originally by the American group The Silhouettes , appears on the Hampton String Quartet 's album What If Mozart Wrote " Roll Over Beethoven " , a collection of 1950s R & B and pop music songs performed in the styles of Beethoven , Debussy , Mozart , and other composers . " When We Was Fab " , a song from the album Cloud Nine , is constructed from quotations written when The Beatles were at the height of their fame and features Harrison playing a sitar . The music video shows Elton John dressed as a walrus , a reference to the 1967 song " I Am the Walrus " . Storytelling Giants is a collection of Talking Heads ' music videos and additional material linking them together . Two of the nominated music videos had connections to Michael Jackson ; " Fat " is a parody of Jackson 's song " Bad " , and the video for " This Note 's for You " depicts a Jackson look @-@ alike 's hair catching fire ; a parody of an incident that occurred during a shoot for a Pepsi television advertisement in 1984 . In the " Fat " video , Yankovic becomes a " grossly overweight guy " through the use of cosmetics and special effects , and leads a group of overweight people on a parade . The award was presented to Yankovic as the performing artist , along with Jay Levey as the video director and Susan Zwerman as the video producer .
= Hadji Ali =
Hadji Ali ( c . 1887 – 92 – November 5 , 1937 ) was a vaudeville performance artist , thought to be of Egyptian descent , who was famous for acts of controlled regurgitation . His best @-@ known feats included water spouting , smoke swallowing , and nut and handkerchief swallowing followed by disgorgement in an order chosen by the audience . Ali 's most famous stunt , and the highlight of his act , was drinking copious amounts of water followed by kerosene , and then acting by turns as a human flamethrower and fire extinguisher as he expelled the two liquids onto a theatrical prop . While these stunts were performed , a panel of audience members was invited to watch the show up close to verify that no trickery was employed .
Although never gaining wide fame , Ali had a dedicated following on the vaudeville circuit in the United States . He performed for heads of state including Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . Judy Garland named him her favorite vaudevillian and David Blaine identified Ali as his favorite magician . Portions of his act were captured in the short film Strange as It Seems ( 1930 ) and in Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville . Ali 's unusual gastric abilities led to rumors that the Rockefeller Institute had offered a large sum of money to obtain his stomach post @-@ mortem . After he died in England , his body was offered to Johns Hopkins University for study , though the offer was declined .
= = Background = =
Hadji Ali was born into a working @-@ class family in approximately 1887 or 1892 , depending on the source consulted , probably in Egypt . His fame was as a practitioner of a recognized vaudeville subgenre known as a " regurgitation act " , involving the swallowing of material or objects and their regurgitation in various ways . Ali became aware as a child that he possessed an unusual gastric ability . He explained in response to audience questions at a performance held at St. Mary 's Hospital in Niagara Falls , New York , in May 1926 , that while swimming in the Nile as a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , he naturally discovered that he could swallow a large amount of water and blow it out like a whale spouting . He continued to develop and refine the ability as he grew older . A more dramatic version of these events was provided by Ali 's daughter , Almina Ali , in an interview in England after his death . She stated that his abilities were first learned through a single incident : while bathing in the Nile , he inadvertently swallowed a fish and an ample volume of water . Instead of dying , as those present thought he might , Ali simply regurgitated the liquid and the fish without ill effect .
Ali learned that his regurgitation talents had the potential to entertain and to earn money through performance at the age of fifteen :
I tried out my tricks first of all in the street , swallowing many glasses of water and then pouring forth a great fountain from one side of the road to the other ... A cafe proprietor saw me doing this one day , and chased me down the street . I thought he wanted to beat me up , but no — all he did was to put a coin in my hand and ask me to repeat the trick . Finally , he was so delighted that he asked me to come to his cafe and entertain the customers .
Taking his abilities on the road , Ali met an Italian man in Cairo who signed him to a contract for music hall performances . Ali performed under contract throughout Europe and at times for heads of state . According to Ali , in or about 1914 he was summoned by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to perform at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , Russia . He stated that the Tsar " must have liked my performance because he awarded me a special decoration , which is now one of my most treasured possessions . " Following World War I , Ali began managing his own affairs and toured the world , learning more tricks as he went .
Ali came to the United States with Almina in the mid @-@ 1920s . They performed together at fairs , carnivals and in vaudeville , sometimes advertised under the collective name , " Hadji Ali & Co . " Almina played the part of assistant in her father 's act , billed in his shows as " The Princess " . Ali alone had a variety of stage names , including : " The Great Egyptian Miracle Man " , " The Amazing Regurgitator " , " The Egyptian Enigma " , " The Human Aquarium " , " The Human Volcano " and " The 9th Wonder of the Scientific World " . Ali has been described as a " large , barrel @-@ chested and bearded man ... [ that cut ] an imposing figure in his Arab costume . "
Although Ali spoke a number of languages and became a naturalized U.S. citizen , it was reported that Almina acted as his interpreter in the United States and other places , as he did not speak English and was illiterate . Once he had gained some notoriety , Ali took on as his manager Hubert Julian , a former colonel in the Abyssinian Air Force . Although he developed a significant following , even being named Judy Garland 's favorite vaudevillian , Ali " remained more a sideshow curiosity than a true vaudeville headliner " according to at least one source . Nevertheless , at the time of his death in 1937 , Julian commented that Ali had " earned big money in America — $ 1 @,@ 000 a week sometimes . I was building him up here [ in Europe ] and had a Continental tour arranged . "
= = Performance = =
The mainstay of Ali 's act was " water spouting " . After swallowing large amounts of water , 60 to 100 glasses at a time , he spouted the water in a continuous stream for a sustained period of time , sometimes approaching one minute . Another common trick was to swallow 30 to 50 unshelled hazelnuts ( although one of his posters advertised 40 pecans ) , followed by another nut of a different variety , such as an almond . Ali then brought them up one by one with the odd @-@ nut @-@ out produced at a mark called out by the audience . In another trick , Ali swallowed three to six handkerchiefs of different hues and then produced them in a color order requested by audience members .
In a 1929 article appearing in the Lowell Sun newspaper , physician Morris Fishbein speculated that for Ali 's nut feat , the one nut of a different variety was held in the mouth rather than swallowed , thus allowing him to produce it on cue . Dr. Fishbein also stated that unnamed " investigators " were convinced that for Ali 's handkerchief stunt , to produce them in the sequence stipulated by the audience Ali flavored the cloth , and could therefore taste for the correct one as he brought them up . Ali also swallowed live goldfish , watches , coins , costume jewelry , paper money , peach pits , stones , live mice , buttons , pool balls and other odd objects . In another standard performance segment , he placed eight or more lit cigarettes in his mouth but instead of inhaling , he swallowed the smoke and , after a significant time had passed , issued it forth in a steady stream like an erupting volcano .
Ali 's longstanding finale was the swallowing of copious amounts of water again , but this time followed by a pint of kerosene . A prop was then produced , typically a model castle or house made of metal set on a table , within which a small flame burned . Lighter than water and immiscible with it , the kerosene floated above the liquid in Ali 's gut , allowing him to disgorge it first . The stage thus set , and to a drum roll or an imitation of fire bells , Ali became a " human flamethrower
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Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them .
From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi .
In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in Taxila , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the gruff exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a stratigraphy for the settlement .
Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India .
Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh .
Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave .
As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three .
= = Later life = =
= = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = =
Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in Mallord Street , in an unsuccessful hope of reigniting their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the Presidency of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy Wharton Drexel medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism .
Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , Fazlur Rahman , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the redistribution of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) .
To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year .
Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 .
In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life .
= = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = =
In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society .
= = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = =
Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent .
From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions .
He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great .
In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible .
Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis .
= = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = =
As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an intermediary in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at Ankara , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . Approaching various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the Nuffield Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation .
With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , authoring a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " .
To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to Nairobi . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 .
Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position .
Recognising his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the Aswan Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . Personally securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris .
= = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = =
During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its Hillforts " to celebrate Wheeler 's eightieth birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a festschrift for the octogenarian . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David Collison .
In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly forgetful and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in Leatherhead , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In memoriam , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military trappings at a local crematorium , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November .
= = Personal life = =
Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker .
Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties .
Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . "
Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and Knossos or Leonard Woolley and Ur .
Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . "
Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . "
On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . "
= = = Biographies and studies = = =
In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness .
In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of
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's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family .
= = Description = =
The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female has warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but has a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching .
The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since sympatric species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic .
= = = Voice = = =
On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serves to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge intruding males . Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call has evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hides in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener . The male also has a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions .
The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also has a distinctive barking sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also has a high @-@ pitched cheep call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet peeick @-@ peeick contact call , and a chirp used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it has vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail .
The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occurs in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations were much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February .
This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important flyway through Egypt . On passage , it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the Faroes , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands .
The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Moister areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as cereals , peas , rape , clover or potatoes may be used . After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed , iris , or nettles to moult , returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed .
When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stays within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses .
= = Behaviour = =
The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and fluttering , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it has a steadier , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walks with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may feign death , recovering at once if it sees a way out .
The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupies 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young .
= = = Breeding = = =
Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female has a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger moves off ; if it stays , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory .
The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to copulate . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush , or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest .
The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , leads to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa .
Nest success in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land . The method and timing of mowing is crucial ; mechanized mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site , and losses average 50 % of first brood chicks and
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the southwestern Ontario snowbelt , sometimes receives large quantities of lake @-@ effect snow . Sarnia averages 112 @.@ 0 cm ( 44 @.@ 1 in ) of snow per year , while London averages 194 @.@ 3 cm ( 76 @.@ 5 in ) .
The lake creates a seasonal lag , and compared to the rest of Canada and inland Ontario , Sarnia has a noticeably longer warm period following summer . However , cooler temperatures tend to prevail for longer after winter . Lake Huron can also create large temperature differences within the city in spring and early summer , particularly on hot days in late May , early June . Finally , extreme temperatures , particularly lows , are rarely ever seen . Daily lows less than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) are seen an average of 30 days a year , and less than − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) two days a year . Summers are warm to hot and usually humid . Humidex readings can be very high at times from late May to late September . In fact , Sarnia has the second greatest number of high humidex days at or above 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) ( with 23 @.@ 16 days on average per year ) and humidex days at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ( with 61 @.@ 20 days on average per year ) in Canada , both after Windsor , Ontario . Thunderstorms can become quite severe from April to September . Destructive weather is very rare in the area but has occurred , such as the tornado event of 1953 .
= = Demographics = =
In the 2011 Census , the City of Sarnia had a population of 72 @,@ 366 , an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % from the 2006 Census . With a land area of 164 @.@ 71 km2 ( 63 @.@ 59 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 439 @.@ 354 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 92 / sq mi ) in 2011 .
In 2011 , Sarnia had an overwhelmingly white population ; only 8 @.@ 54 % were visible minorities . Of those , 63 @.@ 77 % were aboriginal representing the largest group . In 2011 , 89 @.@ 31 % of Sarnians called English their mother tongue , 2 @.@ 46 % listed French , 0 @.@ 87 % stated both of those languages , and 7 @.@ 37 % said another language was their mother tongue .
The median age in Sarnia is 44 @.@ 5 which is older than the Canadian median of 40 @.@ 95 , indicative of Sarnia 's aging population . According to the 2011 Census , Sarnia is predominately Christian as 28 @.@ 46 % of the population were Catholic , 12 @.@ 4 % were members of the United Church of Canada , 7 @.@ 3 % were Anglican , and 20 @.@ 06 % were of other Christian faiths , Muslim , or Jewish ; 28 @.@ 38 % professed no religious preference or were atheists . The median income counting all persons 15 years old or older in Sarnia in 2010 was $ 29 @,@ 196 , while median family income was $ 76 @,@ 523 , both of which were slightly lower than Ontario 's , at $ 30 @,@ 526 and $ 80 @,@ 987 , respectively . The cost of living in Sarnia , however , is significantly lower than it is in Ontario as a whole . The median value of a dwelling , for instance , is $ 179 @,@ 266 , compared to the $ 300 @,@ 862 of Ontario as a whole .
= = Economy and infrastructure = =
The Sarnia @-@ Lambton Workforce Development Board states in its March 2011 Labour Market Report that : " Even though employment in both the petrochemical and agricultural industries has declined significantly in recent years , these two industries remain central drivers of the Sarnia Lambton economy . "
When World War II threatened tropical sources of natural latex for rubber , Sarnia was selected as the site to spearhead development of synthetic petroleum @-@ based rubbers for war materials , and Polymer Corporation was built by Dow Chemical at the request of the Government of Canada . Large pipelines bring Alberta oil to Sarnia , where oil refining and petrochemical production have become mainstays of the city 's economy . Shell Canada , Imperial Oil , and Suncor Energy ( Sunoco ) operate refineries in Sarnia . Large salt beds found under the city became a source of chlorine and other significant ingredients which contributed to the success of Chemical Valley . Chemical companies operating in Sarnia include NOVA Chemicals , Bayer ( Lanxess and H.C. Starck ) , Cabot Corporation and Ethyl Corporation .
Dow ceased operations at its Sarnia site in 2009 . The plant was decommissioned , and the land has been sold to neighbouring TransAlta Energy Corporation . TransAlta produces power and steam for industry , and is the largest natural gas co @-@ generation plant in Canada . It has created the Bluewater Energy Park on the former Dow site . Lanxess produces more than 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ; 150 @,@ 000 long tons ) of butyl rubber annually at its Sarnia location , and is the sole producer of regulatory @-@ approved , food @-@ grade butyl rubber , used in the manufacture of chewing gum . Within the boundaries of its Sarnia plant Lanxess has also created the Bio @-@ industrial Park Sarnia .
Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries . These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia 's infrastructure and economy . They directly employ nearly 8 @,@ 000 , and contribute to almost 45 @,@ 000 additional jobs in the area . In 1971 , the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the Canadian $ 10 note . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution . The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution , regulation PM2.5 , is 30 micrograms per cubic metre . Forty @-@ five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley , and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as " Transboundary Air Pollution . "
Sarnia is the location of Enbridge 's Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant . The facility went into full commercial operation in December 2009 , with 20 MW of power . As of September 2010 , the plant was the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) solar power generation facility in the world , putting out 97 MW .
The 80 @-@ acre Western University Research Park , Sarnia @-@ Lambton Campus was established in 2003 by the University of Western Ontario as a joint initiative with the County of Lambton and the City of Sarnia . The park is also the location of the Bioindustrial Innovation Centre , Canada 's centre for the commercialization of industrial biotechnology .
In 2012 BioAmber began construction of North America 's first biosuccinic acid plant at the Bio @-@ Industrial Park . The company has since announced that it plans to double the original size of this $ 80 million plant . Solutions4C02 is developing a 50 @,@ 000 square foot demonstration facility at the Bluewater Energy Park . This company captures waste gas / water streams to process into value @-@ added co @-@ products . PlantForm Corporation , a Canadian biotech startup company producing ultra @-@ low @-@ cost therapeutic antibody drugs , opened an office at the Western University Research Park in 2011 , and the KmX Corporation began work on a pilot plant at the park in Summer 2012 , for the production of biobutanol .
= = = Retail and hospitality = = =
Sarnia has two large malls : Lambton Mall with 72 stores , and the Bayside Centre with 9 stores , and several government and medical services . These large malls combine with several smaller shopping centres , discount stores , dollar stores , convenience stores , and a collection of antique and specialty stores to form the crux of Sarnia 's retail business . Travellers can choose from eight branded and many family @-@ owned hotels and motels .
= = = Transportation = = =
The Blue Water Bridge links Sarnia and its neighbouring village of Point Edward to the city of Port Huron in the United States . It spans the St. Clair River , which connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair . The bridge 's original three @-@ lane span , opened in 1938 , was twinned on 22 July 1997 , making the bridge the fourth busiest border crossing in Ontario . The Blue Water Bridge border crossing makes use of both the NEXUS ( frequent traveler program ) and the Free and Secure Trade ( FAST ) program . Linking Highway 402 with the American Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 , the bridge forms part of the NAFTA Superhighway , and is one of the most important gateways on the north – south truck routes .
Public transportation within the City of Sarnia , including conventional bus transit , transportation of people with disabilities , transportation support for major events , and charter services , is provided by Sarnia Transit . From the city 's local airport , Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport , Air Georgian operates services to and from Toronto Pearson International Airport on behalf of Air Canada Express . For rail travel , Sarnia is one of the two western termini , along with Windsor , of the Via Rail Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , over which a service departs Sarnia station in the morning and arrives in the evening .
= = = Health care = = =
Sarnia is served by Bluewater Health , a hospital with 188 acute care beds , 70 complex continuing care beds and 27 rehabilitation beds . The hospital opened in 2010 , following the amalgamation of several smaller facilities . Bluewater Health was recently recognized by Healthcare Insurance Reciprocal of Canada , one of the country 's largest hospital insurers , for its continued improvement in patient safety and care quality .
= = Culture = =
= = = Music , theatre , and arts = = =
Sarnia 's musical and theatrical presence in Southern Ontario is significant . The International Symphony Orchestra plays at the Imperial Theatre for an annual season lasting from September to April . In addition to symphonic concerts , the Imperial Theatre offers year @-@ round dramatic productions ; Michael Learned played the lead in Driving Miss Daisy at the theatre in 2010 . Former Max Webster frontman Kim Mitchell has returned to his hometown on occasion to play a concert , including his visit in 2008 for Sarnia 's popular Ribfest , a competition where local amateur chefs share their recipes for barbecued ribs and compete against each other . Canadian composer and music educator Raymond Murray Schafer was born in Sarnia and developed his radical schizophonia techniques there . Musicians and groups such as Aerosmith , KISS , Keith Urban , John Bon Jovi and Rascal Flatts have played at Sarnia Bayfest in the past . The Sarnia Bayfest , which was preceded by the " Festival by the Bay , " is an annual concert festival that features big @-@ name rock and country bands , typically during the second or third weekend of July . 2013 would have marked the fifteenth anniversary of the annual festival , but financial problems caused the event 's cancellation . Prior to December 2013 , organizers stated that it is " not the end " and that they planned on coming back on solid financial footing sometime in the future . As of December 2013 , however , Bayfest organizers indicated they planned on merging with the International Powerboat Festival for a joint event in 2015 .
Besides the single museum in Sarnia proper , six other museums in the local area document Sarnia 's history , including its legacy as the home of the North American Oil Industry . Gallery Lambton offers 12 annual art exhibitions . In 2012 the Judith and Norman Alex Art Gallery opened . It is an international Category A art gallery .
During the Christmas season , the city of Sarnia presents the annual " Celebration of Lights " in Centennial Park . The event was created in 1984 by Dr. Wills Rawana and a committee funded by the retail chain Hudson 's Bay , and the national telecommunications company Telus . From modest beginnings the event has garnered numerous awards as it has grown , including second place in the 2002 Canadian Government 's Canada WinterLights competition . The Celebration , was incorporated in its national prizewinning year and is now run by a voluntary Board of Directors .
= = Attractions = =
There are over 100 parks in Sarnia , the largest being Canatara Park , which covers over 200 acres along the shore of Lake Huron . Canatara is an Ojibwe word that means Blue Water . The park was opened 24 May 1933 . Within the park is Lake Chipican , a haven for 280 different species of birds on their migration routes . The park also maintains a Children 's Animal Farm as part of Sarnia 's commitment to wildlife . The annual " Christmas on the Farm " weekend event held at the Farm in early December is a popular community event enjoyed by families . Canatara Park is one of the first parks in southern Ontario to feature an outdoor fitness equipment installation .
The largest recreational park in Sarnia is Germain Park , which incorporates five baseball diamonds , four soccer fields , an outdoor pool , and the Community Gardens . As a memorial to Canadian aviators who gave their lives in World War II , one of the remaining Canadair Sabres in Canada is on display in the park ,
Centennial Park was opened on Dominion Day in 1967 , as part of Canada 's centenary celebrations . The City of Sarnia decided in 2013 to close much of Centennial Park , after the discovery of toxic lead and asbestos in the soil .
Sarnia has one remaining museum within its city limits : " Stones ' N Bones " , which houses over 6 @,@ 000 exhibits . The collection includes rocks , artifacts , fossils , and bones from all over the world . A previous museum , the Discovery House Museum , has been converted into to a hospice . This historic house , built between 1869 and 1875 , is recognised as a testament to Victorian Era construction .
The city 's sandy fresh water beaches are a popular tourist attraction , while the sheltered harbour houses marinas for recreational sailing . Since 1925 , the 400 km ( 250 mi ) Mackinac race from Sarnia / Port Huron to Mackinac Island at the north end of the lake has been the highlight of the sailing season , drawing more than 3 @,@ 000 sailors each year .
Sarnia 's fresh @-@ cut fries are another popular tourist attraction , and thousands of visitors annually visit the chip trucks parked under the Blue Water Bridge . Niagara @-@ based cookbook author and food e @-@ magazine publisher Lynn Ogryzlo visited the chip trucks in August 2012 and stated " I was blown away by Sarnia , " not only by the city 's waterfront , where the chip trucks are located , but also by the chip trucks themselves . She also published an article in her e @-@ magazine , The Ontario Table , recognizing the outstanding quality of the fresh @-@ cut fries . Guelph @-@ based travel writer Pat Brennan also recognized the quality of Sarnia 's fries in his 2007 piece " Sarnia Boasts Best Fries in the World . " In 2012 , Sarnia officials even created a special detour to reach the chip trucks during a period of construction . Realizing the popularity of Sarnia 's chip trucks , the Ontario Medical Association includes them in a campaign to have fries and other junk food labelled for being dangerous in the same manner as cigarettes .
= = Sports = =
Sarnia is home to the Sarnia Sting , a junior ice hockey team in the Ontario Hockey League . Dino Ciccarelli , a former NHL player , was a part owner of the team . Former Sting player Steven Stamkos was selected first overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Tampa Bay Lightning , and was followed by Nail Yakupov in 2012 . Sarnia is also home to the Sarnia Legionnaires ice hockey team , which plays in the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League . The team is successor to the Sarnia Legionnaires ( 1954 – 1970 ) , who won five Western Jr . ' B ' championships and four Sutherland Cups during 16 seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association .
Sarnia has a successful tradition in Canadian football . As members of the Ontario Rugby Football Union , the local team Sarnia Imperials twice won the Grey Cup , in 1934 and 1936 . The modern Sarnia Imperials are a semi @-@ professional team playing in the Northern Football Conference .
The Sarnia @-@ born world champion curler Steve Bice played as alternate for the Glenn Howard rink in the 2007 Tim Hortons Brier and 2007 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , winning both times .
= = Government = =
Sarnia City Council consists of nine elected members : the Mayor , four members from the city , and four members from the county . The Mayor and all Council members are elected to four @-@ year terms . The four Lambton County Council members serve both County and City Council .
The current mayor , Mike Bradley , has held the position since December 1988 and is currently the second longest @-@ serving mayor in the province of Ontario behind Milton 's Gord Krantz . Past mayors of the city have included Andy Brandt , Marceil Saddy , Paul Blundy , Thomas George Johnston , and Alexander Mackenzie , the second Prime Minister of Canada .
At the provincial level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton provincial electoral district , represented in 2013 by Bob Bailey , a member of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario . At the federal level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton federal electoral district which in 2013 was represented by Patricia Davidson of the Conservative Party of Canada .
Over the past 50 years , Sarnia 's voters have been moderate , and the party affiliation of its Members of Parliament , both provincial and federal , has swung back and forth largely between the Liberal and Progressive Conservative parties ( a New Democrat was elected in their 1990 provincial wave ) .
= = Education = =
The Lambton Kent District School Board is responsible for the 13 elementary and four secondary public schools ( Northern Collegiate Institute and Vocational School , Alexander MacKenzie Secondary School , Sarnia Collegiate Institute & Technical School , and St. Clair Secondary School ) located within Sarnia 's boundaries .
The St. Clair Catholic District School Board is responsible for the city 's seven elementary and two secondary Catholic schools ( St. Christopher 's and St. Patrick 's ) . In 2014 , St. Patrick 's and St. Christopher 's merged , under the St. Patrick 's name , on St. Christopher 's North Sarnia site .
The Conseil scolaire catholique de Providence ( CSC Providence ) represents the two French Catholic schools in the city , Saint @-@ François @-@ Xavier and Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ d 'Aquin , while the Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates two French public schools , the elementary École Les Rapides and the secondary École Secondaire Franco @-@ Jeunesse . There are also two independent Christian elementary schools in Sarnia — Sarnia Christian School and Temple Christian Academy .
Lambton College , which offers two @-@ year programs and diplomas , is one of Ontario 's 21 colleges of applied arts and technology . It has a full @-@ time enrolment of 3 @,@ 500 and a part @-@ time enrolment of about 8 @,@ 000 . It is the city 's only post @-@ secondary school .
= = Media = =
There are four radio stations that originate from Sarnia , although other stations rebroadcast their signal there , notably CKTI @-@ FM , a First Nations produced station from Kettle Point , and CBEG @-@ FM and CBEF @-@ 3 @-@ FM , simulcasts of CBC Radio One and Ici Radio @-@ Canada Première , respectively , from Windsor , Ontario .
CHOK , country / news / sports
CFGX @-@ FM The Fox , adult contemporary
CHOK @-@ 1 @-@ FM ( rebroadcaster of CHOK AM )
CHKS @-@ FM , active rock
Sarnia does not have a network television station of its own , although it has a community channel on Cogeco , which is the cable television provider in Sarnia . Cable systems pipe in stations from Kitchener and Toronto .
The city 's main daily newspaper is the Sarnia Observer , owned by Postmedia , which purchased Sun Media in 2014 for $ 316 million . A weekly newspaper called the Sarnia Journal began distribution in March 2014 . It is distributed to 30 @,@ 000 households in Sarnia , Bright ’ s Grove , Point Edward and Corunna . The community publications Sarnia This Week , Lambton County Smart Shopper and Business Trends are owned by Bowes Publishing . The monthly business oriented newspaper First Monday is owned by Huron Web Printing and Graphics . Lambton Shield Publishing has been in operation since November 2010 and runs an on @-@ line only news website , lambtonshield.com , delivering local news and services to the Sarnia @-@ Lambton area . There are two magazines currently published in Sarnia , Business Trends and Report on Industry . Business Trends is distributed through City Hall and Report on Industry is sent to executives in surrounding businesses . Report on Industry articles are available online .
= = Notable people = =
Among Sarnia 's distinguished residents are retired Canadian Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield , who flew on two NASA Space Shuttle missions and served as the first Canadian commander of the International Space Station during Expedition 35 . The Nobel laureate George Andrew Olah moved to Sarnia from his native Hungary to join Dow Chemical in 1957 . James Doohan , the well @-@ known Star Trek actor , attended high school in Sarnia . Harmonica virtuoso Mike Stevens still lives in Sarnia and tours all over the world ; he is also notable for his extensive work with aboriginal youth . Many notable Sarnians are athletes and others associated with sports , such as NHL Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , former NHL star Pat Verbeek , retired NHL referee Kerry Fraser , current NHL star Steven Stamkos , champion curler Steve Bice , and golfer Mike Weir , who was the 2003 Masters Champion . Dominique Pegg , a Sarnia gymnast , won a bronze medal in Floor Exercise , at the World Cup event in Cottbus in March 2012 . The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie , second Prime Minister of Canada , was buried at Lakeview Cemetery , Sarnia , where a monument has been erected . The 1910s – 1930s actress Marie Prevost was also born there . Katherine Ryan , comedian , writer , presenter and actress , was born in Sarnia in 1983 she now resides in London , England .
= French cruiser Sully =
The French cruiser Sully was an armored cruiser of the Gloire class that was built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . She was named in honor of Maximilien de Béthune , Duke of Sully , trusted minister of King Henry IV . The ship struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay , French Indochina in 1905 , only eight months after she was completed , and was a total loss .
= = Design and description = =
The Gloire @-@ class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the Gueydon @-@ class armored cruisers by Emile Bertin . Her crew numbered 612 officers and men . The ship measured 139 @.@ 8 meters ( 458 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) . Sully had a draft of 7 @.@ 7 meters ( 25 ft 3 in ) and displaced 10 @,@ 014 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 856 long tons ) .
Sully had three propeller shafts , each powered by one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine , which were rated at a total of 20 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 300 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her engines . She had a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 590 long tons ( 1 @,@ 620 t ) of coal and could steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Sully 's main armament consisted of two 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in single gun turrets fore and aft . Her intermediate armament was eight 45 @-@ caliber Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns . Four of these were in single gun turrets on the sides of the ship and the other four were in casemates . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried six 45 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in casemates and eighteen 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes ; two of these were submerged and the others were above water .
The waterline armored belt of the Gloire @-@ class ships was 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 106 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) towards the bow and stern . Above the main belt was another belt , 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick that also tapered to 106 mm at the ends of the ship . The conning tower had armored sides 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The main gun turrets were protected by 173 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) of armor and the intermediate turrets by 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The flat part of the lower armored deck was 45 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) , but increased to 64 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) as it sloped down to the sides of the ship .
= = Service = =
Sully was laid down at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne on 24 May 1899 and launched on 4 June 1901 . The ship was completed in June 1904 and sent to French Indochina for her first commission . On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay ; her crew was not injured . Her guns and equipment were salvaged , but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss .
= Norman Finkelstein =
Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author . His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his parents who were Jewish Holocaust survivors . He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D in political science at Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007 .
In 2007 , after a highly publicized feud between Finkelstein and an academic opponent , Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein 's tenure bid at DePaul was denied . Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007 – 2008 academic year , and on September 5 , 2007 , he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university on generally undisclosed terms . An official statement from DePaul strongly defended the decision to deny Finkelstein tenure , stated that outside influence played no role in the decision . In 2008 , he was banned from entering Israel for 10 years .
Finkelstein taught at Sakarya University Middle East Institute in Turkey between 2014 and 2015 .
= = Personal background and education = =
Finkelstein has written of his Jewish parents ' experiences during World War II . His mother , Maryla Husyt , grew up in Warsaw , survived the Warsaw Ghetto , the Majdanek concentration camp , and two slave labor camps . Her first husband died in the war . She considered the day of her liberation as the most horrible day of her life , as she realized that she was alone , her parents and siblings gone . Norman 's father , Zacharias Finkelstein , active in Hashomer Hatzair , was a survivor of both the Warsaw Ghetto and the Auschwitz concentration camp .
After the war they met in a displaced persons camp in Linz , Austria , and then emigrated to the United States , where his father became a factory worker and his mother a homemaker and later a bookkeeper . Finkelstein 's mother was an ardent pacifist . Both his parents died in 1995 . Of his parents , Finkelstein has recalled that " they saw the world through the prism of the Nazi Holocaust . They were eternally indebted to the Soviet Union ( to whom they attributed the defeat of the Nazis ) , and so anyone who was anti @-@ Soviet they were extremely harsh on " . They supported the Soviet Union 's approval of the creation of the State of Israel , as enunciated by Gromyko , who stated that the Jews had earned the right to a state , but thought that Israel had sold its soul to the West and " refused to have any truck with it " .
Finkelstein grew up in Borough Park , then Mill Basin , both in Brooklyn , New York , where he attended James Madison High School . In his memoir , Finkelstein recalls his strong youthful identification with the outrage that his mother , witness to the genocidal atrocities of World War II , felt at the carnage wrought by the United States in Vietnam . One childhood friend recalls his mother 's " emotional investment in left @-@ wing humanitarian causes as bordering on hysteria " . He had " internalized [ her ] indignation " , a trait which he admits rendered him " insufferable " when talking of the Vietnam War , and which imbued him with a " holier @-@ than @-@ thou " attitude at the time which he now regrets . But Finkelstein regards his absorption of his mother 's outlook — the refusal to put aside a sense of moral outrage in order to get on with one 's life — as a virtue . Subsequently , his reading of Noam
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reviewed refused to run any critical correspondence ( e.g. The New Republic , The Atlantic Monthly , Commentary ) . Periodicals that had yet to review the book rejected a manuscript on the subject as of little or no consequence ( e.g. The Village Voice , Dissent , The New York Review of Books ) . Not a single national newspaper or columnist contacted found newsworthy that a best @-@ selling , effusively praised ' study ' of the Middle East conflict was a threadbare hoax . "
Noam Chomsky later reminisced :
" I warned him , if you follow this , you 're going to get in trouble — because you 're going to expose the American intellectual community as a gang of frauds , and they are not going to like it , and they 're going to destroy you . "
In 1986 , the New York Review of Books published Yehoshua Porath 's review and an exchange with critics of the review in which he criticized the assumptions and evidence on which Peters 's thesis relied , thus lending independent support from an expert in Palestinian demographics to Finkelstein 's doctoral critique .
In the house journal of the American Council on Foreign Relations , Foreign Affairs , William B. Quandt , the Edward Stettinius professor of Politics at the University of Virginia and authority on Middle Eastern politics , later described Finkelstein 's critique of From Time Immemorial as a " landmark essay " and a " victory to his credit " , in its " demonstration " of the " shoddy scholarship " of Peters ' book . Israeli historian Avi Shlaim later praised Finkelstein 's thesis , saying that it had established his credentials when he was still a doctoral student . In Shlaim 's view , Finkelstein had produced an " unanswerable case " with " irrefutable evidence " , proving that Peters ' book was both " preposterous and worthless " .
According to Noam Chomsky , the controversy that surrounded Finkelstein 's research caused a delay in his earning his Ph.D. at Princeton University . Chomsky wrote in Understanding Power that Finkelstein " literally could not get the faculty to read [ his dissertation ] " and that Princeton eventually granted Finkelstein his doctorate only " out of embarrassment [ for Princeton ] " but refused to give him any further professional backing .
Finkelstein published portions of his thesis in the following publications :
" Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial " , Chapter 2 of Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question ( 1988 ) ; and
" A Land Without a People ( Joan Peters ' " Wilderness " Image ) " , Chapter 2 of Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict ( 1995 ) .
= = = The Holocaust Industry = = =
The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering was published in 2000 . Here , Finkelstein argues that Elie Wiesel and others exploit the memory of the Holocaust as an " ideological weapon . " The purpose , writes Finkelstein , is to enable the State of Israel , " one of the world 's most formidable military powers , with a horrendous human rights record , [ to ] cast itself as a victim state ; " that is , to provide Israel " immunity to criticism . " He alleges what he calls a " double shakedown " by " a repellent gang of plutocrats , hoodlums and hucksters " seeking enormous legal damages and financial settlements from Germany and Switzerland , moneys which then go to the lawyers and institutional actors involved in procuring them , rather than actual Holocaust survivors .
The book received a hostile reception in some quarters , with critics charging that it was poorly researched and / or allowed others to exploit it for antisemitic purposes . The German historian Hans Mommsen disparaged the first edition as " a most trivial book , which appeals to easily aroused anti @-@ Semitic prejudices " . Israeli Holocaust historian Israel Gutman called the book " a lampoon " , stating " this is not research ; it isn 't even political literature ... I don 't even think it should be reviewed or critiqued as a legitimate book . " The book was also harshly criticized by Brown University Professor Omer Bartov and University of Chicago Professor Peter Novick .
However , preeminent Holocaust scholar Raul Hilberg said the book expressed views Hilberg himself subscribed to in substance , in that he too found the exploitation of the Holocaust , as Finkelstein describes , " detestable " . Asked on another occasion if Finkelstein 's analysis might play into the hands of neo @-@ Nazis for antisemitic purposes , Hilberg replied : " Well , even if they do use it in that fashion , I 'm afraid that when it comes to the truth , it has to be said openly , without regard to any consequences that would be undesirable , embarrassing " .
Other critics claim Finkelstein 's evidence is highly selective and / or dubious and that his arguments would be based on a misinterpretation of history and a questionable use of sources . The historian David Cesarani wrote that while Finkelstein absolves Swiss banks of serious misconduct towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based on a sentence from an important report annex , he had ignored the report body which describes deceitful actions by Swiss banks , inappropriate closing of accounts , failure to keep adequate records , and so on .
= = = Criticism of Alan Dershowitz 's The Case for Israel = = =
Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel by Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein derided it as " a collection of fraud , falsification , plagiarism , and nonsense " . During a debate on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein asserted that Dershowitz lacked knowledge about specific contents of his own book . He also claimed that Dershowitz did not write the book , and may not have even read it .
Finkelstein noted 20 instances , in as many pages , where Dershowitz 's book cites the same sources and passages used by Joan Peters in her book , in largely the same sequence , with ellipses in the same places . In two instances , Dershowitz reproduces Peters 's errors ( see below ) . From this Finkelstein concluded that Dershowitz had not checked the original sources himself , contrary to the latter 's claims . Finkelstein suggests that this copying of quotations amounts to copying ideas . Examining a copy of a proof of Dershowitz 's book he managed to obtain , he found evidence that Dershowitz had his secretarial assistant , Holly Beth Billington , check in the Harvard library the sources he had read in Peters 's book . Dershowitz answered the charge in a letter to the University of California 's Press Director Lynne Withey , arguing that Finkelstein had made up the smoking gun quotation , in that he had changed its wording ( from ' cite ' to ' copy ' ) in his book . In public debate he has stated that if " somebody borrowed the quote without going to check back on whether Mark Twain had said that , obviously that would be a serious charge " ; however , he insisted emphatically that he himself did not do that , that he had indeed checked the original source by Twain .
Dershowitz threatened libel action over the charges in Finkelstein 's book , as a consequence of which , the publisher deleted the word " plagiarism " from the text before publication . Finkelstein agreed to remove the suggestion that Dershowitz was not the true author of The Case for Israel because , as the publisher said , " he couldn 't document that " .
Asserting that he did consult the original sources , Dershowitz said Finkelstein is simply accusing him of good scholarly practice : citing references he learned of initially from Peters 's book . Dershowitz denies that he used any of Peters 's ideas without citation . " Plagiarism is taking someone else 's words and claiming they 're your own . There are no borrowed words from anybody . There are no borrowed ideas from anybody because I fundamentally disagree with the conclusions of Peters 's book . " In a footnote in The Case for Israel which cites Peters 's book , Dershowitz explicitly denies that he " relies " on Peters for " conclusions or data " .
In their joint interview on Democracy Now , however , Finkelstein cited specific passages in Dershowitz 's book in which a phrase that he says Peters coined was incorrectly attributed to George Orwell :
" [ Peters ] coins the phrase , ' turnspeak ' , she says she 's using it as a play off of George Orwell which as all listeners know used the phrase ' Newspeak . ' She coined her own phrase , ' turnspeak ' . You go to Mr. Dershowitz 's book , he got so confused in his massive borrowings from Joan Peters that on two occasions , I 'll cite them for those who have a copy of the book , on page 57 and on page 153 he uses the phrase , quote , George Orwell 's ' turnspeak ' . ' Turnspeak ' is not Orwell , Mr. Dershowitz , you 're the Felix Frankfurter chair at Harvard , you must know that Orwell would never use such a clunky phrase as ' turnspeak ' " .
James O. Freedman , the former president of Dartmouth College , the University of Iowa , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , has defended Dershowitz :
I do not understand [ Finkelstein 's ] charge of plagiarism against Alan Dershowitz . There is no claim that Dershowitz used the words of others without attribution . When he uses the words of others , he quotes them properly and generally cites them to the original sources ( Mark Twain , Palestine Royal Commission , etc . ) [ Finkelstein 's ] complaint is that instead he should have cited them to the secondary source , in which Dershowitz may have come upon them . But as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : ' Importance of attribution . With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This not only bolsters the claims of fair use , it also helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism . ' This is precisely what Dershowitz did .
Responding to an article in The Nation by Alexander Cockburn , Dershowitz also cited The Chicago Manual of Style :
Cockburn 's claim is that some of the quotes should not have been cited to their original sources but rather to a secondary source , where he believes I stumbled upon them . Even if he were correct that I found all these quotations in Peters 's book , the preferred method of citation is to the original source , as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : " With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This ... helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism ... To cite a source from a secondary source ( ' quoted in ... ' ) is generally to be discouraged .... "
... to which Cockburn responded :
Quoting The Chicago Manual of Style , Dershowitz artfully implies that he followed the rules by citing " the original " as opposed to the secondary source , Peters . He misrepresents Chicago here , where " the original " means merely the origin of the borrowed material , which is , in this instance , Peters .
Now look at the second bit of the quote from Chicago , chastely separated from the preceding sentence by a demure three @-@ point ellipsis . As my associate Kate Levin has discovered , this passage ( " To cite a source from a secondary source ... " ) occurs on page 727 , which is no less than 590 pages later than the material before the ellipsis , in a section titled " Citations Taken from Secondary Sources . " Here 's the full quote , with what Dershowitz left out set in bold : " ' Quoted in ' . To cite a source from a secondary source ( " quoted in " ) is generally to be discouraged , since authors are expected to have examined the works they cite . If an original source is unavailable , however , both the original and the secondary source must be listed . "
So Chicago is clearly insisting that unless Dershowitz went to the originals , he was obliged to cite Peters . Finkelstein has conclusively demonstrated that he didn 't go to the originals . Plagiarism , QED , plus added time for willful distortion of the language of Chicago 's guidelines , cobbling together two separate discussions .
On behalf of Dershowitz , Harvard Law School dean Elena Kagan asked former Harvard president Derek Bok to investigate the assertion of plagiarism ; Bok exonerated Dershowitz of the charge .
In an April 3 , 2007 interview with the Harvard Crimson , " Dershowitz confirmed that he had sent a letter last September to DePaul faculty members lobbying against Finkelstein 's tenure . "
In April 2007 , Dr. Frank Menetrez , a former Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the UCLA Law Review , published an analysis of the charges made against Finkelstein by Dershowitz , finding no merit in any single charge and concluding that Dershowitz had misrepresented matters . In a follow @-@ up analysis he concluded that he could find ' no way of avoiding the inference that Dershowitz copied the quotation from Twain from Peters 's From Time Immemorial , and not from the original source ' , as Dershowitz claimed . In an interview given for the film American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein in 2009 , Dershowitz said of Finkelstein : " I don 't think he is a Jew . He 's Jewish only on his parents ' side . "
= = Controversies = =
= = = Tenure denial and resignation = = =
In September 2006 , Dershowitz sent members of DePaul 's law and political science faculties what he described as " a dossier of Norman Finkelstein 's most egregious academic sins , and especially his outright lies , misquotations , and distortions " and lobbied professors , alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure . De Paul 's political science committee investigated his accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism . The department subsequently invited John Mearsheimer and Ian Lustick , two independent academics with known expertise on the Israel – Palestine conflict , to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein 's work ; they came to the same conclusion .
Also in 2006 , the Washington Post noted " the ADL repeatedly accused " Norman Finkelstein of being a " Holocaust denier " and that " These charges have proved baseless . " Finkelstein 's mother survived the Majdanek concentration camp , his father survived the Auschwitz concentration camp , and most of his family died in the Holocaust
In early 2007 , the DePaul Political Science Department voted nine to three , and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee five to zero , in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure . The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure , supported by the Dean of the College , Chuck Suchar . Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein 's " personal and reputation demeaning attacks on Dershowitz , Benny Morris , and the holocaust authors Elie Wiesel and Jerzy Kosinski " were inconsistent with DePaul 's " Vincentian " values ; as examples of the latter , Suchar argued that Finkelstein lacked respect for " the dignity of the individual " and for " the rights of others to hold and express different intellectual positions " . Amidst considerable public debate , Dershowitz actively campaigned to block Finkelstein 's tenure bid . In June 2007 , a 4 – 3 vote by DePaul University 's Board on Promotion and Tenure ( a faculty board ) , affirmed by the university 's president , the Rev. Dennis Holtschneider , denied Finkelstein tenure .
The university denied that Dershowitz , who had been criticized for his campaign against Finkelstein 's tenure , played any part in this decision . At the same time , the university denied tenure to international studies assistant professor Mehrene Larudee , a strong supporter of Finkelstein , despite unanimous support from her department , the Personnel Committee and the dean . Finkelstein stated that he would engage in civil disobedience if attempts were made to bar him from teaching his students .
The Faculty Council later affirmed the right of Professors Finkelstein and Larudee to appeal , which a university lawyer said was not possible . Council President Anne Bartlett said she was " ' terribly concerned ' correct procedure was not followed " . DePaul 's faculty association considered taking no @-@ confidence votes on administrators , including the president , because of the tenure denials . In a statement issued upon Finkelstein 's resignation , DePaul called him " a prolific scholar and an outstanding teacher " . Dershowitz expressed outrage at the compromise and this statement in particular , saying that the university had " traded truth for peace " .
In June 2007 , after two weeks of protests , some DePaul students staged a sit @-@ in and hunger strike in support of both professors denied tenure . The Illinois Conference of the American Association of University Professors also sent a letter to the university 's president stating : " It is entirely illegitimate for a university to deny tenure to a professor out of fear that his published research ... might hurt a college 's reputation " and that the association has " explicitly rejected collegiality as an appropriate criterion for evaluating faculty members " . In a 2014 interview , professor Matthew Abraham , author of Out of Bounds : Academic Freedom and the Question of Palestine , described the Finkelstein tenure case as " one of the most significant academic freedom cases in the last fifty years " , claiming the case demonstrated " the substantial pressure outside parties can place on a mid @-@ tier religious institution when the perspectives advanced by a controversial scholar threaten dominant interests " .
= = = Denied entry to Israel in 2008 = = =
On May 23 , 2008 , Finkelstein was denied entry to Israel , according to unnamed Shin Bet security officials , because " of suspicions involving hostile elements in Lebanon " and that he " did not give a full accounting to interrogators with regard to these suspicions . " Finkelstein had previously visited south Lebanon and met with Lebanese families during the 2006 Lebanon War . He was banned from entering Israel for 10 years .
Finkelstein was questioned after his arrival at Ben Gurion Airport near Tel Aviv and detained for 24 hours in a holding cell . After speaking to Israeli attorney Michael Sfard he was placed on a flight back to Amsterdam , his point of origin . In an interview with Haaretz , Finkelstein stated " I did my best to provide absolutely candid and comprehensive answers to all the questions put to me . I am confident that I have nothing to hide ... no suicide missions or secret rendezvous with terrorist organizations . " He had been travelling to visit friends in the West Bank and stated he had no interest in visiting Israel . Sfard said banning Finkelstein from entering the country " recalls the behavior of the Soviet bloc countries " .
= = Reception = =
Finkelstein 's books are an attempt to examine the works of mainstream scholarship . The authors whose work he has thus targeted , including Daniel Jonah Goldhagen and Dershowitz , along with others such as Benny Morris whose work Finkelstein has also cited in his scholarship , have in turn accused Finkelstein of grossly misrepresenting their work , and selectively quoting from their books .
According to Raul Hilberg , Finkelstein displays " academic courage to speak the truth when no one else is out there to support him ... I would say that his place in the whole history of writing history is assured , and that those who in the end are proven right triumph , and he will be among those who will have triumphed , albeit , it so seems , at great cost . " In a peer review for Beyond Chutzpah , Avi Shlaim said that Finkelstein " has a most impressive track record in exposing spurious American @-@ Jewish scholarship on the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . " He praised Finkelstein for " all the sterling qualities for which he has become famous : erudition , originality , spark , meticulous attention to detail , intellectual integrity , courage , and formidable forensic skills . "
Sara Roy stated that her shared experience with Finkelstein as a child of Holocaust survivors engaged in research on the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict gave her a unique position to comment . According to Roy , Finkelstein 's scholarship is , " exceptional both for its brilliance and rigor . In the fields of Middle Eastern studies and political science his work is considered seminal and there is no doubt that both disciplines would be intellectually weaker without it . Norman 's power and value , however , do not emanate only from his scholarship but from his character . His life ’ s work , shaped largely but not entirely by his experience as a child of survivors has been and continues to be informed by a profound concern with human dignity and the danger of dehumanization . "
The Israeli newspaper , Haaretz , stated that " [ i ] t is difficult to sympathize with Finkelstein 's opinions and preferences , especially since he decided to support Hezbollah , meet with its fighters and visit the graves of some of its slain operatives . " Still , it continued to say that he should not be banned from entering Israel , because " meetings with Hezbollah operatives do not in themselves constitute a security risk " .
= = = 2009 film about Finkelstein = = =
American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein is an award @-@ winning documentary film about the life and career of Norman Finkelstein , released in 2009 and directed by David Ridgen and Nicolas Rossier . It has been screened in Amsterdam IDFA , in Toronto Hot Docs and in more than 40 other national and international venues , it received a freshness rating of 100 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . The same year Finkelstein appeared in Defamation ( Hebrew : השמצה ; translit . Hashmatsa ) a documentary film by award @-@ winning Israeli filmmaker Yoav Shamir .
= = = Criticism = = =
Criticism has been leveled against Finkelstein from several angles . The first sources are responses from those whose work Finkelstein has discussed . Daniel Goldhagen , whose book Hitler 's Willing Executioners Finkelstein criticized , claimed his scholarship has " everything to do with his burning political agenda " . Alan Dershowitz has written that Peter Novick , Professor of History at the University of Chicago and a noted Holocaust historian whose work Finkelstein says inspired The Holocaust Industry , has strongly criticized the latter 's work , describing it as " trash " . Similarly , Dershowitz , whose book The Case for Israel and Finkelstein 's response Beyond Chutzpah sparked an ongoing feud between the two , has claimed Finkelstein 's complicity in a conspiracy against pro @-@ Israel scholars : " The mode of attack is consistent . Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn 't actually write the work , that it is plagiarized , that it is a hoax and a fraud , " arguing that Finkelstein has leveled charges against many academics , calling at least 10 " distinguished Jews ' hucksters ' , ' hoaxters ' ( sic ) , ' thieves ' , ' extortionists ' , and worse . " Although the back and forth between Finkelstein and Dershowitz received the most attention and attracted significant controversy , Finkelstein has maintained that " the real issue is Israel 's human rights record . "
Israeli historian Omer Bartov , writing for The New York Times Book Review , judged The Holocaust Industry to be marred by the same errors he denounces in those who exploit the Holocaust for profit or politics :
It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust ; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts , inner contradictions , strident politics and dubious contextualizations ; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority ... Like any conspiracy theory , it contains several grains of truth ; and like any such theory , it is both irrational and insidious .
Finkelstein has accused journalist Jeffrey Goldberg of " torturing " or " being an accessory to torture of " Palestinian prisoners during his IDF service in the First Intifada , based on statements made in Goldberg 's book Prisoners . Finkelstein says that Goldberg admits to personally sending prisoners to the zinzana , which he says has been repeatedly condemned as torture in human rights reports . Goldberg referred to the allegation as " ridiculous " and he had " never laid a hand on anybody . " Goldberg said his " principal role " was " making sure prisoners had fresh fruit . " He characterized Finkelstein as a " ridiculous figure " and accused him of " lying and purposely misreading my book . "
= = Statements on Israel = =
Finkelstein is a sharp critic of the state of Israel . Discussing Finkelstein 's book Beyond Chutzpah , Israeli historian Avi Shlaim stated that Finkelstein 's critique of Israel " is based on an amazing amount of research . He seems to have read everything . He has gone through the reports of Israeli groups , of human rights groups , Human Rights Watch and Peace Now and B 'Tselem , all of the reports of Amnesty International . And he deploys all this evidence from Israeli and other sources in order to sustain his critique of Israeli practices , Israeli violations of human rights of the Palestinians , Israeli house demolitions , the targeted assassinations of Palestinian militants , the cutting down of trees , the building of the wall — the security barrier on the West Bank , which is illegal — the restrictions imposed on the Palestinians in the West Bank , and so on and so forth . I find his critique extremely detailed , well @-@ documented and accurate . "
In a telephone interview with Today 's Zaman , in 2009 , Finkelstein stated :
I think Israel , as a number of commentators pointed out , is becoming an insane state . And we have to be honest about that . While the rest of the world wants peace , Europe wants peace , the US wants peace , but this state wants war , war and war . In the first week of the massacres , there were reports in the Israeli press that Israel did not want to put all its ground forces in Gaza because it was preparing attacks on Iran . Then there were reports it was planning attacks on Lebanon . It is a lunatic state .
When asked how he , as the son of Holocaust survivors , felt about Israel ’ s operation in Gaza , Finkelstein replied :
It has been a long time since I felt any emotional connection with the state of Israel , which relentlessly and brutally and inhumanly keeps these vicious , murderous wars . It is a vandal state . There is a Russian writer who once described vandal states as Genghis Khan with a telegraph . Israel is Genghis Khan with a computer . I feel no emotion of affinity with that state . I have some good friends and their families there , and of course I would not want any of them to be hurt . That said , sometimes I feel that Israel has come out of the boils ( sic ) of the hell , a satanic state .
The Anti @-@ Defamation League has described Finkelstein as an " obsessive anti @-@ Zionist " filled with " vitriolic hatred of Zionism and Israel . " On being called an anti @-@ Zionist Finkelstein has said : " It 's a superficial term . I am opposed to any state with an ethnic character , not only to Israel . "
Finkelstein is an advocate of a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict .
= = = Hezbollah and Hamas = = =
Finkelstein has expressed solidarity with Hezbollah and Hamas with respect to defensive actions , alleging that Israel had invaded Lebanon as a signal of rejection when Hamas was seeking a diplomatic settlement with Israel . He also condemned what he said was Israel 's refusal " to abide by international law [ and ] to abide by the opinion of the international community " to settle the conflict .
" I was of course happy to meet the Hizbullah people , because it is a point of view that is rarely heard in the United States . I have no problem saying that I do want to express solidarity with them , and I am not going to be a coward of ( sic ) a hypocrite about it . I don 't care about Hizbullah as a political organization . I don 't know much about their politics , and anyhow , it 's irrelevant . I don 't live in Lebanon . It 's a choice that the Lebanese have to make : Who they want to be their leaders , who they want to represent them . But there is a fundamental principle . People have the right to defend their country from foreign occupiers , and people have the right to defend their country from invaders who are destroying their country . That to me is a very basic , elementary and uncomplicated question . "
While condemning the targeting of civilians to achieve a political goal , Finkelstein has stated he believes Hezbollah has the right to target Israeli civilians as long as " Israel persists in targeting [ Lebanese ] civilians until Israel ceases its terrorist acts . "
Finkelstein claims that an equivalence exists between Hamas and the state of Israel in regards to the military policy of targeted killings during the Second Intifada . According to Finkelstein " the record shows that Israel has routinely targeted civilians for killing " and " Israel indiscriminately kills civilians " . He concludes that " the argument , among human rights organizations at any rate is that ... in effect , there ’ s no difference between indiscriminately killing civilians and targeting civilians . "
Finkelstein argued one of Israel 's primary motivations for launching the 2008 offensive in Gaza was that Hamas was " signaling that it wanted a diplomatic settlement of the conflict along the June 1967 border . " Finkelstein believes Hamas had joined the international community in " seeking a diplomatic settlement " and describes Hamas 's stance towards Israel prior to the war as a " peace offensive . "
= = Statements on the BDS movement = =
Finkelstein had made many criticisms of the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions Movement . Finkelstein stated that " I think the solidarity movement has the right tactics . I support the BDS . But I said it will never reach a broad public until and unless they are explicit on their goal . And their goal has to include recognition of Israel , otherwise it 's a nonstarter . " Elsewhere , he has stated that he supports a " lowercase " BDS , making the same point about tactics and goals .
In February 2012 , The Jewish Chronicle in England stated that Finkelstein " launched a blistering attack " on the BDS movement , saying it was a " hypocritical , dishonest cult " , " [ l ] ike the Munchkin cult in Oz , " that tries to cleverly pose as human rights activists while in reality their goal is to destroy Israel . Finkelstein stated that the BDS movement has had very few successes , and that just like a cult , the leaders pretend that they are hugely successful when in reality the general public rejects their extreme views .
In June 2012 , in an appearance on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein elaborated on his criticisms of the BDS movement :
The problem as I see it with the BDS movement is not the tactic . Who could not support Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ? Of course you should . And most of the human rights organizations , church organizations have moved in that direction . The problem is the goal . . . The official BDS movement , they claim to be agnostic , neutral — whatever term you want to use — on the question of Israel . You can ’ t reach a broad public if you are agnostic on the question of Israel . The broad public wants to know , where do you stand ? And if you claim not to have a stand , you lose them . The BDS movement , it always says , and I ’ m using their language , " We are a rights @-@ based organization . We are based in international law . " I agree with that . That ’ s where you have to go : rights @-@ based international law . But the international law is clear . You read the last sentence of the 2004 International Court of Justice opinion on the wall that Israel has been building in the West Bank , and the last sentence says , " We look forward to two states : a Palestinian state alongside Israel and at peace with its neighbors . " That 's the law .
And if you want to go past that law or ignore the Israel part , you ’ ll never reach a broad public . And then it 's a cult . Then it ’ s pointless , in my opinion . We 're wasting time . And it 's only a wasting of time . It becomes — and I know it 's a strong word , and I hope I won 't be faulted for it , but it becomes historically criminal , because there was a time where whatever we said , it made no difference . Nobody was listening . You could shout whatever you want — who cares ? But now , actually , we can reach people . There is a possibility . I ’ m not saying a certainty . I 'm not even saying a probability . But there is a possibility that we can reach a broad public . And so , we have to be very careful about the words we use , and we have to be very careful about the political strategy we map out . Otherwise , we 're going to squander a real opportunity . And I don 't want to squander it .
= = = Books = = =
2014 : Method and Madness : The Hidden Story of Israel 's Assaults on Gaza , OR Books , New York ( 2014 )
2014 : Old Wine , Broken Bottle : Ari Shavit 's Promised Land , OR Books , New York ( 2014 )
2012 : Knowing Too Much : Why the American Jewish Romance with Israel is Coming to an End , OR Books , New York ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 77 @-@ 5
2012 : What Gandhi Says About Nonviolence , Resistance and Courage , OR Books , New York : 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 79 @-@ 9
2011 : " Goldstone Recants . Richard Goldstone renews Israel 's license to kill " , OR Books , New York ( 2011 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 51 @-@ 5
2010 : This Time We Went Too Far : Truth and Consequences of the Gaza Invasion . OR Books , New York : 2010 . [ 2 ] ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 43 @-@ 0
2005 : Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History . University of California Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24598 @-@ 9 . 2nd updated Ed . , University of California Press . June 2008 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24989 @-@ 5 , contains an appendix written by Frank J. Menetrez , Dershowitz vs Finkelstein . Who 's Right and Who 's Wrong ? , pp. 363 – 94 @,@
2000 : The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 488 @-@ X.
1998 : A Nation on Trial : The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth ( co @-@ written with Ruth Bettina Birn ) , Henry Holt and Co . ; ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 5872 @-@ 9 .
1996 : The Rise and Fall of Palestine : A Personal Account of the Intifada Years . Minneapolis : U of Minnesota P , ISBN 0 @-@ 8166 @-@ 2859 @-@ 9 .
1995 : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 442 @-@ 1
1987 : From the Jewish Question to the Jewish State : An Essay on the Theory of Zionism ( thesis ) , Princeton University .
= = = Articles and chapters = = =
" Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peter 's ' From Time Immemorial . ' " in Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . Ed . Edward W. Said and Christopher Hitchens . Verso Press , 1988 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 86
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own friends . Conceived as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood , the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel Robbins . Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show 's main character when Friends premiered , the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot 's most prominent storyline . Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series , the writers had originally intended for the show 's defining couple to be Joey and Monica . However , after the success of the pilot , in which Rachel and Ross ' developing romance is first hinted at , and witnessing Aniston and co @-@ star David Schwimmer 's on @-@ screen chemistry for the first time , Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on " finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other . "
Audiences began rooting for Rachel and Ross ' union since the very beginning of Friends , openly voicing their frustration with Rachel ’ s obliviousness to Ross ' feelings for her . The episode that would ultimately transform the friends ' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first season finale " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " , in which Rachel finally learns of Ross ' true feelings for her , at the same time discovering she actually feels the same . However , the episode nearly went unwritten because , at the time , few friends writers were expecting the couple 's relationship to morph into the phenomenon that it ultimately became . The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows ; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple 's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive " he 's pining , she 's oblivious " pattern , using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel . Because stakes for the episode were unprecedentedly high , " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " became Friends ' most reworked episode . The couple 's first kiss at the end of season two 's " The One Where Ross Finds Out " was met with deafening applause from the studio audience . Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging . Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by " dangl [ ing ] the possibility of a Ross and Rachel recoupling through several cliffhangers without ever putting them back together . " According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb , Ross and Rachel 's ever @-@ changing relationship " converted the traditional amnesic plotlines of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama . " Meanwhile , writing for The New York Review of Books , Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created " a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way , setting us up for a long @-@ deferred union . "
After Rachel and Ross drunkenly get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five , Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her – his third divorce – because he felt that it was taking it " too far . " The actor explained that " The whole arc of the relationship was weird then ... because for [ Ross ] to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far . " Rachel and Joey 's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel 's reunion further . Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten " was for the greater good " because " It was inappropriate . " However , the cast initially protested the idea , fearing that Rachel , Joey , and Ross would ultimately become unlikeable characters and audiences would either " resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman , or resent Rachel for rejecting him , or resent Ross for standing between the two of them . " Meanwhile , the writers also approached the concept of Rachel 's pregnancy and baby tentatively , worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends " to become a show about a baby " while " On the other hand , we don 't want to pretend that there isn 't one . " According to Robert Bianco of USA Today , the critical success and popularity of Rachel 's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for " propel [ ling ] the show to the top of the ratings " . When it finally came time to write the series finale , " The only thing [ Crane and Kauffman ] absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together , " deciding , " We had dicked the audience around for 10 years with their ' will they or won ’ t they , ' and we didn ’ t see any advantage in frustrating them " any longer . However , at one point the writers had deliberated ending the series with Ross and Rachel in " a gray area of where they aren ’ t together , but we hint there ’ s a sense that they might be down the road . " Ultimately , Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want .
= = = Casting = = =
The final character to be cast , Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston , who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler , a Saturday Night Live alum . Actress Téa Leoni , who at the time was being referred to by the media as " the next Lucille Ball " , was offered the role of Rachel as the studio 's first choice , but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth . Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell . Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards , Melissa Rivers , Nicolette Sheridan , Parker Posey , and Jami Gertz . Originally , the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel , who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her " cheery , upbeat energy . " Additionally , Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors . However , the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel 's best friend Monica , as whom she was ultimately cast , because she felt that she was not " quirky " enough to play Rachel . At the same time , although unbeknownst to each other , Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica , but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better . At one point , Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character 's storylines started improving .
Friends was Aniston 's sixth sitcom ; each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely . Feeling vulnerable , Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress and personally approached Littlefield for reassurance on her career , who encouraged her to audition for Friends , which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time . Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this . However , casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because , at the time , Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through , in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years . CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract , which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously , traveling back @-@ and @-@ forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks . Meanwhile , NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel , replace Aniston , and reshoot several episodes if CBS ' series proved successful , which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars . However , Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail . Essentially , the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered , while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends . During this time of uncertainty , Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends @-@ related promotions and photo shoots ; the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced . Aniston explained , " When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos ... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they didn 't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel . " Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position . The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part , while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her , " I 'm auditioning for your part in Friends . " Ultimately , Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes , two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired , thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show , becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25 . Crane appreciated Aniston 's interpretation of Rachel because " in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and unlikable , " commending the actress for " breathing life into a difficult character . "
Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy , and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press , interviews and photo shoots . One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy , family sitcom or star a famous comedian , Elizabeth Kolbert of The New York Times explained that each of the show 's main characters are " of equal importance . " As a writer , Crane preferred it this way because " utilizing six equal players , rather than emphasizing one or two , would allow for myriad story lines . " Kauffman echoed " that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage . " The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show 's title sequence is because the cast is listed alphabetically . The show 's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast . Famously , the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries , refusing to work until their demands of $ 100 @,@ 000 per episode were met during season three , which eventually increased to $ 1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten – approximately $ 25 million per year . Alongside Cox and actress Lisa Kudrow , who portrays Phoebe , Aniston became the highest @-@ paid television actress of all time . By then , Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show 's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the " Rachel " and successfully transitioning into a film career , combined with her high @-@ profile relationship with her then @-@ husband , actor Brad Pitt , who had once guest starred in an episode of the show . At times the producers would use the actress ' popularity to boost the show 's ratings , notably her character 's seventh season kiss with actress Winona Ryder and pregnancy arc . Aniston had been telling the press that the show 's ninth season would be her last , and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season . She explained to NBC 's Matt Lauer , " I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high . And then I was also feeling like , ‘ How much more of Rachel do I have in me ? ’ ” However , the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends , which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston 's busy film schedule .
= = Characterization and themes = =
Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters . The term " spoiled " is often used to describe the character 's personality during her early appearances . Encyclopaedia Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character . According to Rachel 's original character description , written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show 's pilot , the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who " has worked for none of what she has " , unlike best friend Monica , and is initially " equipped to do nothing " . James Endrst of the Hartford Courant identified her as " a spoiled rich kid " , while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an " endearingly spoiled Daddy 's girl . " Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films that the character is " spunky and sometimes spoiled " , while TV Land called her " naive . " Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends , The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character " wasn 't insulated by self @-@ regard , like Monica , or swaddled in gormlessness , like Phoebe . " Frequently identified as fitting the " girl next door " archetype , Anne Bilson of The Telegraph described Rachel as " funny but not too funny , pretty but not too pretty , sexy but not too sexy , scatterbrained but not too scatterbrained . " TalkTalk 's Dominic Wills described the character as " smart but ditzy , determined but undisciplined . " Meanwhile , Liat Kornowski , writing for The Huffington Post , scribed that Rachel is a " beautiful , coveted , slightly neurotic , borderline egocentric " character .
Observing that the show 's main characters are each based on a stereotype , Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as " the self @-@ absorbed one who goes from riches to rags . " According to Reign Magazine , Rachel is " a human being full of vulnerability , humor and strength while aesthetically donning an undeniable beauty and allure . " Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for " the world as an adult " , Rachel 's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed , becoming " more self @-@ sufficient and sympathetic . " According to Shining in the Shadows : Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray Pomerance , " The more boundary collapsed between the ' real ' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel , the more ' authentic ' Aniston became . " Pomerance also noted that the character 's " well @-@ roundedness , normalcy and relatability " is similar to Aniston 's , while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive , talking " with [ their ] hands a good deal . " In her book How To Write For Television , author Madeline Dimaggio wrote that although " Rachel grew within the context of the series ... she would always struggle with the spoiled , image @-@ conscious Daddy 's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot . " Similarly , BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel " eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series , she [ remains ] the most image @-@ centric among the six " , while Vogue 's Edward Barsamian opined , " She might have been self @-@ centered and bratty , but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and unabashedly fashion @-@ obsessed character on the show . " TV Land summarized the character 's arc and development in the website 's biography of her , writing , " Rachel is a born shopper , but … she ’ s not necessarily a born worker . In fact , before moving in with Monica , she ’ s never had to work at all , thanks to the generosity of her parents . Luckily , Rachel is smart , resourceful and chic , so her future is bright , both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe . " Examining the character 's sexuality , Splitsider 's Mike D 'Avria determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners , 14 , as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71 % . D 'Avria opined , " Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress . Her flirtations typically fail , but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them . " Additionally , Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience .
In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph , Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish . On the character 's " Jewish ties " , Kauffman told j. that Rachel had always been Jewish " in our minds " , explaining , " You can ’ t create a character with the name ' Rachel Green ' and not from the get @-@ go make some character choices " . Prior to this , critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish ; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this . Vulture 's Lindsey Weber , who identifies herself as Jewish , observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character , citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as " Bubbe " , Long Island origin , and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character 's Jewish culture . In her book Changed for Good : A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical , author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as " the butt of the shows ' jokes . " Meanwhile , JDate 's Rebecca Frankel cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen . Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Alicia R. Korenman also acknowledged Rachel 's initial Jewish American Princess qualities , describing her as " spoiled , dependent on her father 's money and her fiance 's , is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so , and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job " , which she eventually overcomes as they become less " evident in later seasons of the show " . In his article " Princesses , Schlemiels , Punishers and Overbearing Mothers " , Evan Cooper described Rachel as a " de @-@ semitized " Jew because , aside from her name , " there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture , no use of Yiddish , and few , if any , references to family members with distinctively Jewish surnames " . Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits , she is more similar to the " little woman " stereotype . The New York Post 's Robert Rorke labeled Rachel " a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess " , in contrast to her sister Amy ( Christina Applegate ) who remains " selfish , condescending and narcissistic . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception towards Rachel has remained mostly positive throughout the show 's ten @-@ year run . Writing for The A. V. Club , John Reid holds Rachel responsible for the success of the pilot , explaining , " The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town , and Rachel is the perfect stranger for this plot " . Reid also believes that Rachel initiated character development in the five other main characters , describing her arrival as " a catalyst for all of them to grow , because unlike the rest of them , Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life " . Also writing for The A. V. Club , Sonia Saraiya was pleased with Rachel and Ross ' first romantic encounter because , for the first time , " Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being " . Saraiya went on to describe Rachel as " as a model for women coming of age in the 1990s — the popular , pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively ' feminist ' career @-@ woman strategy " . The New York Times Joseph Hanania enjoyed Rachel 's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot , describing it as " hilarious . " The Los Angeles Times Bob Shayne admitted that he is attracted to Rachel , joking , " my feelings for Rachel , I say with some embarrassment , mirror those of Gunther " . Cosmopolitan reviewed Rachel as " the best fictional gal pal we 've ever had " , while People called her " spoiled yet loveable " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco credits Rachel 's pregnancy arc with saving Friends , explaining that it " propel [ led ] the show to the top of the ratings " and ultimately " revers [ ed ] the show 's decline in ways ... that no one watching ' The One With Monica & Chandler 's Wedding ' could ever have imagined . " Bianco concluded , " Indeed , without that fortune @-@ altering twist , Friends probably would have ended sooner " .
BDCwire ranked " The One With The Ball " , " The One With Rachel ’ s Inadvertent Kiss " , " The One With The Football " , " The One With The Fake Party " , and " The One In Vegas , Part One Rachel 's five best episodes . Meanwhile , TVLine criticized Rachel 's storyline in season one 's " The One With the Evil Orthodontist " for impulsively sleeping with her ex @-@ fiancé , Barry , panning the episode as " cringeworthy " . TVLine also criticized the character 's arc in season four 's " The One With The Fake Party " . At times the character has generated mild controversy , specifically in 1996 in response to her role in the second season episode " The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies " , in which Rachel and Monica fight over a condom . Aniston revealed that Friends fans would often approach and scold her for things Rachel did that they deemed " disagreeable " .
Neil Midgley , writing for The Daily Telegraph , hailed Rachel as " one of six latte @-@ swilling young New Yorkers who helped Friends redefine the kind of relationships that could form the heart of a US sitcom " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , audiences wanted to see Rachel " figure out life , " allowing the character to become " a favorite of many Friends fans throughout all ten seasons " . Writing for TalkTalk , Dominic Wills echoed that Rachel " became the general favourite " , while " No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston " . Rachel would go on to become the show 's breakout character , and is often revered as one of the greatest characters in television history . Us Weekly magazine ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past 20 years , citing her as " one of TV 's most endearing personalities " , while Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar list . AOL TV ranked Rachel among television 's hundred " Greatest Women " at number 23 , with author Kim Potts penning , " Rachel became one of viewers ' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one @-@ note character ... into a more independent , caring pal " . CBS News placed Rachel and the cast of Friends at number 31 on its list of the " 50 greatest TV characters " . BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history . ChaCha collectively ranked Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 11th , 12th and 13th on the website 's list of the " Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time " . Writing for Entertainmentwise , Georgina Littlejohn believes that Rachel 's influence is evident in the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory , noting that both characters are " blonde , cute , funny , likeable girls @-@ next @-@ door " . Several baby name books and websites now commonly associate the name " Rachel " with
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Transportation as part of plans to construct the Snapper Creek Expressway along with the South Dade Expressway ( now known as the Don Shula Expressway ) and the West Dade Expressway ( now known as the Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike ) , with an expected completion date of early 1973 . Construction was halted in 1974 due to money issued from county bonds for expressway building running out , and the road was left partially completed ; however , $ 8 million in federal emergency funds was directed to completing the expressway in late 1977 . The Snapper Creek Expressway , designated SR 878 , finally opened in early 1980 , with the Southwest 72nd Avenue interchange opening a few weeks later .
No tolls were collected along SR 878 , in line with the road 's original plans , until MDX 's initial roll @-@ out of open road tolling from late 2009 to mid @-@ 2010 on its road network . Tolling along the Snapper Creek Expressway began on July 17 , 2010 . The move to toll the Snapper Creek Expressway angered local residents , but was tempered by MDX 's move to investigate toll rebates . Initially , tolls were $ 0 @.@ 25 for SunPass users , with a $ 0 @.@ 15 surcharge for motorists using the toll @-@ by @-@ plate system . The toll @-@ by @-@ plate rate increased by ten cents on July 1 , 2013 , to $ 0 @.@ 50 per toll gantry passed , while the SunPass rate was unaffected .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Miami @-@ Dade County . All exits are unnumbered .
= James Nesbitt =
William James Nesbitt , OBE ( born 15 January 1965 ) is an actor and presenter from Northern Ireland . Born in Ballymena , County Antrim , Nesbitt grew up in the nearby village of Broughshane , before moving to Coleraine , County Londonderry . He wanted to become a teacher like his father , so he began a degree in French at the University of Ulster . He dropped out after a year when he decided to become an actor , and transferred to the Central School of Speech and Drama in London . After graduating in 1987 , he spent seven years performing in plays that varied from the musical Up on the Roof ( 1987 , 1989 ) to the political drama Paddywack ( 1994 ) . He made his feature film debut playing talent agent Fintan O 'Donnell in Hear My Song ( 1991 ) .
Nesbitt got his breakthrough television role playing Adam Williams in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Cold Feet ( 1998 – 2003 ) , which won him a British Comedy Award , a Television and Radio Industries Club Award , and a National Television Award . His first significant film role came when he appeared as pig farmer " Pig " Finn in Waking Ned ( 1998 ) . With the rest of the starring cast , Nesbitt was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award . In Lucky Break ( 2001 ) , he made his debut as a film lead , playing prisoner Jimmy Hands . The next year , he played Ivan Cooper in the television film Bloody Sunday , about the 1972 shootings in Derry . A departure from his previous " cheeky chappie " roles , the film was a turning point in his career . He won a British Independent Film Award and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor .
Nesbitt has also starred in Murphy 's Law ( 2001 – 2007 ) as undercover detective Tommy Murphy , in a role that was created for him by writer Colin Bateman . The role twice gained Nesbitt Best Actor nominations at the Irish Film & Television Awards ( IFTA ) . In 2007 , he starred in the dual role of Tom Jackman and Mr Hyde in Steven Moffat 's Jekyll , which earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination in 2008 . Nesbitt has since appeared in several more dramatic roles ; he starred alongside Liam Neeson in Five Minutes of Heaven ( 2009 ) , and was one of three lead actors in the television miniseries Occupation ( 2009 ) . He also starred in the movies Outcast ( 2010 ) and The Way ( 2010 ) . He portrayed Bofur in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film adaptation of The Hobbit ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) .
Nesbitt is married to former actress Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , with whom he has two daughters . He is an advocate of numerous charities , and in 2010 he accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster .
= = Early life and education = =
James Nesbitt was born on 15 January 1965 in Ballymena , County Antrim , Northern Ireland . His father , James " Jim " Nesbitt , was the headmaster of the primary school in Lisnamurrican , a hamlet near Broughshane , while his mother , May Nesbitt , was a civil servant . Jim and May already had three daughters — Margaret , Kathryn and Andrea . The family lived in the house adjoining the one @-@ room school where Nesbitt was one of 32 pupils taught by Jim ; the other pupils were all farmers ' children . Nesbitt grew up " completely " around women , and spent a lot of time alone , " kicking a ball against a wall " . He had ambitions to play football for Manchester United , or to become a teacher like his father . The family was Protestant , and Lisnamurrican was in " Paisley country " . The Nesbitts spent Sunday evenings singing hymns around the piano . Jim marched in the Ballymena Young Conquerors flute band and Nesbitt joined him playing the flute . After the Drumcree conflicts , they stopped marching with the band . The family 's residence in the countryside left them largely unaffected by The Troubles , although Nesbitt , his father , and one of his sisters narrowly escaped a car bomb explosion outside Ballymena County Hall in the early 1970s .
When Nesbitt was 11 years old , the family moved to Coleraine , County Londonderry , where May worked for the Housing Executive . He completed his primary education at Blagh primary school , then moved on to Coleraine Academical Institution ( CAI ) . In 1978 , when he was 13 , his parents took him to audition for the Riverside Theatre 's Christmas production of Oliver ! . Nesbitt sang " Bohemian Rhapsody " at the audition and won the part of the Artful Dodger , who he played in his acting debut . He continued to act and sing with the Riverside until he was 16 , and appeared at festivals and as an extra in Play For Today : The Cry ( Christopher Menaul , 1984 ) . He got his Equity card when the professional actor playing Jiminy Cricket in Pinocchio broke his ankle two days before the performance , and Nesbitt stepped in to take his place . Acting had not initially appealed to him , but he " felt a light go on " after he saw The Winslow Boy ( Anthony Asquith , 1948 ) . When he was 15 , he got his first paid job as a bingo caller at Barry 's Amusements in Portrush . He was paid £ 1 per hour for the summer job and would also , on occasions , work as the brake man on the big dipper .
He left CAI at the age of 18 and began a degree in French at the University of Ulster , ( formally Ulster Polytechnic ) in Jordanstown . He stayed at university for a year before dropping out . In a 1999 interview , Nesbitt said , " I had the necessary in my head , but I just couldn 't be bothered . Being 18 is the worst age to expect people to learn things . There are other things to be bothered with , like girls and football . " He made the decision to quit when he was trying to write an overdue essay on existentialism in Les Mains Sales at 4 am one day . His father suggested that he should move to England if he wanted to continue acting , so Nesbitt enrolled at the Central School of Speech and Drama ( CSSD ) , part of University of London . Nesbitt felt lost and misrepresented when he first arrived in London , on account of his Northern Irish background ; " When I first came to drama school I was a Paddy the minute I walked in . And I remember going to drama school and them all saying to me , ' Aww , yeah , Brits out ' , and I was like ' It 's a wee bit more complicated than that , you know . ' " He graduated in 1987 , at the age of 22 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Theatre and Hear My Song = = =
The day after leaving CSSD in 1987 , Nesbitt got a bit part in Virtuoso , a BBC Two Screen Two television play about the life of John Ogdon . He worked for two days on the play , earning £
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Robyn and Kody 's baby and the Browns ' struggle to adjust to life in Las Vegas . The episodes following the Season 2 hiatus focus largely on Robyn 's pregnancy and the kids ' adjustment to their new lives . The abrupt move to Las Vegas brings about behavioral problems in some of the older kids , which is also discussed largely in the second half of Season 2 . During these episodes the Browns also explore possible businesses that the five of them ( Kody and the sister wives ) can run together . Several episodes after the hiatus discuss specific topics such as jealousy among the sister wives , especially regarding courting a new wife , how the parents combat the influence of Las Vegas on their children , and how the Browns are preparing the older children for college . Mona Riekki is back in this season and is working with the family on finding a permanent home in Vegas . In the finale , Robyn gives birth to baby Solomon on October 27 , 2011 and the possibility of Meri having more children once again resurfaces .
Although the ongoing investigation of the Browns is brought up during Season 2 , it is not extensively discussed , and the progress of the investigation is unknown .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Season 3 premiered on May 13 , 2012 after vague details surfaced about the show 's spring return on the Twitter account of sister wife Robyn Sullivan Brown . The twenty one episode season mainly dealt with the family 's inability to be a cohesive unit while living in four separate homes . Meri explains more about the infertility problems she has experienced , while Christine discloses more on her jealousy of Robyn . The season returned from hiatus on November 18 , 2012 , to the Brown family still discussing their options into moving their family onto one property , and invest in a cul @-@ de @-@ sac where they can build four homes . It is more evident this season that living in separate homes is tearing the family apart . Towards the end of the season , the family plans a three @-@ day trip to Nauvoo , Illinois , the birthplace of American polygamy . In the last episode on December 30 , 2012 , the family also deals with the upcoming departure to college of the eldest Brown child , Logan .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Season 4 premiered on July 21 , 2013 . It chronicles the family as they move into four adjacent houses within the same neighborhood . The wives are still working on starting their jewelry business . Meri comes to a decision following Robyn 's offer to be her surrogate .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Season 5 includes seven episodes , eight if you include the " Tell All " at the end , and eleven if you include the " Sitting Down with the Browns " , " Meri @-@ Behind the Scenes " , and the " Robyn , -Behind the Scenes " episodes . Season 5 begins with two daughters graduating high school , Mykelti and Madison . The grown ups plan to lip sync a song to celebrate , but it brings out some negative feelings for Janelle , who is not comfortable being so outgoing and admits to being embarrassed in public by the others ' behavior . And a deeper issue of feeling like she 's not heard bubbles to the surface and she sees a therapist to discuss that along with her challenging relationship with first wife Meri . On a business level , the family discusses whether to turn down investors ' money and keep full ownership of Sisterwives ' Closet and whether to keep the products all their own creations or branch out and resale other artists ' designs and products . Christine 's mother moves in with her in Las Vegas , and in episode four , the Browns allow two anthropologists to live with them for two days to see the inner workings of polygamy , an arrangement that could either put their lifestyle in a positive or negative light .
Finally , after five years of mental deliberation , Meri files for legal divorce from Kody so Kody can adopt Robyn 's three children from her previous marriage . By the end of the season , Meri and Kody maintained that they would continue their relationship .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sister Wives drew national media attention after its first season and garnered generally mixed reviews from critics . Washington Post staff writer Hank Stuever called it " refreshingly frank " and found most interesting the small details of the family 's everyday life , such as the food supply , division of labor , and minor arguments . Los Angeles Times television critic Mary McNamara said she was intrigued by the matriarchal nature of the polygamist family , a unit that is traditionally considered patriarchal . McNamara said the wives form the center of the family and that " their bonds appear far stronger and more vital than the casual fondness with which they all treat Kody " . Salon.com writer Schuyler Velasco praised Sister Wives for introducing viewers to unfamiliar subject matter and called it " refreshingly modest " considering its controversial subject matter . Velasco said it has " a natural , honest presence in a genre fabled for the camera @-@ hogging antics of Jersey Shore " . Shelley Fralic of The Vancouver Sun called it fascinating and surprising and was impressed with the sensible and articulate way in which the family defended their lifestyle . When the Brown family made an October 2010 appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show , talk show host Oprah Winfrey said she found particularly fascinating the relationship between the sister wives .
Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald criticized Kody Brown for opening himself and his family up to potential criminal prosecution by appearing in the series , describing him as " a lawbreaker who is risking himself and the family he claims is so precious just to star in his own TV show " . Elizabeth Tenety of The Washington Post called the series " one part domestic drudgery , another part sensationalism " and claimed it relied on a " familiar reality TV recipe " shared by other TLC series such as 19 Kids and Counting and Kate Plus 8 . Religion Dispatches writer Joanna Brooks shared Tenety 's perspective , criticizing the show for presenting polygamy in a manner that " is about as interesting to me as Kate Gosselin 's latest makeover . " In this vein Brooks criticized the show for not engaging the theology of plural marriage and for letting Kody Brown 's superficial comments about the dissimilarity of Fundamentalist and mainstream Mormonism pass onto the viewers without any critical scrutiny or added nuance . Shari Puterman , television columnist with the Asbury Park Press , felt the sister wives had issues with jealousy and self @-@ worth , and she compared Kody to a cult leader . Puterman added , " I can 't speak for everyone , but I believe in the sanctity of marriage . It 's sad to see that TLC 's capitalizing on people who don 't . " Former prosecutor and television personality Nancy Grace criticized the show and said she believed Kody Brown should go to jail , but she expressed doubt he would based on Utah 's history of overlooking polygamy . Christine Seifert , an associate professor of communications at Westminster College in Salt Lake City , said the show could give viewers who are unfamiliar with the LDS church the incorrect assumption that polygamy is accepted by the mainstream church . Several commentators have taken notice of the fact that the family 's religious convictions are downplayed in Sister Wives .
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen Media Research , the September 26 , 2010 , one @-@ hour premiere episode of Sister Wives drew 2 @.@ 26 million viewers , a strong rating for the network . It marked the biggest series debut for TLC since Cake Boss launched in 2009 and was a stronger rating than any of the season premieres for HBO 's Big Love . The remaining episodes of the first season were each a half @-@ hour long , with two broadcast together each Thursday . In the second week , the first episode drew 1 @.@ 88 million viewers , while the second drew 2 @.@ 13 million . The third week drew similar results , with 1 @.@ 89 million viewers watching the first episode and 2 @.@ 05 million watching the second . Sister Wives drew its strongest ratings during the fourth and final week of the first season , with 2 @.@ 67 million viewers for the first episode and 2 @.@ 74 million for the season finale . As a result of the 2 @.@ 7 million average viewership for the two episodes , TLC ranked first among all ad @-@ support cable channels in the 18 – 49 and 25 – 54 age groups . The series drew double- and triple @-@ digit ratings gains in all key demographics and ranked second in ad @-@ supported cable network shows during its time period .
= = Litigation = =
= You Only Live Twice ( film ) =
You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) is the fifth spy film in the James Bond series , and the fifth to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's screenplay was written by Roald Dahl , and loosely based on Ian Fleming 's 1964 novel of the same name . It is the first James Bond film to discard most of Fleming 's plot , using only a few characters and locations from the book as the background for an entirely new story .
In the film , Bond is dispatched to Japan after American and Soviet manned spacecraft disappear mysteriously in orbit . With each nation blaming the other amidst the Cold War , Bond travels secretly to a remote Japanese island in order to find the perpetrators and comes face to face with Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE . The film reveals the appearance of Blofeld , who was previously a partially unseen character . SPECTRE is extorting the government of an unnamed Asian power , implied to be the People 's Republic of China , in order to provoke war between the superpowers .
During the filming in Japan , it was announced that Sean Connery would retire from the role of Bond . But after a hiatus , he returned in 1971 's Diamonds Are Forever and later 1983 's non @-@ Eon Bond film Never Say Never Again . You Only Live Twice is the first Bond film to be directed by Lewis Gilbert , who later directed the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me and the 1979 film Moonraker , both starring Roger Moore .
You Only Live Twice was a great success , receiving positive reviews and grossing over $ 111 million in worldwide box office .
= = Plot = =
An American NASA spacecraft is hijacked from orbit by an unidentified spacecraft . The U.S. suspect it to be the work of the Soviets , but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Japan . To investigate , MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo after faking his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from the HMS Tenby ( F65 ) .
Upon his arrival , Bond is contacted by Aki , assistant to the Japanese secret service leader Tiger Tanaka while watching sumo . Aki introduces Bond to local MI6 operative Dikko Henderson . Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the rogue craft , but is killed before he can elaborate . Bond chases and kills the assailant , taking the assailant 's clothing as a disguise and escapes in the getaway car , which takes him to Osato Chemicals . Once there , Bond subdues the driver and breaks into the office safe of president Mr. Osato . After stealing documents , Bond is pursued by armed security , but is rescued by Aki , who flees to a secluded subway station . Bond chases her , but falls down a trap door leading to Tanaka 's office . The stolen documents are examined and found to include a photograph of the cargo ship Ning @-@ Po with a microdot message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution .
Bond goes to Osato Chemicals to meet Mr. Osato himself , masquerading as a potential new buyer . Osato humours Bond but , after their meeting , orders his secretary , Helga Brandt , to have him killed . Outside the building , assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again . Bond and Aki drive to Kobe , where the Ning @-@ Po is docked . They investigate the company 's dock facilities and discover that the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel . They are discovered , but Bond eludes the henchmen until Aki gets away ; however , Bond himself is captured and knocked out . He wakes , tied up in SPECTRE operative Helga Brandt 's cabin on the Ning @-@ Po . She interrogates Bond , but he thinks he has managed to bribe his way to freedom . Brandt then flies Bond to Tokyo but , en route , she sets off a flare in the plane and bails out . Bond manages to land the plane .
After finding out where the Ning @-@ Po unloaded , Bond flies over the area in a heavily armed autogyro created by Q. Near a volcano , Bond is attacked by helicopters , which he defeats , confirming his suspicions that the enemy 's base is nearby . A Soviet spacecraft is then captured in orbit by another unidentified craft , heightening tensions between Russia and the US . The mysterious spaceship lands in an extensive base hidden inside the volcano . It is revealed that the true mastermind behind this is Ernst Stavro Blofeld and SPECTRE . Blofeld seems to forgive Brandt for her failure to kill Bond , but as she leaves , he activates a mechanism that drops her into a pool of piranha . Blofeld instructs Osato to kill Bond .
Bond trains with Tanaka 's ninjas , during which an attempted assassination kills Aki instead . Bond is disguised as an Oriental in a fake marriage to Tanaka 's student , Kissy Suzuki . Acting on a lead from Suzuki , the pair reconnoiter a cave and the volcano above it . Establishing that the mouth of the volcano is a disguised hatch to the secret rocket base , Bond slips in , while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka . Bond locates and frees the captured astronauts and , with their help , steals a spacesuit in attempt to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft " Bird One " . However , Blofeld spots Bond , and he is detained while Bird One is launched .
Bird One closes in on the American space capsule , and US forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the USSR . Meanwhile , the Japanese ninjas approach the base 's entrance , but are detected and fired upon . Bond manages to open the hatch , letting in the ninjas . During the ensuing battle , Bond fights his way to the control room and activates Bird One 's self @-@ destruct before it reaches the American craft . The Americans stand down their forces .
Blofeld activates the base 's self @-@ destruct system and escapes . Bond , Kissy , Tanaka , and the surviving ninjas leave before the base explodes .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond : An MI6 agent .
Akiko Wakabayashi as Aki : An agent with the Japanese SIS who assists Bond .
Mie Hama as Kissy Suzuki : An Ama diving girl who replaces Aki after her death .
Donald Pleasence as Ernst Stavro Blofeld : The megalomaniacal head of the terrorist syndicate known as SPECTRE . He intends to ignite a global nuclear war .
Tetsurō Tamba as Tiger Tanaka : Head of Japanese secret service .
Teru Shimada as Mr. Osato : A Japanese industrialist secretly affiliated to SPECTRE .
Karin Dor as Helga Brandt / No. 11 : Osato 's secretary and a SPECTRE assassin .
Bernard Lee as M : The head of MI6 .
Charles Gray as Dikko Henderson : British contact living in Japan .
Burt Kwouk as Spectre 3 : one of Blofeld 's henchmen .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : Head of MI6 technical department .
Tsai Chin as Ling : Undercover MI6 agent in Hong Kong .
Ronald Rich as Hans : Blofeld 's personal bodyguard .
David Toguri as Assassin in Bedroom : one of Osato 's henchmen , who kills Aki .
Peter Maivia as Car Driver : one of Osato 's henchmen , who fights Bond .
= = Production = =
On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the intended next film , but the producers decided to adapt You Only Live Twice instead because OHMSS would require searching for high and snowy locations . Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct , but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying : " You can 't give up this job . It 's the largest audience in the world . " Peter R. Hunt , who edited the first five Bond films , believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him .
Gilbert , producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , production designer Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . SPECTRE ’ s shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea . The group was due to return to the UK on a BOAC Boeing 707 flight ( BOAC Flight 911 ) on 5 March 1966 , but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration . That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff , killing all on board . In Tokyo , the crew also found Hunt , who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined . Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for You Only Live Twice and accepted the job .
Unlike most James Bond films featuring various locations around the world , almost the entire film is set in one country and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding . This is in keeping with Fleming 's original novel , which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture . Toho Studios provided soundstages , personnel , and the female Japanese stars to the producers .
= = = Writing = = =
The producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay . Bloom 's work was ultimately rejected , but since several of his ideas were used in the final script , Bloom was given the credit of " Additional Story Material " . Among the elements were the opening with Bond 's fake death and burial at sea , and the ninja attack . As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films Richard Maibaum was unavailable , Roald Dahl , a close friend of Ian Fleming , was chosen to write the adaptation despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted The Bells of Hell Go Ting @-@ a @-@ ling @-@ a @-@ ling .
Dahl said that the original novel was " Ian Fleming ’ s worst book , with no plot in it which would even make a movie " , and compared it to a travelogue , stating that he had to create a new plot " [ though ] I could retain only four or five of the original story 's ideas . " On creating the plot , Dahl said he " didn 't know what the hell Bond was going to do " despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks , and decided to do a basic plot similar to Dr. No . Dahl was given a free rein on his script , except for the character of Bond and " the girl formula " , involving three women for Bond to seduce : an ally and a henchwoman who both get killed , and the main Bond girl . While the third involved a character from the book , Kissy Suzuki , Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest .
Gilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl 's work , as the writer declared : " He not only helped in script conferences , but had some good ideas and then left you alone , and when you produced the finished thing , he shot it . Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in , and it 's usually disastrous . What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it . That 's the way to direct : You either trust your writer or you don 't . "
= = = Casting = = =
When the time came to begin You Only Live Twice , the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star . Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment ( time spent filming and publicising each movie ) , together with finding it difficult to do other work , which would potentially lead to typecasting . Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film , but geared up to look for a replacement .
Jan Werich was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld . Upon his arrival at the Pinewood set , both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice , resembling a " poor , benevolent Santa Claus " . Nonetheless , in an attempt to make the casting work , Gilbert continued filming . After several days , both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that Werich was not menacing enough , and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role . Pleasence 's ideas for Blofeld 's appearance included a hump , a limp , a beard , and a lame hand , before he settled on the scar . He found it uncomfortable , though , because of the glue that attached it to his eye .
Many European models were tested for Helga Brandt including German actress Eva Renzi who passed on the film , with German actress Karin Dor being cast . Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga 's demise herself , without the use of a double . Strangely , for the German version Dor was dubbed by somebody else .
Gilbert had chosen Tetsurō Tamba after working with him in The 7th Dawn . A number of actual martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas . The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast , due to most of the actresses tested having limited English . Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK . Hama , initially cast in the role of Tanaka 's assistant , had difficulty with the language , so the producers switched her role with Wakabayashi , who had been cast as Kissy , a part with significantly less dialogue . Wakabayashi only requested that her character name , " Suki " , be changed to " Aki " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming of You Only Live Twice lasted from July 1966 to March 1967 . The film was shot primarily in Japan . Himeji Castle in Hyōgo was depicted as Tanaka 's ninja training camp . His private transportation hub was filmed at the Tokyo Metro 's Nakano @-@ shimbashi Station . As of 2011 , many of the fixtures in the station are unchanged from the
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, different from the wishes of the nation . "
The monarch could force the dissolution of Parliament through a refusal of royal assent ; this would inevitably lead to a government resigning . By convention , the monarch always assents to bills ; the last time the royal assent was not given was in 1704 during the reign of Queen Anne . This does not mean that the right to refuse has died : George V believed he could veto the Third Irish Home Rule Bill ; Jennings writes that " it was assumed by the King throughout that he had not only the legal power but the constitutional right to refuse assent " . The royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament was abrogated by the Fixed @-@ term Parliaments Act 2011 . Section 6 ( 1 ) of the Act however specifically states that the monarch 's power to prorogue Parliament is not affected by the Act .
The appointment of the prime minister is also , theoretically , governed by the royal prerogative . Technically the monarch may appoint as prime minister anyone she wants to appoint , but in practice the appointee is always the person who commands a majority in the House of Commons . Usually , this is the leader of the political party that is returned to Parliament with a majority of seats after a general election . Difficulties may result with a so @-@ called hung parliament , in which no party commands majority support , as last occurred in 2010 . In this situation , constitutional convention is that the previous incumbent has the first right to form a coalition government and seek appointment . If the prime minister decides to retire in the middle of a parliamentary session , as Anthony Eden did in 1957 , the monarch has no discretion . There is usually a " prime minister @-@ in @-@ waiting " who commands the support of the majority of the Commons ; he or she will near @-@ automatically be appointed .
= = = Judicial system = = =
The most noted prerogative power that affects the judicial system is the prerogative of mercy , which has two elements : the granting of pardons and the granting of nolle prosequi . Pardons may eliminate the " pains , penalties and punishments " from a criminal conviction , though they do not remove convictions themselves . This power is commonly exercised on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Home Department ; the monarch has no direct involvement in its use . Exercises of this power may also take the form of commutations , a limited form of pardon where the sentences is reduced , on certain conditions . The granting of a pardon is not subject to judicial review , as confirmed by Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , but the courts have chosen to criticise its application or lack thereof , as in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley . Granting nolle prosequi is done by the Attorney General of England and Wales ( or the equivalent in Scotland or Northern Ireland ) in the name of the crown , to stop legal proceedings against an individual . This is not reviewable by the courts , as confirmed by R v Comptroller of Patents , and does not count as an acquittal ; the defendant may be brought before the courts on the same charge at a later date .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
The royal prerogative is in much use in the realm of foreign affairs . It is the monarch who recognises foreign states ( although several statutes regulate the immunities enjoyed by their heads and diplomatic representatives ) , issues declarations of war and peace , and forms international treaties . The monarch also has the power to annex territory , as was done in 1955 with the island of Rockall . Once territory has been annexed , the monarch has complete discretion as to the extent to which the government will take over the former government 's liabilities ; this was confirmed in West Rand Central Gold Mining Company v The King . The monarch also has the power to alter British territorial waters and cede territory . Her freedom to do these things in practice is doubtful , in that they might deprive British citizens of their nationality and rights . When the island of Heligoland was ceded to Germany in 1890 , Parliamentary approval was first sought . The monarch can also regulate colonies and dependent territories by exercising the prerogative through Orders in Council . The courts have long fought against the monarch 's use of this power : in R ( Bancoult ) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs ( No 2 ) , the Court of Appeal ruled that using Orders @-@ in @-@ Council to frustrate judicial rulings was an unlawful abuse of power , although this ruling was later overturned .
British passports are also issued under the prerogative , though these are also covered by statute law . Under the common law , citizens have the right freely to leave and enter the United Kingdom . In R v Foreign Secretary ex parte Everett , the courts held that it was their right to review the granting of passports to , and the withholding of passports from , British citizens . The writ of ne exeat regno is also used to prevent a person leaving the country . The right to make treaties is a disputed prerogative power : under Blackstone 's definition , a prerogative power must be one unique to the monarch .
= = = Other prerogative powers = = =
The monarch also has power to exercise her prerogative over the granting of honours , the regulation of the armed forces and ecclesiastical appointments . Although the granting of most honours is normally decided by the executive , the monarch is still the person who technically awards them . Exceptions to this rule are membership of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Order of Merit , the Royal Victorian Order and the Royal Victorian Chain , which the monarch has complete discretion to grant . In relation to the armed forces , the monarch is the Commander in Chief , and members are regulated under the royal prerogative . Most statutes do not apply to the armed forces , although some areas , such as military discipline , are governed by Acts of Parliament . Under the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 , the monarch is the sole authority for the armed forces , and as such their organisation , disposition and control cannot be questioned by the courts . This exercise of prerogative power gives the Crown authority to recruit members of the armed forces , appoint commissioned officers , and establish agreements with foreign governments to station troops in their territory . The prerogative empowers the monarch to appoint bishops and archbishops in the Church of England , and to regulate the printing and licensing of the authorised Church of England version of the Bible .
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Northumbria Police Authority , recognised that the prerogative also includes the power to " take all reasonable steps to preserve the Queen 's peace " , and in Burmah Oil Co. v Lord Advocate , the House of Lords took the view that it extended to " doing all those things in an emergency which are necessary for the conduct of [ the Second World War ] . "
= = Use = =
Today , the monarch exercises the prerogative almost exclusively in line with the advice of her government . Leyland notes that :
The present Queen ... is kept very closely in touch with the exercise of governmental power by means of a weekly audience with the prime minister during which she is fully briefed about the affairs of government ... [ But it ] should be emphasised that the prime minister is not under any obligation to take account of royal opinions .
In simple terms , the prerogative is used to govern the realm in the name of the Crown ; although the monarch has the " right to be consulted , the right to encourage , and the right to warn " , her role involves no exercise of discretion .
Today , some prerogative powers are directly exercised by ministers without the approval of Parliament , including the powers of declaring war and of making peace , the issue of passports , and the granting of honours . Prerogative powers are exercised nominally by the monarch , but on the advice of the prime minister ( whom the monarch meets weekly ) and of the cabinet . Some key functions of the British government are still executed by virtue of the royal prerogative , but generally the usage of the prerogative has been diminishing as functions are progressively put on a statutory basis .
= = = Limitations = = =
Several influential decisions of the House of Lords have determined the limited scope for the use of prerogative powers . In 1915 , an appeal was made to the House of Lords , Re Petition of Right ( ' Shoreham Aerodrome Case ' ) , but during the appeal the case was settled and the appeal withdrawn when the Crown agreed to pay compensation . The appeal was from a unanimous decision of the Court of Appeal that the Crown , both under the statutory Defence of the Realm Regulations and by the royal prerogative , was entitled to take and occupy , for military purposes in wartime , a commercial airfield on the south coast . The government argued that this action was to defend against an invasion ; the courts held that for the prerogative to be exercised , the government must demonstrate that a threat of invasion exists . This was backed up by The Zamora ( 1916 ) , where the Privy Council , on appeal from the Prize Court , held generally that to exercise a power not granted by statute ( such as a prerogative power ) the government must prove to the court that the exercise is justified . The next decision came in Attorney General v De Keyser 's Royal Hotel Ltd ( 1920 ) , where the House of Lords confirmed that a statutory provision in an area where prerogative powers are in use " abridges the Royal Prerogative while it is in force to this extent – that the Crown can only do the particular thing under and in accordance with the statutory provisions , and that its prerogative power to do that thing is in abeyance " .
This principle of statutory superiority was extended in Laker Airway Ltd v Department of Trade , concerning the revocation of a commercial airline operator 's licence ( December 1976 ) , where it was confirmed that prerogative powers could not be used to contradict a statutory provision , and that in situations to which the power and the statute both applied , the power could only be used to further the aim of the statute . Another extension came with R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Fire Brigades Union , where the Court of Appeal held that even if a statute had not yet come into force , the prerogative could not be used to alter this statute to " conflict with Parliament 's wishes " .
= = = Judicial review = = =
Before the modern judicial review procedure superseded the petition of right as the remedy for challenging the validity of a prerogative power , the courts were traditionally only willing to state whether or not powers existed , not whether they had been used appropriately . They therefore applied only the first of the Wednesbury tests : whether the use was illegal . Constitutional scholars such as William Blackstone consider this appropriate :
In the exertion therefore of those prerogatives , which the law has given him , the King is irresistible and absolute , according to the forms of the constitution . And yet if the consequence of that exertion be manifestly to the grievance or dishonour of the kingdom , the Parliament will call his advisers to a just and severe account .
During the 1960s and 70s this attitude was changing , with Lord Denning saying in the Laker Airway case that " seeing that the prerogative is a discretionary power to be exercised for the public good , it follows that its exercise can be examined by the courts just as any other discretionary power which is vested in the executive . " The most authoritative case on the matter is Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , generally known as the GCHQ case . The House of Lords confirmed that the application of judicial review would be dependent on the nature of the government 's powers , not their source . Foreign policy and national security powers are considered outside the scope of judicial review , while the prerogative of mercy is considered within it , as per R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley .
= = Reform = =
Abolition of the royal prerogative is not on the immediate horizon , and recent movements to abolish the role of the monarchy and its royal prerogative in government have been unsuccessful . The Ministry of Justice undertook a " review of executive Royal Prerogative powers " in October 2009 . Former Labour MP and cabinet minister Tony Benn campaigned unsuccessfully for the abolition of the royal prerogative in the United Kingdom in the 1990s , arguing that all governmental powers in effect exercised on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet should be subject to parliamentary scrutiny and require parliamentary approval . Later governments argued that such is the breadth of topics covered by the royal prerogative that requiring parliamentary approval in each instance where the prerogative is currently used would overwhelm parliamentary time and slow the enactment of legislation .
= Mount Jackson ( Antarctica ) =
Mount Jackson ( Mount Andrew Jackson and Mount Ernest Gruening ) is a mountain that dominates the upland of the southern part of the Antarctic Peninsula . It is located in Palmer Land , within the Antarctic claims of Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . With an elevation of 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) , Mount Jackson is the highest mountain in the Antarctic Peninsula and the British Antarctic Territory . Discovered by members of the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 – 41 , it was named for Andrew Jackson , the seventh President of the United States . The first ascent of Mount Jackson was made by a team led by John Crabbe Cunningham of the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) in 1964 . Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists .
Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends .
= = History = =
The first topographic mapping of Mount Jackson was carried out in November 1940 by a sledge party of the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) . The ground survey was facilitated by aerial photographs and aerial observations . The height was estimated at 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) , and the mountain was named Mount Ernest Gruening after the Governor of the Alaska Territory at that time , Ernest Gruening . USAS later renamed it Mount Jackson for the seventh President of the United States . President Jackson signed the bill into law authorizing the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 – 42 . The expedition , led by Lt. Charles Wilkes , included exploration and surveying of the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands , including Antarctica .
In November 1947 , a Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) ground party based at Stonington Island observed Mount Jackson and estimated its height at 3 @,@ 050 metres ( 10 @,@ 010 ft ) , considerably lower and more accurate than the first estimate in 1940 .
After the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey was renamed British Antarctic Survey in 1962 , a series of depots were developed , including one at Mount Jackson . BAS members were successful in making many first ascents of the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula , and John Cunningham , who served at the BAS base at Adelaide Island , was the first to climb Mount Jackson . Traveling by dog sled for 640 kilometres ( 400 mi ) , his team reached the summit on 23 November 1964 .
A precise height of the summit was determined by a BAS survey party who ascended the peak during the austral summer of 1996 – 97 .
= = Geography = =
The mountain is 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) in height , with a prominence of 2 @,@ 187 metres ( 7 @,@ 175 ft ) and a saddle DEM of 997 metres ( 3 @,@ 271 ft ) . Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land , with elevation ranging between 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , and on the west side of the central Black Coast . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . The northern part of the mountain system , which extends over 1 @,@ 590 kilometres ( 990 mi ) , covers most of the Antarctic Peninsula , and Mount Jackson is its highest peak .
Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends . Mount Jackson and the Rowley Massif are separated by Odom Inlet . Cline Glacier drains eastern Mount Jackson before arriving at Odom Inlet .
Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists . They identified various rock types and underlying volcanic activity . The relief of the west facing slopes is gentler when compared to the eastern side , characterized by a steep rocky face . Rock weathering is intense in the area spread with scree and felsenmeer . Fresh rock formations and bedrock disintegration are noted .
= Italian cruiser Aretusa =
Aretusa was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Laid down in June 1889 at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard , she was launched in March 1891 and was commissioned in September 1892 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Aretusa spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , she was assigned to the Red Sea Squadron in Italian Eritrea . She bombarded Ottoman positions in the Arabian Peninsula and took part in a blockade of the coast . Worn out by the end of the war in October 1912 , Aretusa was sold for scrap that December and broken up .
= = Design = =
Aretusa was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Aretusa 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 .
Aretusa was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her five 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Aretusa was laid down at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ( Orlando Brothers ' Shipyard ) in Livorno on 1 June 1889 , and was launched
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in the late 10th century . However , it again fell into ruin after the Crusaders were driven out by the Ayyubids . In modern times , the ruins of St. George 's Church have become a tourist attraction . During the period of Ottoman control in Palestine the tower of an ancient Roman structure in Jifna became the location of a jail house .
Jifna has local traditions and legends relating to the Holy Family , and to the village water @-@ spring . It is also locally known for its apricot harvest festival ; each year , during the late Spring period , hundreds travel to the village to harvest the fruit during its brief season .
= = History = =
= = = Biblical era and Roman / Byzantine rule = = =
It was suggested by Edward Robinson that Jifna was Ophni of Benjamin , mentioned in the Book of Joshua as one of the " twelve cities . " Nothing thereafter is recorded in its history until the time of the Roman conquest during the 1st century BCE , when it appears in various records as " Gophna " . Gophna was described by Flavius Josephus as the second city of Judea , after Jerusalem , in his account of the First Jewish @-@ Roman Wars during the 1st century CE . The town is depicted as Gophna in the Map of Madaba , situated north of Gibeon ( al @-@ Jib ) , and is also mentioned in the Talmud as Ben Gufnin , a " city of priests " . The latter portion of its Talmudic name derives from the Hebrew root word gefen , meaning " vine " .
Known by the Romans as Cofna , Jifna was a regional capital in the Iudaea Province under the Roman Empire . Around 50 BCE the Roman general Cassius sold the population into slavery , for failure to pay taxes . They were freed , however , by Mark Antony shortly after he came to power . Jifna was within the area under Hananiah 's command in 66 CE , during the First Jewish @-@ Roman War , and was the headquarters of one of the twelve toparchies ( minor realms ) of Judea . The Roman emperor Vespasian occupied the town in 68 CE , established an army garrison there , and concentrated within the city Jewish priests and other local notables who had surrendered to him . Titus , the future Roman emperor , passed through Gophna during his march to besiege Jerusalem in 70 CE .
The building of a church dedicated to Saint George during the 6th century CE indicates that by this time Jifna , now under Byzantine rule , had become a Christian town . Besides the church , other remains from this era are located in Jifna , including a Jewish tomb , a tower ( Burj Jifna ) once used by the Ottomans as a prison , a Roman villa , an olive oil press and a winery .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Jifna , along with most of Palestine , was annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate under Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab after the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634 . The town became less politically significant under the Arab dynasties of the Umayyads , Abbasids and Fatimids , but remained a major regional center for trade and commerce , due to its location along the Jerusalem – Nazareth road . It was known by the Arabs as Gafeniyyah .
Sources are vague , but it is likely that St. George 's Church fell into disrepair during the early decades of Islamic rule , and that unfavorable circumstances for the Christian population prevented them from rebuilding it . However , it was partially rebuilt with old materials by the Crusaders , who conquered the area in 1099 . The Crusaders built a large courtyard building in Jifna . It had a monumental gate with a portcullis , with a large vaulted hall and thick walls of fine masonry . After their defeat to the Ayyubids under Saladin in 1187 , the church again fell into ruin . A document dated 1182 with the signature of one Raymundus de Jafenia , might indicate a Christian presence at this time . According to the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson , there are remains of massive walls in the center of the village , now filled by houses . They were relics of a castle built by the Crusaders . However , the masonry has no characteristics of the Crusader period ; rather , the remains display the Arab architectural style of the post @-@ Crusader period , most likely of the 18th century , judging by the dressing of the stones .
= = = Ottoman era = = =
After the Crusaders were succeeded by the Ayyubids and then the Mamluks , the Ottoman Empire conquered Palestine in 1517 , and Jifna came under their control for the following 400 years . In 1596 it appeared in the tax registers under the name of " Jifna an @-@ Nasara " , being in the nahiya ( subdistrict ) of Jerusalem of the Jerusalem Sanjak , with a population of 21 households . The villagers paid a fixed tax @-@ rate of 33 @.@ 3 % on agricultural products , including wheat , barley , olive trees , vineyards , fruit trees , goats and beehives , in addition to occasional revenues ; a total of 6 @,@ 470 akçe . It was under the administration of the Bani Zeid subdistrict , part of the larger Jerusalem District , throughout Ottoman rule , being the only all @-@ Christian village in the district . During this period , the main commodity of Jifna was olive oil . Ottoman activity in the village was minimal , but they used the remains of Jifna 's castle , known as " Burj Jifna " , as a jail house sometime during the 19th century . In the early 1830s , Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt conquered most of the Levant , including Palestine . In 1834 there was a revolt against the Egyptian authorities in the Jifna area ; 26 residents of Jifna were subsequently exiled to Egypt for their alleged participation in the uprising . They were joined , voluntarily , by two prominent local priests .
An Eastern Orthodox Church was built in the village in 1858 , and a larger Latin ( Roman Catholic ) church dedicated to St. Joseph was built in 1859 , adjacent to the ruins of St. George 's Church . In the courtyard of St. George 's Church is a sarcophagus . St. George 's Church has continued to serve as a place of worship into the modern era and has been the site of archaeological excavation since the mid @-@ 19th century . Mass is still held at its altar on certain occasions . In 1882 the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Survey of Western Palestine described Jifna as an Important Christian village , with a Latin Church and a convent . Also in the 1880s , Jifna was frequently taxed by Ottoman authorities . It also came into consistent armed conflict with another Christian village , Bir Zeit , which in one incident , resulted in the deaths of five men from that village . In retaliation , residents of Bir Zeit uprooted and burned 125 of Jifna 's olive groves .
= = = Modern times = = =
In 1917 , during World War I , the Ottomans were defeated by British and Arab forces . After a brief period of military rule , Jifna and its region came under the control of the League of Nations British Mandate , in 1922 . In 1947 the United Nations proposed the partitioning of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states , with Jifna being a part of the projected Arab state . However , after the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War the whole West Bank region , including Jifna , was annexed by Transjordan to form the Kingdom of Jordan , and the Arab state was stillborn . In 1967 Israel occupied the West Bank , after their victory in the Six @-@ Day War .
After the 1995 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip between the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) and Israel , Jifna was placed in " Area B " . Thus , its administrative and civil affairs were transferred to the PNA , while security matters remained in Israeli control . Throughout the ongoing Second Intifada , which began in 2000 , Jifna has not experienced violence to the same extent as other parts of the West Bank , such as in nearby Ramallah , but its residents face travel restrictions and economic hardship .
On 31 July 2015 a 15 @-@ year @-@ old resident was shot dead by an IDF sniper after allegedly throwing a firebomb at an army outpost .
= = Geography and climate = =
Jifna is located on the slope of a hill , standing at an elevation of about 661 meters ( 2 @,@ 169 ft ) above sea level . It is situated at the intersection of two ancient trade routes , the mountainous north @-@ south route and the east @-@ west route connecting the Jordan Valley with the Mediterranean seacoast . In 1945 its land area consisted of 5 @,@ 939 dunams , 52 dunams of which were classified as built @-@ up area in 1945 . Today Jifna has a total jurisdiction over 6 @,@ 015 dunams , 420 of which are designated as built @-@ up and roughly 2 @,@ 000 planted with olive , apricot and other fruit trees .
The village is located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northwest of Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh and about 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem . The Palestinian refugee camp of Jalazone was built on Jifna 's southern lands and is connected to the village by road . The villages of Dura al @-@ Qar ' and Ein Siniya are located adjacent to Jifna to the east and northeast respectively . Other nearby localities include Abu Qash to the southwest , Beitin to the southeast , Ein Yabrud to the east , ' Atara to the north and Bir Zeit to the northwest . Jifna is connected to the main Ramallah @-@ Nablus highway by a road at the eastern side of the village .
Jifna experiences a temperate Mediterranean climate . Based on data for nearby Ramallah , average monthly high temperatures range from 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) in January to 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) in July / August , the corresponding lows being 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and 63 ° F ( 17 ° C ) . Rain is usually restricted to the winter season , from around November until the end of April . The months that receive the most precipitation are January and December and the annual rainfall is 23 @.@ 2 inches ( 590 mm ) .
= = Demographics = =
According to Edward Robinson , Jifna 's population in 1838 consisted of about 200 people , of whom only 42 were adult males . In a 1945 land and population survey carried out by Sami Hadawi , Jifna had 910 inhabitants . The modern inhabitants of Jifna belong mainly to eight families , four of whom are originally from the village , while the other five have , at various times , migrated from other countries such as Syria .
In 1994 , Jifna experienced a wave of emigration , with about half of its population leaving the town to pursue better livelihoods elsewhere . The first census carried by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) shows that Jifna had a population of 961 , of whom 623 ( 64 @.@ 8 % ) were classified as refugees in 1997 . The gender distribution was 465 males ( 48 @.@ 4 % ) and 494 females ( 51 @.@ 6 % ) . The age distribution was : Under 15 , 330 ( 34 % ) ; 15 – 29 , 275 ( 29 % ) ; 30 – 65 , 304 ( 32 % ) ; Over 65 , 50 ( 5 % ) .
The population of Jifna continues to grow . According to the PCBS , Jifna 's mid @-@ year population estimate for 2006 was 1 @,@ 358 . An informal estimate from Autumn 2006 gives the population as 1 @,@ 500 , " 25 % of whom have had to move to Jerusalem or Ramallah to find jobs " . The 2007 census by the PCBS listed Jifna 's population as 1 @,@ 716 , of which 856 were males and 860 females .
= = = Religion = = =
The remains of the Byzantine @-@ era church in Jifna testifies to the existence of a Christian community prior to the Muslim conquest . It continued to exist during the Middle Ages and the village is still inhabited mainly by Christians . The names of Christian inhabitants from Jifna appeared in a 10th @-@ century inscription on a stone above the gate of St. George 's Monastery in the Wadi Qelt .
Ottoman tax records from the late 16th century reveal that Jifna had a Christian population at the time also . An informal survey in 1927 found 550 inhabitants , of whom 325 were Catholics and the remainder reportedly " Christians of other denominations " . Palestinian Christians make up about 80 % of the residents , while the remaining 20 % are Muslims , mostly refugees .
It is certain that most of the Christian residents of Jifna in the 12th century were local inhabitants . Apart from local Christians there was also a Frankish settlement , as is attested by the ruins of a maison forte ( manor ) built in the lower part of the village . In Jifna , like in many other sites in Palestine , the Crusaders built their settlement in the heart of the local Christian settlement .
= = Economy = =
Although most of Jifna 's cultivable land is covered with olive groves as well as fig , walnut and apricot trees and grape vines , agriculture is no longer the village 's main source of income . Many of the village 's former farmers are living off other businesses , including restaurants , other small family @-@ owned industries , and simple commerce .
Unlike some other West Bank localities , unemployment is a minor issue in Jifna . However , the average income is low because of the unstable political situation in the Palestinian territories , Israeli checkpoints , the West Bank barrier and the 2006 freezing by Israel of funds to the Palestinian territories — although the latter no longer applies to the West Bank .
According to the PCBS , 98 @.@ 5 % of Jifna 's 201 households are connected to electricity through a public network . The same percentage is connected to a sewage system , mostly through a cesspit . Pipe water is provided for 98 % of the households primarily through a public network ( 97 @.@ 5 % ) , but some residents receive water through a private system ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) . The village is home to the Jifna Women 's Charitable Society which offers health services and recreational activities for women and children .
= = = Small businesses = = =
There are three restaurants in Jifna : Al @-@ Burj Restaurant , Red Valley Restaurant and Garden , and Tabash Restaurant , as well as a hotel : al @-@ Murouj Pension . In 2003 , the Odeh family of Jifna opened a leisure complex — called the Dream Day Resort — in the village . The complex , containing a half @-@ Olympic @-@ size swimming pool , a children 's pool and a jacuzzi is frequented by residents in Jifna and the surrounding area .
Al @-@ Burj Restaurant — also known as " Burj Jifna " — specializes in Palestinian cuisine and contains a café and a Palestinian culture hall . Situated in the center of the village , the restaurant is the site of Jifna 's old city . With international funding , the local youth club restored the area , adding bright accents to the stone masonry . The restaurant has become a center of tourism and the complex provides tours for its rooms , olive oil presses and ancient ramparts . Tabash Restaurant was founded in 1962 by a Palestinian refugee family from Jaffa . Initially known as al @-@ Wadi Bar , it received its current name in 1972 . The owners and the employees of the restaurant are from the Tabash family .
= = Culture = =
= = = Traditions = = =
There are a number of local traditions in Jifna . A prominent legend among Jifna 's inhabitants is that the Holy Family rested near an oak tree in the town on their way from Jerusalem . The legend 's origins are due to Jifna 's location along the ancient Jerusalem @-@ Nazareth road .
A nearby mountain was named Jabal ad @-@ Dik ( " Mount of the Rooster " ) because of a traditional story . According to the tradition , a Jew that lived in Jifna had visited Jerusalem during the Passion . Seeing Jesus rise from the dead , the man immediately converted and told his wife what he saw . His wife refused to believe him unless the rooster she had just killed would come back to life . Instantly , the rooster flew away towards the mountain . The story was recited in some monasteries on Holy Thursday together with other biblical readings .
A legend exists about Jifna 's spring — which the village has used for centuries — concerning how it periodically runs low on water . Popular belief is that this is the work of the djinniye ( female spirit ) . According to Palestinian researcher Tawfiq Canaan , " In Jifna the priest has to go on such an occasions to the dry spring to repeat prayers and burn incense , and thus reconcile the djinniye or force her to let the water flow " .
Like many Palestinian villages , the women of Jifna have their own traditional dress . Costumes in the village , known as rumi abyad ( " Greek White " ) and rumi aswad ( " Greek Black " ) , were dresses of hand @-@ woven linen embroidered with the Jifna 's own motifs . Preparing burbara , a sweet pudding @-@ like dish made from whole grain wheat , on the Feast of Saint Barbara has been a tradition in Jifna for several centuries .
= = = Festivals = = =
In April – May 2005 Jifna hosted the first annual International Artists ' Workshop in Palestine . The festival , known as the " Jifna Spring " was the first held in a rural village instead of a major city such as Hebron or Ramallah . During the festival , dozens of artists from all over the world collaborated on several projects , including stone sculptures , metalwork , photography , mural paintings and installation pieces . Many of the works were influenced by the " specificity and qualities " of Jifna , while others dealt with the subject of Palestinian identity .
Jifna , locally famous for its apricot harvest , hosts an annual two @-@ day apricot festival in the first week of May . Hundreds of West Bankers flock to participate in the harvest . The festival is also used by Palestinian politicians as an opportunity to give speeches praising Palestinian farmers and encouraging boycotts on Israeli products and reliance on domestic agriculture .
= = Government = =
Jifna is governed by a village council consisting of ten members including the chairman . The council was founded in 1954 , when a prominent resident , Nasri Ilias Samara , pressured the Jordanian authorities to recognize the institution , even though a village was normally required to have a population of at least 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants for permission to establish a village council . The decision was approved by Jordan 's then prime minister . Representatives from Jifna 's largest families formed the original council 's body , appointing Smara as chairman and Salim Issa Musleh as vice chairman . Jabi Na 'im Kamil was elected as the chairman in 2005 and the Badil ( Alternative ) list — which represents a leftist alliance of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Palestinian People 's Party — won most of the council seats .
= = Education = =
Jifna contains one gender @-@ mixed primary school and kindergarten , founded by the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1856 and managed by Jifna 's Catholic church . The school 's staff comprises eight teachers and two nuns , as well as four teachers for the kindergarten . Students who have graduated from the school commute to Ramallah or Bir Zeit daily for their secondary and tertiary education . Most university students attend the nearby Bir Zeit University .
= Ha ' K 'in Xook =
Ha ' K 'in Xook ( Mayan pronunciation : [ haʔ k ’ in ʃoːk ] ) , also known as Ruler 6 , was an ajaw of Piedras Negras , an ancient Maya settlement in Guatemala . He ruled during the Late Classic Period , from 767 – 780 AD . Ha ' K 'in Xook was a son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother , Yo 'nal Ahk III . Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign seems to have ended either with his death or his abdication in favor of his brother K 'inich Yat Ahk II ; archaeologists and Mayanists have not come to a clear consensus on this . Ha ' K 'in Xook left behind several monuments , including stelae at Piedras Negras and a stone fragment from El Porvenir . In addition , a stone seat known as Throne 1 which was erected by K 'inich Yat Ahk II , records either the death or abdication of Ha ' K 'in Xook .
= = Biography = =
= = = Reign of Piedras Negras = = =
Ha ' K 'in Xook , who has also been referred to as Ruler 6 , was likely the son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II , based on a translation of Stela 23 . According to both Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube , as well as Johnson , Ha ' K 'in Xook 's name translates to " Water Sun Shark " . Of note , his name does not feature a turtle glyph , a feature found in all the previous rulers of Piedras Negras , as well as his successor . He ascended the throne on February 14 , 767 AD ( 9 @.@ 16 @.@ 16 @.@ 0 @.@ 4 , 7 K 'an 17 Pop in the Long Count ) , following the death of his brother Yo 'nal Ahk III . Ha ' K 'in Xook 's kingship of Piedras Negras had originally been overlooked by Tatiana Proskouriakoff , who instead assigned the title Ruler 6 to a misidentified sajal — or Maya leader — of La Mar.
Not much is known about the rule of Ha ' K 'in Xook ; his reign , along with that of Yo 'nal Ahk III , has been referred to as " shadowy " by Flora Clancy , and James L. Fitzsimmons argues that Ha ' K 'in Xook seems to have been a weaker ruler when compared to the reign of Itzam K 'an Ahk II because Ha ' K 'in Xook erected few monuments , and he did not reinforce his power on a larger scale , choosing only to do so at local polities . The only notable recorded event that has been preserved during the life of Ha ' K 'in Xook is of an incident that took place at El Cayo , most likely related to the burial of a contemporary sajal . According to Zachary Nathan Nelson , the reign of Ha ' K 'in Xook seems to have been relatively free from war , as none of his extant stelae show representation of captives , and known records do not indicate any sort of " bellicose action " in the region during his reign .
= = = Death or abdication = = =
Ha ' K 'in Xook yielded the throne on March 24 , 780 AD ( 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 9 @.@ 5 @.@ 11 10 Chuwen 19 Sip ) . The reason why his reign came to an end has been a topic of debate . Some believe that his reign ended with his abdication . Throne 1 , when translated , notes that he " abandoned / transferred rulership " , which American Mayanist Stephen D. Houston interprets to mean that he abdicated in favor of his brother , K 'inich Yat Ahk II . Mayanist David Stuart also noted that the wording on the throne " implies a more active event on the ruler 's part " , but that " ' lose ' might be more neutral as far as an interpretation goes . "
However , the exact phrase on the monument is yaktaaj ajawlel , which is the same wording that was used when the " burden " of leadership passed from K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , the k 'ul ahaw of Quiriguá , to his successor Sky Xul during his burial ten days after his demise in 785 AD . As such , this may suggest that , rather than abdicating , Ha ' K 'in Xook died in 780 AD , and his successor , K 'inich Yat Ahk II , took up rule later . The deciphered glyphs on Throne 1 note that K 'inich Yat Ahk II later " remembered " Ha ' K 'in Xook at the Paw Stone Place in some way , and that the new king may have possibly wept at the memory of Ha ' K 'in Xook , according to anthropologist Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos .
Regardless , K 'inich Yat Ahk II took up the throne on May 31 , 781 AD ( 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 10 @.@ 9 @.@ 4 1 K 'an 7 Yaxk 'in ) , almost a year following the end of Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign . Despite this lengthy gap , there appears to be no evidence of anyone ruling Piedras Negras between the two kings .
= = Monuments = =
= = = Stelae = = =
Several stelae have been found that were erected by Ha ' K 'in Xook , including Stelae 13 , 18 , and 23 . Stela 13 would appear to be the earliest , showing the oldest dedicatory date assigned to Ha 'K'in Xook , and it " captures the essence of the period @-@ ending celebration . " This 2 @.@ 39 @-@ metre ( 7 @.@ 8 ft ) tall stela retains stylistic elements of other niche stelae , but also shows a different form . It depicts the king scattering incense , similar to iconography found on Piedras Negras Stelae 2 and 32 . Clancy has argued that the stela contains iconography pertaining to three motifs : divination , " the quest " , and accession . Divination is shown via the act of Ha ' K 'in Xook scattering the incense . This motif had been introduced earlier in the iconography of Piedras Negras by K 'inich Yo 'nal Ahk II . The stela also features Ha ' K 'in Xook wearing a unique headdress ; it is depicted as being composed of three knots and forehead scrolls , a projecting Water Lily Jaguar , and a flexible rectangular emblem made from a jaguar pelt and a thick net . It has been postulated that this headdress was inspired by the headdress worn by an enthroned figure from the underworld featured on Stela 5 . Clancy argues that this headdress is a representation of " the royal theme of quest " , due to its iconographic similarity to other stelae at Piedras Negras . In addition , Stela 13 remains Ha ' K 'in Xook 's only extant image .
Not much remains of Stela 18 , and what is left is badly worn . However , archaeologist Sylvanus Morley claimed that it expressed a Calendar Round date of 6 Ahaw 13 K 'ayab ( corresponding to a Long Count date of 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 or Dec. 27 , 775 ) , which Martin and Grube note is within Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign . Stela 23 is the king 's accession monument . Originally carved on all four faces , this stela is in poor condition because it tipped over and shattered . The largest portions remaining include the base , and remnants of a basal panel of glyphs that feature the feet of two individuals . Similar to Stela 18 , Martin and Grube argue that Stela 23 dates to the rulership of Ha ' K 'in Xook because the Calendar Round date on the monument is contemporary with the date found on Stela 13 . This stele details a puluuy utz 'itil ceremony for Ha ' K 'in Xook 's dead father , Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and , when translated , reads " Ruler 6 [ Ha ' K 'in Xook ] , child of Ruler 4 [ Itzam K 'an Ahk II ] … acceded to the rulership " , seemingly proving that Ha ' K 'in Xook was indeed the offspring of Itzam K 'an Ahk II .
All three of the stelae were discovered by Teoberto Maler in 1901 near one of the site 's main temple , the O @-@ 13 pyramid . Stela 13 was possibly erected on a terrace reached by the pyramid 's main stairway , and Stela 18 lies in a row on the plaza in front of the aforementioned stairway . Stela 23 , on the other hand , was erected at the very base of the pyramid . This pyramid was most likely the burial place for Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and — seeing as how Ha ' K 'in Xook , Yo 'nal Ahk III , and K 'inich Yat Ahk II all revered the site as a dynastic shrine — it is further evidence to back the argument that Ha ' K 'in Xook was the son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II .
= = = Other = = =
As mentioned before , Throne 1 details either the death or abdication of Ha ' K 'in Xook . However , it should be noted that the throne was not constructed by the king himself , but rather by his successor , K 'inich Yat Ahk II . The throne was later deliberately broken apart by Piedras Negras 's enemies , but has since been reconstructed . In addition to on @-@ site remains and relics , a
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fragment of stone found at El Porvenir and aptly called the " El Porvenir Fragment " was also discovered that bore the name of Ha ' K 'in Xook .
= Tommy Lawton =
Thomas " Tommy " Lawton ( 6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996 ) was an English football player and manager . A strong centre @-@ forward with excellent all @-@ round attacking skills , he was able to head with the ball with tremendous power and accuracy . Despite losing much of his best years to World War II , he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in the Football League .
Born in Farnworth and raised in Bolton , he played amateur football at Rossendale United , before he turned professional at Burnley on his 17th birthday . He also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club , before his potential as a footballer won him a £ 6 @,@ 500 move to Everton in January 1937 . He went on to finish as the First Division 's top @-@ scorer in 1937 – 38 and 1938 – 39 , helping Everton to finish as champions of the Football League in the latter campaign . League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe , during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and a number of other clubs . In November 1945 , he moved to Chelsea for £ 14 @,@ 000 , and scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946 – 47 season .
In November 1947 , he made a surprise move to Third Division South club Notts County for a British record transfer fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 . He helped the club to win promotion as champions in 1949 – 50 , before he moved on to Brentford in March 1952 for a club record £ 16 @,@ 000 . In January 1953 , Brentford appointed him player @-@ manager , though he would only remain in charge for nine months . He joined Arsenal as a player in November 1953 for £ 10 @,@ 000 , where he saw out the remainder of his playing career . He had a promising start to his managerial career by leading Kettering Town to the Southern League title in 1956 – 57 , but then only had two more seasons as manager , getting relegated with Notts County in 1957 – 58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963 – 64 . During the 1970s he struggled with debt and related legal problems , which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person having fallen from grace .
He scored 22 goals in his 23 England appearances over a ten @-@ year international career from 1938 to 1948 , including four against Portugal in May 1947 . He helped England to win two British Home Championship titles outright ( 1946 – 47 and 1947 – 48 ) , and to share the Championship in 1938 – 39 . He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for manager Walter Winterbottom , his decision to drop out of the First Division , and the emergence of Jackie Milburn and Nat Lofthouse . As well as his England caps , he also represented The Football League XI and played in a special Great Britain game against Europe in 1947 . He married twice , and had two children and one step @-@ child . His ashes are held in the National Football Museum , and he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003 .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth , Lancashire . His father was a rail @-@ road signalman of Irish extraction , and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill . His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born , and Elizabeth moved back into her parents ' home in Bolton . Elizabeth 's father , James Hugh " Jim " Riley , became Lawton 's surrogate father . Lawton 's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930 . He was picked by Lancashire Schools at the age of 13 . Despite scoring a hat @-@ trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys , he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap . At the age of 14 he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League , and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons . The FA 's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17 , and Lawton 's grandfather rejected Bolton Wanderers 's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club . Lawton instead played as an amateur for Rossendale United in the Lancashire Combination , scoring a hat @-@ trick on his debut against Bacup . He took up temporary work at a tannery , and then joined Burnley as assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer from Sheffield Wednesday as she objected to him travelling to Sheffield on a daily basis .
= = Club career = =
= = = Burnley = = =
Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves in September 1935 , and though he struggled in this game he went on to become a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16 . After a poor run of form from Cecil Smith , Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for the Second Division game against Doncaster Rovers at Turf Moor on 28 March 1936 ; aged 16 years and 174 days , this made him the youngest centre @-@ forward ever to play in the Football League . Rovers centre @-@ half Syd Bycroft , also making his league debut , marked Lawton out of the game , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Burnley had played poorly , though Lawton was praised for his " keen and fearless " performance by the Express & News newspaper . He retained his place for the following game , and scored two goals in a 3 – 1 victory over Swansea Town at Vetch Field . He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance which caused him to miss two fixtures , before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the 1935 – 36 season ; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games .
Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936 , and also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club as a batsman in the Lancashire League . He scored a six against both Learie Constantine and Amar Singh . He scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24 @.@ 06 .
He turned professional at Burnley at the age of 17 on wages of £ 7 a week . His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £ 500 signing @-@ on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alerted Charles Sutcliffe , Secretary of the Football League , who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league 's maximum wage was illegal . Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds , before going on to record a hat @-@ trick in a 3 – 1 win over Tottenham Hotspur , scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head .
= = = Everton = = =
In January 1937 , First Division club Everton paid Burnley £ 6 @,@ 500 to secure Lawton 's services , and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman at Goodison Park ; the fee was a record for a player under 21 . The move to Everton made him a teammate of Dixie Dean , his boyhood idol , who he was expected to gradually replace as first choice centre @-@ forward . He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player he was told by a tram conductor that " You 're that young Lawton , aren 't you ? You 'll never be as good as Dixie . " Dean was finally rested on 13 February , which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux ; the match ended in a 6 – 2 defeat , though Lawton scored a penalty . He spent the rest of the season at inside @-@ left , with Dean at centre @-@ forward , and ended the 1936 – 37 campaign with four goals in 11 games . He started the 1937 – 38 season in the Reserves , but was installed as first choice centre @-@ forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretary Theo Kelly . On 2 October , Lawton scored the winning penalty in a 2 – 1 victory over Merseyside derby rivals Liverpool at Anfield . He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become the division 's top @-@ scorer .
Everton had a young but highly effective team for the 1938 – 39 campaign , and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack , with the Evening Standard 's Roland Allen describing Lawton as a " clever footballer , bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes " after Everton recorded a 2 – 1 victory over Arsenal at Highbury . The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign , during which time Lawton scored eight goals . Everton lost their lead at the top of the table to Derby County over Christmas , but returned to form and to first position by Easter . They faced a difficult final run of games , but beat Chelsea and recorded two victories over Sunderland to secure the club 's fifth league title , finishing four points ahead of second @-@ place Wolverhampton Wanderers . Lawton scored 34 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division 's top @-@ scorer for the second successive season . However , in the summer he wrote to Leicester City to request that the club buy him from Everton ; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed by Tom Bromilow , his former Burnley manager . Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division 's top @-@ scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the 1939 – 40 season due to the outbreak of World War II . Lawton later remarked that " I 'm convinced that if it hadn 't been for the War , we 'd have won the Championship again , the average age of those players was about 24 or 25 " .
= = = World War II = = =
Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war . However the FA decided to not award full caps for England appearances during the war , and as a result his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team . As was common for footballers during the war , he also made guest appearances for a number of clubs besides Everton , including Leicester City , Greenock Morton , Chester City , Aldershot , and Tranmere Rovers . He was called up to the British Army in January 1940 , and his status as an England international saw him recruited to the Royal Army Physical Training Corps . He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team . He was posted in Birkenhead , which allowed him to frequently appear for Everton . On Christmas Day 1940 , he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and for Tranmere Rovers at Crewe Alexandra in the afternoon . Explaining this later , he said , ' The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short . I said , " Go on , I 'll help you out . " And I did . ' In 1942 he scored a hat @-@ trick for England in a 5 – 4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park . Later in the year he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9 – 0 win over Luton Town . On 16 October 1943 , he scored four goals in an 8 – 0 victory over Scotland at Maine Road .
= = = Chelsea = = =
In July 1945 , Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club so as to see more of his increasingly estranged wife . In November 1945 , he was sold to Chelsea for a fee of £ 14 @,@ 000 . Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the 1945 – 46 season , and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team . In the summer of 1946 , following his demobilisation , he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland . He scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946 – 47 season . However he struggled to settle at Stamford Bridge and came into conflict with manager Billy Birrell after refusing to go on a pre @-@ season tour of Sweden in 1947 , which resulted in him requesting a transfer . He favoured a move to Arsenal , but this was ruled out by the Chelsea hierarchy . Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland manager Bill Murray as he held out hope that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal .
= = = Notts County = = =
In November 1947 , Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 . He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions so as to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery , his former masseur and friend at Chelsea , and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice @-@ chairman Harold Walmsley . Walmsley told the Nottingham Guardian Journal that " we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs " . He scored two goals on his home debut , a 4 – 2 win over Bristol Rovers in front of 38 @,@ 000 spectators at Meadow Lane – a massive increase on previous home games of typically 6 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 supporters . He ended the 1947 – 48 season with 24 goals in as many games , though was resented by the club 's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director 's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach .
He formed a productive forward partnership with Jackie Sewell in the 1948 – 49 campaign , and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances . County finished in mid @-@ table despite scoring 102 goals , 15 more than champions Swansea . Stollery was sacked and upon Lawton 's suggestion the club appointed Eric Houghton as manager after Lawton turned down the role as player @-@ manager . Lawton and Sewell 's understanding grew throughout the 1949 – 50 campaign , and Lawton finished as the division 's top @-@ scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions , seven points ahead of second @-@ placed Northampton Town . Promotion was secured with a 2 – 0 win over local rivals Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane on 22 April .
However he struggled with poor form during the 1950 – 51 season as his first marriage was coming to an end and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates . He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday in March 1951 – breaking Lawton 's own transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club 's directors . He also found that the well paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire . His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950 – 51 and 13 goals in 31 games in 1951 – 52 was disappointing , and he was made available for transfer .
= = = Brentford = = =
In March 1952 , Lawton joined Second Division side Brentford for a club record £ 16 @,@ 000 fee . Manager Jackie Gibbons left the club at the start of the 1952 – 53 season and was succeeded by his assistant Jimmy Bain , who proved ill @-@ suited to management , and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player @-@ manager , with Bain as his assistant . However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players , and the strains of management were having a negative impact on his form . Brentford also lost their best players having sold both Ron Greenwood and Jimmy Hill . He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammate Frank Broome and Ian McPherson to play on the wings , who , with Lawton , formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104 . They got off to a poor start to
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2004 ) .
In 1918 she published her first , and perhaps best , novel The Citadel of Fear ( Argosy , 1918 ) . This lost world story focuses on a forgotten Aztec city , which is " rediscovered " during World War I. It was in the introduction to a 1952 reprint edition of the novel which revealed for the first time that " Francis Stevens " was Bennett 's pen @-@ name .
A year later she published her only science fiction novel , The Heads of Cerberus ( The Thrill Book , 1919 ) . One of the first dystopian novels , the book features a " grey dust from a silver phial " which transports anyone who inhales it to a totalitarian Philadelphia of 2118 AD
One of Bennett 's most famous novels was Claimed ( Argosy , 1920 ; reprinted 1966 and 2004 ) , in which a supernatural artifact summons an ancient and powerful god to 20th century New Jersey . Augustus T. Swift called the novel , " One of the strangest and most compelling science fantasy novels you will ever read " ) .
= = Influence = =
Bennett has been credited as having " the best claim at creating the new genre of dark fantasy " . It has been said that Bennett 's writings influenced both H. P. Lovecraft and A. Merritt , both of whom " emulated Bennett 's earlier style and themes " . Lovecraft was even said to have praised Bennett 's work . However , there is controversy about whether or not this actually happened and the praise appears to have resulted from letters wrongly attributed to Lovecraft .
As for Merritt , for several decades critics and readers believed " Francis Stevens " was a pseudonym of his . This rumor only ended with the 1952 reprinting of Citadel of Fear , which featured a biographical introduction of Bennett by Lloyd Arthur Eshbach .
Critic Sam Moskowitz said she was the " greatest woman writer of science fiction in the period between Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley and C.L. Moore " .
Because Bennett was the first American woman to have her fantasy and science fiction widely published , she has been recognized in recent years as a pioneering female fantasy author .
= = = Novels = = =
The Citadel of Fear ( 1918 ; reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , February 1942 , and in paperback form in 1970 , [ NY : Paperback Library ] and 1984 [ NY : Carroll & Graf ] )
The Labyrinth ( serialized in All @-@ Story Weekly , July 27 , August 3 , and August 10 , 1918 ; later reprinted as a paperback novel )
The Heads of Cerberus 1st book edition . 1952 , Cloth , also leather backed , Reading , PA . Polaris Press ( Subsidiary of Fantasy Fress , Inc . ) ill . Ric Binkley . Intro by Lloyd Arthur Eshbach ( Thrill Book , 15 August 1919 ; reprinted as a paperback novel in 1952 and 1984 )
Avalon ( serialized in Argosy , August 16 to September 6 , 1919 ; not reprinted )
Claimed ( 1920 ; reprinted in 1985 , 1996 , and 2004 ) 192pp , cloth and paper , Sense of Wonder Press , James A. Rock & Co . , Publishers in trade paperback and hard cover .
= = = Short stories and novellas = = =
" The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " ( Argosy , March , 1904 ; as by G. M. Barrows )
" The Nightmare , " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , April 14 , 1917 )
" Friend Island " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , September 7 , 1918 ; reprinted in Under the Moons of Mars , edited by Sam Moskowitz , 1970 )
" Behind the Curtain " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , September 21 , 1918 , reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , January 1940 )
" Unseen @-@ Unfeared " ( People 's Favorite Magazine Feb. 10 , 1919 ; reprinted in Horrors Unknown , edited by Sam Moskowitz , 1971 )
" The Elf @-@ Trap " ( Argosy , July 5 , 1919 )
" Serapion " ( serialized in Argosy Weekly , June 19 , June 26 , and July 3 , 1920 ; reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , July 1942 )
" Sunfire " ( 1923 ; original printed in two parts in Weird Tales , July – August 1923 , and Weird Tales , September 1923 ; also reprinted as trade paperback in 1996 by Apex International )
= = = Collections = = =
Possessed : A Tale of the Demon Serapion ( 2002 ; contains the novella " Serapion " , retitled , and the short stories " Behind the Curtain " , " Elf @-@ Trap " and " Unseen @-@ Unfeared " )
Nightmare : And Other Tales of Dark Fantasy ( University of Nebraska Press , 2004 ; contains all Stevens ' known short fiction except " The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " , i.e. " The Nightmare " , " The Labyrinth " , " Friend Island " , " Behind the Curtain " , " " Unseen @-@ Unfeared " , " The Elf @-@ Trap " , " Serapion " and " Sunfire " )
= Man Down ( song ) =
" Man Down " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . Singer Shontelle and production duo Rock City wrote the song with its main producer , Sham . They wrote it during a writing camp , in Los Angeles of March 2010 , held by Rihanna 's record label to gather compositions for possible inclusion on the then @-@ untitled album . Rock City were inspired by Bob Marley 's 1973 song " I Shot the Sheriff " and set out to create a song which embodied the same feel but female perspective . It is a reggae ballad which incorporates elements of ragga and electronic music . Lyrically , Rihanna is a fugitive after she shoots a man , an action she later regrets . Several critics singled out " Man Down " as Loud 's highlight , while others commented on her prominent West Indian accent and vocal agility .
Def Jam released " Man Down " on May 3 , 2011 , as the fifth single from the album . In the United States , the single reached number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song topped the chart in France for five consecutive weeks and reached the top three in Belgium and the Netherlands . Anthony Mandler directed its music video , in which Rihanna 's character shoots a man after he rapes her . The video was criticized by the Parents Television Council , Industry Ears and Mothers Against Violence , who faulted Rihanna for suggesting that murder is an acceptable form of justice for rape victims . However , actress Gabrielle Union , a rape victim , praised the video for being relatable . " Man Down " was on the set list for three of Rihanna 's tours – the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , the Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) and The Anti World Tour ( 2016 ) .
= = Background = =
In March 2010 , record label Def Jam held a writing camp in Los Angeles for songwriters and producers to compose material for possible inclusion on Rihanna 's then @-@ untitled fifth studio album , Loud . Def Jam rented out nearly every recording studio in Los Angeles in order to create as many songs as possible . Ray Daniels , the manager of musical duo Rock City ( brothers Theron and Timothy Thomas ) , was present during the sessions , and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 per day . Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music , and where producers have music but no lyrics .
Shama Joseph , professionally known as Sham , was hired as one of the producers to work on crafting songs at the camp . Sham 's manager had arranged his attendance at the camp through an acquaintance who was an employee of the record label . Sham explained that he found a flight to Los Angeles and began working on music as soon as he arrived , stating that he had " nothing to lose and everything to gain " . He was inspired by a vision of Rihanna performing songs at a concert that were Caribbean themed . Sham felt that Rihanna had not explored Caribbean @-@ themed music since her debut album , Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) .
= = Production and recording = =
According to Daniels , Rock City knew Sham but they had not heard the West Indian / Caribbean @-@ themed music that he had composed during the camp . Sham played the music to them , to which the brothers responded " Let 's give Rihanna a one @-@ drop ! Like , a response to ' I shot the sheriff ' ! " Together , Sham and Rock City wrote the lyrics to " Man Down " in twelve minutes . In an MTV News interview , Rock City said they intended to write a song that would embody Bob Marley 's " I Shot the Sheriff " ( 1973 ) from a female perspective and to " tap [ Rihanna 's ] island origins in a way that sounded authentic " . Singer Shontelle said that Rihanna called her during the Last Girl on Earth tour and asked her to be involved with the song . She confirmed that Rihanna was present when she was writing her part in the recording studio . Shontelle elucidated that following one of Rihanna 's concerts , the singer exited the stage and immediately returned to the tour bus to work in the studio . Daniels said that once the writing camp had concluded , Rihanna listened to all of the songs which had been composed for her and chose her favorites . In September 2010 , several months after Sham attended the writing camp , Rihanna called him and said that she wanted to record " Man Down " for inclusion on Loud .
Rihanna later described the sentiment she wanted to express as " gangsta " , and elaborated on how reggae culture has influenced her musical style : " I 'm super inspired by reggae music [ and it ] has been a part of me since I was born , and I grew up listening to it . I was exciting for me to take this on as my own and do a song like this , especially with the lyrics being like that . " The track was composed during Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth tour . The song 's instrumental was recorded by Cary Clark at The Village in Los Angeles . Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna 's vocals with Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar at Westlake Recording Studios , also in Los Angeles . Bobby Campbell assisted with vocal production and recording . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in Los Angeles , assisted by Erik Madrid and Christian Plata .
Daniels estimated the total cost of the writing camp to be approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 , averaging $ 18 @,@ 000 for each of the eleven songs which were included on Loud ; the camp consisted of forty writers and producers . Daniels confirmed that Rock City received $ 15 @,@ 000 and Sham $ 20 @,@ 000 for their part in the production of " Man Down " . He said that " to get that twelve minutes of inspiration from a top songwriting team is expensive — even before you take into account the fee for the songwriters " . A cost of $ 53 @,@ 000 for " Man Down " was already incurred prior to Rihanna entering the studio with a vocal producer . Although Makeba Riddick did not serve as the song 's vocal producer , Daniels cited her as an example of how the process works and how much she would charge . It is the responsibility of the vocal producer to tell a singer how to sing the song correctly to achieve the desired sound . Daniels said that Riddick 's fee varies from $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 15 @,@ 000 , and that the final part of the process is for the song to be mixed and mastered , which incurs a similar fee . He estimated the final cost of writing , producing , vocal producing , mixing and mastering " Man Down " to be $ 78 @,@ 000 . When combined with the marketing and promotional costs , the total expense was $ 1 @,@ 078 @,@ 000 .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Man Down " is a " murder fantasy " reggae song with " Caribbean @-@ rhythms " and elements of ragga and electronic music . The song , in the key of C minor , has a tempo of 77 beats per minute . Rihanna 's voice spans more than one and a half octaves , from F3 to E ♭ 5 . Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani described " Man Down " as one of Rihanna 's " most confident vocal performances " with her strong Barbadian patois . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that the singer " plays up her West Indian accent " , and August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the vocals as reasserting " her Caribbean lilt " . Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt described " Man Down " as a song with " island rhythms " . Lyrically , Rihanna is a fugitive after she shoots a man , but later regrets it . Rihanna slowly relays the chain of events which led up to the murder . She cries to her mother about the act that she has committed – " Mama , I just shot a man down " – expressing guilt and remorse for not meaning to kill her attacker , and that he is somebody 's son . As the track develops , Rihanna 's Bajan accent becomes stronger and exaggerated , which climaxes during the bridge as she declares " Why deed I pull dee treeguh , pull dee treeguh , pull dee treeguh , BOOM ! " MuuMuse writer Bradley Stern thought that the track took on a confessional tone .
On February 8 , 2009 , Rihanna was reported to have been involved in an altercation with her boyfriend , Chris Brown . He allegedly punched Rihanna and threatened to kill her . Brown turned himself in to the police and pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault during the trial . August Brown called the murder ballad theme an apparent " warning " to Chris Brown and a response to his song " Deuces " ( 2010 ) , which denounces an ex @-@ lover . Kitty Empire of The Guardian wrote that Brown 's assault on Rihanna gives the song lyrical context , and sings it with a " bittersweet menace " tone . When asked by HipHopDX about how he reacted to listeners of the song saying that it condones violence , Sham dismissed the accusations :
I didn ’ t think it made any sense . I think it was because of who it was saying ' I just shot a man down . ' I think it was very hypocritical for some of the parents against violence in media , those same parents have probably allowed their kids to watch all types of movies and programs that have depictions , or things that insinuate violence . So for them to be mad about , number one , an issue that actually exists ? ... A woman feeling like she wants to shoot somebody who ’ s still alive because of something that they took from her , that ’ s real and that ’ s honest . So the emotion is a very true emotion ... and they relive it on a daily basis . I think it was crazy and blown out of proportion .... But people benefit from controversy , and those same people who probably were trying to bring awareness , now they have a voice and now they ’ re ' specialists , ' and they can speak for a group of people all of a sudden .
= = Release and reception = =
On March 1 , 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her choose the next single from Loud using Twitter , saying that she would film a music video in the forthcoming weeks . After an influx of suggestions , the singer said she had narrowed the options down to four songs : " Man Down " , " California King Bed " , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " and " Fading " . On March 12 , she confirmed that " California King Bed " had been selected as the next international single . However , " Man Down " was sent to rhythmic and urban radio stations in the United States on May 3 , before the May 13 release of " California King Bed " , making " Man Down " and " California King Bed " the fifth and sixth singles from Loud . The song was released in France and Switzerland on July 11 and the Netherlands on July 15 .
Kitty Empire called the track " excellent " , and praised it for being an original composition which is reminiscent of a " righteous old reggae murder ballad " . Consequence of Sound writer Ryan Burleson said that " Man Down " and another album track called " Fading " both " stand on their own sonically " , and that the former is an homage to her Caribbean heritage with its dancehall melody . Describing the track as " breezy " , Bradley Stern thought that no other song on Loud embodied Rihanna 's personality more so than on " Man Down " . Cinquemani chose " Man Down " as the best song on Loud , calling Rihanna 's vocal agility " surprising " and noting that the " fully @-@ fledged reggae " song is co @-@ written by a fellow Barbadian @-@ born singer , Shontelle .
In her review of Loud , Emily Mackay of NME called its experimentation more " organic " than that on Rihanna 's previous album Rated R ( 2009 ) , citing " Man Down " ' s theme of " doomed youth " . Similarly , Nima Baniamer of Contactmusic.com pointed out that " Man Down " , which she described as " a dark track " that is " haunting " yet " delightfully intriguing " , was reminiscent of the material on Rated R. In their review of Rihanna 's top 20 songs , Time Out ranked " Man Down " as their tenth best track , writing that it is Rihanna at " her badass best " . Complex staff compiled a list of their top 26 Rihanna songs , and ranked " Man Down " in thirteenth place ; Claire Lobenfeld thought that it was the singers most " cinematic " song of her career , and that she elevated the theme of " accidental manslaughter " from " downtrodden " to " adorable " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " Man Down " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 94 on June 1 , 2011 , peaking at number 59 and spending a total of 14 weeks on the chart . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , it peaked at number 9 on August 6 , 2011 , remaining there for 2 weeks and spending a total of 19 weeks charting . It was number 47 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs 2011 year @-@ end list . The track peaked at number 56 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart , number 20 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs chart and number 40 on the Radio Songs chart . " Man Down " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of more than 2 million units . The song reached number 92 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
" Man Down " debuted at number 65 on the French Singles Chart on June 6 , 2011 , a month before its release as a single . It rose to number 1 on July 30 , remaining there for 5 consecutive weeks , and was number 2 the week before and for 3 weeks after its chart @-@ topping run . It stayed on the chart until May 12 , 2012 , but re @-@ entered three weeks later . The song , on and off the French chart for the rest the year , continued to appear on it sporadically in 2013 . After a total of 73 weeks on the chart , the track 's last French chart appearance was at number 172 on August 8 , 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , " Man Down " entered the Singles Chart at number 117 on June 11 , 2015 , reaching number 75 the following week . The song peaked at number 54 in its fourth week , remaining there for 2 weeks and spending a total of 11 weeks on the chart . On the UK R & B Chart , " Man Down " reached number 15 on June 26 , spending 18 weeks in the top 40 . In Belgium , the song peaked at number 3 in Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders and number 2 in French @-@ speaking Wallonia . It was certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) for selling more than 15 @,@ 000 copies . Although the song spent only 1 week on the Italian Singles Chart ( at number 8 ) , it was certified platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) in 2014 for selling more than 30 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = =
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Stories for the cover of the September 1950 issue .
Sf historian Mike Ashley regards Super Science Stories as marginally better than its companion magazine , Astonishing , adding " both are a testament to what a good editor can do with a poor budget " . According to sf critics Brian Stableford and Peter Nicholls , the magazine " had a greater importance to the history of sf than the quality of its stories would suggest ; it was an important training ground " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The first run of Super Science Stories was edited by Frederik Pohl from March 1940 through August 1941 ( nine issues ) , and then by Alden H. Norton from November 1941 through May 1943 ( seven issues ) . Ejler Jakobsson was the editor throughout the second run , from January 1949 to August 1951 . The publisher was Popular Publications for both versions , although the first was issued under Popular 's Fictioneers imprint . It was pulp @-@ sized throughout both runs . At launch the magazine had 128 pages and was priced at 15 cents ; the price increased to 20 cents when it went to 144 pages in March 1941 , and again to 25 cents for the May 1943 issue , which had 128 pages again . The second run was priced at 25 cents throughout and had 112 pages . The title was Super Science Stories for both runs except for three issues from March to August 1941 , which were titled Super Science Novels Magazine . The volume numbering was completely regular , with seven volumes of four numbers and a final volume of three numbers . It was bimonthly for the first eight issues , from March 1940 to May 1941 , and then went to a regular quarterly schedule .
= = = Canadian and British editions = = =
In 1940 , as part of the War Exchange Conservation Act , Canada banned the import of pulp magazines . Popular launched a Canadian edition of Astonishing Stories in January 1942 , which lasted for three bimonthly issues and reprinted two issues of Astonishing and one issue of Super Science Stories . With the August 1942 issue the name was changed to Super Science Stories , and the numeration was begun again at volume 1 number 1 ; as a result the magazine is usually listed by bibliographers as a separate publication from the Canadian Astonishing , but in many respects it was a direct continuation . The price was 15 cents throughout ; it lasted for 21 regular bimonthly issues in a single volume ; the last issue was dated December 1945 . It was published by Popular Publications ' Toronto branch , and the editor was listed as Alden H. Norton .
Each issue of the Canadian edition corresponded to one issue of either Astonishing or Super Science : for example , the first two Canadian issues drew their contents from the February 1942 Super Science Stories and the June 1942 Astonishing , respectively . This pattern continued for ten issues . The next issue , dated April 1944 , contained several reprints from the US editions , but also included two original stories that had not appeared anywhere before — these had been acquired for the US magazine and remained in inventory . A total of eleven of these original stories appeared in the Canadian Super Science Stories . Later issues of the magazine also saw many reprints from Famous Fantastic Mysteries ; in tacit acknowledgement of the new source of material , the title was changed to Super Science and Fantastic Stories from the December 1944 issue . The artwork was mostly taken from Popular 's US magazines but some new art appeared , probably by Canadian artists . There was no other Canadian presence : the letters page , for example , contained letters from the US edition .
In 1949 , when the second run of the US Super Science Stories began , another Canadian edition appeared , but this was identical in content to the US version . Two British reprint editions of the second run also appeared , starting in October 1949 . The first was published by Thorpe & Porter ; the issues , which were not dated or numbered , appeared in October 1949 and February and June 1950 . The contents were drawn from the US issues dated January 1949 , November 1949 , and January 1950 respectively ; each was 96 pages and was priced at 1 / - . The second reprint edition was published by Pemberton 's ; these were 64 pages and again were undated and were priced at 1 / - .
The British issues are abridged versions of US issues from both the first and second series . The titles corresponded to the titles on the US magazine from which the stories were taken , so all were titled Super Science Stories except for the April 1953 issue , which was titled Super Science Novels Magazine .
= HMS Hostile ( H55 ) =
HMS Hostile ( H55 ) was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . She was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , in October 1939 to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. Hostile participated in the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 and the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 . The ship was damaged by a mine off Cape Bon in the Strait of Sicily while on passage from Malta to Gibraltar on 23 August 1940 . She was then scuttled by HMS Hero .
= = Description = =
Hostile displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hostile carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft defence Hostile had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Hostile was laid down by Scotts Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at Greenock , Scotland on 27 February 1935 , launched on 24 January 1936 , and completed on 10 September 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 253 @,@ 382 . She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hostile patrolled Spanish waters in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The ship received an overhaul at Gibraltar between 17 November and 15 December 1937 . She resumed patrolling Spanish waters in 1938 and 1939 . After the end of the Spanish Civil War , Hostile was refitted in Sheerness Dockyard between 31 May and 26 July 1939 . She returned to the Mediterranean and was in Malta when World War II began .
In October the ship was transferred to Freetown to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. The ship and her half @-@ sisters , Hardy , Hereward , and Hasty , rendezvoused with the battlecruiser Renown , the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , and the light cruiser Neptune on 17 December . They refuelled in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , before proceeding to the estuary of the River Plate in case the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee attempted to escape from Montevideo , Uruguay , where she had taken refuge after losing the Battle of the River Plate . Hostile was overhauled at Chatham Dockyard between 26 January and 29 March 1940 and then rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla , now assigned to the Home Fleet . During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April the ship engaged the German destroyer Z17 Diether von Roeder and badly damaged her , hitting her at least five times . Hostile was only hit once , but the shell did little damage . She escorted her badly damaged sister ship , Hotspur , to the repair base set up at Flakstadøya in the Lofoten Islands . Hostile briefly escorted the battleship HMS Warspite before she returned to Rosyth for repairs between 27 April and 4 May . The ship briefly returned to Norwegian waters , where she again escorted Warspite , before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in mid @-@ May .
On 9 July Hostile participated in the Battle of Calabria as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers , suffering no damage . The ship , together with her sister , Hero , and the destroyers Nubian and Mohawk , were ordered to Gibraltar on 22 August where they were to join Force H. Hostile struck a mine en route on the early morning of 23 August off Cap Bon that broke her back . The explosion killed five men and wounded three others . Mohawk took off the survivors while Hero fired two torpedoes to scuttle her .
= Rocky Mountain Horse =
The Rocky Mountain Horse is a horse breed developed in the state of Kentucky in the United States . Despite its name , it originated not in the Rocky Mountains , but instead in the Appalachian Mountains . A foundation stallion , brought from the western United States to eastern Kentucky around 1890 , began the Rocky Mountain type in the late 19th century . In the mid @-@ 20th century , a stallion named Old Tobe , owned by a prominent breeder , was used to develop the modern type ; today most Rocky Mountain Horses trace back to this stallion . In 1986 , the Rocky Mountain Horse Association was formed and by 2005 has registered over 12 @,@ 000 horses . The breed is known for its preferred " chocolate " coat color and flaxen mane and tail , the result of the relatively rare silver dapple gene acting on a black coat , seen in much of the population . It also exhibits a four @-@ beat ambling gait known as the " single @-@ foot " . Originally developed as a multi @-@ purpose riding , driving and light draft horse , today it is used mainly for trail riding and working cattle .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Rocky Mountain Horses stand between 14 @.@ 2 and 16 hands ( 58 and 64 inches , 147 and 163 cm ) high . Any solid color is accepted by the registry , but a dark brown color called " chocolate " with a pale , " flaxen " mane and tail is preferred . This coloration is the result of the relatively rare silver dapple gene acting on a black base coat . Although uncommon , this gene has been found in over a dozen breeds , including the Rocky Mountain Horse . Minimal white markings are accepted by the registry , although leg markings may not extend above the knee . The physical characteristics are somewhat variable , due to the disparate breeds that created the Rocky Mountain Horse . The Rocky Mountain Horse is known by enthusiasts for its hardiness and ability to withstand winters in the mountains . It is also praised for its good nature and affinity for humans . Rocky Mountain Horses have the highest risk of any breed for the genetic ocular syndrome multiple congenital ocular anomalies ( MCOA ) , originally called equine anterior segment dysgenesis ( ASD ) . MCOA is characterized by the abnormal development of some ocular tissues , which causes compromised vision , although generally of a mild form ; the disease is non @-@ progressive . Genetic studies have shown that the disorder may be tied to the silver dapple gene , as most horses diagnosed with MCOA carry the gene .
The breed exhibits a natural ambling gait , called the single @-@ foot , which replaces the trot seen in a majority of horse breeds . Both gaits are an intermediate speed between a walk and a canter or gallop ; ambling gaits are four @-@ beat gaits , whereas the trot is a two @-@ beat gait . The extra footfalls provide additional smoothness to a rider because the horse always has at least one foot on the ground . This minimizes movement of the horse 's topline and removes the bounce of a two @-@ beat gait , caused by a moment of suspension followed by the jolt of two feet hitting the ground as the horse shifts from one pair of legs to the other . The value of an intermediate speed is that the horse conserves energy . More than thirty horse breeds are " gaited , " able to perform a four @-@ beat ambling gait , and some can also trot . Thus , a Rocky Mountain Horse , with rider , can use the
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The school has no affiliation with a particular religious denomination , but religious education is given throughout the school , and boys may opt to take the subject as part of their GCSE course . Although morning assemblies take place and are Christian in nature , they are non @-@ denominational . Students participate in a number of educational visits and excursions throughout their school career and year 11 students are offered the opportunity to participate in a work experience programme . The curriculum comprises English and drama , mathematics , French , history , geography , science , art , music , design and technology , information communications technology ( I.C.T. ) , ethics and philosophy ( religious education ) , physical education ( P.E. ) , cookery , and citizenship , sex and relationships education ; in Key Stage 4 ( years 10 and 11 ) , pupils also participate in careers and work @-@ related learning . In mathematics , students are divided by their ability into two bands . Science is divided into Biology , Chemistry and Physics in year 9 . In the second year German or Spanish is added . The use of information technology is central to all teaching and is taught as a subject in Key Stage 3 ; in year 9 , all students study for the European Computer Driving Licence , a level 2 course in I.C.T. and pupils may opt to take Computing as a GCSE .
Boys usually take nine or ten subjects for GCSE : English ( language and literature ) , mathematics , a foreign language , all three separate sciences or Dual Certificate Science , as well as three other subjects from those listed above as well as business studies , with technology being divided into separate courses for Resistant Materials , Graphics , Electronics and Engineering ; Mandarin is also available as an optional extra subject , but is studied after school .
= = = Sixth Form = = =
Carre 's and St. George 's Academy operate the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form , which shares a common timetable between the two sites and allows for students to choose from a wide range of options at A @-@ Level . Students may choose to apply to be based at either school , where their pastoral and tutorial activities will take place . The Sixth Form , including Carre 's , is co @-@ educational . The majority of students take four A @-@ levels subjects in year 12 , with most choosing to focus on three in year 13 . The Joint Sixth Form allows students to choose from a range of 65 optional vocational or academic subjects including : art and photography ( separate A @-@ Level or BTEC options ) , applied Science , biology , bricklaying , business ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , childcare , carpentry , chemistry , computing or ICT ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , drama or performing arts ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , electronics , engineering , English ( language and / or literature ) , film or media studies , French , German , geography , government and politics , health and social care , history , hospitality and catering , law , mathematics and further mathematics , music ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , philosophy and ethics , psychology , physical education or sport ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , physics , product Design , public Services , light vehicle maintenance , Spanish , sociology , travel and tourism , and work skills . In addition , students may participate in General Studies at A @-@ Level , and a range of extra @-@ curricular activities , including the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme .
= = = Examinations = = =
In 2013 , 100 % of pupils achieved at least five GCSEs at grade A * – C and 96 % achieved that including English and Maths GCSEs , the eighth highest percentage in Lincolnshire . Figures for the 2010 / 11 cohort show that 86 % of Key Stage 4 pupils at the school carried on to the Sixth Form . At A @-@ Level , 85 % of pupils in 2013 attained three A @-@ Levels at grades A * – E and 11 % achieved three A @-@ Levels at grades AAB including at least two " facilitating subjects " ; the average point score per qualification was 201 @.@ 7 , equating to a C- grade , and the average point score per student was 823 @.@ 1 . The Sunday Times ranked Carre 's 101st ( 49th amongst state schools ) in the Midlands and 750th nationally based on A @-@ Level and GCSE performance in 2012 ; it recorded that 48 @.@ 7 % of A @-@ Levels were at A * – B grade and 42 @.@ 5 % of GCSE grades were at A * or A.
= = Extra @-@ curricular activities = =
As of 2014 , school clubs and societies include various language clubs , sport clubs , musical activities and many others . Students may participate in the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award Scheme , beginning with the Bronze grade in year 10 . Musical opportunities include participating in the school band and the choir , the guitar club and the Music Theory support group ; the school band has performed at the Lincolnshire Show and music students have taken part in the Lincolnshire School ’ s Prom in Skegness . In the past , Carre 's has offered a range of clubs and societies , including ones for archaeology , aero @-@ building , bird @-@ watching , boxing , chess , cycling , drama , languages , geography , jazz and other music groups , a choir and orchestra , and student voice groups , like the student council . The first school play performed by the Dramatic Society was She Stoops to Conquer in 1938 . Trips to see plays , a Play Reading Society and a new dramatic society were formed under the guidance of the English master A. D. Winterburn . In 1968 , plays were performed jointly with Kesteven and Sleaford High School . At the end of World War I , a cadet corps as formed by one Captain Price and became part of the Army Cadet Corps under the War Office ; attendance at weekly parades was compulsory for pupils over 13 in the 1920s . Most pupils took part in its activities in World War II , under the lead of the History teacher , Major W. H. T. Walker ; this included athletics competitions , shooting practice and trips to camp sites . It disbanded in c . 1963 when the two staff who ran it retired .
= = = Sport = = =
As with the curriculum , there are no references to sports being played at Carre 's before the 19th century . In 1835 , the Marquis of Bristol allowed the school to use an acre of land , which probably functioned as a playground . Sports fields were not added to the grounds until 1908 , but the earliest reports of the school participating in sporting events pre @-@ date this by half a century . In the 1860s , the Sleaford Gazette reported on cricket matches with local schools , namely the rival academies run by Mr Boyer and Mr Dibben in Sleaford ; by the 1890s , these matches were being organised with more distant schools , like the grammar school at Grantham . Athletics were practised at the school as early as 1871 when a sports day was held ; the 100 yards and half a mile races , hurdles , the pole jump and throwing the cricket ball were activities in which forms competed . Football was played at the school as early as 1895 . Glebe land was acquired in 1908 for sporting purposes and levelled in the early 1930s . A cycling club was formed in the 1940s and badminton was informally organised by pupils by the 1950s ; between 1957 and 1960 , a portion of land was converted into tennis courts for the school and rugby was introduced in the 1966 – 67 academic year .
In 2014 – 15 , the school pitched football , rugby union , basketball , cricket , golf and netball teams . In football , the under 12 , 13 , 14 and 15 football teams won the Kesteven and Sleaford District leagues in 2013 / 14 , while the under 13 and 14 teams won the Lincolnshire Schools ' Cup . In rugby , the under 14 team was county champions for the same season and the school competes on a national level .
= = Site and property = =
The original location of Carre 's School is not known . From 1653 , it operated in buildings on Eastgate , adjacent to Carre 's Hospital . After these fell into disrepair in the late 18th century , pupils were taught in the vestry of St Denys ' Church until the school was closed in 1816 . In 1826 , the trustees purchased a house on Northgate at the cost of £ 545 3s. from one Mr Squires . In 1834 , the Chancery Court agreed to fund the rebuilding of the school according to plans by the Sleaford architect and builder Charles Kirk , who constructed it at a cost £ 1 @,@ 168 15s . The building is in the Tudor Gothic style and built in Ashlar stone with slate roofs . It has three stories of three bays , with the upper floor housed in two gables . A shield with the arms of the Marquis of Bristol and his wife are located above the four @-@ centre arch doorway . One storey wings exist on either side in a similar style . Brick additions were made in 1904 and 1906 .
As the school roll grew , the old buildings became too small . A major building programme began in the 1950s : £ 128 @,@ 000 was set aside to rehouse the school in purpose @-@ built facilities adjacent to the existing school @-@ houses . The first phase was opened in 1956 and included art and handicraft rooms ; the second phase was completed in 1958 when physics and chemistry rooms were added ; and the third came in 1965 with the opening of new biology and general science laboratories alongside other classrooms , while the following year saw a new hall / canteen and kitchen open . The final phase consisted of eight further rooms , built shortly afterwards .
A grant of £ 650 @,@ 000 funded the construction of a technology centre with a computer suite , which opened in January 1993 . Plans for a new sports hall were first discussed in 1990 , but they only came to fruition in 1996 , when Northgate Sports Hall opened . The Sports Council and the Foundation for Sport and the Arts donated £ 250 @,@ 000 towards its construction ; this was matched by North Kesteven District Council , while Carre 's raised £ 50 @,@ 000 towards the building work . An all @-@ weather pitch at the school opened in 2007 ; it cost £ 649 @,@ 000 to lay , half of which was met by the Football Foundation . A building programme costing £ 835 @,@ 000 provided the school with food technology facilities and a two @-@ storey Fitness Suite , which were opened in March 2011 .
= = Headmasters = =
The indenture of 1604 made it compulsory that the master be a graduate of the University of Cambridge or Oxford and the majority of the pre @-@ 1835 masters had attended Cambridge , with only two from Oxford . When the school reopened in 1835 , these stipulations were removed . The headmaster lived on site until Derek Lee began commuting from his home in 1975 . The list below contains the names , years of service and biographical notes about the known headmasters of Carre 's since its foundation . The current headmaster is Nick Law , who succeeded Mike Reading in 2008 .
Source : Ellis 1954 , pp. 40 – 41 , 43 provides a list of all masters , and a record of their education , up to 1954 . He notes that W. H. T. Walker and J. H. Batley acted as headmaster between appointments in the 1940s . Appointments from 1954 to 2004 are recorded in Harmston & Hoare 2003 , pp. 154 , 159 , 160 , 171 , 179 .
= = Notable former pupils = =
Carre 's has produced a number of notable alumni in a range of fields and professions . In politics , this includes Sir Robert Pattinson ( 1872 – 1954 ) , Member of Parliament and Chairman of Kesteven County Council , and his brother Samuel ( 1870 – 1942 ) , also a Member of Parliament and businessman . The diplomat Peter Bateman ( b . 1955 ) , who served as the British Ambassador to Bolivia , Luxembourg and Azerbaijan , was also a pupil at the school . Carrensians in the military include Air Marshal Barry North ( b . 1959 ) and Captain George Baldwin CBE DSO ( 1921 – 2005 ) , who served in World War II and as Director of Naval Air Warfare in the mid @-@ 1960s . The lawyer and controversialist John Austin ( 1613 – 1669 ) was educated at Carre 's , along with the Royalist poet Thomas Shipman ( 1632 – 1680 ) and the non @-@ conformist clergyman Andrew Kippis FRS ( 1725 – 1795 ) . Science is represented by the chemist Kenneth Wade FRS ( 1932 – 2014 ) , a professor at Durham University and the forensic pathologist Iain West ( 1944 – 2001 ) . In sports , the school has produced at least two professional footballers : Paul Holland ( b . 1973 ) , who played for Mansfield Town , Sheffield United , Chesterfield and Bristol City , and Mark Wallington ( b . 1952 ) , who played for England under 23s and Leicester City .
= Don 't You Wanna Stay =
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " is a duet recorded by American singers Jason Aldean and Kelly Clarkson from Aldean 's 2010 album , My Kinda Party . It was also included in the deluxe edition of Clarkson 's 2011 album Stronger . " It was written by Andy Gibson , Paul Jenkins and Jason Sellers . After Aldean and Clarkson performed the song together on the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards on November 10 , 2010 , it was released as the second single due to strong demands of radio stations on the following day . The song contains elements of country and pop , and its lyrics speak of the difficulties of finding and maintaining love .
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was met with generally favorable reviews by critics who considered the song as " a classic power ballad " . Critics also lauded the interesting combination between Aldean 's and Clarkson 's voices . The song enjoyed commercial success in United States , peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It became Aldean 's fifth number one single and Clarkson 's first number one single on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on several occasions . Footage from the Country Music Association award performance were used to comprise a music video for " Don 't You Wanna Stay " , directed by Paul Miller . The song was nominated for " Best Country Duo / Group Performance " at the 54th Grammy Awards , but lost to " Barton Hollow " by The Civil Wars .
= = Background and release = =
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was written by Andy Gibson , Paul Jenkins and Jason Sellers . According to Sellers , they were at Jenkins ' house when they started composing the song . He explained , " We just wanted to write a love song . We had an idea of what we were targeting . We didn ’ t write it as a duet . We wrote it , and Andy thought about recording it . After we got the song written , we played it for Jason . Jason Aldean 's idea for it was to make it a duet . " The song is the first duet that Aldean has recorded . In an interview with Nashville.com , Aldean revealed that the song was not originally presented to him as a duet . Nevertheless , he and producer Michael Knox thought the lyrics would work for two people if he could find a female artist as a duet partner . Aldean considered a number of female vocalists to record the song with , especially Kelly Clarkson and Carrie Underwood . However , Clarkson remained as his first choice . He explained ,
" We had the song pitched to us and originally it wasn ’ t a duet . The more I was listening to the thing and learning the song , I realized it set itself up to be a duet if we wanted to go that route . When I called my producer about it he asked who I wanted to sing it with me and I said Kelly Clarkson , but I didn ’ t think we ’ d be able to get her . I ’ ve always been a big fan of hers . I love her voice and I love her style . Long story short , we got her a copy of the song and she loved it . As soon as she started singing , it became obvious it was going to be great . "
On November 10 , 2010 , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " was performed live for the first time by Aldean with Clarkson on the 44th Country Music Association Awards . The performance triggered an overwhelming demand from radio stations across the country . As a result , Aldean ’ s label , Broken Bow Records , made the song available on PLAY MPE . Carson James , the label 's Senior Vice President for Promotion responded ,
" If there ’ s one thing I ’ ve learned in my years in the record business , it is always give radio what they want [ ... ] Our entire promotion staff has spent all night fielding calls and returning texts about getting this song , so we decided it best to release it on Play MPE first thing this morning . "
The song was later included on the deluxe edition of Clarkson 's fifth studio album , Stronger , in 2011 .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and sixteen seconds . It incorporates melancholic guitar riff which is accompanied by classical elements such as violin . John Hill of About.com considered the song as a " classic power ballad " , writing " whether you want to call the song country , pop , or something in between doesn 't matter because the chorus is so catchy that it doesn 't matter if you use an electric guitar or a steel guitar . " It is set in common time and has a steady tempo of 72 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G @-@ sharp minor and both Aldean and Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves , from A ♯ 3 to G ♯ 5 . It follows the chord progression G ♯ m – E – B. Bob Peacock of Roughstock thought that the structure of the song was interesting with its brief four @-@ line verses and " don 't you wanna stay 's throughout the chorus . As the chorus of the song starts in , the sound of electric and slide guitars are prominent as Aldean and Clarkson sing , " Don 't you wanna hold each other tight / Don 't you wanna fall asleep with me tonight ? "
Lyrically , the song narrates the difficulties of finding and maintaining love . Cristin Maher of Taste of Country contended that the song exemplifies the desire some people have when they want to make the move from a physical relationship to an emotional relationship , which is represented by the song lyrics " Let ’ s take it slow , I don ’ t want to move too fast / I don ’ t wanna just make love , I wanna make love last . " Gibson , one of the writers of the song , stated that the song does not contain a lot of flowery lyrics or sentiment . He added , " It ’ s just straight up what somebody would say to somebody they ’ d want to be with . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song has received generally positive reviews . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called the song " great and gooey " , saying that it sounded like " Bryan Adams teaming with Heart in 1984 for a contribution to some alternate universe Footloose soundtrack . " Blake Boldt of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs @-@ up , calling the song as " a dramatic affair that demonstrates how pop and country can intersect with each other and offer decent results . " He concluded his review by writing , " " Don 't You Wanna Stay " would be a suitable fit for a Foreigner or Whitesnake album , and , though nowhere near a classic , it ’ s an instant entrant into the " guilty pleasure " category . " Reviewing the album for Billboard , Gary Graff described the song as being part of an " array of such bittersweet , emotionally ambivalent goodbye songs " . Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and praised both Aldean and Clarkson 's fine voice , " making for an interesting combination : Jason 's rough , slightly nasal voice against Kelly 's cleaner , forceful tone . " In a different perspective , Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe graded the production of the song as " C " , lambasting the song for its musical element , writing " the sheer volume of noise that invades the track with the first chorus takes us straight into Monster Ballads territory . " He concluded his review by emphasizing that " this isn ’ t country music . It just isn ’ t . " On March 5 , 2013 Billboard ranked the song # 40 in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time .
= = = Awards and nomination = = =
At the 2011 CMT Music Awards , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " was nominated for " Collaborative Video of the Year , " but lost to Justin Bieber 's " That Should Be Me " featuring Rascal Flatts ( 2010 ) . " Don 't You Wanna Stay " received nominations for two awards at the 45th Country Music Association Awards . The song received a nomination for the " Musical Event of the Year " and won the award ; it was also nominated for the " Single of the Year " but lost to The Band Perry 's " If I Die Young " ( 2010 ) . At the 54th Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for " Best Country Duo / Group Performance " but lost to The Civil Wars ' " Barton Hollow " ( 2011 ) . " Don 't You Wanna Stay " won two awards of " Single by a Vocal Collaboration " and " Music Video by a Duo / Group / Collaboration " at the 2011 American Country Awards . The song won the awards of " Single of the Year " and " Vocal Event of the Year " at the 47th Academy of Country Music .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the album release of My Kinda Party , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " debuted at number 59 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs as well as at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 20 , 2010 . On its second week on Billboard Hot 100 , the song jumped to number 56 after Aldean and Clarkson performed the song at the Country Music Association awards . The song reached a new peak of number 31 in its 24th week on the chart after Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on American Idol . The song also debuted at number 17 on the Adult Contemporary on the week ending June 25 , 2011 . After impacting Adult Contemporary and Adult Pop Songs charts , the song re @-@ entered Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 in its 27th week on the chart .
On the week ending February 27 , 2011 , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " moved to number one on Billboard Hot Country Songs and stayed in the top position for three consecutive weeks . It became Aldean 's fifth number one hit and Clarkson 's first number one hit on the chart . The accomplishment also made Clarkson as the third American Idol contestant to score a number one hit on the Billboard Hot Country Songs . The feat was first accomplished by Josh Gracin and followed by Carrie Underwood .
The song became the best @-@ selling country collaboration single in digital history in 2011 , until it was overtaken by Blake Shelton and Pistol Annies ' " Boys ' Round Here " in 2014 . It is Aldean 's second song to cross the 2 million mark , following " Dirt Road Anthem " in 2011 ; and Clarkson 's fourth song to cross the 2 million mark following " Since U Been Gone " in 2008 , " My Life Would Suck Without You " in 2009 , and " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " in 2012 . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 2 @,@ 479 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
On November 10 , 2010 , Aldean performed the song with Clarkson for the first time at the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards at Bridgestone Arena in Nashville , Tennessee . Despite receiving a standing ovation , their performance of the song in that event was graded as a " D " in the Los Angeles Times , noting that the song is " a ballad that turned into some oddly orchestrated ' 80s hair metal tune . It ’ s an easy slam , but this is " American Idol " bombast . " Aldean and Clarkson also performed the song on several other occasions . They sang the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 22 , 2011 . On April 14 , 2011 , they performed the song live on the tenth season of American Idol during the Top 8 results show . They later performed the song live during Country Music Association festival in Nashville , Tennessee on June 9 , 2011 . Aldean also performed the song on all venues of his concert tour , the My Kinda Party Tour , which started on January 21 , 2011 . During each performance , Clarkson is seen on a big screen behind Aldean , singing her part of the duet . He explained ,
" We decided to go in and film her doing her thing [ ... ] so even though she wasn 't at the show , she could still be a part of the show . As big as that song is getting for us right now , it was definitely a song that we thought we had to have in the show . She cut a thing for us to use , and I cut a thing for her to use in her show if she wants to do that . It 's a cool way to have her be a part of the show even though she 's not going to be there every night . "
On February 12 , 2012 , both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song in front of a stage outfitted with giant clock innards at the 54th Grammy Awards . Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times thought that " the duo looked like they were on the set of " Hugo " . " As their performance neared its end , Aldean 's microphone suddenly went out . Sarah Wyland of Great American Country felt that Aldean was professional in handling the technical problem by continuing to sing the song with Clarkson . However , Natalie Maines , the lead vocalist of the Dixie Chicks , lambasted Aldean 's performance in her Twitter account , writing " Well the good thing about his mic going out is suddenly the song got a lot more in tune . " " Don 't You Wanna Stay " is also performed by Clarkson in her fourth headlining tour , the Stronger Tour ( 2012 ) . While Clarkson is performing the song , Aldean is seen on a big screen , singing his part of the duet .
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were severely damaged with the partial melting of their pipes . Paintings by Rafael Jimeno y Planas , Juan Correa and Juan Rodriguez Juarez were damaged in other parts of the cathedral . After the fire , authorities recorded the damage but did nothing to try to restore what was damaged . Heated discussions ensued among historians , architects and investigations centering on the moving of the Altar of Forgiveness , as well as eliminating the choir area and some of the railings . In 1972 , ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition of the choir area without authorization from the Federal government , but were stopped . The government inventoried what could be saved and named Jaime Ortiz Lajous as director of the project to restore the cathedral to its original condition . Restoration work focused not only on repairing the damage ( using archived records and photographs ) , but also included work on a deteriorating foundation ( due to uneven sinking into the ground ) and problems with the towers .
The Altars of Forgiveness and of the Kings were subject to extensive cleaning and restorative work . To replace the lost portions on the Altar of Forgiveness , several paintings were added ; Escape from Egypt by Pereyns , The Divine Countenance and The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian . The organs were dismantled with the pipes and inner workings sent to the Netherlands for repair , while the cases were restored by Mexican craftsmen with work lasting until 1977 . Reconstruction of the choir area began in 1979 using the same materials as existed before the fire . In addition , any statues in the towers that received more than 50 % damage from city pollution were taken out , with replicas created to replace them . Those with less damage were repaired .
Some interesting discoveries were made as restoration work occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s . 51 paintings were found and rescued from behind the Altar of Forgiveness , including works by Juan and Nicolas Rodriguez Juarez , Miguel Cabrera and José de Ibarra . Inside one of the organs , a copy of the nomination of Hernán Cortés as Governor General of New Spain ( 1529 ) was found . Lastly , in the wall of the central arch of the cathedral was found the burial place of Miguel Barrigan , the first governor of Veracruz .
= = = Late 20th @-@ century work = = =
The cathedral , along with the rest of the city , has been sinking into the lakebed from the day it was built . However , the fact that the city is a megalopolis with over 18 million people drawing water from underground sources has caused water tables to drop , and the sinking to accelerate during the latter half of the 20th century . Sections of the complex such as the cathedral and the tabernacle were still sinking at different rates , and the bell towers were tilting dangerously despite work done in the 1970s . For this reason , the cathedral was included in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund .
Major restoration and foundation work began in the 1990s to stabilize the building . Engineers excavated under the cathedral between 1993 and 1998 . They dug shafts under the cathedral and placed shafts of concrete into the soft ground to give the edifice a more solid base to rest on . These efforts have not stopped the sinking of the complex , but they have corrected the tilting towers and ensured that the cathedral will sink uniformly .
= = Cultural value = =
The cathedral has been a focus of Mexican cultural identity , and is a testament to its colonial history . Researcher Manuel Rivera Cambas reported that the cathedral was built on the site sacred precinct of the Aztecs and with the very stones of their temples so that the Spaniards could lay claim to the land and the people . Hernán Cortés supposedly laid the first stone of the original church personally .
It once was an important religious center , used exclusively by the prominent families of New Spain . In 1864 , during the Second Mexican Empire , Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg and Empress Charlotte of Belgium ( later known as Maximiliano and Carlota of Mexico ) were crowned at the cathedral after the magnificent arrival to the head city of their reign .
Located on the Zocalo it has , over time , been the focus of social and cultural activities , most of which have occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries . The cathedral was closed for four years while President Plutarco Elías Calles attempted to enforce Mexico 's anti @-@ religious laws . Pope Pius XI closed the church , ordering priests to cease their public religious duties in all Mexican churches . After the Mexican government and the papacy came to terms and major renovations were performed on the cathedral , it reopened in 1930 .
The cathedral has been the scene of several protests both from the church and to the church , including a protest by women over the Church 's exhortation for women not to wear mini @-@ skirts and other provocative clothing to avoid rape , and a candlelight vigil to protest against kidnappings in Mexico . The cathedral itself has been used to protest against social issues . Its bells rang to express the archdiocese 's opposition to the Supreme Court upholding of Mexico City 's legalization of abortion .
Probably the most serious recent event occurred on 18 November 2007 , when sympathizers of the Party of the Democratic Revolution attacked the cathedral . About 150 protesters stormed into Sunday Mass chanting slogans and knocking over pews . This caused church officials to close and lock the cathedral for a number of days . The cathedral reopened with new security measures , such as bag searches , in place .
= = = Gallery = = =
= USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 7 ) =
USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 7 ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy . She was the lead ship of the Illinois class , and was the second ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for the 21st state . Her keel was laid in February 1897 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company , and she was launched in October 1898 . She was commissioned in September 1901 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns and she had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .
Illinois served with the European Squadron from 1902 to 1903 , and with the North Atlantic Fleet until 1907 , by which time it had been renamed the Atlantic Fleet . During this time , she accidentally collided with two other battleships . From December 1907 to February 1909 , she circumnavigated the globe with the Great White Fleet . From November 1912 , the ship was used as a training ship . She was lent to the state of New York in 1919 for use as a training vessel for the New York State Militia . The ship was converted into a floating armory in 1924 as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty , and it was under this guise that she served for the next thirty years . In January 1941 she was renamed Prairie State and reclassified as IX @-@ 15 so that the name could be given to Illinois , a projected Iowa @-@ class battleship . Prairie State was ultimately sold for scrap in 1956 .
= = Description = =
Illinois was 374 feet ( 114 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 565 long tons ( 11 @,@ 751 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers , generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 536 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 690 – 713 .
She was armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried sixteen 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Illinois carried four 18 in ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted launchers .
Illinois 's main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 4 in ( 102 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 381 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Illinois was laid down on 10 February 1897 by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Newport News , Virginia . She was launched on 4 October 1898 , sponsored by Miss Nancy Leiter , daughter of Chicago multi @-@ millionaire Levi Leiter and commissioned on 16 September 1901 . The ship 's first commander was Captain George A. Converse . Illinois was the first member of her class to be authorized , but the last to enter service . After commissioning , the ship began a shakedown cruise in the Chesapeake Bay , followed by initial training . She left the area on 20 November to test a new floating dry dock in Algiers , Louisiana . The ship was back in Newport News in January 1902 . She served briefly as the flagship of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans from 15 to 28 February ; during this period , she took part in a reception for Prince Henry of Prussia , the brother of the German Kaiser .
On 30 April , now flying the flag of Rear Admiral A.S. Crowninshield , Illinois departed for a tour of Europe . She stopped in Naples , Italy on 18 May ; here , Crowninshield took command of the European Squadron . Illinois took part in training exercises and ceremonial duties in European waters for the next two months , until 14 July , when she ran aground outside Oslo , Norway . She had to steam to Britain for repairs , which were carried out at Chatham . She left the port on 1 September for maneuvers with the rest of the fleet in the Mediterranean and South Atlantic . On 10 January 1903 , Illinois was reassigned to the North Atlantic Fleet , where she remained for the next four years . Her time was occupied with peacetime training exercises , gunnery practice , and various ceremonial activities . During this period , she was involved in two accidents with other battleships of the North Atlantic Fleet . The first took place on 30 March 1903 , when she collided with Missouri . The second collision occurred on 31 July 1906 , and took place with her sister ship Alabama . Also that year , Illinois was the first ship to win the Battenberg Cup .
The ship 's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world , which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . On 17 December , the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland .
After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . While there , the American fleet received word of an earthquake in Sicily . Illinois , the battleship Connecticut , and the supply ship Culgoa were sent to assist the relief effort . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for Theodore Roosevelt .
On 4 August 1909 , Illinois was decommissioned in Boston . The ship then underwent a major modernization , receiving new " cage " masts and more modern equipment . She spent the next three years in active service with the fleet , before being decommissioned once more on 16 April 1912 . She returned to service on 2 November for major training maneuvers with the Atlantic Fleet . Illinois made training cruises to Europe with midshipmen from the US Naval Academy in mid @-@ 1913 and 1914 . By 1919 , she had been decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . On 23 October 1921 , she was loaned to the New York Naval Militia for training purposes . The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which mandated significant reductions in naval strength , stipulated that Illinois must be rendered incapable of warlike action . As a result , she was converted into a floating armory at the New York Navy Yard in 1924 and was assigned to the New York Naval Reserve .
On 8 January 1941 , the ship was reclassified from BB @-@ 7 to IX @-@ 15 , and was renamed Prairie State so that her name could be used for the new battleship Illinois , which would be laid down a week later . Throughout World War II , she served with the U.S. Naval Reserve Midshipmen 's School , based in New York . After the end of the war , Prairie State was kept as a barracks ship for a Naval Reserve unit . On 31 December 1955 , the old ship was stricken and subsequently towed to Baltimore , where she was sold for scrap to the Bethlehem Steel Company on 18 May 1956 .
= = Silver Service = =
On 17 November 1901 , Illinois was presented with a silver service dining set provided by the state of Illinois and presented by Senator William E. Mason . It consisted of a large and small punch bowl , two candelabra , an ornamented fruit dish , a small fruit dish , two epicurean dishes , a large centerpiece and a ladle . Each item featured engravings of the crest of Illinois and an ear of corn . In 1943 , the silver service was transferred to the Illinois Executive Mansion .
= The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic =
The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic is an archaeological study of the material evidence for ritual and magical practices in Europe , containing a particular emphasis on London and South East England . It was written by the English archaeologist Ralph Merrifield , the former deputy director of the Museum of London , and first published by B.T. Batsford in 1987 .
Merrifield opens The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic by discussing how archaeologists have understood magic and ritual practices in past societies , opining that on the whole it had been a neglected area of study . Looking at the archaeological evidence for ritual activity in the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age of Britain , he discusses animal and human sacrifice , as well as the offering of votive deposits in rivers and other bodies of water . He moves on to explore the rituals surrounding death and burial , suggesting areas where this ritual activity is visible in the burial record of multiple societies . Merrifield goes on to discuss the archaeological evidence for ritual practices in Christian Europe , highlighting areas of ritual continuance from earlier pagan periods , in particular the deposition of metal goods in water . Looking at the evidence for foundation deposits in European buildings that likely had magico @-@ religious purposes , he then looks at several examples of written charms and spells which have survived in the archaeological record .
Upon publication , The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic received predominantly positive reviews in academic peer @-@ reviewed journals such as Folklore and The Antiquaries Journal . In ensuing years , the book has been widely cited by scholars as an influential and pioneering text in the study of the archaeology of ritual and magic .
= = Background = =
Ralph Merrifield ( 1913 – 1995 ) was born and raised in Brighton , and , following an education at
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were at the height of their power . They dominated the southern ivory trade , and also held sway over the Jubba and Shebelle valleys in the hinterland . The Omani Sultans ' authority in Mogadishu , however , was largely nominal . When Imam Azzan bin Qais of Oman sought to build a fort in the city , he was thus obligated to request permission from Sultan Ahmed Yusuf of Geledi . This Fort of Garessa was eventually constructed in 1870 . The Sultan of Zanzibar later leased and then sold the infrastructure that he had built to the Italians , but not the land itself , which was Somali owned .
= = = Italian Somaliland ( late 1800s @-@ 1960 ) = = =
In 1905 , Italy made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland . The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio . After World War I , the surrounding territory came under Italian control with some resistance .
Thousands of Italians settled in Mogadishu and founded small manufacturing companies . They also developed some agricultural areas in the south near the capital , such as Janale and the Villaggio duca degli Abruzzi ( present @-@ day Jowhar ) . In the 1930s , new buildings and avenues were built . A 114 km ( 71 mi ) narrow @-@ gauge railway was laid from Mogadishu to Jowhar . An asphalted road , the Strada Imperiale , was also constructed and intended to link Mogadishu to Addis Ababa .
In 1940 , the Italo @-@ Somali population numbered 22 @,@ 000 , accounting for over 44 % of the city 's population of 50 @,@ 000 residents . Mogadishu remained the capital of Italian Somaliland throughout the latter polity 's existence . In World War II it was captured by British forces in February 1941 .
After World War II Mogadishu was made the capital of the Trust Territory of Somaliland , an Italian administered fiduciary political entity under the ONU mandate , for ten years ( 1950 – 1960 ) .
= = = Somali Republic ( 1960 – 1990 ) = = =
British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia ( the former Italian Somaliland ) followed suit five days later . On 1 July 1960 , the two territories united to form the Somali Republic , with Mogadishu serving as the nation 's capital . A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments , with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly , Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic , and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister ( later to become President from 1967 to 1969 ) . On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960 . In 1967 , Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister , a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke .
On 15 October 1969 , while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia 's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated by one of his own bodyguards . His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d 'état on 21 October 1969 ( the day after his funeral ) , in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover . The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army .
Alongside Barre , the Supreme Revolutionary Council ( SRC ) that assumed power after President Sharmarke 's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . Kediye officially held the title of " Father of the Revolution , " and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC . The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , arrested members of the former civilian government , banned political parties , dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court , and suspended the constitution .
The revolutionary army established various large @-@ scale public works programmes , including the Mogadishu Stadium . In addition to a nationalization programme of industry and land , the Mogadishu @-@ based new regime 's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia 's traditional and religious links with the Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League in 1974 .
After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign of the late 1970s , the Barre administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d 'état . Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed . However , several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre 's regime by force .
= = = Civil war = = =
By the late 1980s , Barre 's regime had become increasingly unpopular . The authorities became ever more totalitarian , and resistance movements , encouraged by Ethiopia 's communist Derg administration , sprang up across the country . This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war , the toppling of Barre 's government , and the disbandment of the Somali National Army . Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre 's regime . Armed factions led by United Somali Congress commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed , in particular , clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital .
UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I , the first stabilization mission in Somalia after the dissolution of the central government . United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992 , which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States . Forming the Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) , the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN . Landing in 1993 , the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two @-@ year United Nations Operation in Somalia II ( UNOSOM II ) primarily in the south .
Some of the militias that were then competing for power interpreted the UN troops ' presence as a threat to their hegemony . Consequently , several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers . Among these was the Battle of Mogadishu of 1993 , a successful attempt by US troops to apprehend two high @-@ ranking lieutenants of faction leader Aidid . The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995 , having incurred more significant casualties .
In 2006 , the Islamic Courts Union ( ICU ) , an Islamist organization , assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed Shari 'a law . The new Transitional Federal Government ( TFG ) , established two years earlier , sought to re @-@ establish its authority . With the assistance of Ethiopian troops , AMISOM peacekeepers and air support by the United States , it managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule . On 8 January 2007 , as the Battle of Ras Kamboni raged , TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed , a former colonel in the Somali Army , entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office . The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in Mogadishu from its interim location in Baidoa , marking the first time since the fall of the Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country .
Following this defeat , the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions . Some of the more radical elements , including Al @-@ Shabaab , regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military 's presence in Somalia . Throughout 2007 and 2008 , Al @-@ Shabaab scored military victories , seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia . At the end of 2008 , the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu . By January 2009 , Al @-@ Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat , leaving behind an under @-@ equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government 's troops .
Between 31 May and 9 June 2008 , representatives of Somalia 's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re @-@ liberation of Somalia ( ARS ) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the UN . The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation . Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members , which then elected a new president . With the help of a small team of African Union troops , the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country . To solidify its control of southern Somalia , the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union , other members of the Alliance for the Re @-@ liberation of Somalia , and Ahlu Sunna Waljama 'a , a moderate Sufi militia .
In November 2010 , a new technocratic government was elected to office , which enacted numerous reforms , especially in the security sector . By August 2011 , the new administration and its AMISOM allies had managed to capture all of Mogadishu from the Al @-@ Shabaab militants . Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction spearheaded by the Somali diaspora , the municipal authorities , and Turkey , a historic ally of Somalia .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
In August 2011 , militant group al Shabaab made a strategic withdrawal from Mogadishu to return to hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics . Mayor Mohamed Nur recognized the opportunity as critical to stabilizing and rebuilding the city by any means necessary . Working closely with the UN , USAID , and DRC , Nur 's administration also started large @-@ scale rehabilitation of roads and general infrastructure , with residents closely cooperating with the civil and police authorities to tighten up on security . Nur recognized the opportunity to transform Mogadishu although resources were limited . Working closely with urban strategist Mitchell Sipus , the Benadir government sought to design and deploy a data @-@ driven approach to post @-@ war reconstruction .
With the passing of a new Constitution in 2012 and the subsequent election of an inaugural President in the new Federal Government , the mayorship continued to oversee Mogadishu 's ongoing post @-@ conflict reconstruction . Building off the initial pilot , the Benadir administration launched a city @-@ wide street naming , house numbering and postal codes project . Officially called the House Numbering and Post Code System , it is a joint initiative of the municipal authorities and Somali business community representatives . According to Nur , the initiative also aims to help the authorities firm up on security and resolve housing ownership disputes . As of 2016 , there are postal codes for 176 localities and sub @-@ localities , including the Mogadishu metropolitan area .
= = Geography = =
Mogadishu is situated on the Indian Ocean coast of the Horn of Africa , in the Banaadir administrative region ( gobol ) in southeastern Somalia . The region itself is coextensive with the city and is much smaller than the historical province of Benadir . The city is administratively divided into the districts of Abdiaziz , Bondhere , Daynile , Dharkenley , Hamar @-@ Jajab , Hamar @-@ Weyne , Heliwa , Hodan , Howl @-@ Wadag , Karan , Shangani , Shibis , Waberi , Wadajir , Wardhigley and Yaqshid . Features of the city include the Hamarwein old town , the Bakaara Market , and Gezira Beach . The sandy beaches of Mogadishu have vibrant coral reefs , and are prime real estate for the first tourist resorts in many years .
The Shebelle River ( Webiga Shabelle ) rises in central Ethiopia and comes within 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) of the Indian Ocean near Mogadishu before turning southwestward . Usually dry during February and March , the river provides water essential for the cultivation of sugarcane , cotton , and bananas .
= = = Climate = = =
For a city situated so near the equator , Mogadishu has a relatively dry climate . It is classified as hot and semi @-@ arid ( Köppen climate classification BSh ) , as with much of southeastern Somalia . By contrast , towns in northern Somalia generally have a hot arid climate ( Köppen BWh ) .
Mogadishu is located in or near the tropical thorn woodland biome of the Holdridge global bioclimatic scheme . The mean temperature in the city year round is 27 ° C , with an average maximum of 30 ° C and an average minimum of 24 ° C. Mean temperature readings per month vary by 3 ° C ( 5 @.@ 4 ° F ) , corresponding with a hyperoceanic and subtype truly hyperoceanic continentality type . Precipitation per year averages 429 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 16 @.@ 9 in ) . There are 47 wet days annually , which are associated with a 12 % daily probability of rainfall . The city has an average of 3 @,@ 066 hours of sunshine per year , with 8 @.@ 4 hours of sunlight per day . Mean daylight hours and minutes per day are 8h 24 ' . The annual percentage of sunny versus cloudy daylight hours is 70 and 30 , respectively . Average sun altitude at solar noon on the 21st day of the month is 75 .
= = Government = =
= = = Federal = = =
The Transitional Federal Government ( TFG ) was the internationally recognized central government of Somalia between 2004 and 2012 . Based in Mogadishu , it constituted the executive branch of government .
The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012 , concurrent with the end of the TFG 's interim mandate . It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war . The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government 's legislative branch .
= = = Municipal = = =
Mogadishu 's municipal government is currently led by Yusuf Hussein Jimaale , who succeeded Mayor Hassan Mohamed Hussein Mungab , a former military court chairman . Among the administration 's development initiatives are a US $ 100 million urban renewal project , the creation of garbage disposal and incineration plants , the launch of a city @-@ wide cleanup project , the creation of asphalt and cement plants , rehabilitation of the Town Hall and parliament buildings , reconstruction of the former Defence Ministry offices , reconstruction of correctional facilities , rehabilitation and construction of health facilities , establishment of a Police Training Center and a permanent base in Jasiira for the new Somali Armed Forces , rebuilding of the Somali Postal Service headquarters , and rehabilitation of public playgrounds in several districts . In January 2014 , the Benadir administration launched the House Numbering and Post Code System . It also began distributing national identity cards in March of the same year . In addition , the municipal authorities started renovating important local government centers in September 2014 , including the capital 's former Fisho Guverno compound . In January 2015 , the Benadir administration also opened a new Health & Safety Office to supervise health and safety practices in the city , and launched a municipal beautification campaign ahead of various international conferences that are slated to be held there .
In March 2015 , the Benadir administration completed the SECIL project in conjunction with the EU and UNHABITAT . The 3 @.@ 5 million EUR initiative lasted three and a half years , and saw the establishment in Mogadishu of a new sustainable waste collection system , a Technical Training Centre , water quality testing laboratories , ameliorated access to clean drinking water , improved employment and livelihood opportunities in the low @-@ cost fuel production sector , strengthened skills training and regulation in the construction sector , and laboratories for the testing of construction material quality .
= = = Diplomatic missions = = =
A number of countries maintain foreign embassies and consulates in Mogadishu . As of January 2014 , these diplomatic missions include the embassies of Djibouti , Ethiopia , Sudan , Libya , Yemen , Saudi Arabia , Turkey , Iran , Uganda , Nigeria , the United Kingdom , Japan , China , and Qatar . Embassies that are scheduled to reopen in the city include those of Egypt , the United Arab Emirates , Italy and South Korea .
In May 2015 , in recognition of the sociopolitical progress made in Somalia and its return to effective governance , US Secretary of State John Kerry announced a preliminary plan to reestablish the US embassy in Mogadishu . He indicated that although there was no set timetable for the premises ' relaunch , the US government had immediately begun upgrading its diplomatic representation in the country . President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke also presented to Kerry the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound . Mohamud concurrently signed an Establishment Agreement with the EU Head of Delegation in Somalia Michele Cervone d ’ Urso , which facilitates the opening of more embassies in Mogadishu by European Union member states . The EU also announced that it had opened a new EU Delegation office in the city .
In February 2014 , Somalia 's Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation Abdirahman Duale Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in Mogadishu . The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations . Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute 's diplomacy department , its information and broadcasting department , as well as its library .
= = Economy = =
Mogadishu traditionally served as a commercial and financial centre . Before the importation of mass @-@ produced cloth from Europe and America , the city 's textiles were forwarded far and wide throughout the interior of the continent , as well as to the Arabian peninsula and as far as the Persian coast .
Mogadishu 's economy has grown rapidly since the city 's pacification in mid 2011 . The SomalFruit processing factory was reopened , as was the local Coca Cola factory , which was also refurbished . In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , representing the first commercial bank to open in southern Somalia since 1991 . The Somali civil engineer and entrepreneur Nasra Agil also opened the city 's first dollar store . Additionally , the Historic Central Bank was regenerated , with the Moumin Business Center likewise under construction .
The galvanization of Mogadishu 's real estate sector was in part facilitated by the establishment of a local construction yard in November 2012 by the Municipality of Istanbul and the Turkish Red Crescent . With 50 construction trucks and machines imported from Turkey , the yard produces concrete , asphalt and paving stones for building projects . The Istanbul Municipality was also scheduled to bring in 100 specialists to accelerate the construction initiative , which ultimately aims to modernize the capital 's infrastructure and serve it over the long @-@ term .
In mid @-@ 2012 , Mogadishu concurrently held its first ever Technology , Entertainment , Design ( TEDx ) conference . The event was organized by the First Somali Bank to showcase improvements in business , development and security to potential Somali and international investors . A second consecutive TEDx entrepreneurial conference was held the following year in the capital , highlighting new enterprises and commercial opportunities , including the establishment of the city 's first dry cleaning business in several years .
A number of large firms also have their headquarters in Mogadishu . Among these is the Trans @-@ National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company , an energy conglomerate founded in 2010 that unites five major Somali companies from the trade , finance , security and telecommunications sectors . Other firms based in the city include Hormuud Telecom , the largest telecommunications company in southern and central Somalia . Telcom is another telecommunications service provider that is centered in the capital . The local Somali Energy Company specializes in the generation , transmission and distribution of electric power to residents and businesses within its service area in Banaadir . Villa and Mansion Architects , an international architectural firm founded by the Somali @-@ British architect Alexander Yusuf , likewise has its regional offices in Mogadishu . Additionally , the International Bank of Somalia , which opened downtown in 2014 , offers Islamic finance and international banking services via a swift code system . The Islamic Insurance Company ( First Takaful and Re @-@ Takaful Insurance Company ) was concurrently established , and is the city 's first full service insurance firm in many years . The Central Bank of Somalia , the national monetary authority , also has its headquarters in Mogadishu .
In June 2013 , former Prime Minister Abdi Farah Shirdon signed a new foreign investment law . The draft bill was prepared by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in conjunction with government attorneys . Approved by the Cabinet , it establishes a secure legal framework for foreign investment in Mogadishu and elsewhere in the country .
In October 2014 , the firm Tawakal Money Express ( Tawakal ) also began construction of the seven @-@ storey Tawakal Plaza Mogadishu . The new high rise is slated to be completed by the end of 2015 , and will feature a Tawakal Global Bank customer and financial services center , a large , 338 square meter supermarket , a 46 @-@ room luxury hotel , restaurant and coffee shop facilities , and conference and event halls . In addition , the Nabaad Supermarket provides major retail service to local shoppers . Open daily until 10 pm , the convenience chain imports most of its products from the United Arab Emirates and China . The Al Buruuj firm also launched a major real estate project in January 2015 , Daru @-@ Salam City . Financed by the Salaam Somali Bank , the new urban complex includes town houses , apartment flats , a mosque , recreational areas , playgrounds , a supermarket and roads . It is slated to be erected just outside the northern part of the capital , within a 7 kilometer radius of the Industrial Road .
= = Demographics = =
Mogadishu is a multi @-@ ethnic city . Its original core population consisted of Bushmen aboriginals , and later Cushitic , Arab and Persian migrants . The mixture of these various groups produced the Benadiri or Reer Xamar ( “ People of Mogadishu ” ) , a composite population unique to the larger Benadir region . In the colonial period , European expatriates , primarily Italians , would also contribute to the city 's cosmopolitan populace .
The main area of inhabitation of Bantu ethnic minorities in Somalia has historically been in village enclaves in the south , particularly between the Jubba and Shebelle river valleys as well as the Bakool and Bay regions . Beginning in the 1970s , more Bantus began moving to urban centres such as Mogadishu and Kismayo . The displacement caused by the onset of the civil war in the 1990s further increased the number of rural minorities migrating to urban areas . As a consequence of these movements , Mogadishu 's traditional demographic makeup changed significantly over the years .
Following a greatly improved security situation in the city in 2012 , many Somali expatriates began returning to Mogadishu for investment opportunities and to take part in the ongoing post @-@ conflict reconstruction process . Through both private efforts and public initiatives like the Somali Diaspora Corps , they have participated in the renovation of schools , hospitals , banks and other infrastructure , and have played a leading role in the capital 's recovery . They have also helped to propel the local real estate market .
According to Demographia , Mogadishu has a population of around 2 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 residents as of 2015 . It is the 222nd largest city in the world by population size . The urban area occupies 91 square kilometres ( 35 sq mi ) , with a population density of around 23 @,@ 400 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 61 @,@ 000 / sq mi ) . As of September 2014 , the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation is scheduled to launch the first population census for Somalia in over two decades . The UNFPA assisted the Ministry in the project , which is slated to be finalized ahead of the planned plebiscite and local and national elections in 2016 .
= = Landmarks = =
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Farts " ) , who may as a result be reluctant to acknowledge his achievements . He was made an OBE in 1991 .
Described as arguably " the greatest forward " to play for England , Martin Johnson played 84 Tests for England , and 8 Tests for the British and Irish Lions . He first represented England in 1993 , and later that year the Lions . He captained the Lions to South Africa in 1997 , and in 1999 was appointed captain of England . He became England 's most successful ever captain . He became the first player to captain two Lions tours when he captained them in Australia in 2001 . He retired from Test rugby after he led England to a Six Nations Grand Slam and World Cup victory in 2003 and has since become the team Manager . At the 2011 IRB Awards ceremony in Auckland on 24 October 2011 , the night after the World Cup Final , Johnson was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning captains from 1987 through 2007 ( minus the previously inducted Australian John Eales ) .
Jason Leonard , also known as " The Fun Bus " , appeared 114 times for England at prop , which was the world record for international appearances for a national team until 2005 , when it was surpassed by Australia 's scrum @-@ half George Gregan . He was on the England team that finished runners up to Australia in the 1991 Rugby World Cup final , but avenged this twelve years later , coming on as a substitute for Phil Vickery in England 's victorious 2003 Rugby World Cup final appearance . He also went on three British and Irish Lions tours where he was capped five times .
Alan Rotherham and Harry Vassall , both 19th @-@ century greats for Oxford and England , were inducted into the IRB Hall in April 2011 . The IRB recognised them for " their unique contribution to the way that Rugby was played " , specifically stating that they " are credited with pioneering the passing game and the three @-@ man backline , which became widespread during the 1880s . "
Two other England internationals , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall alongside Johnson at the 2011 IRB Awards . Although both had notable careers for England , they were recognised for accomplishments in other roles in the sport . Kendall @-@ Carpenter was cited as one of four key figures in the creation of the Rugby World Cup , whilst Woodward was inducted as coach of the 2003 World Cup winners , alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning coaches from 1987 to 2007 .
England 's most recent inductees into the IRB Hall are 19th @-@ century internationals Alfred St. George Hamersley and Robert Seddon , both inducted in 2013 . Hamersley played for England in the first @-@ ever rugby union international against Scotland in 1871 , and captained England in the last of his four appearances in 1874 . He went on to play significant roles in the early development of the sport in both New Zealand and Canada . Seddon , capped three times for England in 1887 , was most notable as the captain of the unofficial British side that toured Australia and New Zealand in 1888 ; he died in a boating accident during the tour . This venture proved to be the genesis of the modern British and Irish Lions . The touring team was also inducted alongside Seddon .
= = = Individual records = = =
Jonny Wilkinson holds the record for most points for England : 1 @,@ 151 . The record for tries is held by Rory Underwood with 49 tries . The most capped England player is former prop Jason Leonard who made 114 appearances over his 14 @-@ year career . England 's youngest ever Test player was Colin Laird who was 18 years and 134 days old when he played against Wales in 1927 .
= = Training = =
Pennyhill Park Hotel in Bagshot , Surrey , is the chosen training base for the team in the 2015 Rugby World Cup . Loughborough University , Bisham Abbey and the University of Bath grounds served as training bases prior to this agreement . Martin Johnson noted the hotel 's facilities and its proximity to Twickenham and Heathrow as deciding factors in this decision . The team had their own pitchside gym and fitness rooms constructed on the hotel premises at the start of the long @-@ term arrangement . Since its completion in 2010 the team also regularly use Surrey Sports Park at the University of Surrey in nearby Guildford for much of their training .
= = = Club versus country = = =
Although the England team is governed by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , players have been contracted to their clubs since the advent of professionalism in late 1995 . Since then , players have often been caught in a " power struggle " between their clubs and the RFU ; this is commonly referred to as a " club versus country " conflict . The first major dispute between England 's top clubs ( who play in the English Premiership ) and the RFU occurred in 1998 , when some of the clubs refused to release players to tour Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . The tour became known as the " Tour from hell " after an England squad of second @-@ string players were defeated in all four Tests , including a 76 – 0 defeat by Australia . The clubs also withdrew from the 1998 / 99 European Cup .
In 2001 , the top clubs and the RFU formed " England Rugby " to help govern the club and international game . The parties agreed to restrict the number of matches at club and international level that elite players ( a group of 50 or 60 players selected by the RFU ) could play in order to reduce player burnout and injuries . In return for releasing players from club commitments , the clubs were to receive compensation from the RFU . This agreement was considered central to the England victory in the 2003 World Cup . Clive Woodward , England coach from November 1997 , resigned in 2004 because he was unable to get the access to the players that he wanted ; " I wanted more from the union – more training days with the players , more influence over the way they were treated – and ended up with less . " Andy Robinson , Woodward 's successor , blamed the lack of control over players for his team 's unsuccessful record . Brian Ashton , who took over from Robinson , intentionally named his playing squad for Six Nations matches in 2007 early in the hope that their clubs would not play them in the weekend prior to a Test . The RFU and the Premiership clubs are negotiating a similar deal to the one in 2001 that will enable international players to be released into the England squad prior to international matches .
= = = Coaches = = =
The following is a list of all England coaches . The first appointed coach was Don White in 1969 . The most recent coach is Eddie Jones . He took over from Stuart Lancaster a week after Lancaster 's resignation . Jones became the first foreigner to coach the English side .
Updated 25 June 2016
= = Media coverage = =
England 's mid @-@ year tests and end of year tests are televised live by Sky Sports while end of year matches are highlighted by BBC Three on that game day and repeated on BBC Two the next day . England 's 2014 end of year international against Samoa was not highlighted on BBC Three . All Six Nations games are shown for free on the BBC and ITV from 2016 .
= = Titles = =
= Jeremi Wiśniowiecki =
Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ( Ukrainian : Ярема Вишневецький - Yarema Vyshnevetsky ; August 17 , 1612 – August 20 , 1651 ) nicknamed Hammer on the Cossacks or Iron Hand , was a notable member of the aristocracy of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , Prince of Wiśniowiec , Łubnie and Chorol in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the father of the future King of Poland , Michael I.
A notable magnate and military commander with Ruthenian and Romanian origin , Wiśniowiecki was heir of one of the biggest fortunes of the state and rose to several notable dignities , including the position of voivode of the Ruthenian Voivodship in 1646 . His conversion from Eastern Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism caused much dissent in Ruthenia and Ukraine ( parts of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . Wiśniowiecki was a successful military leader as well as one of the wealthiest magnates of Poland , ruling over lands inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Jeremi Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki was born in 1612 ; neither the exact date nor the place of his birth are known . His father , Michał Wiśniowiecki , of the Lithuanian @-@ Ruthenian Wiśniowiecki family , died soon after Jeremi 's birth , in 1616 . His mother , Regina Mohyła ( Raina Mohylanka ) was a Moldavian @-@ born noble woman of the Movilești family , daughter of the Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , Jeremy 's namesake ; she died in 1619 . Both of his parents were of the Eastern Orthodox Church rite ; Jeremy 's uncle was the influential Orthodox theologian Peter Mogila , and his great @-@ uncle was George Mogila , the Metropolitan of Moldavia .
Orphaned at the age of seven , Wiśniowiecki was raised by his uncle , Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , whose branch of the family were Roman Catholics . Jeremi attended a Jesuit college in Lwów and later , in 1629 , he traveled to Italy , where he briefly attended the University of Bologna . He also acquired some military experience in the Netherlands . The upbringing by his uncle and the trips abroad polonized him , and turned him from a provincial Ruthenian princeling into one of the youngest magnates of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth .
In 1631 Wiśniowiecki returned to the Commonwealth and took over from his uncle the management of his father 's huge estate , which included a large part of what is now Ukraine . In 1632 he converted from Eastern Orthodoxy to Catholicism , an action that caused much concern in Ukraine . His decision has been analyzed by historians , and often criticized , particularly in Ukrainian historiography . The Orthodox Church feared to lose a powerful protector , and Isaiah Kopinsky , metropolitan bishop of Kiev and a friend of his mother , unsuccessfully plead with him to change his mind . Jeremi would not budge although he remained on decent terms with the Orthdox Church , avoiding provocative actions , and supported his uncle and Orthodox bishop Peter Mogila and his Orthodox Church collegium .
= = = Later life = = =
Wiśniowiecki 's courtier and first biographer , Michał Kałyszowski , counted that Jeremi participated in nine wars in his lifetime . The first of those was the Smolensk Campaign of 1633 – 34 against the Tsardom of Russia . In that war he accompanied castellan Aleksander Piaseczyński 's southern army and took part in several battles , among them the unsuccessful siege of Putyvl ; later that year they took Rylsk and Sevsk before retreating . The following year he worked with Adam Kisiel and Łukasz Żółkiewski , commanding his own private army of 4 @,@ 000 . As his troops formed 2 / 3 of their army ( not counting supporting Cossack elements ) , Jeremi , despite being the most junior of commanders , had much influence over their campaign . Lacking in artillery , they failed to take any major towns , but ravaged the countryside near Sevsk and Kursk . The war ended soon afterward , and in May 1634 he returned to Lubny . For his service , he received a commendation from the King of Poland , Władysław IV Vasa , and the castellany of Kiev .
After the war Wiśniowiecki engaged in a number of conflicts with neighbouring magnates and nobles . Jeremi was able to afford a sizable private army of several thousands , and through the threat of it he was often able to force his neighbours to a favourable settlement of disputes . Soon after his return from the Russian front , he participated on the side of the Dowmont family in the quarrel over the estate of Dowmontów against another magnate , Samuel Łaszcz , located on his lands ; soon after the victorious battle against Łaszcz he bought the lands from the Dowmonts and incorporated them into his estates .
Around 1636 the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) opposed the marriage of King Władysław IV Waza to Wiśniowiecki 's sister , Anna . Following this , Jeremi distanced himself from the royal court , although he periodically returned to Warsaw , usually as one of the deputies to the Sejm from the Ruthenian Voivodeship . Soon afterward , Jeremi himself married Gryzelda Zamoyska , daughter of Chancellor Tomasz Zamoyski , on 27 February 1639 , on Gryzelda 's 16th birthday .
At that time Wiśniowiecki also engaged in a political conflict over nobility titles , in particular , the title of prince ( kniaź ) . The nobility in the Commonwealth was officially equal , and used different and non @-@ hereditary titles then those found in rest of the world ( see officials of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ) ; the gist of the conflict , which took much of the Sejm 's time around 1638 – 41 , revolved around whether old prince titles ( awarded to families before their lands were incorporated into the Commonwealth in the 1569 Union of Lublin ) , and the new titles , awarded more recently by some foreign courts , should be recognized . Wiśniowiecki was one of the chief participants in this debate , successfully defending the old titles , including that of his own family , and succeeding in abolishing the new titles , which gained him the enmity of another powerful magnate , Jerzy Ossoliński . Other than this conflict , in his years as a deputy ( 1635 – 46 ) , Jeremi wasn 't involved in any major political issues , and only twice ( in 1640 and 1642 ) he served in the minor function of a commissar for investigating the eastern and southern border disputes .
In 1637 Wiśniowiecki might have fought under Hetman Mikołaj Potocki against the Cossack rebellion of Pavel Pavluk ( the Pawluk Uprising ) ; Jan Widacki notes that historians are not certain whether he did and in either case , no detailed accounts of his possible participation survive . A year later , returning from the Sejm and from the engagement ceremony with Gryzelda , he gathered a 4 @,@ 000 strong division that participated in putting down of the Ostrzanin Uprising and arrived at the region affected by the unrest in June that year . Together with Hetman Potocki he defeated the insurgents at the Battle of Żownin , which turned into a rather difficult siege of the Cossack camp that lasted from 13 June till the Cossack relief forces were defeated on 4 August , and the Cossacks capitulated on 7 August .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1641 , after the death of his uncle Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , Jeremi became the last adult male of the Wiśniowiecki family and inherited all the remaining estates of the clan , despite a brief conflict with Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł who also claimed the inherited land . The conflict stemmed from the fact that Konstanty asked Jeremi to take care of his grandchildren , but their mother , Katarzyna Eugenia Tyszkiewicz , married Aleksander , who declared he is able and willing to take care of her children - and their estates . A year later , Katarzyna Eugenia decided to divorce Aleksander , and the matter was settled in favor of Jeremi .
Wiśniowiecki also fought against the Tatars in 1640 – 46 , whose raids on the south @-@ east frontier of the Commonwealth endangered his holdings . In 1644 together with Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski he took part in the victorious Battle of Ochmatów , in which they crushed forces of Crimean Tatars led by Toğay bey ( Tuhaj Bej ) .
In 1644 , after the false news of the death of Adam Kazanowski , Wiśniowiecki took over his disputed estate of Rumno by subterfuge . For this he was at first sentenced to exile , but due to his influence , even the King could not realistically expect to enforce this ruling without a civil war . Eventually after more discussions at local sejmiks and then in the Sejm , he won the case and was granted the right for Rumno . In 1646 , after the death of Koniecpolski , he became the voivode of Ruthenia . He invaded and took over the town of Hadiach which was also being claimed by a son of Koniecpolski , Aleksander Koniecpolski , but a year later , in 1647 , he lost that case and was forced to return the town .
On 4 April 1646 Wiśniowiecki received the office of the voivode of Ruthenia , which granted him a seat in the Senate of Poland . He was the third member of the Wiśniowiecki family to gain that privilege . Soon afterward , however , he refused to support King Władysław 's plan for a war against the Ottoman Empire , even though the King offered him the rank of a Field Crown Hetman .
Then the autumn of 1646 , Wiśniowiecki invaded and took over the starostwo kaniowskie vacated recently by banished Samuel Łaszcz . He did so without any legal justifications , which caused a court ruling against him ; a ruling that was however never enforced . Later that year , he raised a large private army of about 25 @,@ 000 for a purpose unknown , as noted by Widacki , who writes that the army , which Jeremi raised with an immense cost for a short time , did not participate in any engagement , nor did it have any clear purpose . He notes that such an army might have been useful in provoking the Ottomans , but as Jeremi was opposed to the war with them up to the point of refusing the hetman office , his actions are puzzling even for the modern historians .
= = = Khmelnytsky Uprising = = =
Wiśniowiecki fought against the Cossacks again during Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 – 51 . He received information about a growing unrest , and began mobilizing his troops , and in early May learned about the Cossack victory at the Battle of Zhovti Vody . Receiving no orders from Hetmans Mikołaj Potocki and Marcin Kalinowski , he began moving on his own , soon learning about the second Cossack victory at Battle of Korsuń , which meant that his troops ( about 6 @,@ 000 strong ) were the only Polish forces in Transdnieper at that moment . After taking in the situation , he began retreating towards Chernihiv ; his army soon became a focal point for various refugees . Passing Chernihiv , he continued through Liubech to Brahin . He continued to Mazyr , Zhytomir , and Pohrebyshche , stopping briefly in Zhytomir for the local sejmik . After some skirmishes near Nemyriv , Machnówka and Starokostiantyniv ( Battle of Starokostiantyniv ) against the Cossack forces . By July he would arrive near Zbarazh .
Wiśniowiecki 's fighting retreat had a major impact on the course of the war . In the words of the historian Władysław Konopczyński , " he was not defeated , not victorious , and thus he made the peace more difficult . " Politicians in safe Warsaw tried to negotiate with the Cossacks , who in turn used Wisniowiecki 's actions as an excuse to delay any serious negotiations .
Around late August or early September , Wiśniowiecki met with the army regimentarzs Władysław Dominik Zasławski @-@ Ostrogski , Mikołaj Ostroróg and Aleksander Koniecpolski . He was not on overly friendly terms with them , as he resented being passed in military nominations , but after short negotiations he agreed to follow their orders , and thus reduced to a junior commander status which had little impact over the next phase of the campaign . On 23 September , their forces were , however , defeated at the Battle of Pyliavtsi ; near the end of the battle some accounts suggest Wiśniowiecki was offered the hetman 's position , but refused . On 28 September in Lviv , Wiśniowiecki , with popular support , was given a field regimentarz nomination ; about a week later this nomination was confirmed by the Sejm . To the anger of Lviv 's townfolk , he decided to focus on retreating towards the key fortress in Zamość instead of Lviv ; he would leave garrisons on both towns , and keep his army in the field . In the end , the cities were not captured by the Cossacks , who in the light of the coming winter decided to retreat , after being paid a ransom by both town councils ; no other large field battle toke place that year .
Meanwhile , the convocation sejm of 1648 had elected a new king , Jan Kazimierz II Vasa . Wiśniowiecki supported other candidates , such as George I Rákóczi and Karol Ferdynand Vasa ( Jan Kazimierz 's brother ) . Due to the opposition from Jeremi 's detractors , he was not granted a hetman position , although after a full two days of debate on the subject he was granted a document that stated he had a " power equal to that of a hetman . " Wiśniowiecki faction , arguing for increase in army size , was once again marginalized by the faction that hoped for a peaceful resolution . In the end , the King and most of the szlachta were lulled into a false sense of security , and the military was not reinforced significantly . To add an insult to an injury , the coronation sejm of January – February 1649 , held in Kraków , revoked Wiśniowieck 's regimentarz rank .
In the first half of 1649 , the negotiations with the Cossacks fell through , and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian military begun gathering near the borders with the rebellious Ukraine , a major camp was in Zbarazh , where Wiśniowiecki would arrive as well in late June , after gathering a new army of 3 @,@ 000 in Wiśnicz , which was all he was able to afford at that time , as due to most of his estates being overrun by the Cossacks . Wiśniowiecki 's arrival raised the morale of the royal army , and despite having no official rank , both the common soldiers and the new regimentarz promised to take his advice , and even offered him the official command ( which he refused ) . During the Siege of Zbarazh Wiśniowiecki was thus not the official commander ( role was taken by regimentarz Andrzej Firlej ) but most historians agree he was the real , if unofficial , commander of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army . The siege would last until the ceasefire of the Treaty of Zboriv . Wiśniowiecki 's command during the siege was seen as phenomenal , and his popularity among the troops and nobility rose again , however the King , still not fond of him , gave him a relatively small reward ( the land grant of starostwo przasnyskie , much less when compared to several others he distributed around that time ) . Needing Wiśniowiecki 's support in December that year , the King granted him once again a temporary hetman nomination , and several more land grants . In April 1650 , Wiśniowiecki had to return his temporary hetman office to Mikołaj Potocki , recently released from Cossack 's captivity . During December that year , in light of the growing tensions with Muscovy 's , Wiśniowiecki 's military faction succeeded in convincing the Sejm to pass a resolution increasing the size of the army to 51 @,@ 000 , the largest army since the Cossack unrest begun two years ago .
The truce of Zborov did not last long , and in the spring of 1651 Khmelnytsky 's Cossacks begun advancing west again . On June 1 , 1651 Wiśniowiecki brought his private army to face the Cossacks in Sokal . He commanded the left wing of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army in the victorious Battle of Berestechko on 28 – 30 June . The Polish @-@ Lithuanian army advanced after the retreating Cossacks , but on July 17 the King " left the whole army to Potocki ... and having given the order that the army march into Ukraine , the King himself parted ... to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks . " Later that year , on 14 August , Wiśniowiecki suddenly fell ill while in a camp near the village of Pawołocz , and died on August 20 , 1651 , at the age of only 39 . His cause of death was never known , while some ( even contemporaries ) speculated he was poisoned , but no conclusive evidence to support such a claim have ever been found . Based on sparse descriptions of his illness and subsequent investigations , some medical historians suggest the cause of death might have been a disease related to cholera . However , one account states , " following a cheerful conversation with other officers who had congregated for a military council in his tent on Sunday , 13 August N.S. he had eaten some cucumbers with zest and washed them down with mead , and from that contracted dysentery . After lying ill for a week , he died there , at Pavoloch " . He was given a " ceremonial funeral with the entire army present . On August 22 , Wiśniowiecki 's body was seen off with the utmost pomp on its journey to his residence " .
Wiśniowiecki 's indebted family was not able to provide him with a funeral his rank and fame deserved . In the end , he never received the large funeral and the temporary location of his body , the monastery of the Holy Cross at Łysa Góra , became his final resting place . His body was lost in the fire at the end of the 18th century , which also prevents a modern reexamination of the cause of his death .
= = Wealth = =
The majority of the Wiśniowiecki family estates were found on the eastern side of the Dnieper River ( Volhynian , Ruthenian and Kiev Voivodships ) , and most of them were acquired by Jeremi 's grandfather , Aleksander Wiśniowiecki , in the 16th century . The capital of his estate was located at a fortified manor at Lubny , where his father rebuilt an old castle ; the population of the town itself could be estimated at about 1 @,@ 000 . Wiśniowiecki inherited lands inhabited , according to an estimate from 1628 , by about 4 @,@ 500 people , of which Lubny was the largest town . Smaller towns in his lands included Khorol , Piratyn and Przyłuka . By 1646 his lands were inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people . The number of towns on his lands rose from several to about thirty , and their population increased as well . The prosperity of those lands reflected Wiśniowiecki 's skills in economic management , and the income from his territories ( estimated at about 600 @,@ 000 zloties yearly ) made him one of the wealthiest magnates in the Commonwealth . Because of its size and relatively consistent borders , Wiśniowiecki 's estate was often named Wiśniowieczczyzna ( " Wiśniowieckiland " ) .
Despite his wealth , he was not known for a lavish life . His court of about a hundred people was not know for being overly extravagant , he built no luxurious residences , and did not even have a single portrait of himself made during his life . It is uncertain how Wiśniowiecki looked , although a number of portraits and other works depicting him exist . Jan Widacki notes that much of the historiography concerning Wiśniowiecki focuses on the military and political aspects of his life , and few of his critics discuss his successes in the economic development of his estates .
= = Remembrance and popular culture = =
Wiśniowiecki was widely popular among the noble class , who saw in him a defender of tradition , a patriot and an able military commander . He was praised by many of his contemporaries , including a poet , Samuel Twardowski , as well as numerous diary writers and early historians . For his protection of civilian population , including Jews , during the Uprising , Wiśniowiecki has been commended by early Jewish historians . Until the 19th century , he has been idolized as the legendary , perfect " knight of the borderlands " , his sculpture is among the twenty sculpture of famous historical personas in the 18th century " Knight Room " of the royal Warsaw Castle .
In the 19th century this image begun to waver , as a new wave in historiography begun to reinterpret his life , and as the era of positivism in Poland put more value on builders , and less on warriors . Further , at that time the Polish historians begun to question the traditional view of the " Ukrainian problem " , and the way that the Polish noble class had dealt with the Cossacks . Slowly , Wiśniowiecki 's image as a hero began to waver , with various aspects of his life and personality being questioned and criticized in the work of historians such as Karol Szajnocha and Józef Szujski .
While Wiśniowiecki 's portrayal ( as a major secondary character ) in the first part of Henryk Sienkiewicz 's trilogy , With Fire and Sword which describes the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Uprising , was rather positive , criticism of his persona intensified , in particular from Sienkiewicz detractors such as Zygmunt Kaczkowski and Olgierd Górka . The 1930s saw a first modern historical work about Wiśniowiecki , by Władysław Tomkiewicz . In the era of the People 's Republic of Poland , the Communist Party 's ideology dictated that all historians present him as an " enemy of the people " , although this began to be relaxed after 1965 . Widacki , analyzing the work of other historians notes that Władysław Czapliński was rather sympathetic to Wiśniowiecki , while Paweł Jasienica was critical of him .
Wiśniowiecki has made appearances in more recent media . He was the main subject of one of Jacek Kaczmarski 's 1993 songs Kniazia Jaremy nawrócenie ( The Conversion of Knyaz Jarema ) . Andrzej Seweryn played Jeremi Wiśniowiecki in the 1999 film With Fire and Sword .
= Bassline ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Bassline " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , which incorporates elements of reggae . Instrumentation is provided by a wobble bass and synthesizers . The song contains lyrics about Brown telling a woman to leave the nightclub with him . " Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics ; some reviewers noted it as one of the standout tracks on the album , while others criticized the song 's production and lyrics . It also received comparisons to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Upon the release of Fortune , " Bassline " debuted at numbers 28 and 122 on the UK R & B Chart and UK Singles Chart , respectively .
= = Development and composition = =
" Bassline " was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Chris Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . " Bassline " was recorded by Brian Springer with assistance from Iain Findley . The recordings were later mixed by Jaycen Joshua with assistance by Trehy Harris . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , that incorporates elements of reggae . The song lasts for three minutes and 58 seconds . Instrumentation consists of a wobble bass and synthesizers . Melinda Newman of HitFix compared " Bassline " to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that the lyrics are about Brown trying to " convince a hot girl he spots in the club to come back to his crib " , in which he sings " Hey girl tell me what you talk / Pretty as a picture on the wall / Hey girl you can get it all / Cause I know you like the way the beat go " . Brown also declares , " You heard about my image / But I could give a flying motherfuck who 's offended " . Hayley Avron of Contactmusic.com noted that a robot voice joins Brown in the hook " Girls like my bassline " . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine noted that the word " bassline " is a metaphor for penis .
= = Reception = =
" Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Sam Wilbur of AOL Radio viewed it as " the best example " of dubstep tracks on Fortune
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" the eight costume changes to the dancers to the theatrics to , hell , even the music itself " and avouched that she sounded completely different from how she did with No Doubt . Moss asserted that the No Doubt lead vocalist was the " most captivating thing onstage " with her " confident strut and dead @-@ on vocals " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times admired the " glamour and groove " antics of the show and how Stefani " flaunt [ ed ] the perks of stardom " . He praised her music , describing the album as " a smart [ record ] , with honed rhythm tracks that flit from funk to pop , electronics to rock " , although calling most tracks " superficial " , being about " style " , " success " , " shopping " and " sex " .
Jim Harrison of SoundSpike affirmed that the Harajuku Lovers Tour lacked a strong musical setlist , and also felt that Stefani 's stage presence was absent . He stated that she " doesn 't have many songs that translate well in a live setting " from her album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and suggested that she should have included songs by No Doubt for " much @-@ needed shots of adrenaline " for the audience , who were , according to Harrison , " figuratively sitting on their hands and literally yawning four songs into the set " . Harrison felt that Stefani seemed truly " lost on stage without a band " , ultimately describing her performance as " [ lacking in ] energy " , " lukewarm " and seemingly " on autopilot " . Furthermore , the SoundSpike writer thought that her performance was akin to that of fellow American recording artist Britney Spears , which was " utterly unsuitable for both the song selection and her style " . However , he did praise the rendition of " Hollaback Girl " , calling it " great " and " Gwen being all Gwen can be " , and called the breakdancing " pretty cool " .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
Stefani 's performance in late November 2005 in her home town of Anaheim , California was recorded and released on DVD as a video album Harajuku Lovers Live . It was released on December 5 , 2006 , the same release date as Stefani 's second album , The Sweet Escape . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . The concert features performances of all twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two new songs from her second studio album , The Sweet Escape , as well as interviews with the musicians and dancers and a documentary of tour preparation . The DVD received similar mixed reviews to the concerts themselves . Reviewers praised Stefani 's musical performances and stage presence , but criticizing the lack of material and the long costume changes . The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association .
= = Opening acts = =
The Black Eyed Peas ( October 16 – November 14 )
M.I.A. ( November 16 – December 1 )
Ciara ( December 3 – December 21 )
= = Set list = =
= = Tour dates = =
= Laborintus II ( 2012 recording ) =
Laborintus II is a 2012 album by Belgian orchestra Ictus Ensemble , vocal group Nederlands Kamerkoor and American vocalist Mike Patton . It is a recording of the 1965 work of the same name by Italian composer Luciano Berio , which featured lyrics taken from fellow Italian Edoardo Sanguineti 's 1956 poem Laborintus . The performance was recorded live at the 2010 Holland Festival .
Berio 's composition employs elements of jazz and electronic music , and Sanguineti 's libretto borrows ideas from the works of Dante Alighieri , T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound as well as using his own original work . Berio named " memory , death and usury " as the work 's main concerns , believing these themes to be present in Dante 's work .
Released on July 10 , 2012 , the album debuted at number 23 on the American Billboard Classic Albums chart . It has received mixed reviews from critics , most of whom highlighted its challenging and free @-@ form composition .
= = Production = =
Laborintus II is a recording of the 1965 composition of the same name by Luciano Berio , who wrote it for the 700th anniversary of Dante Alighieri 's birth . The libretto was provided by Edoardo Sanguineti , who included elements of his 1956 poem Laborintus in it . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek described the original poem as speaking of " the timelessness of love and mourning , while acting as a critique of the commoditization of all things " . In addition to Sanguineti 's own poetry — itself based on themes found in Dante 's Divina Commedia , Convivio and La Vita Nuova — the work uses excerpts from the Bible and the writings of poets T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound . Musically , Laborintus II incorporates elements of jazz and electronic music while sometimes evoking the style of Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi .
Berio described the main structure of Laborintus II as a " catalogue , in its medieval meaning " ( exemplified by the Etymologies of Isodore of Seville ) , using Dante 's themes of " memory , death and usury " . Members of the Dutch choir Nederlands Kamerkoor , which performed in the recording , have also cited usury as a key theme in the work , describing the composition as " an indictment against the practice " . Of the form , Berio wrote : " Individual words and sentences are sometimes to be regarded as autonomous entities , and sometimes to be perceived as part of the sound structure as a whole . " The instrumentation of Laborintus II was written as an " extension " of the vocal material ; its electronic section is likewise an extension of the instrumental music . Berio used car tyres and a blow @-@ up doll on stage in a performance of the work at the Holland Festival in 1973 .
The album was recorded live at the Holland Festival on June 18 , 2010 , in the Muziekgebouw aan ' t IJ . The work was performed by Mike Patton and the Belgian Ictus Ensemble conducted by Georges @-@ Elie Octors . Solos were performed by Ictus Ensemble clarinetist Dirk Descheemaeker , trumpeter Loïc Dumoulin , trombonist Michel Massot , double bass player Géry Cambier , and percussionists Michael Weilacher and Gerrit Nulens . Nederlands Kamerkoor provided the choral accompaniments . The album marks only the third recording of the composition to have been released since it was first broadcast on French radio by Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française . Patton has said of the work , " I can listen to Berio and Nono as easily as I can to Morricone but like all modern music of Italy , it is unfortunately marginalized ... Maybe because of the language barrier , maybe because it ’ s not easily understood . Berio , who was teaching in California when he wrote this piece , was listening to jazz , pop and folk music and incorporated all of it in his works without prejudice . "
= = Composition = =
Laborintus II combines orchestral , choral and spoken elements throughout its three parts . Patton 's spoken narration is delivered in Italian , although taped samples feature Sanguineti speaking in English . From a whisper to a shout , the words carry a variety of emotional tones as the work progresses . The choral parts respond to the narration both with unified chanting and with disjointed arguing , the latter serving to increase the tension . They are accompanied by three female vocalists whose voices range from soprano singing to " cooing " and " howling " .
The music incorporates elements of jazz and 20th @-@ century avant @-@ garde . The instruments in the orchestra frequently interrupt both each other and the female voices , and some sections of the composition seem as though they are improvised . Laborintus II makes use of both traditional percussion instruments and electronic sounds , and their interplay serves to " erect musical and textural architectures , then disassemble them quickly " . Max Feldman has compared the style to that of Raymond Scott .
The first part of the composition features the three female voices creating a " mournful " tone while the orchestra plays recurring musical passages . The second part is a discordant crescendo , as Patton 's narration becomes increasingly shouted and the orchestral accompaniment more " hyperactive " . The third and final part returns to a calmer tone , focussing on drums and jazz woodwind instruments .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Edoardo Sanguineti , all music composed by Luciano Berio .
= = Personnel = =
= = Release and reception = =
Laborintus II was released on July 10 , 2012 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings . In the United States , the album debuted on the Billboard Classic Albums chart at number 23 ; it spent one week on the chart .
The album received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Metacritic awarded it an average score of 58 out of 100 , based on eight reviews . Writing for The A.V. Club , Chris Mincher rated the album B − , calling it " challenging , uncompromising , and bordering on inaccessible " . Mincher felt that the album was abstract and difficult but contained " hidden payoffs " to reward repeated hearings . He called Patton 's arrangements " haunting " and " wraithlike " . AllRovi 's Thom Jurek rated the album 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , describing the recording as " a very nearly dazzling endeavor that rewards patience mightily " . Jurek felt that , as an album , Laborintus II was difficult to grasp at first , by virtue of being a recording of theatrical music , but he praised the performance of Ictus Ensemble , writing of their " bracing freshness and mischievous glee " . Eli Kleman of Sputnikmusic rated it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , finding it " fascinating if not unwieldy " . He felt that Laborintus II was perhaps Patton 's most ambitious album to date , but noted that the musician has previously produced similarly avant @-@ garde records in the past . Kleman described the composition as " somber , beautiful , and ominous , but always affecting " .
Max Feldman of PopMatters awarded Laborintus II a rating of seven out of ten , finding Berio 's composition " challenging " and " exhausting " . He noted the work 's free jazz elements , comparing it to the 1970 Miles Davis album Bitches Brew . Feldman felt that the music " constantly emphasises its own unpredictability " . Consequence of Sound 's Carson O 'Shoney rated the album three stars out of five , calling it " unlike anything else you ’ ve ever heard " . O 'Shoney felt that the music might need more than one hearing to appreciate it , adding that it " runs the gauntlet from quiet , jazzy atmospherics to brazen , unsettling primal noise " . A review for Q magazine described Laborintus II as " tedious " , finding the album disorienting . Spin 's Christopher R. Weingarten rated it 7 out of 10 , calling it an " orchestra / tape collision crisper " .
= Residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations =
The residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is the official residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . As of 2016 it was located in a suite of rooms on the 42nd floor of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City leased by the U.S. Department of State . Described in press reports as " palatial " , the establishment of the current residence in 1947 marked the first time in history that an ambassadorial residence had been located in a hotel .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Beginning in 1947 , shortly after the siting of the United Nations secretariat in New York , the U.S. State Department took a long @-@ term lease for occupancy of a suite of rooms by the U.S. ambassador at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , a luxury hotel constructed in 1931 . The establishment of the ambassador 's residence at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria made it the first hotel in history to house an ambassadorial residence . In 1960 , a townhouse at Sutton Place , originally constructed by J.P. Morgan in 1921 , was donated to the U.S. government by then owner Arthur Houghton with the intention it be used as a new ambassadorial residence . However , ambassador Adlai Stevenson II determined the home was not to his liking and the residence continued at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria . ( The Sutton Place townhouse was subsequently re @-@ gifted by the United States to the United Nations and currently serves as the official residence of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . )
In 1978 , Ebony reported that Andrew Young and his family explored the possibility of moving out of the suite at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria and into a house instead . Young , who was the first ambassador to live in the suite with " young children " , stated that " [ t ] he Waldorf is very nice , and its convenient , but I just have problems trying to bring up a small child in a hotel . " However , the search ultimately " became a media issue " and Young elected to stay in the suite . Nevertheless , he opined that " [ p ] eople tried to make it seem like I was saying that the Waldorf wasn 't good enough for us " .
As of 1999 , the State Department was paying $ 360 @,@ 000 per year to lease the suite on a rolling basis ; the lease is renewed every ten years with an optional one or two year short @-@ term extension . In 2015 , it was announced the State Department would no longer permit staff to be housed at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , due to security concerns arising from the recent purchase of the property by Chinese business interests . Whether the decision would impact the status of the residence was not made clear , however , as of March 2016 the hotel was still being occupied by the U.S. ambassador .
= = = Notable residents = = =
Madeleine Albright , George H. W. Bush , John Bolton , Adlai Stevenson II , Samantha Power , and Bill Richardson are among notable former residents of the suite . During his tenure as ambassador , Richard Holbrooke elected not to occupy the 42nd floor apartment , choosing instead to live in his private Manhattan home . In his place , the residence was temporarily occupied by Holbrooke 's assistant , then 27 @-@ year old Randolph Eddy . According to reports , Holbrooke and his wife , journalist Kati Marton , would throw " glittery parties " in the suite " where pols and foreign ministers mixed with the likes of Robert De Niro and Sarah Jessica Parker . " As of July 2014 , Power lived in the suite with her husband , Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein , and their two young children .
= = Design = =
The suite is located on " the very top floor " of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Described in press accounts as " palatial , " the residence is decorated with , among other items , a Jim Dine painting , an Alexander Calder mobile , and a grand piano , and features " twinkling city views " of the New York skyline . The front door to the suite is framed by a golden eagle . It is located on the opposite side of the corridor from the " royal suite " , so @-@ called as it was long used by the Duke of Windsor as his unofficial New York City residence .
As of 1971 , the interior of the suite was sectioned into nine rooms , including five bedrooms and a living room with a 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) tall ceiling , which was used to " host large official receptions . " Dorothy Bush Koch noted that the apartment was designed with " high ceilings , handsome old woodwork , working fireplaces , and big windows with beautiful views of New York City . "
= K @-@ 22 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 22 is a 3 @.@ 087 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 968 km ) highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . Located entirely within Washington County , the route runs from U.S. Route 36 ( US @-@ 36 ) north to the city limit of Haddam . A previous designation of the route existed in the 1930s from Wichita to Topeka , but was deprecated . The current alignment was designated in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 22 begins at an intersection with US @-@ 36 , known as 17th Road . The route continues south as Deer Road toward Vining . From this intersection , K @-@ 22 heads north along Deer Road through a grassland area to an intersection with 18th Road . The route then crosses the Mulberry Creek and runs near it until it reaches Haddam . The roadway then crosses Mill Creek before meeting its northern terminus at the south city limit of Haddam near an intersection with Main Street . Deer Road continues north toward the Nebraska state line , but does not cross it .
The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that a total of 205 vehicles used the road daily , including 45 trucks . No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's defence , mobility , and economy .
= = History = =
The first designation for K @-@ 22 was established by 1927 and ran from US @-@ 54 near Liberal to US @-@ 36 near Halford . During this time , most of the route was a dirt road , except for a portion near Garden City , which was paved . This routing was relinquished by 1932 . By 1933 , a new routing was created , and the road instead began in Wichita , headed east along US @-@ 54 to Eureka and north to Emporia . From Emporia , the route turned northeast toward Scranton and north into Topeka . This designation was decommissioned between January and July 1938 . The current designation of K @-@ 22 was established in 1941 . No alignment changes have taken place since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Washington County .
= Tropical Storm Jose ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived tropical storm which made landfall in central Mexico during August 2005 . Jose was the tenth named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and the fourth of six tropical cyclones ( three hurricanes and three tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico in that year .
Tropical Storm Jose formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 22 and made landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz the next day . It retained tropical characteristics for less than one day before dissipating , but still brought heavy levels of rainfall to the region . Mudslides caused by the rainfall killed eight people , six of those directly , and caused $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Jose was first identified as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 8 , 2005 . On August 13 , the system spawned Tropical Depression Ten over the central Atlantic ; the wave itself continued westward , entering the Caribbean on August 17 . Slight development took place as the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula ; however , by the time it entered the Bay of Campeche on August 21 , little convection was associated with the system . The following morning , convection exploded under highly favorable divergence from an upper @-@ level anticyclonic flow . According to readings from the QuikSCAT satellite , a well @-@ defined low pressure center developed by 1200 UTC , prompting the National Hurricane Center to classify the system as Tropical Depression Eleven . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 110 mi ( 175 km ) east of Veracruz , Mexico .
Situated over very warm waters and within an area of low wind shear , the depression was able to quickly organize ; however , due to its proximity to land , the NHC noted , " the system does not have very long ... to take advantage of these favorable conditions . " Located to the south of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression tracked just north of due west and kept this motion through the remainder of its existence . The depression rapidly intensified as it moved to the west , becoming Tropical Storm Jose just six hours later . The global model guidance initially failed to resolve the storm 's track well , with some models indicating that it would stall offshore . Jose continued to strengthen as it moved towards the coast and made landfall in the state of Veracruz early on August 23 with winds reaching a peak of 60 mph ( 90 km / h ) . As Jose made its landfall an eye was beginning to form , although the storm was still well short of hurricane intensity . Tropical Storm Jose quickly weakened after landfall and dissipated that afternoon in the mountains of central Mexico only 24 hours after forming .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
As Tropical Storm Jose formed so close to shore there was a lead time of less than 9 hours on the tropical storm warning for the Veracruz coastline . The area covered by the warning issued on August 22 was extended southwards as Jose intensified , before being canceled soon after landfall on August 23 . The advisories issued by the National Hurricane Center emphasized that rainfall from Jose was the primary threat .
Tropical Storm Jose was responsible for damaging crops , highways and homes ; flooding districts in several cities in the state of Veracruz , and the evacuation of 80 @,@ 000 people to shelters . The government of that state estimated the damages caused by the storm to be approximately $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) . Approximately 120 municipalities were affected by the torrential rain , but the majority of the damage was concentrated to eight of them : Martínez de la Torre , Misantla , Nautla , San Rafael , Vega de la Torre , Actopan , Cardel and Úrsulo Galván . Damage to the highway infrastructure was estimated at $ 33 million ( 2005 USD ) .
It was also reported that the storm damaged at least 16 @,@ 000 homes and about 250 square kilometers ( 60 thousand acres ) of land used for cattle . In addition over 420 square kilometers ( 103 thousand acres ) of various crops , including sugarcane , corn and bananas , were flooded . Many boats were also lost as a result of Jose . 90 active medical brigades were sent to the region to reduce the risk of infections amongst the affected population .
Jose was responsible for six direct casualties . One of these deaths was the result of a mud slide that killed a man was in Xalapa , Veracruz . The other five deaths were also due to mudslides in Oaxaca .
= Norsk Spisevognselskap =
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ridiculed the movie 's large @-@ scale destruction of foreign cities , writing : " Audiences who thrilled to the sight of Paris under biochemical attack in Cobra will be pleased to watch London endure an even more horrific fate here , although the sequence is tossed off in quick , almost ho @-@ hum fashion , with no time to dwell on anything so exquisitely crass as the spectacle of the Eiffel Tower collapsing . " He summarized the movie as " a more straight @-@ faced brand of idiocy than its cheerfully dumb 2009 predecessor . "
PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III wrote " For fans who bought the toys , watched the cartoon and read the comics during the ‘ 80s and now have like @-@ aged children of their own ( all of which I did and do ) , might I suggest proceeding to watch this fun film with your kids , but compromise so that you can leave the commentary track on . The film will remain a treat for the eyes , but you can more easily gloss over those parts that will make you apologize to your brain . "
Writing for Empire magazine , Olly Richards gave the movie 2 stars out of 5 and compared it unfavorably with its predecessor , writing : " The first film you could at least laugh at . This takes all its silly ingredients and smushes them down flat . ' Retaliation ' over @-@ promises and under @-@ delivers . " Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun Times gave the movie 1 @.@ 5 stars out of a possible four , branding it a " ridiculous and overblown debacle " that contained " nothing but well @-@ packaged garbage " and further adding : " To say ' G.I. Joe : Retaliation ' is a video game for the big screen is to insult a number of video games that are far more creative , challenging and better @-@ looking . "
Despite the negative critical response , audiences responded favorably . CinemaScore polls found that audiences gave the film an average grade of A @-@ minus .
= = = Box office = = =
G.I. Joe : Retaliation grossed $ 122 @,@ 523 @,@ 060 in North America and $ 253 @,@ 217 @,@ 645 internationally for a worldwide total of $ 375 @,@ 740 @,@ 705 . Overall , according to Box Office Mojo it is the 25th highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 in North America , the 18th highest @-@ grossing film worldwide that year , the highest @-@ grossing film in the G.I. Joe film series , and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Hasbro film .
In North America , the film grossed $ 10 @.@ 5 million on its opening day at the top of the box office . The film retained the No. 1 spot over the three @-@ day weekend and grossed $ 40 @.@ 5 million , which is the third @-@ highest Easter debut ever behind Furious 7 and Clash of the Titans . However , this was lower than its predecessor 's opening weekend of $ 54 @.@ 7 million . The international response was even more positive , with $ 80 @.@ 3 million across the weekend .
= = Sequel = =
On April 1 , 2013 , reports surfaced that there will be a third G.I. Joe film , and it will likely be in 3D . The studio announced that Chu will return to direct the third film . While at the 2013 San Diego Comic Con , Chu talked about bringing Scarlett back in the next film . The writers of the second film are also thinking about bringing back the Baroness in the sequel . Johnson is interested in returning as Roadblock for the sequel , and Park has talked about a possible return as Snake Eyes and also including his pet wolf Timber . Producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura has stated he is open to doing a G.I. Joe / Transformers crossover , which Chu stated that he would be interested in directing . Bonaventura told Beijing News that he hoped that Johnson and Willis would return , the script is still in the writing stage , and that they are considering adding a third important role . On September 10 , 2013 , Chu was confirmed to direct the film , along with writer Evan Daugherty ( Snow White and the Huntsman , Divergent , Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles ) to pen the film 's script . On December 5 , 2013 , Daugherty talked about writing the film 's script and his feelings about Duke being killed , but Chu told MTV that Tatum may return as Duke in the sequel . On April 2 , 2014 , in an interview with Collider , Johnson believes that Chu may not return to direct , due to working on the live action Jem film , but they may find another director for the film . It was revealed that the third film will have a 2016 release date . On June 23 , 2014 , di Bonaventura told Collider in an interview that they 're meeting with new directors and filming may start in early 2015 . On July 1 , 2014 , Variety reported that Jonathan Lemkin will write the script for the film and will focus on Roadblock with Johnson returning . On February 5 , 2015 , Film Divider reported that the twins Tomax and Xamot and Matt Trakker from the TV series M.A.S.K. will be appearing . On April 2 , 2015 , the studio hired Aaron Berg to write the film , and D. J. Caruso to direct the film . On November 23 , 2015 , Deadline reported that Akiva Goldsman will lead a writers room for the next G.I. Joe film .
= Burns ' Heir =
" Burns ' Heir " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 14 , 1994 . In the episode , Mr. Burns has a near @-@ death experience which prompts him to find an heir to inherit his wealth after he dies . Although Bart is initially rejected , Burns soon decides to choose him after seeing him as " a creature of pure malevolence " . Marge convinces Bart to go spend some time with Burns , and soon becomes more disruptive than normal to his own family and decides to go live with Mr. Burns .
" Burns ' Heir " was written by Jace Richdale , his only writing credit . David Silverman was originally going to direct the episode , but he was so swamped with his work as supervising director that it was reassigned to Mark Kirkland . While the Simpsons are at a movie , there is a parody of the THX sound Deep Note . The THX executives liked the parody so much that the scene was made into an actual THX movie trailer , with the scene being redone for the widescreen aspect ratio . A deleted scene from the episode sees Mr. Burns release a " Robotic Richard Simmons " as a way of getting rid of Homer . The scene was cut , but later included in the season seven clip show " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns almost drowns while taking a bath after Smithers puts a sponge on his head that weighs him down . Later , after realizing that no one will carry on his legacy when he dies , Burns decides to try to find an heir that will inherit his vast fortune . He holds an audition and many of the boys in Springfield try out , including Nelson Muntz , Martin Prince , and Milhouse Van Houten . Bart and Lisa also try out and fail ; Lisa because she is a girl , and Bart because he read Homer 's badly @-@ worded proposal . Angry and humiliated after the audition ends , only made worse by Burns kicking him in the butt with a mechanical boot , Bart pays him back by vandalizing his mansion . Mr. Burns approves of Bart 's malevolence and decides to accept him as his heir .
Homer and Marge sign a legal document which officially names Bart as Mr. Burns ' heir . Marge suggests that Bart should spend some time with Mr. Burns . While initially repelled by Mr. Burns ' coldness , Bart begins to take a liking to him after Burns promises to give Bart whatever he wants out of his life . Bart decides to abandon his family because Mr. Burns allows him to do anything he likes . Bart 's family becomes angry and wants him back , so they decide to sue Mr. Burns , but due to hiring Lionel Hutz as their lawyer , the court ends up deciding that Mr Burns is Bart 's biological father . The Simpsons get a Private Investigator deprogrammer to kidnap Bart , but the deprogrammer wrongly takes Hans Moleman instead and brainwashes him into thinking he 's a part of the Simpson family .
Meanwhile , Bart becomes lonely and wants to go back to his family . Mr. Burns does not want him to leave and tricks him into thinking that his family hates him , using a falsified video with actors playing the Simpson family . Bart decides that Burns is his true father and the two celebrate by firing employees at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant by ejecting them through a trap door . However , one of the employees is Homer and Mr. Burns then tries to break Bart 's ties with his family by forcing him to fire Homer . Bart instead " fires " Burns and drops him through a trap door . Bart decides that he loves his family , and moves back in with them .
= = Production = =
" Burns ' Heir " was the first episode in which Jace Richdale received a writers ' credit , although he was a part of the show 's staff for several seasons . When he was starting out as a writer on the show , Richdale was told to come up with some story ideas and he came up with the basic plot off the top of his head . David Silverman was originally going to direct the episode , but he was so swamped with his work as supervising director that it was reassigned to Mark Kirkland . While the Simpsons are at a movie , there is a parody of the THX sound Deep Note . During that scene , a man 's head explodes in a reference to the film Scanners . The THX executives liked the parody so much that the scene was made into an actual THX movie trailer , with the scene being redone for the widescreen aspect ratio .
A deleted scene from the episode sees Mr. Burns release a " Robotic Richard Simmons " as a way of getting rid of Homer , which dances to a recording of K.C. and the Sunshine Band 's " Shake Your Booty " . Simmons was originally asked to guest star , according to David Mirkin , he was " dying to do the show " , but declined when he found out he would voice a robot . It was fully animated , but was cut from " Burns ' Heir " because it often did not get a good reaction during table reads . According to Bill Oakley , there was a " significant division of opinion amongst the staff as to whether Richard Simmons was a target The Simpsons should make fun of " because it was " well @-@ trod territory " . They also felt it distracted viewers from the story . To the production staff 's surprise , the scene would make the audience " erupt with laughter " when screened at animation conventions and college presentations , so they decided to insert it in the season seven clip show " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode parodies THX 's infamous ' Deep Note ' .
The trailer advertising Mr. Burns ' search for an heir is a loose parody of the trailer for Toys , a 1992 comedy starring Robin Williams .
Mr. Burns also sings " Let 's All Go to the Lobby " .
Marge 's fantasy about Bart graduating from Harvard University with Mr. Burns ' money is interrupted by a fantasy of her being lifted into the sky by Lee Majors , accompanied by a sound effect from The Six Million Dollar Man , in which Majors played the title character .
Mr. Burns states that he got the idea for installing cameras all through town from Sliver , which he calls a " delightful romp " .
Moe using a home @-@ made sliding action holster with a pistol while looking in a mirror is a reference to Travis Bickle from Taxi Driver .
The scene in which Homer is secretly eating flowers is a reference to a scene in The Last Emperor where the empress eats flowers .
The young boy saying , " Today , sir ? Why , it 's Christmas Day ! " makes a reference to Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol .
The room in which " Bart " ( who is really Hans Moleman ) is deprogrammed in is room number 101 , which is in reference to the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
In the deleted scene , the Richard Simmons robot healing itself after Smithers shoots it with a shotgun is a reference to the T @-@ 1000 from Terminator 2 : Judgment Day .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Burns ' Heir " finished 53rd in ratings for the week of April 11 – 17 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , and was viewed in 8 @.@ 85 million households . The show dropped four places in the rankings after finishing 49th the previous week . It was the third highest rated show on Fox that week following Living Single and Married ... with Children .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that , " the episode lacks the emotional punch of others in which members of the family are separated . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that the episode was " such a great concept that it ’ s a surprise no [ one ] went for it earlier . " He felt that it " occasionally veers on the edge of mushiness , but it avoids becoming too sentimental . It 's a blast to see Burns ’ world from Bart ’ s point of view . DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5 while DVD Verdict gave the episode a Grade B score . Paul Campos of Rocky Mountain News described the Robotic Richard Simmons scene as " a level of surreal comedy that approaches a kind of genius " .
Homer 's quote , " Kids , you tried your best and you failed miserably . The lesson is never try " , was added to The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations in August 2007 .
= Cougar =
The cougar ( Puma concolor ) , also commonly known as the mountain lion , puma , panther , or catamount , is a large felid of the subfamily Felinae native to the Americas . Its range , from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes of South America , is the greatest of any large wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere . An adaptable , generalist species , the cougar is found in most American habitat types . It is the second @-@ heaviest cat in the New World , after the jaguar . Secretive and largely solitary by nature , the cougar is properly considered both nocturnal and crepuscular , although there are daytime sightings . The cougar is more closely related to smaller felines , including the domestic cat ( subfamily Felinae ) , than to any species of subfamily Pantherinae , of which only the jaguar is native to the Americas .
The cougar is an ambush predator and pursues a wide variety of prey . Primary food sources are ungulates , particularly deer , but also livestock . It also hunts species as small as insects and rodents . This cat prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking , but can also live in open areas . The cougar is territorial and survives at low population densities . Individual territory sizes depend on terrain , vegetation , and abundance of prey . While large , it is not always the apex predator in its range , yielding to the jaguar , gray wolf , American black bear , and grizzly bear . It is reclusive and mostly avoids people . Fatal attacks on humans are rare , but have recently been increasing in North America as more people enter their territories .
Prolific hunting following European colonization of the Americas and the ongoing human development of cougar habitat has caused populations to drop in most parts of its historical range . In particular , the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century , except for an isolated Florida panther subpopulation . Breeding populations have moved east into the far western parts of the Dakotas , Nebraska , and Oklahoma . Transient males have been verified in Minnesota , Missouri , Wisconsin , Iowa , the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and Illinois , where a cougar was shot in the city limits of Chicago and , in at least one instance , observed as far east as coastal Connecticut . Reports of eastern cougars ( P. c. cougar ) still surface , although it was declared extirpated in 2011 .
= = Naming and etymology = =
With its vast range across the length of the Americas , P. concolor has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous Americans and in contemporary culture . Currently , it is referred to as " puma " by most scientists and by the populations in 21 of the 23 countries in the Americas where " puma " is the common name in Spanish or Portuguese . The cat has many local or regional names in the United States and Canada , of which cougar , puma , mountain lion , and panther are popular . " Mountain lion " was a term first used in writing in 1858 from the diary of George A. Jackson of Colorado . Other names include catamount ( probably a contraction from " cat of the mountain " ) , mountain screamer , and painter . Lexicographers regard painter as a primarily upper @-@ Southern US regional variant on panther . The word panther is commonly used to specifically designate the black panther , a melanistic jaguar or leopard , and the Florida panther , a subspecies of cougar ( P. c. coryi ) .
P. concolor holds the Guinness record for the animal with the greatest number of names , with over 40 in English alone .
" Cougar " may be borrowed from the archaic Portuguese çuçuarana ; the term was originally derived from the Tupi language susua 'rana , meaning " similar to deer ( in hair color ) " . A current form in Brazil is suçuarana . It may also be borrowed from the Guaraní language term guaçu ara or guazu ara . Less common Portuguese terms are onça @-@ parda ( brown onça , in distinction of the black @-@ spotted [ yellow ] one , onça @-@ pintada , the jaguar ) or leão @-@ baio ( lit. chestnut lion ) , or unusually non @-@ native puma or leão @-@ da @-@ montanha , more common names for the animal when native to a region other than South America ( especially for those who do not know that suçuaranas are found elsewhere but with a different name ) . People in rural regions often refer to both the cougar and the jaguar as simply gata ( she @-@ cat ) , and outside of the Amazon , both are colloquially referred to as simply onça by many people ( that is also a name for the leopard in Angola ) .
In the 17th century , German naturalist Georg Marcgrave named the cat the cuguacu ara . Marcgrave 's rendering was reproduced by his associate , Dutch naturalist Willem Piso , in 1648 . Cuguacu ara was then adopted by English naturalist John Ray in 1693 . The French naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon in 1774 ( probably influenced by the word " jaguar " ) converted the cuguacu ara to cuguar , which was later modified to " cougar " in English .
The first English record of " puma " was in 1777 , where it had come from the Spanish , who in turn borrowed it from the Peruvian Quechua language in the 16th century , where it means " powerful " .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Cougars are the largest of the small cats . They are placed in the subfamily Felinae , although their bulk characteristics are similar to those of the big cats in the subfamily Pantherinae . The family Felidae is believed to have originated in Asia about 11 million years ago . Taxonomic research on felids remains partial , and much of what is known about their evolutionary history is based on mitochondrial DNA analysis , as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record , and significant confidence intervals exist with suggested dates . In the latest genomic study of the Felidae , the common ancestor of today 's Leopardus , Lynx , Puma , Prionailurus , and Felis lineages migrated across the Bering land bridge into the Americas 8 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 5 million years ago ( Mya ) . The lineages subsequently diverged in that order . North American felids then invaded South America 3 Mya as part of the Great American Interchange , following formation of the Isthmus of Panama . The cougar was originally thought to belong in Felis ( Felis concolor ) , the genus which includes the domestic cat . As of 1993 , it is now placed in Puma along with the jaguarundi , a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight .
The cougar and jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern cheetah of Africa and western Asia , but the relationship is unresolved . The cheetah lineage is suggested by some studies to have diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas ( see American cheetah ) and migrated back to Asia and Africa , while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself . The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear .
A high level of genetic similarity has been found among North American cougar populations , suggesting they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group . Culver et al. propose the original North American population of P. concolor was extirpated during the Pleistocene extinctions some 10 @,@ 000 years ago , when other large mammals , such as Smilodon , also disappeared . North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Until the late 1980s , as many as 32 subspecies were recorded ; genetic study of mitochondrial DNA found many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level . Following the research , the canonical Mammal Species of the World ( 3rd ed . ) recognizes six subspecies , five of which are solely found in Latin America :
Argentine cougar ( Puma concolor cabrerae ) Pocock , 1940 :
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma
Costa Rican cougar ( P. c. costaricensis ) Merriam , 1901
Eastern South American cougar ( P. c. anthonyi ) Nelson and Goldman , 1931 :
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia , borbensis , capricornensis , concolor , greeni , and nigra
North American cougar ( P. c. couguar ) Kerr , 1792 :
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms arundivaga , aztecus , browni , californica , floridana , hippolestes , improcera , kaibabensis , mayensis , missoulensis , olympus , oregonensis , schorgeri , stanleyana , vancouverensis , and youngi
Northern South American cougar ( P. c. concolor ) Linnaeus , 1771 :
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi , incarum , osgoodi , soasoaranna , sussuarana , soderstromii , suçuaçuara , and wavula
Southern South American cougar ( P. c. puma ) Molina , 1782 :
includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus , concolor , patagonica , pearsoni , and puma
Incerta sedis
Florida panther ( P. c. coryi )
The status of the Florida panther remains uncertain . It is still regularly listed as subspecies P. c. coryi in research works , including those directly concerned with its conservation . Culver et al. noted low microsatellite variation in the Florida panther , possibly due to inbreeding ; responding to the research , one conservation team suggests , " the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the use of genetics in puma taxonomy is not resolved at this time . "
= = Biology and behavior = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family . They are the fourth @-@ largest cat ; adults stand about 60 to 90 cm ( 24 to 35 in ) tall at the shoulders . Adult males are around 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long nose @-@ to @-@ tail and females average 2 @.@ 05 m ( 6 @.@ 7 ft ) , with overall ranges between 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 75 m ( 4 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 0 ft ) nose to tail suggested for the species in general . Of this length , 63 to 95 cm ( 25 to 37 in ) is comprised by the tail . Males typically weigh 53 to 100 kg ( 115 to 220 lb ) , averaging 62 kg ( 137 lb ) . Females typically weigh between 29 and 64 kg ( 64 and 141 lb ) , averaging 42 kg ( 93 lb ) . Cougar size is smallest close to the equator , and larger towards the poles . The largest recorded cougar , shot in 1901 , weighed 105 @.@ 2 kg ( 232 lb ) ; claims of 125 @.@ 2 kg ( 276 lb ) and 118 kg ( 260 lb ) have been reported , though they were most likely exaggerated . On average , adult male cougars in British Columbia weigh 56 @.@ 7 kg ( 125 lb ) and adult females 45 @.@ 4 kg ( 100 lb ) , though several male cougars in British Columbia weighed between 86 @.@ 4 and 95 @.@ 5 kg ( 190 to 210 lb ) .
The head of the cat is round and the ears are erect . Its powerful forequarters , neck , and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey . It has five retractable claws on its forepaws ( one a dewclaw ) and four on its hind paws . The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey .
Cougars can be almost as large as jaguars , but are less muscular and not as powerfully built ; where their ranges overlap , the cougar tends to be smaller on average . Besides the jaguar , the cougar is on average larger than all felids apart from lions and tigers . Despite its size , it is not typically classified among the " big cats " , as it cannot roar , lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera . Compared to " big cats " , cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations outside of the mother @-@ offspring relationship . Cougars sometimes voice low @-@ pitched hisses , growls , and purrs , as well as chirps and whistles , many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats . They are well known for their screams , as referenced in some of their common names , although these screams are often misinterpreted to be the calls of other animals .
Cougar coloring is plain ( hence the Latin concolor ) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings . The coat is typically tawny , but ranges to silvery @-@ grey or reddish , with lighter patches on the underbody , including the jaws , chin , and throat . Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails ; juveniles are pale , and dark spots remain on their flanks . Despite anecdotes to
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2013 , following a Windows @-@ only public beta testing phase that began in 2011 . Dota 2 is one of the most actively played games on Steam , with peaks of over a million concurrent players , and was praised by critics for its gameplay , production quality , and faithfulness to its predecessor , despite being criticized for its steep learning curve .
Dota 2 is played in matches between two five @-@ player teams , each of which occupies a base in a corner of the playing field . Each player controls one of 111 playable characters , called " heroes " , that feature unique abilities and styles of play . During a match , the player collects gold , items , and experience points for their hero , while fighting heroes of the opposite team . A team wins by being the first to destroy the other side 's " Ancient " building , located within the opposing base .
Development of Dota 2 began in 2009 when IceFrog , lead designer of the original Defense of the Ancients mod , was hired by Valve for the same role . Dota 2 initially used the original Source game engine until it was ported over to Source 2 in September 2015 , making it the first game to use it . The game also allows for the community to create custom game modes , maps , and cosmetics for the heroes , which are then uploaded to the Steam Workshop . The popularity of Dota 2 has led to official merchandise being produced for it , including apparel , accessories , toys , and promotional tie @-@ ins to other games and media .
Dota 2 has a widespread and active eSports scene , with teams from across the world playing in various leagues and tournaments . Premium Dota 2 tournaments often have prize pools totaling millions of dollars , the highest of any eSport . The largest of them is known as The International , which is hosted by Valve and takes place annually at the KeyArena in Seattle . Starting in 2015 , Valve also began sponsoring smaller , but seasonally held tournaments known as the Majors , the first of which was held in Frankfurt , Germany . Dedicated media coverage of professional tournaments are broadcast live on the internet , and sometimes on television networks , with peak viewership numbers in the millions .
= = Gameplay = =
Dota 2 is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game set in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment , presented from a high @-@ angle perspective . Two five @-@ player teams , referred to as the Radiant and Dire , compete in matches on a single asymmetrical playing field . Each player commands one of the 111 characters , called " heroes " , which each feature unique abilities , design , and styles of play . At the start of a match , each hero has an experience level of one . During the game , they level up and become more powerful by accumulating experience points through combat . Whenever a hero gains a level , the player is able to unlock a new ability for them , improve one already learned , or increase their base attributes . Each hero 's method of combat is influenced by its primary attribute : strength , intelligence , agility , which also affects the hero 's health points ( HP ) , mana points ( MP ) , and attack speed , respectively . If a hero runs out of health points and dies , a timer begins to count down until they are able to respawn and get back into the game . A hero also loses a portion of their unspent gold each time they die .
The Radiant and Dire occupy bases in opposite corners of the playing field , divided by a crossable river . Within each base is a critical building called the " Ancient " , along with a fountain that respawns and heals that side 's heroes . A match ends when one side breaches the enemy team 's base and destroys the Ancient within . The two bases are connected by three paths , referred to as " lanes " , which are guarded by defensive towers and computer @-@ controlled creatures called " creeps " . These creatures periodically spawn in groups and travel along the lanes to attack any enemy heroes , creeps , and buildings in sight . Creeps spawn from two buildings , called the " barracks " , that exist in each lane and are located in the base . Destroying all six of the enemy team 's barracks allows for stronger creeps for the attacking side to spawn with significantly enhanced health and damage , known as " mega creeps " . Also present are " neutral creeps " that are hostile to both Radiant and Dire side , and reside in marked locations on the map known as " camps " . Camps are located in the area between the lanes known as the " jungle " , which both sides of the map have . Neutral creeps do not attack unless provoked , and will respawn if killed . The most powerful neutral creep is named " Roshan " , who is a unique boss that may be killed by either side to obtain an item that allows a one @-@ time resurrection by the hero that holds it . Roshan will respawn between 8 – 11 minutes after being killed , and becomes progressively harder to kill as the match continues over time .
Gold is primarily obtained by killing enemy heroes , destroying enemy structures , and killing creeps , the latter act being called " farming " . Only the hero that lands the killing blow on a creep obtains gold from it , an act called " last hitting " , but all nearby allies receive gold when an enemy hero dies . Players are also able to " deny " allied units and structures by destroying them , which then prevents their opponents from getting full experience . Gold is then spent on items that provide unique active and passive abilities , in addition to attribute enhancements to their wearer , depending on the item . The player also receives a small , continuous stream of gold over the course of a match .
Dota 2 often features seasonal events that present players with themed game modes , which do not follow the game 's standard rules , including the Halloween @-@ themed Diretide event , the Christmas @-@ themed Frostivus event , and the New Bloom Festival , which celebrated the coming of spring . In October 2015 , a Halloween @-@ themed " capture point " game mode was released , titled " Colosseum " . The move to the Source 2 engine in 2015 also saw the addition of community @-@ created custom game modes , with the more popular ones having dedicated server hosting by Valve . In March 2016 , Valve introduced the " Custom Game Pass " option to custom game modes , which allows content creators to add exclusive features , content , and other changes to their game mode , for a fee .
= = Development = =
The Dota series began in 2003 with Defense of the Ancients ( DotA ) — a mod for Blizzard Entertainment 's Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos — created by the pseudonymous designer " Eul " . An expansion pack for Warcraft III , entitled The Frozen Throne , was released later that year ; and a series of Defense of the Ancients clone mods for the new game competed for popularity . DotA : Allstars by Steve Feak was the most successful , and Feak , with his friend Steve Mescon , created the official Defense of the Ancients community website and the holding company DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC . When Feak retired from DotA : Allstars in 2005 , a friend , under the pseudonym " IceFrog " , became its lead designer . The popularity of Defense of the Ancients increased significantly : it became one of the most popular mods in the world , and , by 2008 , a prominent eSports title . IceFrog and Mescon later had a falling out in May 2009 , which prompted the former to establish a new community website at playdota.com.
Valve 's interest in the Defense of the Ancients property began when several veteran employees , including Team Fortress designer Robin Walker , became fans of the mod and attempted to play it competitively . The company corresponded with IceFrog by email about his long @-@ term plans for the project , which culminated with his being hired to direct a sequel . IceFrog first announced his new position through his blog in October 2009 , and Dota 2 was unveiled by Game Informer on October 13 , 2010 . The resultant surge of traffic crashed Game Informer 's servers .
Valve adopted the word " Dota " , derived from the original mod 's acronym , as the name for its newly acquired franchise . Producer Erik Johnson argued that the word referred to a concept , and was not an acronym . Shortly after the announcement of Dota 2 , Valve filed a trademark claim to the Dota name . At Gamescom 2011 , company head Gabe Newell explained that the trademark was needed to develop a sequel with the already @-@ identifiable brand . Holding the Dota name to be a community asset , Feak and Mescon filed an opposing trademark for " DOTA " on behalf of DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC ( then a subsidiary of Riot Games ) in August 2010 . Rob Pardo , the executive vice president of Blizzard Entertainment , similarly stated that the DotA name belonged to the mod 's community . Blizzard acquired DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC from Riot Games and filed an opposition against Valve in November 2011 , citing Blizzard 's ownership of both the Warcraft III World Editor and DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC as proper claims to the franchise . The dispute was settled in May 2012 : Valve retained commercial franchising rights to the " Dota " brand , but non @-@ commercial use of the name by third @-@ parties was allowed .
An early goal of the Dota 2 team was the adaptation of DotA 's aesthetic style for the Source engine . The Radiant and Dire factions replaced the Sentinel and Scourge from the mod , respectively . The appearances of each side 's heroes were adjusted to be more individualized , with less traits specific to either faction . Character names , abilities , items and map design from Defense of the Ancients were largely retained , with some changes due to copyright issues . In the first Q & A session regarding Dota 2 , IceFrog explained that the game would build upon the mod without making significant changes to its core . Valve contracted major contributors from the Defense of the Ancients community , including Eul and artist Kendrick Lim , to assist with the sequel . Additional contributions from sources outside of Valve were also sought regularly for Dota 2 , as to continue Defense of the Ancients 's tradition of community @-@ sourced development . One of the composers of Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos , Jason Hayes , was hired to collaborate with Tim Larkin in the creation of the soundtrack . Valve had Half @-@ Life series writer Marc Laidlaw , science fiction author Ted Kosmatka , and Steam support employee Kris Katz write new dialog and background lore for the heroes . In addition to that , Valve also had all of the heroes ' voice acting completely redone . Notable voice actors for the English version include Nolan North , Dave Fennoy , Jon St. John , Ellen McLain , Fred Tatasciore , Merle Dandridge , Jen Taylor , and John Patrick Lowrie , among various others .
The Source engine itself was updated with new features to accommodate Dota 2 , such as high @-@ end cloth modeling and improved global lighting . The game features Steam integration , which provides its social component and Cloud storage for personal settings . In November 2013 , Valve introduced a coaching system , which allows experienced players to tutor newer players with special in @-@ game tools . As with previous Valve multiplayer titles , players are able to spectate live matches of Dota 2 played by others , and local area network ( LAN ) multiplayer support allows for local competitions . Some of these events may be spectated via the purchase of tickets from the " Dota Store " , which give players in @-@ game access to both live and completed matches . Ticket fees are apportioned in part to tournament organizers . In an upcoming update , Dota 2 will support spectating a game in virtual reality ( VR ) , powered by SteamVR .
Dota 2 includes a matchmaking system , which is measured by a numerical value known as " matchmaking rating " ( MMR ) . MMR is updated based on if a player 's team won or lost , which will then increase or decrease , respectively . The game 's servers , known as the " Game Coordinator " , attempts to balance both teams based on each player 's MMR , with each team having roughly a 50 % chance to win in any given game . Ranked game modes with a separately tracked MMR also exist , which differ from unranked games by making MMR publicly visible , encouraging players who want to play in a more competitive environment , among other changes . The game also includes a report system , which allows for players to discourage and punish player behavior that intentionally provides a negative experience . Other features include an improved replay system from Defense of the Ancients , in which a completed game can be downloaded in @-@ client and viewed at a later time , and the " hero builds " feature , which provide integrated guides created by the community that highlight to the player on what items should be bought on their hero , and which abilities to level up .
As part of a plan to develop Dota 2 into a social network , Newell announced in April 2012 that the game would be free @-@ to @-@ play , and that community contributions would be a cornerstone feature . That June , the Dota 2 team confirmed that the full roster of heroes and items would remain available without charge . Instead , revenue is generated through the Dota Store , which offers for @-@ purchase exclusively cosmetic virtual goods , including custom clothing and weapons for their heroes , along with music packs by notable artists such as electronic music artist deadmau5 , Taiwanese songwriter JJ Lin , and video game composers Chance Thomas , Jeremy Soule , and Lennie Moore . Until the game 's official release in 2013 , players were able to purchase an early access bundle , which included a digital copy of Dota 2 and several cosmetic items . Included as optional downloadable content ( DLC ) , the Dota 2 Workshop Tools are a set of Source 2 software development kit ( SDK ) tools that allow content creators to create new cosmetics for the heroes themselves , as well as custom game modes and maps . Highly rated cosmetics , through the Steam Workshop , are available in the in @-@ game store if they are accepted by Valve . This model was fashioned after that of Valve 's Team Fortress 2 , which had earned Workshop designers of cosmetic items of that game over $ 3 @.@ 5 million by June 2011 . In January 2014 , Newell revealed that the average Steam Workshop contributor for Dota 2 and Team Fortess 2 made approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 from their creations the previous year . In 2015 , sales of Dota 2 cosmetics had earned Valve over $ 238 million in revenue , according to the digital game market research group SuperData .
Valve documented the lives and stories of three professional players at the first International , Singaporean Benedict " hyhy " Lim , Ukrainian Danil " Dendi " Ishutin , and American Clinton " Fear " Loomis . In August 2012 , GameTrailers announced that Valve was developing this material into a documentary film . Throughout June 2013 , Valve conducted private screenings of the film with small groups outside the company . When an invitation was leaked by Kotaku , Valve 's vice president of marketing , Doug Lombardi , confirmed that the documentary was in development and revealed its name as Free to Play . The documentary was released on March 19 , 2014 , and was distributed for free through outlets including Steam , iTunes , and YouTube .
= = Release = =
After being tested extensively by Valve , Dota 2 was first unveiled to the public at the inaugural International event , the game 's premier eSport tournament , at Gamescom in 2011 . To coincide with the event , Valve began sending out closed beta invitations ; the first few invites were sent out shortly after Gamescom . During the event , Newell speculated that Dota 2 would likely ship in 2012 , despite original plans for a full release in late 2011 . In September 2011 , Valve scrapped its previous development and release plans , which would have kept the game in its closed beta phase for over a year . The new plans , which IceFrog revealed via an online announcement , were to begin beta testing as soon as possible and to implement the remaining heroes afterward . Simultaneously , Valve announced that the non @-@ disclosure agreement for the beta was being lifted , allowing testers to discuss the game and their experiences publicly . After nearly two years of beta testing , Dota 2 was officially released on Steam for Microsoft Windows on July 9 , 2013 , and later for OS X and Linux on July 18 , 2013 . Two months following the game 's release , Newell claimed that updates to Dota 2 generated up to three percent of global internet traffic . In December 2013 , the final restrictions against unlimited global access to Dota 2 were lifted after the game 's infrastructure and servers were substantially bolstered . In March 2016 , a large update fixed many long @-@ standing bugs and issues with the game , while also adding many community requested features .
In order to abide by the standards set by the economic legislation of specific countries , Valve opted to contract with nationally @-@ based developers for publishing . In October 2012 , the leading Beijing @-@ based video game publisher , Perfect World , announced the acquisition of the exclusive rights of Dota 2 in China . The Chinese version also has a region @-@ specific " Low Violence " mode , which censors and changes most depictions of blood , gore , and skulls in order for the game to follow censorship policies of the country . In November 2012 , a similar publishing deal was made with the Tokyo @-@ based company Nexon to distribute and market the game in South Korea and Japan . In November 2015 , Nexon announced they would no longer be operating servers for Dota 2 , allowing Valve to take over direct distribution and marketing of the game those regions .
Tie @-@ ins to other video games and media have also been added to Dota 2 since release , including custom Half @-@ Life 2 , Bastion , Portal , Trine , The Stanley Parable , Rick and Morty , and Fallout 4 announcer packs , which replace the game 's default announcer with themed ones based on those series . To coincide with the Windows release of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD in August 2015 , a bundle containing a custom loading screen , a Moogle ward , and a Chocobo courier was added the same month . In April 2016 , Valve announced a cross @-@ promotional workshop contest for Sega 's Total War : Warhammer .
= = = Transition to Source 2 = = =
In June 2015 , Valve announced that the entirety of Dota 2 would be ported over to the Source 2 game engine in an update called Dota 2 Reborn . The beta was released to the public in June 2015 . On September 9 , 2015 , Reborn was officially released out of beta , which included a new user interface framework design , ability for custom game modes created by the community , and the full replacement of the original Source engine with Source 2 , making Dota 2 the first game to use it . Largely attributed to technical difficulties players experienced with the update , the global player base experienced a sharp drop of approximately sixteen percent the month following the release of Reborn . However , after various updates and patches , over a million concurrent players were playing again in January 2016 , with that being the largest amount of users since March 2015 . The move to Source 2 also allowed the use of the Vulkan graphics API , which was released as an opt @-@ in feature in May 2016 , becoming one of the first games to offer it .
= = Professional competition = =
To ensure that enough Defense of the Ancients players would take up Dota 2 and to showcase the game 's capabilities , Valve sponsored sixteen accomplished Defense of the Ancients teams to compete at The International , a Dota 2 specific eSports tournament , for a $ 1 million prize in 2011 . The International became an annual championship tournament in 2012 , with the venue changing to Seattle , Washington . In its third year , The International allowed crowdfunding to add to its prize pool through an interactive , in @-@ game item called a " compendium " . Compendiums , which are optional and must be purchased separately , allow players who buy them to directly raise prize money for The International by spending money on unique compendium cosmetics and other in @-@ game items , with 25 % of all the revenue made going directly to the prize pool . Sales from the 2013 compendium helped raise over $ 2 @.@ 8 million , making The International 2013 reclaim its previous title as having the largest prize pool in eSports history from the League of Legends Season 2 World Championship . Since then , each annual tournament of The International has broken the previous one 's prize pool record , with the fourth iteration of the tournament raising over $ 10 @.@ 9 million , exceeding the prizes pools of the Super Bowl , Masters Tournament , and Tour de France . At The International 2015 , the prize pool exceeded $ 18 @.@ 4 million , earning the champion team , Evil Geniuses , over $ 6 million .
Following the inaugural event of The International , several other eSport events began to transition from Defense of the Ancients to Dota 2 , including the Electronic Sports World Cup . DreamHack would also support Dota 2 in 2011 , following a year without support for the original , on account of the other multiplayer online battle arena titles , Heroes of Newerth and League of Legends . By the end of its first year in its beta phase , Dota 2 was one of the highest @-@ paying eSport titles of 2011 , second only to StarCraft II . In 2012 , Dota 2 began as an official title for the World Cyber Games annual event at World Cyber Games 2012 . The Electronic Sports League ( ESL ) began a seasonal tournament for Dota 2 called the RaidCall EMS One in 2013 , which was the largest independent tournament for Dota 2 by the beginning of 2013 . Beginning in September 2013 , the Association for Chinese eSports began a league , called the WPC ACE Dota 2 League , which had the largest third @-@ party prize pool in Dota 2 eSports history at the time . At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 , Nexon announced the investment of two billion South Korean won , ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) , into amateur and professional leagues in South Korea for 2013 , to coincide with the launch of their distribution agreement in the fall of that year . Modeled after the interactive compendium for The International , Valve introduced a compendium third @-@ party tournament organizers could sell , beginning with the ASUS ROG DreamLeague in February 2014 . In February 2015 , the Valve @-@ sponsored Dota 2 Asia Championships was held in Shanghai with a prize pool of over $ 3 million , raised through compendium sales .
In total , professional Dota 2 tournaments had earned teams and players nearly $ 65 million dollars in prize money by June 2016 , which was more than twice the amount of League of Legends tournaments , making it the highest earning eSport game at the time .
= = = Majors = = =
Starting in 2015 , Valve began sponsoring smaller , but seasonally held tournaments with a fixed $ 3 million prize pool , known as the Dota Major Championships . The format for the tournaments are based on the series of the same name that Valve also sponsors for their first @-@ person shooter game , Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . The first of which , hosted and produced by ESL , was the Frankfurt Major held from November 13 – 21 , 2015 , at the Festhalle Frankfurt in Frankfurt , Germany , and was won by OG . The next Major was hosted and produced by Perfect World , and was held at the Mercedes @-@ Benz Arena in Shanghai from March 2 – 6 , 2016 , and was won by Team Secret . The third and final Major of the 2015 – 2016 season was hosted and produced by PGL , and was held at the Mall of Asia Arena in Manila from June 7 – 12 , 2016 . The tournament was won by OG , becoming the first team to repeat as champions of a Dota 2 Major .
After the introduction of the Majors , The International championship was then considered to be the cumulative " Summer Major " , with the 2016 iteration being the first one under the new format . The International 2016 also broke the record for the highest prize pool in eSports history , surpassing the record that The International 2015 had set the previous year .
= = = Media coverage = = =
The primary medium for professional Dota 2 coverage is through the video game live streaming platform , Twitch.tv. For most major events , tournament coverage is done by a selection of eSports organizations and personnel who provide on @-@ site commentary , analysis , and player interviews surrounding the event in progress , similar to traditional sports . Live Dota 2 games and coverage have also been broadcast on television networks around the world , such as ESPN in the United States , Sport1 in Germany , TV 2 Zulu in Denmark , Xinwen Lianbo in China , Astro in Malaysia , and TV5 in the Philippines .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Dota 2 received universal acclaim , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . PC Gamer previewed the game in September 2012 , stating the game was " an unbelievably deep and complex game that offers the purest sequel to the original Defense of the Anicents . Rewarding like few others , but tough " , giving it a rating of 85 / 100 . Adam Biessener , the editor who authored the announcement article for Dota 2 for Game Informer in 2010 , praised Valve for maintaining the same mechanics and game balance that made Defense of the Ancients successful nearly a decade prior and Quintin Smith of Eurogamer described Dota 2 as the " supreme form of the MOBA which everyone else working in the genre is trying to capture like lightning in a bottle " . The most frequently praised aspects of the game were its depth , delivery , and overall balance . Chris Thursten of PC Gamer described the gameplay as being " deep and rewarding " . Martin Gaston of GameSpot complimented Valve for the delivery and artistic design of Dota 2 , citing the execution of the user interface design , voice acting and characterization as exceeding those of the game 's competitors . Phill Cameron of IGN praised Dota 2 for its freely @-@ available game balance that was not affected by cosmetic items .
While the majority of reviewers gave Dota 2 highly positive reviews , a common criticism was that the game maintains a steep learning curve that requires exceptional commitment to overcome . While providing a moderately positive review that praised Valve 's product stability , Fredrik Åslund from the Swedish division of Gamereactor described his first match of Dota 2 as one of the most humiliating and inhospitable experiences of his gaming career , citing the learning curve and players ' attitudes as unwelcoming . Benjamin Danneberg of GameStar alluded to the learning curve as a " learning cliff " , calling the newcomer 's experience to be painful , with the tutorial feature new to the Dota franchise only being partially successful . In a review for the Metro newspaper , Dota 2 was criticized for not compensating for the flaws with the learning curve from Defense of the Ancients , as well as the sometimes hostile community , as is often the case for multiplayer online battle arena games .
Peter Bright of Ars Technica directed criticism at the ability for third @-@ party websites to allow gambling and betting on match results and in @-@ game items , similar to controversies that also exist with Valve 's Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . Using Dota 2 as an example , Bright also stated that he thought Valve built gambling elements directly into their games , and had issues with the unregulated practice , which was often used by underage players and regions where gambling is illegal . In response to the controversy , Valve and Dota 2 producer , Erik Johnson , stated that they would be taking action against the third @-@ party sites , saying the practice was " not allowed by our API nor our user agreements " .
In May 2013 , Dota 2 reached almost 330 @,@ 000 concurrent players and held the record for the game with the most concurrent users in Steam history , breaking its own record set in March the same year . Simultaneous with this benchmark , it was determined that the concurrent number of Dota 2 players in May 2013 outweighed the number of players for the rest of Steam 's top ten most @-@ played games combined . In February 2015 , Dota 2 became the first game in Steam 's history to have over one million concurrent players . Also in 2015 , Dota 2 was the third most watched game on Twitch.tv , after League of Legends and Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . Concurrent viewership numbers of professional Dota 2 matches have reached upwards of two million .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Following its first public showing in 2011 , Dota 2 won IGN 's People 's Choice Award . In December 2012 , PC Gamer listed Dota 2 as a nominee for the 2012 Game of the Year award , as well as the best electronic sports title of the year . The game won 2013 eSport of the year awards from PC Gamer and onGamers . GameTrailers awarded the game the award for Best PC Game of 2013 . For IGN 's Best of 2013 award series , Dota 2 won the awards for Best PC Strategy & Tactics Game , as well as Best PC Multiplayer Game . The game 's awards for IGN 's Best of 2013 won their People 's Choice Award counterparts , as well . Similarly , Game Informer recognized Dota 2 for the categories of Best PC Exclusive , Best Competitive Multiplayer and Best Strategy of 2013 . In the 2013 edition of Game Revolution 's countdown of the top twenty @-@ five PC video games of all time , Dota 2 was listed in the number four position . Dota 2 was nominated for a number of Game of the Year awards by Destructoid , including the award for the best competitive game . While the staff selected StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , Dota 2 received the majority of the votes distributed between the nine nominees . In 2014 , Dota 2 was nominated for best multiplayer game at the 10th British Academy Games Awards , but lost to Grand Theft Auto V. In 2015 , Dota 2 was nominated for eSports Game of the Year at The Game Awards 2015 , and won the award for best MOBA at the 2015 Global Game Awards .
= = = Merchandise = = =
The popularity of Dota 2 led Valve to produce apparel , accessories , posters , and a number of other products featuring the heroes and other elements from the game . In addition , Valve secured licensing contracts with third @-@ party producers ; the first of these deals concerned a Dota 2 SteelSeries QcK + mousepad , which was announced at Gamescom 2011 . In September 2012 , Weta Workshop , the prop studio that creates the " Aegis of Champions " trophy for winners of The International , announced a product line that would include statues , weapons , and armor based on Dota 2 characters and items . In February 2013 , the National Entertainment Collectibles Association announced a new toy line featuring hero @-@ themed action figures at the American International Toy Fair . After the conclusion of The International 2015 finals , Valve awarded the Collector 's Aegis of Champions , which was a 1 / 5th scale brass replica of the Aegis of Champions trophy , to those with compendiums of 1 @,@ 000 levels or more . For The International 2016 , Valve began selling a limited edition Dota 2 themed HTC Vive virtual reality headset . Valve have also created webcomics related to the game , featuring some of the heroes and detailing their background lore .
= Don 't Take It Personally , Babe , It Just Ain 't Your Story =
don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story is a 2011 indie video game by Christine Love . Intended as a spiritual sequel to Love 's Digital : A Love Story , the game was developed over the course of a month and was released as a free download on April 4 , 2011 . Don 't take it personally is a visual novel , with the majority of the plot taking place outside of the player 's control except for key decisions . It follows a new high school literature teacher in 2027 over the course of a semester , with the ability to see private messages between students at any time without their knowledge . It deals with themes of privacy and relationships in the future . The game was received positively , with critics praising the interplay between the metafictional elements of the story and those of the game itself , with special acknowledgment reserved for the writing .
= = Gameplay = =
Don 't take it personally is a visual novel , or interactive fiction game where the majority of the story is told through still images of the speaking characters in front of anime @-@ style backgrounds with text overlaid . The player 's viewpoint follows one character , the teacher in a school , with the player seeing his thoughts as well as his and the other characters ' statements . The player advances the conversations the teacher is in or witnesses at will , but cannot go backwards and has little control over what any of the characters , including the teacher , are saying except at a few key moments . At these points , the player is presented with two or three choices for what the teacher says ; which option is chosen can change what path the plot takes , in either a minor or major way .
In a departure from most visual novels the player can also see , at any time , the equivalent of texts and Facebook postings between the students on a school social network called AmieConnect ( often shortened to " Amie " ) , as well as conversation threads on a 4chan @-@ like imageboard that serve as foreshadowing for future plot points . These extra conversations take place in parallel to in @-@ person conversations between characters , occasionally at the same time ; the player is notified anytime a new text message or post is made . A single playthrough of the game takes " over an hour " .
= = Scenario = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game is set in a private high school in Ontario , in 2027 . The player follows a new 11
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th @-@ grade literature teacher at the school , John Rook , who has recently had his second divorce and is undergoing , in his words , a " bizarre midlife crisis " that has led him to quit his career in computers and become a teacher . The students in his class are Arianna Belle @-@ Essai , Kendall Flowers , Taylor Gibson , Charlotte Grewal , Isabella Hart , Nolan Striukas , and Akira Yamazaki . Rook and all of the students have school @-@ issued computers , which the students use to communicate between each other in private and public messages . Rook , and therefore the player , can see all of the messages that the students send , even the private ones ; the school administration has told Rook that it is for monitoring online bullying , and that he is not to let anyone know that he can see students ' private messages .
= = = Plot = = =
Soon after the game opens , the player learns that Kendall and Charlotte have just broken up out of a lesbian relationship , while a few weeks prior Taylor and Nolan had broken up out of a heterosexual relationship . Arianna develops a crush on the teacher , which in the player 's first decision point Rook can reciprocate or not . Akira soon comes out as gay , finding to his dismay that everyone else already knew . He then attempts to enter into a relationship with Nolan , who is unsure how to respond ; Rook can encourage him to try it out or let him decide on his own , but he enters a relationship with Akira regardless .
The next day , Isabella misses a meeting she set up with Rook , and does not return to the class . Through Amie texts and wall posts , the other students insinuate that she committed suicide , while the school is unable to provide Rook with any contact information for her . Class continues without her , and a little while later Arianna , if the player rejected her earlier in the game , makes another attempt to have a relationship with Rook . The player may choose to accept or reject her again . Through Amie , Rook learns that both Charlotte and Kendall wish to resume their relationship , and can influence Charlotte to try again or not , which changes whether or not they get back together . Taylor jealously and unsuccessfully tries to drive a wedge between Nolan and Akira .
As the end of term approaches , Rook begins getting strange emails about Isabella 's death , and begins seeing shinigami figures . Upset by these occurrences , when Akira 's mother asks to speak to him concerning misuses of Amie , he assumes that she has found out that he is spying on the students ' conversations . When he meets her , he finds that Isabella is alive and had simply moved away ; the students made it look like she was dead via Amie as a prank that got out of control . Furthermore , they already knew that he could see their messages ; Akira 's mother explains that the students have no idea of online privacy , having always had technology like Amie , and assumed that anything they put online might be read by anyone . The game ends with Rook having a casual lunch with the students , a date with Arianna , or neither , depending on the choices made during the game by the player .
= = Development = =
Don 't take it personally was developed over the course of a month , and was released as a free download on April 4 , 2011 . It was written and developed by Christine Love , with artwork made for the game by Auro @-@ Cyanide , artwork licensed from Tokudaya and Kimagure After , and with music licensed from Rengoku Teien and propanmode . It was created using the Ren 'Py engine . It was Love 's longest game to date , and her first attempt at a game with a branching storyline . It was intended as " a spiritual sequel of sorts " to Digital : A Love Story , a 2010 game by Love . The game was made for NaNoRenO ( National Ren 'ai Game Writing Month ) , a month @-@ long contest in the vein of National Novel Writing Month ( NaNoWriMo ) where developers attempt to create a visual novel in one month . Love 's favorite character to write was Kendall .
= = Reception = =
Don 't take it personally was chosen as a " freeware game pick " by IndieGames 's Michael Rose , who said that it was worth playing through multiple times in order to see the different paths the story takes depending on the player 's choices . Pete Davidson of GamePro noted the game as an example of the " creativity " missing in many large @-@ budget titles , and praised the story , calling Love " a writer first and a game developer second . " Alec Meer of Rock , Paper , Shotgun described the game as " a game about love , sex and the internet " that was " capable of being profoundly moving " and was about " what it is to feel like someone ’ s kicked me straight in the heart . " He praised Love 's ability to use dialogue to effect an emotional response , though he noted that the game seemed to lose some of its impact in the final chapters and felt that the use of the " 12chan " threads as a Greek chorus was " perhaps a meta @-@ layer too far " .
Aaron Poppleton of PopMatters called the game " a meditation on privacy in the modern age " and " one of the more thoughtful games to come out in a long time . " He criticized the art direction of the game , saying that the limitation of creating the game in a month led to poor artwork and an unpolished presentation that lets down the possibilities of the story . He did note that the story and writing of the game made the downsides of the game " almost entirely a moot point " , and that it is a very strong game . Pete Davidson of PC World , in an article about the treatment of sexuality in video games , called out the game as an example of a game that used sexual themes maturely to explore love and relationships . Emily Short of Gamasutra , in a discussion about the game , said that it was definitely worth playing and full of " charming characters , colorful dialogue , and important questions " , but criticized the uneven exploration of issues regarding privacy versus personal boundaries . She said that the game 's lack of focus on Rook 's issues with personal and professional boundaries was a weakness in the story , given that the distinction between boundaries and privacy was crucial to the plot . Love collated common criticisms and reviews of the game on her blog , summarizing that while it was less praised than Digital : A Love Story , most players seemed to like the way she wrote the relationships and overall story , though her portrayal of Rook was weak and that many players seemed to miss that he was intended to be " an absolutely awful teacher " and that the potential relationship with Arianna was intended to be creepy and make the player feel bad . She also noted that her use of licensed artwork was detracting from the game 's potential in comparison to the reaction to the custom works .
The Daily Telegraph gave the visual novel the award for " Best Script " in its video game awards of 2011 , stating that " Love 's layered narrative of a high school teacher embroiled in his student ’ s worries goes places most mainstream video games wouldn 't dare . "
= The Dreamscape =
" The Dreamscape " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It centers on a Fringe investigation of a Massive Dynamic employee who , after believing himself to be under attack by a swarm of sharp @-@ winged butterflies , jumps out of a window . Meanwhile , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) continues her visions of the deceased John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , and discovers how he related to a deadly psychoactive drug synthesized by Massive Dynamic .
" The Dreamscape " was written by series staff writers Julia Cho and Zack Whedon , and was directed by Fred Toye . To create the opening scene , they " relied entirely on actor performance , " with guest actor Ptolemy Slocum simulating being cut , freezing for the crew to apply prosthetic make @-@ up , and then unfreezing to continue shooting the scene . VFX coordinator Christopher Stollard wished the computer generated butterflies to look as realistic as possible , and modeled them after mounted butterfly specimens his team studied .
The episode first aired in the United States on November 25 , 2008 on the Fox network . It was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 73 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . Reviews of the episode were mixed , with one reviewer believing it " certainly moves [ the series ] in the right direction " .
= = Plot = =
Massive Dynamic executive Mark Young ( Ptolemy Slocum ) delivers a presentation at the company ’ s Manhattan office . When he is done and the other attendees have left , he sees an unusual butterfly . Upon picking it up , he experiences a cut on his hand and is then attacked by a swarm . Mark jumps out of a window , to his death . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , despite preparing to go out to dinner with her sister , instead agrees to Phillip Broyles ' ( Lance Reddick ) demand that she join the Fringe team 's investigation at the scene . While examining the body , Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) sees lacerations on Young ’ s skin and notes a lack of corresponding tears on his shirt . At the scene , Olivia has a brief vision of her deceased lover John Scott ( Mark Valley ) watching them , which troubles her .
Later , in the lab at Harvard Walter 's autopsy reveals a synthetic compound in Mark 's blood , though any link to the cuts is not yet known to them . Olivia receives an email from someone who claims to be John Scott , listing an address for her to visit . Upon arriving she finds boxes , one of which contains a group of toads . At the lab , Walter finds that the toads contain a " psychoactive compound " , a hallucinogen that affects the fear center of the brain . They conclude that Mark ’ s brain was so convinced of something happening to his body that actual physical marks appeared . Mark was infected with a large dosage , leading them to attribute his death to murder .
Olivia admits to Walter how she
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s junta had been behind the attack , even though the Viet Cong had claimed responsibility through a radio broadcast . When the Americans started making plans to retaliate against North Vietnam , they did not tell Khánh and his junta . Westmoreland , Taylor , and other senior US officers in Saigon and Washington urged President Lyndon Baines Johnson to authorize reprisal bombings against North Vietnam , Taylor predicting : " Some of our local squabbles will probably disappear in enthusiasm which our action would generate . " Johnson refused and one reason was the political instability in Saigon . Johnson reasoned the international community and the American public were unlikely to believe the Viet Cong were behind the attack , feeling they would instead blame local infighting for the violence . Johnson administration officials did not conclude that the communists were responsible until four days after the attack . The State Department cabled Taylor , saying " In view of the overall confusion in Saigon " , public US and international opinion towards an American air strike would be that the Johnson administration was " trying to shoot its way out of an internal [ South Vietnamese ] political crisis " .
= = Fall out = =
As a result of the tension in late @-@ December , the standoff remained . The US hoped the generals would relent because they could not survive and be able to repel the communists or rival officers without aid from Washington . On the other hand , Khánh and the Young Turks expected the Americans would become more worried about the communist gains first and acquiesce to their fait accompli against the HNC . The generals were correct .
The South Vietnamese eventually had their way . As the generals and Hương were unwilling to reinstate the HNC , Taylor sent General John L. Throckmorton to meet them and mend relations . Throckmorton told the Vietnamese generals they had read too much into Taylor 's comments and that the US had no intention of pressuring them out of power with aid cuts . Cang appeared unimpressed , while Thiệu and Kỳ made indirect and vague comments about what they perceived to be misleading tactics during the talks . Khánh appeared reassured by Throckmorton 's overtures and made a public statement on December 30 , saying he was not as hostile to the Americans as reported , and he wanted Thiệu and Cang to meet the Americans to relieve any remaining tension . He also claimed privately that the statements attributed to him by Deepe were false and set up a bilateral committee to discuss tensions . The generals eventually won out , as the Americans did not move against them in any way for their refusal to reinstate the HNC . The South Vietnamese won in large part because the Americans had spent so much on the country , and could not afford to abandon it and lose to the communists over the matter of military rule , as a communist takeover would be a big public relations coup for the Soviet bloc . According to Karnow , for Khánh and his officers , " their weakness was their strength " . An anonymous South Vietnamese government official said " Our big advantage over the Americans is that they want to win the war more than we do . "
The only concession the AFC made was on January 6 , 1965 , when they made a charade move of officially renouncing all their power to Hương , who was asked to organize elections . They also agreed to appoint a civilian body and release those arrested in December . Khánh had proposed to reinstate civilian rule if a military " organ of control " was created to keep control of them , but Taylor quashed the idea . This resulted in an official announcement by Hương and Khánh three days later , in which the military again reiterated their commitment to civilian rule through an elected legislature and a new constitution , and that " all genuine patriots " would be " earnestly assembled " to collaborate in making a plan to defeat the communists . The Americans were not impressed with the statement , which was shown to Taylor before it was made public ; the State Department dourly announced that " it appears to represent some improvement to the situation " . Nevertheless , Khánh and Taylor were both signatories to this January 9 announcement .
Although the coup was a political success for Khánh , it was not enough to stabilize his leadership in the long run . During the dispute over the HNC , Khánh had tried to frame the dispute in nationalistic terms against what he saw as overbearing US influence . In the long run , this failed , as South Vietnam and the senior officers ' careers and advancement were dependent on US aid . Taylor hoped Khánh 's appeals to nationalism might backfire by causing his colleagues to fear a future without US funding . The Americans were aware of Khánh 's tactics and exploited it by persistently trying to scare his colleagues with the prospect of a military heavily restricted by the absence of US funding . After the December coup , Taylor felt the fear of US abandonment " raised the courage level of the other generals to the point of sacking " Khánh , as many were seen as beholden above all to their desire for personal advancement . In January and February 1965 , Khánh sensed he could no longer work with Taylor and the Americans , and that his support in the junta was unreliable , so he began to try to set up secret peace talks with the communists . Planning for discussions was only beginning , but this was unacceptable to the Americans and hardline anti @-@ communists in the junta , as it meant the bombing campaign against North Vietnam would not be possible . When Khánh 's plans were discovered , US @-@ encouraged plotting intensified . On February 19 – 20 , a coup occurred , and after the original plot was put down by the Young Turks , they forced Khánh into exile as well . With Khánh out of the way , the bombing campaign started .
= 1998 National League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1998 National League wild @-@ card tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1998 regular season , played between the Chicago Cubs and San Francisco Giants to determine the winner of the National League ( NL ) wild card . The game took place at Wrigley Field in Chicago , on September 28 , 1998 . The Cubs won the game 5 – 3 , holding the Giants scoreless for the majority of the game until the Giants threatened heavily in the ninth inning and scored all three of their runs . As a result of the game , the Cubs qualified for the postseason and the Giants did not .
The game was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 89 – 73 . The Cubs won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game . This victory advanced the Cubs to the 1998 NL Division Series ( NLDS ) where they were swept by the Atlanta Braves , ending the Cubs ' season . Michael Jordan , a popular Chicago sportsman then ending his career with the Chicago Bulls , threw the game 's ceremonial first pitch . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The Chicago Cubs finished the previous season at the bottom of the Central division with a 68 – 94 record while the Giants won the West at 90 – 72 , though were defeated by the eventual 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins in the NLDS . The Giants ' Barry Bonds drew criticism for his postseason performance , which had been a recurring criticism dating back to his time with the Pittsburgh Pirates . The Cubs made several offseason acquisitions following the 1997 season including trading Doug Glanville for second baseman Mickey Morandini along with signing Jeff Blauser and Henry Rodríguez as free agents .
One notable event of the 1998 season was the race for the home run title and Roger Maris ' single @-@ season record of 61 home runs between the Cubs ' Sammy Sosa and the Cardinals ' Mark McGwire . McGwire ultimately won , setting a new record of 70 while Sosa closed the season with 66 . Bonds would top their totals with 73 home runs in 2001 , setting the current record , while McGwire and Sosa 's totals remain the second and third highest figures in MLB history . Additionally , three teams finished the 1998 season within one game of one another in the race for the National League wild card : the Cubs , Giants , and New York Mets . This late @-@ season race included a dramatic Cubs loss to the Brewers on September 23 . The Cubs led 7 – 5 with two outs and the bases loaded for the Brewers in the bottom of the ninth inning when Brant Brown dropped a fly ball , allowing three unearned runs to score on his error and losing the Cubs the game . This loss gained notoriety for announcer and former @-@ Cub Ron Santo 's call of the final play , yelling " Oh , no ! " as the final runs scored .
The Mets were tied with the Cubs and Giants in the wild @-@ card race as late in the season as September 25 at 88 – 72 . However , the Mets lost their remaining two games and finished their season one game back of the Cubs and Giants who ended tied at 89 – 73 . This record was also the best non @-@ division @-@ winning record and as such a tie @-@ breaker was necessary to determine the wild @-@ card winner . A coin flip on September 14 gave the Cubs ' home field advantage , setting Wrigley Field as the location for the game . In the event of a three @-@ way tie the Cubs were presented with the choice to either host two home games or receive a bye and play the winner of a Mets @-@ Giants game on the road because they had the best combined record against the Mets and Giants . Cubs ' general manager Ed Lynch decided on the second option , though the choice was moot as the Mets fell out of the race . The Cubs ' Steve Trachsel and Mark Gardner of the Giants were slated to start the tie @-@ breaker on the September 28 .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for Monday September 28 , 1998 — 7 : 10 p.m. ( CT ) at Wrigley Field in Chicago
The game remained scoreless in the early innings , with only two baserunners apiece for each team through the first three innings . The Giants loaded the bases with two outs in the top of the 4th inning , but Brian Johnson struck out to end the inning . The first runs of the game came in the top of the 5th as Henry Rodriguez singled to lead off the inning and scored on a home run by Gary Gaetti to give the Cubs a 2 – 0 lead . The Cubs threatened again in the next inning with singles by Lance Johnson and Sammy Sosa . Rich Rodriguez relieved Gardner , but loaded the bases with a walk to Mark Grace and allowed a single to Matt Mieske which scored two more runs and extended the Cubs ' lead to 4 – 0 . John Johnstone relieved Rodriguez and closed the inning without further scoring .
After getting one out in the top of the 7th , Steve Trachsel allowed a single and a walk to pinch hitters Brent Mayne and Armando Ríos respectively . The Cubs double switched , bringing in Matt Karchner to relieve Trachsel and Orlando Merced to play left field . Karchner induced another out before loading the bases on a single by Shawon Dunston . Félix Heredia entered in relief of Karchner and got Barry Bonds to ground out to first base to end the inning . The Cubs further extended their lead in the bottom of the 8th inning . After Alvin Morman got Morandini to strike out to open the inning the Giants double switched to bring in José Mesa to pitch and Bill Mueller at third base . Mesa allowed a single to Sammy Sosa and a double to Mark Grace which advanced Sosa to third . Following a ground out Mesa threw a wild pitch while facing Gaetti and Sosa scored to make the game 5 – 0 .
The Giants responded in the top of the 9th , scoring their only runs of the game . Kevin Tapani allowed successive singles to Brent Mayne and Mueller to open the inning before Terry Mulholland relieved him . Stan Javier singled to score Mayne and Ellis Burks then walked to load the bases . Bonds came to bat with the bases loaded for the second time in the game and lined out to deep right field , scoring Mueller on a sacrifice fly and Javier advanced to third base . Rod Beck entered and got successive outs by Jeff Kent , which scored Javier , and Joe Carter to end the game 5 – 3 for the Cubs .
= = Aftermath = =
Chicago 's win clinched the team 's 15th postseason berth in franchise history , their first in 9 years since losing in the 1989 National League Championship Series . The Cubs ' presence in the postseason , playing for a spot in the World Series , led several sportswriters to reference the Curse of the Billy Goat and the difficulties the Cubs ' had faced since 1945 . The Billy Goat story suggests that Billy Sianis cursed the Cubs after he and his goat were asked to leave game four of the 1945 World Series . The playoff berth matched the Cubs with the Atlanta Braves in the NLDS , where the Cubs were swept three games to none . The Cubs have not made the World Series since 1945 and have not won a title since 1908 .
In baseball statistics tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . For example , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that Sammy Sosa could have added to his notable home run total in the game . Sosa did add to his league @-@ leading strikeout total with one in the 4th inning . Beck also added to his league @-@ leading total in games played and earned his 51st save of the season which finished 2nd to Trevor Hoffman 's 53 but is tied for the 9th highest single @-@ season save total in MLB history . Several Cubs and Giants won awards for their regular season performances including Rookie of the Year honors for Kerry Wood , a Silver Slugger Award for Sosa , and a Rawlings Gold Glove Award for J. T. Snow . Sosa also won the Most Valuable Player award , earning 30 out of 32 first place votes ( with McGwire taking the remaining 2 ) .
Barry Bonds drew criticism after the game for his poor performance , including twice making an out with the bases loaded , with some suggesting that Bonds often played poorly in " big games " . Bonds ' 0 – 4 performance with an RBI and a strikeout earned him a − .186 win probability added ( WPA ) , the lowest figure for any player in the game . WPA is a statistic which takes the game situation into account to quantify how a player altered his team 's chances of winning . Bonds ' figure translates into decreasing the Giants ' chances of success by 18 @.@ 6 % . The book Game of Shadows , which details Bonds ' suggested use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs ( PED ) , argues that Bonds grew jealous and resentful of the attention Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa were given during their record chase . As a result , according to Game of Shadows , Bonds turned to weight training under Greg Anderson who began providing him with steroids and other PEDs following the 1998 season .
= Corpus Christi Bay =
Corpus Christi Bay is a scenic semi @-@ tropical bay on the Texas coast found in San Patricio and Nueces counties , next to the major city of Corpus Christi . It is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by Mustang Island , and is fed by the Nueces River and Oso Creek from its western and southern extensions , Nueces Bay and Oso Bay . The bay is located approximately 136 miles ( 219 km ) south of San Antonio , and 179 miles ( 288 km ) southwest of Houston .
Corpus Christi Bay has a rich history of human settlement along its shores that dates back millennia and is responsible for the growth of Corpus Christi , and the smaller ports of Ingleside and Portland . It is an important natural estuary that supports a diverse collection of wildlife , and attracts many tourists . The bay 's abundance of petroleum and natural gas has attracted industry , and its strategic location on the Texas coast is ideal for military establishment .
= = History = =
The shores of Corpus Christi ( or Body of Christ ) Bay are thought to have been inhabited by the Karankawa Indians before the European discovery . Archeological evidence suggests that pre @-@ Karankawa peoples used the area near Oso Bay as a burial ground between 500 BC and 500 AD . It is believed to have first been spotted by Europeans on Corpus Christi Day 1519 , when Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda navigated its waters . Joaquín de Orobio y Basterra came across the bay in 1746 , when given orders to settle the area between Tampico , Mexico , and the mouth of the San Antonio River at San Antonio Bay . He named the bay after St. Michael the Archangel , but the name did not stick and was referred to as " Corpus Christi Bay " in a 1766 report by Diego Ortiz Parrilla . Explorer Blas María de la Garza Falcón is believed to have been the first man to purchase land on the bay in 1746 . Shortly thereafter the short @-@ lived settlement of Villa de Vedoya was founded on the mouth of the Nueces River .
The first trading post on Corpus Christi Bay was established by Henry Kinney in 1838 in present @-@ day Corpus Christi . By the 1840s , the area developed into a settlement named after the bay , and a deepwater port was established in the 1870s . A bayfront that included a 32 @-@ foot overlooking statue of Jesus Christ was designed by Mount Rushmore sculptor Gutzon Borglum in 1928 , but was turned down by the city in 1930 . Later efforts to build a statue on the shore were also rejected . The bayside port would later grow into a major city , and had a population of 277 @,@ 454 people during the 2000 U.S. census . In addition to Corpus Christi , Kinney also found Nuecestown ( known to settlers as The Motts ) in 1852 , near the confluence of the Nueces River and Nueces Bay . The town was attacked by Mexican robbers in 1875 , and underwent a steep decline . It is now a ghost town located in the Corpus Christi city limits . The city of Ingleside was founded on the northern shore of the bay in 1854 , and grew slowly . It had a population of 9 @,@ 388 in the 2000 census . Likewise , the city of Portland located on the northeastern bluff between the Nueces and Corpus Christi Bays , did not grow as rapidly as Corpus Christi , following its 1891 founding . During the 2000 census , it had 14 @,@ 827 residents .
For transportation on the bay , steamboats were commonplace between Corpus Christi and Ingleside during the 1930s . Native Americans used a route made up of a series of shallow oyster beds , dubbed Reef Road . The passage , which was about 18 to 24 inches in depth , could be navigated on foot or horseback during low tides to travel across the opening of Nueces Bay into Corpus Christi Bay . White settlers discovered the road in the 1860s , and it became a common way to pass from Portland to Corpus Christi via buggy , although its jagged course had to be marked with posts and horses would sometimes fall off the beds and drown . A wooden causeway connecting Portland and Corpus Christi was first constructed in 1915 , but was repeatedly rebuilt and destroyed by several storms . A permanent concrete bridge was erected in the 1950s , and a double lane was added in 1988 . The approximately mile long structure is today known as the Nueces Bay Causeway .
The bay has been strategically important for the military . General Zachary Taylor stationed his men on Rincon Point during the Mexican @-@ American War , and a Union invasion was halted by Confederates on the same point in 1862 , during the American Civil War . The Port of Corpus Christi was used by the Confederates to bring in supplies during the war effort until the Union bombarded Corpus Christi and occupied the bay and port from 1863 to 1870 . In 1940 , the Naval Air Station Corpus Christi was established on the bay , and by 1944 had transformed into a major base with one main air station and six additional stations . Notably , during a March 1960 practice run from the base , future Senator John McCain lost track of his altitude and speed , and his single @-@ seat , single @-@ pistoned @-@ engine AD @-@ 6 Skyraider crashed into Corpus Christi Bay and sank to the bottom . He squeezed out of the cockpit , swam ten feet to the surface , and was carried to safety by a rescue helicopter , therefore escaping without major injuries .
= = Features = =
The shoreline of Corpus Christi Bay is included in the Texas Coastal Plain in South Texas . The surrounding land is semi @-@ arid and is used for ranching and other agricultural purposes . The bay itself is considered subtropical , and was described by Gutzon Borglum as " the most beautiful bay on the Texas coast . "
On average , the system is 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep , and covers approximately 497 square kilometers ( 192 sq mi ) . It is the fourth largest estuarine system in Texas behind Galveston Bay , Laguna Madre and Matagorda Bay . The two main extensions are : Nueces Bay , which extends west to the mouth of the Nueces River , and Oso Bay , which extends south to the mouth of Oso Creek . Every second , approximately 34 cubic meters ( 9 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) of water flows into the bay . The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Aransas Pass . As a result of the seawater exchange , the bay 's salinity is 22 parts per thousand ( ppt ) , which is lower than the seawater average of 35 ppt .
Following the shoreline beginning at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on the bay 's southeastern peninsula , the features of the bay can be best described . Moving northwest from the air station , Oso Bay must be crossed at its confluence with Corpus Christi Bay . On the other side of the meeting is Ward Island ( actually a peninsula ) , where Texas A & M University – Corpus Christi is found . Further northwest , the shore begins to curve and off in the distance across the bay , the skyline of Corpus Christi is visible . Following the shore , the land dips inward and forms Emerald Cove , where a seawall has been constructed . Out in the bay , the Alta Vista Reef can be spotted from this location . Moving north along the shore , the seawall continues into the main city , until it reaches Industrial Canal , which has been dredged south of Nueces Bay and extends into the main bay to Port Aransas . Another seawall , which starts in Emerald Cove with gaps at places such as a spoils island that can be viewed in the bay and the canal , is slightly out in the water . This seawall ends when it reaches land at the southern portion of Corpus Christi Beach . North of the canal , Corpus Christi Beach is found along the shore to Rincon Point , where Corpus Christi Bay opens to Nueces Bay and must be crossed using the Nueces Bay Causeway to Indian Point near Portland , from where Indian Reef juts from offshore . Past Portland , the shore curves to the southeast where the large La Quinta Island forms on the backdrop of industrial plants in Ingleside . The La Quinta Channel has been dredged between the island and the shore and meets the Jewell Fulton canal at the confluence of Kinney Bayou . Ingleside Cove is formed in this area between La Quinta Island and an island named Ingleside Point . The shore then curves to the southwest where Ingleside on the Bay is located on southern shore of the bay 's northeastern peninsula . To the southeast , a series of islands form the boundary between Corpus Christi and Redfish Bays .
= = Ecosystem = =
The Environmental Protection Agency has designated the Corpus Christi Bay system as an estuary of national significance . More than 234 species of fish are found in the bay , including the Gafftopsail catfish , Hardhead catfish , Atlantic croaker , Atlantic cutlassfish , Black drum , Red drum , Southern flounder , Crevalle jack , Ladyfish , Inshore lizardfish , Atlantic midshipman , Silver perch , Pinfish , Smooth puffer , Scaled sardine , Bighead searobin , Sand seatrout , Spotted seatrout , Sheepshead , Gray snapper , Common snook , and the Tripletail .
In 2009 , $ 1 million of federal stimulus money was delegated to the restoration of the marshland near the Nueces Bay Causeway to increase the population of birds and fish . The Coastal Bend Bays and Estuaries Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service collaborated to place soil and plant marsh near the causeway to allow a larger nursing location for fish and provide greater quantities of food for water birds . Over 490
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in Iowa , which was decommissioned during the same period . The fort operated as a military post until 1867 .
Fort Abercrombie was built in 1858 on the Red River at what is now the border between Minnesota and North Dakota near modern McCauleyville . The fort had to be moved soon afterward because of flooding problems . It was created to spur settlement of the Red River Valley , protect steamboat traffic on the river , and protect wagon trains travelling to Montana .
In addition to these military bases , private companies operated numerous trading posts in the region that were often referred to as " forts " , though they typically had little in the way of defensive fortifications .
= = Native Americans = =
The two main Native American tribal groups which dominated Minnesota at the time the lands were acquired by the United States were the more established Dakota Sioux , and the Ojibwe who had migrated into the area more recently . The two groups fought bitter territorial wars during the 18th century . In the mid @-@ 18th century the Battle of Kathio , in which the Ojibwe defeated the Sioux , permanently established northeastern Minnesota , particularly Mille Lacs Lake , as Ojibwe territory relegating the Sioux to southern and western Minnesota . Skirmishes between the groups continued in the 19th century including a battle near Lac Traverse in 1818 , a battle near Stillwater in 1839 ( the site became known as " Battle Hollow " ) , and another on the Yellow Medicine River in 1854 .
During the War of 1812 most of the Dakota and Ojibwe sided with the British though at various times some aided the Americans or took the opportunity to attack enemy tribes ( a notable American loyalist was the Dakota chief Tamaha , or " Rising Moose , " an admirer of Pike , who joined the U.S. army at Saint Louis ) . Though Grand Portage was the only part of Minnesota that saw significant conflict during the war , natives throughout the region were recruited to fight further east in areas such as Green Bay . In particular the half @-@ Dakota British captain Joseph Renville heavily recruited among the Mdewakanton branch of the Dakota Sioux including chiefs Little Crow and Wapasha .
From 1815 to 1821 employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company engaged in various territorial conflicts known as the " fur trade wars , " including the famous Battle of Seven Oaks at what is now Winnipeg , Manitoba . As a result of these conflicts numerous Métis migrated from the Red River area to central and eastern Minnesota , particularly in the vicinity of Saint Paul . This " Red River Exodus " became a major source of francophone immigration into Minnesota during the territorial era . The Métis and other mixed @-@ race groups were often regarded as French Canadian " whites " rather than " Indians " .
By the 1820s , animal resources were in decline in the area leading to increased competition among the tribes for game and for furs to sell . Collusion among the fur trading companies led to a dramatic drop in fur prices during the late 1820s causing impoverishment for many Sioux hunters . The U.S. government strongly encouraged the tribes to turn from hunting to farming , trading the woodlands for the plains .
Increasing territorial conflict between the Sioux and the Ojibwe on the western frontier , particularly along the Mississippi river , led the U.S. government to attempt to mediate the conflicts . President Andrew Jackson 's policy toward the tribes ultimately was to either pacify them sufficiently to allow westward expansion of American settlers , or else remove the tribes from the areas in which they prevented settlement . The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien ( 1825 ) , among its provisions established southern Minnesota as well as much of modern North and South Dakota as the homeland of the Dakota Sioux . The Ojibwe were given northern Minnesota and much of Wisconsin . The U.S. government , though , failed to enforce the treaty agreements leading to Little Crow 's pronouncement to Indian agent Taliaferro in 1829 : " We made peace to please you , but if we are badly off we must blame you for causing us to give up so much of our lands to our enemies . "
Following an 1846 treaty , the Winnebago tribes of Iowa were relocated to the Long Prairie reservation in central Minnesota in the late 1840s establishing an important presence in the territory . Because of the poor land in the new reservation the tribe subsequently negotiated a treaty in 1856 allowing them to relocate further south to Blue Earth but ceding substantial land in the process .
All of the native tribes experienced gradual disillusionment with the U.S. government because of its inability or unwillingness to honor its treaty commitments . The major leaders among the tribes were Wabasha and Little Crow among the Dakota Sioux , Flat Mouth and Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Day among the Ojibwe , and Winneshiek among the Winnebago . The success of treaty negotiations between the U.S. and the tribes was in great part facilitated by the mixed race families such as the Faribaults and the Renvilles .
The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851 gave all of the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux ( upper Sioux ) lands west of the Mississippi River to the U.S. government . The Treaty of Mendota that same year ceded the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Sioux ( lower Sioux ) lands in southern Minnesota , requiring relocation to an area near modern Morton . Both treaties , however , were amended to during the ratification process to eliminate the explicit guarantees of lands retained by the tribes . Additionally much of the promised payments were never delivered in part ostensibly because of debts owed by the Sioux to the fur traders .
Despite American hunger for land , the leadership in the Minnesota Territory did not actually want to remove the Sioux from the territory . Federal subsidies to the tribes were heavily siphoned by the U.S. settlements and removal of the tribes from the territory would have meant loss of this income .
Increasing impoverishment among the Sioux and continued treaty violations on the part of the United States would soon lead to bloodshed . In 1857 a renegade band of Sioux led by war chief Inkpaduta attacked the community of Spirit Lake , Iowa near the Minnesota border killing between 35 and 40 " white " settlers ( the event would be referred to as the Spirit Lake Massacre ) . They went on to attack Springfield , Minnesota ( modern Jackson ) killing seven before being turned back . In 1862 , bands of Sioux launched the Dakota War in which they were defeated . Apart from those killed in the war , 38 Dakota Sioux were killed in a mass execution in Mankato , the largest mass execution in the U.S. history . Hundreds more Sioux and European @-@ Americans were killed in the U.S. government 's subsequent eradication of the Sioux nation in Minnesota and the new Dakota Territory .
= = Commercial enterprises = =
The most important commercial enterprise in the early part of the territorial era was the lucrative fur trade . At the beginning of the 19th century two British companies competed for dominance in the North American trade : Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company . The North West company had used Grand Portage as its western headquarters along with other smaller companies that operated in the area . Grand Portage was one of the four principal British trading and shipping points furs in North America . Following the Treaty of Paris , in 1783 , British operations at Grand Portage were technically illegal though the trade continued . However , beginning in 1801 the North West Company began re @-@ establishing its headquarters north of the border at the newly constructed Fort William in what is now Ontario . After 1804 Grand Portage had been reduced to a minor trading center and most traders eventually abandoned the area . In 1842 , the Hudson Bay Company , which had by then absorbed the North West Company , shipped out a final band of Ojibwe who were employed by the company .
Before 1816 the majority of the fur trading posts in the Minnesota area were owned by the North West Company , but by 1821 the American Fur Company , founded in 1808 by John Jacob Astor in New York , had taken over most of these . As well as Grand Portage , another significant fur shipping point in Minnesota was Fort Frances in the Rainy Lake region , near modern International Falls in the far north of the state . This location became significant as it was key to multiple waterways for shipping furs to the Atlantic . Both the North West Company and the American Fur Company had posts at this location . Pembina , originally part of the Red River Colony , was a significant trading post for the Hudson 's Bay Company , and once it was claimed by the U.S. , became for a time key to U.S. interests in the fur trade . By 1830 American Fur dominated the trade within the United States because of the exclusion of British companies by the U.S. government .
Beginning in the 1820s , a fur trading route developed between the Red River Colony ( in modern Manitoba ) and the trading posts in Minnesota , first primarily at Mendota and later at Saint Paul . The system of ox cart trails came to be known as the Red River Trails and was used principally by the Métis as a way to avoid the fur trade monopoly of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( which had absorbed the North West Company ) . Though this cross @-@ border trade was entirely illegal and violated the policies of the Hudson 's Bay Company , enforcement against the trade by American and British authorities was virtually non @-@ existent . The trail system would reach its peak usage in the mid @-@ 19th century . The Hudson 's Bay Company continued to expand its presence north of the U.S. border establishing new posts such as Fort Alexander and Rat Portage .
The fur trade was in decline by the late 1830s . The American Fur Company went bankrupt in 1842 , though the Missouri Fur Company and other operations kept the trade from collapsing entirely . As this trade declined the lumber industry began to grow substantially in areas such as the Saint Croix Valley where valuable white pine was plentiful . New saw mills appeared in Marine and Stillwater . Lumber was typically cut during winter and sent downstream in the spring . In 1848 , businessman Franklin Steele built the first private sawmill on the Saint Anthony Falls ( which would later become the town of Saint Anthony ) opening commercial lumbering on the Mississippi River . More sawmills quickly followed . Soon the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers in Minnesota had become major conduits for lumber headed for Saint Louis and other destinations .
The first flour mill in Minnesota was built in 1823 at Fort Snelling as a retrofitting of a lumber mill . The first private grain mill was built in Washington County by Samuel Bowles . Minneapolis gained its first grain mill in 1847 . During the 1850s grain production began to develop rapidly but Minnesota did not become a significant grain exporter until 1858 .
In 1823 the first steamboat , known as the Virginia , arrived at Fort Snelling carrying Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro . By the 1830s a steady , if not yet large , stream of steamboat traffic plied the river including some ships listed as ferrying " pleasure parties " . The first railroad to reach the Mississippi ( in Illinois ) , the Rock Island Railroad , was completed in the 1854 . The event was celebrated with sightseeing excursions from Rock Island up the Mississippi into Minnesota . Those excursions touched off such a wave of interest in Minnesota that 56 @,@ 000 tourists visited Saint Paul by steamboat in 1856 .
In 1849 James Goodhue began publication of the Minnesota Pioneer newspaper in Saint Paul ( the paper would later be renamed the St. Paul Pioneer Press ) . By the time the area achieved statehood 89 newspapers had been established . Information about Minnesota published in these periodicals spread throughout the United States and Europe . Advertising campaigns were launched in the northeastern U.S. and Europe to lure European settlers . These efforts met with limited success though they would become much more successful after statehood .
Saint Anthony , with its scenic waterfalls , rapidly developed as a destination for tourists traveling the Mississippi on steamboats . The Winslow House , a luxury hotel overlooking the falls , was constructed in 1857 . By the late 1860s Saint Anthony had become a popular summer resort for wealthy southerners .
One of the major sources of income in the territory during the 1850s was U.S. government annuity payments to the Ojibwe and other tribes required by earlier treaties . These payments amounted to more than $ 380 @,@ 000 per year on average ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million in present @-@ day terms ) compared to approximately $ 120 @,@ 000 per year ( $ 3 @.@ 41 million in present @-@ day terms ) given to the territory itself for development . Because of corruption , and mishandling of the payments to the tribes , a great deal of the money was used directly by U.S. settlers for commercial and community development with questionable benefit to the tribes . At the beginning of the Minnesota Territory , in fact , these payments were the territory 's most important source of income since the fur trade was no longer as lucrative as it had once been and other exports were still negligible .
= = Settlements = =
During most of this era Native Americans outnumbered European / U.S. settlers in what is now Minnesota . Significant Dakota Sioux settlements in the Minnesota area included Kaposia , located in what is now Saint Paul before being moved by the 1837 treaty . Significant Ojibwe settlements included Misizaaga 'igan ( Mille Lacs ) and Nagaajiwanaang ( Fond du Lac ) , as well as the community that had developed around the Grand Portage commerce .
When the Minnesota Territory was established in 1848 the Native American settlements in the territory still rivaled the American settlements in size . According to some scholars , the Mandan / Hidatsa village of Like @-@ a @-@ Fishhook in what is now North Dakota , with a population of 700 , was the largest settlement in the Minnesota Territory . The numerous other settlements in the territory gave a total Native American population of over 25 @,@ 000 in 1849 which easily outnumbered the 4535 " white " settlers .
At the outset of the 19th century most of the European settlements were related to the fur trade . The largest of these settlements were trading posts established by the North West Company , particularly those at Sandy Lake , Leech Lake , and Fond du Lac . Historian Grace Lee Nute has documented over 100 fur trading posts of varying sizes in the Minnesota area before statehood . Most of these posts were eventually taken over by the American Fur Company . When several hundred settlers abandoned the Red River Colony in the 1820s , they entered the United States by way of the Red River Valley , instead of moving to eastern Canada or returning to Europe , adding to the Minnesota region 's population .
Construction on Fort Snelling began in 1820 and was finished in 1825 . The Fort became a magnet for settlement in east @-@ central Minnesota . Nearby Mendota was established during the same period and , as the regional headquarters for the American Fur Company , also drew settlement in the area soon becoming Minnesota 's commercial center . Many of the first stone buildings in the territory were constructed in Mendota by employees of the American Fur Company , which bought animal pelts at that location from 1825 to 1853 .
The logging industry spurred further development of settlements . Before railroads , lumbermen relied mostly on river transportation to bring logs to market , which made Minnesota 's timber resources attractive . Towns like Marine on Saint Croix , founded as Marine Mills , and Stillwater became significant lumber centers fed by the Saint Croix River , while Winona was supplied lumber by areas in southern Minnesota and along the Minnesota River .
In the 1830s a group of squatters , mostly Métis from the ill @-@ fated Red River Colony , established a camp near the fort . Because of complaints from some residents at the fort , new restrictions were placed on the squatters forcing them to move down the Mississippi River , first to a site known as Fountain Cave , and then even further downriver . Pierre " Pig 's Eye " Parrant , a popular moonshiner among the group , established a saloon at the new site , and the squatters named their settlement " Pig 's Eye " after Parrant ( later changing the name to Lambert 's Landing , and finally Saint Paul after the local chapel ) . The location was a convenient site for a steamboat landing and by 1847 a steamboat line had established the town as a regular stop . This attractive advantage for commerce caused the settlement to develop significantly , soon eroding Mendota 's prominence .
The sutler ( general store operator ) at Fort Snelling , Franklin Steele , who had established lumbering interests in the area , staked a claim to lands adjacent to Saint Anthony Falls following the land cessions of the 1837 Objibwe treaty . In 1848 he built a sawmill at the falls establishing the basis of the town of Saint Anthony which grew there . John H. Stevens , an employee of Franklin Steele , pointed out that land on the west side of the falls would make a good site for future mills . Since the land on the west side was still part of the military reservation , Stevens made a deal with Fort Snelling 's commander . Stevens would provide free ferry service across the river in exchange for a tract of 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) at the head of the falls . Stevens received the claim and built a house , the first house in Minneapolis , in 1850 . Later in 1854 , Stevens platted the city of Minneapolis on the west bank . In 1855 the first bridge across the main channel of the Mississippi ( anywhere in the nation ) was built between Minneapolis and Saint Anthony .
By 1851 , treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to U.S. settlement . Fort Snelling was no longer a frontier outpost . Efforts to establish Minnesota as a prominent future state in the Union were swift . In 1851 territorial legislature petitioned the U.S. Congress for land to build a railroad between Milwaukee , Wisconsin and Saint Paul . That same year the legislature incorporated the University of Minnesota and established its endowment ( though the University would not admit students until many years later ) .
In 1848 when the Minnesota Territory was formed there were four major " white " settlements : Saint Paul , Saint Anthony ( part of modern Minneapolis ) , Stillwater , and Pembina ( now part of North Dakota ) . New settlements began to appear more rapidly . Mankato was established in 1852 by entrepreneurs Jackson , Johnson , and Williams . Saint Peter was established in 1853 by Captain William Bigelow Dodd . New Ulm was established in 1854 by German immigrants . Rochester was established by George Head in 1854 . Not all of the new settlements were established by immigrants from the eastern U.S. and Europe , though . The town of Faribault , for example , was established in 1852 by Alexander Faribault , a Minnesota native of mixed French @-@ Canadian / Dakota ancestry .
The influx of settlers in the 1850s transformed Minnesota from a sparsely populated territory of less than 10 @,@ 000 " white " settlers and a significantly larger native population , to a substantial population center of over 150 @,@ 000 predominantly European settlers . The city of Saint Paul expanded from less than 400 people in 1848 to over 2500 in 1852 and over 10 @,@ 000 in 1860 .
As a result of heavy immigration from New England and New York — regions where most major towns had originated as trading centers rather than political or manufacturing centers — many new settlements in Minnesota were laid out so as to heavily favor the business districts rather than the city halls or courthouses . This plan and the philosophy behind it spurred the growth of economic links between the communities and with other parts of the U.S.
In 1856 the Minnesota Territory established its first Commissioner of Emigration , Eugene Burnand . Through advertisements and speeches to new immigrants to the U.S. in New York , Burnand expanded the immigration trend which later created a large German community after statehood .
= = Society = =
Until the 1850s the Native American population vastly outnumbered the population of European ancestry in the area . Nevertheless , the division between " Indian " and " white " during this era was always somewhat vague . In general persons of mixed descent were considered " white " if they dressed in European clothing and adopted European customs . " Indians " were those who lived in traditional native lifestyles . Even as the U.S. began to establish its authority over the region and some settlers from the U.S. began to arrive the Native American population continued to hold significant political and social influence as a result of the fur trade . As experienced hunters they were important to one of North America 's major business enterprises . The decline of this trade during the later part of the era marked the decline of Native American influence .
Following the 1837 treaty the Saint Croix Triangle , between the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers , had been opened to U.S. settlement . Still until the later establishment of the Minnesota Territory this triangle remained an island of " white " culture and settlement . The vast majority of the Minnesota area , though , was " Indian country " . Contemporary accounts of larger towns such as Mendota , Saint Anthony , and Saint Paul in the 1840s indicate that the majority of the population was predominantly of French and Métis ancestry . Even in these communities European culture , was not strictly dominant . Commenting on Minnesota 's culture of the 1840s , Governor Alexander Ramsey described the streets of Saint Paul saying that it was common to see " the blankets and painted faces of Indians , and the red sashes and mocassins of French voyageurs and half @-@ breeds , greatly predominating over the less picturesque costume of the Anglo @-@ American race . "
It is in fact likely that a very large percentage of the " white " population reported in the 1850 census was of partially Native American ancestry . Many men of mixed racial ancestry became respected members of " white " society . William W. Warren , for example , was the son of an American entrepreneur ( who hailed from New York before he began working in John Jacob Astor 's American Fur Company ) and a mixed @-@ blood Ojibwe mother ( whose father had been in the old French and British fur trade ) was educated in the East and in the early 1850s lived on the Upper Mississippi , in part working as an independent translator and Indian Agency contractor . Warren was a good writer — his newspaper articles were eventually published as the only 19th century compendium of Ojibwe history and was elected to the territorial legislature before his death from consumption .
With the establishment of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 and the treaty of 1851 waves of immigrants from the U.S. and Europe came to the territory rapidly changing the demographics . Even as these changes occurred in many areas the vagueness of the racial divisions between " Indians " and " whites " persisted . As late as 1857 it was common practice in some jurisdictions for men to be allowed to vote based on whether or not they were wearing European clothing . According to some observers natives at a given polling location would share a single pair of trousers each wearing them only long enough to cast a ballot .
Logging and trading communities in the territory , such as International Falls , were often known as centers of lawlessness and vice . Saloons were commonly the social centers of the towns with brothels and " bath houses " adding to the character of the society . These gathering places attracted trappers , traders , smugglers , and numerous others traveling through the countryside .
The late 1840s and 1850s witnessed large @-@ scale immigration from the Eastern U.S. and Europe . By 1860 approximately 80 % percent of Minnesota 's U.S.-born population came from New York and New England . The state was in fact for a time known as the " New England of the West " . Maine , in particular , contributed a large number of immigrants , probably because of the large number of lumbermen in Maine and the growing lumber industry in Minnesota .
By the 1850s racist ideology , which was becoming prevalent in much of the U.S. , began to affect Minnesota more significantly than it had in the past . The ruling class was composed of primarily Anglo @-@ American Protestants . Settlers from the U.S. increasingly discussed " white " inhabitants as the key to Minnesota 's future with an eye toward marginalizing the role that other " inferior " races would have in the future . Author James Wesley Bond in 1853 described Minnesota before the 1850s as " a waste of woodland and prairie , uninhabited save by the different hordes of savage tribes from time immemorial . " Prejudices in the territory , however , were complicated . As late as 1840 mulattos in Saint Paul were commonly treated as equals to others in the community with children of all races attending the same schools . By the late 1840s , however , all blacks had been completely disenfranchised . In addition they were prevented from running for office and their children were segregated in schools . By contrast Irish Catholics and Native Americans who adopted European lifestyles were allowed to vote and their children were not segregated in the classrooms . Paradoxically whereas Anglo @-@ Americans generally accepted business development by African Americans , they largely opposed business development by Irish immigrants .
Minnesota was a multi @-@ lingual area throughout the era . During the earlier parts of the era French and English were widely used but Ojibwe , Sioux , and Michif ( the language of the Métis ) were more widespread . By the late 1850s English had grown to be the most spoken language . New immigrants , though , brought additional languages to the territory . Newspapers were published in German ( Die Minnesota Deutsche Zeitung ) , Swedish ( Minnesota Posten ) , and Norwegian ( Folkets Rost ) . Irish Gaelic , Czech and other languages were used in various communities as well .
Most of the population of the region in earlier decades followed traditional tribal religious practices . However , Roman Catholicism had been known in the area long before its acquisition by the U.S. because of the many French traders who lived and intermarried there . Catholic missionary activity among the Métis expanded greatly in the early 19th century with the Catholic Church becoming particularly established in Saint Paul . Protestantism was rather a much newer phenomenon though some Protestant missionaries had entered the region in the early 19th century as well . The first Protestant church appeared in 1848 ( Market Street Church , Saint Paul ) . The waves of immigration in the 1850s , however , would rapidly make Prostestants the largest religious group .
= = African Americans and slavery = =
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 in theory outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory including the Minnesota area . The ordinance specifically stated
There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory , otherwise than in the punishment of crime , whereof the party shall have been duly convicted .
The ordinance was nevertheless seen as ambiguous in that it did not specifically address the slaves already in the territories , and it discussed the " free " population of the territories seemingly implying that a slave population would exist . French traders in the territories , and later even American army officers ( including Josiah Snelling who commanded his namesake fort ) , continued to hold slaves with the blessings of many in Congress .
The number of African Americans in the territory during this period was quite small but not insignificant . Newcomers continued to bring slaves with them , but there were many free blacks as well , some working as servants and some as completely independent pioneers . Information about the black immigrants during the earlier periods is sparse , but records do show that most of those at Fort Snelling were slaves . Records from 1850 indicate a population of 39 free blacks out of a total population of 6 @,@ 077 citizens in the territory ( which excluded Native American tribes ) . Before the 1840s these free persons could often expect to be treated equal to other racial groups . By the time Minnesota had achieved statehood , however , blacks had been disenfranchised and schools were segregated . Despite this , from the start of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 the leadership was predominantly antislavery thus ending the practice in
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this era .
One of the most famous of the early African Americans in the territory was George Bonga . He was born in Minnesota in 1802 , his father Pierre Bonga the son of a freed slave and his mother a member of the Ojibwe tribe . Bonga was schooled in Montreal and eventually became a fur trader in the Northwest territories . He went on to serve as an interpreter in negotiations with the Ojibwe ( particularly as a representative of Michigan Governor Lewis Cass ) . His brother Stephen served as the Ojibwe interpreter at Fort Snelling for the 1837 treaty .
In the 1850s , Fort Snelling played a key role in the infamous Dred Scott court case . Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master , John Emerson . They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited . After Emerson 's death , the Scotts argued that since they had lived in free territory , they were no longer slaves . Ultimately in 1857 the U.S. Supreme Court sided against the Scotts . This decision helped to fuel rancor over slavery leading to the Bleeding Kansas conflicts , the Panic of 1857 , and eventually the American Civil War .
= = Government and politics = =
In the earlier part of the 19th century the area which is today Minnesota was not recognized as a single entity . The Mississippi River had divided the eastern British / French lands of North America from the western Spanish lands and even after the Louisiana Purchase this was for a time seen as a separation between territories . The division between the U.S. territories in the region and the British territories remained ambiguous until the Anglo @-@ American Convention of 1818 , which set the border with British North America at the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods ( except for a small chunk of land now dubbed the Northwest Angle ) . Border disputes east of the Lake of the Woods continued until the Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty of 1842 .
Throughout the first half of the 19th century , the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory , formed in 1787 . After Ohio 's statehood the area became part of the new Illinois Territory in 1809 . After Illinois ' statehood the area was incorporated into the Michigan Territory in 1818 and later became part of the Wisconsin Territory in 1836 . The western and southern areas of the state were not formally organized until 1838 , when they became part of the Iowa Territory .
Following the admission of Wisconsin as a state in 1848 , the Minnesota area was temporarily without a government , though John Catlin , the former secretary of the Wisconsin Territory , claimed governorship of what remained of the territory as a short @-@ term measure . By this time Minnesota 's residents were largely Democrats and , as the U.S. Congress was at that time controlled by Democrats , they hoped Congress might be sympathetic to their concerns . In that same year a meeting was held in Stillwater , nominally led by Caitlin and later known as the " Stillwater Convention " , to discuss establishing a new territory . The participants elected Henry Sibley as a representative to Congress .
Stephen A. Douglas ( D ) , the chair of the United States Senate Committee on Territories , drafted the bill authorizing the Minnesota Territory in 1848 . He had envisioned a future for the upper Mississippi valley , so he was motivated to keep the area from being carved up by neighboring territories . In 1846 , he had prevented Iowa from including Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls within its northern border . In 1847 , he kept the organizers of Wisconsin from including Saint Paul and Saint Anthony Falls . The Minnesota Territory was established from the lands remaining from Iowa Territory and Wisconsin Territory on March 3 , 1849 . The Minnesota Territory extended far into what is now North Dakota and South Dakota , to the Missouri River . There was a dispute over the shape of the state to be carved out of Minnesota Territory . An alternate proposal that was only narrowly defeated would have made the 46th parallel the state 's northern border and the Missouri River its western border , thus giving up the whole northern half of the state in exchange for the eastern half of what later became South Dakota .
Alexander Ramsey ( W ) became the first governor of Minnesota Territory and Henry Hastings Sibley ( D ) became the territorial delegate to the United States Congress . Henry M. Rice ( D ) , who replaced Sibley as the territorial delegate in 1853 , worked in Congress to promote Minnesota interests . He lobbied for the construction of a railroad connecting Saint Paul and Lake Superior , with a link from Saint Paul to the Illinois Central Railroad .
= = Organization and statehood = =
Before 1856 there was minimal discussion of statehood within Minnesota . However , as discussion of a potential transcontinental railroad in the U.S. became serious , leaders in Minnesota recognized that a territory was in a weak position to lobby for this economic opportunity .
In December 1856 , Rice brought forward two bills in Congress : an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution , and a railroad land grant bill . The enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands with the boundaries drawn as they are today . The bid for statehood came at a time when North @-@ South tensions in the U.S. were rising , tensions that would later lead to the American Civil War . Debate over admitting Minnesota as a free state was heated , but the enabling act was finally passed on February 26 , 1857 .
A constitutional convention was assembled in the territory in July 1857 . Divisions between Republicans and Democrats led to the drafting of two separate constitutions . The larger cities of Saint Paul , Saint Anthony , and Stillwater were the domain of the Democrats whereas agrarian southern Minnesota was the domain of the Republicans . A single constitution was finally worked out between the two factions though the more powerful Democrats ultimately prevailed on most issues . The resentment between the two parties remained so acrimonious that two separate copies of the constitution had to be used so that members of each party did not have to sign a copy signed by members of the other party . The copies were signed on August 29 , 1857 and an election was called on October 13 , 1857 to approve the document . 30 @,@ 055 voters approved the constitution , while 571 rejected it .
The state constitution was sent to the United States Congress for ratification in December 1857 . The approval process was drawn out for several months while Congress debated over issues that had stemmed from the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act . Once questions surrounding Kansas were settled the bill for Minnesota 's admittance was passed . The eastern half of the Minnesota Territory , under the boundaries defined by Henry Mower Rice , became the country 's 32nd state on May 11 , 1858 . The western part remained unorganized until its incorporation into the Dakota Territory on March 2 , 1861 .
= = In popular culture = =
In 1855 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , who had never explored Minnesota himself , published The Song of Hiawatha containing many references to regions in Minnesota . The story was based on Ojibwe legends carried back east by other explorers and traders ( particularly those collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft ) .
Joseph Rolette ( also known as " Jolly Joe " ) was a fur trader and territorial legislator of partially Métis ( mixed French / Native American ) ancestry who became an iconic figure known in Minnesota history for his irreverence . His most famous escapade was one in which , following the passage of a bill in 1857 which would have moved the territorial capital from Saint Paul to Saint Peter , Rolette absconded with the bill preventing it from becoming law . This and other stories were passed down for generations making Rolette as much a legend as a historical figure .
The " Gopher State " moniker , by which the state today is widely known , was selected in the mid @-@ 19th century as a means to create an identity for the state . Though some believed that " Beaver State " should be selected instead as more dignified , a political cartoon featuring a gopher soon solidified " Gopher State " as the more well @-@ known identity .
= Mitsuyo Maeda =
Mitsuyo Maeda ( 前田 光世 , Maeda Mitsuyo , born December 18 , 1878 in Funazawa village , Hirosaki , Aomori , Japan – November 28 , 1941 ) , a Brazilian naturalized as Otávio Maeda ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ oˈtavju mɐˈedɐ ] ) , was a Japanese judōka ( judo expert ) and prizefighter in no holds barred competitions . He was also known as Count Combat or Conde Koma in Spanish and Portuguese , a nickname he picked up in Spain in 1908 . Along with Antônio Soshihiro Satake ( another naturalized Brazilian ) , he pioneered judo in Brazil , the United Kingdom , and other countries .
Maeda was fundamental to the development of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu , including through his teaching of Carlos Gracie and others of the Gracie family . He was also a promoter of Japanese emigration to Brazil . Maeda won more than 2 @,@ 000 professional fights in his career . His accomplishments led to him being called the " toughest man who ever lived " and being referred to as the father of Brazilian Jiu @-@ jitsu .
= = Biography = =
Maeda was born in Funazawa Village , Hirosaki City , Aomori Prefecture , Japan , on November 18 , 1878 . He attended Kenritsu Itiu high school ( currently Hirokou — a Hirosaki school ) . As a child , he was known as Hideyo . He practiced sumo as a teenager , but lacked the ideal build for the sport . Because of the interest generated by stories about the success of judo at contests between judo and jujutsu that were occurring at the time , he changed from sumo to judo . In 1894 , at seventeen years of age , his parents sent him to Tokyo to enroll in Waseda University . He took up Kodokan judo the following year .
= = = Formative years at the Kodokan = = =
Arriving in the Kodokan , Maeda , who was 164 cm tall and weighed 64 kg , was confused with a delivery boy due to his country manners and demeanor . He was spotted by judo 's founder Kano Jigoro , and assigned to Tsunejiro Tomita ( 4th dan at the time ) , the smallest of the teachers of the Kodokan 's shiten @-@ no , to illustrate that in judo size is not important . Tomita was the first Kodokan judoka and a close friend of Kano . According to Koyasu Masao ( 9th dan ) :
Although the weakest of Kodokan shiten @-@ no , Tomita was able to defeat the great jujutsu champion of that time , Hansuke Nakamura , from the Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū style .
With Soishiro Satake , Maeda formed the head of the second generation of Kodokan judoka , which had replaced the first by the beginning of the 20th century . Satake , at 175 cm and 80 kg , was unmatched in amateur sumo but admitted that he himself was not able to match Maeda in judo . Satake would later travel to South America with Maeda and settle in Manaus , Amazonas State , while Maeda continued traveling . Satake would become the founder , in 1914 , of the first historically registered judo academy in Brazil . He and Maeda are considered the pioneers of judo in Brazil .
At that time , there were few graduated Kodokan judoka . Maeda and Satake were the top graduated professors at Waseda University , both sandan ( 3rd dan ) , along with Matsuhiro Ritaro ( nidan or 2nd dan ) and six other shodan ( 1st dan ) . Kyuzo Mifune registered at the Kodokan in 1903 and attracted the attention of Maeda , who commented , " you are strong and competent , therefore , you will certainly leave your mark in the Kodokan ... " Mifune went to learn under Sakujiro Yokoyama and later , already a celebrated judoka , Mifune said that Maeda 's words were a great incentive , as he regarded Maeda with the greatest admiration , even though Yokoyama was his sensei ( instructor ) .
According to Mifune , in 1904 Maeda lost to Yoshitake Yoshio by hane goshi , after defeating three adversaries in succession , but in a following tsukinami @-@ shiai defeated eight adversaries in a row and was awarded the rank of 4th dan ( yondan ) . Mifune also states that Maeda was one of the most vigorous promoters of judo , although not by teaching the art , instead generating recognition of judo through his many combats with contenders from other disciplines . Maeda treated experienced and inexperienced students alike , throwing them as if in real combat . He reasoned that this behavior was a measure of respect towards his students , but it was often misunderstood and frightened many youngsters , who would abandon him in favor of other professors .
= = = Prelude to Kodokan 's expansion = = =
In 1879 , Ulysses S. Grant , the former President of the United States , visited Japan . While in Tokyo , he attended a jujutsu presentation at Shibusawa Eiichi 's home in Asukayama . Kano Jigoro was one of the jujutsuka present . At that time , jujutsu was just starting to become known in Europe and the Americas . Excepting literal circus acts , few non @-@ Japanese had much chance of seeing or learning about the art . Even in Japan , judo and jujutsu were not considered separate disciplines at that time . Indeed , it was not until 1925 that there started to be clear differentiation of the names in Japan , and outside Japan , judo and jujutsu were not completely separated until the 1950s .
In 1903 , a senior Kodokan instructor named Yamashita Yoshiaki traveled to the United States at the request of the Seattle businessman Sam Hill . In Washington , DC , Yamashita 's students included Theodore Roosevelt and other prominent Americans . At Roosevelt 's request , Yamashita also taught judo at the US Naval Academy . Capitalizing on the publicity , the Japanese Legation in the USA asked the Kodokan to send more judo teachers to America , providing continuity to Yamashita 's work . Tomita reluctantly accepted the task ; Maeda and Satake embraced the opportunity .
= = = Career = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
Tomita , Maeda , and Satake sailed from Yokohama on November 16 , 1904 , and arrived in New York City on December 8 , 1904 .
Early in 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave several public demonstrations of judo . On February 17 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a demonstration at Princeton University , when Maeda threw N. B. Tooker , a Princeton football player , while Tomita threw Samuel Feagles , the Princeton gymnasium instructor . On February 21 , 1905 , they gave a judo demonstration at the United States Military Academy at West Point , where Tomita and Maeda performed kata ( patterns ) — nage @-@ no , koshiki , ju @-@ no , and so on . At the request of the crowd , Maeda wrestled a cadet and threw him easily . Because Tomita had been the thrower in the kata , the cadets wanted to wrestle him too . Tomita threw the first ( Charles Daly ) without any trouble . However , Tomita twice failed to throw another football player named Tipton using tomoe @-@ nage ( stomach throw ) . Afterwards , the New York sportswriters claimed the victory for the cadets because Tomita was thrown , whereas the Japanese embassy staff proclaimed that Tomita had achieved a moral victory , on the grounds that he was a far smaller man .
A conflicting account provided by the New York Times on February 21 , referring to Tomita as " Prof. Tomet , " states that
In any event , later that year the US Military Academy hired a former world champion professional wrestler , Tom Jenkins , instead of a judo teacher , a job Jenkins kept until his retirement in 1942 .
The Japanese experts did better at the New York Athletic Club on March 8 , 1905 : " Their best throw was a sort of flying cartwheel , " said an article in the New York Times , describing Maeda 's match with John Naething , a 200 lb wrestler . " Because of the difference in methods the two men rolled about the mat like schoolboys in a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble fight . After fifteen minutes of wrestling , Maeda secured the first fall . Ultimately , however , Naething was awarded the match by pin fall . " On March 21 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a " jiu @-@ do " demonstration at Columbia University attended by about 200 people . Following introductions , Tomita demonstrated falls and throws , then Maeda threw the university 's wrestling instructor . According to the student newspaper , " Another interesting feature was the exhibition of some of the obsolete jiu jitsu tricks for defense with a fan against an opponent armed with the curved Japanese sword . " Translations were provided by chemist Takamine Jokichi .
During April 1905 , Tomita and Maeda started a judo club in a commercial space at 1947 Broadway in New York . Members of this club included Japanese expatriates , plus a European American woman named Wilma Berger . On July 6 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a judo exhibition at the YMCA in Newport , Rhode Island . On September 30 , 1905 , they gave a demonstration at another YMCA , in Lockport , New York . In Lockport , the local opponent was Mason Shimer , who wrestled Tomita unsuccessfully .
On November 6 , 1905 , Maeda was reported visiting professional wrestler Akitaro Ono in Asheville , North Carolina ; after this , Maeda was no longer routinely associated with Tomita in the US newspapers . On December 18 , 1905 , Maeda was in Atlanta , Georgia , for a professional wrestling match with Sam Marburger . The contest was best of three , two falls with jackets and one without , and Maeda won the two with jackets and lost the one without . According to the Atlanta papers , Maeda listed his residence as the YMCA in Selma , Alabama .
Maeda was fond of the name and started using it to promote his art thereafter .
= = = = Cuba , Mexico , and Central America = = = =
During November 1908 , Maeda went to Paris , France , apparently to see his friend Akitaro Ono . From Paris , he went to Havana , arriving there on December 14 , 1908 , and his twice @-@ a @-@ day wrestling act quickly proved to be very popular . On July 23 , 1909 , Maeda left Havana for Mexico City . His debut in Mexico City took place at the Virginia Fabregas Theater on July 14 , 1909 . This show was a private demonstration for some military cadets . Shortly afterwards , Maeda began appearing at the Principal Theater . His standing offer was 100 pesos ( US $ 50 ) to anyone he could not throw , and 500 pesos ( US $ 250 ) to anyone who could throw him . The Mexican Herald did not record anyone taking his money .
During September 1909 , a Japanese calling himself ' Nobu Taka ' arrived in Mexico City for the purpose of challenging Maeda for what the Mexican Herald said would be the world jujutsu championship . After several months of public wrangling , Taka and Maeda met at the Colon Theater on November 16 , 1909 ; Taka won . There was an immediate rematch , and four days later , Maeda was pronounced the champion . It was later revealed that Taka was , in fact , Maeda 's old friend , Soishiro Satake .
In January 1910 , Maeda took part in a wrestling tournament in Mexico City . During the semifinals , Maeda drew with Hjalmar Lundin . This is a different result than Lundin recalled in his 1937 memoirs . Said Lundin , " Having been accustomed to handling the big Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers with ease , the Jap thought he could do likewise with me , but in the first encounter I got the better of him , after which my confidence returned . I had no trouble then in winning the match . It was a surprise to the crowd and a set @-@ back for Koma . He had been the hero all week , but as soon as he was beaten the fans , true to form , called him a bum . "
In July 1910 , Maeda returned to Cuba , where he tried to arrange matches with Frank Gotch and Jack Johnson . The Americans ignored him — there was no money to be made wrestling him , and much money to be lost if they lost to him . On August 23 , 1910 , Maeda wrestled Jack Connell in Havana ; the result was a draw . During 1911 , Maeda and Satake were joined in Cuba by Akitaro Ono and Tokugoro Ito . The four men were known as the ' Four Kings of Cuba.'
The Four Kings were very popular in Cuba , and the Japanese media were proud of the reputation they were bringing to judo and Japan . Consequently , on January 8 , 1912 , the Kodokan promoted Maeda to 5th dan . There was some resistance to this decision because there were those in Japan who did not approve of his involvement in professional wrestling . In 1913 , Tokugoro Ito stayed in Cuba while Maeda and Satake went to El Salvador , Costa Rica , Honduras , Panama , Colombia , Ecuador and Peru . In El Salvador , the president was assassinated while Maeda was there , and in Panama , the Americans tried to pay him to lose ; in response , they kept moving south . In Peru they met Laku , a Japanese jujutsuka who taught the military , and invited him to join them . They were then joined by Okura in Chile , and by Shimitsu in Argentina . The troupe arrived in Brazil on November 14 , 1914 .
= = = = Brazil = = = =
According to a copy of Maeda 's passport provided by Gotta Tsutsumi , head of Belém 's Associação Paramazônica Nipako , Maeda arrived in Porto Alegre on November 14 , 1914 , where his first exhibition in Brazil took place . After appearing in Porto Alegre , Maeda and his companions moved throughout the country : on August 26 , 1915 , Maeda , Satake , Okura , Shimitsu , and Laku were at Recife ; during October 1915 , they were in Belém , finally arriving in Manaus on December 18 , 1915 . Tokugoro Ito arrived some time later .
On December 20 , 1915 , the first demonstration in Belém took place at the Theatro Politheama . The O Tempo newspaper announced the event , stating that Conde Koma would show the main jiu @-@ jitsu techniques , excepting the prohibited ones . He would also demonstrate self @-@ defense techniques . After that , the troupe would be accepting challenges from the crowd , and there would be the first sensational match of jiu @-@ jitsu between Shimitsu ( champion of Argentina ) and Laku ( Peruvian military professor ) . On December 22 , 1915 , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu world champion Maeda , head of the Japanese troupe , and Satake , New York champion , performed an enthusiastic and sensational jiu @-@ jitsu match . On the same day , Nagib Assef , an Australian Greco @-@ Roman wrestling champion of Turkish origin , challenged Maeda . On December 24 , 1915 , Maeda defeated in seconds the boxer Barbadiano Adolpho Corbiniano , who became one of his disciples . On January 3 , 1916 at Theatro Politheama , Maeda finally fought Nagib Assef , who was thrown off the stage and pinned into submission by arm @-@ lock . On January 8 , 1916 , Maeda , Okura , and Shimitsu boarded the SS Antony and left for Liverpool . Tokugoro Ito went to Los Angeles . Satake and Laku stayed in Manaus teaching , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu . After 15 years together , Maeda and Satake had finally split up . Of this last trip , little is known . Maeda went from England to Portugal , Spain , and France , coming back to Brazil in 1917 alone . Settling in Belém do Pará , Maeda married D. May Iris .
Maeda was still popular in Brazil , and recognized as a great fighter , although he only fought sporadically after his return . Around 1918 – 1919 , Maeda accepted a challenge from the famous capoeirista Pé de Bola . Maeda allowed Pé de Bola to use a knife in the fight . The capoeirista was 190 cm tall and weighed 100 kg . Maeda won the match quickly . In 1921 , Maeda founded his first judo academy in Brazil . It was called Clube Remo , and its building was a 4 m x 4 m shed . Later , it was moved to the Fire Brigade headquarters and then to the church of N. S. de Aparecida . In 1991 , the Academy was located in the SESI and was run by Alfredo Mendes Coimbra , of the third generation of Conde Koma 's descendants .
On September 18 , 1921 , Maeda , Satake , and Okura were briefly in New York City . They were aboard the Booth Line steamship SS Polycarp . All three men listed their occupations as professors of " juitso " . After leaving New York , the three men went to the Caribbean , where they stayed from September to December 1921 . At some point in this trip , Maeda was joined by his wife . In Havana , Satake and Maeda took part in some contests . Their opponents included Paul Alvarez , who wrestled as Espanol Icognito . Alvarez defeated Satake and Yako Okura — the latter being billed as a former instructor at the Chilean Naval Academy — before being himself beaten by Maeda . Maeda also defeated a Cuban boxer called Jose Ibarra , and a French wrestler called Fournier . The Havana papers attributed Maeda with a Cuban student called Conde Chenard .
= = = Later years = = =
In 1925 , Maeda became involved with helping settle Japanese immigrants near Tome @-@ açú , a Japanese @-@ owned company town in Pará , Brazil . This was part of a large tract in the Amazon forest set aside for Japanese settlement by the Brazilian government . The crops grown by the Japanese were not popular with the Brazilians , and the Japanese investors eventually gave up on the project . Maeda also continued teaching judo , now mostly to the children of Japanese immigrants . Consequently , in 1929 , the Kodokan promoted him to 6th dan , and on November 27 , 1941 , to 7th dan . Maeda never knew of this final promotion , because he died in Belém on November 28 , 1941 . The cause of death was kidney disease .
In May 1956 , a memorial to Maeda was erected in Hirosaki City , Japan . The dedication ceremony was attended by Risei Kano and Kaichiro Samura .
= = Influence on the creation of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu = =
Gastão Gracie was a business partner of the American Circus in Belém . In 1916 , Italian Argentine circus Queirolo Brothers staged shows there and presented Maeda . In 1917 , Carlos Gracie — 14 ‑ year @-@ old son of Gastão Gracie — watched a demonstration by Maeda at the Da Paz Theatre and decided to learn judo ( also known at the time as ' Kano Jiu @-@ Jitsu ' ) . Maeda accepted Gracie and Luiz França as students [ 1 ] , and the youth went on to become a great exponent of the art and ultimately , with his younger brother Hélio Gracie , founded Gracie Jiu @-@ Jitsu , modern Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu . In 1921 , Gastão Gracie and his family moved to Rio de Janeiro . Carlos , then 17 years old , passed Maeda 's teachings on to his brothers Osvaldo , Gastão , and Jorge . Hélio is considered by many as the founder of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu ( though others , such as Carlson Gracie , have pointed to Carlos as the founder ) .
= = Maeda 's philosophy of combat = =
According to Renzo Gracie 's book Mastering Jujitsu , Maeda not only taught the art of judo to Carlos Gracie , but also taught a particular philosophy about the nature of combat based on his travels competing and training alongside catch @-@ wrestlers , boxers , savate fighters , and various other martial artists . The book details Maeda 's theory that physical combat could be broken down into distinct phases , such as the striking phase , the grappling phase , the ground phase , and so on . Thus , it was a smart fighter 's task to keep the fight located in the phase of combat that best suited his own strengths . The book further states that this theory was a fundamental influence on the Gracie approach to combat . The approach included armed versus armed , armed versus unarmed , unarmed , standing ( tachiwaza , 立ち技 ) , kneeling ( suwariwaza , 座技 ) , and ground work ( newaza , 寝技 ) , close quarters ( hakuheijugi , 白兵主義 ) , and other forms of combat . It was employed by other proponents of judo ( ' Kano jiu @-@ jutsu ' ) who , like Maeda , engaged in challenge match fighting overseas as judo spread internationally ( e.g. , Yukio Tani in the United Kingdom from 1905 , Mikonosuke Kawaishi in France , and others ) .
= Kitsune =
Kitsune ( 狐 , キツネ , IPA : [ kitsu ͍ ne ] ) is the Japanese word for fox . Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore ; in English , kitsune refers to them in this context . Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom . According to Yōkai folklore , all foxes have the ability to shape shift into men or women . While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — other stories portray them as faithful guardians , friends , lovers , and wives .
Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan ; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures . Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari , a Shinto kami or spirit , and serve as its messengers . This role has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older , wiser , and more powerful it is . Because of their potential power and influence , some people make offerings to them as to a deity .
Conversely foxes were often seen as " witch animals " , especially during the superstitious Edo period ( 1603 – 1867 ) , and were goblins who could not be trusted ( similar to some badgers and cats ) .
= = Origins = =
Japanese fox myths had its origins in Chinese mythology . Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits called húli jīng ( Chinese : 狐狸精 ) that may have up to nine tails ( Kyūbi no Kitsune in Japanese ) . Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatarishū , an 11th @-@ century collection of Chinese , Indian , and Japanese narratives . The nine @-@ tailed foxes came to be adapted as a motif from Chinese mythology to Japanese mythology .
Smyers ( 1999 ) notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories , but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan .
= = = Etymology = = =
The full etymology is unknown . The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text Shin 'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki . Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki ( 810 – 824 ) and Wamyō Ruijushō ( c . 934 ) . These oldest sources are written in Man 'yōgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ki1tune . Following several diachronic phonological changes , this becomes kitsune .
Many etymological suggestions have been made , though there is no general agreement :
Myōgoki ( 1268 ) suggests that it is so called because it is " always ( tsune ) yellow ( ki ) " .
Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means " came ( ki ) [ perfective aspect particle tsu ] to bedroom ( ne ) " due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one 's wife and bear children .
Arai Hakuseki in Tōga ( 1717 ) suggests that ki means " stench " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to inu , the word for " dog " .
Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori
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with kitsunebi . Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls . When not in human form or possessing a human , a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail . Jewels are a common symbol of Inari , and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare .
One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape , its hoshi no tama holds a portion of its magical power . Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune 's soul ; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long . Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its return . For example , a 12th @-@ century tale describes a man using a fox 's hoshi no tama to secure a favor :
" Confound you ! " snapped the fox . " Give me back my ball ! " The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully , " All right , you 've got the ball , but you don 't know how to keep it . It won 't be any good to you . For me , it 's a terrible loss . I tell you , if you don 't give it back , I 'll be your enemy forever . If you do give it back though , I 'll stick to you like a protector god . "
The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers .
= = Portrayal = =
Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are , kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works . Noh , kyogen , bunraku , and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them , as do contemporary works such as anime , manga and video games . Japanese metal idol band Babymetal refer to the kitsune myth in their lyrics and include the use of fox masks , hand signs , and animation interludes during live shows . Western authors of fiction have also made use of the kitsune legends .
= = = Servants of Inari = = =
Kitsune are associated with Inari , the Shinto deity of rice . This association has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . Originally , kitsune were Inari 's messengers , but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari Ōkami may be depicted as a fox . Likewise , entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune , where devotees can leave offerings . Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called aburage , which is accordingly found in the noodle @-@ based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba . Similarly , Inari @-@ zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari Ōkami that consists of rice @-@ filled pouches of fried tofu . There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past . Foxes have long been worshipped as kami .
Inari 's kitsune are white , a color of good omen . They possess the power to ward off evil , and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits . In addition to protecting Inari shrines , they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune , those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari . Black foxes and nine @-@ tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens .
According to beliefs derived from fusui ( feng shui ) , the fox 's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon , or energy , that flows from the northeast . Many Inari shrines , such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto , feature such statues , sometimes large numbers of them .
Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten , goddesses conflated with Inari 's female aspect . Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox .
= = = Tricksters = = =
Kitsune are often presented as tricksters , with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence . Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai , greedy merchants , and boastful commoners , while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks . Their victims are usually men ; women are possessed instead . For example , kitsune are thought to employ their kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o ' the wisp . Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions . Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction , theft of food , humiliation of the prideful , or vengeance for a perceived slight .
A traditional game called kitsune @-@ ken ( fox @-@ fist ) references the kitsune 's powers over human beings . The game is similar to rock , paper , scissors , but the three hand positions signify a fox , a hunter , and a village headman . The headman beats the hunter , whom he outranks ; the hunter beats the fox , whom he shoots ; the fox beats the headman , whom he bewitches .
This ambiguous portrayal , coupled with their reputation for vengefulness , leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox 's motives . In one case , the 16th @-@ century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari :
To Inari Daimyojin ,
My lord , I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants , causing her and others a great deal of trouble . I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter , and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way , and let me know the result .
If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior , you are to arrest and punish him at once . If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land . Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred , you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida .
Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor . Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household , where they can cause all sorts of mischief . In one story from the 12th century , only the homeowner 's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave . The kitsune patriarch appears in the man 's dreams :
My father lived here before me , sir , and by now I have many children and grandchildren . They get into a lot of mischief , I 'm afraid , and I 'm always after them to stop , but they never listen . And now , sir , you 're understandably fed up with us . I gather that you 're going to kill us all . But I just want you to know , sir , how sorry I am that this is our last night of life . Won 't you pardon us , one more time ? If we ever make trouble again , then of course you must act as you think best . But the young ones , sir — I 'm sure they 'll understand when I explain to them why you 're so upset . We 'll do everything we can to protect you from now on , if only you 'll forgive us , and we 'll be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen ! "
Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect . As yōkai , however , kitsune do not share human morality , and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may , for example , bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors . Accordingly , common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion . Oddly , samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune , but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of prestige . Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune . One 12th @-@ century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there . They first try to scare him away , then claim that the house " has been ours for many years , and ... we wish to register a vigorous protest . " The man refuses , and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby .
Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments . If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth , part or all of the sum will consist of old paper , leaves , twigs , stones , or similar valueless items under a magical illusion . True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles , such as protection , knowledge , or long life .
= = = Wives and lovers = = =
Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers , usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman . The kitsune may be a seductress , but these stories are more often romantic in nature . Typically , the young man unknowingly marries the fox , who proves a devoted wife . The man eventually discovers the fox 's true nature , and the fox @-@ wife is forced to leave him . In some cases , the husband wakes as if from a dream , filthy , disoriented , and far from home . He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame .
Many stories tell of fox @-@ wives bearing children . When such progeny are human , they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children . The astrologer @-@ magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers .
Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another . Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune 's wedding , in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions . The event is considered a good omen , but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests , as is depicted in Akira Kurosawa 's film Dreams .
Stephen Turnbull , in " Nagashino 1575 " , relates the tale of the Takeda clan 's involvement with a fox @-@ woman . The warlord Takeda Shingen , in 1544 , defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to suicide after a " humiliating and spurious " peace conference , after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige 's beautiful 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Lady Koi — Shingen 's own niece . Shingen , Turnbull writes , " was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox @-@ spirit of the Suwa Shrine , who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge . " When their son Takeda Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino , Turnbull writes , " wise old heads nodded , remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother " .
= New York State Route 448 =
New York State Route 448 ( NY 448 ) is a 3 @.@ 90 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 28 km ) long state highway in western Westchester County , New York , in the United States . The route begins in the village of Sleepy Hollow at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and goes in a northeast direction through the Pocantico Hills community in Mount Pleasant . It ends at NY 117 in Mount Pleasant , near the junction of NY 117 with Saw Mill River Road ( NY 9A and NY 100 ) and the Taconic State Parkway . From 1930 to the early 1970s , NY 448 was part of NY 117 .
= = Route description = =
NY 448 begins at an intersection with New Broadway and US 9 ( North Broadway ) in the village of Sleepy Hollow , then heads through a residential area as Bedford Road . After the Webber Avenue intersection , NY 448 turns to the northeast , where it passes the athletic fields of Sleepy Hollow High School . NY 448 intersects with Sleepy Hollow Road , which leads into a residential development and parallels NY 448 northeastward for a short distance .
Near the southern edge of Rockefeller State Park Preserve , NY 448 turns east and enters Kykuit , the estate of the Rockefeller family . At the hamlet of Pocantico Hills , the highway intersects with Lake Road and turns to the northeast , passing through more residential areas as it leaves the estate . NY 448 passes the Pocantico Hills Central School on its way , continuing northeast towards Phelps Way ( NY 117 ) . The road continues through a vacant area and heads northward into Mount Pleasant , where NY 448 terminates at an intersection with NY 117 . Bedford Road continues east of this point as part of NY 117 .
= = History = =
The entirety of NY 448 was originally designated as part of NY 117 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . In 1932 – 33 , John D. Rockefeller offered to straighten a short section of NY 117 that passed through Kykuit , the Rockefeller family estate , citing safety concerns . The state expressed similar sentiments in 1949 , deeming the stretch unsafe for commercial traffic . By the 1960s , the annual average daily traffic count along NY 117 had grown to 5 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , far more than the 1 @,@ 800 that the road had originally been built to serve . This led the New York State Legislature to approve plans for a new alignment for NY 117 in 1965 . The new road would be located north of the existing road , relieving traffic congestion on the Albany Post Road ( US 9 ) and NY 117 and providing access to NY 9A , US 9 , the Taconic State Parkway and the proposed Hudson River Expressway in the North Tarrytown area .
Several different routes were considered for the alignment . The path ultimately selected by the state was a four @-@ lane , limited @-@ access highway 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the current alignment that would cost $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( 1966 USD ) . Another proposed route would have cost $ 8 million ( 1966 USD ) , containing additional grades and curves while coming closer to the Rockefeller estate . Construction on the new NY 117 was expected to begin before the end of 1966 . The reaction from area residents was mixed , with some believing that the only beneficiaries of a realigned NY 117 was the Rockefeller family . Rumors that the Rockefeller family had wanted NY 117 moved had existed as early as the 1930s , and US Representative Richard Ottinger believed that Nelson Rockefeller , then the Governor of New York , was using his political power to move NY 117 away from Kykuit at the cost of the state . An aide to the Rockefellers denied this charge .
The Sleepy Hollow Valley Committee , comprising 11 members whose homes were in the right @-@ of @-@ way of the new alignment , protested that the route would destroy the countryside . They were opposed by the Potantico Hills Residents Committee , as most residents in Potantico Hills supported the new alignment . The former committee filed a lawsuit in the New York State Supreme Court to block the new roadway , and they were joined in their efforts by conservationist groups and the village of North Tarrytown . On June 28 , 1966 , the case was heard by the court . Engineers with the New York State Department of Highways were accused of showing " unprecedented pell @-@ mell haste " in working on a project with the Rockefellers before any injunctions could stop it . State Attorney General Joseph Romano countered that the state was not conspiring to provide anyone special benefits , saying that NY 117 was dangerous for years and opponents to the project were " thinking up little gimmicks , picayune arguments and ethereal ideas to mislead the court . "
A request by the state to dismiss the suit was denied in August 1966 , and the case was eventually heard by the state Court of Appeals , the highest court in the state . In the meantime , the state built the easternmost mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the new alignment , which was not affected by the lawsuit . On July 7 , 1967 , the court ruled 6 – 1 in favor of the Sleepy Hollow Valley Committee . As a result , the western half of the new road was moved an additional mile to the north , bypassing North Tarrytown completely . The new alignment of NY 117 was completed in the early 1970s , and its former alignment along Bedford Road was redesignated as NY 448 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= Hurricane Tanya ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Tanya was the final storm of the very active 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . The twenty @-@ first tropical cyclone , nineteenth named storm , and eleventh hurricane of the season , Tanya developed from a tropical wave while well north of the Lesser Antilles on October 26 . The system headed northeastward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Tanya on October 27 . Tanya meandered around the central Atlantic , and further intensified into a hurricane on October 29 . Thereafter , Tanya tracked northeastward before curving to the east @-@ northeast . After switching to an eastward direction , Tanya weakened to a tropical storm on November 1 . Later that day , Tanya passed through the Azores as it was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
Throughout the Azores , the extratropical remnants of Tanya produced high winds . As a result , extensive property damage occurred , which included destroyed or damaged houses , and sunken boats ; there were also reports of significant damage to agriculture . However , an exact damage toll figure in unknown . In addition , there was one fatality and several injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Tanya were from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa in the middle of October . The wave closely followed the path of Tropical Storm Sebastien and was unable to develop in the tropical Atlantic as it moved westward . The system did not begin to become organized until October 25 while south @-@ southeast of Bermuda . However , the Dvorak technique was still unable to classify the system until October 26 as the low @-@ cloud swirl became better organized while moving northward in the central Atlantic . That evening , a closed circulation had formed , and it was classified as Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One by the National Hurricane Center . On the morning of October 27 , it strengthened into a tropical storm , becoming the 19th as well as the final named storm of the season . Operationally , it was not declared a tropical cyclone until that point , when it was immediately declared Tropical Storm Tanya .
Immediately after becoming a tropical storm , the movement of Tanya became hindered by a nearby upper @-@ level low , and it quickly turned eastward before virtually stalling early on October 28 . The upper @-@ level low also influenced Tanya in giving it some subtropical characteristics , including a comma @-@ shaped cloud band and maximum winds far from the center of the storm at the time . Despite that , the storm gradually strengthened as it remained over warm waters of about 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . That afternoon , it gained full tropical characteristics , as an eye featured was beginning to form in the central dense overcast . The eye became clearly defined , although it was small in size . Early on October 29 , Tropical Storm Tanya was upgraded to a hurricane , the eleventh of the 1995 season , as it turned northward in response to the nearby low .
Later on October 29 , while slowly tracking north , Tanya leveled off as a low @-@ end Category 1 hurricane . By the next morning , a cold front to the west forced Tanya to accelerate in a more easterly track . It remained fairly well organized with a distinct eye as it became wedged in a narrow zone of warm air between the cold front to the west and the upper @-@ level low to the northeast . Despite slightly cooler water , Tanya strengthened a bit more that afternoon , reaching its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) with a barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) as the forward speed increased . That intensity was maintained until late on October 31 , when Tanya began to weaken as it traveled over cooler waters and the eye became obscured . Early on November 1 , Tanya began to lose tropical characteristics while still a hurricane . Hurricane Tanya was also heading rapidly northeast towards the Azores at the time . Tanya was downgraded from a hurricane to a tropical storm on November 1 . Despite weakening , the wind field of Tanya became larger . That evening , Tanya was declared fully extratropical as it passed the Azores . The remnant cyclone turned north , before being absorbed by another extratropical cyclone early on November 3 .
= = Impact , naming and records = =
Hurricane Tanya was not considered a threat to land , as it did not move through the Azores while a tropical cyclone . The Azores were hit very hard by the storm , which had just been declared extratropical when it hit the region . Damage was particularly severe on the islands of Faial , Pico , Terceira and São Jorge . Extensive property damage was reported , including many sunk boats , many houses were damaged and some destroyed and significant agricultural damage . Many trees and power lines were also knocked down , cutting electricity and hampering communications in the area . The highest wind gusts reported in the Azores were around 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . After the storm , a resolution was submitted to the European Parliament by the Government of Portugal and a disaster area was declared in the islands . One Spanish fisherman drowned and several people were injured .
There were many reports of tropical storm @-@ force winds from ships in the north Atlantic . One ship , with the call sign GBSA , encountered Tanya 's winds twice and reported the strongest winds from any ship , 71 mph ( 112 km / h ) .
Hurricane Tanya was the first storm to be designated with a name starting with " T " since naming of Atlantic tropical cyclones began in 1950 .
= Sweet Love ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Sweet Love " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Brown , Cory Marks , Greg Curtis , Jamal " Polow da Don " Jones , Jason " JP " Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr . , while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry . The song was sent to urban contemporary radio in the United States on April 10 , 2012 , as the second single from the album . " Sweet Love " is a slow jam R & B ballad which incorporates elements of electronic music . The lyrics of the song revolve around Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex .
" Sweet Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who complimented the song 's sexual lyrics . In the United States , it peaked at number 25 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 89 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The accompanying music video was co @-@ directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles , California . It displays intimate scenes of Brown and his lover partaking in sexual activity , women levitating out of their beds , and Brown dancing . Critics were complimentary of the video 's sexual themes and presentation .
= = Background and release = =
" Sweet Love " was written by Chris Brown , Cory Marks , Greg Curtis , Jamal " Polow da Don " Jones , Jason " JP " Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr . , while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry . The audio mixing was completed by Jaycen Joshua , with assistance by Trehy Harris . Curtis played keyboards on the song . On March 28 , 2012 , Brown announced via his official Twitter account that he would be releasing " Sweet Love " and " Till I Die " as the next two singles from Fortune , after the lead single " Turn Up the Music " . Later that same day , he posted a link to a stream of " Sweet Love " . The artwork for the single was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , and debuted online on March 30 , 2012 . It displays Brown sitting on the floor , staring up at the legs of one of the three women . Rap @-@ Up magazine described the artwork as " grown and sexy " . " Sweet Love " was officially sent to urban contemporary playlists in the United States on April 10 , 2012 . It was released as a one @-@ track digital download in Oceania and most European countries on April 13 , 2012 . However , in the US , " Sweet Love " was released on April 17 , 2012 . A remix of the song by American R & B singer R. Kelly , was posted online on July 26 , 2012 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Sweet Love " is a slow jam R & B ballad that displays elements of electronic music ; it lasts for a duration of three minutes and 19 seconds long . The instrumentation is provided by a keyboard , synthesizers , percussion and a drum machine . According to Nadeska Alexis of MTV 's Rapfix , Brown sings in a falsetto tone , which she found to be reminiscent of Michael Jackson . Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush described the ballad as " very Michael Jackson and neo @-@ Bieber " . JusMusic of Singersroom noted that " Sweet Love " is inspired by Silk 's " Freak Me " ( 1993 ) . Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun musically compared the song to Prince . The theme of " Sweet Love " revolves around sex . It contains lyrics about Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex . During the chorus , he harmonizes : " Oooh baby let 's get naked / Just so we can make sweet love / All these sensations got me going crazy for you / Inside on top of you / Grinding inside and out of you / Baby I know what to do / Let 's just take our clothes off " .
= = Reception = =
" Sweet Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Nadeska Alexis of MTV 's Rapfix wrote that Brown " keeps the sexiness at an all time high " with lyrics that " could easily win any girl over " . Contessa Gayles of AOL 's The Boombox described " Sweet Love " as " baby making music " , while Mark Edward Nero of About.com labeled it as " a straight @-@ up sex jam " . Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush called the song a sexy R & B jam that could " easily woo Rihanna back " . David Shapiro of Fuse TV viewed " Sweet Love " as " auditory pornography " and commented that the lyrics had him " blushing " . Joseph Patterson of MTV UK labeled it one of Brown 's classic songs " for the lovers " . Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone awarded " Sweet Love
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three vignettes that take place almost entirely during a single day following the characters Peggy , Roger , and Don .
= = = Peggy = = =
The episode begins with Peggy 's day and a heated argument with her boyfriend Abe , over her preoccupation with work and the effect this has on their sex life . The argument ends with Abe leaving in a huff . After Don pulls Megan away for an impromptu trip to a Howard Johnson 's hotel in far northern New York , Peggy has to pitch to the Heinz executives without them . Peggy unsuccessfully tries to sell the Heinz executives on her concept . Frustrated , she leaves work , has a couple of drinks , and goes to see the film Born Free . She sees a young man smoking marijuana behind her , partakes herself , and eventually gives him a hand job . She returns to her office to see Ginsberg arguing with his father . After being told off by Ginsberg for eavesdropping , she falls asleep in Don 's office . She awakens to a call from Don , who seems alarmed for incomprehensible reasons . Don hangs up on her and Peggy returns to her office . When Peggy asks about Ginsberg 's life , Ginsberg initially claims to be a Martian , stating that Morris Ginsberg is not his father . Michael was born in a Nazi concentration camp and , after its liberation , Morris claimed him from a Swedish orphanage when Michael was five years old . Peggy returns home , affected by this story , and calls Abe . She tells him about Ginsberg and asks him to come over to be with her .
= = = Roger = = =
From Roger 's perspective of the day , he invites Don to go on a trip with him to a Howard Johnson 's in Plattsburgh , New York , hoping to get out of a dinner party with his wife Jane 's " snooty friends " and is subsequently disappointed when Don decides to take Megan on the trip instead . Roger and Jane go to the party , which is hosted by Jane 's therapist and her husband . After dinner , Roger asks Jane if they can leave , but Jane reminds Roger that he agreed to take LSD with the group and begs him to stay , as she doesn 't want to go through the experience alone . Roger is initially unimpressed with the drug , but comes around after his consciousness begins to change with vivid audio @-@ visual hallucinations . Roger and Jane return home via taxi and take a bath together , during which Roger imagines he is watching the 1919 World Series from the bathtub . The couple then talks candidly about their marriage for the first time . During this moment of awareness , Jane admits that she knows the marriage is over . The next morning , a jovial Roger says goodbye to a shocked Jane , who appears regretful about what she said the night before .
= = = Don = = =
The episode 's finale is Don 's day and the trip to Plattsburgh and Howard Johnson 's Restaurant and Motor Lodge . As he and Megan eat in the restaurant , Megan expresses her frustration at having her needs and desires take a back seat to Don 's . The discussion escalates into a fight , during which Megan makes a hurtful remark about Don 's mother , and Don storms out and drives off without her . Don returns sometime later and begins to worry when he can 't find Megan . He spends hours looking for and waiting for her , calling Peggy ( the other side of the conversation from the first part of the episode ) as well as Megan 's mother in Montreal .
After waiting for hours at Howard Johnson 's and phoning home repeatedly , Don drives home in the early morning to find Megan in their apartment with the security chain on the door . Don kicks the door in , violently struggles with Megan , and chases her through the apartment . Megan and Don trip and collapse on the floor as Megan weeps . Don tearfully hugs her at the waist and tells her he thought he had lost her .
= = = Epilogue = = =
That morning , Megan and Don return to Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce . Don is beckoned to the conference room , where Bert Cooper admonishes him for being " on love leave " . Don replies that his love life is none of Bert 's business . Bert retorts that it is , in fact , HIS business and admits astonishment that the firm is running as well as it is with how little Don is actually working . Bert leaves Don standing alone in the conference room as Don looks through the picture windows at the employees going about their business . Roger , full of enthusiasm , pops into the conference room and tells Don he has an announcement : " It 's going to be a beautiful day ! "
= = Production = =
Creator Matthew Weiner said " Far Away Places " was inspired by " anthologized French films " with " lots of short stories in them " , with all three short stories linked by a thematic " desire to go away " . He further explained that " Peggy has this moment where she tries to be Don and fails and then goes on Peggy 's version of Don – sexually irresponsible , and drunk , and working " . Elisabeth Moss said the handjob Peggy gives a stranger in the theatre is a " moment of forgetting " after the frustrating Heinz pitch .
Weiner spoke about the structure of the episode in June 2012 :
Structurally , I love this French movie by Max Ophüls called Le Plaisir . It 's three or four Guy de Maupassant stories that are told by a narrator , and then characters start to appear behind each other , their stories overlap and they are just walking through , and you realize it 's a complete world . What I loved about that was just telling the story from that one person ’ s point of view . In Peggy 's story , she 's in every scene , nothing happens without her there . And it 's the same thing with Don and the same thing with Roger . So you 're really getting this very private perspective , and then thematically holding it together by saying , " Here , this is about the status of the relationship . " We weren 't sure that it was going to work . The hardest part was breaking it up for commercials so that the Peggy and the Roger stories would be in the same segment and you wouldn 't come back and think you were in the middle of another episode .
He spoke about the writing of a scene of the episode in August 2012 :
I had , in the writers room , given this speech about Ginsberg saying he was a Martian . I delivered it as Ginsberg . We knew that Peggy 's story was going to climax with that , and it was going to be their great moment of intimacy ; he would distract her from her failure and bond with her in that strange way that people who feel separate do . Then , when we were writing the draft , I got the notes from the room , and the speech was like one sentence . We searched everywhere , and it turned out I had never pitched more than that one sentence : " I 'm a Martian . " I had a great version of it , but it turned out it had all been in my head in one way or another . It all had to come from scratch . Once I reduced the panic and tried to re @-@ create it , it did happen . So , to me , it still has a magical quality to it .
Weiner characterized Roger 's acid trip as an experience of " complete honesty " and an " experience of empathy , something he 's probably never experienced in his life . He doesn 't see the world through other people 's lives and that kind of epiphany to me is very beautiful , even though it 's the end of the relationship . They are alone in the truth together " .
While discussing the fight between Don and Megan , Weiner commented on the violence and passion , noting that " what you get is that Don loves this woman " and that Megan is " everything that 's good to him " . Jessica Pare commented on Don 's lack of respect for her work , and Jon Hamm judged Don 's actions as " immature " . However , Hamm regarded Don 's fear as " genuine " when he is unsure of Megan 's whereabouts . The flashback scene between Don and Megan in the car was actually shot for the fourth season finale , " Tomorrowland , written and directed by Weiner , but was cut . Weiner decided to reinsert this scene into the episode as a flashback .
The exterior scenes of the Howard Johnson 's hotel were filmed in October 2011 at the Regency Inn and Suites in Baldwin Park , California . The hotel operated as a Howard Johnson 's from 1967 until it was sold in 1995 .
Editor Christopher Gay spoke about the episode in August 2012 :
Narratively speaking , we wanted the stories of these three relations of Peggy , Roger , and Don to be their own story . We wanted to give you a little bit more each time you saw each of the three story lines so that when you got to the third one , everything totally made sense . I 've talked to people and they 've had to watch it a few times to fully digest . Also , the score in the episode is pretty unique and more tonal and atmospheric than what we normally do . It 's a guide , too , that helps you feel when one story is ending and another is coming in and knowing that the shift is happening . I think the score and the sound design definitely helped guide the narrative .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received overwhelmingly laudatory reviews from television critics , particularly for its unusual departure from the standard Mad Men episode structure and is considered to be one of the best in the series . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix exalted the episode and the " more formally experimental " season , admitting , " I 'm still not sure I understood 100 % of it . But I know I liked it . A lot . " Sepinwall characterized " Far Away Places " as " an episode that gave the feel of dropping acid even when everyone on camera was stone sober . Matt Weiner , co @-@ writer Semi Chellas , director Scott Hornbacher , and the actors combined to give us some of the most memorable moments the show has ever done . " Todd VanderWerff of The A.V. Club gave it an A grade , compared it to previous " structurally daring " episodes like " Seven Twenty Three " and " The Jet Set " , and praised the director for the " beautifully shot " episode and the " gorgeous image of [ Roger ] and Jane lying , heads touching , on the floor , admitting their marriage just isn ’ t working " , while noting that the enemy of the season is " the passage of time itself " .
Verne Gay of Newsday called it a good , but difficult episode , saying , " the story lines were all parallel – it was even an anthology , with each story mirroring the next ( bringing to mind that memorable scene when Roger , under the influence , is looking in the mirror and told to look away ) ... the themes of male @-@ female entanglement , and disentangle ( and yes , hair , once again is a predominant metaphor . ) The themes of travel ... of being a stranger in a strange land ... of life on Mars , or in Plattsburgh ... of alienation , pursuit , and of a generation born during the Holocaust , amid the Holocaust " . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said the LSD trip " was handled brilliantly here , with insight , surprises , unpredictability , excellent humor and a really lovely , smart ending " and the image of Jane and Roger on the floor as an example of the " visual excellence " of the episode . TIME magazine writer Nate Rawlings compared the episode to a David Lynch film and noted that all three " stories also shared the thematic connection of the struggle between professional and work life . "
IGN reviewer Eric Goldman praised the performances of John Slattery and Peyton List and said the episode " took three of the show 's best characters and rocked their worlds in very different ways , telling three separate stories that were all utterly involving and moving , and delivering one of the show 's best episodes ever in the process . This show continues to operate on a level few other series could dream of ... " . Roger Friedman of Forbes called the LSD sequences with Jane and Roger to be " so well @-@ written they were kind of transcendent " . Salon writer Nellie Engoron acclaimed the episode , while pointing out that " with this episode ’ s tilt of the seesaw back to the older generation from the flailing youngsters , we ’ re reminded that while the 1960s saw a cultural shift towards youth , like a drunk , no historical change walks a straight line . For all the claims that Don and others have made that the “ kids ” increasingly hold the cards , the real truth ( if we ’ re telling it ) is that older white guys like Bert and Roger never truly lost power , even if they began to hide behind the scenes while fresh young faces took the public glory . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers on the night of its original airing . It drew 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Awards = = =
" Far Away Places " was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards , for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series .
= Awakening ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Awakening " is the eighth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on November 26 , 2004 on UPN . The script was written by André Bormanis and the episode was directed by Star Trek : Voyager alumni Roxann Dawson . The episode was the first of the season for both Bormanis and Dawson . The episode is the second of a three @-@ part episode arc which started in " The Forge " and concludes in " Kir 'Shara " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the Vulcan government seek to make the Enterprise leave orbit so they can attack a renegade faction of Vulcans , and afterwards the long @-@ standing enemy of the Vulcans , the Andorians . Meanwhile , Captain Jonathan Archer and Commander T 'Pol have been captured by the Syrrannites , and it is discovered that Archer has the katra of Surak . He has visions which lead him to find an ancient Vulcan artefact called the " Kir 'Shara " as the group come under attack from the Vulcans .
Elements of the plot of the episode were compared by executive producer to the Protestant Reformation with the Vulcan High Command representing the Catholic Church . The producers took care to cast actors in the roles of T 'Pau and Surak who looked similar to the actors who portrayed those parts in The Original Series . Nielsen ratings for the first run of the episode saw a decrease from the first part of the trilogy , down to 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . The critical response was mixed , saying that whilst they were entertained by the episode , there were several elements in the plot which were problematic .
= = Plot = =
Ambassador Soval is summoned before Administrator V 'Las and the High Council to face punishment over his use of a mind meld . Since the act is widely considered to be criminal by the Vulcan authorities , Soval is summarily dismissed from the Ambassadorial service . Meanwhile , Captain Archer and Commander T 'Pol are questioned by the Syrrannites . After a short while , T 'Pol is taken to see her mother , T 'Les , and the two disagree about the tenets of the group — the Vulcan authorities call them extremists , a term T 'Les disagrees with . Soon , Archer begins to see visions of an old Vulcan , and the dissidents determine that he had the katra of Surak transferred into him via mind meld .
V 'Las , now largely unopposed on the Council , becomes increasingly obsessed with decisively ending the Syrrannite threat once and for all . He postpones his plans to bombard the encampment , after delays in convincing Enterprise to leave orbit . He contacts Starfleet , and the Admiralty give Commander Tucker direct orders , which he refuses to carry out directly . He attempts , with assistance from Soval , to send a rescue shuttlepod to " The Forge " , but they are intercepted by Vulcan patrol vessels . V 'Las then finally orders Vulcan warships to directly engage Enterprise , and Soval suggests that they should retreat before they are severely damaged .
A ritual is performed to transfer the katra into the mind of T 'Pau , but the attempt fails . Archer continues to see Surak who informs him that he must find the relic known as the " Kir 'Shara " . The Vulcan military begin to bombard the complex . Archer , T 'Pol , and T 'Pau remain behind to search for the relic , and Archer is able to use his knowledge to unlock a door to reveal it . As they exit , T 'Pol finds her mother , but she soon dies after being seriously injured in the attack . On Enterprise , Soval reveals that the Vulcans , despite the recent peace accord , are preparing a pre @-@ emptive strike against the Andorians , and Tucker orders an immediate course at maximum warp .
= = Production = =
" Awakening " was the second part of a three @-@ part trilogy of episodes during the fourth season of Enterprise that were created to deal with the differences between the Enterprise @-@ era Vulcans and those seen in series set later in the timeframe of the franchise . Show runner Manny Coto summed up these differences saying , " Our Vulcans lie , our Vulcans are monolithic , our Vulcans are not pacifistic . " He sought to introduce a situation which he compared to the 16th @-@ century Protestant Reformation and wanted to include a Vulcan character who would effectively be in the role of Martin Luther , while the Vulcan High Command represented the Catholic Church .
The episode saw the re @-@ casting of two roles which had previously appeared in episodes of The Original Series . These were the parts of T 'Pau and Surak . T 'Pau made her first appearance in " Amok Time " , where she was played by Celia Lovsky . For " Awakening " , Kara Zediker was cast in the role . Zediker had previously appeared in the first season of 24 as Elizabeth Nash . Surak had been played by Barry Atwater in " The Savage Curtain " , but this role was taken by Bruce Gray for " Awakening " . Gray had previously portrayed Admiral Chekote in The Next Generation episode " Gambit " and the Deep Space Nine episode " The Circle " . For both of these parts , the producers attempted to cast actors who looked similar to the originals .
Robert Foxworth reprises his role from the first part of the trilogy as Administrator V 'Las , and Joanna Casidy had previously portrayed T 'Les earlier in the season in the episode " Home " . John Rubinstein , who appears in " Awakening " as Koval , has previously appeared as a Mazarite earlier in the series in the episode " Fallen Hero " and had appeared in " The 37 's " , an episode of Voyager . Gary Graham returned as Soval , who he has portrayed throughout the series from the pilot episode onwards . Director Roxann Dawson has previously portrayed B 'Elanna Torres in Voyager , and " Awakening " marked the tenth episode of the series that she had directed . It was her only episode of season four , and her last on Enterprise . It was also writer André Bormanis ' first episode of the season , who had previously written several episodes of the series as well as Voyager .
Filming started on September 23 , 2004 , and concentrated on Enterprise ship scenes on the standing sets for the first two days . After that production moved to the cave sets , which were dressed with Vulcan artifacts . On the fourth day of production , those artifacts were removed so that the same sets could use used to film the visions that Archer has of Surak . All exterior scenes in the Vulcan desert @-@ like Forge were shot on a soundstage . The final day of filming took place on October 1 , when all the scenes set in the Vulcan High Command were filmed . These involved only Foxworth , Graham and Rubinstein as well as a handful of extras .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Awakening " was first aired in the United States on UPN on November 26 , 2004 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fifth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , which aired re @-@ runs of What I Like About You and Grounded for Life , but was behind the other four major networks with NBC 's Dateline winning the hour with ratings of 5 @.@ 9 / 11 . The ratings received by Enterprise continued a downward trend in recent episodes , with ratings of 1 @.@ 9 / 3 received by the previous episode .
Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation was undecided about whether the main point of the episode where Captain Archer is expected to lead the Vulcans back to their main path of logic was a " wonderfully progressive concept or just regressive Trek in which humans have all the answers " . She thought that the change in Soval 's opinions in this episode was difficult to accept and that the other members of the main cast didn 't get a great deal to do in the episode . However , whilst she thought that " Awakening " was a visual improvement over " The Forge " , she was reserving judgement until she had seen the third part of the trilogy . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " thought that certain elements of the plot didn 't follow logical paths , such as how Archer found the Kir 'shara in a few minutes when apparently the Syrrannites had been looking for it for two years even though " it sits in a chamber behind a door that practically announces , ' IMPORTANT RELIC INSIDE ' ? " However , he called the episode
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some species of mole cricket may move as far as 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) during the breeding season . Mole crickets are active most of the year , but overwinter as nymphs or adults in cooler climates , resuming activity in the spring .
= = = Burrowing = = =
Mole crickets live almost entirely below ground , digging tunnels of different kinds for the major functions of life , including feeding , escape from predators , attracting a mate ( by singing ) , mating , and raising of young .
Their main tunnels are used for feeding and for escape : they can dig themselves underground very rapidly , and can move along existing tunnels at high speed both forwards and backwards . Their digging technique is to force the soil to either side with their powerful , shovel @-@ like forelimbs , which are broad , flattened , toothed and heavily sclerotised ( the cuticle is hardened and darkened ) .
Males attract mates by constructing specially @-@ shaped tunnels in which they sing . Mating takes place in the male 's burrow ; the male may widen a tunnel to make room for the female to mount , though in some species mating is tail @-@ to @-@ tail . Females lay their eggs either in their normal burrows or in specially @-@ dug brood chambers which are sealed when complete in the case of the genus Neoscapteriscus or not sealed in the case of genera Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla .
= = = Song = = =
Male mole crickets sing by stridulating , always underground . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the song is based on an almost pure tone at 3 @.@ 5 kiloHertz , loud enough to make the ground vibrate 20 cm all round the burrow ; in fact the song is unique in each species . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the burrow is somewhat roughly sculpted ; in Gryllotalpa vineae , the burrow is smooth and carefully shaped , with no irregularities larger than 1 millimetre . In both species the burrow takes the form of a double exponential horn with twin openings at the soil surface ; at the other end there is a constriction , then a resonating bulb , and then an escape tunnel . A burrow is used for at least a week . The male positions himself head down with his head in the bulb , his tail near the fork in the tunnel .
Mole crickets stridulate like other crickets by scraping the rear edge of the left forewing , which forms a plectrum , against the lower surface of the right forewing , which has a ratchet @-@ like series of asymmetric teeth : the more acute edges face backwards , as do those of the plectrum . The plectrum can move forwards with little resistance ; but moving it backwards makes it catch each tooth , setting up a vibration in both wings . The sound @-@ producing stroke is the raising ( levation ) of the wings . The resulting song resembles the result of modulating a pure tone with a 66 Hertz wave to form regular chirps . In G. vineae , the wing levator muscle , which weighs 50 milligrams , can deliver 3 @.@ 5 milliWatts of mechanical power ; G. gryllotalpa can deliver about 1 milliWatt . G. vineae produces an exceptionally loud song from half an hour after sunset , continuing for an hour ; it can be heard up to 600 metres away . At a distance of 1 metre from the burrow , the sound has a mean power over the stridulation cycle of up to 88 decibels ; the loudest recorded peak power was about 92 decibels ; at the mouths of the burrow , the sound reaches around 115 decibels . G. gryllotalpa can deliver a peak sound pressure of 72 decibels and a mean of about 66 decibels . The throat of the horn appears to be tuned ( offering low inductive reactance ) , making the burrow radiate sound efficiently ; the efficiency increases when the burrow is wet and absorbs less sound . Mole crickets are the only insects that construct a sound @-@ producing apparatus . Given the known sensitivity of a cricket 's hearing ( 60 decibels ) , a night @-@ flying G. vineae female should be able to detect the male 's song at a range of 30 metres ; this compares to about 5 metres for a typical Gryllus cricket that does not construct a burrow .
The loudness of the song is correlated with the size of the male and the quality of the habitat , both indicators of male attractiveness . The loudest males may attract 20 females in one evening , when a quieter male may attract none . This behaviour enables acoustic trapping : females can be trapped in large numbers by broadcasting a male 's song very loudly .
= = = Food = = =
Mole crickets vary in their diets ; some like the tawny mole cricket are herbivores , others are omnivores , feeding on larvae , worms , roots , and grasses , and others like the southern mole cricket are mainly predacious . As well as consuming roots underground , mole crickets leave their burrows at night to forage for leaves and stems which they drag underground before consumption .
= = = = Predators , parasites and pathogens = = = =
Besides birds , toads and insectivorous mammals , the predators of mole crickets include subterranean assassin bugs , wolf spiders , and various beetles . The South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci kills Neocapteriscus mole crickets by introducing bacteria into their bodies , causing an overwhelming infection . Steinernema neocurtillae is native to Florida and attacks native Neocurtilla hexadactyla mole crickets . Parasitoid wasps of the genus Larra ( Hymenoptera : Crabronidae ) attack mole crickets , the female laying an egg on the external surface of the mole cricket , and the larva developing externally on the mole cricket host . Ormia depleta ( Diptera : Tachinidae ) is a specialized parasitoid of mole crickets in the genus Neoscapteriscus ; the fly 's larvae hatch from eggs inside her abdomen ; she is attracted by the call of the male mole cricket and deposits a larva or more on any mole cricket individual with which she comes in contact . Specialist predators of mole cricket eggs in China and Japan include the bombardier beetle Stenaptinus jessoensis whereas in South America they include the bombardier beetle Pheropsophus aequinoctialis ( Coleoptera : Carabidae ) ; the adult beetle lays eggs near the burrows of mole crickets , and the beetle larvae find their way to the egg chamber and eat the eggs . Fungal diseases can devastate mole cricket populations during winters with sudden rises of temperature and thaws . The fungus Beauveria bassiana can overwhelm adult mole crickets and several other fungal , microsporidian and viral pathogens have been identified . Mole crickets evade predators by living below ground , and vigorously burrowing if disturbed at the surface . As a last @-@ ditch defence , they eject a foul @-@ smelling brown liquid from their anal glands when captured ; they can also bite .
= = Distribution = =
Mole crickets are relatively common , but because they are nocturnal and spend nearly all their lives underground in extensive tunnel systems , they are rarely seen . They inhabit agricultural fields and grassy areas . They are present in every continent with the exception of Antarctica ; by 2014 , one hundred and seven species had been described and more species are likely to be discovered , especially in Asia . Neoscapteriscus didactylus is a widespread pest species , originating in South America it has spread to the West Indies and New South Wales in Australia . Gryllotalpa africana is a major pest in South Africa ; other Gryllotalpa species are widely distributed in Europe , Asia and Australia . They are native to Britain ( as to western Europe ) , but the former population of G. gryllotalpa may now be extinct in mainland Britain , surviving in the Channel Islands .
= = = Invasive mole crickets , and their biological control = = =
Invasive species are those that cause harm in their newly occupied area , where biological control may be attempted . The first @-@ detected invasive mole cricket species was Neoscapteriscus didactylus , a South American species reported as a pest in St. Vincent , West Indies as early as 1837 ; by 1900 , it was a major pest of agriculture in Puerto Rico . It had probably slowly expanded its range northwards , island by island , from South America . The only biological control program against N. didactylus was in Puerto Rico , and it succeeded in establishing the parasitoid wasp Larra bicolor from Amazonian Brazil . In 2001 , N. didactylus in Puerto Rico seemed to be a pest only in irrigated crops and turf . Small scale experimental applications of the nematode Steinernema scapterisci were made in irrigated turf , but survival of the nematode was poor . Very much later , this same species was reported as a pest in Queensland , Australia , presumably arriving by ship or plane . The next @-@ detected invasive species was in the late 19th century in Hawaii , probably by ship . It was named as Gryllotalpa africana , but was probably G. orientalis . It attacked sugarcane and was targeted with Larra polita from the Philippines in 1925 , apparently successfully .
The next detection was in Georgia , USA , and at that time was assumed to be N. didactylus from the West Indies . It was in fact three South American Neoscapteriscus species , N. abbreviatus , N . vicinus , and N. borellii , probably arrived in ship ballast . They caused major problems for decades as they spread in the southeastern USA.Scapteriscus mole cricket populations had built up since the early decades of the 20th century and damaged pastures , lawns , playing fields and vegetable crops . From the late 1940s chordane had been the insecticide of choice to control them , but when chordane was banned by the U.S. EPA in the 1970s , ranchers were left with no economic and effective control method . Especially to aid Florida ranchers , a project that became known as the UF / IFAS Mole Cricket Research Program was initiated in 1978 . In 1985 , a multi @-@ authored report was published on accomplishments . In 1988 , an account was published on prospects for biological control , and in 1996 an account of promising results with biological control . The program ended in 2004 after 25 years of running monitoring stations , and in 2006 a summary publication announced success : a
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the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around the lake . Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida . Following another population boom after World War II , and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas . However , in the late 1960s , following a proposal to construct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park , national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades .
= = Exploration = =
American involvement in the Everglades began during the Second Seminole War ( 1836 – 42 ) , a costly and very unpopular conflict . The United States spent between $ 30 million and $ 40 million and lost between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 lives . The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them , defeating them , and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory . Almost 4 @,@ 000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed . The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they found in the Everglades . They tore their clothes on sawgrass , ruined their boots on the uneven limestone floor , and were plagued by mosquitoes . Soldiers ' legs , feet , and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and gangrene infection set in , taking many lives and limbs . Many died of mosquito @-@ borne illness . After slogging through mud , one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842 . General Thomas Jesup admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838 , trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war .
Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed : some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals , while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity . In 1838 comments in The Army and Navy Chronicle supported future development of southern Florida :
[ The ] climate [ is ] most delightful ; but , from want of actual observation , [ it ] could not speak so confidently of the soil , although , from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation , a portion of it , at least , must be rich . Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses , as eventually they must be , the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation , and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden . It is the general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months , by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season ; but if it should prove that these inundations are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers , as outlets to the numerous lakes , American industry will remove these obstructions .
The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country . As late as 1823 , official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake , until the military met the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837 . To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores , Colonel William Harney led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840 , to hunt for a chief named Chekika . With Harney were 90 soldiers in 16 canoes . One soldier 's account of the trip in the St. Augustine News was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public . The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain they were crossing : " No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it ; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees , and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian , from which the white man would never seek to drive them " .
The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation , supplies , leadership , or superior tactics by the Seminoles , but in Florida 's impenetrable terrain . An army surgeon wrote : " It is in fact a most hideous region to live in , a perfect paradise for Indians , alligators , serpents , frogs , and every other kind of loathsome reptile . " The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred . In 1870 , an author described the mangrove forests as a " waste of nature 's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen . " A band of hunters , naturalists , and collectors ventured through in 1885 , taking along with them the 17 @-@ year @-@ old grandson of an early resident of Miami . The landscape unnerved the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River : " The place looked wild and lonely . About three o 'clock it seemed to get on Henry 's nerves and we saw him crying , he would not tell us why , he was just plain scared . "
In 1897 , an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River . He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times @-@ Democrat . Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome , with numerous springs , and 10 @,@ 000 alligators " more or less " in Lake Okeechobee . The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River , " killing hundreds , but they continued to return " . Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida , writing , " ( w ) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa . "
= = Drainage = =
As early as 1837 , a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water :
Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets ? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil ? Could the waterpower , obtained by draining , be improved to any useful purpose ? Would such draining render the country unhealthy ? ... Many queries like these passed through our minds . They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country . Could the waters be lowered ten feet , it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres ; should this prove to be a rich soil , as would seem probable , what a field it would open for tropical productions ! What facilities for commerce !
Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842 : " that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida . " From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them , saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would be sufficient . Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond , and many favored the idea , promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South . A few disagreed , such as Captain John Sprague , who wrote he " never supposed the country would excite an inquiry , other than as a hiding place for Indians , and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking , one so utterly impracticable , as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed , I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful , and which cannot be understood but by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water . "
Nevertheless , Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $ 500 @,@ 000 to do the job . The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades , and concluded with the statement :
The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles . The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain , now worse than worthless , to teem with the products of agricultural industry ; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country ... will merit a high place in public favor , not only with his own generation , but with posterity . He will have created a State !
Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades ( known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ) , connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water would be drained from the area . The result , Smith hoped , would yield farmland suitable for corn , sugar , rice , cotton , and tobacco .
In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries . The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands . Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts , though attention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction . Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades .
= = = Hamilton Disston 's canals = = =
After the Civil War , an agency named the Internal Improvement Fund ( IIF ) , charged with using grant money to improve Florida 's infrastructure through canals , rail lines , and roads , was eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War . IIF trustees found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture . Disston was persuaded to buy 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land for $ 1 million in 1881 . The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual . Disston began building canals near St. Cloud to lower the basin of the Caloosahatchee and Kissimmee Rivers . His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars ; it was harrowing , backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions . The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers . Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobee was built , opening the region to steamboat traffic .
Disston 's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well . As one colleague put it , " Okeechobee is the point to attack " ; the canals were to be " equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley , which is the source of all the evil . " Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles ( 18 km ) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami , but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected . Though the canals lowered the groundwater , their capacity was inadequate for the wet season . A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded : " The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief " .
Though Disston 's canals did not drain , his purchase primed the economy of Florida . It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers alike . Within four years property values doubled , and the population increased significantly . One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison , who bought a home in Fort Myers . Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe , and sold tracts of land for $ 5 an acre , establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida . English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers . Florida passed its first water laws to " build drains , ditches , or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners " in 1893 .
= = = Henry Flagler 's railroads = = =
Due to Disston 's purchase , the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects , and the opportunity presented itself when oil tycoon Henry Flagler became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation . He built the opulent Ponce de León Hotel in St. Augustine in 1888 , and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida , first from Jacksonville to Daytona , then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893 . Flagler 's establishment of " the Styx " , a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach , became West Palm Beach . Along the way he built resort hotels , transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms .
The winter of 1894 – 1895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach . Miami resident Julia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami , to persuade him to build the railroad farther south . Although he had earlier turned her down several times , Flagler finally agreed , and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay . Three months after the first train arrived , the residents of Miami , 512 in all , voted to incorporate the town . Flagler publicized Miami as a " Magic City " throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened .
= = = Broward 's " Empire of the Everglades " = = =
Despite the sale of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) to Disston and the skyrocketing price of land , by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to mismanagement . Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades . In 1904 gubernatorial campaigning , the strongest candidate , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , made draining the Everglades a major plank . He called the future of south Florida the " Empire of the Everglades " and compared its potential to that of Holland and Egypt : " It would indeed be a commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power " , he wrote to voters . Soon after his election , he fulfilled his promise to " drain that abominable pestilence @-@ ridden swamp " and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands . They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts , at 5 cents an acre , and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907 .
Broward asked James O. Wright — an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA 's Bureau of Drainage Investigations — to draw up plans for drainage in 1906 . Two dredges were built by 1908 , but had cut only 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of canals . The project quickly ran out of money , so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J. Bolles a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) , before the engineer 's report had been submitted . Abstracts from Wright 's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 500 km2 ) at a cost of a dollar an acre . The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements , and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible . Wright 's supervisor noted errors in the report , as well as undue enthusiasm for draining , and delayed its release in 1910 . Different unofficial versions of the report circulated — some that had been altered by real estate interests — and a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate Document 89 included early unrevised statements , causing a frenzy of speculation .
Wright 's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult . Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee . The soil would be fertile after drainage , the climate would not be adversely affected , and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland in the dry season . Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s . His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee . Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades , none was included in the report . Furthermore , the heaviest year of rain on record , Wright assumed , was atypical , and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense . Wright 's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent . His most fundamental mistake , however , was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of water a day , based on flawed data for July and August rainfall , despite available data that indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches ( 25 cm ) and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) had occurred in 24 @-@ hour periods .
Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report 's conclusions — notably Frank Stoneman , the editor of the Miami News @-@ Record ( the forerunner of The Miami Herald ) — the report was hailed as impeccable , coming from a branch of the U.S. government . In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage , and the real estate industry energetically misrepresented this mid @-@ level engineer as the world 's foremost authority on wetlands drainage , in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation . However , the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it . Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report 's publication . One testified at the hearings : " I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work " .
Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost . Broward and his predecessor , William Jennings , were paid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage . Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910 , but died before he could take office . He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration . Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him ( the town 's original plan had been to name it Everglades County ) . Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died . Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them . News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port . Biscayne Bay was too shallow , so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida . The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades , so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912 .
= = Boom and plume harvesting = =
Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals . In April 1912 — the end of the dry season — reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained , and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress . Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months . But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative , land values plummeted , and sales decreased . Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater . Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks , but for many it took at least as long just to clear . Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn . Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless . When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms . Settlers encountered rodents , skinks , and biting insects , and faced dangers from mosquitoes , poisonous snakes and alligators . Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly , they just as quickly wilted and died , seemingly without reason . It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements . The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized ; people in Ft . Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them .
With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities . Even decades earlier , Harriet Beecher Stowe had been horrified at the hunting by visitors , and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877 : " [ t ] he decks of boats are crowded with men , whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests , seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore . " Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins . Otter pelts could fetch between $ 8 and $ 15 each . Raccoons , more plentiful , only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 . Hunting often went unchecked ; on one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters .
Wading birds were a particular target . Their feathers were used in women 's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s . In 1886 , five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers . They were usually shot in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting . Aigrettes , as the plumes were called in the millinery business , sold in 1915 for $ 32 an ounce , also the price of gold . Millinery was a $ 17 @-@ million @-@ a @-@ year industry that motivated plume harvesters to lie in wait at the nests of egrets and other large birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to starve . Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt . Still , plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris . A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with " almost anything that wore feathers , but particularly the Herons , Spoonbills , and showy birds " . Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .
Plume harvesting became a dangerous business . The Audubon Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove forests . In 1902 , they hired a warden , Guy Bradley , to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake . Bradley had lived in Flamingo within the Everglades , and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting . Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903 .
In the 1920s , after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction , Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba . Rum @-@ runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot : there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it . The advent of the fishing industry , the arrival of the railroad , and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven , Clewiston , and Belle Glade . By 1921 , 2 @,@ 000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee . Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass @-@ produced . Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $ 150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre . Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture . Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area and industrialists built lavish homes . Miami 's population multiplied fivefold , and Ft . Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well . In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) , most of it real estate advertising . Waterfront property was the most highly valued . Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view . Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down , some for lumber , but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it . It was also termite @-@ resistant , but homes were needed quickly . Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .
= = Hurricanes = =
The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers . The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the region was underwater . The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain in six weeks in 1924 . Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow , not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers , who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake . Fred Elliot , who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired , commented : " A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use " .
= = = 1926 Miami Hurricane = = =
The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom , one of which was an absence of any severe storms . The last severe hurricane , in 1906 , had struck the Florida Keys . Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms . However , on September 18 , 1926 , a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , and caused massive devastation . The storm surge was as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in some places . Henry Flagler 's opulent Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings . Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in disbelief while the eye of the hurricane passed over , not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction . " The lull lasted 35 minutes , and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people " , wrote Richard Gray , the local weather chief . " As a result , many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm . " In Miami alone , 115 people were counted dead — although the true figure may have been as high as 175 , because death totals were racially segregated . More than 25 @,@ 000 people were homeless in the city . The town of Moore Haven , bordering Lake Okeechobee , was hardest hit . A levee built of muck collapsed , drowning almost 400 of the town 's entire 1 @,@ 200 residents . The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches ( 46 to 61 cm ) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger . Two days before the hurricane , an engineer predicted , " [ i ] f we have a blow , even a gale , Moore Haven is going under water " . The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood .
The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects and turning down aid . The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal . The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief . As a result , the American Red Cross was able to collect only $ 3 million of $ 5 million needed . The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami , despite the attempts at hiding the effects . It also forced drainage commissioners to re @-@ evaluate the effectiveness of the canals . A $ 20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee , to be paid by property taxes , was turned down after a skeptical constituency
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and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .
It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective . Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms " for greater durability , sensation , and comfort " , but others warn that " the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it " .
Experienced condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure . An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage . A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .
Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom . The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to " take a chance " . This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .
Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage . One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent . Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients sabotaging condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use . Using a fine needle to make several pinholes at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness . Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .
= = Adverse effects = =
The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation . In people with severe latex allergies , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening . Repeated use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .
= = Use = =
Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic wrapper , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then unrolled over the erect penis . It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device . After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle . Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) . Condoms are also used during fellatio to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .
Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their foreplay . Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom dulls sensation . Advantages of dulled sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement . Advocates of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .
= = = Adult film industry = = =
In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 voter signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot . As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed . This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement . Producers claim that condom use depresses sales .
= = = Sex education = = =
Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly . A recent American Psychological Association ( APA ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying " comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms " , and " promote condom use for those who are sexually active . "
In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations . Planned Parenthood , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .
= = = Infertility treatment = = =
Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and intrauterine insemination ( IUI ) require collection of semen samples . These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .
Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm . Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely . Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm motility , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology . For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as intracervical or intrauterine insemination . Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them .
For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner . Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the ejaculate from the collection condom to a specially designed container . The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use . However , transportation may reduce the fecundity of the sperm . Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .
Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of antisperm antibodies . The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of antisperm antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued . However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .
= = = Other uses = = =
Condoms excel as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are waterproof , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not arouse suspicion if found .
Ongoing military utilization began during World War II , and includes covering the muzzles of rifle barrels to prevent fouling , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater demolitions , and storage of corrosive materials and garrotes by paramilitary agencies .
Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the rectum . These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an overdose .
Medically , condoms can be used to cover endovaginal ultrasound probes , or in field chest needle decompressions they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .
Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to waterproof microphones for underwater recording .
= = Types = =
Most condoms have a reservoir tip or teat end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's ejaculate . Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to snug and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner . Condoms are usually supplied with a lubricant coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex . As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .
= = = Female condom = = =
Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body orifice . The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of nitrile . Medtech Products produces a female condom made of latex .
= = = Materials = = =
= = = = Natural latex = = = =
Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking . In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production ( ISO 4074 , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) . Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current . If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged . In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .
While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks . Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum jelly , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin lotions , suntan lotions , cold creams , butter or margarine . Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils . Additionally , latex allergy precludes use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials . In May 2009 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of Vytex , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions . An allergen @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .
= = = = Synthetic = = = =
The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane . Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .
Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.@ 04 mm and 0 @.@ 07 mm thick .
Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less allergenic than latex , and does not have an odor . Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .
However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .
Polyisoprene is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex . While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex allergies . Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat . Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based lubricant .
= = = = Lambskin = = = =
Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled " lambskin " , are also available . Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material . This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , permeable membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through . However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory . Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more " natural " sensation , and they lack the allergens that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other hypoallergenic materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners . Lambskin condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .
= = = Spermicide = = =
Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a spermicidal chemical . According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women . In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive efficacy of condoms .
Nonoxynol @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission . The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted . However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all . As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned Parenthood has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .
= = = Ribbed and studded = = =
Textured condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners . The studs or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or frenulum . Many textured condoms which advertise " mutual pleasure " also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis . Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .
= = = Youth condoms = = =
In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group . This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse . Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .
As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at 12- to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries . Manufactured by Ceylor , the " Hotshot " is a lubricated , teat @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse . A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 2 cm ) whereas the Hotshot has a diameter of 1 @.@ 7 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 cm ) . Both are the same length – 7 @.@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) . In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people . Known as " Amor Young Love " , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.@ 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 cm ) .
= = = Other = = =
The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women . It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .
A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis . These condoms are designed to maximize sperm life .
Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms . These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .
= = Prevalence = =
The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries . Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions . Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women . On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms . In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .
= = History = =
= = = Before the 19th century = = =
Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians . In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices . In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded . Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes . In China , glans condoms may have been made of oiled silk paper , or of lamb intestines . In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .
In 16th century Italy , Gabriele Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis . The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a 1490s outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease . Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen sheaths soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use . The cloths he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon . Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .
After this , the use of penis coverings to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe . The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De iustitia et iure ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian Leonardus Lessius , who condemned them as immoral . In 1666 , the English Birth Rate Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of " condons " , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .
In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and bladder . In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from " fine leather " to Japan . Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .
Casanova in the 18th century was one of the first reported using " assurance caps " to prevent impregnating his mistresses .
From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to inconvenience , expense , or loss of sensation .
Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly . In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or " skin " ( bladder or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and lye ) . They were sold at pubs , barbershops , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia . They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .
= = = 1800 through 1920s = = =
The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time . Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom . By the late 19th century many feminists expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone . They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as diaphragms and spermicidal douches . Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their unreliability ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .
Many countries passed laws impeding the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives . In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling lecturers and in newspaper advertisements , using euphemisms in places where such ads were illegal . Instructions on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe . Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .
Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases skyrocketed . Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the Comstock laws . To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about venereal diseases and how they were transmitted . They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases . Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral watchdogs considered STDs to be punishment for sexual misbehavior . The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .
The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century . Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases . During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .
In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe . Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high . Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure . Some feminists continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms . In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all " unnatural means of conception avoidance " . London 's Bishop Arthur Winnington @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .
However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population . Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes . Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure . Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .
= = = Rubber and manufacturing advances = = =
In 1839 , Charles Goodyear discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic . This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used . The rubber vulcanization process was patented by Goodyear in 1844 . The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 . The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube . Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States . There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would constrict the penis . This type of condom was the original " capote " ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a capote .
For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber . In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius Fromm developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution . Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid . Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 . Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be smoothed by rubbing and trimming . The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories . Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .
Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers . Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the automation of the condom assembly line were made . The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 . Major condom manufacturers bought or leased conveyor systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business . The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .
= = = 1930 to present = = =
In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples . In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement . The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical Casti connubii affirming its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .
In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed . But during this period Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease preventatives were still allowed ) . During the Depression , condom lines by Schmid gained in popularity . Schmid still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety . Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants . Secondly , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times . More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .
Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures . European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 . In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .
After the war , condom sales continued to grow . From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control . In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms . The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 début , but condoms remained a strong second . The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the " world population crises " : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone . ( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )
In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations tightened , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed . In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 . Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions . In the late 1950s , the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .
After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV . Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe . These campaigns increased condom use significantly .
Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in supermarkets and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart . Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline . The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease preventatives has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue . Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America . As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .
New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded Avanti and produced by the manufacturer of Durex — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called TheyFit , introduced in the early 2000s .
Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 . As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .
= = = Etymology and other terms = = =
The term condom first appears in the early 18th century . Its etymology is unknown . In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one " Dr. Condom " or " Earl of Condom " . There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .
A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including condon ( receptacle ) , condamina ( house ) , and cumdum ( scabbard or case ) . It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word guantone , derived from guanto , meaning glove . William E. Kruck wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , " As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . " Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as " unknown " .
Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms . In North America condoms are also commonly known as prophylactics , or rubbers . In Britain they may be called French letters . Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .
= = Society and culture = =
Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .
Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs . Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact . Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is attenuated by the target group the argument is directed . Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .
Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides . As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it diminishes the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction . Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation . Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : " bareback " ) claim that the condom puts a prophylactic barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .
= = = Religious = = =
Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .
The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities . A few , such as Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS . However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@
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2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .
Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an erectogenic compound . The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage . If approved , the condom would be marketed under the Durex brand . As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials . In 2009 , Ansell Healthcare , the makers of Lifestyle condoms , introduced the X2 condom lubricated with " Excite Gel " which contains the amino acid l @-@ arginine and is intended to improve the strength of the erectile response .
= Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship =
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships ( Project 23 , Russian : Советский Союз , " Soviet Union " ) , also known as " Stalin 's Republics " , were a class of battleships begun by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s but never brought into service . They were designed in response to the battleships being built by Germany . Only four hulls of the sixteen originally planned had been laid down by 1940 , when the decision was made to cut the program to only three ships to divert resources to an expanded army rearmament program .
These ships would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese Yamato class and America 's planned Montana class in size if any had been completed , although with significantly weaker firepower : nine 406 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns compared to the nine 460 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) guns of the Japanese ships and a dozen 16 @-@ inch ( 406 @.@ 4 mm ) on the Montanas . However , they would have been superior to their German rivals , the Bismarck class , at least on paper . The failure of the Soviet armor plate industry to build cemented armor plates thicker than 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) would have negated any advantages from the Sovetsky Soyuz class 's thicker armor in combat .
Construction of the first four ships was plagued with difficulties as the Soviet shipbuilding and related industries were not prepared to build such large ships . One battleship , Sovetskaya Belorussiya , was cancelled on 19 October 1940 after serious construction flaws were found . Construction of the other three ships was suspended shortly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , and never resumed . All three of the surviving hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s .
= = Design and development = =
Design work began in 1935 on new battleships in response to the existing and planned German battleships , and the Soviets made extensive efforts in Italy and the United States to purchase either drawings or the ships themselves in the late 1930s . The Italian firm of Gio . Ansaldo & C. proposed a ship of 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 43 @,@ 000 t ) standard displacement with nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , in size and appearance similar to the Italian battleship Littorio then under construction by the company . The U.S. firm of Gibbs & Cox provided four designs ; one for a conventional battleship , and three hybrid designs which combined battleship main armament with a raised flight deck on the central superstructure capable of operating up to 30 aircraft . While these projects proved useful to the Soviets , they decided to proceed with their own designs .
The first Tactical @-@ Technical Requirement ( abbreviated in Russian as TTZ ) for the large battleship design was issued on 21 February 1936 but proved too ambitious , specifying nine 460 mm guns and a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) on a displacement of 55 @,@ 000 tons . The TTZ was revised in May 1936 by Admiral Orlov , Commander of the Soviet Navy , reducing speed to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , and weakening the secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries . A few months later Admiral Orlov further reduced the size of the battleship to 45 @,@ 000 tons and set the size of the main guns at 406 mm . Shortly afterward , the Soviet Union signed the Anglo @-@ Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty that limited battleships to a displacement of 35 @,@ 560 metric tons ( 35 @,@ 000 long tons ) , although they did add a proviso that allowed them to build ships of unlimited size to face the Imperial Japanese Navy if they notified the British . Yet another TTZ was approved by Orlov on 3 August for ships of 41 @,@ 500 tons with an armament of nine 406 @-@ millimeter , twelve 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , twelve 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and forty 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , a maximum armor thickness of 380 mm ( 15 in ) and a speed of 30 knots .
The design of KB @-@ 4 , the surface ship design bureau of the Baltic Shipyard , was selected for further development although the lead designers were convinced that only a larger ship could fulfill the ambitious requirements . They did manage to get agreement on 22 November 1936 for a thickening of the deck armor that raised the displacement to about 47 @,@ 000 tons . Design work continued on this basis and technical work was completed for a ship of 47 @,@ 700 tons in April 1937 , but the designers continued to press their case for larger ships . The issue was resolved by Premier Stalin at a meeting on 4 July when he agreed to increase displacement to about 56 @,@ 000 tons . This forced the project to begin again .
The timing of the redesign proved to be inauspicious as the Great Purge was spreading through the ranks of the military and related industries . The original deadline for completion of design work by 15 October was missed , and an incomplete version was presented to the navy 's Shipbuilding Administration the next month . A number of details remained to be worked out , including the final design of the machinery plant , the 152 mm guns and the 100 mm gun mounts . In the meantime , extensive and expensive testing was conducted on the ship 's hull form , deck armor and torpedo protection ; 27 million rubles were spent on experimental work in 1938 alone . Over 100 models of the hull were tested in a ship model basin to find the best hull form and two one @-@ tenth @-@ scale launches were built at Sevastopol to test the hull 's maneuverability . An old steamship was fitted with a replica of the design 's armor decks and tested against 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs , proving that such ordnance would generally penetrate both the 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) upper and 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) middle decks before exploding on the armored deck . The main armor deck was raised one deck in consequence and a splinter deck added underneath it to stop any bomb or shell fragments that might penetrate the armor deck . The underwater protection system was tested on fifteen one @-@ fifth scale models and two full @-@ sized experimental barges . These tests proved that the torpedo belt system of multiple bulkheads was superior to the Pugliese system of a large tube filled with smaller sealed tubes , but it was too late to incorporate these test results into the design as construction was well underway by the time they were completed in late 1939 .
A revised design was approved on 28 February 1938 and the first ship was to be laid down on 15 July , but even this design was incomplete and would be revised later . Trials with similarly shaped motor launches suggested that the hull 's propulsive efficiency would be 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) less than planned , and this was accepted in the November 1938 revision as a maximum speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . However , a new propeller design proved to be more efficient and was predicted to increase speed to 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Another change was the deletion of the centerline rudder when tests showed that the two wing rudders would not be able to counteract its effects if it jammed . The weight toward the stern of the boat was calculated to be too great , producing a substantial stern @-@ down trim . To remedy this , the two 100 mm turrets mounted on the quarterdeck were deleted and the height of the armor belt abreast the rear turret was lowered , but this decision was reversed and they were restored by a decision of the State Defense Committee on 14 January 1941 . This forced a revision of the aircraft arrangements as the aircraft catapult had to be removed from the centerline of the quarterdeck ; two catapults were added to the sides of the quarterdeck instead .
= = = General characteristics = = =
As designed , the Project 23 @-@ class ships , as Sovetsky Soyuz and her sisters were designated , were 269 @.@ 4 meters ( 883 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 38 @.@ 9 meters ( 127 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 10 @.@ 4 meters ( 34 ft 1 in ) . They displaced 59 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 58 @,@ 220 long tons ) at standard load and 65 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 64 @,@ 121 long tons ) at full load , although weight estimates made in 1940 show that they would have exceeded 60 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 59 @,@ 052 long tons ) standard and 67 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 65 @,@ 942 long tons ) at full load .
The hull form was very full @-@ bodied , especially at the forward magazines , where the torpedo protection system added width to the beam . Coupled with the relatively low length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 7 @.@ 14 : 1 , this meant that very powerful turbines were necessary to achieve even modest speeds . Stalin 's decision that the Project 23 @-@ class ships would use three shafts instead of four increased the load on each shaft and reduced propulsive efficiency , although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement . Metacentric height was designed at 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft 2 in ) and the tactical diameter was estimated at about 1 @,@ 170 meters ( 3 @,@ 840 ft ) .
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships were provided with aircraft facilities to handle two to four KOR @-@ 2 flying boats which would be launched by the two catapults mounted on the stern . Two hangars were built into the after end of the forecastle deck to house two of them and cranes were provided at the forward end of the quarterdeck to hoist them out of the water .
= = = Machinery = = =
The machinery arrangement " provided good dispersal of the machinery spaces , but at the cost of very long runs for the wing shafts ( ca . 105 meters ( 344 @.@ 5 ft ) ) " . The turbine compartments for the wing shafts were located forward of boiler room No. 1 and aft of the No. 2 turret magazines . The engine room for the center shaft 's turbine was between boiler room No. 2 and No. 3 . This meant that the wing propeller shafts had to run underneath the boilers .
The steam turbines , and a license to build them , were originally going to be ordered from Cammell Laird in the United Kingdom , but their £ 700 @,@ 000 cost was more than the Soviets wanted to pay . Instead they bought them from Brown Boveri , using the technical information acquired from Cammell Laird in the process , for £ 400 @,@ 000 . Four single @-@ reduction , impulse @-@ reduction geared turbines were ordered from the Swiss firm , three to equip Sovetskaya Rossiya and one to serve as a pattern for the factory in Kharkiv that was to build the remainder . The three produced a total of 201 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 149 @,@ 886 kW ) . Six triangle @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers — two in each boiler room — powered the turbines at a working pressure of 37 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 628 kPa ; 526 psi ) and a temperature of 380 ° C ( 716 ° F ) .
Maximum speed was estimated at 28 knots , using the revised propeller design , although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot . The normal fuel oil capacity was 5 @,@ 280 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 197 long tons ) , giving an estimated endurance of 6 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 700 km ; 7 @,@ 200 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) and 1 @,@ 890 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ; 2 @,@ 170 mi ) at full speed . Maximum fuel capacity was 6 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 338 long tons ) which gave a range of 7 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 220 km ; 8 @,@ 840 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots and 2 @,@ 305 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 269 km ; 2 @,@ 653 mi ) at full speed .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK @-@ 1 triple turrets , each with three 50 @-@ caliber 406 mm B @-@ 37 guns . The guns could be depressed to − 2 ° and elevated to 45 ° . They had a fixed loading angle of 6 ° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to re @-@ aim the guns . It ranged from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 6 rounds per minute depending on the elevation . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6 @.@ 2 degrees per second and traverse at 4 @.@ 55 degrees per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried . The guns fired 1 @,@ 108 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 443 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 45 @,@ 600 meters ( 49 @,@ 900 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of twelve 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 38 152 mm guns mounted in six dual MK @-@ 4 turrets . Their elevation limits were − 5 ° to + 45 ° with a fixed loading angle of 8 ° . Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 rounds per minute . They were provided with 170 rounds per gun . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second . They had a maximum range of about 30 @,@ 000 meters ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) with a 55 @-@ kilogram ( 121 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) .
Heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) fire was provided by a dozen 56 @-@ caliber 100 mm B @-@ 34 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin MZ @-@ 14 turrets with 400 rounds per gun . The ships began construction with only four turrets , but two additional turrets were restored to the quarterdeck in January 1941 . They could elevate to a maximum of 85 ° and depress to − 8 ° . They could traverse at a rate of 12 ° per second and elevate at 10 ° per second . They fired 15 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 34 lb ) high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 22 @,@ 241 meters ( 24 @,@ 323 yd ) against surface targets , but their maximum range against aerial targets was 9 @,@ 895 meters ( 32 @,@ 464 ft ) , the limit of their time fuse .
Light AA defense was handled by ten quadruple , water @-@ cooled , 46 @-@ K mounts fitted with 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns with 1800 rounds per gun . Initially only eight mounts were planned when the ships began construction , but two more were added later , probably in January 1941 , one on each side of the forward superstructure . Each mount was fully enclosed to protect the crew from the muzzle blast of the larger guns and against splinters . The guns fired .732 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @.@ 61 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 880 m / s ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) .
= = = Fire control = = =
Each main gun turret was given a DM @-@ 12 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft 4 in ) rangefinder for use in local control , but they were generally controlled by one of three KDP @-@ 8 fire @-@ control directors . These had two 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) stereoscopic rangefinders , one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship 's own shell splashes . Two of these were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower @-@ mast . The other was mounted on top of the conning tower and was protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . They used a TsAS @-@ 0 mechanical computer to generate firing solutions . Four KDP @-@ 4t @-@ II directors , with two 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 1 in ) rangefinders each , controlled the secondary armament . One pair was on either side of the tower @-@ mast and the aft pair was on each side of the aft funnel . Three SPN @-@ 300 stabilized directors , each with a 4 @-@ meter rangefinder , controlled the heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . There was one on each side of the forward funnel while the other was atop the rear superstructure .
= = = Protection = = =
Soviet armor plate plants proved incapable of producing plates of cemented armor thicker than 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) which forced the decision to replace cemented plates thicker than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) with face @-@ hardened ones with less resistance in November 1940 . The plants tended to compensate by making the thicker plates harder , but this often made them more brittle and large numbers did not pass the acceptance tests . This would have significantly reduced the level of protection enjoyed by the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships in combat .
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships devoted a total weight of 23 @,@ 306 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 938 long tons ) to armor protection , a slightly greater weight than that of the larger Japanese Yamato class ( 23 @,@ 262 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 895 long tons ) ) . Their armor was intended to resist 406 mm shells and 500 kg bombs , specifically shells fired from forward bearings between 35 ° and 50 ° from the centerline . This led to the very unusual situation where the armor belt thickened toward the bow to compensate for the narrowing of the ship near the forward magazines , which had to be compensated for by thicker armor . The belt was 148 @.@ 4 meters ( 486 ft 11 in ) long and covered 57 % of the total waterline length . It was inclined 5 ° to increase its resistance to flat @-@ trajectory shells . Over the machinery spaces it was 375 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) thick and increased in steps until it was 420 mm ( 17 in ) thick over the forward magazines . It was 380 mm ( 15 in ) over the rear magazine . The belt armor was carried forward of the magazines at a thickness of 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) and terminated in a steeply sloped ( 30 ° ) transverse 285 mm ( 11 @.@ 2 in ) bulkhead that reduced to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at the lower deck where it was continued down to the inner bottom by a 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) bulkhead . Forward of this bulkhead was a 20 mm splinter belt that continued all the way to the bow . The main armor belt dropped down to the main deck from the upper deck abreast the aft turret to reduce weight . This " step " was protected by 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) plates . A 365 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) transverse bulkhead separated the rear turret and the ship 's sides . The main part of the armored citadel was closed off by a 230 mm forward bulkhead and a 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) rear bulkhead , both of homogeneous armor . Splinter armor 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick covered the upper portion of the citadel .
The forecastle deck was 25 mm thick while the upper deck was 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) over the citadel . Below it , the 50 mm middle deck acted as a splinter deck . The upper deck was 100 mm thick above the 220 mm waterline belt extension . The bottom edge of the forward splinter belt met with a 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) arched deck . Another arched deck of the same thickness covered the stern aft of the rear transverse bulkhead .
The main gun turrets had faces 495 mm ( 19 @.@ 5 in ) thick with sides and roofs 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick . 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick plates protected the gun ports and 60 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) bulkheads separated each gun . The barbettes were 425 mm ( 16 @.@ 7 in ) thick above the upper deck . The MK @-@ 4 turrets had 100 mm faces and 65 mm sides . Their barbettes were 100 mm in thickness , but reduced to 65 mm on their inboard sides . 100 mm of armor protected the faces , sides and backs of the MZ @-@ 14 turrets for the 100 mm guns , but their roofs and barbettes were 100 mm thick . The forward conning tower had walls 425 mm thick while the rear conning tower had only 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) . The flag bridge in the tower @-@ mast had 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of protection .
The torpedo defense system was designed to withstand torpedoes with warheads equivalent to 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 653 lb ) of TNT . The ships were intended to be able to remain afloat with any five adjacent compartments flooded or with three torpedo hits and the destruction of the unarmored above @-@ water side . The Pugliese system protected 123 meters ( 403 ft 7 in ) of the ships ' midsection . At the aft end was a multi @-@ bulkhead protection system that extended another 33 meters ( 108 ft 3 in ) to the rear from the Pugliese system . The depth of the system was 8 @.@ 2 meters ( 26 ft 11 in ) amidships , but it reduced to 7 meters ( 23 ft 0 in ) fore and aft . The outer plating ranged from 11 to 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) in thickness while the inner bottom was 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) thick . The cylinder of the Pugliese system was also 7 mm thick while the semi @-@ circular main bulkhead was 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick with a flat 10 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) bulkhead behind it . The 3 @.@ 15 @-@ meter ( 10 ft 4 in ) diameter cylinder was intended to be immersed in fuel oil or water .
= = Construction = =
The August 1938 shipbuilding plan envisioned a total of 15 Project 23 @-@ class battleships , and this grandiose scheme was only slightly revised downward to 14 ships in the August 1939 plan . Eight of these were to be laid down before 1942 and the remaining six before 1947 . However , only four were actually laid down before the outbreak of World War II forced the Soviets to reassess their ambitious plans . On 19 October 1940 an order was issued , signed by Stalin and Molotov , that no new battleships would be laid down in order to concentrate on smaller ships ' building ( and also , probably , because more resources were required for the Army ) , one ship is to be scrapped , and priority should be given to only one of the three remaining battleships .
The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of so many large ships at the same time . The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 874 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Kirov @-@ class cruisers , and even they had suffered from a number of production problems , but the Soviet leadership appeared to ignore the difficulties encountered in the construction of the Kirov class when ordering 14 much more ambitious ships . Construction of two more ships planned for Leningrad and Nikolayev had to move to the brand @-@ new Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk because the existing shipyards could not be expanded to handle so many large ships . Components for these two ships had to be manufactured at Leningrad and shipped via the White Sea – Baltic Canal to Molotovsk . Also , the turret shop at Nikolaev proved to be too poorly equipped to assemble the 406 mm mountings and the propeller shafts had to be ordered in 1940 from Germany and the Netherlands as the domestic plants were already overburdened with orders . Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1940 , and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications . Armor plate production was even more problematic as only 1 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 772 long tons ) of the anticipated 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 842 long tons ) were delivered in 1939 , and more than half of that was rejected . Furthermore , the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm , and inferior face @-@ hardened plates had to substitute for all thicknesses over 200 millimeters ( 8 in ) .
Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943 – 44 . Three turbines were delivered by Brown Boveri in 1939 to Arkhangelsk for the Sovetskaya Rossiya , but the Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941 . A prototype boiler was supposed to have been built ashore for evaluation , but it was not completed until early 1941 , which further complicated the production plan .
Construction of all three ships was ordered halted on 10 July 1941 , and the Sovetsky Soyuz was placed into long @-@ term conservation as the most advanced ship . However , all three were officially stricken from the Navy List on 10 September 1941 .
= = = Sovetsky Soyuz = = =
Sovetsky Soyuz ( Russian : Советский Союз — Soviet Union ) was formally laid down 15 July 1938 in Shipyard Nr. 189 ( Ordzhonikidze ) in Leningrad , although evidence suggests that construction actually began in January 1939 after her slipway was completed , the necessary cranes were in place , and working drawings had been completed . When the war began she was estimated to be 21 @.@ 19 % complete , with 15 @,@ 818 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 568 long tons ) of steel assembled on the slip . She was only lightly damaged by German air attacks and bombardments , and , as some material had been used during the Siege of Leningrad , she was estimated to be 19 @.@ 5 % complete after the end of the war . Some thought was given to completing her , but this was opposed as she was regarded as obsolete in light of the experience gained during the war . Stalin 's expressed desire to see one of the Project 23 @-@ class ships completed only delayed the decision to scrap her ; this was ordered on 29 May 1948 and was well underway by April 1949 .
= = = Sovetskaya Ukraina = = =
Sovetskaya Ukraina ( Russian : Советская Украина — Soviet Ukraine ) was laid down 31 October 1938 at Shipyard Nr. 198 ( Marti South ) in Nikolayev . When the war began she was 17 @.@ 98 % complete , with 13 @,@ 001 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 796 long tons ) assembled on the slipway . Some effort was made to launch the hull , but little work had been done to dredge the river at the foot of the slipway , and she was captured on 18 August 1941 ,
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belong to the related Mantellisaurus or Dollodon ( described as I. atherfieldensis , at that time believed to be another species of Iguanodon ) .
Iguanodon material has also been used in the search for dinosaur DNA and other biomolecules . In research by Graham Embery et al . , Iguanodon bones were processed to look for remnant proteins . In this research , identifiable remains of typical bone proteins , such as phosphoproteins and proteoglycans , were found in a rib .
= = Species = =
Because Iguanodon is one of the first dinosaur genera to have been named , numerous species have been assigned to it . While never becoming the wastebasket taxon several other early genera of dinosaurs became ( such as Megalosaurus ) , Iguanodon has had a complicated history , and its taxonomy continues to undergo revisions . Although Gregory Paul recommended restricting I. bernissartensis to the famous sample from Bernissart , ornithopod workers like Norman and McDonald have disagreed with Paul 's recommendations , except exercising caution when accepting records of Iguanodon from France and Spain as valid .
I. anglicus was the original type species , but the holotype was based on a single tooth and only partial remains of the species have been recovered since . In March 2000 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature changed the type species to the much better known I. bernissartensis , with the new holotype being IRSNB 1534 . The original Iguanodon tooth is held at Te Papa Tongarewa , the national museum of New Zealand in Wellington , although it is not on display . The fossil arrived in New Zealand following the move of Gideon Mantell 's son Walter there ; after the elder Mantell 's death , his fossils went to Walter .
= = = Species currently accepted as valid = = =
Only two species assigned to Iguanodon are still considered to be valid .
I. bernissartensis , described by George Albert Boulenger in 1881 , is the type species for the genus . This species is best known for the many skeletons discovered in Bernissart , but is also known from remains across Europe . David Norman suggested that it includes the dubious Mongolian I. orientalis , but this has not been followed by other researchers .
I. galvensis , described in 2015 , is based on adult and juvenile remains found in Barremian @-@ age deposits in Teruel , Spain .
= = = Reassigned species = = =
I. hoggi ( also spelled I. boggii or hoggii ) , named by Owen for a lower jaw from the Tithonian – Berriasian @-@ age Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Purbeck Beds of Dorset in 1874 , has been reassigned to its own genus , Owenodon .
Iguanodon albinus ( or Albisaurus scutifer ) , described by Czech palaeontologist Antonin Fritsch in 1893 , is a dubious nondinosaurian reptile now known as Albisaurus albinus .
I. atherfieldensis , described by R.W. Hooley in 1925 , was smaller and less robust than I. bernissartensis , with longer neural spines . It was renamed Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis in 2007 . The Bernissart specimen RBINS 1551 was described as Dollodon bampingi in 2008 , but McDonald and Norman returned Dollodon to synonymy with Mantellisaurus .
I. exogyrarum was described by Fritsch in 1878 . It is a nomen dubium based on very poor material and was renamed Ponerosteus in 2000 .
I. prestwichii ( also spelled I. prestwichi ) , described by John Hulke in 1880 , has been reassigned to Camptosaurus prestwichii or to its own genus Cumnoria .
Two species described by Richard Lydekker in the late 19th century have been reassigned to different genera .
I. dawsoni , described by Lydekker in 1888 , is known from two partial skeletons found in East Sussex , England , from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Wadhurst Clay . It is now the type species of Barilium .
I. fittoni was described by Lydekker in 1889 . Like I. dawsoni , this species was described from the Wadhurst Clay of East Sussex . It is now the type species of Hypselospinus .
I. hollingtoniensis ( also spelled I. hollingtonensis ) , described by Lydekker in 1889 has variously been considered a synonym of Hypselospinus fittoni or a distinct species assigned to the genus Huxleysaurus . A specimen from the Valanginian Wadhurst Clay Formation , variously assigned to I. hollingtoniensis and I. mantelli over the years , has an unusual combination of hadrosaurid @-@ like lower jaw and very robust forelimb ; Norman ( 2010 ) assigned this specimen to the species Hypselospinus fittoni , while Paul ( 2012 ) made it the holotype of a separate species Darwinsaurus evolutionis .
I. seelyi ( also incorrectly spelled I. seeleyi ) , described by Hulke two years after I. prestwichii , has been synonymised with Iguanodon bernissartensis , though this is controversial .
I. suessii , described by Emanuel Bunzel in 1871 , has been reassigned to Mochlodon suessi .
I. lakotaensis was described by David B. Weishampel and Philip R. Bjork in 1989 . The only well @-@ accepted North American species of Iguanodon , I. lakotaensis was described from a partial skull from the Barremian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Lakota Formation of South Dakota . Its assignment has been controversial . Some researchers suggest that it was more basal than I. bernissartensis , and related to Theiophytalia , but David Norman has suggested that it was a synonym of I. bernissartensis . Gregory S. Paul has since given the species its own genus , Dakotadon .
Iguanodon mantelli described by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in 1832 , was based on the same material as I. anglicus and is an objective junior synonym of the latter . Several taxa , including the holotype of Dollodon and Mantellodon , but also the dubious hadrosauroid Trachodon cantabrigiensis the hypsilophodont Hypsilophodon , and Valdosaurus , were previously mis @-@ assigned to I. mantelli .
I. hilli , coined by Edwin Tully Newton in 1892 for a tooth from the early Cenomanian Upper Cretaceous Lower Chalk of Hertfordshire , has been considered an early hadrosaurid of some sort . However , recent work places it as indeterminate beyond Hadrosauroidea outside Hadrosauridae .
I. orientalis , described by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1952 , was based on poor material , but a skull with a distinctive arched snout that had been assigned to it was renamed Altirhinus kurzanovi in 1998 . At the same time , I. orientalis was considered to be a nomen dubium because it cannot be compared to I. bernissartensis .
Harry Seeley described I. phillipsi in 1869 , but later reassigned it to Priodontognathus .
I. praecursor ( also spelled I. precursor ) , described by E. Sauvage in 1876 from teeth from an unnamed Kimmeridgian ( Late Jurassic ) formation in Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France , is actually a sauropod , sometimes assigned to Neosodon , although the two come from different formations .
" I. mongolensis " ( Whitfield , 1992 ) is a nomen nudum from a photo caption in a book , of remains that would later be named Altirhinus .
Delapparentia turolensis was named in 2011 based on a specimen previously assigned to Iguanodon bernissartensis .
= = = Species referred to Iguanodon that were originally named as nominal species of other genera = = =
I. valdensis , a renaming of Vectisaurus valdensis by Ernst van den Broeck in 1900 . Originally named Vectisaurus valdensis by Hulke in 1879 based on vertebral and pelvic remains , it was from the Barremian stage of the Isle of Wight . It was considered a juvenile specimen of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , or an undetermined species of Mantellisaurus , but is indeterminate beyond Iguanodontia .
I. foxii ( also spelled I. foxi ) was originally described by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869 as the type species of Hypsilophodon ; Owen ( 1873 or 1874 ) reassigned it to Iguanodon , but his assignment was soon overturned .
I. gracilis , named by Lydekker in 1888 as the type species of Sphenospondylus and assigned to Iguanodon in 1969 by Rodney Steel , has been tossed of as a synonym of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , but is dubious nowadays .
I. major , a species named by Justin Delair in 1966 , based on vertebrae from the Isle of Wight and Sussex originally described by Owen in 1842 as a species of Streptospondylus , S. major , is a nomen dubium which is now thought to be a synonym of I. anglicus , although it may be its own species .
The nomen nudum " Proiguanodon " ( van den Broeck , 1900 ) also belongs here .
= = = Dubious species = = =
Two Iguanodon species are currently considered to be nomina dubia :
I. anglicus , described by Friedrich Holl in 1829 , is the original type species of Iguanodon , but , as discussed above , was replaced by I. bernissartensis . In the past , it has been spelled as I. angelicus ( Lessem and Glut , 1993 ) and I. anglicum ( Holl , 1829 emend . Bronn , 1850 ) . It is known from teeth from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Grinstead Clay Formation ) of Cuckfield , West Sussex , England . It is currently classified in the genus Therosaurus as T. anglicus .
I. ottingeri , described by Peter Galton and James A. Jensen in 1979 , is a nomen dubium based on teeth from the possibly Aptian @-@ age lower Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah .
The genera Iguanosaurus ( Ritgen , 1828 ) , Hikanodon ( Keferstein , 1834 ) , and Therosaurus ( Fitzinger , 1840 ) , are simply junior objective synonyms , later names for the material of I. anglicus .
= = In popular culture = =
Since its description in 1825 , Iguanodon has been a feature of worldwide popular culture . Two lifesize reconstructions of Mantellodon ( considered Iguanodon at the time ) built at the Crystal Palace in London in 1852 greatly contributed to the popularity of the genus . Their thumb spikes were mistaken for horns , and they were depicted as elephant @-@ like quadrupeds , yet this was the first time an attempt was made at constructing full @-@ size dinosaur models . In 1910 Heinrich Harder portrayed a group of Iguanodon in the classic German collecting cards about extinct and prehistoric animals " Tiere der Urwelt " .
Several motion pictures have featured Iguanodon . In the Disney film Dinosaur , an Iguanodon named Aladar served as the protagonist with three other iguanodonts as other main characters ; a loosely related ride of the same name at Disney 's Animal Kingdom is based around bringing an Iguanodon back to the present . Iguanodon is one of the three dinosaur genera that inspired Godzilla ; the other two were Tyrannosaurus and Stegosaurus . Iguanodon has also made appearances in some of the many Land Before Time films , as well as episodes of the television series .
Aside from appearances in movies , Iguanodon has also been featured on the television documentary miniseries Walking with Dinosaurs ( 1999 ) produced by the BBC , and played a starring role in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's book , The Lost World as well as featuring in an episode of the Discovery Channel documentary , Dinosaur Planet ( incorrectly portrayed being able to run on all fours and living in the Late Cretaceous ) . It also was present in Bob Bakker 's Raptor Red ( 1995 ) , as a Utahraptor prey item . A main belt asteroid , 1989 CB3 , has been named 9941 Iguanodon in honour of the genus .
Because it is both one of the first dinosaurs described and one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has been well @-@ placed as a barometer of changing public and scientific perceptions on dinosaurs . Its reconstructions have gone through three stages : the elephantine quadrupedal horn @-@ snouted reptile satisfied the Victorians , then a bipedal but still fundamentally reptilian animal using its tail to prop itself up dominated the early 20th century , but was slowly overturned during the 1960s by its current , more agile and dynamic representation , able to shift from two legs to all fours .
= Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) =
Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 . It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas . The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha . It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 . It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast . Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States . In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level cutoff low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the Westerlies . The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low . It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border . While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast . On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward . At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras . Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks deviating from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea . Alpha was also a climatological outlier at the time ; the NHC HURRAN model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no analogs for the storm . Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward . The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center . At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months . The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .
The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center . The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters . That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics . The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey . Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to Chincoteague , Virginia . The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward . Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along the Virginia capes . The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in Ocracoke , North Carolina . While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks . Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .
While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm . In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas . The high waves also halted work to deepen a harbor at the Mayport Naval Station . Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent . Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion . Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint Simons Island . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia . Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) . Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .
The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet . At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small neutercanes , both of which were later combined into one category .
= Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax =
Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is a video game first published in 1988 for various home computers . It was also released as Axe of Rage in North America . The game is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( Death Sword in North America ) , which was published in 1987 . In Barbarian II , the player controls a princess or barbarian character , exploring the game world to locate and defeat an evil wizard . The game 's plot is an extension of its predecessor , although the gameplay is different . While the first game offers two players the opportunity for virtual head @-@ to @-@ head combat , the second is solely a single @-@ player adventure with fewer fighting moves .
Palace Software , the developer of the two Barbarian games , marketed the sequel with the same strategy they used for the first game . They hired Maria Whittaker , a model known for her topless work , to pose on the cover and posters as the princess in the game , attempting to recapture the controversy that had boosted sales . Barbarian II received a mixed critical reception . Reviewers were split in their opinions over whether the game was a refreshing and gory adventure , or a boring and lonely sojourn through a confusing digital world .
= = Gameplay = =
Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is an action video game released in 1988 for various personal computer platforms , such as Commodore 64
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and MS @-@ DOS . It is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( released in 1987 ) , which offers sword fighting action to one or two players . Unlike its predecessor , Barbarian II features only a single @-@ player mode , in which the player assumes the role of either sword @-@ wielding Princess Mariana or the titular savage , who is armed with a battleaxe . Their common quest is to pursue the evil wizard Drax , who has fled to his dungeon hideout after his defeat in the first game . The player characters battle their way through an inhospitable wasteland , a system of caves , and a dungeon before facing Drax in his inner sanctum for a showdown .
Using a joystick or keyboard , the player moves his or her character through Barbarian II 's world . Each of the four stages — wasteland , caves , dungeon , and inner sanctum — is a series of interconnected rooms , populated by monsters , traps , and items . The game displays one room at a time in a flick @-@ screen manner : as the protagonist leaves a room , the screen is updated to display the next . The connections among rooms are disjointed : the exit on the left of one room might be connected to the entrance on the same side of another . A compass at the bottom of the interface serves as a directional guide , always pointing to the north . The player directs his or her player through the rooms , seeking the exit to the next stage while avoiding traps and collecting items .
The protagonist is also challenged in his or her quest by 20 types of creatures . By moving the joystick while pressing its button or by performing the equivalent keyboard commands , the player defends the protagonist with four styles of attacks : a low slash , a high chop , a kick , and a spinning neck chop . The life of the combatants are represented by gauges at the top corners of the screen . Successful attacks on a character reduce its gauge and the character is killed when its life is reduced to zero . A well @-@ timed neck chop ( or the bites of certain monsters ) decapitates the opponent , killing it instantly . Monsters disappear in a puff of smoke when killed , reappearing with a full life gauge in the same room some time later . Although the player character likewise reappears fully rejuvenated in the room after being killed , he or she can only do so for a limited number of times . This limit ( number of lives ) is represented in the form of globes at the top centre of the screen . The protagonist increases his or her number of lives by collecting skulls that are scattered throughout the game world .
= = Development = =
Barbarian II 's predecessor , Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior , was a critical and commercial success on its release in 1987 . Reviewers enjoyed the game 's exciting sword fights , and its profile was greatly enhanced by marketing strategies employed by its developer , Palace Software , a subsidiary of media company Palace Group . The developer had engaged Maria Whittaker , a model known for topless shoots , to pose on the box covers and posters of the game . The image of bikini @-@ clad Whittaker created a hype that pushed the game beyond the attention of the video game industry , producing a controversy in which members of the public criticised the industry for promoting Barbarian in a sexist manner .
Palace Software repeated the strategy for the sequel , publishing a poster of Whittaker as Princess Mariana , this time in metal bikini armour , and Michael Van Wijk as the barbarian . Steve Brown , creator of the Barbarian games , recalled that the bikini 's chain " snapped a number of times " in comical Carry On fashion during the shoot . Brown was behind the concept of the poster , which was brought to fruition by Lee Gibbons , a commercial artist , over the course of four weeks . The image of the barbarian and princess poised over the fallen body of a large , scaly monster was a photomontage , created by superimposing three photographs — one of each subject — on one another . The creature was a small scale model made of Plasticine . After cutting out the subjects from their photos and composing the cut @-@ outs to form a new scene , Gibbons painted the background and added effects such as smoke to form the final image .
Brown had filmed sword fights and used the tracings of the combatants ' movements to produce the animations in Barbarian . For the animations in the sequel , he turned to the works of photographer Eadweard Muybridge , who made a name for himself through his series of photographs of animals and humans captured in motion . The movements of Barbarian II 's characters were based on the pictures in Muybridge 's book Human in Motion , which was published in 1901 . The resulting animation was judged very realistic and detailed by several reviewers .
First released in August 1988 for the Commodore 64 , Barbarian II was ported to various personal computers . The various versions differed in features , depending on specifications of the platforms . The Amiga version of the game was given several improvements . It has digitized speech and better graphics in the form of greater details and number of colours . The introductory and disc loading sequences were revamped , featuring animated skeletons with maniacal voices . In contrast , the ZX Spectrum version has monochromatic graphics ; the first level comprises black @-@ outlined sprites against pink backgrounds .
As with its predecessor , Barbarian II was licensed to Epyx for release in North America . The game was published there under the title Axe of Rage and included a tattoo in its packaging . The North American version featured a different cover art , showing the close @-@ up visage of " a screaming berserker with homicidal tendencies " . Dragon magazine 's reviewers found the cover ugly , and according to Computer Gaming World , a Canadian wholesaler refused to sell Axe of Rage because it considered the game 's box cover art crass enough to offend customers . Similarly , in the United Kingdom , pharmacy chain Boots banned displays of Barbarian II , featuring Whittaker , from their stores .
= = Reception = =
Barbarian II received praise for its audio , mostly for the versions on more powerful platforms . Reviewers of The Games Machine pointed out that the " most remarkable feature of the ST version is its crystal clear sampled effects " . Zzap ! 64 's staff and Computer and Video Games 's Julian Rignall were impressed with the digital thuds and whacks produced on the Commodore 64 , and particularly the rendition of a certain monster 's laughter . Mike Pattenden of CU Amiga claimed the " manic clucking of the mutant chicken would be enough to send [ the player ] running in the opposite direction " . Although rating the audio @-@ visual components of the Amiga version on par with that for the Atari ST , Pattenden and reviewers from The Game Machine felt the flashy introductory sequence on the Amiga made it stand out ; Tony Horgan of Amiga User International called it the best introduction he has seen in Amiga games .
Although reviewers were less than impressed with the graphics on lower @-@ end systems such as the ZX Spectrum , the colours and large detailed sprites on the higher @-@ end platforms won their acclaim . The animation of the characters also captured their attention . Tommy Nash of Your Sinclair hailed it as " first class " , while Paul Glancey of Zzap ! 64 called the sprites " beautifully defined " and " realistically animated " . Similar accolades were given by other reviewers . The staff of The Games Machine were " constantly [ amazed ] " at the designs of the monsters in the game .
Several reviewers had a common complaint about the game . As the difference between executing an attack and a movement was the pressing of the joystick button , they were irked to find their characters frequently switching directions instead of attacking with a low slash . Their frustration was increased when the protagonist took damage from enemy attacks as he or she executes the unintentional command to change facing . Chris Jenkins , however , praised the game for responsive joystick controls in his review for Sinclair User . Paul Lakin of Zero pointed out that the flick @-@ screen presentation could lead to confusing situations in combat as the protagonist retreats across an exit and appears at the other end of the screen . Horgan had another grouse with the combat , moaning the loss of simplicity from the Barbarian series . According to him , while players could enjoy the first Barbarian game without much effort , intense practise was needed to defeat the monsters in the second game .
The change in combat systems was not the only difference between Barbarian II and its predecessor that influenced reviewers ' opinions about the sequel . The first Barbarian game was enjoyed by reviewers for providing exciting head @-@ to @-@ head action between two players . Barbarian II abandoned this , setting up an adventuring experience for the single player . Jim Douglas , reviewing for Sinclair User , doubted that players who were looking for quick action would appreciate plotting a path through the maze to reach the final goal . Your Sinclair 's Marcus Berkmann felt the two genres — slash ' em up and arcade adventure — were " fundamentally incompatible " , agreeing with Douglas that the maze was a distraction . Crash 's reviewers , however , felt the combination of genres made the game interesting . James Price wrote in Amiga Force that the adventuring element and unending number of enemies made Barbarian II a far better game than the first , while The Games Machine 's staff said the expanded menagerie of foes adequately made up for a reduction in combat moves .
In their review for Dragon magazine , the Lessers called Axe of Rage " an engrossing slash ' n hack that 'll please most arcaders . " Zzap ! 64 's reviewers were unanimous in recommending Barbarian II to their readers ; however , two years later in a re @-@ review , the magazine 's staff said the game has aged badly , finding the gameplay " lot more crude and clichéd " and of dubious replay value . Martyn Carroll concurred in his article for Retro Gamer , 17 years after the game 's release , calling Barbarian II " hugely disappointing " for " [ messing ] up almost everything that was great about the first game . " Brown and Palace Software 's co @-@ founder Richard Leinfellner admitted as much ; they said they had mixed feelings about Barbarian II , thinking the idea of a simple fun game was lost by stuffing too many features into it .
When Barbarian II was released , Palace Software went ahead with plans for Barbarian III . For two years , the third game in the series was publicised in gaming magazines . Your Sinclair held a contest for its readers , asking them to submit concepts of gruesome monsters . The winning entry would be implemented in Barbarian III . The Barbarian series of games were , however , brought to a halt in 1991 when Palace Group sold its software subsidiary to fund its expansion into the movie industry . Titus Software bought Palace Software and after reviewing its holdings , cancelled several of its new acquisition 's projects , including Barbarian III .
= Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now =
Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now is a biography of musician Van Morrison , written by Steve Turner . It was first published in 1993 in the United States by Penguin Group , and in Great Britain by Bloomsbury Publishing . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 ; he interviewed approximately 40 people that knew the subject in his research for the biography . Van Morrison did not think positively of the biography , and multiple newspapers reported he attempted to purchase all of the book 's 25 @,@ 000 copies . He sent a letter to the author asserting the 40 individuals interviewed for the book were not his friends , and accused Turner of " peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally " .
The biography takes a pictorial format , and includes many photographs of Van Morrison and scenes relating to his life , including close @-@ up shots and contact prints . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's youth in Belfast , Northern Ireland , and how early experiences shaped his perceptions . Flautist John Payne was interviewed for the book , and comments on his work with Van Morrison on the album Astral Weeks . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and includes quotes from the musician about this desire for privacy . The author discusses Van Morrison 's efforts to seek out creativity , and his exploration of spirituality . The book concludes with an assessment of Van Morrison 's experiences with religion .
The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age . Publishers Weekly 's review of the book was critical of its " adulatory " tone , but called it a " necessity for fans " , due the inclusion of the discography . A review of the book for The Boston Globe commented " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured ... religion and spirituality . " The Palm Beach Post noted that the biography provides " insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life " . The Sunday Times wrote that " the really interesting story here is told by the photographs " . The Irish Times was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of the included photographs .
= = Research and publication = =
Prior to his work on the biography , Steve Turner had previously written a book about the music group U2 , titled U2 : Rattle & Hum , and Eric Clapton , titled Conversations With Eric Clapton . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 , while writing a book on religion 's place in rock music . Turner characterised himself as someone who is " drawn to artists bothered by spiritual issues " . In his research for the book , the author interviewed approximately 40 people that knew Van Morrison . Turner spoke with Van Morrison , and they discussed the musician 's views on philosophy . Some of the photographs included in the book were obtained by Turner from a guitarist with Van Morrison 's band Them .
According to The Sunday People , " though critics said it was an affectionate tribute about a nice man . Van went on to urge fans not to buy it . " According to The Boston Globe , Van Morrison " disdained the book " . In an interview with The Boston Globe , Turner commented on this : " He considers anything that reveals details of family background or anything like that an invasion of his privacy . He doesn 't believe in biographies , and I do . " When the biography came out in hardcover , Van Morrison sent Turner 36 statements from the book that he called " lies , gross exaggerations and innuendo " . Van Morrison told Turner that none of the 40 individuals the author had interviewed for the biography were currently friends of his . The letter from Van Morrison to Turner concluded with : " I am very sorry that you feel you are entitled to earn a living by peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally . " In his reply letter to Van Morrison , Turner wrote : " You may not think you are ' difficult ' or ' introvert ' but other people do and have the right to express their opinions . " The Sunday Times reported that " Allegedly , Van 's management even considered buying up all 25 @,@ 000 copies of the book to pulp them , " and this was also reported in The Independent . The Evening Times wrote that Van Morrison " reportedly tried to buy all the copies of a biography by Steve Turner . " Representatives for Van Morrison did not confirm whether he attempted to purchase the 25 @,@ 000 copies of the biography , and confirmed that " representatives of the singer discussed various possibilities " . Van Morrison 's manager , Chris O 'Donnell , said of the musician : " He is not happy about books , period . He is an artist and stands up for himself – he doesn 't want his private life raked over . "
Steve Turner appeared on a panel of experts in the 2008 documentary Van Morrison : Under Review 1964 – 1974 . Along with Turner was Johnny Rogan , author of the biographies Van Morrison : A Portrait of the Artist ( 1984 ) and Van Morrison : No Surrender ( 2005 ) .
= = Contents = =
The introduction to the book includes an analysis by the author of Van Morrison 's skill to use " the stuff of his life " . Turner compares Van Morrison with other musicians of the time period , including Robbie Robertson , Bob Dylan , and Neil Young . The book 's 10 chapters contain a pictorial overview of the musician 's professional work . The book 's chapters are structured according to record releases of the musician . Pictures include images from locations where Van Morrison grew up in Belfast , contact prints from a photo shoot for a cover album with his wife at the time Janet Planet , and archived marketing photographs of a younger Van Morrison . The beginning of the book includes 10 close @-@ up shots of the musician . The book also contains a complete discography of Van Morrison 's work .
Turner describes Van Morrison 's early life as George Ivan Morrison on Hyndford Street in Belfast . " I 'm definitely Irish " , Van Morrison is quoted as stating in the book . He asserts that Van Morrison was affected by his mother 's religious conversion to the Jehovah 's Witnesses when he was a child . Turner states that this experience contributed to his position as an outcast : " Who else in Belfast had a father who played Jelly Roll Morton records , and a mother who indulged in doorstep evangelism ? " Turner discusses Van Morrison 's musical colleagues , his successes , the break @-@ ups of his various bands , and his efforts to seek out creative expression . The author includes commentary and images from Van Morrison 's first release with the band Them in 1964 , through to his latest album at the time of the book 's publication .
Turner interviewed flautist John Payne for the book , who had sat in on sessions with Van Morrison and later collaborated with him . Payne comments on their work together on the album Astral Weeks , which also included musicians Connie Kay , Warren Smith , Jay Berliner , and Richard Davis : " Ironically , the image you have when you listen to the album now is of these guys who are all together , and they realise they are creating a monumental work of art . The fact is that it was just another session for them . " Payne states of his observations of Van Morrison 's performance style : " When ( Van ) was on stage , he would look like a space cadet , but then he 'd open his mouth and you would realize that he had channeled everything into the sound of his voice . The rest of it was just a shell that was there for the purpose of producing this noise . "
The book notes the artist 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and quotes him as saying : " It 's very hard for me to relate to people asking questions that are not only boring but don 't have anything to do with my life ... It 's a waste of time on my part because it drains me from doing what I really want to do , which is just to play music . " Van Morrison describes his perceived musical role : " I just feel I 'm doing the job . My job is to play music and deliver the show ... It 's more emotional for the audience ... what they sort of think you are . " He states that one of his motivations is " ideally to induce states of meditation and ecstasy , as well as to make people think " .
The author notes Van Morrison 's dislike of conformity , and quotes him as saying : " I hate organizations . " Of his period in his life of experimentation , Van Morrison comments : " I 'm not searching for anything in particular . I 'm just groping in the dark ... for a bit more light . That 's it really . " Turner notes how musical styles including rhythm and blues and Motown influenced the musician . Van Morrison 's exploration of spirituality is discussed in the book , including his experiences with mysticism , Christianity , and Dianetics . In the last chapter of the book , Turner comments on Van Morrison 's experiences in religion , writing : " His development of religion as a normal topic of discourse in popular song may turn out to be his most lasting contribution . "
= = Reception = =
The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age , where Michael Gordon wrote : " This is not the whole story , but it is a well @-@ researched and superbly presented summary of the story so far – a kind of companion to the John Lennon book , ' Imagine ' – including the temper tantrums . Fans may , however , disagree with the closing assessment that Morrison may be running out of themes and ideas to express . " Publishers Weekly was critical of the book 's tone , commenting : " Turner is more adulatory than probing . " The review noted : " A complete discography makes this book a necessity for fans of the Irish Rover . " Writing for The Boston Globe , Thomas C. Palmer Jr. called the book " a coffee @-@ table biography that fills an extensive void , both for those hungry for gossip and for those who have wondered at the source of the creativity in this prolific producer of often stunningly original – if difficult to categorize – music " . Palmer commented on the book 's value : " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured , subtly or otherwise ( but never as blatantly as Dylan in his " Saved " period ) : religion and spirituality . " Robert Sandall reviewed the book for The Sunday Times , and wrote : " Steve Turner has performed his task as a biographer diligently enough in Too Late To Stop Now , but the really interesting story here is told by the photographs . " Sandall commented : " Thirty years of constant rowing with anybody who has ever tried to get close to him , and a fitful and irritable hankering after religion ( any religion ) have left him looking bloated , sad and , as Turner has the courage and decency to point out , not as great a musician now as his current reputation would suggest . It 's all there in the pictures . "
Bernard Perusse of The Gazette described the book as " more superficial but more positive " than the 2006 biography Van Morrison : No Surrender by Johnny Rogan . In a review of the book for The Palm Beach Post , Lisa McDonough wrote " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late To Stop Now is not the final answer on Morrison – only Morrison could give that – but he does provide insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life . " Writing for The Irish Times , John Boland was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of its images : " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now , has a trite , fanzine style text and isn 't very informative about the great man , but it has some splendid pictures and in its coffee table format is well worth the asking price " . A review in the Herald Sun was critical : " Too Late To Stop Now is more suited to the coffee table than a library shelf . It is browsing material , fleshed with snapshots , album covers , PR shots , posters and prints . The words are mere stitches , there to hold the pictures in place . " The Herald Sun noted that the author left out critical quotes from individuals that knew Van Morrison , and questioned Turner 's objectivity .
= Music of Chrono Cross =
The Chrono series is a video game franchise developed and published by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . It began in 1995 with the time travel role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger , which spawned two continuations , Radical Dreamers and Chrono Cross . The music of Chrono Cross was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , the main composer of Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . Chrono Cross has sparked a soundtrack album , released in 1999 by DigiCube and re @-@ released in 2005 by Square Enix , and a greatest hits mini @-@ album , published in 2000 by Square along with the North American release of the game . Radical Dreamers , the music of which heavily inspired the soundtrack of Chrono Cross , has not sparked any albums , though some songs from its soundtrack were reused in Chrono Cross . An album of arrangements of Chrono Cross songs was first announced by Mitsuda in 2005 , and later intended to be released to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the game in 2009 ; its release data was pushed back several times since then . In 2015 , Mitsuda via Square Enix released an album of arranged music from Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross entitled To Far Away Times to commemorate the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger .
The original soundtrack album has been hailed as an excellent video game music album , while the Chrono Cross Music Selection mini @-@ album has garnered little attention . Songs from the soundtrack have been played at various orchestral concerts , such as the personal arrangements by Mitsuda for the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert series . Chrono Cross music has also been extensively remixed by fans , and such remixes have been included in both official and unofficial albums .
= = Creation and development = =
Mitsuda returned as the lead composer for 1999 's Chrono Cross after composing its predecessor , Chrono Trigger . After being contacted to compose the score by the game 's director Masato Kato , Mitsuda decided to center his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . To complement the theme of parallel worlds , he gave the songs for the two worlds of the game , Another and Home , respectively dark and bright moods . Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Once production concluded , Mitsuda played Chrono Cross to record his impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes .
Radical Dreamers was a 1996 text @-@ based Visual Novel set as a gaiden , or side story , to Chrono Trigger . It was released to complement its predecessor 's plot , and later served as inspiration for Chrono Cross . The music of Radical Dreamers was written by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack includes several ambient pieces , including the sound of water running in a fountain and wind accompanied by strings . Players can listen to the game 's 15 songs by accessing a hidden menu in one of the game 's scenarios . The soundtrack has never been released as a separate album .
Several themes and musical patterns from Radical Dreamers were later adapted for Chrono Cross on the suggestion of Masato Kato ; many appear unchanged except for new instrumentation . Appearing in Chrono Cross are " Gale " , " Frozen Flame " , " Viper Manor " , " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " On the Beach of Dreams - Another World " and " The Dream that Time Dreams " ) , " The Girl who Stole the Stars " , and " Epilogue ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " Jellyfish Sea " ) . Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . The melody of " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " features prominently in " The Dream That Time Dreams " and " Voyage - Another World " .
= = Albums = =
= = = Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack = = =
The Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack of the music from Chrono Cross , composed by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack spans three discs and 67 tracks , covering a duration of 3 hours . It was published by DigiCube on December 18 , 1999 , and reprinted by Square Enix on June 29 , 2005 .
Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , selected for the role by Masato Kato , sang the ending song " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . Ryo Yamazaki , a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix , helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation 's sound capabilities . The soundtrack has been described as having " some of the most haunting melodies known to man " . The " Home World " tracks from the soundtrack have been termed " emotional " , " driving " and " striking " , while the " Another World " tracks are described as " slower " , " dreamier " , and more " serene " than their counterparts .
The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for Sony 's PlayStation Awards of 2000 . It reached # 72 on the Japan Oricon charts on its first print and # 174 when reprinted . It was praised by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who called it his favorite video game music soundtrack of all time and especially praised the vocals in " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . This high opinion was echoed by Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online , who called it " one of Mitsuda 's best , both in and out of [ the ] context " of the game and said that it " surpasses his Chrono Trigger soundtrack " . He singled out " Scars of Time " and " Radical Dreamers " as especially worthy of praise . IGN , in their review of the game , termed the soundtrack " a brilliant score " that " does wonders in stirring the emotional strings of the players as they 're playing through the game " . IGN praised the technical sound quality of the soundtrack as well , though they did comment that for them no specific tracks stood out as especially memorable . In a separate piece about Japanese RPG composers , however , IGN called " Scars of Time " and " Arni Village - Home World " as two of Mitsuda 's most memorable tracks in naming him the second best out of ten behind Nobuo Uematsu .
Track listing
= = = Chrono Cross Music Selection = = =
Chrono Cross Music Selection is a mini @-@ album of Chrono Cross music that was released in North America exclusively as a bonus for pre @-@ ordering Chrono Cross . The five @-@ track disc was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , has a length of 15 : 47 and was published by Square along with the game on August 15 , 2000 . Although the release of the album sparked rumors that it would be followed by a North American release of the full soundtrack album , Square Enix has not to date published Chrono Cross OST outside Japan .
Patrick Gann enjoyed the album , calling it a " little American gem of VG music " , but noted that there is no reason to purchase it now that the full soundtrack is just as easy to obtain , especially given its short length . The five tracks on this album were released on the " Original Soundtrack " with three of the tracks renamed .
= = = To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album = = =
In 2005 , Mitsuda announced a new arranged album of Chrono Cross music was scheduled for release in July of that year . It did not materialize , though at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006 , he revealed it would be out " within the year " and would feature acoustic music . Later in 2006 , Mitsuda alleged that the album would actually be released in 2007 . In 2008 , Yasunori Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a track from the upcoming Chrono Cross arranged album . Though no official release date was announced , Mitsuda more than once stated that the album would be planned to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the game 's original release in 2009 . Mitsuda claimed that the album was " nearly done " , but that it may not be possible to release it before the year was out .
On a live performance at the Tokyo Dome in July 2015 commemorating the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger , Mitsuda announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album , entitled To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album would be released . This was eventually released by Square Enix Music on October 14 , 2015 . The album was released on the Square Enix website . A number of the tracks had vocalists to go on top of the score . All tracks were composed by Yasunori Mitsuda .
= = Legacy = =
Mitsuda has personally arranged versions of music from Chrono Cross for Play ! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006 . Music from the game has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra . Music from Chrono Trigger and Cross made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Leipzig in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . The concerts featured a suite of music from both games interspersed together with the songs from Cross comprising " Scars of Time " , " Gale " , " Brink of Death " , and " Prisoners of Fate " . A suite comprising music from Chrono Trigger and Cross was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2008 concerts in Tokyo and Shanghai . " Scars of Time " was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Sheet music for Chrono Cross tracks arranged for both solo guitar and guitar duets has been released by Procyon Studio .
Chrono Cross 's soundtrack has been heavily remixed by fans , sparking several albums . These include the officially licensed Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda , released by OneUp Studios on October 7 , 2001 and containing 18 remixes over a span of 1 : 00 : 58 , with a second version of the album released on June 17 , 2003 . A related popular album release was Radical Dreamers : Thieves of Fate , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on January 5 , 2008 containing 15 remixes of the soundtrack to Radical Dreamers , including remixes of the tracks that later appeared in Chrono Cross . Selections of remixes also appear on dōjin remix albums , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . " Time 's Scar " was featured by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores in December 2012 .
= M @-@ 47 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 47 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . It runs near Saginaw and Midland in the Tri @-@ Cities area of the Lower Peninsula . The highway runs through suburban and agricultural areas to connect the two cities with the airport in the area . The northernmost section of M @-@ 47 runs along a freeway to the terminus at US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) . M @-@ 47 runs for 14 @.@ 328 miles ( 23 @.@ 059 km ) , all of which has been listed as a part of the National Highway System .
First designated by July 1 , 1919 along a different routing , M @-@ 47 was extended several times in both directions through the 1920s and 1930s . Two of these extensions replaced sections of M @-@ 111 in the Bay City area . At the apex of its length in the 1950s , M @-@ 47 stretched from Webberville in the south to Bay City State Park in the north . Since Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) opened in the Tri @-@ Cities area , the northern section of M @-@ 47 was rerouted and truncated as a result of related changes to other highways . The southern end was moved after I @-@ 96 opened in
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and flees to town . The police are notified and set a trap , but the convict avoids the growing crowd of pursuers until he arrives at the theater . There " the convict " takes a pose under an advertisement and the pursuers understand it was all an advertising ploy , they purchase tickets and go to see the film . The film was released on September 23 , 1910 , it was the first part of a split @-@ reel production that included A Husband 's Jealous Wife . The film was met with positive reviews though the film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 24 , 1910 . It states : " The convict is discovered stealing along a country road , glancing about for signs of danger . His stripes are discernible on that portion of his breast and on that portion of his trousers ' leg not covered by the long coat he wears - which cannot conceal the stripes that tell all ; hence his keen watch for passersby . Still , he does not spy a nearby farmer until too late ; the cry ' prisoner loose ' is raised , and a dozen rustics make after the unfortunate . Convict meets accomplice who is waiting with carriage ; jumps in the carriage and the pair drives off . Baffled pursuers come up , sight a wagon , all pile within and resume pursuit . Convict jumps from carriage and drops behind boulder , accomplice driving straight on with the wagon hot after him ; when the wagon has passed him by , convict comes from behind boulder , crosses road and disappears on other side - but has been seen crossing the road by a small girl who kept out of sight until the convict had disappeared , but who now rushes off to tell of her discovery . Put back on the trail by the little girl , pursuers follow their quarry to the waterside , where a second accomplice awaits the convict with a rowboat , and into which he jumps and pulls for the other side . Another rowboat sets out in pursuit . One of the pursuers telephones constables on the other side of the water to catch convict when he tries to land . "
" Race of the rowboats . Nearing shore the convict finds himself hemmed in - pursuers on water and constables on land . Luckily for him , pursuers in their efforts to grab his boat overturn their own ; he gets to shore , where [ the ] accomplice is caught though [ the convict ] escapes . Constable and pursuer chase him to town road , where third accomplice awaits with auto ; they speed off . An automobile too happens along , allows pursuers to use his auto to chase convict 's , and all enter except constable who rushes off to ' phone town police of convict 's coming . Receiving the message , chief of police leaves with coppers for town end of road , across which they stretch rope and await convict 's auto . As the convict dashes down Main Street new pursuers spring up at every step . Yet when he reaches the opera house he calmly walks into the entrance and , facing his pursuers , takes a dignified stand beside the billboard on which is printed : ' Latest Moving Picture - Today 's Feature - STUNG ! or The Convict 's Escape - A Roaring Comedy Now Showing . ' "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The plot is a clever advertising scheme employed by a theatre manager to draw patrons and using an elaborate series of events in order to accomplish that effect . Once " the convict " is identified and the chase begins , he receives assistance in prolonging the chase until arriving at the theatre where the crowd purchases tickets for the show . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only role in the cast which is known is for Marie Eline as the little girl . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying two actors .
= = Release and reception = =
The split @-@ reel comedy , approximately 1000 feet long with A Husband 's Jealous Wife included , was released on September 23 , 1910 . Advertising for the film was a bit mixed as to whether or not it was a comedy or a drama , stating , " You have no idea as to how marvelously a Thanhouser can twist a story until you see this gripping dra - well , perhaps , it isn 't a drama at that - or a comedy even . We hate to tip you off as to WHAT it is . When you see the picture , with its totally unlooked @-@ for climax , you 'll know why ! " Bowers would later term this as more of the slapstick comedy that Edwin Thanhouser said the company would not produce . The film likely had a wide national release , known advertising theatres include Indiana , and Kansas . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada . One theater advertisement may have confused this film with another because it lists this film as a western film .
Reviews for the film were positive and focused on the novel methods used to attract the audience to the theater . The Moving Picture World stated , " A burlesque picture which becomes more thrilling as it proceeds . The convict is supposed to have escaped and the way he is chased and surrounded bodes no good for him . But somehow he manages to elude the steadily increasing army of pursuers until they are gathered around him , when he calmly shows a motion picture announcement , and the reason for all this melee , in which the whole countryside took part , becomes apparent . " The requirement that the fleeing " convict " be continually assisted as a part of the plot may have been lost on The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer . The reviewer writes , " Perhaps , in real life , things might not happen so luckily for the convict unless the carriage , the boat and the automobile were previously arranged for him . Even then , Fate might conceivably have some disagreeable card up her sleeve . In the film , at any rate , everybody bit nicely . They pursued the escaped convict in increasing crowds until he led them to the theatre he was advertising . There they all obligingly bought tickets to the show and , no doubt , enjoyed it hugely . They did if it was as good as the film is . The least interesting sections of the film are the telephone messages exchanged by agitated police officials ; but they set off the livelier adventures of the convict with agreeable contrast . " Walton of The Moving Picture News identified the set up and assistance to " the convict " and states , " In spite of the Thanhouser folk joining in the racket and the peculiar readiness of carriage and automobile and boat to help the gentleman in a costume , not used in this state for some two years , the audience did not ' catch on . ' When the revelation came , at the door of the New Rochelle picture show , the theatre rang with laughter . We were all ' stung ' and we enjoyed it . "
= Max Mosley =
Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of motoring organisations and car users worldwide . The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international motorsports .
A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car constructor and Formula One racing team . He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors . Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers . In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA . In this role he and Marco Piccinini negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One . Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 . Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or Encap ) . He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing . In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations . Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president . He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .
Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford . He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics . He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 . In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) . He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .
= = Family and early life = =
His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s . By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) . His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler . Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald . In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation 18B , along with most other active fascists in Britain . Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later . Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives . In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .
Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at HMP Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests . Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school . As a result , both children were tutored at home until the age of 13 . The family moved to a succession of country houses in England . Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at Crowood Farm . In 1950 , the Mosleys bought houses in Ireland , and in Orsay , near Paris . They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting . His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn Waugh , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht . On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .
At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der Traun in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German . On his return to England he spent a year at Millfield , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years . He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 . During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side . In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert Skidelsky , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography . Rejecting an early ambition to work as a physicist after " establishing that there was no money in it " , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 . After a pupillage with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law . Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 . From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .
Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco . On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from Streatham . In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick . On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a restaurateur , was found dead at his home . He was thirty @-@ nine . At an inquest on 10 June 2009 the Westminster coroner declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .
In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings . On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron Ravensdale ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) . On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron Moyne ( born 1930 ) , and Irish preservationist Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) . He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .
= = Politics = =
From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue . Trevor Grundy , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) . The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF . He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way " to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and Mussolini , Franco and British Fascism all the time . " Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party . Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ Caribbeans and local white gangs of Teddy Boys . The following year , they canvassed for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .
Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father . When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a " much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . " Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , " I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . " Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the " misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . "
In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side . The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's " right @-@ hand men " at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention . As a result of his involvement in this fracas , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour . He was later cleared at Old Street Magistrates ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father . By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .
In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate . Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by " the calibre of senior party officials " . He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said " If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . " By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .
= = Racing career = =
While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit . The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity . Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself . The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley :
There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing . And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of Alf Mos [ e ] ley , the coachbuilder . ' And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . ' And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .
At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records . In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One . Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner . It was a dangerous time to race . Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 Deutschland Trophäe , at Hockenheim in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents . Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at Monza . Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley " might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver . He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . " [ a ]
= = March Engineering = =
In 1969 , after two large accidents due to breakages on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that " it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion " and retired from driving . He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham Coaker to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters . The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley . Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital . His father told him that the company " would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . "
Mosley played a key role in publicising the new outfit . Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 . The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five . Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams . Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker Firestone and oil additive manufacturer STP .
The new operation was initially successful . In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races . One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing . As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship . The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae . Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately . The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making . The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris Amon , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , " tried at every opportunity to get rid of him " . He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light . Amon stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in " restructuring " his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money . At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by Coaker , who left shortly afterwards . Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year . According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .
Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver . The Firestone and STP sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large backer for 1971 . Motorsport author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained cashflow , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company . Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding . The engines proved uncompetitive , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met . Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a Cosworth DFV @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship . March 's financial woes continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 . Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .
March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae . Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright . Losing money on a deal to supply Jochen Neerpasch , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when Neerpasch moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine . March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships . However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme . As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .
Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car . Motorsport historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled P34 . The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a Scalextric slotcar model was profitable . Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and Penske . The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 . By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director . March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year . [ b ]
= = Formula One Constructors ' Association = =
From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams . Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that " when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer " . He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : " our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . " In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the Brabham team , and Mosley recalls that :
Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA
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] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team . Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .
The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams . FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body . After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone . In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he " saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA " . The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide . In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .
In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the " FISA @-@ FOCA War " , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the " grandee " constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) . In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix . The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA . As Mosley has since commented : " We were absolutely skint . If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees . The outcome would then have been very different . " Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights . The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 . In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .
= = FISA presidency = =
Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee . He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA . According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by " mak [ ing ] him a member of the establishment " . Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .
In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA . Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his countryman Alain Prost to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver Ayrton Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix . Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together . He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself . Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president . Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . " I wanted to show people that I do what I say " , he said . " Now they can judge me in a year 's time . " FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .
= = FIA presidency = =
= = = 1993 – 1997 = = =
In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election . As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : " That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives " . A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley . The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .
After the deaths of drivers Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team . Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger . In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , " I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's . I thought it was important that somebody went to his . " In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing . Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a " novel and revolutionary approach " . The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce cornering speeds , the introduction of the HANS device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis . Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .
In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period . Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology . For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % . Mosley said " My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . " The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission . Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams . They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules . The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a " highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van Miert " .
= = = 1997 – 2001 = = =
Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 . Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA . The resulting warning letters from van Miert to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .
At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company AE TV @-@ Cooperations . The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice . On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup . Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe . In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of Objections , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One . The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels ridiculing the Commission ’ s case . The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , ISC and FOA , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements . In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale . The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) . The FIA planned to " put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety " , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 . In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual dividend from the deal , Mosley stated : " Over the totality of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars . Looked at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . " Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million KirchGruppe paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football . The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One . Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris . Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official . Ecclestone threatened to " do a scorched earth " if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One . Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .
Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising . At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as Rothmans , West , Marlboro and Mild Seven . The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive . The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank Dobson and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell . Ecclestone appealed " over Jowell 's head " to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair . Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 . Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco logos , would still be broadcast into the EU . He also argued that :
Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge . Deprived of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .
On 4 November the " fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell " argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One . Media attention initially focused on Labour bending its principles for a " glamour sport " and on the " false trail " of Jowell 's husband 's links to the Benetton Formula One team . On 6 November correspondents from three newspapers enquired whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 . On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick Neill . On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated " the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later . It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . "
The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for " global sports such as Formula One " . On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful . A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as " furious " that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive . As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation . Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .
Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : " I think using Formula One to push ENCAP Crash @-@ Testing . " The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport . The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 . Despite what NCAP describes as a " strong negative response " from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result . The EU commission in 2000 stated that " EuroNCAP had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety " and " the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . " Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as CARS 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .
In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .
= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =
Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 . From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment . In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( GPMA ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 . The GPMA stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .
In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying " I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] " . One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on . According to a BBC Sport profile , many insiders considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were " just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport " ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition . In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .
The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit . A proposal involving the addition of a temporary chicane to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley . He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the chicane : " Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most unwise to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures . What happened was bad but can be put right . This is not true of a fatality . " He continued , " Formula One is a sport which entertains . It is not entertainment disguised as sport . " Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed . These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ shod teams . Paul Stoddart , the then @-@ owner of the Minardi team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .
= = = 2005 – 2009 = = =
Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 . In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ Ordre de la Légion d ’ honneur in 2006 . The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .
Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars . In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on
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the development of very powerful , very high @-@ revving engines , which some say have little applicability to road cars . Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the Kinetic Energy Recovery System ( KERS ) introduced in 2009 . In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .
The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy . Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated . They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike Coughlan had seen the information or that the team had used it . Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ mails from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team . When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more . This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ 100M and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship . Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the " FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . " In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for " fear of repercussions " . TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the " energetic manner " in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a " witch hunt " against the team . Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction . Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : " Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . " It was only later in the year when " e @-@ mails emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information " , that the FIA found the team guilty .
At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like KERS successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring . In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five consenting women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as " no genuine basis " , allegedly " ruined " Mosley 's reputation ) . The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis . Mosley admitted " the embarrassment the revelations caused " , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved . He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national motoring bodies who form the FIA . His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled . Public expressions of support were limited . Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last . Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .
Mosley won a vote of confidence at an Extraordinary General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven abstentions and four invalid votes . Several clubs , including the ADAC , AAA and KNAF considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision . Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on . In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy . The presiding judge , Mr Justice Eady , said : " I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . "
In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year . Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .
In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season . When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules . The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for " stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance " and their threat to form a breakaway series from Formula One . The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .
On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October " in light of the attack on my mandate " . However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' . Luca di Montezemolo welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' . Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all . He later said that he was " under pressure from all over the world " to stand for re @-@ election . On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor . Todt went on to win the presidency .
= = Honours = =
Grande Ufficiale dell ' Ordine al Merito ( Italy ) 1994
Castrol Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .
Order of Madarski Konnik , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000
Quattroruote Premio Speciale per la Sicurezza Stradale ( Italy ) , 2001
The Goldene VdM @-@ Dieselring , 2001
Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004
Huespad Illustre do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .
National Road Safety Council NGO , Armenia , 2005 .
France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 )
Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 )
= = Achievements = =
Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .
1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .
Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79
Member of High Level Gp , CARS ( Competitive Automotive Regulatory System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09
Patron at eSafety Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009
Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society
Chairmanship of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , ERTICO
Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile Users ' Intergroup
= = Sex scandal = =
In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five consenting women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy . Justice Eady ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the orgy , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper . As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction . The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a " pre @-@ notification requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . "
In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially guaranteeing the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World . Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .
Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story . On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v SARL Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video . The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still findable through other search engines . At the Leveson Enquiry , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google :
" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle . My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it . The really dangerous things are the search engines . "
Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany . In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company . In giving its verdict , the court stated , " that the banned pictures of the plaintiff severely violate his private sphere . "
In an interview with Der Spiegel following the judgement , Mosley said : " Strictly speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France . But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy . Google behaves like an adolescent rebelling against the establishment . The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . "
= = Ancestry = =
= 130th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 130th Engineer Brigade is an engineer brigade of the United States Army based in Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It provides engineering support to the United States Army Pacific command . The brigade specializes in bridging operations .
The brigade traces its lineage back to an engineering regiment active during World War II , but the brigade itself did not see action until the mid @-@ 1990s . As a part of the V Corps for most of the Cold War , the brigade was stationed in western Europe for decades as a deterrent to a possible Soviet invasion . It finally saw action during Operation Joint Endeavor , providing bridging assistance for the international force in the Bosnia region . Several years later , the brigade was the primary engineering component during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 . With numerous difficulties , the brigade was forced to take on several unexpected missions during its year in Iraq . It saw a second tour in 2005 and a third in 2009 in which it once again was the primary engineering component in the country . The brigade deployed to Afghanistan as the Theater Engineer Brigade in support of Operation Enduring Freedom from 2013 @-@ 2014 .
The brigade had a long history of supporting V Corps of United States Army Europe from 1969 until 2007 , during which it was based at Warner Barracks in the Bavarian town of Bamberg , Germany . That ended when the brigade was relocated to Hawaii to support United States Army Pacific as part of a major restructuring plan of the US Army . Reactivated in 2008 , the brigade is currently at home in Hawaii .
= = Organization = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command which is in turn subordinate to United States Army Pacific . It provides engineering assistance to US forces stationed throughout the Pacific Ocean region .
The Brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at Schofield Barracks and permanently commands two subordinate battalions . The 65th Engineer Battalion and the 84th Engineer Battalion are both located at Schofield Barracks . The total force of the brigade and its subordinate elements is approximately 1 @,@ 600 . As the brigade is modular in nature , it is able to take command and control of more units when deployed .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage to the 1303rd Engineer General Service Regiment which saw action in World War II . The regiment was activated on 15 July 1943 at Camp Ellis , Illinois . It was deployed to the European Theatre where it participated in the Battle of Normandy and subsequent invasion of Germany before being transferred to the Pacific after V @-@ E Day . The 1303rd received campaign streamers for Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland , Ardennes @-@ Alsace , Central Europe , and the Asian @-@ Pacific theatre . It was deactivated in Japan on 31 January 1946 .
The regiment was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade in Japan on 8 July 1955 before being activated in September of that year . Only a few months later , this brigade was inactivated on 25 June 1956 without having seen any deployment .
On 16 June 1969 , Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Brigade and activated in Pioneer Kaserne , Hanau , Germany . The 130th Engineer Brigade was a consolidation of V Corps ' 37th and 11th Engineer Groups into a single unit that would provide more efficient command and control . It was subsequently put under the command of V Corps , as part of the US Army 's force in Europe . The brigade received its shoulder sleeve insignia on 23 September 1969 , and its distinctive unit insignia on 3 November 1969 . Brigade members specially designed these with images alluding to the 1303rd Regiment 's battle honors in World War II using scarlet and white , colors signifying US Army engineer units .
The brigade remained in Germany in support of V Corps for almost 25 years , seeing no deployments . It underwent a shuffling of units as several of its battalions were reassigned elsewhere following the end of the Cold War in 1990 , and it gained new battalions from units deactivating elsewhere . Though three of the brigade 's subordinate battalions deployed to support Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , the brigade
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. At this time , Nixon operative Anna Chennault secretly spoke with the South Vietnamese , explaining that they could receive a better deal under Nixon . The charge that , along with remarks from Nixon supporter and future Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird , Johnson had deliberately misinformed Nixon during briefs angered the President . He spoke with Nixon supporters Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senator George Smathers of Florida , informing Nixon of the President 's frustration . On the Sunday preceding the election , Nixon appeared on Meet the Press , explaining that he would cooperate completely with Johnson , phoning the President shortly thereafter to personally reassure him . The final Harris poll before the election indicated that Nixon was trailing Humphrey 43 % to 40 % , but Gallup 's final poll showed Nixon leading 42 % to 40 % . On the eve of the election , Nixon and Humphrey bought time on rival television networks , Nixon appearing on NBC , Humphrey on ABC , where each made his final appeal to voters . Nixon used this appearance to counter Humphrey 's ' October surprise ' , a polling surge following the bombing halt , claiming that he had just received " a very disturbing report " , which detailed that tons of supplies were being moved into South Vietnam by the North . Humphrey labeled this charge as " irresponsible " , causing Nixon to counter that Humphrey " doesn 't know what 's going on . " Overall , Nixon spent $ 6 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 on television advertising , most of which was judged to have only reinforced supporters .
= = = Election Day = = =
On November 5 , it was a three way race between Nixon , Humphrey , and Wallace . The results were very close , and not until early the following morning could news organizations call the election . In the end , Nixon won 301 electoral votes , with Humphrey receiving 191 , and Wallace receiving 46 . In a margin 43 @.@ 42 % to 42 @.@ 72 % , Nixon edged Humphrey in the popular vote , with Wallace earning 13 @.@ 53 % . Nixon 's victory came with a margin of less than three percent in California , Illinois , and Ohio ; had Humphrey carried these three , Nixon would have lost his election . Nixon won most of the West and mid @-@ West but lost parts of the Northeast and Texas to Humphrey and lost the deep South to Wallace . After the election was conceded by Vice President Humphrey , Nixon said the following in his press conference :
" As you will probably have heard , I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President , congratulating me for winning the election . I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds ... I also told him that I know exactly how he felt . I know how it feels to lose a close one . " - President @-@ Elect Richard Nixon
= = Aftermath = =
Nixon and Agnew took office as President and Vice President during their inauguration on January 20 , 1969 . Following the election , the slogan " Bring Us Together " , referencing a poster held by a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl at a rally during his campaign , was used as a basis for the theme of his inauguration , although it would later be seized by Democrats to attack later Nixon policies . In his inaugural address , Nixon said that " the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker , " outlining the direction Nixon sought to take , such as his visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 , opening diplomatic relations between the two nations , and détente plus the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union , all in his first term .
While overseeing an initial escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War , he subsequently ended U.S. involvement in 1973 , and eliminated the draft . Domestically , his administration generally embraced policies that transferred power from Washington to the states . Among other things , he initiated wars on cancer and drugs , imposed wage and price controls , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Though he presided over Apollo 11 and the subsequent lunar landings , he later scaled back manned space exploration . In 1972 , he was reelected by a landslide , the largest to that date . The Watergate scandal , which would consume the larger part of his second term , resulted in his ultimate resignation on August 4 , 1974 .
= = Endorsements = =
= Cyclone Herbie =
Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record . The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the Cocos Islands on 17 May . The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day . Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm 21S .
On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south . Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition . Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight . Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia . Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm . Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.@ 6 million USD ) . Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the Cocos Islands . Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low . Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 21S , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May . Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .
Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low . Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast . As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition . During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .
Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore . However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system . Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) . Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude . Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .
= = Impact = =
Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation . According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , " .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . " Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival . Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between Carnarvon and Denham . Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage . In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore . Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left beached on streets once the water subsided . About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town . Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds . Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The Irwin and Greenough Rivers overflowed their banks , inundating parts of Dongara . In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .
Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm . Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces . Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier . No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship . The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to Carnarvon .
In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless . Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May . Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie . As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of Geraldton , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years . Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region .
= Croatian independence referendum , 1991 =
Croatia held an independence referendum on 19 May 1991 , following the Croatian parliamentary elections of 1990 and the rise of ethnic tensions that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . With 83 percent turnout , voters approved the referendum , with 93 percent in favor of independence . Subsequently , Croatia declared independence and the dissolution of its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 , but it introduced a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision when urged to do so by the European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe through the Brioni Agreement . The war in Croatia escalated during the moratorium , and on 8 October 1991 , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . In 1992 , the countries of the European Economic Community granted Croatia diplomatic recognition and Croatia was admitted to the United Nations .
= = Background = =
After World War II , Croatia became a one @-@ party Socialist federal unit of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Croatia was ruled by the Communists and enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Yugoslav federation . In 1967 , a group of Croatian authors and linguists published the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language , demanding greater autonomy for the Croatian language . The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy , culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971 , which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership . The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units , essentially fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents .
In the 1980s , the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated , with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina , Kosovo and Montenegro . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines , with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation . In the same year , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win resulting in further nationalist tensions . The Croatian Serb politicians boycotted the Sabor , and local Serbs seized control of Serb @-@ inhabited territory , setting up road blocks and voting for those areas to become autonomous . The Serb " autonomous oblasts " would soon unite to become the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , intent on achieving independence from Croatia .
= = Referendum and declaration of independence = =
On 25 April 1991 , the Croatian Parliament decided to hold an independence referendum on 19 May . The decision was published in the official gazette of the Republic of Croatia and made official on 2 May 1991 . The referendum offered two options . In the first , Croatia would become a sovereign and independent state , guaranteeing cultural autonomy and civil rights to Serbs and other minorities in Croatia , free to form an association of sovereign states with other former Yugoslav republics . In the second , Croatia would remain in Yugoslavia as a unified federal state . Serb local authorities called for a boycott of the vote , which was largely followed by Croatian Serbs . The referendum was held at 7 @,@ 691 polling stations , where voters were given two ballots — blue and red , with a single referendum option each , allowing use of either or both of ballots . The referendum question proposing independence of Croatia , presented on the blue ballot , passed with 93 @.@ 24 % in favor , 4 @.@ 15 % against , and 1 @.@ 18 % of invalid or blank votes . The second referendum question , proposing that Croatia should remain in Yugoslavia , was declined with 5 @.@ 38 % votes in favor , 92 @.@ 18 % against and 2 @.@ 07 % of invalid votes . The turnout was 83 @.@ 56 % .
Croatia subsequently declared independence and dissolved ( Croatian : razdruženje ) its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 . The European Economic Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision . Croatia agreed to freeze its independence declaration for three months , initially easing tensions . Nonetheless , the Croatian War of Independence escalated further . On 7 October , the eve of expiration of the moratorium , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked Banski dvori , the main government building in Zagreb . On 8 October 1991 , the moratorium expired , and the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . That particular session of the parliament was held in the INA building on Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb due to security concerns provoked by recent Yugoslav air raid ; Specifically , it was feared that the Yugoslav Air Force might attack the parliament building . 8 October is now celebrated as Croatia 's Independence Day .
= = Recognition = =
The Badinter Arbitration Committee was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) on 27 August 1991 to provide legal advice and criteria for diplomatic recognition to former Yugoslav republics . In late 1991 , the Commission stated , among other things , that Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution , and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics could not be altered unless freely agreed upon . Factors in the preservation of Croatia 's pre @-@ war borders , defined by demarcation commissions in 1947 , were the Yugoslav federal constitutional amendments of 1971 and 1974 , granting that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units , and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution .
Germany advocated quick recognition of Croatia , stating that it wanted to stop ongoing violence in Serb @-@ inhabited areas . It was opposed by France , the United Kingdom , and the Netherlands , but the countries agreed to pursue a common approach and avoid unilateral actions . On 10 October , two days after the Croatian Parliament confirmed the declaration of independence , the EEC decided to postpone any decision to recognize Croatia for two months , deciding to recognize Croatian independence in two months if the war had not ended by then . As the deadline expired , Germany presented its decision to recognize Croatia as its policy and duty — a position supported by Italy and Denmark . France and the UK attempted to prevent the recognition by drafting a United Nations resolution requesting no unilateral actions which could worsen the situation , but backed down during the Security Council debate on 14 December , when Germany appeared determined to defy the UN resolution . On 17 December , the EEC formally agreed to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition on 15 January 1992 , relying on opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee . The Committee ruled that Croatia 's independence should not be recognized immediately , because the new Croatian Constitution did not provide protection of minorities required by the EEC . In response , the President Franjo Tuđman gave written assurances to Robert Badinter that the deficit would be remedied . The RSK formally declared its separation from Croatia on 19 December , but its statehood and independence were not recognized internationally . On 26 December , Yugoslav authorities announced plans for a smaller state , which could include the territory captured from Croatia , but the plan was rejected by the UN General Assembly .
Croatia was first recognized as an independent state on 26 June 1991 by Slovenia , which declared its own independence on the same day as Croatia . Lithuania followed on 30 July , and Ukraine , Latvia , Iceland , and Germany in December 1991 . The EEC countries granted Croatia recognition on 15 January 1992 , and the United Nations admitted them in May 1992 .
= = Aftermath = =
Although it is not a public holiday , 15 January is marked as the day Croatia won international recognition by Croatian media and politicians . On the day 's 10th anniversary in 2002 , the Croatian National Bank minted a 25 kuna commemorative coin . In the period following the declaration of independence , the war escalated , with the sieges of Vukovar and Dubrovnik , and fighting elsewhere , until a ceasefire of 3 January 1992 led to stabilization and a significant reduction of violence . The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory for Croatia as a result of Operation Storm . Present day borders of Croatia were established when the remaining Serb @-@ held areas of Eastern Slavonia were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995 , with the process concluded in January 1998 .
= Georgian scripts =
The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance , all three are unicase , their letters share the same names and alphabetical order , and are written horizontally following the standard left @-@ to @-@ right direction . Of the three Georgian writing systems , Mkhedruli ( literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " script ) was the civilian royal script of the Georgian Kingdom used for charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli is therefore the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only in ceremonial religious texts and iconography .
Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established ; however , in strictly structural terms , their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds , which are grouped at the end . Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33 @-@ letter alphabet , as five letters are currently obsolete in that language . The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies . The Mingrelian language uses 36 , 33 of which are current Georgian letters , one obsolete Georgian letter , and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . That same obsolete letter , plus a letter borrowed from Greek ( making 35 letters total ) , are used in writing the Laz language . The fourth Kartvelian language , Svan , is not commonly written , but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian , with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels .
Georgian scripts hold the national status of
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The intersection of the free throw line and the free throw lane is referred to as the elbow of the key .
= The General in His Labyrinth =
The General in His Labyrinth ( original Spanish title : El general en su laberinto ) is a novel by the Colombian writer and Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez . It is a fictionalized account of the last days of Simón Bolívar , liberator and leader of Gran Colombia . First published in 1989 , the book traces Bolívar 's final journey from Bogotá to the Caribbean coastline of Colombia in his attempt to leave South America for exile in Europe . In this dictator novel about a continental hero , " despair , sickness , and death inevitably win out over love , health , and life " . Breaking with the traditional heroic portrayal of Bolívar El Libertador , García Márquez depicts a pathetic protagonist , a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted . The story explores the labyrinth of Bolívar 's life through the narrative of his memories .
Following the success of others of his works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude and Love in the Time of Cholera , García Márquez decided to write about the " Great Liberator " after reading an unfinished novel about Bolívar by his friend Álvaro Mutis . He borrowed the setting — Bolívar 's voyage down the Magdalena River in 1830 — from Mutis . After two years of research that encompassed the extensive memoirs of Bolívar 's Irish aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Daniel Florencio O 'Leary , as well as numerous other historical documents and consultations with academics , García Márquez published his novel about the last seven months of Bolívar 's life .
Its mixture of genres makes The General in His Labyrinth difficult to classify , and commentators disagree over where it lies on the scale between novel and historical account . García Márquez 's insertion of interpretive and fictionalized elements — some dealing with Bolívar 's most intimate moments — caused outrage in parts of Latin America when the book was released . Many prominent Latin American figures believed that the novel damaged the reputation of one of the region 's most important historic figures and portrayed a negative image to the outside world . Others saw The General in His Labyrinth as a tonic for Latin American culture and a challenge to the region to deal with its problems .
= = Background = =
The initial idea to write a book about Simón Bolívar came to García Márquez through his friend and fellow Colombian writer Álvaro Mutis , to whom the book is dedicated . Mutis had started writing a book called El Último Rostro about Bolívar 's final voyage along the Magdalena River , but never finished it . At the time , García Márquez was interested in writing about the Magdalena River because he knew the area intimately from his childhood . Two years after reading El Último Rostro , García Márquez asked Mutis for his permission to write a book on Bolívar 's last voyage .
García Márquez believed that most of the information available on Bolívar was one @-@ dimensional : " No one ever said in Bolívar 's biographies that he sang or that he was constipated ... but historians don 't say these things because they think they are not important . " In the epilogue to the novel , García Márquez writes that he researched the book for two years ; the task was difficult , both because of his lack of experience in conducting historical research , and the lack of documentary evidence for the events of the final period of Bolívar 's life .
García Márquez researched a wide variety of historical documents , including Bolívar 's letters , 19th @-@ century newspapers , and Daniel Florencio O 'Leary 's 34 volumes of memoirs . He engaged the help of various experts , among them geographer Gladstone Oliva ; historian and fellow Colombian Eugenio Gutiérrez Celys , who had co @-@ written a book called Bolívar Día a Día with historian Fabio Puyo ; and astronomer Jorge Perezdoval — García Márquez used an inventory drawn up by Perezdoval to describe which nights Bolívar spent under a full moon . García Márquez also worked closely with Antonio Bolívar Goyanes , a distant relative of Bolívar , during the extensive editing of the book .
= = = Historical context = = =
The novel is set in 1830 , at the tail end of the initial campaign to secure Latin America 's independence from Spain . Most of Spanish America had gained independence by this date ; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule .
Within a few decades of Christopher Columbus 's landing on the coast of what is now Venezuela in 1498 , South America had been effectively conquered by Spain and Portugal . By the beginning of the 19th century , several factors affected Spain 's control over its colonies : Napoleon 's invasion of Spain in 1808 , the abdication of Charles IV , Ferdinand VII 's renouncement of his right to succeed , and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne . The colonies were virtually cut off from Spain , and the American and French Revolutions inspired many creoles — American @-@ born descendants of Spanish settlers — to take advantage of Spanish weakness . As a result , Latin America was run by independent juntas and colonial self @-@ governments .
The early 19th century saw the first attempts at securing liberation from Spain , which were led in northern South America by Bolívar . He and the independence movements won numerous battles in Venezuela , New Granada and present @-@ day Ecuador and Peru . His dream of uniting the Spanish American nations under one central government was almost achieved . However , shortly after the South American colonies became independent of Spain , problems developed in the capitals , and civil wars were sparked in some provinces ; Bolívar lost many of his supporters and fell ill . Opposition to his presidency continued to increase , and in 1830 , after 11 years of rule , he resigned as president of Gran Colombia .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is written in the third @-@ person with flashbacks to specific events in the life of Simón Bolívar , " the General " . It begins on May 8 , 1830 in Santa Fe de Bogotá . The General is preparing for his journey towards the port of Cartagena de Indias , intending to leave Colombia for Europe . Following his resignation as President of Gran Colombia , the people of the lands he liberated have now turned against him , scrawling anti @-@ Bolívar graffiti and throwing waste at him . The General is anxious to move on , but has to remind the Vice @-@ President @-@ elect , General Domingo Caycedo , that he has yet to receive a valid passport to leave the country . The General leaves Bogotá with the few officials still faithful to him , including his confidante and aide @-@ de @-@ camp , José Palacios . At the end of the first chapter , the General is referred to by his full title , General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , for the only time in the novel .
On the first night of the voyage , the General stays at Facatativá with his entourage , which consists of José Palacios , five aides @-@ de @-@ camp , his clerks , and his dogs . Here , as throughout the journey that follows , the General 's loss of prestige is evident ; the downturn in his fortunes surprises even the General himself . His unidentified illness has led to his physical deterioration , which makes him unrecognizable , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp is constantly mistaken for the Liberator .
After many delays , the General and his party arrive in Honda , where the Governor , Posada Gutiérrez , has arranged for three days of fiestas . On his last night in Honda , the General returns late to camp and finds one of his old friends , Miranda Lyndsay , waiting for him . The General recalls that fifteen years ago , she had learned of a plot against his life and had saved him . The following morning , the General begins the voyage down the Magdalena River . Both his physical debilitation and pride are evident as he negotiates the slope to the dock : he is in need of a sedan chair but refuses to use it . The group stays a night in Puerto Real , where the General claims he sees a woman singing during the night . His aides @-@ de @-@ camp and the watchman conduct a search , but they fail to uncover any sign of a woman having been in the vicinity .
The General and his entourage arrive at the port of Mompox . Here they are stopped by police , who fail to recognize the General . They ask for his passport , but he is unable to produce one . Eventually , the police discover his identity and escort him into the port . The people still believe him to be the President of Gran Colombia and prepare banquets in his honor ; but these festivities are wasted on him due to his lack of strength and appetite . After several days , the General and his entourage set off for Turbaco .
The group spend a sleepless night in Barranca Nueva before they arrive in Turbaco . Their original plan was to continue to Cartagena the following day , but the General is informed that there is no available ship bound for Europe from the port and that his passport still has not arrived . While staying in the town , he receives a visit from General Mariano Montilla and a few other friends . The deterioration of his health becomes increasingly evident — one of his visitors describes his face as that of a dead man . In Turbaco , the General is joined by General Daniel Florencio O 'Leary and receives news of ongoing political machinations : Joaquín Mosquera , appointed successor as President of Gran Colombia , has assumed power but his legitimacy is still contested by General Rafael Urdaneta . The General recalls that his " dream began to fall apart on the very day it was realized " .
The General finally receives his passport , and two days later he sets off with his entourage for Cartagena and the coast , where more receptions are held in his honor . Throughout this time , he is surrounded by women but is too weak to engage in sexual relations . The General is deeply affected when he hears that his good friend and preferred successor for the presidency , Field Marshal Sucre , has been ambushed and assassinated .
The General is now told by one of his aides @-@ de @-@ camp that General Rafael Urdaneta has taken over the government in Bogotá , and there are reports of demonstrations and riots in support of a return to power by Bolívar . The General 's group travel to the town of Soledad , where he stays for more than a month , his health declining further . In Soledad , the General agrees to see a physician for the first time .
The General never leaves South America . He finishes his journey in Santa Marta , too weak to continue and with only his doctor and his closest aides by his side . He dies in poverty , a shadow of the man who liberated much of the continent .
= = Characters = =
= = = The General = = =
The leading character in the novel is " the General " , also called " the Liberator " . García Márquez only once names his protagonist as Simón Bolívar , the famous historical figure , whose full title was General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , on whom the General 's character is based . The novel 's portrait of a national and Latin American hero , which challenges the historical record , provoked outrage in some quarters on its publication .
At the beginning of the novel , the General is 46 years old and slowly dying on his last journey to the port of Cartagena de Indias , where he plans to set sail for Europe . As Palencia @-@ Roth notes , " Bolívar is cast here not only as a victim but as an agent of Latin America 's tragic political flaws " . The fortunes of the historical Simón Bolívar began to decline in 1824 after the victory of his general Antonio José de Sucre at Ayacucho . The novel draws on the fact that the historical Bolívar never remarried after the death of his wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza . García Márquez uses other documented facts as starting points for his fictional portrait of Bolívar – for example , his dedication to the army above all else , his premature aging , and his bad temper . Of the latter , Bolívar 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp O 'Leary once remarked that " his imperious and impatient temperament would never tolerate the smallest delay in the execution of an order " .
In an interview with María Elvira Samper , García Márquez has admitted that his portrayal of Bolívar is partly a self @-@ portrait . He identifies with Bolívar in many ways , since their method of controlling their anger is the same and their philosophical views are similar : neither " pays much attention to death , because that distracts one from the most important thing : what one does in life " .
= = = José Palacios = = =
The novel begins with the name of José Palacios , who , here as with the historical figure of the same name , is Bolívar 's " long @-@ serving mayordomo " . As literary critic Seymour Menton observes , Palacios 's " total identification with Bolívar constitutes the novel 's frame " . Palacios constantly waits on the General , and at certain times he alone is allowed in the General 's room . He has learned to live with his master 's unpredictability and does not presume to read his thoughts . Born a slave , the character is six years younger than the General , and has spent his entire life in his service . Throughout the novel , Palacios provides the General with clarifications or reminders of dates and events during the General 's time of disillusion . According to one critic , Palacios 's ability to recall past events in Bolívar 's life is essential for García Márquez 's recreation of the character , as it allows the Bolívar of official history to be placed within the context of everyday life .
= = = Manuela Sáenz = = =
Manuela Sáenz is the General 's long @-@ time lover , his last since the death of his wife , 27 years earlier . Her character is based on Simón Bolívar 's historical mistress Doña Manuela Sáenz de Thorne , whom Bolívar dubbed " the liberator of the liberator " after she helped save him from an assassination attempt on the night of September 25 , 1828 . García Márquez 's fictional portrait stimulated a reassessment of this historical figure , who is increasingly seen , according to Venezuelan historian Denzil Romero , " not just as a mistress but as the intelligent , independent , forceful woman she was " . In the novel , she is described as " the bold Quiteña who loved him but was not going to follow him to his death " . The General leaves Manuela Sáenz behind , but throughout the novel he writes to her on his journey . She also attempts to write letters to him with news of the political situation , but the mail carriers have been instructed not to accept her letters . Like the historical figure on whom she is based , the fictional Manuela Sáenz is married to Dr. James Thorne , an English physician twice her age . The historical Manuela Sáenz left Thorne after Bolívar wrote declaring his undying love for her . In the novel she is characterized as astute and indomitable , with " irresistible grace , a sense of power , and unbounded tenacity " .
= = = General Francisco de Paula Santander = = =
As he reflects on the past , the General often thinks and dreams about his former friend Francisco de Paula Santander . The historical Francisco de Paula Santander was a friend of Simón Bolívar , but was later accused of complicity in a plot to assassinate him and sent into exile . In the novel , the General remembers that he had once appointed Santander to govern Colombia because he believed him to be an effective and brave soldier . He formerly regarded Santander as " his other self , and perhaps his better self " , but by the time of the events in The General in His Labyrinth Santander has become the General 's enemy and has been banished to Paris after his involvement in the assassination attempt . The General is depicted as tormented by the idea that Santander will return from his exile in France ; he dreams , for example , that Santander is eating the pages of a book , that he is covered in cockroaches , and that he is plucking out his own eyeballs .
= = = Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre = = =
Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre is portrayed as an intimate friend of the General . The historical Antonio José de Sucre , the Field Marshal of Ayacucho , had been the most trusted general of Simón Bolívar . García Márquez describes him as " intelligent , methodical , shy , and superstitious " . The Field Marshal is married to and has a daughter with Doña Mariana Carcelén . In the first chapter of the novel , the General asks Sucre to succeed him as President of the Republic , but he rejects the idea . One of the reasons Sucre gives is that he wishes only to live his life for his family . Also at the beginning of the novel , Sucre 's death is foreshadowed . Sucre tells the General that he plans on celebrating the Feast of Saint Anthony in Quito with his family . When the General hears that Sucre has been assassinated in Berruecos on his way back to Quito , he vomits blood .
= = = Minor characters = = =
The novel revolves around the fictionalized figure of Bolívar and includes many minor characters who are part of the General 's travelling party , whom he meets on his journey or who come to him in his memories and dreams of his past . Sometimes they are identified by particular quirks or tied to small but significant events . They include , for instance , General José María Carreño , a member of the entourage , whose right arm was amputated after a combat wound , and who once revealed a military secret by talking in his sleep . At other times , they are prostheses for the General 's now failing powers : Fernando , for example , the General 's nephew , is " the most willing and patient of the General 's many clerks " , and the General wakes him " at any hour to have him read aloud from a dull book or take notes on urgent extemporizations " . One of the least developed of the minor characters is the General 's wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza , who had died , readers are told , in mysterious circumstances shortly after their marriage . The General has " buried her at the bottom of a water @-@ tight oblivion as a brutal means of living without her " ; she only fleetingly enters his memories in the book 's last chapter . According to Menton , she is " upstaged " by Manuela Sáenz , whose later history García Márquez recounts as if she instead were the General 's widow . María Teresa 's death , however , marked the General 's " birth into history " , and he has never tried to replace her .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Politics = = =
In The General in His Labyrinth , García Márquez voices his political views through the character of the General . For example , Alvarez Borland points out that in the scene where the General responds to the French diplomat , his words closely reflect García Márquez 's 1982 Nobel Address . The diplomat is critical of the barbarism in Latin America and the brutal means used in attempting to achieve independence . Bolívar replies by pointing out that Europe had centuries to progress to its current state , and that South America should be left to experience its " Middle Ages in peace " . Similarly García Márquez remarks in his Nobel Speech that " venerable Europe would perhaps be more perceptive if it tried to see Latin America in its own past . If only it recalled that London took three hundred years to build its first city wall ... " .
The novel was published in 1989 , when the Soviet Union was disintegrating and the political map was being radically redrawn . Reviewing The General in His Labyrinth in 1990 , the novelist Margaret Atwood pointed to another instance of García Márquez raising political issues through the character of the General . He has him tell his aide that the United States is " omnipotent and terrible , and that its tale of liberty will end in a plague of miseries for us all " . Atwood noted the contemporary relevance of this sentiment , since " the patterns of Latin American politics , and of United States intervention in them , have not changed much in 160 years . " She suggested that García Márquez 's fictionalization of Bolívar is a lesson " for our own turbulent age ... Revolutions have a long history of eating their progenitors . " The central character is a man at the end of his life , who has seen his revolution and dream of a united Latin America fail .
= = = Figural labyrinth = = =
According to literary critic David Danow , the labyrinth of the novel 's title refers to " a series of labyrinths that are contingent upon matters of history , geography , and biography ... that consistently and conclusively result in a dead end " — in this case , the General 's own death . His final voyage along the Magdalena River involves a doubling back and forth from one location to another that leads him and his followers nowhere . The labyrinth does not lead to happiness ; instead , it results in madness from constant pondering on the past and an impossible future . At the end of his life , the General is reduced to a spectre of his former self . The labyrinth also recalls the labyrinth built to imprison the minotaur in Greek mythology , and the endless travelling and searching of ancient Greek heroes . In Danow 's view , " The Labyrinth mirrors the wanderings and travails of the hero in search for meaning and resolution to the vicissitudes of life " .
García Márquez depicts the General 's body itself as a labyrinth . His doctor observes that " everything that enters the body , adds weight , and everything that leaves it is debased . " The General 's body is described as a " labyrinth coming to a literal dead end " . The labyrinth is also expressed in geographical and architectural imagery . The country 's destiny is imagined as a break @-@ up , a folding of north into south . The seas offer the hope of a new life and a new world , but the closer the General is to Colombia , the less chance he has of moving on . García Márquez describes buildings as " daunting , reverberating ( if not exactly reiterating ) with the echoes of a bloody past " . The portrayal of the General 's world as a labyrinth is underlined by his constant return to cities and towns he has visited before : each location belongs to the past as well as to the present . The General in his Labyrinth blurs the lines between perdition in a man @-@ made world and wandering in the natural world .
= = = Fate and love = = =
Bolívar 's fate is known from the beginning , and García Márquez constantly uses images which foreshadow this ending . For instance , a clock stuck at seven minutes past one , the exact time of the General 's death , appears repeatedly in the novel . This sense of fate is introduced in the epigraph , which comes from a letter written by the historical Bolívar to General Santander on August 4 , 1823 : " It seems that the devil controls the business of my life . " As Palencia @-@ Roth points out , the word used for devil here is demonio rather than the more familiar diablo . Demonio derives from the Greek word daimon , which can equally mean divine power , fate , or destiny . Accordingly , the General succumbs to his fate and accepts his death as destiny .
The theme of love is central to the novel . Bolívar had a reputation as a womanizer , and books have been written on his philandering ; but as depicted in this novel , during the last seven months of his life , the General could no longer engage in the activities that had fueled that reputation . García Márquez mentions a woman every few pages , many of whom are his own invention , exploring love through the General 's memories . Palencia @-@ Roth notes that the presence of these women " allows a labyrinthine exploration of his life before his final journey " and suggests that García Márquez uses love as a barometer of the General 's heart and health . Although Bolívar is usually thought to have died from tuberculosis , Palencia @-@ Roth believes that for the author , the General dies from the lack of love . " Despised by many of his countrymen , abandoned by all but a few aides and associates , left — during the final seven months of his life — without even the companionship of his longtime mistress Manuela Saenz , Bolívar had no choice but to die of a broken heart . "
= = = Numbers and religious symbols = = =
Numbers are an important symbolic aspect of the novel . The book is divided into eight chapters , almost all of equal length , which represent the eight @-@ year love affair between the General and Manuela Sáenz . The General 's last hours are marked by an octagonal clock . Allusions to the number three are even more common in the novel . As García Márquez scholar Isabel Rodríguez Vergara notes , the number three — the Trinity which occupies a vital place in the symbology of the Catholic Mass — is repeated 21 times throughout the book . She quotes Mircea Eliade : " In the novel it represents a symbolic sacrifice aimed at redeeming humankind — that of Bolívar , a misunderstood redeemer sacrificed by his own people . "
Rodríguez Vergara observes that the General is like a supernatural being , simultaneously dying and being surrounded by symbolic circumstances such as rain , fiestas , and the plague . The novel begins with Bolívar immersed in purifying waters , in a state of ecstasy and meditation that suggests a priestly ritual . One of the women with whom the General sleeps , Queen Marie Louise , is described as a virgin with the profile of an idol — an allusion to the Virgin Mary . The General rides a mule into the last towns on his journey towards death , echoing Christ 's entry into Jerusalem . He dies of mysterious and unknown causes , and the people burn his belongings in fear of catching his illness . In Rodríguez Vergara 's view , " Bolívar was sacrificed as a scapegoat to purge the guilt of the community . "
René Girard has interpreted the recurrence of rain in the novel as one of the purifying rituals the community must undergo in order to wash away the contagion of violence . The fiestas may represent another ritual of purification and also symbolize war . Fiestas are held to honour the General when he arrives at a town , but at other times , political demonstrations against the General are mistaken for a fiesta . According to Rodríguez Vergara , this shows how " information is manipulated " and " depicts an atmosphere where fiesta and war are synonymous " .
= = = Melancholy and mourning = = =
Latin American cultural theorist Carlos J. Alonso , drawing on Freudian theory , argues that the novel is essentially
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Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force . No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site . FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project , and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique . In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam , it was finally completed in December 1974 . The dam 's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace , who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project . The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods , which formerly re @-@ fertilised the plantations .
= = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = =
On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his locale . Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam . Inside the parcel was a book containing an explosive device , which detonated upon opening . Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters , and that the faction responsible was never identified .
The original investigations levelled accusations at Silverio Nungo ( who was later executed ) and Lazaro Kavandame , FRELIMO leader in Cabo Delgado . The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the Tanzanian police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Portugal 's secret police ) to assassinate Mondlane . Kavandame himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year .
Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly Aginter Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind Gladio @-@ esque army , known as Aginter Press , that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination . Initially , due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible , Mondlane 's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left .
Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev. Uria Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 . In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and Marcelino dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO and eventually arrested and executed , post @-@ Independence , in 1975 .
= = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = =
In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 . Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters . Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations , such as the Special Groups of Parachutists in 1973 , though their role less significant under the new commander . His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland .
By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa Gomes , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units . Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE . Composed of local tribesmen , the units specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and anti @-@ terrorist operations .
Costa Gomes argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time . These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict , following the dismissal of Kaúlza de Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974 – the Carnation Revolution . The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal , when the country splintered into civil war .
There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole :
Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola
Paratrooper Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais Pára @-@ Quedistas ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training
Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate ) : special units trained in tracking
Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel defectors specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations . They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash bounties for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture .
During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism . The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties . During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines , including the PMN ( Black Widow ) , TM @-@ 46 , and POMZ . Even amphibious mines were used , such as the PDM . Mine psychosis , an acute fear of landmines , was rampant in the Portuguese forces . This fear , coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces , damaged morale and significantly hampered progress .
= = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = =
On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army . The Gordian Knot Operation ( Portuguese : Operação Nó Górdio ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months . The operation involved some 35 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops , particularly elite units like paratroopers , commandos , marines and naval fusiliers .
The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols . They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( helibourne ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( Força Aérea Portuguesa or FAP ) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas . These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery . The Portuguese also used cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult to motor transport , and units of captured or deserted guerrillas to penetrate their former bases .
Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties . Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army . Thus , the army lacked close air support from the FAP . Mounting Portuguese casualties began to outweigh FRELIMO casualties , leading to further political intervention from Lisbon .
The Portuguese eventually reported 651 as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese . Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months . Although " Gordian Knot " was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict , weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat , the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government .
By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop sweeps . They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the Aldeamentos Programme , which was a forced relocation program . But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO – not numbering more than 8 @,@ 000 fighters – launched a large offensive in Tete Province . The response from the Portuguese military was fierce , leading to reprisal attacks in an attempt to unbalance the local population 's continuing faith in FRELIMO .
On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete . Referred to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper Expresso based in testimonies from soldiers ) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas . The action , " Operation Marosca " , was planned at the instigation of PIDE / DGS agents and guided by agent Chico Kachavi , who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out . The soldiers were told by this agent that " the orders were to kill them all " , never mind that only civilians , women and children included , were found . All of the victims were civilians . The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest , Father Adrian Hastings , and two other Spanish missionary priests . Later counter @-@ claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam Laurean Rugambwa that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants , not Portuguese forces . In addition , others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad . Portuguese journalist Felícia Cabrita reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre . Cabrita 's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper Expresso and later in a book containing several of the journalist 's articles .
By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . " Aldeamentos : agua para todos " ( Resettlement villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and resettle the indigenous population , in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base . Conversely , Mondlane 's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander , Machel . " Panic , demoralisation , abandonment , and a sense of futility – all were reactions among whites in Mozambique " stated conflict historian T. H. Henricksen in 1983 .
This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a telltale sign of the conflict 's unpopularity . Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO onslaughts through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974 . A Portuguese journalist argued :
= = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = =
Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( BR ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars . They had carried out multiple sabotages and bombings against military targets , such as the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8 , 1971 , and the attack on the NATO headquarters at Oeiras in October of the same year . The attack on the Portuguese ship Niassa illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest . Niassa ( named after a Mozambican province ) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea . By the time of the Carnation Revolution , 100 @,@ 000 draft dodgers had been recorded .
Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget . This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself . This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation . Portugal 's GDP growth during the colonial war period ( 1961 – 1974 ) , was strong and reached a 6 % rate ( a percentual GDP growth which were not achieved in any other comparable period after 1974 ) .
The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as Cadernos Circunstância , Cadernos Necessários , Tempo e Modo , and Polémica , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems .
The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo Caetano . Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de Spínola , called for a ceasefire . With the change of government in Lisbon , many soldiers refused to continue fighting , often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol . Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the Lusaka Accord signed on September 7 , 1974 , which provided for a complete hand @-@ over of power to FRELIMO , uncontested by elections . Formal independence was set for June 25 , 1975 , the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO .
= = Aftermath = =
Many Portuguese colonials were not typical settlers in Mozambique . While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of Afrikaners - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations . Loss of their privileged status and fears of FRELIMO reprisal resulted in an exodus of up to 200 @,@ 000 white civilians at independence ( in Europe they were popularly known as retornados ) . Cities , towns and villages saw their Portuguese names changed after independence - Lourenço Marques to Maputo , Vila Pery to Chimoio , Vila Cabral to Lichinga , or Vila Junqueiro to Gurúè .
With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse loomed . Privileged commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influence in the region .
Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president . The Reverend Uria Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial . Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against RENAMO insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military support . Industrial and social recession , Marxist @-@ style totalitarianism , corruption , poverty , inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour . Peace returned only in 1992 , when the nation achieved relative stability for the first time in several decades .
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
= The Secret of Monkey Island =
The Secret of Monkey Island is a 1990 point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games . It takes place in a fantastic version of the Caribbean during the age of piracy . The player assumes the role of Guybrush Threepwood , a young man who dreams of becoming a pirate and explores fictional islands while solving puzzles .
The game was conceived in 1988 by Lucasfilm employee Ron Gilbert , who designed it with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman . Gilbert 's frustrations with contemporary adventure titles led him to make the player character 's death almost impossible , which meant that gameplay focused the game on exploration . The atmosphere was based on that of the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride . The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth game built with the SCUMM engine , which was heavily modified to include a more user @-@ friendly interface .
Critics praised The Secret of Monkey Island for its humor , audiovisuals , and gameplay . The game spawned a number of sequels , collectively known as the Monkey Island series . Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman also led the development of the sequel Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge . LucasArts released a remake of the original in 2009 , which was also well received by the gaming press .
= = Gameplay = =
The Secret of Monkey Island is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , the player guides protagonist Guybrush Threepwood through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from twelve verb commands ( nine in newer versions ) such as " talk to " for communicating with characters and " pick up " for collecting items between commands and the world 's objects in order to successfully solve puzzles and thus progress in the game . While conversing with other characters , the player may choose between topics for discussion that are listed in a dialog tree ; the game is one of the first to incorporate such a system . The in @-@ game action is frequently interrupted by cutscenes . Like other LucasArts adventure games , The Secret of Monkey Island features a design philosophy that makes the player character 's death nearly impossible ( Guybrush does drown if he stays underwater for more than ten minutes ) .
= = Plot = =
A youth named Guybrush Threepwood arrives on the fictional Mêlée IslandTM , with the desire to become a pirate . He seeks out the island 's pirate leaders , who set him three trials that must be completed to become a pirate : winning a sword duel against Carla , the island 's resident swordmaster , finding a buried treasure , and stealing a valuable idol from the governor 's mansion . These quests take Guybrush throughout the island , where he hears of stories of the Ghost Pirate LeChuck , who apparently died in an expedition to the mysterious Monkey IslandTM , an act that was meant to win the love of the governor Elaine Marley . Guybrush meets several characters of interest , including a local voodoo priestess , Stan the Used Boat Salesman , Carla the Sword Master , a prisoner named Otis , and Meathook , whose hands have been replaced by hooks .
Guybrush also encounters the governor and is instantly smitten , and she soon reciprocates . However , as he completes the tasks set for him , the island is raided by LeChuck and his undead crew , who abduct Elaine and then retreat to their secret hideout on Monkey IslandTM . Guybrush takes it upon himself to rescue her , buying a ship and hiring Carla , Otis , and Meathook as crew before setting sail for the fabled island . When Guybrush reaches Monkey Island , he discovers a village of cannibals in a dispute with Herman Toothrot , a ragged castaway marooned there . He settles their quarrel , and then recovers a magical " voodoo root " from LeChuck 's ship for the cannibals , who provide him with a seltzer bottle of " voodoo root elixir " that can destroy ghosts .
When Guybrush returns to LeChuck 's ship with the elixir , he learns that LeChuck has returned to Mêlée IslandTM to marry Elaine at the church . He promptly returns to Mêlée IslandTM and gatecrashes the wedding , only to ruin Elaine 's own plan for escape ; in the process he loses the elixir . Now confronted with a furious LeChuck , Guybrush is savagely beaten by the ghost pirate in a fight ranging across the island . The fight eventually arrives at the island 's ship emporium , where Guybrush finds a bottle of root beer . Substituting the beverage for the lost elixir , he sprays LeChuck , destroying the ghost pirate . With LeChuck defeated , Guybrush and Elaine enjoy a romantic moment , watching fireworks caused by LeChuck exploding .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin and writing = = =
Ron Gilbert conceived the idea of a pirate adventure game in 1988 , after completing Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders . He first wrote story ideas about pirates while spending the weekend at a friend 's house . Gilbert experimented with introductory paragraphs to find a satisfactory idea . His initial story featured unnamed villains that would eventually become LeChuck and Elaine ; Guybrush was absent at this point . He pitched it to Lucasfilm Games 's staff as a series of short stories . Gilbert 's idea was warmly received , but production was postponed because Lucasfilm Games assigned its designers , including Gilbert , to Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade : The Graphic Adventure . Development of The Last Crusade was finished in 1989 , which allowed Gilbert to begin production of The Secret of Monkey Island , then known internally under the working title Mutiny on Monkey Island .
Gilbert soon realised that it would be difficult to design the game by himself ; he decided to join forces with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman , both of whom he hired for Lucasfilm . The game 's insult sword fighting mechanics were influenced by swashbuckling movies starring Errol Flynn , which Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman often watched for inspiration . They noticed that pirates in those films often taunted their opponents instead of attacking them , which gave the designers the idea to base the game 's duels on insults rather than combat . Writer Orson Scott Card helped them write the insults during a visit to Lucasfilm 's headquarters at Skywalker Ranch . Many of Gilbert 's original gameplay ideas were abandoned during the production process , although he stated that " most of that stuff was left out for a reason " .
The game 's plot , as described by Dave Grossman : “ It ’ s a story about this young man who comes to an island in search of his life ’ s dream . He ’ s pursuing his career goals and he discovers love in the process and winds up thinking that was actually more important than what he was doing to begin with . You ’ re laughing , but there ’ s actually something deeper going on as well . ” When work on the plot began , Gilbert discovered that Schafer 's and Grossman 's writing styles were too different to form a cohesive whole : Grossman 's was " very kind of a dry , sarcastic humor " and Schafer 's was " just a little more in your face " . In reaction , Gilbert assigned them to different characters and story moments depending on what type of comedy was required . Grossman believed that this benefited the game 's writing , as he and Schafer " were all funny in slightly different ways , and it worked well together " . Schafer and Grossman wrote most of the dialogue while they were programming the game ; as a result , much of it was improvised . Some of the dialogue was based on the designers ' personal experiences , such as Guybrush 's line " I had a feeling in hell there would be mushrooms " , which came from Schafer 's own hatred of fungi .
The game 's world and characters were designed primarily by Gilbert . After having read Tim Powers ' historical fantasy novel On Stranger Tides , he decided to add paranormal themes to the game 's plot . He also cited Powers ' book as an influence on the characters , particularly those of Guybrush and LeChuck . Inspiration for the game 's ambiance came from Gilbert 's favorite childhood amusement park ride , Pirates of the Caribbean . Grossman said that Gilbert always wanted " to step off the ride " and " talk to the people who lived in that world " . Near the final stages of the design work , Gilbert introduced several characters who were not directly related to the game 's story . He considered this to be an important decision , as the player would need those seemingly minor characters in later parts of the game and would receive a chance to " really interact with them " .
= = = Creative and technical design = = =
Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman 's primary goal was to create a simpler and more accessible gameplay model than those presented in previous Lucasfilm titles . Gilbert had conceived the main designs and puzzles before production began , which resulted in the bulk of the designers ' work to flesh out his ideas . He was frustrated by the adventure games that Sierra On @-@ Line was releasing at the time , and later said that " you died any time you did anything wrong " . Gilbert considered such gameplay as " a cheap way out for the designer " . He had previously applied his design ideas to the 1987 graphic adventure title Maniac Mansion , but committed a number of mistakes during development , such as dead @-@ end situations that prevented the player from completing the game and poorly implemented triggers for cutscenes . Gilbert aimed to avoid such errors in The Secret of Monkey Island . The team decided to make it impossible for the player character to die , which focused gameplay primarily on world exploration . The Sierra game @-@ over screen was parodied , when Guybrush falls off a cliff only to be bounced back up by a " rubber tree " .
The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth Lucasfilm Games project powered by the SCUMM engine , originally developed for Maniac Mansion . The company had gradually modified the engine since its creation . For Maniac Mansion , the developers hard coded verb commands in the SCUMM scripting language . These commands become more abstract in subsequent versions of the engine . The developers carried over the practice of referring to individual segments of the gameworld as " rooms " , even though the areas in Monkey Island were outdoors . The game uses the same version of the engine used in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , with minor changes . A dialog tree was added , which facilitated conversation options and the sword @-@ fighting puzzles . The developers removed the " What is " option ( an input command that describes an on @-@ screen object to the player ) in favor of allowing the player to simply highlight the object with the mouse cursor . The game 's improved interface became the standard for the company 's later titles . The game also introduced logical verb shortcuts , which could be performed with the mouse ; for example , clicking on a character defaults to the " talk " action , the most obvious action in the situation . SCUMM 's visuals were updated for the game — the original EGA version had a 320x200 pixel resolution rendered in 16 colors . According to artist Steve Purcell , that became a major limitation for the art team ; due to a low number of " ghastly " colors , they often chose bizarre tones for backgrounds . They chose black and white for Guybrush 's outfit for the same reason . The VGA version of the game later corrected these issues by implementing 256 color support , which allowed for more advanced background and character art . The VGA ( and other platform releases ) removed the infamous " stump joke " from the game , which was a joke in the EGA version in which the player would examine a tree stump in the forest . Guybrush would exclaim that there is an opening to a system of catacombs and attempt to enter , but this would result in a message stating the player needed to insert disc 22 , then 36 , then 114 in order to continue . The joke resulted in numerous calls to the LucasArts hotline asking about missing discs . As a result , the joke was removed from later editions and is a mentioned as a conversation option for the LucasArts Hint Hotline in the sequel .
The game 's " pirate reggae " music was composed by Lucasfilm Games ' in @-@ house musician Michael Land in MIDI format . It was his first project at the company . The game was originally released for floppy disk in 1990 , but a CD @-@ ROM version with a high @-@ quality CD soundtrack followed in 1992 . The music has remained popular , and has been remixed by the musicians of OverClocked ReMix and by the game 's fans .
= = = Special edition = = =
LucasArts released a remake with updated audiovisuals titled The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition in July 2009 for iPhone , Microsoft Windows , and Xbox 360 exclusively via digital distribution . PlayStation 3 , Mac OS and iPad versions followed early in 2010 for download on their respective services . LucasArts confirmed the game 's development on June 1 , 2009 ; rumors appeared several days earlier when the Xbox 360 version of the game received an USK rating . The game was first displayed to the public at the 2009 E3 in June . The remake features hand @-@ drawn visuals with more detail , a remastered musical score , voice work for characters , and a hint system . The developers included the function to switch between 2009 and original audiovisuals at will . The voice actors included Dominic Armato as Guybrush Threepwood and Earl Boen as LeChuck ; most had provided voice work in sequels to The Secret of Monkey Island .
LucasArts 's game producer Craig Derrick and his team conceived the idea of the remake in 2008 . After researching the Monkey Island series ' history , they decided to make " something fresh and new while staying true to the original " , which resulted in the idea of The Secret of Monkey Island 's remake . The developers tried to leave much of the original design unchanged . Any changes were intended to achieve the level of immersion desired for the original . To that end , they added details like a pirate ship or pirates talking in the background of scenes . While the team considered the SCUMM interface revolutionary at the time , LucasArts community manager Brooks Brown noted that it is incompatible with an analog stick , which most consoles use . The designers made the cursor contextual to the game objects as the primary interface . Brown had considered updating the reference to advertise Star Wars : The Force Unleashed because Loom was not on the market at the time , but concluded that the game would not be the same if such changes were implemented . Prior to the Special Edition release , however , LucasArts announced that Loom , along with other games from its back catalog , would be made available on Steam . Brown stated that the decision to distribute the game online was because " digital downloads have finally gotten going " .
= = Reception = =
The Secret of Monkey Island sold well and received positive reviews from critics . Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser of Dragon praised the designers ' attention to detail , and cited the game 's humor as a high point . Although they believed that the game was too expensive , they summarized it as " a highly enjoyable graphic adventure replete with interesting puzzles , a fantastic Roland soundtrack , superb VGA graphics , smooth @-@ scrolling animation , and some of the funniest lines ever seen on your computer screen . " Duncan MacDonald of Zero praised the graphics and found the game " quite amusing " . His favorite aspect was the fine @-@ tuned difficulty level , which he believed was " just right " . He ended his review , " At last an adventure game that 's enjoyable rather than frustrating . " Paul Glancey of Computer and Video Games consider the game superior to Lucasfilm 's earlier adventure titles , and wrote that , " Usually the entertainment you get from an adventure is derived solely from solving puzzles , but the hilarious characters and situations , and the movie @-@ like presentation ... make playing this more like taking part in a comedy film , so it 's much more enjoyable . " He considered the puzzles to be " brilliantly conceived " and found the game 's controls accessible . He summarized it as " utterly enthralling " .
ACE 's Steve Cooke also found the controls convenient , and he praised the game 's atmosphere . He wrote that , " in graphics and sound terms ... Monkey Island , along with King 's Quest V , is currently at the head of the pack . " However , he disliked the designers ' running joke of placing " TM " after character and place names , which he thought detracted from the atmosphere . He singled out the game 's writing , characters and plot structure as its best elements . Amiga Power 's Mark Ramshaw wrote , " With The Secret of Monkey Island , the mouse @-@ controlled , graphic @-@ adventure comes of age . " He lauded its comedic elements , which he believed were the highlight of the game . The reviewer also praised the control scheme , noting that it allows the player to " more or less forget about the specifics of what [ they are ] physically doing ... and lose [ themselves ]
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darkening . That is , the brightness decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk . Red dwarf flare stars such as UV Ceti may also possess prominent starspot features .
= = = Magnitude = = =
The apparent brightness of a star is expressed in terms of its apparent magnitude . It is a function of the star 's luminosity , its distance from Earth , and the altering of the star 's light as it passes through Earth 's atmosphere . Intrinsic or absolute magnitude is directly related to a star 's luminosity , and is what the apparent magnitude a star would be if the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 parsecs ( 32 @.@ 6 light @-@ years ) .
Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units : one whole number difference in magnitude is equal to a brightness variation of about 2 @.@ 5 times ( the 5th root of 100 or approximately 2 @.@ 512 ) . This means that a first magnitude star ( + 1 @.@ 00 ) is about 2 @.@ 5 times brighter than a second magnitude ( + 2 @.@ 00 ) star , and about 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star ( + 6 @.@ 00 ) . The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude + 6 .
On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales , the smaller the magnitude number , the brighter the star ; the larger the magnitude number , the fainter the star . The brightest stars , on either scale , have negative magnitude numbers . The variation in brightness ( ΔL ) between two stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star ( mb ) from the magnitude number of the fainter star ( mf ) , then using the difference as an exponent for the base number 2 @.@ 512 ; that is to say :
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Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth , a star 's absolute magnitude ( M ) and apparent magnitude ( m ) are not equivalent ; for example , the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 44 , but it has an absolute magnitude of + 1 @.@ 41 .
The Sun has an apparent magnitude of − 26 @.@ 7 , but its absolute magnitude is only + 4 @.@ 83 . Sirius , the brightest star in the night sky as seen from Earth , is approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun , while Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.@ 53 , is approximately 14 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . Despite Canopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius , however , Sirius appears brighter than Canopus . This is because Sirius is merely 8 @.@ 6 light @-@ years from the Earth , while Canopus is much farther away at a distance of 310 light @-@ years .
As of 2006 , the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is LBV 1806 @-@ 20 , with a magnitude of − 14 @.@ 2 . This star is at least 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . The least luminous stars that are currently known are located in the NGC 6397 cluster . The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 26 , while a 28th magnitude white dwarf was also discovered . These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday candle on the Moon when viewed from the Earth .
= = Classification = =
The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century , when stars were classified from A to Q based on the strength of the hydrogen line . It thought that the hydrogen line strength was a simple linear function of temperature . Rather , it was more complicated ; it strengthened with increasing temperature , it peaked near 9000 K , and then declined at greater temperatures . When the classifications were reordered by temperature , it more closely resembled the modern scheme .
Stars are given a single @-@ letter classification according to their spectra , ranging from type O , which are very hot , to M , which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres . The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are : O , B , A , F , G , K , and M. A variety of rare spectral types are given special classifications . The most common of these are types L and T , which classify the coldest low @-@ mass stars and brown dwarfs . Each letter has 10 sub @-@ divisions , numbered from 0 to 9 , in order of decreasing temperature . However , this system breaks down at extreme high temperatures as classes O0 and O1 may not exist .
In addition , stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines , which correspond to their spatial size and is determined by their surface gravity . These range from 0 ( hypergiants ) through III ( giants ) to V ( main sequence dwarfs ) ; some authors add VII ( white dwarfs ) . Most stars belong to the main sequence , which consists of ordinary hydrogen @-@ burning stars . These fall along a narrow , diagonal band when graphed according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type . The Sun is a main sequence G2V yellow dwarf of intermediate temperature and ordinary size .
Additional nomenclature , in the form of lower @-@ case letters added to the end of the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum . For example , an " e " can indicate the presence of emission lines ; " m " represents unusually strong levels of metals , and " var " can mean variations in the spectral type .
White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub @-@ divided into the classes DA , DB , DC , DO , DZ , and DQ , depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum . This is followed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature .
= = Variable stars = =
Variable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or extrinsic properties . Of the intrinsically variable stars , the primary types can be subdivided into three principal groups .
During their stellar evolution , some stars pass through phases where they can become pulsating variables . Pulsating variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time , expanding and contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years , depending on the size of the star . This category includes Cepheid and Cepheid @-@ like stars , and long @-@ period variables such as Mira .
Eruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or mass ejection events . This group includes protostars , Wolf @-@ Rayet stars , and flare stars , as well as giant and supergiant stars .
Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their properties . This group includes novae and supernovae . A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions , including the nova and a Type 1a supernova . The explosion is created when the white dwarf accretes hydrogen from the companion star , building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion . Some novae are also recurrent , having periodic outbursts of moderate amplitude .
Stars can also vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors , such as eclipsing binaries , as well as rotating stars that produce extreme starspots . A notable example of an eclipsing binary is Algol , which regularly varies in magnitude from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 5 over a period of 2 @.@ 87 days .
= = Structure = =
The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium : the forces on any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other . The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star . The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma ; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core . The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen @-@ burning core of a main sequence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star .
As atomic nuclei are fused in the core , they emit energy in the form of gamma rays . These photons interact with the surrounding plasma , adding to the thermal energy at the core . Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into helium , creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core . Eventually the helium content becomes predominant , and energy production ceases at the core . Instead , for stars of more than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ , fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core .
In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium , the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal equilibrium . There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior . The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming flux from below .
The radiation zone is the region of the stellar interior where the flux of energy outward is dependent on radiative heat transfer , since convective heat transfer is inefficient in that zone . In this region the plasma will not be perturbed , and any mass motions will die out . If this is not the case , however , then the plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur , forming a convection zone . This can occur , for example , in regions where very high energy fluxes occur , such as near the core or in areas with high opacity ( making radiatative heat transfer inefficient ) as in the outer envelope .
The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the star 's mass . Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior and a radiative zone in the outer layers . Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite , with the convective zone located in the outer layers . Red dwarf stars with less than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ are convective throughout , which prevents the accumulation of a helium core . For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified .
The photosphere is that portion of a star that is visible to an observer . This is the layer at which the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light . From here , the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate into space . It is within the photosphere that sun spots , regions of lower than average temperature , appear .
Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere . In a main sequence star such as the Sun , the lowest level of the atmosphere , just above the photosphere , is the thin chromosphere region , where spicules appear and stellar flares begin . Above this is the transition region , where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km ( 62 mi ) . Beyond this is the corona , a volume of super @-@ heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres . The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star . Despite its high temperature , and the corona emits very little light , due to its low gas density . The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse .
From the corona , a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star , until it interacts with the interstellar medium . For the Sun , the influence of its solar wind extends throughout a bubble @-@ shaped region called the heliosphere .
= = Nuclear fusion reaction pathways = =
A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars , that depend upon their mass and composition . When nuclei fuse , the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts . This lost mass is converted to electromagnetic energy , according to the mass @-@ energy equivalence relationship E = mc2 .
The hydrogen fusion process is temperature @-@ sensitive , so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate . As a result , the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M @-@ class star to 40 million kelvin for a massive O @-@ class star .
In the Sun , with a 10 @-@ million @-@ kelvin core , hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton @-@ proton chain reaction :
41H → 22H + 2e + + 2νe ( 2 x 0 @.@ 4 MeV )
2e + + 2e- → 2γ ( 2 x 1 @.@ 0 MeV )
21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ ( 2 x 5 @.@ 5 MeV )
23He → 4He + 21H ( 12 @.@ 9 MeV )
These reactions result in the overall reaction :
41H → 4He + 2e + + 2γ + 2νe ( 26 @.@ 7 MeV )
where e + is a positron , γ is a gamma ray photon , νe is a neutrino , and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium , respectively . The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts , which is actually only a tiny amount of energy . However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly , producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star 's radiation output . In comparison , the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule releases only 5 @.@ 7 eV .
In more massive stars , helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon called the carbon @-@ nitrogen @
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-@ oxygen cycle .
In evolved stars with cores at 100 million kelvin and masses between 0 @.@ 5 and 10 M ☉ , helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple @-@ alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium :
4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8 * Be
4He + 8 * Be + 67 keV → 12 * C
12 * C → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 4 MeV
For an overall reaction of :
34He → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 2 MeV
In massive stars , heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and oxygen burning process . The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron @-@ 56 , an endothermic process that consumes energy , and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse .
The example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 M ☉ to consume all of its nuclear fuel . As an O @-@ class main sequence star , it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity .
= Perry the Platypus =
Perry the Platypus , also known as Agent P or simply Perry , is an anthropomorphic platypus from the animated series Phineas and Ferb . Perry was created by the series ' co @-@ founders , Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . He first appeared along with the majority of the main cast in the pilot episode " Rollercoaster . " Perry is featured as the star of the B @-@ plot for every episode of the series , alongside his nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz . A mostly silent character , his lone vocal characteristic ( a rattling of Perry 's beak ) was provided by Dee Bradley Baker .
Perry is the pet platypus of the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , and is perceived as mindless and domesticated . In secret , however , he lives a double life as a member of an all @-@ animal espionage organization referred to as O.W.C.A. ( The Organization Without a Cool Acronym ) . Many secret entrances to his underground lair exist all around the house ; such as the side of the house , most notably the tree that his owners sit under in the backyard , and several other everyday objects that seem to elude the family 's attention . He engages in daily battles with Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , an evil scientist who desires to take over the Tri @-@ state area with obscure contraptions that work perfectly according to his intended function but fail in his application of them every time .
Perry was made a platypus because of the animal 's striking appearance and the lack of public knowledge of the animal , which allowed the writers to make things up about the species . Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans have been considerably positive . Merchandising of the character include plush toys , t @-@ shirts , wooden toys , glasses , and coloring books , along with appearances in literature and a 2009 video game for the Nintendo DS .
= = Role in Phineas and Ferb = =
Perry is the docile pet platypus of the blended Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , who adopted him because his unfocused gaze made it seem as if he were looking at both Phineas and Ferb at the same time , as shown in the 2011 movie , Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension . Unbeknownst to them , Perry lives a double life as a crime @-@ fighting spy working for the " Organization Without a Cool Acronym " / The OWCA , going by the codename " Agent P. " He reports to his superior , Major Monogram , via telecast in his large , high @-@ tech , underground hideout . Every day , he engages in battles with the evil scientist Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , who tries using inventions to take over the tri @-@ state area . Perry is always able to foil Doofenshmirtz 's plans and in doing so accidentally leads to the destruction of whatever form of contraption his owners , Phineas Flynn and Ferb Fletcher , are building in order to make summer better . Phineas and Ferb are aware that something happens to get rid of their scheme for the day , but do not know that Perry is the cause behind it and are largely dismissive of it . Their sister , Candace , also does not know that Perry is behind the destruction and is driven to near insanity trying to figure it out . Throughout the series , Perry is aware of Phineas and Ferb 's inventions , but is largely uninterested in them , save whenever he notices that their latest invention may help him thwart Doofenshmirtz .
Perry and Doofenshmirtz at first seem to loathe each other in the beginning of the series , and have been arch @-@ nemeses since the day they met . However , they are often cordial and friendly towards one another and it is said by Doofenshmirtz that Perry is his best friend , and Perry will often act to save Doofenshmirtz 's life when his plot inevitably blows up in his face . Habitually , their daily brawls involve Doofenshmirtz devising a scheme , which Perry goes to stop after being briefed by Major Monogram . He is trapped by Doofenshmirtz while trying to do so and is told of the doctor 's scheme , usually pertaining to some backstory or pet peeve . He then escapes and the two fight , Perry coming out victorious . The two rely on this daily structure , Doofenshmirtz even specifically mentioning it in " Journey to the Center of Candace " and in episodes such as " It 's About Time ! " in which Doofenshmirtz temporarily replaces Perry with secret agent Peter The Panda and they become depressed about not having each other to fight . Perry realizes he misses Doof too . When Perry does not arrive on the scene of Doofenshmirtz 's evil plan , the doctor hesitates to execute his plans and fears for where Perry has gone , though he notes that he " hopes something terrible has happened to him . " . Sometimes , they decided not to fight and have fun , as shown in " Happy New Year ! " and " Candace Disconnected " . On other occasions , depending on whatever situation Doofenshmirtz is facing , Perry would often help Doofenshmirtz with his non @-@ evil plans , such as helping him overcome evil scientist 's block , helping him put on a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa , impressing a square dancing girl with programmable square dancing boots that Doofenshmritz created , working together to stop a raging platypus hunter from hunting them down , or helping him convince his rich ex @-@ wife to help pay off his mortgage debt . Also , Perry tends to use Doofenshmirtz 's inventions to erase evidence of whatever contraptions Phineas and Ferb had made , leaving Candace unable to bust them . Examples include when Perry asked to borrow Doofenshmirtz 's robot Norm to pick up footage from the city surveillance cameras in order to preserve his job as an agent , as well as using Doofenshmirtz 's Pick @-@ Him @-@ Up @-@ inator to rescue a lost Candace and bring her home .
In Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension , an alternate reality ( yet more evil and ruthless ) version of Perry ( known as Platyborg ) appears as the secondary antagonist , with the regular Perry serving as a supporting protagonist . Platyborg would later return in the episode sequel , Tales from the Resistance : Back to the 2nd Dimension , this time , as a supporting protagonist .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
While working on the animated television series Rocko 's Modern Life , Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh utilized several recurring elements in the episodes that they wrote . Among these were actions sequences and chase scenes . Povenmire and Marsh wanted to reuse these elements in their series and chose Perry to execute it . The pair gave him a consistent and continuous nemesis in the form of Doofenshmirtz as a means of allowing viewers to get to know him .
While choosing a species for Perry , Povenmire and Marsh wanted to keep in mind selecting one that was uncommon , an animal that kids could not " pick out at a pet store and beg [ their parents ] for . " They chose a platypus because of the animal 's obscure and striking appearance . The animal was scarcely used in American animated programs , so the pair opined that Perry " would not have to compete with preconceived notions that viewers might bring to a more conventional critter . " The blank storyboard they were given allowed them to " make stuff up " since " no one knows very much about [ them ] . "
Perry has a theme song tentatively entitled " Perry , " performed by Randy Crenshaw and Laura Dickinson , and written by Povenmire and Marsh , who write the majority of songs in the series . The song , along with the number " Gitchee Gitchee Goo " from the episode " Flop Starz , " was the first musical composition Povenmire and Marsh pitched to The Walt Disney Company . They were nervous doing so , because , as Povenmire explained , " Disney has a big history of music -- what if they hate it ? " Their reaction , however , was considerably positive and the pair was asked to write a song for each episode , which they vehemently agreed to . The opening lyrics for the song describe Perry as a standard textbook definition of a platypus : " He 's a semi @-@ aquatic egg @-@ laying mammal of action . "
= = = Design = = =
Like the other characters of the series , Perry was structured in a simple style to allow young viewers to easily draw him . In keeping with the show 's general design scheme , Perry is constructed of geometric shapes in a style reminiscent of deceased Looney Tunes animator Tex Avery . Povenmire uses different design styles for drawing Perry depending on how he is portrayed . When Perry is portrayed as a domesticated and mindless pet , Povenmire begins with a square shaped like a loaf of bread . He then draws his front legs and feet before drawing his bill , which is set at a certain angle . Povenmire then draws his eyeballs , which are never focused and look in opposing directions in a daze . He concludes the figure by adding his hind legs , tail , hair , and finally color .
When portrayed as a secret agent , Povenmire starts with a similar bread loaf square design , but draws it standing up vertically and places a fedora on the top of his head , which is combined with the square torso . In contrast to his mindless and wild @-@ eyed expression as a pet , the secret agent version of Perry is detailed with eyes " full of steely blue resolve . " Povenmire proceeds by drawing his arms , which bear hands that are open and prepared for fighting or any danger . His legs are bent , as well prepared for an act of danger or action needed . Povenmire finishes the design by adding his beaver tail and color .
= = = Personality = = =
Perry 's undercover identity as a pet leads to characters throughout the series to deem him as a " mindless domestic pet " that " doesn 't do much " . This definition of the character led to Phineas and Ferb spearheading production of a new toyline based on Perry called " Perry the Inaction Figure , " whose tagline revolved around it not doing anything but allowing the customer to make it whatever they desire it to be . In all actuality , Perry is a skilled fighter who is able to perform several implausible judo fighting moves and escapes . He has access to several different types of technology and inventions provided to him by The O.W.C.A. , including a hover craft dubbed the " Platypusmobile , " a jet ski , and a whistle set that allows him to summon different types of animals .
Although his appearance as a domestic pet is mostly a cover , Perry has nonetheless expressed care and devotion for the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family . In the episode " The Ballad of Bad Beard " , Perry managed to drag Candace out of the Dark Cave before it caved in because of Dr. Doofenshmirthz 's " self destruction button " that which Candace had accidentally pressed while under the orange moss hallucination , thinking it was a vending machine . He did this even though he knew that Candace saw that Perry was a secret agent talking to Agent E ( Eagle ) and to Major Monogram in a cracked egg . Candace thought she was just hallucinating because of the orange moss she accidentally touched earlier in the episode . Also , when an invention of Doofenshmirtz 's in the episode " Journey to the Center of Candace " might cause severe harm to Phineas and Ferb , Perry thoroughly beats up Doofenshmirtz and quickly handcuffs him . He then ties him to a pipe and , instead of just leaving him like he usually does in the series , calls for special forces from the O.W.C.A. to come and arrest the doctor , though they never show up . In " Oh , There You Are , Perry , " Doofenshmirtz is downgraded to a low threat level and Perry is reassigned to a new nemesis . This causes him to have to leave his home with the Flynn @-@ Fletchers , which makes him sad and he does not enjoy his new villain . Phineas and Ferb are fearful about where Perry could have gone to and put up several flyers around town for people to find him . They decide to throw a concert on the roof of a building , singing a song about how much they love Perry and want him to come home . Concurrently , Perry is reassigned to Doofenshmirtz again and returns to the brothers once more .
Though Perry is anthropomorphic , he does not speak , only communicating through an " aggravated purr " type of noise made by flapping his bill . This noise is provided by actor Dee Bradley Baker ; to this day , Povenmire and Marsh do not understand how Baker produces the noise . Thomas Sangster , who plays Ferb , is notoriously good at making the noise and is considered second only to Baker himself . When in his " Agent P " persona , Perry is almost completely silent .
= = Reception = =
As a character , Perry has been well received by both fans and critics . As Cynthia Littleton of Variety magazine wrote , " Perry the platypus is a breakout star from the Disney Channel toon ' Phineas and Ferb . ' " The New York Times writer Susan Stewart called him " intrepid . " Jean Yoo , a press member for Disney Channel , said that Perry is " suave " and " makes James Bond look like a rank amateur . " Aaron H. Bynum of Animator Insider opined that he is " indubitably confident . " Carly H. of Scholastic , Inc. declared Perry " pretty darn awesome . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste , described Perry and Doofenshmirtz 's relationship as " pitch @-@ perfect . "
Certain reviewers have also commented negatively about Perry and his subplot , which Sherry Robinson of the St. Petersburg Times considers " pretty trippy . " Kevin McDonough of Sun Coast Today described it as " complicated " and " loosely connected " to the rest of the series , writing that he is " not sure what this accomplishes except to add the noise of explosions to the already constant din of singing and screaming . " Ed Liu of Toon Zone feels it is " truly puzzling what Perry the secret agent is doing in this show in the first place . " Liu considers his subplot to be a type of " throw everything against the wall and see what sticks " element and writes that " many of the earlier episodes of the show don 't manage to do a very good job of balancing the subplot and the main one . "
Perry was nominated for a Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award in 2014 under the category of Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick .
= = In other media = =
In addition to the main television series , Perry has appeared in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise . To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . The character has been adapted into a 20 inch plush toy , released by The Walt Disney Company . The plush has a button on its hand that allows it to emit Perry 's signature chattering noise . Certain t @-@ shirts based on the series released by both Disney and the online retail website Zazzle also display Perry and the phrase " Hey , where 's Perry ? " which most characters like Phineas , Isabella , Stacy , Irving , Ferb , and Lawrence utter when Perry goes to Major Monogram in his secret lair in almost every episode . There also is a T @-@ Shirt with Perry 's face . Perry appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb , where a mini @-@ game involves Perry stopping Doofenshmirtz 's latest evil scheme . As of 1 April 2014 , Perry is also a playable character in the video game Disney Infinity .
= Amylostereum =
Amylostereum is the single genus in the fungal family Amylostereaceae . The genus currently comprises four saprotrophic and parasitic species , which live off living or dead wood . The Amylostereaceae cause white rot in the wood by disintegrating the tissue component lignin . They produce crust @-@ like , partially wavy fruit bodies on the surface of infested trees , which are similar to those produced by Stereum species .
There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae : A. chailletii ( the type ) , A. areolatum , A. ferreum and A. laevigatum . The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them . Forty years after his extensive researches from 1958 , Boidin reclassified Amylostereum into its own family .
Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex , Urocerus , and Xoanon , which infest conifers . The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores
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and mucus in trees , and the fungus is eaten by the wasp 's larva as food . The fungus propagates vegetatively through the formation of asexual spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi . The A. areolatum – Sirex woodwasp ( S. noctilio ) symbiont complex has been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry , particularly in non @-@ native regions .
= = Taxonomy and history of research = =
Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum , based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity . Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated Amylosterum from Stereum in 1958 , justifying this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus . Although the type species of the genus ( today called A. chailletii ) was initially named Trichocarpus ambiguus , the name Trichocarpus had already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family Malvaceae . Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum , referring to the amyloid spores .
Based on DNA analysis , Boidin in 1998 moved Amylostereum into a new , monotypic family , the Amylostereaceae , which he attributed to the Hericiales order . Later studies , however , supported the initial classification in the Russulales .
= = = Classification = = =
The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved . The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium tinctorium and most other species of the genus Echinodontium , or Artomyces pyxidatus . Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium , but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion . Only the classification to the Russulales is regarded as correct . Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae .
The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus . As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance , researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages . Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi , however , showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii , A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other , but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species . Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host . This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the Paleogene and Neogene Periods ( 66 million to 2 @.@ 6 million years ago ) , but became extinct there , so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species . Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America .
Compatibility tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi . The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other . A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59 % of all cases a common mycelium , A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44 % . There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum ; according to DNA analysis , it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum . This is remarkable , as these fungi originated from Mycetangae ( storing organs of Platypodinae ) of a North American wood wasp , while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps , neither in North American nor in Europe . The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a subtaxon of A. laevigatum . As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce asexually through the symbiosis of wood wasps , the genetic variability within these species is relatively low .
= = Description = =
= = = Macroscopic = = =
The Amylostereaceae produce crust @-@ like , dry and leathery @-@ corky fruit bodies on the bark of infested trees . The fruit bodies are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 – 0 @.@ 06 in ) thick , irregularly shaped and are able to cover a large surface on the bark or otherwise can appear as small spots . They lie directly on the bark . The ochrous , grey or brownish fruit body ( hymenium ) has a smooth to warty surface texture and is turned outwards . It is bordered by a highly bent and wavy ( effuso @-@ reflex ) edge on all species except A. laevigatum , which has a churlish surface ( a tomentum ) and is usually dirty @-@ brown coloured . In some species , the tomentum stands clearly above and forms a kind of roof above the fruit body ; if it completely surrounds this roof , there might appear cuplike shapes .
= = = Microscopic = = =
The Amylostereaceae possess a dimitic trama , meaning that there are in its mycelia two kinds of hyphae . The first type is brownish skeletal hyphae , which provide stability to the fruit body . These hyphae run parallel to the bark and often have hairpin @-@ like turns , so that the loops form thick @-@ walled , cystidium @-@ like structures , the so @-@ called pseudocystidia . The second type is generative hyphae . They are translucent ( hyaline ) and serve to promote the growth of the fungus . Genuine cystidia arise in the hymenium and the layer directly below , the subhymenium . Both pseudocystidia and cystidia are encrusted , meaning that they feature crystal @-@ like structures on the top .
With the exception of A. laevigatum , all species have a thin separating layer , the cortex , between the hymenium and the tomentum . A cortex is also present on many Stereum fungi ( on a broader front ) and serves to bend up the fruit body . As this cortex is missing on A. laevigatum , its fruit body lies flat on the bark .
The basidia are 15 – 25 × 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm and have a slim , club @-@ like shape . Each basidium features four sterigmata , each of which bear one spore . The spores ' shape is slimly ellipsoidal or cylindrical . Their surface is smooth and their walls are thin . Although they are colourless and hyaline , the spores are amyloid , meaning they will turn bluish or purple when stained with Melzer 's reagent . This characteristic differs from other very similar species , and this gave the genus its name .
= = Distribution = =
The range of the Amylostereaceae originally comprised only Holarctic regions , including North America and Eurasia , and the Neotropics , with Central and South America . The introduction of A. areolatum and its symbionts , the Sirex woodwasps , saw the spread of the genus to all continents except Antarctica .
Amylostereum chailletiiz is common in the temperate regions of North America and Eurasia . A. laevigatum can be also found in temperate Eurasia , but it is unclear how broadly this species is distributed in North America . A. areolatum is originally native in North Africa and Eurasia ; it was however distributed through the 20th century in Australia , New Zealand , Southern Africa as well as in South and North America . Only A. ferreum is originally native in the tropics and is common in Brazil and the Caribbean .
= = Ecology = =
Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood . Three species – A. areolatum , A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps ( Siricidae ) , which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi . Symbioses have been recorded with several species : Sirex noctilio , S. juvencus , S. nitobei , S. cyaneus , S. edwarsii , S. nitidus , and , in Japan , Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae . Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia ( the hypha of fungi split up to spores ) in special abdominal organs . The wood wasps infect trees by splashing a phytotoxic secretion below the bark and at the same time injecting fungal spores into the hole . The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily diminishes its immune system , whereby the fungus can spread along the xylem . The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps : it provides the larvae food , because the white rot softens the wood ; at the same time , the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae . After the larvae pupate , it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to oviposit together with its eggs . The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies . A. ferreum is the only Amylosterum species that has not been associated with any woodwasps .
= = = Host spectrum = = =
The host spectrum of the Amylostereaceae comprises several , partially very different genera of Coniferae . A. chailletii usually infests Pinaceae such as firs ( Abies ) and spruces ( Picea ) , but also cedars ( Cedrus ) and Douglas firs ( Pseudotsuga ) . A. areolatum has a similar host spectrum , which uses mainly firs , Japanese cedars ( Cryptomeria ) , larches ( Larix ) , spruces , pines ( Pinus ) and Douglas firs as hosts . While spruces dominate as hosts in the native habitat , this species is more common in pines on other locations . The host spectrum of A. laevigatum comprises Cupressaceae such as junipers ( Juniperus ) or cypresses ( Cupressus ) and the English yew ( Taxus baccata ) . A. ferreum is , however , only common on neotropic yellowwoods ( Podocarpus ) .
= = = Symptoms of infestation = = =
The Amylostereaceae are white rot pathogens . They disintegrate the lignin of the host wood , whereby the infested wood parts become less stable and take a fibrous structure . The wood bleaches as fungal enzymes break down and remove the brown @-@ pigmented lignin . The distribution in wood takes place mainly along the transport channels in the xylem . If the wood is crosscut , the red rot is vertically positioned , on which bleached , infested areas contrast with intact wood . Symptoms of infestion by the symbiotic partner — wood wasps — include circular exit holes in the crust and acute stress through dryness , common in hanging , falling or tanning needles .
= = Ecological and economical importance = =
In their native habitat , all Amylostereum species have a minor importance as forest pests . The infestation through wood wasps does not assume greater dimensions and is , compared with other pests , almost insignificant . The infection rates are even lower during sexual reproduction via fruit bodies , as the wasps do not play a part in the process . Furthermore , the Amylostereum fungi are alone often incapable of infesting healthy trees . They thus mostly act as saprobiontics . Pine monocultures in Australia , New Zealand , Africa and South America were shown to be susceptible to the Sirex woodwasp ( Sirex noctilio ) , which was introduced there and which is associated with A. areolatum . The wasp 's phytotoxic secretion , its larvae and the fungus combine very effectively with each other and contribute to forest decline rates of up to 80 % . This is mainly owing to the poor water and nutrient supply of the trees , which can poorly reconcile the drought stress caused by infestation . S. noctilio was detected in North America in the 2000s ( decade ) ; in Canada alone , the total economic loss to the forestry industry caused by the Sirex – Amylostereum symbiosis could be as high as $ 254 million per year for the next 20 years .
As a countermeasure , cultures of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola have been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s . This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae . Where S. noctilio larvae are present , the parasite infects and sterilizes the eggs of female wasps , causing them to be infertile . These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode . This control method has proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex – Amylostereum complex . In the Southern Hemisphere , where the technique has been widely employed , reductions of parasitism levels of 70 % – 100 % have been achieved .
= Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan =
Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ( French : [ ʃaʁl valɑ ̃ tɛ ̃ alkɑ ̃ ] ; 30 November 1813 – 29 March 1888 ) was a French @-@ Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist . At the height of his fame in the 1830s and 1840s he was , alongside his friends and colleagues Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt , among the leading pianists in Paris , a city in which he spent virtually his entire life .
Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris , which he entered before he was six . His career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long withdrawals from public performance , for personal reasons . Although he had a wide circle of friends and acquaintances in the Parisian artistic world , including Eugène Delacroix and George Sand , from 1848 he began to adopt a reclusive life style , while continuing with his compositions – virtually all of which are for the keyboard . During this period he published , among other works , his collections of large @-@ scale studies in all the major keys ( Op. 35 ) and all the minor keys ( Op. 39 ) . The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 4 – 7 ) and Concerto for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 ) , which are often considered among his masterpieces and are of great musical and technical complexity . Alkan emerged from self @-@ imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians .
Alkan 's attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work . He was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music . Fluent in Hebrew and Greek , he devoted much time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French . This work , like many of his musical compositions , is now lost . Alkan never married , but his presumed son Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde was , like Alkan , a virtuoso performer on both the piano and the pedal piano , and edited a number of the elder composer 's works .
Following his death ( which according to persistent but unfounded legend was caused by a falling bookcase ) Alkan 's music became neglected , supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni , Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji . From the late 1960s onwards , led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith , many pianists have recorded his music and brought it back into the repertoire .
= = Life = =
= = = Family = = =
Alkan was born Charles @-@ Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1 , Rue de Braque in Paris to Alkan Morhange ( 1780 – 1855 ) and Julie Morhange , née Abraham . Alkan Morhange was descended from a long @-@ established Jewish Ashkenazic community in the region of Metz ; the village of Morhange is located about 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the city of Metz . Charles @-@ Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers ; his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth .
Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a private music school in le Marais , the Jewish quarter of Paris . At an early age , Charles @-@ Valentin and his siblings adopted their father 's first name as their last ( and were known by this during their studies at the Conservatoire de Paris and subsequent careers ) . His brother Napoléon ( 1826 – 1906 ) became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire , his brother Maxim ( 1818 – 1897 ) had a career writing light music for Parisian theatres , and his sister , Céleste ( 1812 – 1897 ) , was also a pianist . His brother Ernest ( 1816 – 1876 ) was a professional flautist , while the youngest brother Gustave ( 1827 – 1882 ) was to publish various dances for the piano .
= = = Prodigy ( 1819 – 1831 ) = = =
Alkan was a child prodigy . He entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age , and studied both piano and organ . The records of his auditions survive in the Archives Nationales in Paris . At his solfège audition on 3 July 1819 , when he was just over 5 years 7 months , the examiners noted Alkan ( who is referred to even at this early date as " Alkan ( Valentin ) " , and whose age is given incorrectly as six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ) as " having a pretty little voice " . The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as " music @-@ paper ruler " . At Charles @-@ Valentin 's piano audition on 6 October 1820 , when he was nearly seven ( and where he is named as " Alkan ( Morhange ) Valentin " ) , the examiners comment " This child has amazing abilities . "
Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire , Joseph Zimmermann , who also taught Georges Bizet , César Franck , Charles Gounod , and Ambroise Thomas . At the age of seven , Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano ( 1824 ) , harmony ( 1827 ) , and organ ( 1834 ) . At the age of seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half he gave his first public performance , appearing as a violinist and playing an air and variations by Pierre Rode . Alkan 's Opus 1 , a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel Steibelt , dates from 1828 , when he was 14 years old . At about this time he also undertook teaching duties at his father 's school . Antoine Marmontel , one of Charles @-@ Valentin 's pupils there , who was later to become his bête noire , wrote of the school :
Young children , mostly Jewish , were given elementary musical instruction and also learnt the first rudiments of French grammar ... [ There ] I received a few lessons from the young Alkan , four years my senior ... I see once more ... that really parochial environment where the talent of Valentin Alkan was formed and where his hard @-@ working youth blossomed ... It was like a preparatory school , a juvenile annexe of the Conservatoire .
From about 1826 Alkan began to appear as a piano soloist in leading Parisian salons , including those of the Princesse de la Moskova ( widow of Marshal Ney ) , and the Duchesse de Montebello . He was probably introduced to these venues by his teacher Zimmermann . At the same time , Alkan Morhange arranged concerts featuring Charles @-@ Valentin at public venues in Paris , in association with leading musicians including the sopranos Giuditta Pasta and Henriette Sontag , the cellist Auguste Franchomme and the violinist Lambert Massart , with whom Alkan gave concerts in a rare visit out of France to Brussels in 1827 . In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Alkan was appointed joint professor of solfège – among his pupils in this class a few years later was his brother Napoléon . In this manner Alkan 's musical career was launched well before the July Revolution of 1830 , which initiated a period in which " keyboard virtuosity ... completely dominated professional music making " in the capital , attracting from all over Europe pianists who , as Heinrich Heine wrote , invaded " like a plague of locusts swarming to pick Paris clean " . Alkan nonetheless continued his studies and in 1831 enrolled in the organ classes of François Benoist , from whom he may have learnt to appreciate the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , of whom Benoist was then one of the few French advocates .
= = = Early fame ( 1831 – 1837 ) = = =
Throughout the early years of the July Monarchy , Alkan continued to teach and play at public concerts and in eminent social circles . He became a friend of many who were active in the world of the arts in Paris , including Franz Liszt ( who had been based there since 1827 ) , George Sand , and Victor Hugo . It is not clear exactly when he first met Frédéric Chopin , who arrived in Paris in September 1831 . In 1832 Alkan took the solo role in his first Concerto da camera for piano and strings at the Conservatoire . In the same year , aged 19 , he was elected to the influential Société Académique des Enfants d 'Apollon ( Society of the Children of Apollo ) , whose members included Luigi Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , the conductor François Habeneck , and Liszt , who had been elected in 1824 at the age of twelve . Between 1833 and 1836 Alkan participated at many of the Society 's concerts . Alkan twice competed unsuccessfully for the Prix de Rome , in 1832 and again in 1834 ; the cantatas which he wrote for the competition , Hermann et Ketty and L 'Entrée en loge , have remained unpublished and unperformed .
In 1834 Alkan began his friendship with the Spanish musician Santiago Masarnau , which was to result in an extended and often intimate correspondence which only came to light in 2009 . Like virtually all of Alkan 's correspondence , this exchange is now one @-@ sided ; all of his papers ( including his manuscripts and his extensive library ) were either destroyed by Alkan himself , as is clear from his will , or became lost after his death . Later in 1834 Alkan made a visit to England , where he gave recitals and where the second Concerto da camera was performed in Bath by its dedicatee Henry Ibbot Field ; it was published in London together with some solo piano pieces . A letter to Masarnau and a notice in a French journal that Alkan played in London with Moscheles and Cramer , indicate that he returned to England in 1835 . Later that year , Alkan , having found a place of retreat at Piscop outside Paris , completed his first truly original works for solo piano , the Twelve Caprices , published in 1837 as Opp . 12 , 13 , 15 and 16 . Op. 16 , the Trois scherzi de bravoure , is dedicated to Masarnau . In January 1836 , Liszt recommended Alkan for the post of Professor at the Geneva Conservatoire , which Alkan declined , and in 1837 he wrote an enthusiastic review of Alkan 's Op. 15 Caprices in the Revue et gazette musicale .
= = = At the Square d 'Orléans ( 1837 – 1848 ) = = =
From 1837 , Alkan lived in the Square d 'Orléans in Paris , which was inhabited by numerous celebrities of the time including Marie Taglioni , Alexandre Dumas , George Sand , and Chopin . Chopin and Alkan were personal friends and often discussed musical topics , including a work on musical theory that Chopin proposed to write . By 1838 , at 25 years old , Alkan had reached a peak of his career . He frequently gave recitals , his more mature works had begun to be published , and he often appeared in concerts with Liszt and Chopin . On 23 April 1837 Alkan took part in Liszt 's farewell concert in Paris , together with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old César Franck and the virtuoso Johann Peter Pixis . On 3 March 1838 , at a concert at the piano @-@ maker Pape , Alkan played with Chopin , Zimmerman , and Chopin 's pupil Adolphe Gutmann in a performance of Alkan 's transcription , now lost , of two movements of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony for two pianos , eight hands .
At this point , for a period which coincided with the birth and childhood of his natural son , Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde ( 1839 – 1913 ) , Alkan withdrew into private study and composition for six years , returning to the concert platform only in 1844 . Alkan neither asserted or denied his paternity of Delaborde , which , however , his contemporaries seemed to assume . Marmontel wrote cryptically in a biography of Delaborde that " [ his ] birth is a page from a novel in the life of a great artist " . Alkan gave early piano lessons to Delaborde , who was to follow his natural father as a keyboard virtuoso .
Alkan 's return to the concert platform in 1844 was greeted with enthusiasm by critics , who noted the " admirable perfection " of his technique , and lauded him as " a model of science and inspiration " , a " sensation " and an " explosion " . They also commented on the attending celebrities including Liszt , Chopin , Sand and Dumas . In the same year he published his piano étude Le chemin de fer , which critics , following Ronald Smith , believe to be the first representation in music of a steam engine . Between 1844 and 1848 Alkan produced a series of virtuoso pieces , the 25 Préludes Op. 31 for piano or organ , and the sonata Op. 33 Les quatre âges . Following an Alkan recital in 1848 , the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer was so impressed that he invited the pianist , whom he considered " a most remarkable artist " , to prepare the piano arrangement of the overture to his forthcoming opera , Le prophète . Meyerbeer heard and approved Alkan 's arrangement of the overture for four hands ( which Alkan played with his brother Napoléon ) in 1849 ; published in 1850 , it is the only record of the overture , which was scrapped during rehearsals at the Opéra .
= = = Retreat ( 1848 – 1872 ) = = =
In 1848 Alkan was bitterly disappointed when the head of the Conservatoire , Daniel Auber , replaced the retiring Zimmermann with the mediocre Marmontel as head of the Conservatoire piano department , a position which Alkan had eagerly anticipated , and for which he had strongly lobbied with the support of Sand , Dumas , and many other leading figures . A disgusted Alkan described the appointment in a letter to Sand as " the most incredible , the most shameful nomination " ; and Delacroix noted in his journal " By his confrontation with Auber , [ Alkan ] has been very put out and will doubtless continue to be so . " The upset arising from this incident may account for Alkan 's reluctance to perform in public in the ensuing period . His withdrawal was also influenced by the death of Chopin ; in 1850 he wrote to Masarnau " I have lost the strength to be of any economic or political use " , and lamented " the death of poor Chopin , another blow which I felt deeply . " Chopin , on his deathbed in 1849 , had indicated his respect for Alkan by bequeathing him his unfinished work on a piano method , intending him to complete it , and after Chopin 's death a number of his students transferred to Alkan . After giving two concerts in 1853 , Alkan withdrew , in spite of his fame and technical accomplishment , into virtual seclusion for some twenty years .
Little is known of this period of Alkan 's life , other than that apart from composing he was immersed in the study of the Bible and the Talmud . Throughout this period Alkan continued his correspondence with Ferdinand Hiller , whom he had probably met in Paris in the 1830s , and with Masarnau , from which some insights can be gained . It appears that Alkan completed a full translation into French , now lost , of both the Old Testament and the New Testament , from their original languages . In 1865 , he wrote to Hiller : " Having translated a good deal of the Apocrypha , I 'm now onto the second Gospel which I am translating from the Syriac ... In starting to translate the New Testament , I was suddenly struck by a singular idea – that you have to be Jewish to be able to do it . "
Despite his seclusion from society , this period saw the composition and publication of many of Alkan 's major piano works , including the Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 ( 1857 ) , the Sonatine , Op. 61 ( 1861 ) , the 49 Esquisses , Op. 63 ( 1861 ) , and the five collections of Chants ( 1857 – 1872 ) , as well as the Sonate de concert for cello and piano , Op. 47 ( 1856 ) . These did not pass unremarked ; Hans von Bülow , for example , gave a laudatory review of the Op. 35 Études in the Neue Berliner Musikzeitung in 1857 , the year in which they were published in Berlin , commenting that " Alkan is unquestionably the most eminent representative of the modern piano school at Paris . The virtuoso 's disinclination to travel , and his firm reputation as a teacher , explain why , at present , so little attention has been given to his work in Germany . "
From the early 1850s Alkan began to turn his attention seriously to the pedal piano ( pédalier ) . Alkan gave his first public performances on the pédalier to great critical acclaim in 1852 . From 1859 onwards he began to publish pieces designated as " for organ or piano à pédalier " .
= = = Reappearance ( 1873 – 1888 ) = = =
It is not clear why , in 1873 , Alkan decided to emerge from his self @-@ imposed obscurity to give a series of six Petits Concerts at the Érard piano showrooms . It may have been associated with the developing career of Delaborde , who , returning to Paris in 1867 , soon became a concert fixture , including in his recitals many works by his father , and who was at the end of 1872 given the appointment that had escaped Alkan himself , Professor at the Conservatoire . The success of the Petits Concerts led to them becoming an annual event ( with occasional interruptions caused by Alkan 's health ) until 1880 or possibly beyond . The Petits Concerts featured music not only by Alkan but of his favourite composers from Bach onwards , played on both the piano and the pédalier , and occasionally with the participation of another instrumentalist or singer . He was assisted in these concerts by his siblings , and by other musicians including Delaborde , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , and Auguste Franchomme .
Those encountering Alkan at this phase included the young Vincent d 'Indy , who recalled Alkan 's " skinny , hooked fingers " playing Bach on an Érard pedal piano : " I listened , riveted to the spot by the expressive , crystal @-@ clear playing . " Alkan later played Beethoven 's Op. 110 sonata , of which d 'Indy said : " What happened to the great Beethovenian poem ... I couldn 't begin to describe – above all in the Arioso and the Fugue , where the melody , penetrating the mystery of Death itself , climbs up to a blaze of light , affected me with an excess of enthusiasm such as I have never experienced since . This was not Liszt — perhaps less perfect , technically — but it had greater intimacy and was more humanly moving ... "
The biographer of Chopin , Frederick Niecks , sought Alkan for his recollections in 1880 but was sternly denied access by Alkan 's concierge – " To my ... enquiry when he could be found at home , the reply was a ... decisive ' Never ' . " However , a few days later he found Alkan at Érard 's , and Niecks writes of their meeting that " his reception of me was not merely polite but most friendly . "
= = = Death = = =
According to his death certificate , Alkan died in Paris on 29 March 1888 at the age of 74 . Alkan was buried on
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1 April ( Easter Sunday ) in the Jewish section of Montmartre Cemetery , Paris , not far from the tomb of his contemporary Fromental Halévy ; his sister Céleste was later buried in the same tomb .
For many years it was believed that Alkan met his death when a bookcase toppled over and fell on him as he reached for a volume of the Talmud from a high shelf . This tale , which was circulated by the pianist Isidor Philipp , is dismissed by Hugh Macdonald , who reports the discovery of a contemporary letter by one of his pupils explaining that Alkan had been found prostrate in his kitchen , under a porte @-@ parapluie ( a heavy coat / umbrella rack ) , after his concierge heard his moaning . He had possibly fainted , bringing it down on himself while grabbing out for support . He was reportedly carried to his bedroom and died later that evening . The story of the bookcase may have its roots in a legend told of Aryeh Leib ben Asher , rabbi of Metz , the town from which Alkan 's family originated .
= = Personality = =
Alkan was described by Marmontel ( who refers to " a regrettable misunderstanding at a moment of our careers in 1848 " ) , as follows :
" We will not give the portrait of Valentin Alkan from the rear , as in some photographs we have seen . His intelligent and original physiognomy deserves to be taken in profile or head @-@ on . The head is strong ; the deep forehead is that of a thinker ; the mouth large and smiling , the nose regular ; the years have whitened the beard and hair ... the gaze fine , a little mocking . His stooped walk , his puritan comportment , give him the look of an Anglican minister or a rabbi – for which he has the abilities . "
Alkan was not always remote or aloof . Chopin describes , in a letter to friend , visiting the theatre with Alkan in 1847 to see the comedian Arnal : " [ Arnal ] tells the audience how he was desperate to pee in a train , but couldn 't get to a toilet before they stopped at Orléans . There wasn 't a single vulgar word in what he said , but everyone understood and split their sides laughing . " Hugh Macdonald notes that Alkan " particularly enjoyed the patronage of Russian aristocratic ladies , ' des dames très parfumées et froufroutantes [ highly perfumed and frilled ladies ] ' , as Isidore Philipp described them . "
Alkan 's aversion to socialising and publicity , especially following 1850 , appeared to be self @-@ willed . Liszt is reported to have commented to the Danish pianist Frits Hartvigson that " Alkan possessed the finest technique he had ever known , but preferred the life of a recluse . " Stephanie McCallum has suggested that Alkan may have suffered from Asperger syndrome , schizophrenia or obsessive – compulsive disorder .
Alkan 's later correspondence contains many despairing comments . In a letter of about 1861 he wrote to Hiller : " I 'm becoming daily more and more misanthropic and misogynous ... nothing worthwhile , good or useful to do ... no one to devote myself to . My situation makes me horridly sad and wretched . Even musical production has lost its attraction for me for I can 't see the point or goal . " This spirit of anomie may have led him to reject requests in the 1860s to play in public , or to allow performances of his orchestral compositions . However , it should not be ignored that he was writing similarly frantic self @-@ analyses in his letters of the early 1830s to Masarnau .
Jack Gibbons writes of Alkan 's personality : " Alkan was an intelligent , lively , humorous and warm person ( all characteristics which feature strongly in his music ) whose only crime seems to have been having a vivid imagination , and whose occasional eccentricities ( mild when compared with the behaviour of other ' highly @-@ strung ' artistes ! ) stemmed mainly from his hypersensitive nature . " Macdonald , however , suggests that " Alkan was a man of profoundly conservative ideas , whose lifestyle , manner of dress , and belief in the traditions of historic music , set him apart from other musicians and the world at large . "
= = Judaism = =
Alkan grew up in a religiously observant Jewish household . His grandfather Marix Morhange had been a printer of the Talmud in Metz , and was probably a melamed ( Hebrew teacher ) in the Jewish congregation at Paris . Alkan 's widespread reputation as a student of the Old Testament and religion , and the high quality of his Hebrew handwriting testify to his knowledge of the religion , and many of his habits indicate that he practised at least some of its obligations , such as maintaining the laws of kashrut . Alkan was regarded by the Paris Consistory , the central Jewish organisation of the city , as an authority on Jewish music . In 1845 he assisted the Consistory in evaluating the musical ability of Samuel Naumbourg , who was subsequently appointed as hazzan ( cantor ) of the main Paris synagogue ; and he later contributed choral pieces in each of Naumbourg 's collections of synagogue music ( 1847 and 1856 ) . Alkan was appointed organist at the Synagogue de Nazareth in 1851 , although he resigned the post almost immediately for " artistic reasons " .
Alkan 's Op. 31 set of Préludes includes a number of pieces based on Jewish subjects , including some titled Prière ( Prayer ) , one preceded by a quote from the Song of Songs , and another titled Ancienne mélodie de la synagogue ( Old synagogue melody ) . The collection is believed to be " the first publication of art music specifically to deploy Jewish themes and ideas . " Alkan 's three settings of synagogue melodies , prepared for his former pupil Zina de Mansouroff , are further examples of his interest in Jewish music ; Kessous Dreyfuss provides a detailed analysis of these works and their origins . Other works evidencing this interest include no . 7 of his Op. 66 . 11 Grands préludes et 1 Transcription ( 1866 ) , entitled " Alla giudesca " and marked " con divozione " , a parody of excessive hazzanic practice ; and the slow movement of the cello sonata Op. 47 ( 1857 ) , which is prefaced by a quotation from the Old Testament prophet Micah and uses melodic tropes derived from the cantillation of the haftarah in the synagogue .
The inventory of Alkan 's apartment made after his death indicates over 75 volumes in Hebrew or related to Judaism , left to his brother Napoléon ( as well as 36 volumes of music manuscript ) . These are all lost . Bequests in his will to the Conservatoire to found prizes for composition of cantatas on Old Testament themes and for performance on the pedal @-@ piano , and to a Jewish charity for the training of apprentices , were refused by the beneficiaries .
= = Music = =
= = = Influences = = =
Brigitte François @-@ Sappey points out the frequency with which Alkan has been compared to Berlioz , both by his contemporaries and later . She mentions that Hans von Bülow called him " the Berlioz of the piano " , while Schumann , in criticising the Op. 15 Romances , claimed that Alkan merely " imitated Berlioz on the piano . " She further notes that Ferruccio Busoni repeated the comparison with Berlioz in a draft ( but unpublished ) monograph , while Kaikhosru Sorabji commented that Alkan 's Op. 61 Sonatine was like " a Beethoven sonata written by Berlioz " . Berlioz was ten years older than Alkan , but did not attend the Conservatoire until 1826 . The two were acquainted , and were perhaps both influenced by the unusual ideas and style of Anton Reicha who taught at the Conservatoire from 1818 to 1836 , and by the sonorities of the composers of the period of the French Revolution . They both created individual , indeed , idiosyncratic sound @-@ worlds in their music ; there are , however , major differences between them . Alkan , unlike Berlioz , remained closely dedicated to the German musical tradition ; his style and composition were heavily determined by his pianism , whereas Berlioz could hardly play at the keyboard and wrote nothing for piano solo . Alkan 's works therefore also include miniatures and ( among his early works ) salon music , genres which Berlioz avoided .
Alkan 's attachment to the music of his predecessors is demonstrated throughout his career , from his arrangements for keyboard of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony ( 1838 ) , and of the minuet of Mozart 's 40th Symphony ( 1844 ) , through the sets Souvenirs des concerts du Conservatoire ( 1847 and 1861 ) and the set Souvenirs de musique de chambre ( 1862 ) , which include transcriptions of music by Mozart , Beethoven , J. S. Bach , Haydn , Gluck , and others . In this context should be mentioned Alkan 's extensive cadenza for Beethoven 's 3rd Piano Concerto ( 1860 ) , which includes quotes from the finale of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony . Alkan 's transcriptions , together with original music of Bach , Beethoven , Handel , Mendelssohn , Couperin and Rameau , were frequently played during the series of Petits Concerts given by Alkan at Erard .
As regards the music of his own time , Alkan was unenthusiastic , or at any rate detached . He commented to Hiller that " Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . " While he admired Berlioz 's talent , he did not enjoy his music . At the Petits Concerts , little more recent than Mendelssohn and Chopin ( both of whom had died around 25 years before the series of concerts was initiated ) was played , except for Alkan 's own works and occasionally some by his favourites such as Saint @-@ Saëns .
= = = Style = = =
" Like ... Chopin " , writes pianist and academic Kenneth Hamilton , " Alkan 's musical output was centred almost exclusively on the piano " . Some of his music requires extreme technical virtuosity , clearly reflecting his own abilities , often calling for great velocity , enormous leaps at speed , long stretches of fast repeated notes , and the maintenance of widely spaced contrapuntal lines . The illustration ( right ) from the Grande sonate is analysed by Smith as " six parts in invertible counterpoint , plus two extra voices and three doublings – eleven parts in all . " Some typical musical devices , such as a sudden explosive final chord following a quiet passage , were established at an early stage in Alkan 's compositions . Macdonald suggests that
unlike Wagner , Alkan did not seek to refashion the world through opera ; nor , like Berlioz , to dazzle the crowds by putting orchestral music at the service of literary expression ; nor even , as with Chopin or Liszt , to extend the field of harmonic idiom . Armed with his key instrument , the piano , he sought incessantly to transcend its inherent technical limits , remaining apparently insensible to the restrictions which had withheld more restrained composers .
However , not all of Alkan 's music is either lengthy or technically difficult ; for example , many of the Op. 31 Préludes and of the set of Esquisses , Op. 63 .
Moreover , in terms of structure , Alkan in his compositions sticks to traditional musical forms , although he often took them to extremes , as he did with piano technique . The study Op. 39 , no . 8 ( the first movement of the Concerto for solo piano ) takes almost half an hour in performance . Describing this " gigantic " piece , Ronald Smith comments that it convinces for the same reasons as does the music of the classical masters ; " the underlying unity of its principal themes , and a key structure that is basically simple and sound . "
Some of Alkan 's music gives hints of the obsessiveness which some have detected in his personality . The Chant Op. 38 , no . 2 , entitled Fa , repeats the note of its title incessantly ( in total 414 times ) against shifting harmonies which make it " cut ... into the texture with the ruthless precision of a laser beam . " In modelling his five sets of Chants on the first book of Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words , Alkan ensured that the pieces in each of his sets followed precisely the same key signatures , and even the moods , of the original . Alkan was rigorous in his enharmonic spelling , occasionally modulating to keys containing double @-@ sharps or double @-@ flats , so pianists are occasionally required to come to terms with unusual keys such as E @-@ sharp major , enharmonic equivalent to F major , and the occasional triple @-@ sharp .
= = = Works = = =
= = = = Early works = = = =
Alkan 's earliest works indicate , according to Smith , that in his early teens he " was a formidable musician but as yet ... industrious rather than ... creative " . Only with his 12 Caprices ( Opp.12 – 13 and 15 – 16 , 1837 ) did his compositions begin to attract serious critical attention . The op . 15 set , Souvenirs : Trois morceaux dans le genre pathétique , dedicated to Liszt , contains Le vent ( The Wind ) , which was at one time the only piece by the composer to figure regularly in recitals . These works , however , did not meet with the approval of Robert Schumann , who wrote : " One is startled by such false , such unnatural art ... the last [ piece , titled Morte ( Death ) , is ] a crabbed waste , overgrown with brush and weeds ... nothing is to be found but black on black " . Ronald Smith , however , finds in this latter work , which cites the Dies Irae theme also used by Berlioz , Liszt and others , foreshadowings of Maurice Ravel , Modest Mussorgsky and Charles Ives . Schumann did , however , respond positively to the pieces of Les mois ( originally part published as Op. 8 in 1838 , later published as a complete set in 1840 as Op. 74 ) : " [ Here ] we find such an excellent jest on operatic music in no . 6 [ L 'Opéra ] that a better one could scarcely be imagined ... The composer ... well understands the rarer effects of his instrument . " Alkan 's technical mastery of the keyboard was asserted by the publication in 1838 of the Trois grandes études ( originally without opus number , later republished as Op. 76 ) , the first for the left hand alone , the second for the right hand alone , the third for both hands ; and all of great difficulty , described by Smith as " a peak of pianistic transcendentalism " . This is perhaps the earliest example of writing for a single hand as " an entity in its own right , capable of covering all registers of the piano , of rendering itself as accompanied soloist or polyphonist . "
= = = = Early maturity = = = =
Alkan 's large scale Duo ( in effect a sonata ) Op. 21 for violin and piano ( dedicated to Chrétien Urhan ) and his Piano Trio Op. 30 appeared in 1841 . Apart from these , Alkan published only a few minor works between 1840 and 1844 , after which a series of virtuoso works was issued , many of which he had played at his successful recitals at Érard and elsewhere ; these included the Marche funèbre ( Op. 26 ) , the Marche triomphale ( Op. 27 ) and Le chemin de fer ( also published , separately , as Op. 27 ) . In 1847 appeared the Op. 31 Préludes and his first large @-@ scale unified piano work , the Grande sonate Les quatre âges ( Op. 33 ) . The sonata is structurally innovative in two ways ; each movement is slower than its predecessor , and the work anticipates the practice of progressive tonality , beginning in D major and ending in G @-@ sharp minor . Dedicated to Alkan Morhange , the sonata depicts in its successive movements its ' hero ' at the ages of 20 ( optimistic ) , 30 ( " Quasi @-@ Faust " , impassioned and fatalistic ) , 40 ( domesticated ) and 50 ( suffering : the movement is prefaced by a quotation from Aeschylus 's Prometheus Unbound ) . In 1848 followed Alkan 's set of 12 études dans tous les tons majeurs Op. 35 , whose substantial pieces range in mood from the hectic Allegro barbaro ( no . 5 ) and the intense Chant d 'amour @-@ Chant de mort ( Song of Love – Song of Death ) ( no . 10 ) to the descriptive and picturesque L 'incendie au village voisin ( The Fire in the Next Village ) ( no . 7 ) .
A number of Alkan 's compositions from this period were never performed and have been lost . Among the missing works are some string sextets and a full @-@ scale orchestral symphony in B minor , which was described in an article in 1846 by the critic Léon Kreutzer , to whom Alkan had shown the score . Kreutzer noted that the introductory adagio of the symphony was headed " by Hebrew characters in red ink ... This is no less than the verse from Genesis : And God said , Let there be light : and there was light . " Kreutzer opined that , set beside Alkan 's conception , Joseph Haydn 's Creation was a " mere candle ( lampion ) . "
= = = = Internal exile = = = =
During his twenty @-@ year absence from the public between 1853 and 1873 Alkan produced many of his most notable compositions , although there is a ten @-@ year gap between publication of the Op. 35 studies and that of his next group of piano works in 1856 and 1857 . Of these , undoubtedly the most significant was the enormous Opus 39 collection of twelve studies in all the minor keys , which contains the Symphony for Solo Piano ( numbers four , five , six and seven ) , and the Concerto for Solo Piano ( numbers eight , nine and ten ) . The Concerto takes nearly an hour in performance . Number twelve of Op. 39 is a set of variations , Le festin d 'Ésope ( Aesop 's Feast ) . The other components of Op. 39 are of a similar stature . Smith describes Op. 39 as a whole as " a towering achievement , gathering ... the most complete manifestation of Alkan 's many @-@ sided genius : its dark passion , its vital rhythmic drive , its pungent harmony , its occasionally outrageous humour , and , above all , its uncompromising piano writing . "
In the same year appeared the Sonate de Concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano , " among the most difficult and ambitious in the romantic repertoire ... anticipating Mahler in its juxtaposition of the sublime and the trivial " , and with its four movements showing again an anticipation of progressive tonality , each ascending by a major third . Other anticipations of Mahler ( who was born in 1860 ) can be found in the two " military " Op. 50 piano studies of 1859 Capriccio alla soldatesca and Le tambour bat aux champs ( The drum beats the retreat ) , as well as in certain of the miniatures of the 1861 Esquisses , Op. 63 . The bizarre and unclassifiable Marcia funebre , sulla morte d 'un Pappagallo ( Funeral march on the death of a parrot , 1859 ) , for three oboes , bassoon and voices , described by Kenneth Hamilton as " Monty @-@ Pythonesque " , is also of this period .
The Esquisses of 1861 are a set of highly varied miniatures , ranging from the tiny 18 @-@ bar no . 4 , Les cloches ( The Bells ) , to the strident tone clusters of no . 45 , Les diablotins ( The Imps ) , and closing with a further evocation of church bells in no . 49 , Laus Deo ( Praise God ) . They were preceded in publication by Alkan 's deceptively titled Sonatine , Op. 61 , in ' classical ' format , but a work of " ruthless economy [ which ] although it plays for less than twenty minutes ... is in every way a major work . "
Two of Alkan 's substantial works from this period are musical paraphrases of literary works . Salut , cendre du pauvre , Op. 45 ( 1856 ) , follows a section of the poem La Mélancolie by Gabriel @-@ Marie Legouvé ; while Super flumina Babylonis , Op.
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additional five stories were added to ensure the building , at 1 @,@ 050 feet ( 320 m ) , would be just taller than the Chrysler . An observation deck was built to attract tourists , which proved to be a valuable source of revenue . The limestone , granite , and aluminium skyscraper was specially designed to be easily erected , with standardized paneling and structural fittings , and was completed in only 18 months , opening in 1931 . Due to the recession , however , it was only 25 percent occupied throughout the 1930s and ran at a loss ; critics dubbed it the " Empty State Building " .
The Rockefeller Center had originally been intended by John D. Rockefeller , Jr. to be a new location for the Metropolitan Opera House but the Stock Market Crash brought an end to the scheme . Rockefeller decided to develop a large office center instead , taking advantage of the low construction costs during the recession . At the center of the development was the RCA Building , heavily influenced by architect Raymond Hood . The long , slab @-@ like RCA had two distinct axes – from one side , it appeared to be a narrow tower , from the other it rose like a sheer wall . Not only was the structure highly distinctive , but it was also economically very effective . The design maximized the available light to the offices and eliminated any darker internal rooms , as the core of the building was entirely taken up with elevators and other engineering services . Due to the recession , however , it took until 1940 before all of the building had been filled by tenants .
In Chicago , the final pre @-@ war skyscraper was built in 1934 . The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter @-@ war economy , and the Home Insurance Building – the first skyscraper , built in 1884 – was demolished to make way for the " wing and tower " -style development .
= = = Skyscraper mania and social commentary = = =
Public interest in skyscrapers increased during the 1920s , particularly after the Tribune competition . The competition drawings were circulated on display , 25 @,@ 000 coming to see them in Chicago in just one month . In the aftermath , images of skyscrapers flourished across American culture , commencing what historian Merrill Schleier has dubbed a " skyscraper mania " . The " Titan City " exhibition in 1925 celebrated existing skyscraper and featured futuristic murals by Harvey Corbett and Hugh Ferriss , depicting the skyscraper at the heart of the " City of the Future " . Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand 's 1921 short film Manhatta explored the form , ending with a sunset shot from the top of a skyscraper . Authors such as Janet Flanner , John Dos Passos and Mary Borden wrote novels with skyscrapers as important motifs or settings . John Carpenter produced a ballet on the theme . Paul Frankl designed a range of popular " skyscraper furniture " .
Much of this commentary was positive , reflecting an optimism about technology and the direction of urban life in general . Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering , the perfect buildings for mankind to live in , as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick 's lithographs . Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals , symbols of the modern age . Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime , rational beauty , Ferris describing them as " buildings like crystals , walls of translucent glass , sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill " . At Chicago 's Century of Progress exposition in 1933 , skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for America 's current and future problems . The French @-@ Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as being " overwhelming , amazing , exciting , violently alive " , but went on to complain that there were still too few skyscrapers , and those that had been built were not yet tall enough . Lewis Hine , employed to record the building of the Empire State Building , portrayed the skyscraper construction teams as courageous heroes , creating a genre of photography that continued up until 1941 .
Their critics expressed concerns about the effect of modern technology and urban living on the human condition , arguing that skyscrapers generated pollution , noise , and imposed a regimented and dehumanising lifestyle on the people that worked in them . The social commentator Lewis Mumford reflected the concerns of many in his critiques entitled Is the Skyscraper Tolerable ? and The Intolerable City . The political theorist Stefan Hirsch condemned the buildings as " bandages covering the sky , stifling our breath " . Inventor Thomas Edison expressed fears that an uncontrolled expansion of skyscrapers would result in overcrowding and disaster . Artist Howard Cook 's engravings critiqued the oppressive character of the new skyscrapers as they loomed over the traditional city . Berenice Abbott 's photographic studies of New York in the 1930s explored the complex theme of urban change and the effect of skyscrapers on the older ways of life in the city , echoing Steigler 's work in the first decade of the century .
Hollywood used skyscrapers extensively in popular films . The Skyscrapers of New York in 1906 became the first of many , and in the 1920s Harold Lloyd produced his five " skyscraper films " , most prominently Safety Last ! , in which the hero dangles from a clock on the side of a Los Angeles building . In these early silent movies , skyscrapers were closely associated with masculine identity ; Lloyd 's climbing of skyscrapers closely associated with his characters ' transformation from young men into mature adults , and the winning of the heroine . The 1933 film King Kong included another iconic use of the early skyscraper in its final scenes , as the giant ape scaled the Empire State Building shortly before his death ; the scene can be interpreted as contrasting natural instinct with the insensitive rationality of the modern building and wider New York .
= = Legacy = =
Skyscraper development paused during the years of the Second World War . Once development began again in the 1950s and 1960s , the skyscraper entered a different phase of development , usually called the international or modern period . Some experimental designs in this style had been built in the US using European architectural concepts in the early 1930s , most notably the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society and McGraw @-@ Hill Buildings . Post @-@ war , their modernist themes were used in a new generation of skyscrapers . These stood alone on individual plots in the fashion of the Rockefeller Centre 's RCA building , rather than as part of a row of buildings , forming huge slabs and towers featuring huge glass façades , breaking with earlier skyscraper traditions . Inside , new technologies such as fluorescent lighting and widespread air @-@ conditioning meant that many older architectural features such as light courts and operable windows were unnecessary .
The trend had substantial implications for many early skyscrapers . Some were redesigned to fit new tastes . Much of the ornate detail was removed from the Metropolitan Life Tower in the 1960s , for example , to fit contemporary , plainer fashions . Many older skyscrapers could not be adapted , however , as they lacked the physical depth to build larger modern offices or the space for new service facilities . Some were demolished to make way for new , larger structures . Amongst these was the Singer Tower , demolished in 1968 and replaced by the international style United States Steel Building . In the 21st century , buildings such as 90 West Street have been renovated as upmarket housing , partially because of their extensive windows and access to sunlight .
Critical discussion of early skyscrapers began from the 1880s onwards in the architectural community and continued across a growing cultural and academic community in the inter @-@ war period . In the 1930 the terms the Chicago " school " and " movement " began to be used for the first time , popularised by the 1940s academics Sigfried Giedion and Carl Condit as a label for the early Chicago architects . They regarded skyscrapers as the early forerunners of modernism and as marking a clear break with earlier architectural forms in the US . This interpretation of Chicago 's skyscrapers was later challenged by Robert Bruegmann and Daniel Bluestone , who argued that it underplayed the links of the movement to pre @-@ existing Chicago culture . During the 1980s and 1990s analysis of the early skyscrapers increasingly shifted away from the architects and architecture of the individual buildings to considerations of skyscrapers ' roles in the wider urban context . Histories stressing the social , economic and cultural dimension of skyscrapers began to be produced , with New York 's skyscrapers receiving greater attention than before . The Skyscraper Museum – the first to address the theme – was founded in New York in 1997 by historian Carol Willis to preserve the history of the skyscraper .
= Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser =
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser was a class of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . They were the first British armoured cruisers designed to work with the battlefleet rather than protect merchant shipping . After commissioning , they were assigned to the Atlantic , Channel and Home Fleets until 1913 when they were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , the sister ships participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached their refuge in Ottoman Turkey , the ships were ordered to the Red Sea for convoy escort duties . They captured three German merchant ships before they returned to home at the end of the year .
The sisters participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 where Black Prince was sunk with all hands . Duke of Edinburgh spent the next year on blockade duties in the North Sea before she was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean on convoy escort duties for the rest of the war . She was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design and description = =
After the preceding Devonshire class , the Royal Navy rethought how it planned to use its armoured cruisers . It decided that they were going to form a fast wing of the battlefleet which meant that they required heavier armour and armament to fight their counterparts in opposing fleets and thus larger and more expensive . Two armoured cruisers were planned for the 1902 – 1903 Naval Programme and the newly appointed Director of Naval Construction , Philip Watts designed what naval historian Oscar Parkes called : " cruiser editions of the King Edward VII @-@ class battleships " . In these , his first design , he perpetuated the worst feature of the designs by his predecessor , Sir William White , by placing the secondary armament of six @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in embrasures a deck below the main armament which meant that the guns were inoperable in anything more than a dead calm sea . A solution for this problem was offered after construction began when Watts learned that the ships would be lighter than expected and that weight would be available to replace the six @-@ inch guns with 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 190 mm ) guns raised to the same deck as the main armament . The change would cost a total of £ 398 @,@ 000 for the two ships , far too expensive for the Board of Admiralty , so it was rejected on 30 March 1904 .
The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships were designed to displace 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) , but they proved to be significantly lighter as built , displacing 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) at normal load and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ships had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 480 ft ( 146 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft . The class was over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) longer overall than the Devonshires and displaced over 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 540 t ) more .
The ships ' complement was 769 officers and enlisted men . They rolled quickly with a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load and their six @-@ inch guns were as wet as predicted .
The cruisers were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 150 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , they could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Duke of Edinburgh 's main arm
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fortified police station at Yagur in Israel , where he spent nine months . The Israelis were unwilling to take him to trial based solely on the evidence in documents and witness testimony , so the prisoner was subject to daily interrogations , the transcripts of which totalled over 3 @,@ 500 pages . The interrogator was Chief Inspector Avner Less of the national police . Using documents provided primarily by Yad Vashem and Nazi hunter Tuviah Friedman , Less was often able to determine when Eichmann was lying or being evasive . When additional information was brought forward that forced Eichmann into admitting what he had done , Eichmann would insist he had not had any authority in the Nazi hierarchy and had only been following orders . Inspector Less noted that Eichmann did not seem to realise the enormity of his crimes and showed no remorse . His pardon plea , released in 2016 , did not contradict this : " There is a need to draw a line between the leaders responsible and the people like me forced to serve as mere instruments in the hands of the leaders " , Eichmann wrote . " I was not a responsible leader , and as such do not feel myself guilty . "
Eichmann 's trial before the Jerusalem District Court began on 11 April 1961 . The legal basis of the charges against Eichmann was the 1950 Nazi and Nazi Collaborators ( Punishment ) Law , under which he was indicted on 15 criminal charges , including crimes against humanity , war crimes , crimes against the Jewish people , and membership in a criminal organisation . The trial was presided over by three judges : Moshe Landau , Benjamin Halevy and Yitzhak Raveh . The chief prosecutor was Israeli Attorney General Gideon Hausner , assisted by Gabriel Bach of the Department of Justice and Tel Aviv District Attorney Yaakov Bar @-@ Or . The defence team consisted of German lawyer Robert Servatius , legal assistant Dieter Wechtenbruch , and Eichmann himself .
The Israeli government arranged for the trial to have prominent media coverage . Capital Cities Broadcasting Corporation of the United States obtained exclusive rights to videotape the proceedings for television broadcast . Many major newspapers from all over the globe sent reporters and published front @-@ page coverage of the story . The trial was held at the Beit Ha 'am ( today known as the Gerard Behar Center ) , an auditorium in central Jerusalem . Eichmann sat inside a bulletproof glass booth to protect him from assassination attempts . The building was modified to allow journalists to watch the trial on closed @-@ circuit television , and 750 seats were available in the auditorium itself . Israelis had the opportunity to watch live television broadcasts of the proceedings , and videotape was flown daily to the United States for broadcast the following day .
The prosecution case was presented over the course of 56 days , involving hundreds of documents and 112 witnesses ( many of them Holocaust survivors ) . Hausner 's intention was to not only demonstrate Eichmann 's guilt but to present material about the entire Holocaust , thus producing a comprehensive record . Hausner 's opening address began , " It is not an individual that is in the dock at this historic trial and not the Nazi regime alone , but anti @-@ Semitism throughout history . " Defence attorney Servatius repeatedly tried to curb the presentation of material not directly related to Eichmann , and was mostly successful . In addition to wartime documents , material presented as evidence included tapes and transcripts from Eichmann 's interrogation and Sassen 's interviews in Argentina . In the case of the Sassen interviews , only Eichmann 's hand @-@ written notes were admitted into evidence .
Some of the evidence submitted by the prosecution took the form of depositions made by leading Nazis . The defence demanded that the men should be brought to Israel so that the defence 's right to cross @-@ examination would not be abrogated . But Hausner , in his role as Attorney General , declared that he would be obliged to arrest any war criminals who entered Israel . The prosecution proved that Eichmann had visited places where exterminations had taken place , including Chełmno extermination camp , Auschwitz , and Minsk ( where he witnessed a mass shooting of Jews ) , and therefore was aware that the deportees were being killed .
When the prosecution rested , the defence opened its case with a motion to dismiss based on the trial itself being illegal . Servatius challenged Eichmann 's kidnapping and the basis for the Israeli law under which he had been indicted . He argued that if the trial were to continue , it should transfer its jurisdiction to West Germany . The prosecution countered by stating that the United Nations had endorsed Israel 's actions , and that both West Germany and Argentina had agreed that the charges against him were legitimate . The defence motion was subsequently dismissed .
The defence next engaged in a lengthy direct examination of Eichmann . Observers such as Moshe Pearlman and Hannah Arendt have remarked on Eichmann 's ordinariness in appearance and flat affect . In his testimony throughout the trial , Eichmann insisted he had no choice but to follow orders , as he was bound by an oath of loyalty — the same superior orders defence used by some defendants in the 1945 – 1946 Nuremberg trials . Eichmann asserted that the decisions had been made not by him , but by Müller , Heydrich , Himmler , and ultimately Hitler . Servatius also proposed that decisions of the Nazi government were acts of state and therefore not subject to normal judicial proceedings . Regarding the Wannsee Conference , Eichmann stated that he felt a sense of satisfaction and relief at its conclusion . As a clear decision to exterminate had been made by his superiors , the matter was out of his hands ; he felt absolved of any guilt . On the last day of the examination , he stated that he was guilty of arranging the transports , but he did not feel guilty for the consequences .
Throughout his cross @-@ examination , prosecutor Hausner attempted to get Eichmann to admit he was personally guilty , but no such confession was forthcoming . Eichmann admitted to not liking the Jews and viewing them as adversaries , but stated that he never thought their annihilation was justified . When Hausner produced evidence that Eichmann had stated in 1945 that " I will leap into my grave laughing because the feeling that I have five million human beings on my conscience is for me a source of extraordinary satisfaction " , Eichmann said he meant " enemies of the Reich " such as the Soviets . During later examination by the judges , he admitted he meant the Jews , and said the remark was an accurate reflection of his opinion at the time .
The trial adjourned on 14 August , and the verdict was read on 12 December . The judges declared him not guilty of personally killing anyone and not guilty of overseeing and controlling the activities of the Einsatzgruppen . He was deemed responsible for the dreadful conditions on board the deportation trains and for obtaining Jews to fill those trains . He was found guilty of crimes against humanity , war crimes , and crimes against Poles , Slovenes and Gypsies . He was also found guilty of membership in three organisations that had been deemed criminal at the Nuremberg trials : the Gestapo , the SD , and the SS . When considering the sentence , the judges concluded that Eichmann had not merely been following orders , but believed in the Nazi cause wholeheartedly and had been a key perpetrator of the genocide . On 15 December 1961 , Eichmann was sentenced to death .
= = = Appeals and execution = = =
Servatius appealed the verdict , mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel 's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which Eichmann was charged . Appeal hearings took place between 22 and 29 March 1962 . Eichmann 's wife Vera flew to Israel and saw him for the last time at the end of April . On 29 May , the Israeli Supreme Court rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court 's judgement on all counts . Eichmann immediately petitioned Israeli President Yitzhak Ben @-@ Zvi for clemency . The content of his letter to the President pleading for pardon and other original court documents of the trial were made public on 27 January 2016 . Prominent people such as Hugo Bergmann , Pearl Buck , Martin Buber , and Ernst Simon spoke up on his behalf . Ben @-@ Gurion called a special cabinet meeting to resolve the issue . The cabinet decided not to recommend to President Ben @-@ Zvi to grant clemency to Eichmann . As a result , Ben @-@ Zvi rejected the appeal to commute Eichmann 's sentence . At 8 : 00 PM on 31 May , Eichmann was informed that his final appeal had been declined . His last meal was the usual prison fare of cheese , bread , olives , and tea , along with a half bottle of wine .
Eichmann was hanged at a prison in Ramla hours later — the hanging , scheduled for midnight at the end of 31 May , was slightly delayed and thus took place a few minutes into 1 June 1962 . The execution was attended by a small group of officials , four journalists and the Canadian clergyman William Lovell Hull , who had been his spiritual counselor while in prison . His last words were :
Long live Germany . Long live Argentina . Long live Austria . These are the three countries with which I have been most connected and which I will not forget . I greet my wife , my family and my friends . I am ready . We 'll meet again soon , as is the fate of all men . I die believing in God .
Within hours Eichmann 's body had been cremated , and his ashes scattered in the Mediterranean Sea , outside of Israeli territorial waters by an Israeli Navy patrol boat .
= = = Impact = = =
The trial and the surrounding media coverage sparked renewed interest in wartime events , and the resulting increase in publication of memoirs and scholarly works helped raise public awareness of the Holocaust . The trial received widespread coverage by the press in West Germany , and many schools added material studying the issues to their curriculum . In Israel , the testimony of witnesses at the trial led to a deeper understanding of the impact of the Holocaust on survivors , especially among younger citizens who had never suffered state @-@ sponsored oppression .
Political theorist Hannah Arendt , a Jew who fled Germany after Hitler 's rise to power , reported on Eichmann 's trial for The New Yorker . In Eichmann in Jerusalem , Arendt calls Eichmann the embodiment of the " banality of evil " , as he appeared to have an ordinary and normal personality , displaying neither guilt nor hatred . In his 1988 book Justice , Not Vengeance , Wiesenthal said : " The world now understands the concept of ' desk murderer ' . We know that one doesn 't need to be fanatical , sadistic , or mentally ill to murder millions ; that it is enough to be a loyal follower eager to do one 's duty . " In her 2011 book Eichmann Before Jerusalem , based largely on the Sassen interviews and Eichmann 's notes made while in exile , Bettina Stangneth posits that Eichmann was proud of his wartime accomplishments , remained a committed Nazi throughout his life , and intentionally built a persona as a faceless bureaucrat for presentation at the trial .
Eichmann 's youngest son Ricardo says he is not resentful toward Israel for executing his father . He does not agree that his father 's " following orders " argument excuses his actions and notes how his father 's lack of remorse caused " difficult emotions " for the Eichmann family . Ricardo is now a professor of archaeology at the German Archaeological Institute .
In 2015 the filming of the trial by producer Milton Fruchtman and blacklisted TV director Leo Hurwitz was the subject of the UK television film The Eichmann Show , featuring Martin Freeman and Anthony LaPaglia . The film intercuts dramatic scenes with historical footage from the trial .
= = Summary of SS career = =
SS number : 45 @,@ 326
Nazi Party number : 899 @,@ 895
Primary positions : Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ( Gestapo ) , RSHA
Waffen @-@ SS service : SS @-@ Untersturmführer der Reserve ( 9 November 1944 )
= = = Links related to the trial = = =
The Trial of Adolf Eichmann : Record of Proceedings
The Eichmann Trial on YouTube
" With Me Are Six Million Accusers " an online site marking the 50th anniversary of the Eichmann Trial
" The Eichmann Trial : 50 Years After " : selected documents from the Israel State Archives
" Eichmann Prosecutor Interview : A Conversation with Justice Gabriel Bach , Senior Prosecutor in the Adolf Eichmann Trial " by Frank Tuerkheimer , Professor at the University of Wisconsin Law School
" Adolf Eichmann in Israel : Portraits of a Nazi War Criminal " , life.time.com
= Maryland Route 36 =
Maryland Route 36 ( also known as MD 36 or Route 36 ) is a 29 @.@ 43 @-@ mile ( 47 @.@ 36 km ) state highway located in Allegany County , Maryland , United States . MD 36 's southern terminus is at the WV 46 bridge in Westernport and its northern terminus at U.S. Route 40 Alternate near Cumberland . Between Westernport and Frostburg , it is known as Georges Creek Road , and from Frostburg to Cumberland it is known as Mount Savage Road . Like the majority of Maryland state highways , MD 36 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
MD 36 serves as the main road through the Georges Creek Valley , a region which is historically known for coal mining , and has been designated by MDSHA as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . MD 36 is the main road connecting the towns of Westernport , Lonaconing , and Midland in southwestern Allegany County , as well as Frostburg , Mount Savage , and Corriganville in northwestern Allegany County .
= = Route description = =
MD 36 has two main sections : Georges Creek Road , which runs along the Georges Creek Valley , from Westernport to Frostburg in southwestern Allegany County , and Mount Savage Road , which runs eastward from Frostburg to Cumberland in northwestern Allegany County . MD 36 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from I @-@ 68 to US 40 Alternate in Frostburg and from MD 35 at Corriganville to US 40 Alternate in Cumberland .
= = = Georges Creek Road = = =
MD 36 begins at the West Virginia Route 46 ( WV 46 ) bridge in Westernport and runs northeast across western Allegany County as a two @-@ lane road named Georges Creek Road , named for Georges Creek , a Potomac River tributary which the road parallels . The speed limit for most of the length between Westernport and Lonaconing is 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A short distance outside Westernport city limits , MD 36 intersects MD 937 , an old alignment of MD 36 . Near Barton , MD 36 intersects MD 935 , which is the old alignment of MD 36 through Barton . MD 36 bypasses Barton , climbing the hillside above the Georges Creek Valley before descending back into the valley as it approaches Lonaconing . MD 935 returns to MD 36 south of Lonaconing , with its northern terminus at MD 36 .
As the road enters Lonaconing , it narrows and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) , increasing to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) after it travels through Lonaconing . MD 36 passes through Lonaconing as Main Street , and it intersects MD 657 near the center of Lonaconing . Along Main Street in Lonaconing is the Lonaconing Iron Furnace , a historic blast furnace which operated in the early 19th century .
MD 36 then continues toward Midland . At Midland , there is a sharp curve in the road , and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . Along this curve , MD 36 intersects Church Street , which connects to MD 936 , the old alignment of MD 36 between Midland and Frostburg . The new alignment of MD 36 proceeds northeast , passing near Vale Summit , where it intersects MD 55 .
North of the MD 55 intersection , MD 36 meets Interstate 68 at a diamond interchange at exit 34 . Near this interchange is God 's Ark of Safety , a church famous for its attempt to build a replica of Noah 's Ark . Between Midland and Frostburg , the speed limit is again 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and there is a short section near the Interstate 68 interchange where MD 36 expands to four lanes . Upon entering Frostburg , MD 36 joins U.S. Route 40 Alternate as Main Street . MD 36 follows Main Street westward through Frostburg , meeting the northern terminus of MD 936 at Grant Street . At Depot Street , near the center of Frostburg , MD 36 connects to the western depot of the Western Maryland Scenic Railroad . At the intersection with Water Street , MD 36 leaves U.S. Route 40 Alternate , and upon leaving Frostburg city limits its name changes to Mount Savage Road .
= = = Mount Savage Road = = =
After leaving Frostburg , MD 36 is known as Mount Savage Road , as it travels eastward , perpendicular to its signed direction , toward Mount Savage . North of Eckhart Mines , MD 36 meets MD 638 , which connects MD 36 to U.S. Route 40 Alternate in Eckhart Mines . The road between Frostburg and Mount Savage is particularly curvy , and includes several hairpin turns near Frostburg . The speed limit on this section of the road is 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) .
As the road enters Mount Savage , it passes by the Mount Savage Castle , a Scottish @-@ style castle built in 1840 , which currently operates as a bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast . In Mount Savage , the route narrows as it follows Main Street , and the road is frequently obstructed by parked cars , making it difficult for two cars to pass by each other . East of Mount Savage , the route widens and its speed limit gradually increases to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) .
In Barrelville , MD 36 intersects MD 47 , which connects it with PA 160 in Somerset County . From its intersection with MD 47 to its terminus at Cumberland , MD 36 follows newer alignments , with the old alignments being designated MD 831 . At Corriganville , MD 36 intersects MD 35 , which connects it with PA 96 in Bedford County . MD 36 ends at U.S. Route 40 Alternate at the Narrows near Cumberland .
= = History = =
MD 36 passes through the Georges Creek Valley , which has a long history of coal mining . In recognition of this , the MDSHA has designated MD 36 as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . Coal mining was a major industry in western Maryland in the 19th century , with railroads being the major route connecting the coal mines to markets outside the Georges Creek Valley . Deep mining , which was the primary mining method used in western Maryland , declined in use after World War II , replaced primarily by surface mining . Although Maryland coal production is now only a small fraction of total U.S. coal production , coal from the Georges Creek Valley is used to power the AES Warrior Run power plant in Cumberland .
MD 36 was assigned a route number before 1927 , earlier than most of the other Maryland state highways . The original alignment of MD 36 in southern Allegany County closely paralleled the Georges Creek Railroad . Later realignments have shifted MD 36 away from the railroad in several locations , but three crossings remain : one north of Lonaconing , one south of Lonaconing near the MD 935 intersection , and a third crossing near Westernport .
Over the years , multiple new alignments of MD 36 have been built for various reasons , such as to smooth out curves in the road . Several of the old alignments have been assigned route numbers of their own . The southernmost of these is MD 937 , which consists of the old alignment through Westernport . Prior to the construction of the bridge connecting MD 36 to WV 46 , MD 937 was the alignment of MD 36 through Westernport , ending at MD 135 . In Barton , MD 935 carries the old alignment of MD 36 . The longest of the old alignment sections is MD 936 , which runs from Midland to Frostburg , and was bypassed in the 1970s with a new alignment of MD 36 following part of MD 55 and connecting to Interstate 68 . Prior to this change , MD 55 ended in Midland ; it has since been truncated to its current terminus at Vale Summit .
North of Frostburg , several old alignments are designated as MD 831 , though these segments of road are not signed . Among these segments of road are Kriegbaum Road ( designated as MD 831C ) , and Old Mount Savage Road ( designated as MD 831A ) . Kriegbaum Road splits from MD 36 west of Corriganville and runs through Corriganville , returning to MD 36 east of the town . Old Mount Savage Road intersects MD 36 west of the Cumberland Narrows , and runs southward to intersect U.S. Route 40 Alternate near its current intersection with MD 36 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
= Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( U.S. game show ) =
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( often informally called Millionaire ) is an American television game show based on the same @-@ titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies . The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of U.S. $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by answering a series of multiple @-@ choice questions of increasing difficulty ( although , for a time , most of the questions were of random difficulty ) . The program has endured as one of the longest @-@ running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? franchise .
The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16 , 1999 to June 27 , 2002 , and was hosted by Regis Philbin . The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16 , 2002 , and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31 , 2013 . Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 – 14 season , Terry Crews in the following season ( 2014 – 15 ) , and Chris Harrison , who began hosting on September 14 , 2015 .
As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize , the show made television history by becoming one of the highest @-@ rated game shows in the history of American television . The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards , and TV Guide ranked it # 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Core rules = = =
At its core , the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen ( originally fifteen ) consecutive multiple @-@ choice questions . The questions are of increasing difficulty , except in the 2010 – 15 format overhaul , where the contestants were faced with fourteen questions of random difficulty , distributed into two rounds . Each question is worth a specified amount of money ; the amounts are cumulative in the first round , but not in the second . If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question , their game is over and their winnings are reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ one questions , $ 5 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ two questions , and $ 50 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ three questions . However , the contestant has the option of " walking away " without giving an answer after being presented with a question , in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received . With the exception of the shuffle format , upon correctly answering questions five and ten , contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level . If the contestant gives an incorrect answer , their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved . Since 2015 , if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five , he or she leaves with $ 1 @,@ 000 . Prior to the shuffle format , a contestant left with nothing if he or she answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone . In the shuffle format era , contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 in round one and $ 25 @,@ 000 in round two .
= = = Format history = = =
On the ABC versions , ten contestants competed in a preliminary " Fastest Finger " round for the right to play the main game on each episode . The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order . Using keys on their podiums , each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time , with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds . If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game , the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game . In the event of a tie between two or more contestants , those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie . If all contestants answered the question incorrectly , the round was repeated with another question . Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002 .
From 2008 to 2010 , time limits were used for each question . Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five , 30 seconds each for questions six through ten , and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen . Unused time was banked , and if the contestant reached question fifteen , he or she was given 45 seconds plus however much time that was previously banked . If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer , the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point . During the clock format era , a " Millionaire Menu " was introduced , in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game , and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference . Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight . Most of the episodes in season eight ( from the " Million Dollar Tournament of Ten " onward ) featured special " Celebrity Questions " that were mid @-@ level in monetary value , and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions .
When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13 , 2010 , the format was overhauled . Ten questions were asked in round one , each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game ; in this case , the difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value . The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to " jump " the question . The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank , for a maximum total of $ 68 @,@ 600 . A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank , or could walk without completing the round with half that amount ( e.g. , a contestant who banked $ 30 @,@ 000 would leave with $ 15 @,@ 000 ) . After completing round one , the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay ( the " Classic Millionaire " round ) , in which four non @-@ categorized questions were played for set non @-@ cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point , as in the older formats . The shuffle format changes , including the randomization and double @-@ round distribution of questions , were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season .
From 2011 to 2014 , certain weeks of the show were designated as " Double Your Money " weeks . In those , a certain question in round one was designated the " Double Money Question . " When a contestant answered such a question correctly , the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank , giving him or her the possibility of adding up to a maximum of $ 50 @,@ 000 to his or her bank on a single question ; under these special rules , it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $ 93 @,@ 600 in their bank . However , when a contestant " jumped " the question , they forfeited the doubled money .
In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains , a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $ 1 @,@ 000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant ( or $ 2 @,@ 000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode ) . Regardless of the outcome , the audience member receives a special prize . In seasons nine and ten , the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game ; as of season eleven , audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format . In season thirteen , which gave this game the name " Thousandaire " , the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack , but was instead a separate question . Season thirteen also introduced two additional audience games : " Team Millionaire " , where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $ 500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money ; and " Fastest Feet " , a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $ 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = Payout structure = = =
For the first five years of the U.S. Millionaire 's existence , the payout structure was as follows : first going from $ 100 to $ 300 in increments of $ 100 , then from $ 500 to $ 64 @,@ 000 with the dollar value for each new question being double that of the one before it , and finally from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar values doubling for each new question . At the start of the third syndicated season the values for questions ten through twelve were changed from $ 32 @,@ 000 , $ 64 @,@ 000 , and $ 1
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it were a page from the fake title to the supplemental piece .
In " Marooned " , a young mariner ( called " The Sea Captain " ) journeys to warn his home town of the coming of the Black Freighter , after he survives the destruction of his own ship . He uses the bodies of his dead shipmates as a makeshift raft . When he finally returns home , believing it to be already under the occupation of the Black Freighter 's crew , he kills an innocent couple and then attacks his own wife in their darkened home , mistaking her for a pirate . After realizing what he has done , he returns to the sea shore , where he finds that the Black Freighter has not come to claim the town ; it has come to claim him . He swims out to sea and climbs aboard the ship . According to Richard Reynold , the mariner is " forced by the urgency of his mission to shed one inhibition after another . " Just like Adrian Veidt , he " hopes to stave off disaster by using the dead bodies of his former comrades as a means of reaching his goal " . Moore stated that the story of The Black Freighter ends up specifically describing " the story of Adrian Veidt " and that it can also be used as a counterpoint to other parts of the story , such as Rorschach 's capture and Dr. Manhattan 's self @-@ exile on Mars .
= = = Symbols and imagery = = =
Moore named William S. Burroughs as one of his main influences during the conception of Watchmen . He admired Burroughs ' use of " repeated symbols that would become laden with meaning " in Burroughs ' only comic strip , " The Unspeakable Mr. Hart " , which appeared in the British underground magazine Cyclops . Not every intertextual link in the series was planned by Moore , who remarked that " there 's stuff in there Dave had put in that even I only noticed on the sixth or seventh read " , while other " things ... turned up in there by accident . "
A stained smiley face is a recurring image in the story , appearing in many forms . In The System of Comics , Thierry Groensteen described the symbol as a recurring motif that produces " rhyme and remarkable configurations " by appearing in key segments of Watchmen , notably the first and last pages of the series - spattered with blood on the first , and sauce from a hamburger on the last . Groensteen cites it as one form of the circle shape that appears throughout the story , as a " recurrent geometric motif " and due to its symbolic connotations . Gibbons created a smiley face badge as an element of The Comedian 's costume in order to " lighten " the overall design , later adding a splash of blood to the badge to imply his murder . Gibbons said the creators came to regard the blood @-@ stained smiley face as " a symbol for the whole series " , noting its resemblance to the Doomsday Clock ticking up to midnight . Moore drew inspiration from psychological tests of behaviorism , explaining that the tests had presented the face as " a symbol of complete innocence " . With the addition of a blood splash over the eye , the face 's meaning was altered to become simultaneously radical and simple enough for the first issue 's cover to avoid human detail . Although most evocations of the central image were created on purpose , others were coincidental . Moore mentioned in particular that " the little plugs on the spark hydrants , if you turn them upside down , you discover a little smiley face " .
Other symbols , images and allusion that appeared throughout the series often emerged unexpectedly . Moore mentioned that " [ t ] he whole thing with Watchmen has just been loads of these little bits of synchronicity popping up all over the place " . Gibbons noted an unintended theme was contrasting the mundane and the romantic , citing the separate sex scenes between Nite Owl and Silk Spectre on his couch and then high in the sky on Nite Owl 's airship . In a book of the craters and boulders of Mars , Gibbons discovered a photograph of the Galle crater , which resembles a happy face , which they worked into an issue . Moore said , " We found a lot of these things started to generate themselves as if by magic " , in particular citing an occasion where they decided to name a lock company the " Gordian Knot Lock Company " .
= = Themes = =
The initial premise for the series was to examine what superheroes would be like " in a credible , real world " . As the story became more complex , Moore said Watchmen became about " power and about the idea of the superman manifest within society . " The title of the series refers to the question " Who watches the watchmen ? " , famously posed by the Roman satirist Juvenal ( as " Quis custodiet ipsos custodes ? " ) , although Moore was not aware of the phrase 's classical origins until Harlan Ellison informed him about them . Moore commented in 1987 , " In the context of Watchmen , that fits . ' They 're watching out for us , who 's watching out for them ? ' " The writer stated in the introduction to the Graphitti hardcover of Watchmen that while writing the series he was able to purge himself of his nostalgia for superheroes , and instead he found an interest in real human beings .
Bradford Wright described Watchmen as " Moore 's obituary for the concept of heroes in general and superheroes in particular . " Putting the story in a contemporary sociological context , Wright wrote that the characters of Watchmen were Moore 's " admonition to those who trusted in ' heroes ' and leaders to guard the world 's fate . " He added that to place faith in such icons was to give up personal responsibility to " the Reagans , Thatchers , and other ' Watchmen ' of the world who supposed to ' rescue ' us and perhaps lay waste to the planet in the process " . Moore specifically stated in 1986 that he was writing Watchmen to be " not anti @-@ Americanism , [ but ] anti @-@ Reaganism " , specifically believing that " at the moment a certain part of Reagan 's America isn 't scared . They think they 're invulnerable . " Before the series premiered , Gibbons stated " There 's no overt political message at all . It 's a fantasy extrapolation of what might happen and if people can see things in it that apply to the real America , then they 're reading it into the comic .... " While Moore wanted to write about " power politics " and the " worrying " times he lived in , he stated the reason that the story was set in an alternate reality was because he was worried that readers would " switch off " if he attacked a leader they admired . Moore stated in 1986 that he " was consciously trying to do something that would make people feel uneasy . "
Citing Watchmen as the point where the comic book medium " came of age " , Iain Thomson wrote in his essay " Deconstructing the Hero " that the story accomplished this by " developing its heroes precisely in order to deconstruct the very idea of the hero and so encouraging us to reflect upon its significance from the many different angles of the shards left lying on the ground " . Thomson stated that the heroes in Watchmen almost all share a nihilistic outlook , and that Moore presents this outlook " as the simple , unvarnished truth " to " deconstruct the would @-@ be hero 's ultimate motivation , namely , to provide a secular salvation and so attain a mortal immortality " . He wrote that the story " develops its heroes precisely in order to ask us if we would not in fact be better off without heroes " . Thomson added that the story 's deconstruction of the hero concept " suggests that perhaps the time for heroes has passed " , which he feels distinguishes " this postmodern work " from the deconstructions of the hero in the existentialism movement . Richard Reynolds states that without any supervillains in the story , the superheroes of Watchmen are forced to confront " more intangible social and moral concerns " , adding that this removes the superhero concept from the normal narrative expectations of the genre . Reynolds concludes that the series ' ironic self @-@ awareness of the genre " all mark out Watchmen either as the last key superhero text , or the first in a new maturity of the genre " .
Geoff Klock eschewed the term " deconstruction " in favor of describing Watchmen as a " revisionary superhero narrative . " He considers Watchmen and Frank Miller 's Batman : The Dark Knight Returns to be " the first instances ... of [ a ] new kind of comic book ... a first phase of development , the transition of the superhero from fantasy to literature . " He elaborates by noting that " Alan Moore 's realism ... performs a kenosis towards comic book history ... [ which ] does not ennoble and empower his characters ... Rather , it sends a wave of disruption back through superhero history ... devalue [ ing ] one of the basic superhero conventions by placing his masked crime fighters in a realistic world " . First and foremost , " Moore 's exploration of the [ often sexual ] motives for costumed crimefighting sheds a disturbing light on past superhero stories , and forces the reader to reevaluate — to revision — every superhero in terms of Moore 's kenosis — his emptying out of the tradition . " Klock relates the title to the quote by Juvenal to highlight the problem of controlling those who hold power and quoted repeatedly within the work itself . The deconstructive nature of Watchmen is , Klock notes , played out on the page also as , " [ l ] ike Alan Moore 's kenosis , [ Veidt ] must destroy , then reconstruct , in order to build ' a unity which would survive him . ' "
Moore has expressed dismay that " [ t ] he gritty , deconstructivist postmodern superhero comic , as exemplified by Watchmen ... became a genre " . He said in 2003 that " to some degree there has been , in the 15 years since Watchmen , an awful lot of the comics field devoted to these grim , pessimistic , nasty , violent stories which kind of use Watchmen to validate what are , in effect , often just some very nasty stories that don 't have a lot to recommend them . " Gibbons said that while readers " were left with the idea that it was a grim and gritty kind of thing " , he said in his view the series was " a wonderful celebration of superheroes as much as anything else . "
= = Publication and reception = =
Watchmen was first mentioned publicly in the 1985 Amazing Heroes Preview . When Moore and Gibbons turned in the first issue of their series to DC , Gibbons recalled , " What really clinched it ... was [ writer / artist ] Howard Chaykin , who doesn 't give praise lightly , and who came up and said , ' Dave what you 've done on Watchmen is fuckin ' A. ' " Speaking in 1986 , Moore said , " DC backed us all the way ... and have been really supportive about even the most graphic excesses . " To promote the series , DC Comics released a limited @-@ edition badge ( " button " ) display card set , featuring characters and images from the series . Ten thousand sets of the four badges , including a replica of the blood @-@ stained smiley face badge worn by the Comedian in the story , were released and sold . Mayfair Games introduced a Watchmen module for its DC Heroes Role @-@ playing Game series that was released before the series concluded . The module , which was endorsed by Moore , adds details to the series ' backstory by portraying events that occurred in 1966 .
Watchmen was published in single @-@ issue form over the course of 1986 and 1987 . The limited series was a commercial success , and its sales helped DC Comics briefly overtake its competitor Marvel Comics in the comic book direct market . The series ' publishing schedule ran into delays because it was scheduled with three issues completed instead of the six editor Len Wein believed were necessary . Further delays were caused when later issues each took more than a month to complete . One contemporaneous report noted that although DC solicited issue # 12 for publication in April 1987 , it became apparent " it won 't debut until July or August " .
After the series concluded , the individual issues were collected and sold in trade paperback form . Along with Frank Miller 's 1986 Batman : The Dark Knight Returns miniseries , Watchmen was marketed as a " graphic novel " , a term that allowed DC and other publishers to sell similar comic book collections in a way that associated them with novels and dissociated them from comics . As a result of the publicity given to the books like the Watchmen trade in 1987 , bookstore and public libraries began to devote special shelves to them . Subsequently , new comics series were commissioned on the basis of reprinting them in a collected form for these markets .
Watchmen received critical praise , both inside and outside of the comics industry . Time magazine , which noted that the series was " by common assent the best of breed " of the new wave of comics published at the time , praised Watchmen as " a superlative feat of imagination , combining sci @-@ fi , political satire , knowing evocations of comics past and bold reworkings of current graphic formats into a dysutopian [ sic ] mystery story . " In 1988 , Watchmen received a Hugo Award in the Other Forms category .
= = = Ownership disputes = = =
Disagreements about the ownership of the story ultimately led Moore to sever ties with DC Comics . Not wanting to work under a work for hire arrangement , Moore and Gibbons had a reversion clause in their contract for Watchmen . Speaking at the 1985 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Moore said , " The way it works , if I understand it , is that DC owns it for the time they 're publishing it , and then it reverts to Dave and me , so we can make all the money from the Slurpee cups . " For Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons received eight percent of the series ' earnings . Moore explained in 1986 that his understanding was that when " DC have not used the characters for a year , they 're ours . " Both Moore and Gibbons said DC paid them " a substantial amount of money " to retain the rights . Moore added , " So basically they 're not ours , but if DC is working with the characters in our interests then they might as well be . On the other hand , if the characters have outlived their natural life span and DC doesn 't want to do anything with them , then after a year we 've got them and we can do what we want with them , which I 'm perfectly happy with . "
Moore said he left DC in 1989 due to the language in his contracts for Watchmen and his V for Vendetta series with artist David Lloyd . Moore felt the reversion clauses were ultimately meaningless , because DC did not intend to let the publications go out of print . He told The New York Times in 2006 , " I said , ' Fair enough , ' [ ... ] ' You have managed to successfully swindle me , and so I will never work for you again . ' " In 2000 , Moore publicly distanced himself from DC 's plans for a 15th anniversary Watchmen hardcover release as well as a proposed line of action figures from DC Direct . While DC wanted to mend its relationship with the writer , Moore felt the company was not treating him fairly in regards to his America 's Best Comics imprint ( launched under the WildStorm comic imprint , which was bought by DC in 1998 ; Moore was promised no direct interference by DC as part of the arrangement ) . Moore added , " As far as I 'm concerned , the 15th anniversary of Watchmen is purely a 15th Anniversary of when DC managed to take the Watchmen property from me and Dave [ Gibbons ] . " Soon afterward , DC Direct cancelled the Watchmen action @-@ figure line , despite the company having displayed prototypes at the 2000 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
= = Prequel projects = =
Moore stated in 1985 that if the limited series was well @-@ received , he and Gibbons would possibly create a 12 @-@ issue prequel series called Minutemen featuring the 1940s superhero group from the story . DC offered Moore and Gibbons chances to publish prequels to the series , such as Rorschach 's Journal or The Comedian 's Vietnam War Diary , as well as hinting at the possibility of other authors using the same universe . Tales of the Comedian 's Vietnam War experiences were floated because The ' Nam was popular at the time , while another suggestion was , according to Gibbons , for a " Nite Owl / Rorschach team " ( in the manner of Randall and Hopkirk ( Deceased ) ) . Neither man felt the stories would have gone anywhere , with Moore particularly adamant that DC not go forward with stories by other individuals . Gibbons was more attracted to the idea of a Minutemen series , because it would have " [ paid ] homage to the simplicity and unsophisticated nature of Golden Age comic books — with the added dramatic interest that it would be a story whose conclusion is already known . It would be , perhaps , interesting to see how we got to the conclusion . "
In 2010 , Moore told Wired that DC offered him the rights to Watchmen back , if he would agree to prequel and sequel projects . Moore said that " if they said that 10 years ago , when I asked them for that , then yeah it might have worked ... But these days I don 't want Watchmen back . Certainly , I don 't want it back under those kinds of terms . " DC Comics co @-@ publishers Dan DiDio and Jim Lee responded , " DC Comics would only revisit these iconic characters if the creative vision of any proposed new stories matched the quality set by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons nearly 25 years ago , and our first discussion on any of this would naturally be with the creators themselves . " Following months of rumors about a potential Watchmen follow @-@ up project , in February 2012 DC announced it was publishing seven prequel series under the " Before Watchmen " banner . Among the creators involved are writers J. Michael Straczynski , Brian Azzarello , Darwyn Cooke , and Len Wein , and artists Lee Bermejo , J. G. Jones , Adam Hughes , Andy Kubert , Joe Kubert , and Amanda Conner . Though Moore has no involvement , Gibbons gave the project his blessing .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film adaptation = = =
There have been numerous attempts to make a film version of Watchmen since 1986 , when producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver acquired film rights to the series for 20th Century Fox . Fox asked Alan Moore to write a screenplay based on his story , but he declined , so the studio enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm . Hamm took the liberty of re @-@ writing Watchmen 's complicated ending into a " more manageable " conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox . Fox put the project into turnaround in 1991 , and the project was moved to Warner Bros. , where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct and Charles McKeown to rewrite it . They used the character Rorschach 's diary as a voice @-@ over and restored scenes from the comic book that Hamm had removed . Gilliam and Silver were only able to raise $ 25 million for the film ( a quarter of the necessary budget ) because their previous films had gone over budget . Gilliam abandoned the project because he decided that Watchmen would have been unfilmable . " Reducing [ the story ] to a two or two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film [ ... ] seemed to me to take away the essence of what Watchmen is about . " he said . After Warner Bros. dropped the project , Gordon invited Gilliam back to helm the film independently . The director again declined , believing that the comic book would be better directed as a five @-@ hour miniseries .
In October 2001 , Gordon partnered with Lloyd Levin and Universal Studios , hiring David Hayter to write and direct . Hayter and the producers left Universal due to creative differences , and Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios . The project did not hold together at Revolution Studios and subsequently fell apart . In July 2004 , it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen , and they attached Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter 's script . Producers Gordon and Levin remained attached , collaborating with Aronofsky 's producing partner , Eric Watson . Aronofsky left to focus on The Fountain and was replaced by Paul Greengrass . Ultimately , Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround .
In October 2005 , Gordon and Levin met with Warner Bros. to develop the film there again . Impressed with Zack Snyder 's work on 300 , Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen . Screenwriter Alex Tse drew from his favorite elements of Hayter 's script , but also returned it to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic . Similar to his approach to 300 , Snyder used the comic book panel @-@ grid as a storyboard and opted to shoot the entire film using live @-@ action sets instead of green screens . He extended the fight scenes , and added a subplot about energy resources to make the film more topical . Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic , Snyder intended Nite Owl to look scarier , and made Ozymandias ' armor into a parody of the rubber muscle suits from the 1997 superhero film Batman & Robin . After the trailer to the film premiered in July 2008 , DC Comics president Paul Levitz said that the company had to print more than 900 @,@ 000 copies of Watchmen trade collection to meet the additional demand for the book that the advertising campaign had generated , with the total annual print run expected to be over one million copies . While 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit to block the film 's release , the studios eventually settled , with Warner agreeing to give Fox 8 @.@ 5 percent of the film 's worldwide gross , including from sequels and spin @-@ offs in return . The film was released to theaters in March 2009 .
The Tales of the Black Freighter segments was adapted as a direct @-@ to @-@ video animated feature to be released that same month . Gerard Butler , who starred in 300 , voices the Captain in the film . The film itself was released on DVD four months after Tales of the Black Freighter , and in November 2009 , a four @-@ disc set was released as the " Ultimate Cut " with the animated film edited back into the main picture . Len Wein , the comic 's editor , wrote a video game prequel entitled Watchmen : The End Is Nigh .
Dave Gibbons became an adviser on Snyder 's film , but Moore has refused to have his name attached to any film adaptations of his work . Moore has stated he has no interest in seeing Snyder 's adaptation ; he told Entertainment Weekly in 2008 , " There are things that we did with Watchmen that could only work in a comic , and were indeed designed to show off things that other media can 't " . While Moore believes that David Hayter 's screenplay was " as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen " , he asserted he did not intend to see the film if it were made .
= = = Motion comic = = =
In 2008 , Warner Bros. Entertainment released Watchmen Motion Comics , a series of narrated animations of the original comic book . The first chapter was released for purchase in the summer of 2008 on digital video stores , such as iTunes Store . A DVD compiling the full motion comic series was released in March 2009 .
= = = TV series = = =
According to Collider.com , HBO is meeting with Snyder to discuss a potential Watchmen TV series .
= = Legacy = =
A critical and commercial success , Watchmen is highly regarded in the comics industry and is frequently considered by several critics and reviewers as comics ' greatest series and graphic novel . In time , the series has also become one of the best @-@ selling graphic novels ever published . Watchmen was the only graphic novel to appear on Time 's 2005 " All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Novels " list , where Time critic Lev Grossman described the story as " a heart @-@ pounding , heartbreaking read and a watershed in the evolution of a young medium . " It later appeared on Time 's 2009 " Top 10 Graphic Novels " list , where Grossman further praised Watchmen , proclaiming " It ’ s way beyond cliché at this point to call Watchmen the greatest superhero comic ever written @-@ slash @-@ drawn . But it ’ s true . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly placed Watchmen at number 13 on its list of the best 50 novels printed in the last 25 years , describing it as " The greatest superhero story ever told and proof that comics are capable of smart , emotionally resonant narratives worthy of the label ' literature ' . " The Comics Journal , however , ranked Watchmen at number 91 on its list of the Top 100 English @-@ language comics of the 20th century .
In Art of the Comic Book : An Aesthetic History , Robert Harvey wrote that , with Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons " had demonstrated as never before the capacity of the [ comic book ] medium to tell a sophisticated story that could be engineered only in comics " . In his review of the Absolute Edition of the collection , Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times wrote that the dark legacy of Watchmen , " one that Moore almost certainly never intended , whose DNA is encoded in the increasingly black inks and bleak storylines that have become the essential elements of the contemporary superhero comic book , " is " a domain he has largely ceded to writers and artists who share his fascination with brutality but not his interest in its consequences , his eagerness to tear down old boundaries but not his drive to find new ones . " Alan Moore himself said his intentions with works like Marvelman and Watchmen were to liberate comics and open them up to new and fresh ideas , thus creating more diversity in the comics world by showing the industry what could be done with already existing concepts . Instead it had the opposite effect , causing the superhero comic to end
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s to squeaking bass drum pedals , is important in many musical pursuits , but noise is also used creatively in many ways , and in some way in nearly all genres .
= = Definition of noise = =
In conventional musical practices sounds that are considered unmusical tend to be treated as noise . Oscillations and Waves defines noise as irregular vibrations of an object , in contrast to the periodical , patterned structure of music . More broadly , electrical engineering professor Bart Kosko in the introductory chapter of his book Noise defines noise as a " signal we don 't like . " Paul Hegarty , a lecturer and noise musician , likewise assigns a subjective value to noise , writing that " noise is a judgment , a social one , based on unacceptability , the breaking of norms and a fear of violence . " Composer and music educator R. Murray Schafer divided noise into four categories : Unwanted noise , unmusical sound , any loud system , and a disturbance in any signaling system .
In regard to what is noise as opposed to music , Robert Fink in The Origin of Music : A Theory of the Universal Development of Music claims that while cultural theories view the difference between noise and music as purely the result of social forces , habit , and custom , " everywhere in history we see man making some selections of some sounds as noise , certain other sounds as music , and in the overall development of all cultures , this distinction is made around the same sounds . " However , musicologist Jean @-@ Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous , explaining that " The border between music and noise is always culturally defined — which implies that , even within a single society , this border does not always pass through the same place ; in short , there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be . "
= = Noise as a feature of music = =
Musical tones produced by the human voice and all acoustical musical instruments incorporate noises in varying degrees . Most consonants in human speech ( e.g. , the sounds of f , v , s , z , both voiced and unvoiced th , Scottish and German ch ) are characterised by distinctive noises , and even vowels are not entirely noise free . Wind instruments include the whizzing or hissing sounds of air breaking against the edges of the mouthpiece , while bowed instruments produce audible rubbing noises that contribute , when the instrument is poor or the player unskilful , to what is perceived as a poor tone . When they are not excessive , listeners " make themselves deaf " to these noises by ignoring them .
= = = Unpitched percussion = = =
Many unpitched percussion instruments , such as the snare drum or maracas , make use of the presence of random sounds or noise to produce a sound without any perceived pitch . See timbre . Unpitched percussion is typically used to maintain a rhythm or to provide accents , and its sounds are unrelated to the melody and harmony of the music . Within the orchestra unpitched percussion is termed auxiliary percussion , and this subsection of the percussion section includes all unpitched instruments of the orchestra no matter how they are played , for example the pea whistle and siren .
= = = Traditional music = = =
= = = = Antiquity = = = =
Although percussion instruments were generally rather unimportant in ancient Greek music , two exceptions were in dance music and ritual music of orgiastic cults . The former required instruments providing a sharply defined rhythm , particularly krotala ( clappers with a dry , nonresonant sound ) and kymbala ( similar to finger @-@ cymbals ) . The cult rituals required more exciting noises , such as those produced by drums , cymbals , jingles , and the rhombos ( bull @-@ roarer ) , which produced a demonic roaring noise particularly important to the ceremonies of the priests of Cybele . Athenaeus ( The Deipnosophists xiv.38 ) quotes a passage from a now @-@ lost play , Semele , by Diogenes the Tragedian , describing an all @-@ percussion accompaniment to some of these rites :
And now I hear the turban @-@ wearing women ,
Votaries of th ' Asiatic Cybele ,
The wealthy Phrygians ' daughters , loudly sounding
With drums , and rhombs , and brazen @-@ clashing cymbals ,
Their hands in concert striking on each other ,
Pour forth a wise and healing hymn to the gods .
An altogether darker picture of the function of this noise music is painted by Livy in Ab urbe condita xxxix.8 – 10 , written in the late first century BC . He describes " a Greek of mean condition ... a low operator in sacrifices , and a soothsayer ... a teacher of secret mysteries " who imported to Etruria and then to Rome a Dionysian cult which attracted a large following . All manner of debaucheries were practised by this cult , including rape and
secret murders ... [ where ] the bodies could not even be found for burial . Many of their audacious deeds were brought about by treachery , but most of them by force , and this force was concealed by loud shouting , and the noise of drums and cymbals , so that none of the cries uttered by the persons suffering violation or murder could be heard abroad .
= = = = Polynesia = = = =
A Tahitian traditional dance genre dating back to before the first contact with European explorers is ʻōteʻa , danced by a group of men accompanied solely by a drum ensemble . The drums consist of a slit @-@ log drum called tō ‘ ere ( which provides the main rhythmic pattern ) , a single @-@ headed upright drum called fa ‘ atete , a single @-@ headed hand drum called pahu tupa ‘ i rima , and a double @-@ headed bass drum called tariparau .
= = = = Asia = = = =
In Shaanxi in the north of China , drum ensembles accompany yangge dance , and in the Tianjin area there are ritual percussion ensembles such as the Fagu hui Dharma @-@ drumming associations , often consisting of dozens of musicians . In Korea , a style of folk music called Nongak ( farmers ' music ) or pungmul has been performed for many hundred years , both by local players and by professional touring bands at concerts and festivals . It is loud music meant for outdoor performance , played on percussion instruments such as the drums called janggu and puk , and the gongs ching and kkwaenggwari . It originated in simple work rhythms to assist repetitive tasks carried out by field workers .
South Asian music places a special emphasis on drumming , which is freed from the primary time @-@ keeping function of drumming found in other part of the world . In North India , secular processional bands play an important role in civic festival parades and the bārāt processions leading a groom 's wedding party to the bride 's home or the hall where a wedding is held . These bands vary in makeup , depending on the means of the families employing them and according to changing fashions over time , but the core instrumentation is a small group of percussionists , usually playing a frame drum ( ḍaphalā ) , a gong , and a pair of kettledrums ( nagāṛā ) . Better @-@ off families will add shawms ( shehnai ) to the percussion , while the most affluent who also prefer a more modern or fashionable image may replace the traditional ensemble with a brass band . The Karnatic music of southern India includes a tradition of instrumental temple music in the state of Kerala , called kṣētram vādyam . It includes three main genres , all focussed on rhythm and featuring unpitched percussion . Thayambaka in particular is a virtuoso genre for unpitched percussion only : a solo double @-@ headed cylindrical drum called chenda , played with a pair of sticks , and accompanied by other chenda and elathalam ( pairs of cymbals ) . The other two genres , panchavadyam and pandi melam add wind instruments to the ensemble , but only as accompaniment to the primary drums and cymbals . A panchavadyam piece typically lasts about an hour , while a pandi melam performance may be as long as four hours .
= = = = Turkey = = = =
The Turkish janissaries military corps had included since the 14th century bands called mehter or mehterân which , like many other earlier military bands in Asia featured a high proportion of drums , cymbals , and gongs , along with trumpets and shawms . The high level of noise was pertinent to their function of playing on the battlefield to inspire the soldiers . The focus in these bands was on percussion . A full mehterân could include several bass drums , multiple pairs of cymbals , small kettledrums , triangles , tambourines , and one or more Turkish crescents .
= = = = Europe = = = =
Through Turkish ambassadorial visits and other contacts , Europeans gained a fascination with the " barbarous " , noisy sound of these bands , and a number of European courts established " Turkish " military ensembles in the late @-@ 17th and early 18th centuries . The music played by these ensembles , however , were not authentically Turkish music , but rather compositions in the prevalent European manner . The general enthusiasm quickly spread to opera and concert orchestras , where the combination of bass drum , cymbals , tambourines , and triangles were collectively referred to as " Turkish music " . The best @-@ known examples include Haydn 's Symphony No. 100 , which acquired its nickname , " The Military " , from its use of these instruments , and three of Beethoven 's works : the " alla marcia " section from the finale of his Symphony No. 9 ( an early sketch reads : " end of the Symphony with Turkish music " ) , his " Wellington 's Victory " — or Battle Symphony — with picturesque sound effects ( the bass drums are designated as " cannons " , side drums represent opposing troops of soldiers , and ratchets the sound of rifle fire ) , and the " Turkish March " ( with the expected bass drum , cymbals , and triangle ) and the " Chorus of Dervishes " from his incidental music to The Ruins of Athens , where he calls for the use of every available noisy instrument : castanets , cymbals , and so forth . By the end of the 18th century , the batterie turque had become so fashionable that keyboard instruments were fitted with devices to simulate the bass drum ( a mallet with a padded head hitting the back of the sounding board ) , cymbals ( strips of brass striking the lower strings ) , and the triangle and bells ( small metal objects struck by rods ) . Even when percussion instruments were not actually employed , certain alla turca " tricks " were used to imitate these percussive effects . Examples include the " Rondo alla turca " from Mozart 's Piano Sonata , K. 331 , and part of the finale of his Violin Concerto , K. 219 .
= = = = = Harpsichord , piano , and organ = = = = =
At about the same time that " Turkish music " was coming into vogue in Europe , a fashion for programmatic keyboard music opened the way for the introduction of another kind of noise in the form of the keyboard cluster , played with the fist , flat of the hand , forearm , or even an auxiliary object placed on the keyboard . On the harpsichord and piano , this device was found mainly in " battle " pieces , where it was used to represent cannon fire . The earliest instance was by Jean @-@ François Dandrieu , in Les Caractères de la guerre ( 1724 ) , and for the next hundred years it remained predominantly a French feature , with examples by Michel Corrette ( La Victoire d 'un combat naval , remportée par une frégate contre plusieurs corsaires réunis , 1780 ) , Claude @-@ Bénigne Balbastre ( March des Marseillois , 1793 ) , Pierre Antoine César ( La Battaille de Gemmap , ou la prise de Mons , ca . 1794 ) , and Jacques @-@ Marie Beauvarlet @-@ Charpentier ( Battaille d 'Austerlitz , 1805 ) . In 1800 , Bernard Viguerie introduced the sound to chamber music , in the keyboard part of a piano trio titled La Bataille de Maringo , pièce militaire et historique . The last time this pianistic " cannon " effect was used before the 20th century was in 1861 , in a depiction of the then @-@ recent The Battle of Manassas in a piece by the black American piano virtuoso " Blind Tom " Bethune , a piece that also feature vocalised sound @-@ effect noises .
Clusters were also used on the organ , where they proved more versatile ( or their composers more imaginative ) . Their most frequent use on this instrument was to evoke the sound of thunder , but also to portray sounds of battle , storms at sea , earthquakes , and Biblical scenes such as the fall of the walls of Jericho and visions of the apocalypse . The noisy sound nevertheless remained a special sound effect , and was not integrated into the general texture of the music . The earliest examples of " organ thunder " are from descriptions of improvisations by Abbé Vogler in the last quarter of the 18th century . His example was soon imitated by Justin Heinrich Knecht ( Die durch ein Donerwetter [ sic ] unterbrochne Hirtenwonne , 1794 ) , Michel Corrette ( who employed a length of wood on the pedal board and his elbow on the lowest notes of the keyboard during some improvisations ) , and also in composed works by Guillaume Lasceux ( Te Deum : " Judex crederis " , 1786 ) , Sigismond Neukomm ( A Concert on a Lake , Interrupted by a Thunderstorm ) , Louis James Alfred Lefébure @-@ Wély ( Scène pastorale , 1867 ) , Jacques Vogt ( Fantaisie pastorale et orage dans les Alpes , ca . 1830 ) , and Jules Blanc ( La procession , 1859 ) . The most notable 19th @-@ composer to use such organ clusters was Giuseppe Verdi . The storm music which opens his opera Otello ( 1887 ) includes an organ cluster ( C , C ♯ , D ) that is also the longest notated duration of any scored musical texture .
= = = = = Bowed strings = = = = =
Percussive effects in imitation of drumming had been introduced to bowed @-@ string instruments by early in the 17th century . The earliest known use of col legno ( tapping on the strings with the back of the bow ) is found in Tobias Hume 's First Part of Ayres for unaccompanied viola da gamba ( 1605 ) , in a piece titled Harke , Harke . Carlo Farina , an Italian violinist active in Germany , also used col legno to mimic the sound of a drum in his Capriccio stravagante for four stringed instruments ( 1627 ) , where he also used devices such as glissando , tremolo , pizzicato , and sul ponticello to imitate the noises of barnyard animals ( cat , dog , chicken ) . Later in the century , Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber , in certain movements of Battalia ( 1673 ) , added to these effects the device of placing a sheet of paper under the A string of the double bass , in order to imitate the dry rattle of a snare drum , and in " Die liederliche Gesellschaft von allerley Humor " from the same programmatic battle piece , superimposed eight different melodies in different keys , producing in places dense orchestral clusters . He also uses the percussive snap of fortissimo pizzicato to represent gunshots .
An important aspect of all of these examples of noise in European keyboard and string music before the 19th century is that they are used as sound effects in programme music . Sounds that would likely cause offense in other musical contexts are made acceptable by their illustrative function . Over time , their evocative effect was weakened as at the same time they became incorporated more generally into abstract musical contexts .
= = = = = Orchestras = = = = =
Orchestras continued to use noise in the form of a percussion section , which expanded though the 19th century : Berlioz was perhaps the first composer to thoroughly investigate the effects of different mallets on the tone color of timpani . However , before the 20th century , percussion instruments played a very small role in orchestral music and mostly served for punctuation , to highlight passages , or for novelty . But by the 1940s , some composers were influenced by non @-@ Western music as well as jazz and popular music , and began incorporating marimbas , vibraphones , xylophones , bells , gongs , cymbals , and drums .
= = = = = Vocal music = = = = =
In vocal music , noisy nonsense syllables were used to imitate battle drums and cannon fire long before Clément Janequin made these devices famous in his programmatic chanson La bataille ( The Battle ) in 1528 . Unpitched or semi @-@ pitched performance was introduced to formal composition in 1897 by Engelbert Humperdinck , in the first version of his melodrama , Königskinder . This style of performance is believed to have been used previously by singers of lieder and popular songs . The technique is best known , however , from somewhat later compositions by Arnold Schoenberg , who introduced it for solo voices in his Gurrelieder ( 1900 – 11 ) , Pierrot Lunaire ( 1913 ) , and the opera Moses und Aron ( 1930 – 32 ) , and for chorus in Die Glückliche Hand ( 1910 – 13 ) . Later composers who have made prominent use of the device include Pierre Boulez , Luciano Berio , Benjamin Britten ( in Death in Venice , 1973 ) , Mauricio Kagel , and Wolfgang Rihm ( in his opera Jakob Lenz , 1977 – 78 , amongst other works ) . A well @-@ known example of this style of performance in popular music was Rex Harrison 's portrayal of Professor Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady . Another form of unpitched vocal music is the speaking chorus , prominently represented by Ernst Toch 's 1930 Geographical Fugue , an example of the Gebrauchsmusik fashionable in Germany at that time .
= = = = = Machine music = = = = =
In the 1920s a fashion emerged for composing what was called " machine music " — the depiction in music of the sounds of factories , locomotives , steamships , dynamos , and other aspects of recent technology that both reflected modern , urban life and appealed to the then @-@ prevalent spirit of objectivity , detachment , and directness . Representative works in this style , which features motoric and insistent rhythms , a high level of dissonance , and often large percussion batteries , are George Antheil 's Ballet mécanique ( 1923 – 25 ) , Arthur Honegger 's Pacific 231 ( 1923 ) , Sergei Prokofiev 's ballet Le pas d 'acier ( The Steel Leap , 1925 – 26 ) , Alexander Mosolov 's Iron Foundry ( an orchestral episode from his ballet Steel , 1926 – 27 ) , and Carlos Chávez 's ballet Caballos de vapor , also titled HP ( Horsepower , 1926 – 32 ) . This trend reached its apex in the music of Edgard Varèse , who composed Ionisation in 1931 , a " study in pure sonority and rhythm " for an ensemble of thirty @-@ five unpitched percussion instruments .
= = = = = Percussion ensembles = = = = =
Following Varèse 's example , a number of other important works for percussion ensemble were composed in the 1930s and 40s : Henry Cowell 's Ostinato Pianissimo ( 1934 ) combines Latin American , European , and Asian percussion instruments ; John Cage 's First Construction ( in Metal ) ( 1939 ) employs differently pitched thunder sheets , brake drums , gongs , and a water gong ; Carlos Chávez 's Toccata for Percussion ( 1943 ) requires six performers to play a large number of European and Latin @-@ American drums and other unpitched percussion together with a few tuned instruments such as xylophone , tubular chimes , and glockenspiel ; Lou Harrison , in works such as the Canticles nos . 1 and 3 ( 1940 and 1942 ) , Song of Queztalcoatl ( 1941 ) , Suite for Percussion ( 1942 ) , and — in collaboration with John Cage — Double Music ( 1941 ) explored the use of " found " instruments , such as brake drums , flowerpots , and metal pipes . In all of these works , elements such as timbre , texture , and rhythm take precedence over the usual Western concepts of harmony and melody .
= = = Experimental and avant @-@ garde music = = =
Use of noise was central to the development of experimental music and avant @-@ garde music in the mid 20th century . Noise was used in important , new ways .
Edgard Varèse challenged traditional conceptions of musical and non @-@ musical sound and instead incorporated noise based sonorities into his compositional work , what he referred to as " organised sound . " Varèse stated that " to stubbornly conditioned ears , anything new in music has always been called noise " , and he posed the question , " what is music but organized noises ? " .
In the years immediately following the First World War , Henry Cowell composed a number of piano pieces featuring tone clusters and direct manipulation of the piano 's strings . One of these , titled The Banshee ( 1925 ) , features sliding and shrieking sounds suggesting the terrifying cry of the banshee from Irish folklore .
In 1938 for a dance composition titled Bacchanale , John Cage invented the prepared piano , producing both transformed pitches and colorful unpitched sounds from the piano . Many variations , such as prepared guitar , have followed . In 1952 , Cage wrote 4 ′ 33 ″ , in which there is no deliberate sound at all , but only whatever background noise occurs during the performance .
Karlheinz Stockhausen employed noise in vocal compositions , such as Momente ( 1962 – 64 / 69 ) , in which the four choirs clap their hands , talk , and shuffle their feet , in order to mediate between instrumental and vocal sounds as well as to incorporate sounds normally made by audiences into those produced by the performers .
Robert Ashley used audio feedback in his avant @-@ garde piece The Wolfman ( 1964 ) by setting up a howl between the microphone and loudspeaker and then singing into the microphone in way that modulated the feedback with his voice .
= = = Electronic music = = =
Noise is used as basic tonal material in electronic music .
When pure @-@ frequency sine tones were first synthesised into complex timbres , starting in 1953 , combinations using inharmonic relationships ( noises ) were used far more often than harmonic ones ( tones ) . Tones were seen as analogous to vowels , and noises to consonants in human speech , and because traditional music had emphasised tones almost exclusively , composers of electronic music saw scope for exploration along the continuum stretching from single , pure ( sine ) tones to white noise ( the densest superimposition of all audible frequencies ) — that is , from entirely periodic to entirely aperiodic sound phenomena . In a process opposite to the building up of sine tones into complexes , white noise could be filtered to produce sounds with different bandwidths , called " coloured noises " , such as the speech sounds represented in English by sh , f , s , or ch . An early example of an electronic composition composed entirely by filtering white noise in this way is Henri Pousseur 's Scambi ( Exchanges ) , realised at the Studio di Fonologia in Milan in 1957 .
In the 1980s , electronic white noise machines became commercially available . These are used alone to provide a pleasant background noise and to mask unpleasant noise , a similar role to conventional background music . This usage can have health applications in the case of individuals struggling with over @-@ stimulation or sensory processing disorder . Also , white noise is sometimes used to mask sudden noise in facilities with research animals .
= = = Rock music = = =
While the electric guitar was originally designed to be simply amplified in order to reproduce its sound at a higher volume , guitarists quickly discovered the creative possibilities of using the amplifier to modify the sound , particularly by extreme settings of tone and volume controls .
Distortion was at first produced by simply overloading the amplifier to induce clipping , resulting in a tone rich in harmonics and also in noise , and also producing dynamic range compression and therefore sustain ( and sometimes destroying the amplifier ) . Dave Davies of The Kinks took this technique to its logical conclusion by feeding the output from a 60 watt guitar amplifier directly into the guitar input of a second amplifier . The popularity of these techniques quickly resulted in the development of electronic devices such as the fuzz box to produce similar but more controlled effects and in greater variety . Distortion devices also developed into vocal enhancers , effects units that electronically enhance a vocal performance , including adding air ( noise or distortion , or both ) . Guitar distortion is often accomplished through use of feedback , overdrive , fuzz , and distortion pedals . Distortion pedals produce a crunchier and grittier tone than an overdrive pedal .
As well as distortion , rock musicians have used audio feedback , which is normally undesirable . The use of feedback was pioneered by musicians such as John Lennon of The Beatles , Jeff Beck of The Yardbirds , Pete Townshend of The Who , and Jimi Hendrix . Hendrix was able to control feedback and turn it into a musical quality , and his use of noise has been described as " sculpted - liquid and fire expertly shaped in mid @-@ air as if by a glass blower . " Other techniques used by Hendrix include distortion , wah , fuzz , dissonance , and loud volume .
= = = Jazz = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , jazz began incorporating elements of rock music , and began using distortion and feedback , partially due to the efforts of Jimi Hendrix , who had strong links with jazz . The proto @-@ punk band MC5 also used feedback and loudness and was inspired by the avant @-@ garde jazz movement . Jazz musicians who have incorporated noise elements , feedback and distortion include Bill Frisell , David Krakauer Cecil Taylor , Gábor Szabó , Garnett Brown , Grachan Moncur III , Jackie McLean , John Abercrombie , John McLaughlin , Joseph Bowie , Larry Coryell , McCo Tyner , Ornette Coleman , Pat Metheny , Phil Minton , Roswell Rudd , and Scott Henderson .
= = = Hip hop = = =
Since its origins in the Bronx during the 1970s , hip hop music has been associated with noise . Author Mark Katz explains that " for the pioneering hip @-@ hop DJs , merely to exist in the Bronx was to experience near @-@ constant noise . But DJs did more than experience noise , they created it , and through their massive sound systems , they indelibly shaped the Bronx soundscape . " According to Katz , the use of loud , extravagant sound systems communicated power and territorial control . Furthermore , techniques such as scratching are an expression of transgression . As scratching a record damages it , scratching , like the visual art of graffiti , is a form of vandalism . " It is a celebration of noise , " writes Katz , " and no doubt part of the pleasure it brought to DJs came from the knowledge that it annoyed the older generation . " Scholar William Jelani Cobb states that " though the genre will always be dismissed by many as brash , monotonous noise , the truth is that hip hop has undergone an astounding array of lyrical and musical transformations . " Scholar Ronald Radano writes that " no term in the modern lexicon conveys more vividly African @-@ American music 's powers of authenticity and resistance than the figure of ' noise ' . In hip @-@ hop parlance , ' noise , ' specifically ' black noise ' , is that special insight from the inside , the anti @-@ philosophy that emerges front and center through the sound attack of rap . " Radano finds the appearance of " black noise " nearly everywhere in the " transnational repetitions of rap opposition , " but stresses that despite its global nature , black noise still conforms to American racial structures . Radano states that " rather than radicalizing the stable binaries of race , noise inverts them ; it transforms prior signs of European musical mastery — harmony , melody , song — into all that is bitchin ' , kickin ' , and black . "
The hip hop group Public Enemy in particular has been noted for its use of noise in its music . The group 's second album , It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , was backed by the production team The Bomb Squad , who helped craft the album 's layered , anti @-@ harmonic , anarchic noise . Michael Eric Dyson describes the album as a " powerful mix of music , beats , screams , noise , and rhythms from the streets " , and considers it an example of the revival of black radical and nationalist thought . Public Enemy member Chuck D acknowledges that the group 's use of noise was an intentional attempt to blur the boundaries between popular music and the noise of everyday life , a decision which writer Jason W. Buel says " ran directly counter to the values of mainstream music of the time . " He explains that " without a doubt " this intentional use of noise influenced not only the next decade of hip @-@ hop , but of rock as well . Furthermore , notes Buel , the incorporation of noise served a political function , elevating the ordinary and thus suggesting that common , ordinary people should consider themselves on the same footing as their political and cultural leaders .
= = Noise as a type of music = =
Noise music ( also referred to simply as noise ) has been represented by many genres during the 20th century and subsequently . Some of its proponents reject the attempt to classify it as a single overall genre , preferring to call noise music a non @-@ genre , an aesthetic , or a collection of genres . Even among those who regard it as a genre , its scope is unclear . Some commentators use the phrase " noise music " ( or " noise " ) to refer specifically to Japanese noise music , while others instead use the term Japanoise .
While noise music is often nowadays associated with extreme volume and distortion and produced by electronic amplification , the tradition dates back at least to the Futurist Luigi Russolo , who rejected melody , constructed original instruments known as intonarumori and assembled a " noise orchestra " in 1917 . It was not well received . In his 1913 manifesto The Art of Noises he observes :
At first the art of music sought purity , limpidity and sweetness of sound . Then different sounds were amalgamated , care being taken , however , to caress the ear with gentle harmonies . Today music , as it becomes continually more complicated , strives to amalgamate the most dissonant , strange and harsh sounds . In this way we come ever closer to noise @-@ sound .
= = = Some types of noise music = = =
Noise music , abandoning melody , harmony , and sometimes even pulse and rhythm
Industrial music ( 1970s )
Noise rock and noise pop ( 1980s )
Japanoise ( late 1970s - current )
Glitch ( 1990s )
= = Noise reduction = =
Most often , musicians are concerned not to produce noise , but to minimise it . Noise reduction is of particular concern in sound recording . This is accomplished by many techniques , including use of low noise components and proprietary noise reducing technologies such as Dolby .
In both recording and in live musical sound reinforcement , the key to noise minimisation is headroom . Headroom can be used either to reduce distortion and audio feedback by keeping signal levels low , or to reduce interference , both from outside sources and from the Johnson @-@ Nyquist noise produced in the equipment , by keeping signal levels high . Most proprietary noise reducing technologies also introduce low levels of distortion . Noise minimisation therefore becomes a compromise between interference and distortion , both in recording and in live music , and between interference and feedback in live amplification . The work of Bart Kosko and Sanya Mitaim has also demonstrated that stochastic resonance can be used as a technique in noise minimisation and signal improvement in non @-@ linear dynamical systems , as the addition of noise to a signal can improve the signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio .
Noise created by mobile phones has become a particular concern in live performances , particularly those being recorded . In one notable incident , maestro Alan Gilbert halted the New York Philharmonic in a performance of Gustav Mahler 's Symphony No. 9 until an audience member 's iPhone was silenced .
= = Noise as excessive volume = =
Music played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution . Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution , including loud music .
Noise as high volume is common for musicians from classical orchestras to rock groups as they are exposed to high decibel ranges . Although some rock musicians experience noise @-@ induced hearing loss from their music , it is still debated as to whether classical musicians are exposed to enough high @-@ intensity sound to cause hearing impairments . Nevertheless , in 2008 Trygve Nordwall , the manager of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra , invoked new EU rules forbidding more than 85 decibels in the workplace , as a reason for dropping the planned world premiere of Dror Feiler 's composition Halat Hisar ( State of Siege ) because it was " adverse to the health " of the musicians . The twenty @-@ minute piece begins with a burst of machine @-@ gun fire , and gets louder . Readings taken during rehearsals measured at least 130 decibels , and some members of the orchestra reported suffering headaches and permanent tinnitis after sustained exposure for three hours during rehearsals . Earplugs for the musicians were suggested , but they objected they could not hear each other and the composer also rejected the idea , adding that his composition was " no louder than anything by Shostakovich or Wagner " .
Music @-@ induced hearing loss is still a controversial topic for hearing researchers . While some studies have shown that the risk for hearing loss increases as music exposure increases , other studies found little to no correlation between the two .
Many bands , primarily in the rock genre , use excessive volumes intentionally . Several bands have set records as the loudest band in the world , with Deep Purple , The Who , and Manowar having received entries in the Guinness Book of World Records . Other claimants to the title include Motörhead , Led Zeppelin , Blue Cheer , Gallows , Bob Dylan 's 1965 backing electric band , Grand Funk Railroad , Canned Heat , and the largely fictional parody group Spinal Tap . My Bloody Valentine are known for their " legendarily high " volume concerts , and Sunn O ) ) ) are described as surpassing them . The sound levels at Sunn O ) ) ) concerts are intentionally loud enough that they are noted for having physical effects on their audience .
= = = Noise in general = = =
Noise ( disambiguation ) for a list of other articles related to noise
Noise ( electronics )
= = = Relating noise to music = = =
The definition of music , detailed discussions
Phonaesthetics for the aesthetics of sound , and particularly what is meant by cacophony
Aesthetics of music
Inharmonicity , one of the factors causing a sound to be perceived as unpitched
Consonance and dissonance # Dissonance for discussion of the nature and usage of discords in melody and harmony and similar devices in rhythm and metre
Timbral listening
= = = Related types = = =
Free jazz
Percussion ensemble
= = = Related types of music = = =
Category : Noise music for an automated list of articles related to noise as a type of music
= = = Perception and use of noise in music = = =
Beament , James . 2001 . How We Hear Music : The Relationship Between Music and the Hearing Mechanism . Suffolk : Boydell & Brewer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8511 @-@ 5940 @-@ 9 .
Demers , Joanna . 2010 . Listening through the Noise : The Aesthetics of Experimental Electronic Music . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 1997 @-@ 7448 @-@ 7 .
Kahn , Douglas . 1999 . Noise , Water , Meat : A History of Sound in
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and dialogue . Otoboku follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . Each scenario is divided into eight episodes , one interlude episode and an epilogue . At the end of an episode , an announcement of the next episode appears showing a preview of what is to consist in the next episode . Each episode takes place within the span of one month between June and March from episode one through the epilogue . The interlude episode is placed between the second and third episodes .
In the adult versions of the game , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Mizuho and a given heroine having sex . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) console , the gameplay was somewhat altered . The PS2 version , and later the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version , both had the sexual content removed , and in these versions there is no evidence that physical relationships actually take place between any of the students .
There are ten additional sub episodes and a special sub episode . The CD and DVD Windows editions contain four sub episodes , the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako contains four sub episodes and a special episode , Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 contains two sub episodes , and the PS2 version contains six sub episodes , though the order in which they appeared was altered .
In Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder , the player assumes the roles of the main protagonist Chihaya Kisakinomiya and the secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . In the adult versions of Futari no Elder , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Chihaya and a given heroine having sex . The gameplay is somewhat altered in the PSP version . The PSP version has the sexual content removed , the scenarios of Utano Sasou and Kaori Kamichika that appeared in the Windows version are removed , and it contains newly added scenarios of You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase . There are three additional sub episodes in the Windows version of Futari no Elder .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The primary setting is at a private all @-@ girls school named Seio Girls ' Academy , also called Seio Jogakuin Christian Education , which was founded in 1886 by Mizuho 's ancestor . Seio was originally named Keisen Girls ' Academy ( 恵泉女学院 , Keisen Jogakuin ) , which was used in original Windows version , the drama CD of the visual novel , and for the Caramel Box Yarukibako fan disc . This name was later ascertained to be similar to a name of an actual school , and the school 's name was changed to Seio Girls ' Academy ( 聖應女学院 , Seiō Jogakuin , 聖応女学院 as written in PlayStation 2 version ) . Seio is used in the PlayStation 2 version , DVD Windows edition , Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban and anime series . The secondary setting is at a dormitory building named Sakura @-@ yakata ( 櫻館 ) , which Mizuho , Mariya , Yukari and Kana are boarding at . There are four other former dormitories named Tsubaki @-@ yakata , Enoki @-@ yakata , Hisagi @-@ yakata and Hiiragi @-@ yakata .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji , the protagonist of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru . He is a kind high school student who impersonates a girl at an all @-@ girls school , which he transfers into per his grandfather 's will . He spends his time with many fellow attendees , some of which live in the nearby dormitory , and enjoys helping them with any problems they may have . His childhood friend Mariya Mikado attends the school with him , and helps in his female transition . She has a spirited personality with a bit of a temper , and has been a support for Mizuho in the past . Mizuho meets a classmate named Shion Jujo who has a silent voice and demeanor ; she quickly figures out that Mizuho is actually a boy , but tells no one . The previous year , she had to be hospitalized soon after she was elected as the Elder due to an illness .
At the dormitory lives an energetic first @-@ year student named Yukari Kamioka . She is on the track and field team along with Mariya , who is her Oneesama ( お姉さま , meaning " Older sister " ) , and has low confidence in her ability to run . Another first @-@ year at the dormitory named Kana Suoin meets Mizuho on the day he moves in , and soon after Mizuho becomes her Oneesama . Kana is more than happy to serve Mizuho any way she can , since she admires him immensely . A hyperactive ghost resides in Mizuho 's room named Ichiko Takashima and is shown to speak very fast when excited . She says that Mizuho looks very much like her previous Elder love interest , who turns out to be Mizuho 's deceased mother . The student council president at Seio is Takako Itsukushima who tends to have a serious personality .
= = = Story = = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru revolves around the main protagonist Mizuho Miyanokouji , a male high school student . After Mizuho 's grandfather dies , his will is reviewed , which explains his desire to have his grandson transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , the same one his own mother attended and his ancestors founded . Abiding by the will , Mizuho cross @-@ dresses to attend the school . The headmistress , the deputy head teacher ( visual novel only ) , Mizuho 's homeroom teacher Hisako Kajiura and Mariya Mikado initially know his secret ; Shion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima also eventually find this out . Mizuho is very popular among the other students , who often talk about how pretty , nice , and athletic Mizuho is . This rampant popularity escalates to him even being nominated against his will to join in on the Elder election . By these terms , the current student council president , Takako Itsukushima , runs against Mizuho .
The Elder election is an old tradition at Seio Girls ' Academy where every June one of the students is elected by her peers to be the " Elder " , who is seen as the number one " Elder Sister " in the school . Until her graduation , she is referred to by her peers as Onee @-@ sama ( お姉さま ) . To become an Elder , a candidate must gain at least 75 % of the votes . If none of the candidates get at least 75 % in the first round of voting , one of the candidates hands over her votes to another candidate , and the candidate who finally obtains at least 75 % of the votes becomes the Elder . If there is no one else in the election , the current year 's student council president becomes the Elder . In Otoboku , Mizuho gains 82 % of the votes in the first round , effectively becoming the 72nd Elder in the school 's history . After becoming Elder , Mizuho progressively gets more popular among the student body since he is now a symbol of the school 's excellence . In the following months , Mizuho starts to get to know some of the girls better and helps them with their problems .
= = = = Futari no Elder = = = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder is written from the viewpoints of main character Chihaya Kisakinomiya and secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . Futari no Elder begins about two years after Mizuho 's graduation . The main protagonist Chihaya Mikado was truant at his school because of harassment in the school and of a distrust in men . His mother cannot bear to watch him be in trouble , so she makes him transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , her old school . He dresses as a girl and introduces himself as Chihaya Kisakinomiya . Chihaya meets another protagonist Kaoruko Nanahara , who once rescued him from a playboy , and he begins to live in the dormitory building . He becomes the focus of public attention due to his attractive face and figure , and due to high grades at studies .
In the 75th Elder election , there are four finalists ; Hatsune Minase hands over her votes to Kaoruko and Makiyo Shingyouji hands over her votes to Chihaya . Then Chihaya and Kaoruko gain the same votes of 368 together . Though a candidate which gains 75 % or more of the votes becomes the Elder , Hatsune , as the student council president , proposes that both Chihaya and Kaoruko become the Elders ; the motion is adopted unanimously . This is the first time there have been two Elders in the history of Seio Girls ' Academy .
= = Development = =
Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is the fourth visual novel developed by Caramel Box . The scenario is written by Aya Takaya , and this was the first time Takaya was staffed on a Caramel Box game . Art direction and character design is done by Norita , who was staffed on Caramel Box 's debut release Blue as an artist . The super deformed illustrations featured in Otoboku were drawn by the game illustrator Yoda . The music was composed by the music team Zizz Studio .
The original title uses the kanji 処女 ( shojo ) , which means " virgin " , but is very close to the word for " young lady " , shōjo . The creators added furigana subscript to indicate they wanted it read " otome " meaning " young maiden " . Additionally , furigana was added above お姉さま ( onee @-@ sama ) to indicate that they wanted it read " boku " . Despite the different kanji , the official reading is " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 , it was rewritten as 乙女はお姉さまに恋してる with the same pronunciation of " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " , which uses the actual " otome " ( 乙女 ) kanji . The latter name was kept for the manga and anime releases .
= = = Release history = = =
A free game demo of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The game was released as an adult game on January 28 , 2005 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a 2 @-@ disc CD @-@ ROM set . The limited edition came bundled with a special story book entitled Tsunderera . The regular edition was released on February 18 , 2005 , and one select lot of this version contained a limited edition sticker . An updated version with full voice acting was released on April 28 , 2006 as a DVD . Another updated version compatible for Windows Vista / 7 was released on May 27 , 2011 . The Windows version of Otoboku was released in English by MangaGamer on November 23 , 2012 .
Caramel Box released a fan disc of Otoboku on June 24 , 2005 in a collection called Caramel Box Yarukibako , which contained additional scenarios that furthered the story from the original visual novel ; the fan disc came with a small figurine . The collection was re @-@ released under the title Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban on January 26 , 2007 . A second fan disc was released on October 19 , 2007 in the collection Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , which again contained additional scenarios . Alchemist released a PlayStation 2 port on December 29 , 2005 , which removed the adult elements of the game . Additional scenarios were included in the PS2 version written by Kiichi Kanō . A version of the adult game featuring only Sion 's scenario playable on iOS devices was released in six volumes between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable was released on April 29 , 2010 by Alchemist .
= = = Sequel = = =
A sequel to the visual novel titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる ～ 2人のエルダー ～ ) was released as an adult game on June 30 , 2010 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a DVD . The same staff that worked on Otoboku returned for the sequel . The limited edition came bundled with a 96 @-@ page guide book , an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game , and an original pouch . A free game demo of Futari no Elder can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The regular edition was released on July 30 , 2010 . Settings and characters from Sakura no Sono no Étoile , a novel written by the scriptwriter of Otoboku as a sequel to Takako 's story , appear in Futari no Elder . Also , the release date of June 30 coincides in @-@ story with the day of the election day of the 75th Elder sister . A PSP version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable : Futari no Elder was released on April 28 , 2011 by Alchemist . A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Alchemist on December 1 , 2011 .
= = Related media = =
= = = Novels = = =
Two novels written based on the original game written by Saki Murakami and published by Paradigm were released in Japan in June and August 2005 . The first released was Toraware no Himegimi : Sion @-@ hen ( 囚われの姫君 ～ 紫苑編 ～ , Imprisoned Princess : Sion Chapter ) centering on Sion , with the second entitled Tomadou Juliet : Takako @-@ hen ( とまどうジュリエット ～ 貴子編 ～ , Perplexed Juliet : Takako Chapter ) centering on Takako . These novels contain erotic content . A single volume titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru written by Chihiro Minagawa with accompanying illustrations by Ume Aoi was published by Jive in August 2005 , and centers on Takako 's scenario . Sion 's scenario was ported to the iPhone as an e @-@ book between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 by DML . A semi official dōjin novel was written by the original scenario writer for the game , Aya Takaya , called Sakura no Sono no Étoile ( 櫻の園のエトワール , lit . Étoile in the Cherry Orchard ) , with illustrations by the original game artist Norita . The novel contains a two short stories that is a sequel of Takako 's scenario , and Kana and Yukari have little sisters . The revised and completed edition of the dōjin novel was published as an official novel by Enterbrain on December 25 , 2007 .
Three volumes based on Futari no Elder were written by Tasuku Saiga and published by Paradigm between September 30 , 2010 and January 19 , 2011 . The first volume centers on Kaoruko Nanahara , the second is around Kaori Kamichika , and the third centers on Utano Sasou . A single volume written by Reiji Mai titled Knight no Kimi no Love Romance ( 騎士の君のラブロマンス , Love Affair of You , the Knight ) was published by Kill Time Communication on December 3 , 2010 . These four novels contain erotic content . Three volumes written by Aya Takaya were released by SoftBank Creative between December 15 , 2010 and January 15 , 2012 . The first volume titled Futari no Elder ( 二人のエルダー ) is the story until Chihaya Kisakinomiya and Kaoruko Nanahara are elected as Elders ; the second titled Madogoshi no Ihōjin ( 窓越しの異邦人 , The Stranger Through the Window ) is the story until the end of first term and it mainly focuses Kaoruko Nanahara , You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase ; and the third titled Kin no Ori , Ibara no Torikago ( 黄金の檻 荊の鳥籠 , lit . The Golden Cage , The Birdcage of Thorns ) is the story between summer vacation and September and it mainly focuses Awayuki Reizei and Utano Sasou . There were five novels published by Multi Bunko between June 30 , 2011 and March 29 , 2012 : three volumes written by Tasuku Saiga are around Utano Sasou , Fumi Watarai and Awayuki Reizei ; one volume written by Ricotta is around Kaoruko Nanahara ; and a volume written by Mitsuru Iiyama is not dependent on any heroine 's scenario . These eight novels are not erotic .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga adaptation is illustrated by Kanao Araki and was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' magazine Dengeki Daioh between the November 2006 and August 2008 issues in Japan . Two tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint , the first on August 27 , 2007 and the second on September 27 , 2008 . A four panel comic strip manga was published by Enterbrain in 12 comics anthologies released between March 26 , 2007 and March 25 , 2009 .
A manga adaptation of Futari no Elder illustrated by Akuru Uira was serialized between the July 2010 and February 2012 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Three volumes were published between November 26 , 2010 and January 26 , 2012 . Three volumes of a four panel , comic strip manga of Futari no Elder were published by Enterbrain between September 26 , 2010 and January 29 , 2011 . Two comic anthologies were released by Ichijinsha between October 25 and November 25 , 2010 .
= = = Internet radio show = = =
An Internet radio show to promote the anime series was broadcast between October 5 , 2006 and March 27 , 2008 called the Seio Girls ' Academy Broadcasting Station ( 聖應女学院放送局 , Seiō Jogakuin Hōsōkyoku ) . It aired every Thursday hosted by Miyu Matsuki and Yuko Goto who played Sion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima in the anime , respectively ; it was produced by Animate TV . There are thirteen corners , or parts , to the program which correspond to the general life of the characters in the story , and 74 episodes were produced . There were several guests to the show such as Chiaki Takahashi in episodes six and seven as Takako Itsukushima , Akemi Kanda in episodes eleven and twelve as Kana Suoin , Ayano Matsumoto in episodes fifteen and sixteen as Yukari Kamioka , and Madoka Kimura in episodes nineteen and twenty as Kimie Sugawara . The radio show episodes were released on four CDs released between May 9 , 2007 and February 6 , 2008 .
= = = Anime = = =
An anime adaptation is produced by the animation studio Feel , directed by Munenori Nawa , written by Katsumi Hasegawa , and features character design by Noriko Shimazawa who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The anime contained twelve episodes which aired between October 6 and December 24 , 2006 on several UHF networks including TV Kanagawa and Chiba TV . The episodes were released on four DVD compilations released in Japan as limited and regular editions . A single original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released on the final limited edition DVD on April 4 , 2007 . Media Blasters released the series , including the OVA , as English @-@ subtitled DVDs between June 24 and October 7 , 2008 under the title Otoboku : Maidens Are Falling For Me ! .
A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder is produced by the animation studio Silver Link , directed by Shin 'ya Kawatsura , written by Michiko Yokote , and features character design by Keiichi Sano who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The episodes were released on three Blu @-@ ray Disc / DVD volumes between August 29 and October 24 , 2012 .
= = = Music and audio CDs = = =
The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru visual novel has three theme songs : the opening theme " You Make My Day ! " by Yuria , the ending theme " Itoshii Kimochi " ( いとしいきもち ) by Yui Sakakibara , and " Sayonara no Sasayaki " ( さよならの囁き ) by Sakakibara as an insert song . The original soundtrack for the visual novel titled Maiden 's Rest was released in Japan on February 25 , 2005 by Digiturbo . The Futari no Elder visual novel has four theme songs : an opening theme , an ending theme , and two insert songs . For the Windows version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Underhanded Girl " ( アンダーハンデッド ・ ガール ) by Yuria , and the ending theme is " Hidamari no Naka e " ( 陽だまりの中へ ) by Aki Misato . For the PSP version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Crystal Wish " by Miyuki Hashimoto , and the ending theme is " Tamerai , Fuwari " ( ためらい 、 ふわり 。 ) by Shiori . The insert songs , both sung by Sakakibara , are " Utsuriyuku Hana no Yōni " ( 移りゆく花のように ) and " Kimi no Mama de " ( 君のままで ) . An album was released containing the theme songs for the Windows version of Futari no Elder on May 26 , 2010 by Lantis . A single was released containing the theme songs for the PSP version of Futari no Elder on April 27 , 2011 by Lantis .
Two singles were released for the opening and ending themes for the anime adaptation . The first called " Love Power " by Aice5 contained the opening theme of the same name . The other single entitled " Again " by Yui Sakakibara contained the ending theme entitled " Beautiful Day " . The A @-@ side track from that single entitled " Again " was used as an insert song in episode eleven . Both singles were released on October 25 , 2006 by King Records . The soundtrack for the anime was released on November 22 , 2006 by King Records . Three character image song albums were released sung by voice actors from the anime adaptation . The first album was by Yui Horie as Mizuho Miyanokouji , Miyu Matsuki as Sion Jujo and Masumi Asano as Mariya Mikado . The second album featured Ayano Matsumoto as Yukari Kamioka , Akemi Kanda as Kana Suoin and Yuko Goto as Ichiko Takashima . The third album was recorded by Chiaki Takahashi as Takako Itsukushima , Madoka Kimura as Kimie Sugawara and Yui Sakakibara as Hisako Kajiura . These CDs were released between July 26 and September 21 , 2006 .
Seven drama CDs based on Otoboku have also been produced . The first was based on the visual novel and was released on September 22 , 2005 . Four more based on the Otoboku anime adaptation were released between October 25 , 2006 and April 11 , 2007 . A drama CD based on the novel Sakura no Sono no Étoile was released on January 29 , 2010 . The last one was based on a special episode contained in the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako with voice actors from anime adaptation released on January 29 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan , the Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru limited edition Windows release premiered at number two in the rankings . The limited edition achieved a ranking of four out of 50 in the ranking for the next two weeks . The regular edition Windows release premiered at number six in the rankings , and stayed in the top 50 for a month and a half until mid @-@ April 2005 . The regular edition was again in the rankings for May 2005 , managing to rank in at 38 and 49 . The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Windows edition playable as a DVD premiered at number 13 in the rankings and stayed at that rank for the next listing . The DVD edition ranked twice more over the next month : the first at 43 and the last at 33 . From May to June 2010 , Otome wa Boku ni Koish
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the Flag Day is not a public holiday , although making a bridge , i.e. taking a day off on that day is common practice ( see Holidays in Poland ) .
Other days when the Polish flag is often flown on official buildings include :
May 5 and May 9 – Europe Days ( together with the European flag ) ;
August 15 – Polish Armed Forces Day ( mostly on military premises and at tombs of the Unknown Soldier )
September 27 – Polish Underground State Day .
The flag is also popularly flown during important sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , if Polish athletes are participating ; and during an official visit of a particularly important person , especially a pope , in Poland . During a pope 's visit , the national flag is usually flown together with yellow and white Church flags , and white and blue Marian flags . It is uncommon to fly the national flag on personal occasions , such as birthdays or weddings .
According to polls , about one out of three Poles say they own a Polish flag , and about one out of four fly it on national holidays . Such public display of patriotism is much more common in western Poland , especially in Greater Poland , than in other parts of the country .
= = Flag protocol = =
Flags in Poland are used according to a customary , rather than legal , flag protocol . Apart from the obligation to treat the flag with due respect , Polish law does not offer a detailed code of correct usage of the Polish flag . Some organizations and public institutions , such as the Heraldic and Vexillological Institute and the Supreme Chamber of Control have proposed written flag protocols for the Polish flag , based on custom , flag protocols of other countries such as India and the United States , and common sense . These guidelines , however , are not legally binding .
Traditionally , the national flag is reserved to serve either informative of festive purposes . A single specimen of the flag on or in front of a public office building indicates its official role . Multiple flags , on the other hand , are normally used to decorate both public and private buildings to mark special occasions , such as national holidays .
In Polish heraldry , the tincture of the charge has priority in relation to the tincture of the field . In the case of Polish national colors , white , the color of the White Eagle , should always be placed in a more honorable position than red , the color of the field of the Polish coat of arms . In the most usual , horizontal alignment , this means that the white stripe is placed above the red one . If the alignment is vertical , the white stripe should be on the left from the onlooker 's point of view . If the flag is hung vertically above a street , the white stripe should be placed on the left when looking in the direction of increasing house numbers . If it drapes a coffin , the white stripe should be placed over the heart .
The flag should be raised before 8 a.m. and lowered at sunset , and if flown at night , it should be illuminated . During a ceremonial raising of the flag , the national anthem is played so that the timing of the raising matches the duration of the anthem . Civilians pay respect by standing in a dignified manner ; additionally , men uncover their heads . Members of uniformed services stand at attention ; if their uniform includes headgear and they are not standing in an organized group , they also perform the two @-@ finger salute . Color guards dip their banners to the flag . ( See video )
According to generally accepted standards of respect , the national flag should never be dipped to any person or thing . Care should be taken to prevent the flag from touching the ground , floor or water beneath it . It should be also secured from being torn off or falling to the ground and it should not be flown outdoors during a heavy rain , blizzard or very strong wind . The flag should never be flown dirty , torn or faded . When no longer in a fit condition to be used , it should be disposed of in a dignified manner , preferably by cutting it in half so as to separate the colors and then , burning .
When displayed with other flags , the Polish flag should be raised first and lowered last . Each flag must be flown from a separate pole of the same height , but the flag of Poland should be always placed in the most honorable position . It means that if the total number of flags is even , the Polish flag should be placed to its right of the other flags . If the total number of flags is odd , it should be placed in the middle . Alternatively , two Polish flags may be placed , one at each end of the row of flags . The order of precedence for flags is as follows :
flag of Poland ,
national flags of other countries ( in alphabetical order ) ,
voivodeship flags ,
county flags ,
commune flags ,
European flag ,
flags of domestic organizations ,
flags of international organizations ,
public services flags ,
corporate flags ,
other flags .
The President of the Republic may announce a period of national mourning . During that time Polish flags are flown at half @-@ staff . If a flag is flown from a wooden pole rather than a staff or mast , a black ribbon is attached to the pole as a sign of mourning or a black flag is flown to its left from the national flag .
= = History = =
= = = Royal banner = = =
The earliest vexilloids ( flag @-@ like objects ) used in Poland were known as stanice and probably resembled the Roman vexillum , that is a cloth draped vertically from a horizontal crosspiece attached to a wooden pole or spear . They served as both religious and military symbols as early as 10th century CE . With Poland 's conversion to Christianity in 966 , the stanice were probably Christianized by replacing pagan symbols with Christian ones . The royal banner of arms dates back to the reign of King Boleslaus the Generous ( r . 1076 – 1079 ) , but it was during the reign of King Vladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1320 – 1333 ) that a red cloth emblazoned with the White Eagle of the arms of Poland was finally established as the Banner of the Kingdom of Poland , a symbol of royal authority used at coronations and in battles .
In the times of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1569 – 1795 ) , a banner of the Commonwealth was also used , combining the heraldic symbols of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Commonwealth banner was initially plain white emblazoned with the arms of the Commonwealth which consisted of the heraldic charges of Poland ( White Eagle ) and Lithuania ( Pursuer ) . Since both Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms consisted of white ( Argent ) charges in a red ( Gules ) field , these two colors started to be used for the entire banner . During the 17th century , the banner was usually divided into two , three or four horizontal , often swallow @-@ tailed , stripes of red and white .
= = = National cockade = = =
In the 18th and 19th centuries , European nations used cockades , or knots of colored ribbons pinned to the hat , to denote the nationality of their military . In Poland , until 1831 , there was no consensus as to what the colors of the national cockade should be . Polish soldiers wore white , white @-@ and @-@ red , blue @-@ and @-@ red or blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades .
The custom came to Poland from Saxony during the reign of Augustus II ( r . 1697 – 1733 ) , King of Poland and Elector of Saxony . During that time , the cockade worn by the Polish military had , like in Saxony , the form of a white silk ribbon with a knot in the middle . It was later replaced with a circular white cockade wrinkled toward the center , patterned after the cockade of the Kingdom of France . During the reign of King Stanislaus Augustus ( r . 1764 – 1795 ) , a white @-@ and @-@ red cockade came into use alongside the plain white one . In 1791 , the Military Commission introduced a metal cross pattée as a more durable alternative to the cockade . However , many soldiers continued to either pin the cross to the cockade or wear the cockade without the cross . Polish military leaders and national heroes of the time , such as General Tadeusz Kościuszko and Prince Józef Poniatowski pinned plain white " national " cockades to their hats .
The patriotic and staunchly Catholic members of the Bar Confederation of 1768 – 1772 adopted crimson – the symbol of Polish szlachta , or nobility – and blue – symbolizing Virgin Mary – as their colors . These , as well as white @-@ and @-@ red , were considered national colors during the Great Sejm of 1788 – 1792 . White and red were first publicly used as national colors by civilians on May 3 , 1792 in Warsaw , during a celebration of the first anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of 1791 . Meanwhile , the political left wore the blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades of the French Revolution . Polish Legions created in 1797 in French @-@ controlled republics in Italy , used either national cockades of the particular Italian republics in which they served or the French tricolor cockade . In the latter case , the red and blue colors were replaced with crimson and navy blue respectively , hues considered to be traditionally Polish . The General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland , which sought to revive the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the French invasion of Russia in 1812 , adopted red @-@ and @-@ blue cockades , symbolizing the unity of Poland ( red ) and Lithuania ( blue ) . The military of the French @-@ controlled Duchy of Warsaw ( 1807 – 1815 ) and the Russian @-@ controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland ( 1815 – 1831 ) used the white cockade , which was also worn by the cadets who started the November Uprising against Russian rule on November 29 , 1830 .
During the uprising , the Sejm realized the need for unified national insignia that could be used by the Polish military . On February 7 , 1831 it adopted white and red , the tinctures ( colors ) of the Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms , as the national cockade of Poland . The white @-@ and @-@ red cockade was henceforth worn by Polish soldiers in the November Uprising , as well as by participants of the Kraków Uprising of 1846 , Polish freedom fighters in the Grand Duchy of Posen and the Austrian Empire during the Spring of Nations of 1848 , and Polish insurgents during the January Uprising of 1863 – 1864 . White and red colors were also used by civilians to show their protest against the Russian rule , as well as by people in France , Britain , Germany , Belgium and other countries as a sign of their sympathy with the Polish cause . The Sejm 's decision was not , however , immediately accepted by all . Left @-@ wing politicians of the time , such as Joachim Lelewel , continued to regard the revolutionary blue , white and red as true national colors . Tricolor standards were used by some Polish guerrilla units during the January Uprising .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
White @-@ and @-@ red flags were first waved during a patriotic demonstration on May 3 , 1916 in Warsaw . The organizing committee advised participants about the correct alignment of the colors , that is with the white stripe above the red one . Still , many demonstrators brought flags with the red stripe on top . On August 1 , 1919 , almost a year after Poland regained independence in November 1918 , the Sejm officially introduced a white @-@ and @-@ red bicolor as the Polish national flag . In order to avoid confusion with the white @-@ and @-@ red maritime signal flag used internationally by harbor pilots and tugboats , the same act of Sejm introduced a variant of the flag with the coat of arms in the white stripe for use as a civil ensign and by Polish diplomats and consuls abroad .
Apart from changes in the legal specifications of the shades of the national colors ( see the section below ) , the basic design of the Polish flag , including the 5 : 8 ratio , has remained unchanged to this day . The flag with coat of arms was only modified to adjust to the changes in the coat of arms itself . Major modifications included a change in the stylization of the eagle from Classicist to Baroque in 1927 and the removal of the crown from the eagle 's head during the Communist rule from 1944 to 1990 .
20th @-@ century Polish insurgents wore white @-@ and @-@ red brassards ( armbands ) which played a role similar to the cockade of previous centuries . Such armbands were worn by Polish freedom fighters during the Greater Poland Uprising ( 1918 – 1919 ) and Silesian Uprisings ( 1919 – 1921 ) , as well as during the Second World War ( 1939 – 1945 ) by the soldiers of the Home Army ( AK ) and Peasants ' Battalions ( BCh ) – usually emblazoned with the acronyms of their formations . During the Second World War , Polish soldiers raised the Polish flag on several sites of their victories . On May 18 , 1944 , after an Allied victory over the German forces in the Battle of Monte Cassino , a patrol of the 12th Podolian Uhlan Regiment ( part of the Polish 3rd Carpathian Rifle Division ) raised a Polish flag on ruins of the Monte Cassino abbey in Italy . On August 1 , 1944 , the first day of the Warsaw Uprising , a white @-@ and @-@ red flag was hoisted on the Prudential building , Warsaw 's tallest skyscraper of the time . During the liberation of Warsaw by Soviet forces and Polish People 's Army on January 17 , 1945 , Polish flags were raised on the Belvedere palace and ruins of the Main Railway Station . On May 2 , 1945 , after the capture of Berlin , soldiers of the 7th Battery , 3rd Division , 1st Light Artillery Regiment planted Polish flags on the Berlin Victory Column .
Polish flags were also used by anti @-@ government demonstrators under the Communist rule . During the bloody riots of 1956 in Poznań and 1970 in Gdynia , protesters carried flags that were blood @-@ stained on the white stripe .
= = = Shades of red = = =
Until 1927 , the exact shades of the national colors were not legally specified . In practice , the actual hue , particularly of red , depended on what kind of red dye was available . In pre @-@ partition Poland , crimson , due to its high price , was a color associated with the rich and the privileged . It could be obtained from the domestically harvested Polish cochineal , although imported alternatives were also available : kermes from the Mediterranean Basin ( hence karmazyn , the Polish name of the color ) and Mexican cochineal after the discovery of the New World . Crimson was reserved for the nobility and considered a symbol of the aristocracy , so that karmazyn became synonymous with a magnate . A royal ban on wearing this color could be a form of punishment ; in the 14th century , the Nałęcz clan of Greater Poland were forbidden to dress in crimson for their ancestors ' complicity in the assassination of King Premislaus in 1296 . In the first half of the 19th century , due to the influence of French fashion , crimson was largely replaced with the cheaper amaranth .
The National Cockade Act of 1831 did not specify the shade of red , for which it was criticized by Joachim Lelewel , nor did the Coat of Arms and National Colors Act of 1919 . In 1921 , the Ministry of Military Affairs issued a pamphlet with illustrations of the Polish flag and other national symbols which used the crimson shade of red . The pamphlet was not , however , an official source of law and was published for informative purpose only . The shade of red was first legally specified by a presidential decree of December 13 , 1927 which stipulated that the official shade was vermilion . This specification was upheld by a decree of December 7 , 1955 . The Coat of Arms Act of January 31 , 1980 replaced the verbal prescription with trichromatic coordinates in the CIE color space as proposed by Nikodem Sobczak , an expert in colorimetry , bringing the resulting hue closer to crimson again .
= = Related and similar flags = =
The flag of the Grand Duchy of Posen , a Polish @-@ populated autonomous province of the Kingdom of Prussia created in 1815 , was a red @-@ and @-@ white horizontal bicolor . Its colors were taken from the duchy 's coat of arms which consisted of the Prussian Black Eagle with an inescutcheon of the Polish White Eagle . With Germany 's increasingly anti @-@ Polish policy and a rising identification of white and red as Polish national colors , the red @-@ and @-@ white flag of Posen was replaced in 1886 with a white @-@ black @-@ white horizontal triband . No other part of Poland during the time of Partitions used a flag that would incorporate Polish national colors .
Today , many flags used in Poland are based on the design of the national flag . This applies especially to flags defined by Polish law and used by the Polish military and other uniformed services , such as the naval ensign – a swallow @-@ tailed horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of Poland in the white stripe . Flags of some administrative subdivisions also resemble the national flag . Examples include the former flag of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship – a horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of the voivodeship – or the flag of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship – a horizontal tricolor of white , yellow and red with the yellow stripe half as wide as any of the other two .
Due to the horizontal bicolor being a relatively simple and widespread flag design , and white and red being the most popular colors used on flags , there are many flags worldwide that are similar or near identical to the flag of Poland despite being unrelated to it . For example , the historical flag of Bohemia , the major historical region of Poland 's southern neighbor , the Czech Republic , consists of two horizontal stripes , white on top and red on bottom . Similarly to the flag of Poland , it is of heraldic origin , the coat of arms of Bohemia being Gules , a lion rampant , queue fourchée Argent , crowned , langued and armed Or , that is a silver double @-@ tailed lion in a red field . The white @-@ and @-@ red Bohemian flag came into use when Bohemia was a province of Austria @-@ Hungary and , after the end of the First World War in 1918 , it was shortly used as a flag of the newly formed Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . In 1920 , in order to avoid confusion with the Polish flag , a blue triangle was added to create a flag used by Czechoslovakia until its dissolution in 1993 and currently used as the flag of the Czech Republic .
Other examples of flags that could be confused with the Polish one include the civil flags of the following regions : Cantabria , Spain ; Kranj , Slovenia ; Thuringia , Germany ; Upper Austria and Tyrol , Austria ; as well the city of Honda , Colombia . Furthermore , the Dutch city of Maastricht used a similar design between 1938 @-@ 1994 but reinstitated its old flag to avoid confusion . There are currently two independent states – Indonesia and Monaco – whose national flags are horizontal bicolors of red and white , reversing the Polish flag . The Monaco and Indonesia flags differ in proportions and shades of the colors ( see Flag of Indonesia and Flag of Monaco ) .
= Archimyrmex =
Archimyrmex is an extinct genus of ant in the formicid subfamily Myrmeciinae , described by palaeoentomologist Theodore Cockerell in 1923 . The genus contains four described species , Archimyrmex rostratus , Archimyrmex piatnitzkyi , Archimyrmex smekali and Archimyrmex wedmannae . Archimyrmex is known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils which were found in North America , South America , and Europe . The genus was initially placed in the subfamily Ponerinae , but it was later placed in Myrmeciinae ; it is now believed to be the ancestor of the extant primitive genus Myrmecia from Australia . Despite this , Archimyrmex is not a member to any tribe and is regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , some authors believe Archimyrmex should be assigned as incertae sedis within Formicidae . These ants can be characterised by their large mandibles and body length , ranging from 13 @.@ 2 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) . They also have long , thin legs and an elongated mesosoma ( thorax ) and petiole .
= = History and classification = =
When described the genus Archimyrmex was known from a solitary fossil preserved as an impression in fine shale of the Green River formation in Colorado . The fossil was recovered in July 1922 from the " station 1 " fossil site near the top of the Ute trail by entomologist Wilmatte Porter Cockerell . One side of the A. rostratus holotype is currently deposited in the University of Colorado paleontology collections while the counterpart is in the US National Museum , and an additional eleven fossils were known as of 2002 . The holotype was first studied by palaeoentomologist Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell of the University of Colorado and his 1923 type description
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of teeth and denticles ( smaller teeth ) on the inside margin . The gynes have long legs and long mesosomas , an elongated petiole ( a narrow waist between the mesosoma and gaster ) which is usually smooth in profile on the upper surface . The petiole structure in combination with little to no constriction between abdominal segments III and IV is unique to the genus and separates it from the other Myrmeciinae genera .
= = = A. piatnitzkyi = = =
A. piatnitzkyi is reported from three specimens , giving a body length between 16 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) . The holotype is currently preserved at the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum palaeoentomological collection . The head capsule is slightly ovoid , being a little longer than it is wide and having elongated mandibles that are notably shorter than the head . As with A. smekali , the mesosoma is massive , being between 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 8 times as long as it is tall . The legs are like those of the other species , being long and thin . Unlike the other species , the petiole of A. piatnitzkyi does not have a constricted post @-@ petiole .
= = = A. rostratus = = =
The type specimen numbers are UC no . 15174 and USNM no . 69617 for the part and counterpart ; females of the type species A. rostratus have a body length estimated to be between 13 @.@ 2 – 15 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 – 0 @.@ 62 in ) , with a small gaster that is shorter than the mesosoma and sporting a short thick sting . The length of the head when excluding the mandibles is 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) , the mesosoma is 5 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 21 in ) and the middle femur is around 3 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 15 in ) . The preserved specimens are brown and the upper area of the head and gaster is black , which is similar to Myrmecia nigriceps . The head capsules have antennae borne on a scape which is long and passes the edge of the occipital margin of the head . The short , thickened mandibles have several larger teeth interspersed with small denticles , and are about 50 % of the length of the head capsule . The scape is believed to be long and thin , and its mesosoma is narrow and long . The width of the scutum is greater than its length , the legs are noticeably elongated and thin , and the podeum ( a narrow stalk that connects the mesosoma with the abdomen ) is slightly convex .
= = = A. smekali = = =
The A. smekali lectotype numbered NMW. no . 1972 / 1574 / 9 is housed in the Museum of Natural History . The lectotype female has an estimated body length of 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) with an mesosoma that is described as " relatively massive " ( being only 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 9 times as long as tall ) and an oval shaped gaster . There is a notable constriction in the post @-@ petiole abdominal segment not seen in the other species . The head capsule has mandibles which are about 70 % as long as the head capsule , and have four to five large teeth each . The antennal scape is longer than the occipital margin and the antenna is composed of an estimated twelve segments . The legs are elongated and narrow , the propodeum is weakly convex and the petiole does not have a node ( a segment between the mesosoma and gaster ) . A. smekali can be distinguished from other species by its massive size , the constriction in the post @-@ petiole and the absence of the node . It was previously thought the ant had an eight @-@ segmented antennae , but the lectotype has seven segments ; Dlussky also mentions that the original description provided by Elsa Rossi de Garcia does not match the description he provided .
= = = A. wedmannae = = =
A. wedmannae from Germany is described from a single gyne that is approximately 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , found in the Messel pit . The fossil is believed to be 47 million years old . The mesosoma measures 7 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 29 in ) , the length of the head is 2 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) , the scape is 3 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 13 in ) , the diameter of the eyes are 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 047 in ) and the forewings are 10 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 42 in ) . The species has a head which is shorter than it is wide , but has mandibles about as long as the head which are triangular in outline . The eyes are oval shaped . As with the three other species the antennal scape is long , one @-@ third of the scape length protrudes past the occipital margin of the head . The pronotum in profile is either straight or weakly concave , and the petiole is weakly rounded with no node present . The propodeum has small denticles and is weakly convex , and the legs are long . The gaster has a well developed and long sting . This species can be distinguished from other Archimyrmex ants by its long mandibles ; the shape of the petiole is almost the same as A. smekali , but their mandibles are much shorter and the mesosoma is more compact . The propodeum 's dorsal surface is also more convex .
= Kīlauea =
Kīlauea ( English / ˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə / KEE @-@ low @-@ AY @-@ ə , also US / ˌkɪləˈweɪə / KIL @-@ ə @-@ WAY @-@ ə ; Hawaiian : [ tiːlɐwˈwɛjə ] ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaiʻi . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km ( 78 mi ) east and the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year .
Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means " spewing " or " much spreading " in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1 @,@ 000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2 @,@ 800 years . The first well @-@ documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest @-@ duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest @-@ duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3 @.@ 5 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava and resurfaced 123 @.@ 2 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land .
Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaiʻi 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually .
= = Geology = =
= = = Setting = = =
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Kīlauea was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) -long Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing , though not completely settled , view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well @-@ understood and extensively studied , the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic .
Kīlauea is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi , created by the Hawaii hotspot . The oldest volcano on the island , Kohala , is more than a million years old , and Kīlauea , the youngest , is believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years of age ; Lōʻihi Seamount on the island 's flank is even younger , but has yet to breach the surface . Thus it is the second youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril – Kamchatka Trench in Russia .
Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation , Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano , gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions about 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Since then , the volcano 's activity has likely been as it is now , a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity in the last 200 or 300 years .
At most 600 @,@ 000 years old , Kīlauea is still quite young for a Hawaiian volcano ; the oldest volcano on the island , the northwestern Kohala , experienced almost 900 @,@ 000 years of activity before going extinct . The volcano 's foreseeable future activity will likely be much like it has been for the past 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ; Hawaiian and explosive activity will continue to heighten Kīlauea 's summit , build up its rift zones , and fill and refill its summit caldera .
= = = Structure = = =
Kīlauea has been active throughout its history . Since 1918 , Kīlauea 's only prolonged period of rest was an 18 @-@ year pause between 1934 and 1952 . The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows , intermittent with scattered volcanic ash and tephra sourced from relatively lower @-@ volume explosive eruptions . Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows , and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1 @,@ 100 years . Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time , and thus much of its bulk remains underwater ; its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping , elongate , decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1 @,@ 500 km2 ( 579 sq mi ) , making up 13 @.@ 7 percent of the island 's total surface area .
Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence , appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank of the nearby Mauna Loa ; because of this , both native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its more massive neighbor . However , analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes shows that they have separate magma chambers , and are thus distinct . Nonetheless , their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other . When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952 , Mauna Loa became active , and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974 , the reverse was true . This is not always the case ; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea , but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption , and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa 's summit , indicative of a future eruption , began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea 's Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater . Geologists have suggested that " pulses " of magma entering Mauna Loa 's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions .
Kīlauea has a large summit caldera , measuring 4 by 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 by 2 mi ) with walls up to 120 m ( 400 ft ) high , breached by lava flows on the southwestern side . It is unknown if the caldera was always there or if it is a relatively recent feature , and it is possible that it has come and gone throughout Kīlauea 's eruptive history ; what is known is that it likely formed over several centuries , with its construction estimated to have begun about 500 years ago , and that its present form was finalized by a particularly powerful eruption in 1790 . A major feature within the caldera is Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea 's most historically active eruption centers . The crater is approximately 920 m ( 3 @,@ 018 ft ) in diameter and 85 m ( 279 ft ) deep , but its form has varied widely through its eruptive history ; the floor of the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater is now mostly covered by flows from its most recent eruption , in 1974 .
Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit , one leading 125 km ( 78 mi ) out to the east , the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) long and trending towards the southwest . Tectonic extension along both rift zones is causing Kīlauea 's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 in ) per year , centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km ( 4 to 6 mi ) beneath the volcano 's surface . The eastern rift zone in particular is a dominant feature on the volcano ; it is almost entirely covered in lava erupted in the last 400 years , and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km ( 1 to 2 mi ) wide . Non @-@ localized eruptions , typical of rift zone activity , have produced a series of low @-@ lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone 's length . Its upper segment is the most presently active section of the volcano , and is additionally the site of a number of large pit craters ; its lower extremity reaches down Kīlauea 's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . By contrast , the much smaller southwestern rift has been quiet since a rifting episode in 1974 , and to date has not been involved in the current eruptive cycle at all . The southwestern rift zone 's extremity is also underwater , although its submarine length is more limited . The southwestern rift zone also lacks a well @-@ defined ridge line or a large number of pit craters , evidence that it is also geologically less active than the eastern rift zone .
A prominent structure on Kīlauea 's southern flank is the Hilina fault system , a highly active fault moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year along the system . Its physiographic province is 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) deep , but it is unknown if it is a shallow listric fault or if it penetrates to the very base of the volcano . A number of cinder cones , satellite shields , lava tubes , and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano , evidence of its recent activity . Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa , its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island ; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks , and some of Mauna Loa 's flows are , in turn , blanketed in Kīlauea tephra . In particular , the saddle between the two volcanoes is currently depressed , and is likely to fill over in the future .
All historical eruptions at Kīlauea have occurred at one of three places : its summit caldera , its eastern rift zone , or its southwestern rift zone . Half of Kīlauea 's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , capped by a massive explosive eruption in 1924 before petering out by 1934 . Recent activity has mostly shifted to Kīlauea 's eastern rift zone , the site of 24 historical eruptions , located mostly on its upper section ; by contrast , the volcano 's southwestern rift zone has been relatively quiet , and has only been the site of five events to date .
= = Eruptive history = =
= = = Prehistoric eruptions = = =
Geologists have dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano 's long history , bridging the long gap between Kīlauea 's oldest known rock and only extremely recent written records and historical observation . Historical lava flows from the volcano are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways . The oldest flows , dating back 275 @,@ 000 to 225 @,@ 000 years , have been recovered from Kīlauea 's submerged southern slope by ship @-@ towed remotely operated vehicles . These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early , submerged preshield @-@ stage eruptive episodes , from when the volcano was still a rising seamount that had not yet breached the ocean surface , and their surface exposure is unusual , as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by more recent flows .
The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples ; however , the cores have proved difficult to date , and several samples from depths of around 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) that suggested dates as old as 450 @,@ 000 years have since been found erroneous . More reliable paleomagnetic dating , limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea 's emergence from the sea , has suggested ages of around 50 @,@ 000 years . Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger . Some of the oldest reliably dated rock , 43 @,@ 000 years old , comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali ; however , sampled dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m ( 20 ft ) per thousand years , indicating the oldest exposed flows , from the base of the feature , could date back as far as 70 @,@ 000 years . This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow , a southwestern rift zone flow with an uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC .
The oldest well @-@ studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member , the product of explosive eruptions between 2 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 100 years ago . Although it has since been largely buried by younger flows , it remains exposed in some places , and has been traced more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the volcano 's caldera , evidence of very powerful eruptions . Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time , termed the Powers Caldera , 2 km ( 1 mi ) away from the modern one . At least 1 @,@ 200 years ago , lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure ; this was followed by a period of very voluminous tube @-@ fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit . Following cessation of activity around 400 years ago , eruptions re @-@ centered on the eastern part of Kīlauea 's summit , and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone .
= = = 1790 to 1934 = = =
The earliest reliable written records of historical activity date back to about 1820 , and the first well @-@ documented eruption occurred in 1823 , when the volcano was first put under observation ; although Native Hawaiians are thought to have first settled on the island around 1 @,@ 500 years ago , oral records predating European arrival on the island are few and difficult to interpret . One pre @-@ contact eruption in particular , a phreatomagmatic event in 1790 , was responsible for the death of a party of warriors , part of the army of Keōua Kuahuʻula , the last island chief to resist Kamehameha I 's rule ; their death is evidenced by a set of footprints preserved within the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Kilauea has been the site of 61 separate eruptions since 1823 , easily making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth .
During its observed history , the volume of lava erupted by Kīlauea has varied widely . In 1823 Kīlauea 's summit caldera was far deeper than it is today , but was in the process of filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption , with 3 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava erupted there alone by 1840 . The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in eruptive volume , and in the thirty years between then and about 1950 , the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited very little activity ; Kīlauea 's eruptive volume has increased steadily since then , with present activity comparable to that of the early 1800s .
The length and origin these eruptions has also varied . Events last anywhere between days and years , and occur at a number of different sites . Half of all eruptions occur at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907 , continued onwards until 1924 . There have been five historical eruptions at the volcano 's relatively southwestern rift zone , and 24 along its more active eastern rift zone , mostly along its upper section .
The volcano 's observed history has mostly been one of effusive eruptions ; however , this is a relatively recent occurrence . Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans on the island , Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity , evidenced then by tribal chants referencing the volcano 's fickle nature , and today by geological records of an explosively active mode of past activity . Although explosive activity still occurs at the volcano , it is not as intense as it once was , and the volcano would become much more dangerous to the general public if it returned to its old phase of activity once more .
Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832 , but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840 , when its eastern rift zone became the site a large , effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km ( 22 mi ) of its length , unusually long even for a rift eruption . The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava ; the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night , 30 km ( 19 mi ) away .
The volcano was active again in 1868 , 1877 , 1884 , 1885 , 1894 , and 1918 , before its next major eruption in 1918 – 1919 . Halemaʻumaʻu , then a small upwelling in the caldera floor , was topped by a lava lake that then drained , before refilling again , forming an enormous lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of the caldera before draining once more . This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki , building up the large lava shield within the caldera over a period of eight months . The eruption also featured concurrent rift activity and a large amount of lava fountaining .
Activity in 1921 – 1923 followed . The next major eruption occurred in 1924 . Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a fully formed pit crater after the 1919 event and the site of a sizable lava lake , first drained , then quickly began sinking into the ground , deepening to nearly 210 m ( 689 ft ) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash . Explosive activity began on May 10 of that year , blowing rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg ( 99 lb ) 60 m ( 197 ft ) out , and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg ( 20 lb ) out as far as 270 m ( 886 ft ) , and , after a brief reprieve , intensified through a major blast on May 18 , when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption 's only fatality . The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns up to and beyond 9 km ( 6 mi ) in height , before slowly petering down and ending by May 28 . Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit , and ceased completely after 1934 .
= = = 1952 to 1982 = = =
After the Halemaʻumaʻu event , Kīlauea remained relatively quiet , and , for a time , completely silent , with all activity confined to the summit . It came alive again in 1952 with an enormous lava fountain 245 m ( 804 ft ) high at the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m ( 49 and 98 ft ) persisted , and the eruption lasted 136 days . Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954 , 1955 , and 1959 , capped by a large event in 1960 , when fissure @-@ based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive a 'a flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts ; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever @-@ active Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further .
Following the event , eruptive events yearly and nearly continuous , a state of activity that remains today . 1967 – 1968 saw a particularly large , 80 @-@ million @-@ cubic @-@ meter , 251 @-@ day event from Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . This event was superseded the very next year by the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption , a large effusive eruption which lasted from May 24 , 1969 to July 24 , 1974 and added 230 acres ( 93 ha ) of new land to the island . After eruptive activity had died down , there was a magnitude 7 @.@ 2 earthquake that caused a partial summit collapse , after which activity did not resume at Kīlauea until 1977 .
The Mauna Ulu eruption of Kīlauea began on May 24 , 1969 , and ended on July 22 , 1974 . At the time , Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history . The eruption created a new vent , covered a large area of land with lava , and added new land to the island . The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters , ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae , where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form . Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano . Early on , fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters ( 1772 ft ) high . In early 1973 , an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka .
= = = 1983 - present = = =
The most recent major eruption at Kīlauea has also proved to be by far its eruption of longest @-@ known duration . The current Kīlauea eruption began on January 3 , 1983 , along the eastern rift zone . The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone , sending lava flows down the volcano 's slope . In 1986 , activity shifted down the rift to a new vent , named Kūpaʻianahā , where it took on a more effusive character . Kūpaʻianahā built up a low , broad volcanic shield , and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km ( about 7 mi ) to the sea . Between 1986 and 1991 , Chain of Craters Road was cut , and the community of Kapa ’ ahu , the village of Kalapana , and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava . A black sand beach at Kaimu was also engulfed . In 1992 , the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō , but continued in the same manner , covering nearly all of the 1983 – 86 lava flows and large areas of coastline . As of December 2012 , the eruption had produced 4 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava , covered 125 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land , added 202 ha ( 499 acres ) of land to the island , destroyed 214 structures , and buried 14 @.@ 3 km ( 9 mi ) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m ( 115 ft ) .
In December 2014 , the June 27 flow from the ongoing eruption threatened to enter the town of Pahoa , and to cut Highway 130 , the only route into and out of Lower Puna . As a result , work was begun to reopen Chain of Craters Road , initially as a one @-@
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I have no passion for it . ' – Johnson continued . ' Mankind have a great aversion to intellectual labour ; but even supposing knowledge to be easily attainable , more people would be content to be ignorant than would take even a little trouble to acquire it.'
In an article printed in the Gentleman 's Magazine , Hester Piozzi , Smart 's acquaintance and Johnson 's close friend , argued that in many aspects Smart appears sane :
In every other transaction of life no man 's wits could be more regular than those of Smart , for this prevalence of one idea pertinaciously keeping the first place in his head had in no sense , except in what immediately related to itself , perverted his judgement at all ; his opinions were unchanged as before , nor did he seem more likely to fall into a state of distraction than any other man ; less so , perhaps , as he calmed every violent start of passion by prayer .
Beyond Smart 's circle of friends , few were willing to dismiss claims that Smart was affected by madness . Most contemporary literary critics knew of Smart 's time in asylum and , upon publication of his A Song to David , called attention to aspects of the poem which they could use to claim that Smart was still " mad " . The view was widely held , and the poet William Mason wrote to Thomas Gray , " I have seen his Song to David & from thence conclude him as mad as ever . "
= = = 19th century = = =
It was a century before a positive twist was put on Christopher Smart 's time in asylum ; the Victorian poet Robert Browning argued that A Song to David was great because Smart was mad at the time . In his poem Parleyings ( 1887 ) , Browning claimed :
Armed with this instance , have I diagnosed
Your case , my Christopher ? The man was sound
And sane at starting : all at once the ground
Gave way beneath his step
* * * * *
Then — as heaven were loth
To linger ; — let earth understand too well
How heaven at need can operate — off fell
The flame @-@ robe , and the untransfigured man
Resumed sobriety , — as he began ,
So did he end nor alter pace , not he !
To Browning , Smart 's temporary madness was what allowed him to compose in A Song to David poetry similar to that of John Milton and John Keats . Christopher Smart , as Browning 's poem continued ,
pierced the screen
'Twixt thing and word , lit language straight from soul , —
Left no fine film @-@ flake on the naked coal
Live from the censer
Browning 's remarks brought about a later appreciation of A Song to David and Smart 's madness . A review of Browning 's Parleying claimed that Christopher Smart was " possessed by his subject ... and where there is true possession – where the fires of the poet 's imagination are not choked by self @-@ consciousness or by too much fuel from the intellect – idiosyncracy , mannerism , and even conventional formulae are for the time ' burnt and purged away ' . "
The 19th @-@ century poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti emphasised the benefits of Smart 's madness and claimed that A Song to David was " the only great accomplished poem of the last century . " Two years later , Francis Palgrave continued the theme when he wrote that the Song exhibited " noble wildness and transitions from grandeur to tenderness , from Earth to Heaven " and that it was " unique in our Poetry . " Seven years after Palgrave , critic John Churton Collins agreed with Rossetti and Palgrave , but to a lesser extent , when he wrote , " This poem stands alone , the most extraordinary phenomenon , perhaps , in our literature , the one rapt strain in the poetry of the eighteenth century , the work of a poet who , though he produced much , has not produced elsewhere a single line which indicates the power here displayed . "
= = = 20th century and contemporary = = =
Twentieth @-@ century critics favoured the view that Smart suffered from some kind of mental distress when writing his poems . A review by " Mathews " titled " Thin Partitions " , in 30 March 1901 The Academy , claimed that :
Now Christopher Smart was a very beggarly poet of the eighteenth century [ ... ] but had not the smallest claim to rank with those great men beyond their common trade of poem . Kit Smart , in fact , though he wrote a pestilent deal of verse , could not write poetry — nor anything else [ ... ] Legally mad , that is ; for he appears to have been very mad in his senses , and a decent citizen out of them . He went mad — legally and medically — once , and nothing came out of it , perhaps because he was not mad enough . Then he went mad again and being duly shut up in Bedlam wrote one of the finest outbursts of lyric genius in the eighteenth century — perhaps the finest @-@ before the advent of Blake [ ... ] Smart regained his senses , and therewith his hopeless inability to write poetry . And he never did anything after .
In 1933 , A. E. Housman sided with Browning 's and Mathew 's interpretation and connected Smart 's madness with poetic genius in his lecture The Name and Nature of Poetry : " As matters actually stand , who are the English poets of that age in whom pre @-@ eminently one can hear and recognize the true poetic accent emerging clearly from the contemporary dialect ? These four : Collins , Christopher Smart , Cowper , and Blake . And what other characteristic had these four in common ? They were mad . " In 1994 , Branimir Rieger differed from Housman 's view by distancing Smart from the others when he argued that " Collins and Cowper pine as isolated individuals , guiltily aware of a vitality that is not finally human but divine . Smart soars beyond individuality to embrace that vitality , but at a cost of all human relationship . "
However , there are many that disagreed that Smart suffered from madness ; Edward Ainsworth and Charles Noyes , when discussing Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , said , " The mind that composed this hymn was not deranged . Yet in the poem one sees the morbidly religious mind which , in disorder , was to produce the Jubilate Agno , and , with order restored , the Song to David . Additionally , they claimed that Smart 's
preternatural excitement to prayer seems to have been poor Smart 's only real mental aberration , unless his drunkenness be considered pathological . When his mind was removed entirely from the field of prayer , he was but little changed from his sane state . His powers of reason , though thus warped , were not taken from him , and he neither raved nor sank into mental lethargy .
Nevertheless , Ainsworth and Noyes were not completely sceptical about Smart 's diagnosis when they continued : " But when the desire to pray struck him , Smart abandoned what the world chose to call rationality . "
In 1960 , psychiatrist Russel Brain diagnosed Smart as suffering from cyclothymia or manic depression . Brain based his diagnosis on Smart 's own claims about how he felt , and he concluded that " in Smart 's case the mental illness was not the result of his drunkenness , but he drank because he was mentally unstable . " Arthur Sherbo , in 1967 , argued that " The nature of Smart 's madness is impossible to diagnose at this distance in time " and then argued that :
since Battie himself pronounced him uncured , he must have been subject to hallucinations . Strong drink , taken often enough and in sufficient quantity , will have that effect , of course , but Battie , distinguishing between ' original ' and ' consequential ' madness [ ... ] would allow only that excessive drinking could ' become a very common , tho ' remoter cause of Madness . ' Others differed : John Ball in his Modern Practice of Physic , 1760 , lists ' anxiety of mind ' and too much ' strong vinous or spirituous liquors ' as ' antecedent causes ' of madness . Smart 's mania , however it manifested itself , and it usually manifested itself in loud public prayer , did not stem from drunkenness ; it was aggravated , however , by frequent recourse to the bottle . Ironically enough , as Mrs. Piozzi recognised , if Smart had prayed in the privacy of his home , all might have been well for him .
The possible religious component of Smart 's condition was taken up by 20th @-@ century critics as an explanation for why the 18th century saw Smart as mad . Laurence Binyon , in 1934 , believed that religion played a major role in how society viewed Smart : " Smart 's madness seems to have taken the form of a literal interpretation of the injunction Pray without ceasing . He embarrassed visitors by insisting on their joining him in his supplications [ ... ] Obsession with a fixed idea is a common form of insanity . But such obsessions are a mental imprisonment ; whereas the Song is unmistakably the expression of a great release . " Binyon 's idea was picked up by Sophia Blaydes , in 1966 , who pointed out that society was prejudiced against those who experienced enthusiasm , a strong spiritual connection to God . It was against religious prejudice that she argued ,
The cause of Smart 's eclipse may be traced in part to a prejudice of the age , one which was founded in reason but developed in fear . There was one inescapable fact which hampered any clear perception of Smart 's work — he had been confined for madness . It was easier to use a difficult allusion or unusual image as evidence of madness than to interpret it . What could cause a fundamentally rational group of people to react so irrationally ? To some degree , it was the fear of ' enthusiasm ' .
In the 18th century , as Blaydes continued , the word changed from possessed by god to inspired to falsely inspired . The result of this change was that British society viewed enthusiasm as the enemy to both reason and social order . Thus , " Smart , the hack @-@ writer , would not have been greeted by a hostile audience , but Smart , the enthusiast , would have been condemned immediately . The result would be obvious : his past work , previously lauded , would be ignored , and his future work would receive immediate condemnation. such was the history of Smart 's contemporary reputation . " In determining if Smart was really mad or not , Blaydes concluded , " in Smart 's day , any sign of enthusiasm would have been cause for the judgment of madness [ ... ] Two accounts of Smart and the nature of his madness have been preserved for us . Each permits some doubt that the poet was mad and could be regarded so in any age . "
Frances Anderson , in 1974 characterised Smart 's " illness " as insanity and obsession , but believed that " Smart 's madness consisted of his efforts to obey literally St Paul 's injunction to the Thessalonians : ' Pray without ceasing . ' " During his episodes of illness , as Anderson continued , Smart " probably suffered some periods of delirium " but also " appeared to know what he was doing " . Smart 's actions were similar to 18th @-@ century Methodists that were " addicted to public prayer with what was thought to be overly charged high spirits . Such displayers of religious emotionalism were often confined not only to private madhouses , but also to Bedlam " . Later , in 1998 , Charles Rosen pointed out that " The Enlightenment condemned religious enthusiasm as appropriate for the uneducated and the great unwashed " and " it is understandable that the only original and vital religious poetry between 1760 and 1840 should have been written by poets considered genuinely mad by their contemporaries : Smart , Blake , and Hölderlin . "
Accounts at the end of the 20th century focused on the effects of Smart 's confinement . Clement Hawes , following Michel Foucault 's interpretation of the 18th century that there was an " ' animality ' of madness " , believed that Smart emotionally connected with animals because of the " medical stigmatization " he felt at the hands of his fellow man . Chris Mounsey , agreeing with Hawes 's interpretation , believed that Smart 's treatment was " a bestializing process and had taught him to hold his tongue and sit out his time as quietly as possible . " Contrary to the bestialisation , Allan Ingram argued that Jubilate Agno was " a poetic phenomenon that would have demolished contemporary poetic orthodoxies had it been publishable . The mad individual presented a gross distortion of the human form that nevertheless insisted on remaining human , but mad language could be even more disturbing . "
= My Mother , the Fiend =
" My Mother , the Fiend " is the ninth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ first episode overall . Directed by Nick Marck , the episode was co @-@ written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode was first shown on November 30 , 2005 , on UPN .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica finds her mother 's old high school records and starts digging into her mother 's past , discovering information about the Kane family in the process . Meanwhile , Beaver ( Kyle Gallner ) proposes a business plan to help Kendall ( Charisma Carpenter ) .
" My Mother , the Fiend " features the third and final appearance by Alyson Hannigan on the show . The show 's crew found it difficult to work an episode into Hannigan 's schedule because of other projects . The episode was accompanied by an alternate ending , a publicity move made by executive producer Joel Silver and the UPN promotions department . The episode was initially viewed by 2 @.@ 82 million viewers and received mostly positive reviews . For example , Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , wrote " I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . "
= = Synopsis = =
In health class , the whole class starts taking care of fake babies . Vice Principal Clemmons ( Duane Daniels ) calls Veronica into his office and gives her detention for having keys to his file cabinet . Beaver walks up to Mac ( Tina Majorino ) and asks her for a few favors . For Veronica ’ s detention , she has to alphabetize files and put them in cabinets . Veronica finds her mother ’ s permanent file and figures out that she was troubled in high school . Logan ( Jason Dohring ) punches Weevil ( Francis Capra ) and Logan 's cronies beat up on him . Veronica talks to a teacher and finds out that Lianne and that teacher spread false rumors around the school and got suspended because of it . Weevil gets duct @-@ taped to the flagpole . Veronica asks Vice Principal Clemmons about who might have known her mom in high school . Veronica talks to Principal Moorhead , who tells her that her mom was “ vicious . ” Trina ( Alyson Hannigan ) is coming back to perform in a play at Neptune High . Kendall tries to seduce Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) again . Trina meets Kendall , and the interaction is rife with sarcasm . Veronica looks through her mom ’ s yearbook and eventually tracks down one of her mother ’ s old friends , who provides more information on the love triangle between Celeste ( Lisa Thornhill ) , Jake ( Kyle Secor ) , and Lianne .
Veronica asks Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) about Lianne ’ s suspension , which she thinks was about spreading a rumor that Celeste was pregnant . Keith says that he doesn ’ t know anything about it . Trina slips and falls during a play rehearsal . Beaver meets with Kendall and confronts her about selling his father ’ s possessions for little money . Beaver gives her his plan , which involves her being the face of his business idea . Keith checks the birth records and finds that no baby was born to either “ Kane ” or “ Carnathan ” ( Celeste ’ s maiden name ) at that time . However , he finds a mysterious baby found in the girl ’ s bathroom at the Neptune high prom . Veronica bad @-@ mouths Celeste in Duncan ’ s room before Celeste comes in and Veronica learns that Duncan never told his parents about their relationship . Celeste insults Veronica ’ s mother , and Veronica deduces that Celeste ’ s cleaning lady , Astrid , is probably her daughter . Weevil confronts Logan angrily , and they fight , despite agreeing that they need to team up to find out who actually killed Felix .
Mac shows her work to Beaver , which involves his new business project . Veronica , under a disguise , meets with the prom baby ’ s temporary foster mom . Veronica learns that the baby ’ s foster mother committed suicide and her father was in jail , hinting that the baby is Trina Echolls . Veronica talks to Trina and tells her the news of her parentage . Trina actually wants her story to go to the tabloids . However , a deaf lunch lady storms in and says that she ’ s actually Trina ’ s mother . The lunch lady says that Lianne was a friend who covered up her pregnancy to protect her . Trina ’ s father is Principal Moorehead , and Trina confronts him about leaving her at the prom in front of many faculty . Veronica finds the dead rat that Keith picked up at the bus . Veronica finds out that Principal Clemmons deliberately gave Veronica her detention task so that she would find her mother ’ s permanent file and frame Principal Moorehead . Veronica picks up Abel Koontz ’ s ( Christian Clemenson ) belongings and walks into Meg ’ s ( Alona Tal ) room and discovers that Meg is pregnant .
= = Production = =
Directed by Nick Marck , " My Mother , the Fiend " was written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode marks Klemmer 's eighth writing credit , the fifth and penultimate writing credit for North , and Marck 's seventh directing credit . Despite being credited , Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) , and Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) do not appear in the episode . Among the episode 's guest stars are Alyson Hannigan and Charisma Carpenter , who portray Trina Echolls and Kendall Casablancas , respectively . The two previously starred together in Buffy the Vampire Slayer , with Hannigan playing Willow Rosenberg and Carpenter portraying Cordelia Chase . Although the two characters had appeared previously , they had never shared a scene together . Jason Dohring , who portrays Logan , stated that he had a special connection with Hannigan on @-@ set : " We get together and just tease each other , she sucker @-@ punches me . There ’ s just a total , I don ’ t know , we really have a sister @-@ brother thing going on . I ’ ve never had that kind of connection with an actress before . It totally works . " Dohring also noted that Hannigan responded strongly to any spoilers that she was given during filming of the episode .
" My Mother , the Fiend " also marks Hannigan 's third and final guest appearance on the show . Hannigan was open to appearing in another episode , but she was unsure whether or not her busy schedule would allow it . She also felt that the character 's arc had come to a natural close in this episode . In an interview , Rob Thomas said that due to her busy schedule , it was difficult to write an episode featuring Hannigan . On Hannigan 's role in the episode and her future availability , Thomas commented :
Well , to work around Alyson ’ s schedule is really difficult for us . It ’ s hard to plan to write an episode with Alyson in it because we don ’ t know exactly what her free days are . Even the episode that we did with her , there was a huge kerfuffle , we actually had to slide that story line one episode down from when we originally wrote that . We ’ ve loved having Alyson in the show , and I ’ m sure we will again , some day , if she ’ s willing , because we ’ ve had a lot of fun with her . But we have nothing booked with her right now .
The episode also features a reappearance by Celeste Kane ( Lisa Thornhill ) , a recurring character during the first season . The second season DVD includes an alternate ending to this episode , which was released around the airing of the episode as a promotional tool . The alternate ending starts the same way as the regular ending , with Veronica discovering that Meg is pregnant . But instead of the episode ending there , Meg 's mom comes into the room while Veronica hides in the bathroom . When the mom leaves , Meg is dead with a pillow over her face , indicating smothering . However , Veronica takes the pillow off before a nurse comes in . Thomas commented that the alternate ending was never going to be the actual conclusion to the episode . He said : " We never seriously considered having that be the ending . There were various other endings that we did have , but they were so subtly different , it was like , ' When does Veronica enter the room ? ' " The idea to promote the alternate ending was a joint venture from the UPN promotions department and executive producer Joel Silver . After Thomas learned that others wanted an alternate ending , he decided to make it very different from the episode 's actual conclusion . " But once we could have a [ very different ] alternate ending , we thought , ' Let 's make it rock . ' The beauty of having that alternate ending is that we don 't have to play it out in the next episode . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " My Mother , the Fiend " received 2 @.@ 82 million viewers , marking an increase from " Ahoy , Mateys ! " and ranking 101st ( out of 112 ) in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Price Peterson , of TV.com , gave the episode a positive review , writing that he " [ l ] oved this episode . That reveal was simultaneously shocking and heartbreaking . Plus it took one of the show 's most annoying characters ( Trina ) and made her both sympathetic and heartbreaking . " He also praised the information found on Veronica 's mother : " It was nice that Veronica got to see a better side of her mother than we usually do … Heartwarming ! " Maureen Ryan , of the Chicago Tribune , called the episode " engrossing " and that it is a better use of a viewer 's time than Lost , which aired at the same time as Veronica Mars .
Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , lauded Veronica 's characterization as an antiheroine in the episode . " I 've discussed times when [ Veronica has ] behaved in ways that I 'm not certain are ethical , but this might be the most blatant case . [ … ] Once again , I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " . Alan Sepinwall singled out the scene between Carpenter and Hannigan and the Weevil and Logan subplot as particular points of praise . Sepinwall also called the alternate ending " an interesting little feature " while going on to state that he was " glad the real show didn 't go in that direction . "
BuzzFeed ranked the episode 48th on its ranking of Veronica Mars episodes , writing that it made the viewer " bored . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode 19th .
= Rochdale Town Hall =
Rochdale Town Hall is a Victorian @-@ era municipal building in Rochdale , Greater Manchester , England . It is " widely recognised as being one of the finest municipal buildings in the country " , and is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . The Town Hall functions as the ceremonial headquarters of Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council and houses local government departments , including the borough 's civil registration office .
Built in the Gothic Revival style at a cost of £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) , it was inaugurated for the governance of the Municipal Borough of Rochdale on 27 September 1871 . The architect , William Henry Crossland , was the winner of a competition held in 1864 to design a new Town Hall . It had a 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) clock tower topped by a wooden spire with a gilded statue of Saint George and the Dragon , both of which were destroyed by fire on 10 April 1883 , leaving the building without a spire for four years . A new 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone clock tower and spire in the style of Manchester Town Hall was designed by Alfred Waterhouse , and erected in 1888 .
Art critic Nikolaus Pevsner described the building as possessing a " rare picturesque beauty " . Its stained glass windows are credited as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . The building came to the attention of Adolf Hitler , who was said to have admired it so much that he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had the United Kingdom been defeated in the Second World War .
= = History = =
Rochdale had developed into an increasingly large , populous , and prosperous urban mill town since the Industrial Revolution . Its newly built rail and canal network , and numerous factories , resulted in the town being " remarkable for many wealthy merchants " . In January 1856 the electorate of the Rochdale constituency petitioned the Privy Council for the grant of a charter of incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , to constitute the town as a municipal borough . This would give it limited political autonomy via an elected town council , comprising a mayor , aldermen , and councillors , to oversee local affairs . The petition was successful and the charter was granted in September 1856 . The newly formed Rochdale Corporation — the local authority for the Municipal Borough of Rochdale — suggested plans to build a town hall in which to conduct its business in May 1858 . The site of an abandoned 17th @-@ century house known as The Wood was proposed . Six months later , in April 1860 , Rochdale Corporation arranged to buy the site on the outskirts of the town centre for £ 4 @,@ 730 (
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February 1945 it was tasked with securing a forward supply base near Dogreto Bay and clearing up to the Anumb River , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east of the river . They came up against only minor opposition and by 23 February they had crossed the Anumb ; less than a month later they had progressed 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east , occupying the coastal town of But and removing the Japanese from the Dagua area .
During this time , contact with the Japanese was limited to small @-@ scale actions rather than a large general action ; nevertheless , these actions caused heavy casualties as the Japanese defended stubbornly . Casualties amongst the Australians were , according to author Eustace Keogh , " heavy in relation to the size of ... the numerous small actions the Japanese forced them to fight " . In addition , the strenuous nature of the campaign reduced the troops ' resistance and ability to undertake proper medical precautions and as a result there were large numbers of sickness casualties . Malaria took a particularly heavy toll , with troops being affected by a particularly strong strain that proved resistant to the normal doses of atebrine . Accidents also resulted in losses . In one incident , seven men from the 2 / 3rd drowned when the Danmap River flooded amidst a torrential downpour .
Wewak was captured on 10 May 1945 , and the 16th Brigade began pursuing the Japanese defenders that had withdrawn inland . They continued until 11 August , when offensive operations ceased after word was received that the Japanese had entered into ceasefire talks . The battalion was in the Mount Shiburangu area on 15 August when news came that the Japanese had surrendered following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The battalion 's losses during its final campaign were 51 killed and 76 wounded .
= = = Disbandment = = =
After the cessation of hostilities , the battalion remained in the Aitape – Wewak area undertaking occupation duties . Its strength was slowly reduced as personnel were repatriated to Australia for demobilisation or transferred to other units for further service . Eventually , the remaining cadre of personnel returned to Australia , and on 8 February 1946 the 2 / 3rd Battalion disbanded in Brisbane , as one of the most decorated battalions of the 2nd AIF . They had fought all the major Axis powers : the Italians , Germans , Vichy French and Japanese . Alongside the Australian 2 / 5th Battalion , they were the only Allied troops able to make this claim . During its service a total of 3 @,@ 303 men served with the 2 / 3rd Battalion of whom 203 were killed and 432 wounded . Members of the 2 / 3rd received four Distinguished Service Orders , 16 Military Crosses , 12 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 30 Military Medals , two British Empire Medals and 73 Mentions in Despatches .
In 1948 , the Militia units that had fought during the war were re @-@ raised as part of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , and it was decided to entrust the battle honours of the 2nd AIF units to their associated CMF units . As a result , the 2 / 3rd Battalion 's battle honours were passed to the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) , which was reformed around Canberra . In 1960 , with the introduction of the Pentropic division into the Australian Army , the CMF was reorganised and the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) was reduced to company strength , forming ' C ' Company , 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 3 RNSWR ) . In 1965 , following the abandonment of the Pentropic divisional structure , the 3rd Battalion was reformed in its own right as the individual companies were split up to form new battalions with the old regionally based numerical designations . In 1987 , however , following another reorganisation of the Army Reserve which saw a reduction in the number of the infantry battalions across Australia , 3 RNSWR was linked with 4 RNSWR to become 4th / 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 4 / 3 RNSWR ) .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 3rd Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the war :
North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Syria 1941 , Damascus 1941 , Dimas , Damour , Greece 1941 , Mount Olympus , Tempe Gorge , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 , Kokoda Trail , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II , Oivi – Gorari , Buna – Gona and Sanananda Road .
These battle honours are now carried by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the 2 / 3rd Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England ( 1939 – 41 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb ( 1941 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Stevenson ( 1941 – 43 ) ; and
Lieutenant Colonel Ian Hutchison ( 1943 – 46 ) .
= Cyclone Mala =
Cyclone Mala was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2006 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . In mid @-@ April , an area of disturbed weather formed over the southern Bay of Bengal and nearby Andaman Sea . Over a period of several days , the system became increasingly organized and was classified as a depression on April 24 . Situated within a region of weak steering currents , the storm slowly intensified as it drifted in a general northward direction . It attained gale @-@ force winds and was named Mala the next day . Conditions for strengthening improved markedly on April 27 and Mala subsequently underwent rapid intensification which culminated in the cyclone attaining its peak . Early on April 28 , the cyclone had estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Mala to have been slightly stronger , classifying it as a Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone . Steady weakening ensued thereafter and the storm made landfall in Myanmar 's Rakhine State on April 29 . Rapid dissipation took place once onshore and Mala was last noted early the next morning .
In contrast to Mala 's intensity , damage was relatively minimal across Myanmar due to adequate early warnings , while timely and effective evacuations minimized loss of life along the coast . The greatest damage resulted from a thunderstorm near Yangon on April 28 that spawned a possible tornado in an industrial zone . A total of 586 homes were damaged there . Just outside the city in the Hinthada District , a flash flood killed at least 18 people . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives in the country and left US $ 6 @.@ 7 million in damage . In the wake of Mala , the Red Cross distributed relief aid to affected residents while local officials set up shelters to house those left homeless . Government and social organizations donated 5 @.@ 4 million kyat ( US $ 4 @,@ 320 ) in cash to survivors in the Ayeyarwady Region .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid- to late @-@ April , a pulse in the Madden – Julian oscillation , coupled with a Kelvin wave , ( which later contributed to the formation of Typhoon Chanchu in the western Pacific ) enhanced convective activity over the Bay of Bengal . By April 22 , a trough developed along an axis from the southern Bay of Bengal eastward to the Andaman Sea . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the system for potential tropical cyclogenesis the following day . By 0600 UTC on April 24 , an area of low pressure formed southeast of the Andaman Islands and the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) began monitoring the disturbance . Quickly organizing , the low developed into a tropical depression later on April 24 and the JTWC began writing full advisories on the cyclone without issuing a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Organization slowed thereafter due to moderate wind shear , but continued at a near @-@ climatological rate as upper @-@ level outflow allowed for continued convective development . Early on April 25 , the JTWC estimated the system to have attained gale @-@ force winds . The IMD followed suit later that day and subsequently assigned it the name Mala . Weak steering currents prompted slow and erratic movement with an overall northward trajectory .
Forecasters at this time anticipated little intensification as the system was expected to move into a region of higher shear . However , on April 27 , the system moved under a subtropical ridge and conditions quickly became favorable for intensification . The presence of the ridge greatly enhanced the outflow over the cyclone and an eye developed by 1200 UTC . By this time , both the JTWC and IMD estimated Mala to have attained hurricane @-@ force winds with the latter classifying it as a very severe cyclonic storm . The previously weak steering currents became more established as well , with the storm now tracking northeast toward Myanmar through a weakness in a ridge over Southeast Asia . Situated in an area with sea surface temperatures of 28 to 29 ° C ( 82 to 84 ° F ) , the cyclone was able to undergo rapid intensification as wind shear abruptly diminished . The IMD estimated Mala to have reached its peak intensity at 0900 UTC on April 28 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 954 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's strength via satellite imagery , the agency gave Mala a rating of T # 5 @.@ 5 which yields an intensity of 189 km / h ( 117 mph ) .
The JTWC estimated Mala to have been a stronger system , with peak winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a pressure of 922 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 23 inHg ) — equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Their Dvorak values peaked at T # 6 @.@ 5 or 235 km / h ( 146 mph ) . As the powerful storm approached Myanmar , the combined effects of increasing wind shear and land interaction soon took their toll on Mala . At 0700 UTC on April 29 , Mala made landfall just south of Thandwe in Myanmar 's Rakhine State as a very severe cyclonic storm . The JTWC estimated winds at this time to have been 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Rapid weakening ensued once the cyclone moved onshore . Within 12 hours of landfall , Mala weakened to a deep depression and was last noted as a dissipating system earl on April 30 .
Sea surface temperatures in the wake of Cyclone Mala decreased up to 4 – 5 ° C ( 7 – 9 ° F ) due to upwelling . From April 28 – 29 , the low @-@ level inflow associated affected much of the northern Bay of Bengal and resulted in northwesterly winds as far away as Hyderabad , India . These winds brought dry , dust filled air over the bay with mean particulate @-@ matter doubling over the region .
= = Preparations = =
On April 26 , the local Department of Meteorology and Hydrology in Myanmar stated that the Ayeyarwady , Bago Region , and Yangon regions were likely to be affected within two days and Rakhine State within three days . Officials began broadcasting storm warning to the public over radio the following day . Evacuations of at @-@ risk coastal areas were conducted , though specifics are unknown . Once the storm moved inland , residents across the country were advised of the likelihood of widespread heavy rain from the remnant system .
Despite never being forecast to strike Bangladesh , officials there warned residents that the storm could strike the nation and cause loss of life . Cautionary signals were raised at ports in Chittagong , Cox 's Bazar , and Mongla , advising seafaring vessels to remain docked until the storm 's passage . Roughly 34 @,@ 000 members of the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society were placed on standby for possible relief efforts .
Flash flood warnings were issued across northern Thailand on April 29 under the threat of heavy rains from Mala 's remnants .
= = Impact = =
Throughout almost the entire existence of Mala , it produced rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar islands . Daily totals peaked on April 27 at 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in Car Nicobar .
After moving through Myanmar , Mala brought heavy rains to northern Thailand . According to local meteorologists the storm also accelerated the onset of the seasonal monsoon which would contribute to a wetter @-@ than @-@ average year for the region .
= = = Myanmar = = =
Though Mala struck Myanmar as a powerful cyclone , early warnings and proper evacuations minimized loss of life along coastal areas . Additionally , no major storm surge was reported , limiting the potential for major damage . The most significant effects were caused inland from torrential rains rather than at the coast . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives and left 1 @.@ 24 billion kyat ( US $ 6 @.@ 7 million ) in damage . Approximately 12 @,@ 000 families were significantly affected by the cyclone .
Rakhine State suffered a direct hit from the cyclone , with Gwa Township reporting the worst damage . There , 88 homes were destroyed and 1 @,@ 246 more were damaged . One person was killed and at least four others were injured in the township . Ra Haing Ku Toe village suffered significant losses as well , with 132 homes destroyed and 531 more damaged . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 57 m ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) struck the region , but did not impact populated areas .
Across the Irrawaddy Delta , hurricane @-@ force winds caused extensive damage to housing and infrastructure . Haigyi Island was the first area struck by the storm . Several homes were destroyed and many more lost their roof there . Thunderstorms from the storm 's outer bands on April 28 damaged 586 homes in Hlaingthaya Township . Residents described what appeared to be a tornado as the cause of the damage . The Hlaingthaya industrial zone was hardest hit , with five factories destroyed and dozens of homes having their roof torn off . Locals , however , claimed that the damage was more severe than reported by the government . Cars were reportedly tossed into the air during the storm . Two people were killed and fourteen others were injured in Hlaingthaya . The winds also downed numerous power lines , leaving many without electricity . In Labutta Township , near the southern tip of the Delta , 88 homes were destroyed . In the Hinthada District , torrential rains caused flash flooding that killed 18 people and left 14 others missing .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
By May 1 , the local branch of the Red Cross distributed essential supplies to residents in Labutta Township . In coordination with the Disaster Assistance Response Team , the areas in greatest need for aid were identified and requests for tarpaulin were made . Members of the Cabinet of Burma donated 3 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 2 @,@ 960 ) in cash and 140 bags of rice to victims in the Ayeyarwady Region . On May 3 , another 1 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 1 @,@ 360 ) was donated by social organizations to residents in rural areas outside Yangon . Temporary shelters were set up across Gwa Township . Local donations provided residents in the town with 200 @,@ 000 kyat ( US $ 160 ) worth of blankets , clothes , and cash . A local newspaper , The New Light of Myanmar , claimed that government officials immediately provided assistance to affected residents across the country . Red Cross operations continued through November 30 , by which time 3 @,@ 485 families were provided with aid . Additionally , though the agency planned to assist 4 @,@ 000 families with rebuilding their homes , a lack of necessary funds prevented the operation . Instead , a cash donation was provided to the 1 @,@ 000 most affected families .
= George W. Johnson ( governor ) =
George Washington Johnson ( May 27 , 1811 – April 8 , 1862 ) was the first Confederate governor of Kentucky . A lawyer @-@ turned @-@ farmer from Scott County , Kentucky , Johnson favored secession as a means of preventing the Civil War , believing the Union and Confederacy would be forces of equal strength , each too wary to attack the other . As political sentiment in the Commonwealth took a decidedly Union turn following the elections of 1861 , Johnson was instrumental in organizing a sovereignty convention in Russellville , Kentucky with the intent of " severing forever our connection with the Federal Government . " The convention created a Confederate shadow government for the Commonwealth , and Johnson was elected its governor .
Despite his meager political experience — having previously served only three years in the Kentucky House of Representatives — Johnson labored vehemently to ensure the success of the shadow government . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 , but the shadow government 's influence in the Commonwealth extended only as far as the Confederate Army advanced . When Albert Sidney Johnston abandoned the Confederate capital of Bowling Green , Governor Johnson and the other government officials accompanied him . Despite his advanced age and a crippled arm , Johnson volunteered for military service in General Johnston 's army . Johnson was killed at the Battle of Shiloh , making him the only state governor , Union or Confederate , to fall in battle during the Civil War . He was succeeded by Richard Hawes , the second and last governor of Confederate Kentucky .
= = Early life and career = =
George Washington Johnson was born on May 27 , 1811 near Georgetown in Scott County , Kentucky , the son of major William and Betsy Payne Johnson . Major Johnson died soon after the close of the War of 1812 , in which he was a participant , and George Johnson was reared in the home of his stepfather , John Allen . Johnson received three degrees from Transylvania University : an A.B. in 1829 , an LL.B. in 1832 , and an M.A. in 1833 . On August 20 , 1833 , he married Ann Eliza Viley , daughter of Captain Willa and Lydia Smith Viley . The couple had ten children , seven of whom lived to adulthood .
Johnson briefly practiced law in Georgetown , but decided he preferred farming . He owned a 300 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) farm near Georgetown , as well as a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) plantation in Arkansas . In 1838 , Johnson was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was offered the nominations for lieutenant governor and U.S. Congressman , but declined them both . In August 1845 , Johnson headed the Committee of Sixty that seized abolitionist Cassius M. Clay 's printing press and shipped it to Cincinnati , Ohio .
= = Civil War = =
Although he supported John C. Breckinridge for president in 1860 , he did not feel that Abraham Lincoln 's election justified secession , since Republicans controlled neither Congress nor the Supreme Court . As the Confederate States of America were formed , however , Johnson began to lose hope for Kentucky as a part of the Union . Instead , he began to advocate that Kentucky join the Confederacy , believing that the Union and Confederate nations would be too evenly matched to consider war and would negotiate a free trade agreement that would benefit both .
In 1861 , Johnson traveled to Richmond , Virginia to ask Jefferson Davis to respect Kentucky 's neutrality in the Civil War . Following a near sweep of Kentucky 's state and federal elections by Union sympathizers , William " Bull " Nelson established Camp Dick Robinson , a Union recruiting camp , in Garrard County . Southern sympathizers saw this as a breach of the Commonwealth 's neutrality , and called a State Rights Convention on September 10 , 1861 . Johnson was among the delegates from seventy Kentucky counties who attended the convention . The delegates elected Richard Hawes as chair , called for a restoration of Kentucky 's neutrality in the war , and condemned the Federal government for its " invasion . " This last @-@ minute effort to prevent Kentucky from aiding the Union was unsuccessful , and Johnson , a known Southern sympathizer , fled to Virginia with Breckinridge and others to avoid potential arrest by Union forces . From Virginia , Johnson traveled through Tennessee to Bowling Green where , despite his age ( 49 ) and a crippled arm , he volunteered as an aid to General Simon B. Buckner .
= = = Russellville Convention = = =
On October 29 , 1861 , a group of Kentuckians — Johnson among them — met at Russellville , Kentucky to discuss the formation of a Confederate government for the Commonwealth , believing the Unionist government in Frankfort did not represent the will of the majority of Kentucky 's citizens . Johnson chaired the committee that authored the convention 's final report , and personally introduced some of its key resolutions . The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government . Johnson , Breckinridge , and Humphrey Marshall were among the notable members of the Committee of Ten that made arrangements for the convention .
On November 18 , 1861 , 116 delegates representing 68 Kentucky counties convened at the Clark House in Russellville . Over the next three days , a shadow government was established with Bowling Green as its temporary capital . Johnson was unanimously chosen as governor of the new Confederate state .
= = = Confederate governor = = =
On November 21 , 1861 , Johnson wrote Confederate president Jefferson Davis to request Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Though Davis had some reservation about the circumvention of the elected General Assembly in forming the Confederate government , he concluded that Johnson 's request had merit . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 .
During the winter of 1861 , Johnson tried mightily to assert the legitimacy of the fledgling government , but to no avail . Its jurisdiction extended only as far as the area controlled by the Confederate Army . Johnson came woefully short of raising the 46 @,@ 000 troops requested by the Confederate Congress in Richmond . Efforts to levy taxes and to compel citizens to turn over their guns to the government were similarly unsuccessful . On January 3 , 1862 , Johnson requested a sum of $ 3 million from the Confederate Congress to meet the provisional government 's operating expenses . The Congress instead approved a sum of $ 2 million , the expenditure of which required approval of Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin and President Davis .
During his labors to sustain the provisional government , Johnson 's lack of hearing from his family weighed heavily upon him . The only family member with whom he had contact was his son Madison ( " Matty " ) , who had joined John Hunt Morgan 's cavalry . Johnson admired and respected Morgan , and was pleased that his son had chosen to serve under him . In 1862 , he requested by letter that his wife send their fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son Junius to serve in the Confederate Army . Despite Johnson 's protestations that he would ensure his son 's safety , his wife refused this request .
It was Johnson 's practice to avoid interference with military decisions , however he supported Morgan 's request for two light artillery pieces that became hallmarks of his command . By contrast , he consistently opposed the command of General Lloyd Tilghman , trying repeatedly but unsuccessfully to have him removed . It is unclear how much military influence Johnson wielded in his position as governor , though he enjoyed a cordial relationship with most of the Confederate generals .
= = = Death at the Battle of Shiloh = = =
When General Albert Sydney Johnston was forced to withdraw his troops from Bowling Green in February 1862 , the Confederate state government moved with his army to Tennessee . On April 6 , 1862 , General Johnston attacked the Union army at Shiloh , Tennessee . During this battle , Governor Johnson served as a volunteer aide to General Breckinridge and Colonel Robert P. Trabue . After his horse was killed out from under him , Johnson fought on foot with Company E of the Fourth Kentucky Infantry Regiment , and insisted on being sworn in as a private . He declared " I will take a good night 's rest and be ready for the fight tomorrow . "
The next day , Governor Johnson was seriously wounded in the right thigh and abdomen . He lay wounded on the battlefield until the next morning , when he was recognized by Union General Alexander McDowell McCook . Johnson and McCook had both attended the 1860 Democratic National Convention and were both Freemasons . Johnson was taken aboard the Union hospital ship Hannibal , where despite the ministrations of several physicians , he died on April 8 . Friends in the Union army , including General John M. Harlan , packed Johnson 's body in salt and shipped it to Louisville , then on to Georgetown for burial .
= Edwin of Northumbria =
Edwin ( Old English : Ēadwine ; c . 586 – 12 October 632 / 633 ) , also known as Eadwine or Æduinus , was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death . He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627 ; after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase , he was venerated as a saint .
Edwin was the son of Ælle king of Deira and seems to have had ( at least ) two siblings . His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith , king of neighbouring Bernicia . An otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric , who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith , wife to Æthelric , the brother of king Anna of East Anglia .
= = Early life and exile = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reported that on Ælle 's death a certain " Æthelric " assumed power . The exact identity of Æthelric is uncertain . He may have been a brother of Ælle , an elder brother of Edwin , an otherwise unknown Deiran noble , or the father of Æthelfrith . Æthelfrith himself appears to have been king of " Northumbria " — both Deira and Bernicia — by no later than 604 . During the reign of Æthelfrith , Edwin was an exile . The location of his early exile as a child is not known , but late traditions , reported by Reginald of Durham and Geoffrey of Monmouth , place Edwin in the kingdom of Gwynedd , fostered by king Cadfan ap Iago , so allowing biblical parallels to be drawn from the struggle between Edwin and his supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon . By the 610s he was certainly in Mercia under the protection of king Cearl , whose daughter Cwenburg he married .
By around 616 , Edwin was in East Anglia under the protection of king Raedwald . Bede reports that Æthelfrith tried to have Raedwald murder his unwanted rival , and that Raedwald intended to do so until his wife persuaded him otherwise with Divine prompting . Æthelfrith faced Raedwald in battle by the River Idle in 616 , and Æthelfrith was defeated ; Raedwald installed Edwin as king of Northumbria . Raedwald 's son Raegenhere may have been killed at this battle , but the exact date or manner of Raedwald 's death are not known . He likely died between the years 616 – 627 , and the efficacy of Edwin ’ s kingship ostensibly depended greatly on his fealty to Raedwald .
Edwin was installed as king of Northumbria , effectively confirming Raedwald as bretwalda : Æthelfrith 's sons went into exile in Irish Dál Riata and Pictland . That Edwin was able to take power not only in his native Deira but also in Bernicia may have been due to his support from Raedwald , to whom he may have remained subject during the early part of his reign . Edwin 's reign marks an interruption of the otherwise consistent domination of Northumbria by the Bernicians and has been seen as " contrary to the prevailing tendency " .
= = Edwin as king = =
With the death of Æthelfrith , and of the powerful Æthelberht of Kent the same year , Raedwald and his client Edwin were well placed to dominate England , and indeed Raedwald did so until his death a decade later . Edwin expelled Ceretic from the minor British kingdom of Elmet in either 616 or 626 . Elmet had probably been subject to Mercia and then to Edwin . The larger kingdom of Lindsey appears to have been taken over c . 625 , after the death of king Raedwald .
Edwin and Eadbald of Kent were allies at this time , and Edwin arranged to marry Eadbald 's sister Æthelburg . Bede notes that Eadbald would agree to marry his sister to Edwin only if he converted to Christianity . The marriage of Eadbald 's Merovingian mother Bertha had resulted in the conversion of Kent and Æthelburg 's would do the same in Northumbria .
Edwin 's expansion to the west may have begun early in his reign . There is firm evidence of a war waged in the early 620s between Edwin and Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi , king of the Ulaid in Ireland . A lost poem is known to have existed recounting Fiachnae 's campaigns against the Saxons , and the Irish annals report the siege , or the storming , of Bamburgh in Bernicia in 623 – 624 . This should presumably be placed in the context of Edwin 's designs on the Isle of Man , a target of Ulaid ambitions . Fiachnae 's death in 626 , at the hands of his namesake , Fiachnae mac Demmáin of the Dál Fiatach
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ibniz of plagiarism . The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud . This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study 's concluding remarks on Leibniz . Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter 's death in 1716 .
Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem , valid for any exponent . He discovered Newton 's identities , Newton 's method , classified cubic plane curves ( polynomials of degree three in two variables ) , made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences , and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations . He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms ( a precursor to Euler 's summation formula ) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series . Newton 's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin 's decimals . A very useful modern account of Newton 's mathematics was written by the foremost scholar on Newton 's mathematics , D.T. Whiteside or Tom Whiteside . Tom Whiteside translated and edited all of Newton 's mathematical writings and at the end of his life wrote a summing up of Newton 's work and its impact . This was published in 2013 as a chapter in a book edited by Bechler .
When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the " College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity " in 1667 , he made the commitment that " I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [ 7 years ] arrives , or I will resign from the college . " Up till this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty @-@ nine articles , the basis of Church of England doctrine .
He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow 's recommendation . During that time , any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest . However , the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church ( presumably so as to have more time for science ) . Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement , and Charles II , whose permission was needed , accepted this argument . Thus a conflict between Newton 's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted .
= = = = Optics = = = =
In 1666 , Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong , even when the light ray entering the prism is circular , which is to say , the prism refracts different colours by different angles . This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light — a point which had been debated in prior years .
From 1670 to 1672 , Newton lectured on optics . During this period he investigated the refraction of light , demonstrating that the multicoloured spectrum produced by a prism could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism . Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton 's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy .
He also showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects . Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected , scattered , or transmitted , it remained the same colour . Thus , he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already @-@ coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves . This is known as Newton 's theory of colour .
From this work , he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours ( chromatic aberration ) . As a proof of the concept , he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem . Building the design , the first known functional reflecting telescope , today known as a Newtonian telescope , involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique . Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal , using Newton 's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes . In late 1668 he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope . It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image . In 1671 , the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope . Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes , Of Colours , which he later expanded into the work Opticks . When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton 's ideas , Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate . Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679 – 80 , when Hooke , appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions , which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke 's death .
Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles , which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium . He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films ( Opticks Bk.II , Props . 12 ) , but still retained his theory of ' fits ' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted ( Props.13 ) . However , later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction . Today 's quantum mechanics , photons , and the idea of wave – particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton 's understanding of light .
In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 , Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles . The contact with the theosophist Henry More , revived his interest in alchemy . He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles . John Maynard Keynes , who acquired many of Newton 's writings on alchemy , stated that " Newton was not the first of the age of reason : He was the last of the magicians . " Newton 's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science . This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science . Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance , across a vacuum , he might not have developed his theory of gravity . ( See also Isaac Newton 's occult studies . )
In 1704 , Newton published Opticks , in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light . He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles , that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation " Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another , ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition ? " Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator , using a glass globe .
In an article entitled " Newton , prisms , and the ' opticks ' of tunable lasers " it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander . In the same book he describes , via diagrams , the use of multiple @-@ prism arrays . Some 278 years after Newton 's discussion , multiple @-@ prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow @-@ linewidth tunable lasers . Also , the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple @-@ prism dispersion theory .
Subsequent to Newton , much has been amended . Young and Fresnel combined Newton 's particle theory with Huygens ' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light 's wavelength . Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics . The German poet and scientist , Goethe , could not shake the Newtonian foundation but " one hole Goethe did find in Newton 's armour , ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible . He therefore thought that the object @-@ glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect , achromatism and refraction being incompatible . This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong . "
= = = = Mechanics and gravitation = = = =
In 1679 , Newton returned to his work on ( celestial ) mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler 's laws of planetary motion . This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679 – 80 with Hooke , who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions . Newton 's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680 – 1681 , on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed . After the exchanges with Hooke , Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum , a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society 's Register Book in December 1684 . This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia .
The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley . In this work , Newton stated the three universal laws of motion . Together , these laws describe the relationship between any object , the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion , laying the foundation for classical mechanics . They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years . Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non @-@ relativistic technologies in the modern world . He used the Latin word gravitas ( weight ) for the effect that would become known as gravity , and defined the law of universal gravitation .
In the same work , Newton presented a calculus @-@ like method of geometrical analysis using ' first and last ratios ' , gave the first analytical determination ( based on Boyle 's law ) of the speed of sound in air , inferred the oblateness of Earth 's spheroidal figure , accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon 's gravitational attraction on the Earth 's oblateness , initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon , provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets , and much more .
Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System — developed in a somewhat modern way , because already in the mid @-@ 1680s he recognised the " deviation of the Sun " from the centre of gravity of the Solar System . For Newton , it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest , but rather " the common centre of gravity of the Earth , the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World " , and this centre of gravity " either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line " ( Newton adopted the " at rest " alternative in view of common consent that the centre , wherever it was , was at rest ) .
Newton 's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing " occult agencies " into science . Later , in the second edition of the Principia ( 1713 ) , Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium , writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction , as they did ; but they did not so far indicate its cause , and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena . ( Here Newton used what became his famous expression " hypotheses non @-@ fingo " ) .
With the Principia , Newton became internationally recognised . He acquired a circle of admirers , including the Swiss @-@ born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier .
= = = Classification of cubics and beyond = = =
Descartes was the most important early influence on Newton the mathematician . Descartes freed plane curves from the Greek and Macedonian limitation to conic sections , and Newton followed his lead by classifying the cubic curves in the plane . He found 72 of the 78 species of cubics . He also divided them into four types , satisfying different equations , and in 1717 Stirling , probably with Newton 's help , proved that every cubic was one of these four types . Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them , and this was proved in 1731 .
According to Tom Whiteside ( 1932 – 2008 ) , who published 8 volumes of Newton 's mathematical papers , it is no exaggeration to say that Newton mapped out the development of mathematics for the next 200 years , and that Euler and others largely carried out his plan .
= = = Later life = = =
In the 1690s , Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible . A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5 : 7 and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament , remained unpublished until 1785 .
Even though a number of authors have claimed that the work might have been an indication that Newton disputed the belief in Trinity , others assure that Newton did question the passage but never denied Trinity as such . His biographer , scientist Sir David Brewster , who compiled his manuscripts for over 20 years , wrote about the controversy in well @-@ known book Memoirs of the Life , Writings , and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton , where he explains that Newton questioned the veracity of those passages , but he never denied the doctrine of Trinity as such . Brewster states that Newton was never known as an Arian during his lifetime , it was first William Whiston ( an Arian ) who argued that " Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists , as well as for the Eusebians or Arians , that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations , " while other like Hopton Haynes ( a Mint employee and Humanitarian ) , " mentioned to Richard Baron , that Newton held the same doctrine as himself " .
Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 ) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 ) — were published after his death . He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy ( see above ) .
Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 – 90 and 1701 – 2 , but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed .
Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 , a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu , 1st Earl of Halifax , then Chancellor of the Exchequer . He took charge of England 's great recoining , somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas , Governor of the Tower ( and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley ) . Newton became perhaps the best @-@ known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699 , a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life . These appointments were intended as sinecures , but Newton took them seriously , retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701 , and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters .
As Warden , and afterwards Master , of the Royal Mint , Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit . Counterfeiting was high treason , punishable by the felon 's being hanged , drawn and quartered . Despite this , convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult . However , Newton proved equal to the task .
Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns , he gathered much of that evidence himself . For all the barriers placed to prosecution , and separating the branches of government , English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority . Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties — there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton 's personal first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time . Then he conducted more than 100 cross @-@ examinations of witnesses , informers , and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 . Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners .
As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty 's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717 , forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings . This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports , while exports were paid for in gold , effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard . It is a matter of debate as whether he intended to do this or not . It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work .
Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences . In his position at the Royal Society , Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed , the Astronomer Royal , by prematurely publishing Flamsteed 's Historia Coelestis Britannica , which Newton had used in his studies .
In April 1705 , Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College , Cambridge . The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705 , rather than any recognition of Newton 's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint . Newton was the second scientist to be knighted , after Sir Francis Bacon .
Newton was one of many people who lost heavily when the South Sea Company collapsed . Their most significant trade was slaves , and according to his niece , he lost around £ 20 @,@ 000 .
Towards the end of his life , Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park , near Winchester with his niece and her husband , until his death in 1727 . His half @-@ niece , Catherine Barton Conduitt , served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London ; he was her " very loving Uncle , " according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox .
Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 ( OS 20 March 1726 ; NS 31 March 1727 ) and was buried in Westminster Abbey . Voltaire may have been present at his funeral . A bachelor , he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years , and died intestate . His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton . After his death , Newton 's hair was examined and found to contain mercury , probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits . Mercury poisoning could explain Newton 's eccentricity in late life .
= = = Personal relations = = =
Although it was claimed that he was once engaged , Newton never married . The French writer and philosopher Voltaire , who was in London at the time of Newton 's funeral , said that he " was never sensible to any passion , was not subject to the common frailties of mankind , nor had any commerce with women — a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments " . The widespread belief that he died a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles Hutton , economist John Maynard Keynes , and physicist Carl Sagan .
Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier , whom he met in London around 1690 . Their intense relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693 , and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown . Some of their correspondence has survived .
In September of that year , Newton had a breakdown which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke . His note to the latter included the charge that Locke " endeavoured to embroil me with woemen " .
= = After death = =
= = = Fame = = =
The mathematician Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived , and once added that Newton was also " the most fortunate , for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish . " English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton 's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph :
Nature and nature 's laws lay hid in night ;
God said " Let Newton be " and all was light .
Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements , famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676 :
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants .
Two writers think that the above quotation , written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries , was an oblique attack on Hooke ( said to have been short and hunchbacked ) , rather than — or in addition to — a statement of modesty . On the other hand , the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants , published among others by seventeenth @-@ century poet George Herbert ( a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College ) in his Jacula Prudentum ( 1651 ) , had as its main point that " a dwarf on a giant 's shoulders sees farther of the two " , and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the ' dwarf ' .
In a later memoir , Newton wrote :
I do not know what I may appear to the world , but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea @-@ shore , and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary , whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me .
In 1816 , a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £ 730 ( us $ 3 @,@ 633 ) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring . The Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth , which would value approximately £ 25 @,@ 000 ( us $ 35 @,@ 700 ) in late 2001 . Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed .
Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell . Newton remains influential to today 's scientists , as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain 's Royal Society ( formerly headed by Newton ) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science , Newton or Einstein . Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution . In 1999 , an opinion poll of 100 of today 's leading physicists voted Einstein the " greatest physicist ever ; " with Newton the runner @-@ up , while a parallel survey of rank @-@ and @-@ file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton .
= = = Commemorations = = =
Newton 's monument ( 1731 ) can be seen in Westminster Abbey , at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen , near his tomb . It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack ( 1694 – 1770 ) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent . The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus , his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll
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with a mathematical design . Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680 . A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism . The Latin inscription on the base translates as :
Here is buried Isaac Newton , Knight , who by a strength of mind almost divine , and mathematical principles peculiarly his own , explored the course and figures of the planets , the paths of comets , the tides of the sea , the dissimilarities in rays of light , and , what no other scholar has previously imagined , the properties of the colours thus produced . Diligent , sagacious and faithful , in his expositions of nature , antiquity and the holy Scriptures , he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good , and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners . Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race ! He was born on 25 December 1642 , and died on 20 March 1726 / 7 . — Translation from G.L. Smyth , The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul 's Cathedral , and of Westminster Abbey ( 1826 ) , ii , 703 – 4 .
From 1978 until 1988 , an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £ 1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England ( the last £ 1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England ) . Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope , a prism and a map of the Solar System .
A statue of Isaac Newton , looking at an apple at his feet , can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History . A large bronze statue , Newton , after William Blake , by Eduardo Paolozzi , dated 1995 and inspired by Blake 's etching , dominates the piazza of the British Library in London .
= = Religious views = =
Although born into an Anglican family , by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that , had it been made public , would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity ; in recent times he has been described as a heretic .
By 1672 he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently been examined . They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed , he took the side of Arius , the loser , who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity . Newton " recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man , who was subordinate to the Father who created him . " He was especially interested in prophecy , but for him , " the great apostasy was trinitarianism . "
Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement . At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair .
In Newton 's eyes , worshipping Christ as God was idolatry , to him the fundamental sin . Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton , " Isaac Newton was a heretic . But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith — which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical . He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs . " Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser ( he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books ) , possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti @-@ trinitarian .
In a minority view , T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view on the Trinity . However , this type of view ' has lost support of late with the availability of Newton 's theological papers ' , and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist .
Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton 's best @-@ known discoveries , he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine , as if akin to a great clock . He said , " Gravity explains the motions of the planets , but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion . God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done . "
Along with his scientific fame , Newton 's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy . Newton wrote works on textual criticism , most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture . He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April , AD 33 , which agrees with one traditionally accepted date .
He believed in a rationally immanent world , but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza . The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood , and must be understood , by an active reason . In his correspondence , Newton claimed that in writing the Principia " I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity " . He saw evidence of design in the system of the world : " Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice " . But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system , due to the slow growth of instabilities . For this , Leibniz lampooned him : " God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time : otherwise it would cease to move . He had not , it seems , sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion . "
Newton 's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence . A century later , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace 's work " Celestial Mechanics " had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don 't require periodic divine intervention .
= = = Effect on religious thought = = =
Newton and Robert Boyle 's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts , and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians . The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism , and at the same time , the second wave of English deists used Newton 's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a " Natural Religion " .
The attacks made against pre @-@ Enlightenment " magical thinking " , and the mystical elements of Christianity , were given their foundation with Boyle 's mechanical conception of the Universe . Newton gave Boyle 's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and , perhaps more importantly , was very successful in popularising them .
Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation .
= = = Occult = = =
In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible , he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060 . In predicting this he said , " This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be , but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end , and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail . "
= = = Alchemy = = =
In the character of Morton Opperly in " Poor Superman " ( 1951 ) , speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton , " Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist . Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy , looking for the philosopher 's stone . That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find . "
Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton 's papers , about one million deal with alchemy . Many of Newton 's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts , with his own annotations . Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation , often hidden behind layers of wordplay , allegory , and imagery to protect craft secrets . Some of the content contained in Newton 's papers could have been considered heretical by the church .
In 1888 , after spending sixteen years cataloging Newton 's papers , Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth . In 1936 , a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby ’ s . The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £ 9 @,@ 000 . John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction . Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton 's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946 .
All of Newton 's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University : " The Chymistry of Isaac Newton " . The project is headed by William R. Newman . Here is a quote from the project web site .
Newton 's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction , the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors , and the formulation of the calculus . Yet there is another , more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known , a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life , although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues . We refer to Newton 's involvement in the discipline of alchemy , or as it was often called in seventeenth @-@ century England , " chymistry . "
= = Enlightenment philosophers = =
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo , Boyle , and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural law to every physical and social field of the day . In this respect , the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded .
It was Newton 's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology . Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights ; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self @-@ interest to economic systems ; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress . Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton 's work , but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature .
= = Apple incident = =
Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree . Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment , acquaintances of Newton ( such as William Stukeley , whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society ) do in fact confirm the incident , though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton 's head . Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton 's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726 :
we went into the garden , & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees ; only he , & my self. amidst other discourse , he told me , he was just in the same situation , as when formerly , the notion of gravitation came into his mind . " why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground , " thought he to himself ; occasion 'd by the fall of an apple , as he sat in a contemplative mood . " why should it not go sideways , or upwards ? but constantly to the earths center ? assuredly , the reason is , that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter . & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center , not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly , or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter ; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth , as well as the earth draws the apple .
John Conduitt , Newton 's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton 's niece , also described the event when he wrote about Newton 's life :
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire . Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity ( which brought an apple from a tree to the ground ) was not limited to a certain distance from earth , but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought . Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so , that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit , whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition .
In similar terms , Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry ( 1727 ) , " Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens , had the first thought of his system of gravitation , upon seeing an apple falling from a tree . "
It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends , in an inverse @-@ square proportion , to the Moon ; however it took him two decades to develop the full @-@ fledged theory . The question was not whether gravity existed , but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit . Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance , one could indeed calculate the Moon 's orbital period , and get good agreement . He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions , and hence named it " universal gravitation " .
Various trees are claimed to be " the " apple tree which Newton describes . The King 's School , Grantham , claims that the tree was purchased by the school , uprooted and transported to the headmaster 's garden some years later . The staff of the [ now ] National Trust @-@ owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this , and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton . A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College , Cambridge , below the room Newton lived in when he studied there . The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale can supply grafts from their tree , which appears identical to Flower of Kent , a coarse @-@ fleshed cooking variety .
= = Works = =
= = = Published in his lifetime = = =
De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas ( 1669 , published 1711 )
Method of Fluxions ( 1671 )
Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation ( unpublished , c . 1671 – 75 )
De motu corporum in gyrum ( 1684 )
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( 1687 )
Opticks ( 1704 )
Reports as Master of the Mint ( 1701 – 25 )
Arithmetica Universalis ( 1707 )
= = = Published posthumously = = =
The System of the World ( 1728 )
Optical Lectures ( 1728 )
The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 )
De mundi systemate ( 1728 )
Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 )
Newton , Isaac ( 1991 ) . Robinson , Arthur B. , ed . Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel , and the Apocalypse of St. John . Cave Junction , Oregon : Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine . ISBN 0 @-@ 942487 @-@ 02 @-@ 8 . ( A facsimile edition of the 1733 work . )
An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture ( 1754 )
= HMS Furious ( 47 ) =
HMS Furious was a modified Courageous @-@ class battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty , Lord John Fisher , the ship was very lightly armoured and designed to be armed with only two heavy guns ( 18 @-@ inch ) , one forward and one aft , plus a number of lesser guns . Furious was modified and became an aircraft carrier while under construction . Her forward turret was removed and a flight deck was added in its place , so that aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land . Later in the war , the ship had her rear turret removed and a second flight deck installed aft of the superstructure , but this was less than satisfactory due to air turbulence . Furious was briefly laid up after the war before she was reconstructed with a full @-@ length flight deck in the early 1920s .
After her conversion , Furious was used extensively for trials of naval aircraft and later as a training carrier once the new armoured carriers like Ark Royal entered service in the late 1930s . During the early months of the Second World War the carrier spent her time hunting for German raiders in the North Atlantic and escorting convoys . This changed dramatically during the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940 when her aircraft provided air support to British troops ashore in addition to attacking German shipping . The first of what would be a large number of aircraft ferry missions was made by the carrier during the campaign . After the withdrawal of British troops in May , Furious made several anti @-@ shipping strikes in Norway with little result before beginning a steady routine of ferrying aircraft for the Royal Air Force .
At first Furious made several trips to West Africa , but she began to ferry aircraft to Gibraltar in 1941 . An unsuccessful attack on German @-@ occupied ports on the Arctic Ocean interrupted the ferry missions in mid @-@ 1941 . Furious was given a lengthy refit in the United States and spent a few months training after her return in April 1942 . She made several more ferry trips in mid @-@ 1942 before her aircraft attacked airfields in Vichy French Algeria as part of the opening stages of Operation Torch in November 1942 . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until February 1943 when she was transferred to the Home Fleet .
Furious spent most of 1943 training , but made a number of attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz and other targets in Norway during the first half of 1944 . By September 1944 , the ship was showing her age and she was placed in reserve . Furious was decommissioned in April 1945 , but was not sold for scrap until 1948 .
= = Design and description = =
During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on ships with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .
Furious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 88 feet ( 26 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 24 feet 11 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 513 long tons ( 19 @,@ 826 t ) normally and 22 @,@ 890 long tons ( 23 @,@ 257 t ) at deep load . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . Furious and her half @-@ sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save design time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the RN with geared turbines , was copied and simply duplicated to provide two sets of turbines . The four Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers that were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship 's speed was an estimated 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) , but she never ran her sea trials .
Furious was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 762 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 211 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship was designed to carry two BL 18 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two single turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of 11 BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted before the funnel . Furious also mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .
Even as she was being built , Furious was modified with a large hangar capable of housing ten aircraft on her forecastle that replaced the forward turret . A 160 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) flight deck was built along its roof . Aircraft were flown off and , rather less successfully , landed on this deck . Floatplanes like the Short Type 184 used a four @-@ wheel trolley that ran down a track along the centre of the flight deck for take @-@ off . Aircraft were lifted by crane from the hangar to the flight deck . Although the aft turret was fitted and the gun tested , it was not long before Furious returned to her builders for further modifications . In November 1917 , the rear turret was replaced by a 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck for landing aircraft over another hangar . Her funnel and superstructure remained intact , with a narrow strip of decking around them to connect the fore and aft flight decks . Turbulence from the funnel and superstructure was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden . Her 18 @-@ inch guns were reused on Lord Clive @-@ class monitors General Wolfe and Lord Clive during the war .
Furious was laid down on 8 June 1915 at Armstrong Whitworth 's Low Walker shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne . The ship was launched on 18 August 1916 and commissioned on 26 June 1917 . As completed , her complement numbered 737 officers and enlisted men .
= = Aircraft landing and the First World War = =
On 2 August 1917 , while performing trials , Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning landed a Sopwith Pup , believed to have been N6453 , successfully on board Furious , becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship . On 7 August , he made one more successful landing in the same manner , but on his third attempt , in Pup N6452 , the engine choked and the aircraft crashed off the starboard bow , killing him . The deck arrangement was unsatisfactory because aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure in order to land .
In the meantime , all three Courageous @-@ class ships were assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron ( CS ) in October 1917 when the Admiralty received word of German ship movements on 16 October , possibly indicating a raid . Admiral Beatty , commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Furious was detached from the 1st CS and ordered to sweep along the 56th parallel as far as 4 ° East and to return before dark . Her half @-@ sisters Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed the Scandinavia convoy during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st CS was ordered to attempt to intercept the German ships , but they proved to be faster than hoped and the British ships were unsuccessful .
Furious returned to the dockyard in November to have the aft turret removed and replaced by another deck for landing , giving her both a launching and a recovery deck . Two lifts ( elevators ) serving the hangars were also installed . Furious was recommissioned on 15 March 1918 , and her embarked aircraft were used on anti @-@ Zeppelin patrols in the North Sea after May . In July 1918 , she flew off seven Sopwith Camels which participated in the Tondern raid , attacking the Zeppelin sheds there with moderate success .
= = Conversion = =
= = = Overview = = =
Furious was laid up after the war , but was converted to an aircraft carrier with a continuous flight deck between June 1921 and September 1925 . Her design was based on experience gained with the first two British carriers , Argus and Eagle , although this was very limited as Argus was less than three years old and Eagle had only carried out 143 deck landings during her preliminary sea trials in 1920 .
The ship 's superstructure , masts , funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 @-@ by @-@ 92 @-@ foot ( 175 @.@ 6 by 28 @.@ 0 m ) flight deck that extended over three @-@ quarters of her length . This flight deck was not level ; it sloped upwards about three @-@ quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft , which had no brakes at that time . The fore @-@ and @-@ aft 320 @-@ foot ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) arresting gear was not intended to stop landing aircraft — the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind — but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck . Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges used minimised turbulence .
Furious was not lengthened , but her beam was increased 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) to 89 feet .75 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) and her average draught was now 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) deeper than before the conversion . She displaced 22 @,@ 500 long tons ( 22 @,@ 900 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load , over 3000 long tons more than her previous displacement . Her metacentric height was 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load , a reduction of 1 @.@ 48 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) after her conversion . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 30 @.@ 03 knots ( 55 @.@ 62 km / h ; 34 @.@ 56 mph ) . Her fuel capacity was increased by 700 long tons ( 710 t ) during her reconstruction , which increased her range to 5 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) or 7 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 850 km ; 8 @,@ 610 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
A two @-@ level hangar was built under the flight deck , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height per level . The lower hangar was 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long by 35 – 50 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and the upper was 520 by 50 feet ( 158 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 2 m ) . Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers . Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck or , when landing operations were in progress , out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship . This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space , made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree . Her original flying @-@ off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters which improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility allowing the ship to simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck or to speedily fly off her aircraft from both decks . Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck . Like Argus , Furious was flush @-@ decked and lacked an island superstructure to minimise any turbulence over the flight deck ; instead she had a navigating position at the leading edge of the flight deck , starboard , and was provided with a retractable charthouse forward , on the flight deck centreline . The ship could normally only carry about 36 aircraft .
Two 47 @-@ by @-@ 46 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) lifts ( elevators ) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars . No arresting gear was fitted and two 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) ready @-@ use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship 's boats on the upper deck . An additional 20 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 l ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) of petrol were in bulk storage . In 1939 , her complement consisted of 41 officers and 754 crewmen .
= = = Armament = = =
Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech @-@ loading 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) guns , five on each side , for self @-@ defence from enemy warships . Six QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti @-@ aircraft guns . Four were mounted on the sides of the flying @-@ off deck and two on the quarterdeck . The four guns on the flying @-@ off deck were removed in 1926 – 27 for trials of the lower flight deck , but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded . Four single QF 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " were installed in 1927 . During Furious 's September 1930 – February 1932 refit , her anti @-@ aircraft outfit was reinforced by the addition of two eight @-@ barrel QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark V pom @-@ pom
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at the forward end of the upper hangar , and gave her a small island on the starboard side . Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939 . As a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1939 Furious embarked 767 Squadron , flying Shark , Swordfish and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers and reconnaissance aircraft , and 769 Squadron , flying Blackburn Skua , Blackburn Roc , and Gloster Sea Gladiator fighters .
= = Second World War = =
Furious remained on training duties , combined with anti @-@ submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland until 2 October 1939 . She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and embarked nine Swordfish aircraft from 816 Squadron and a detachment of three more Swordfish from 818 Squadron . The ship sortied on 8 October with the fleet to unsuccessfully hunt for the German battleship Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway . After returning from this search , Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship Royal Oak in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October , the day before Royal Oak was sunk by U @-@ 47 . Afterwards she was transferred to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where she and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse formed a hunting group for German raiders . Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 . In the darkness on 17 December , the west @-@ bound ocean liner SS Samaria passed through the convoy unseen . She ripped off the horizontal wireless masts on Furious 's starboard side , carried away five overhanging lifeboats from the port side of RMS Aquitania , and just missed the third and fourth ships in line .
= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =
Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 with only eighteen Swordfish from 816 and 818 Squadrons embarked ; no fighters were able to join the ship in time . Sixteen Swordfish made unsuccessful torpedo attacks on German ships in Trondheim harbour the following morning . On 12 April , both squadrons attempted to attack German ships in Narvik in bad weather . Disappointed with the failure of the torpedo attacks the previous day , bombs were carried instead . 818 Squadron , making the first attack , damaged several captured Norwegian ships , but lost two aircraft to flak , although the crews were rescued by the British cruiser Penelope and the destroyer Punjabi . Following 40 minutes behind , 816 Squadron was forced to turn back by heavy weather . One aircraft was lost while landing , but the crew was recovered . Another attack was launched the next day in support of the British ships entering Narvik , but they contributed little and another pair of Swordfish were shot down .
Furious , ordered to remain behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April , departed the Narvik area on 14 April , escorted by three destroyers , to refuel at Tromsø . En route , her Swordfish attacked Junkers Ju 52 transports that had landed on frozen Lake Hartvikvatnet approximately 10 miles ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) north @-@ east of Narvik . Two of the Ju 52s were destroyed and several others damaged . She reached the port on 16 April with only 27 % of her fuel remaining . She stayed there until 18 April when she headed south to scout the Narvik area . She was attacked en route by a single Heinkel He 111 bomber of the II . / KG 26 wing from very high altitude . Two large bombs narrowly missed the ship , the closest only 11 yards ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) off the port side aft . The shock shook her propeller shafts out of alignment and jarred the port inner high @-@ pressure turbine so that she was limited to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Furious remained off the coast of Norway despite the damage and attempted to fly off aircraft on 22 April , despite severe weather , to discourage German aircraft from delivering supplies to the German forces in Narvik . One aircraft was shot down by the Germans and the others returned reporting heavy snowstorms between the ship and Narvik . The weather worsened the next day and Captain Troubridge decided to head to Harstad to check the damage from the near miss . It proved worse than anticipated and he was ordered back to the United Kingdom . Only six of the nine remaining Swordfish were serviceable .
After quick repairs , which included the removal of several rows of turbine blades , Furious returned to Norway on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed Royal Air Force 263 Squadron ; they were flown off on 21 April once their base at Bardufoss was ready . One Gladiator and the guiding Swordfish crashed en route , killing all crewmen . The ship returned to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off , carrying only six Sea Gladiators of 804 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 816 Squadron for self @-@ protection while ferrying 263 Squadron .
On 14 June , carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection , Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax carrying £ 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold bullion . On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft with spare parts and munitions . On his own initiative , Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used to transport sugar to Britain . Upon her arrival , she embarked the rest of 816 Squadron , as well as nine Skuas of 801 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 825 , and made a number of largely unsuccessful air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø in September and October 1940 , at a cost of several aircraft . Both Swordfish squadrons disembarked afterwards to make room as she prepared to resume her role as an aircraft transport .
= = = Ferry duties = = =
Furious loaded 55 aircraft , mostly crated Hawker Hurricane fighters of No. 73 Squadron RAF , in Liverpool on 7 November and sailed for Takoradi , Gold Coast on 15 November where they were flown off or off @-@ loaded on 27 November with the ultimate destination of Egypt . During this time she retained only six Skuas of 801 Squadron for her own protection . Furious was back in Liverpool by 15 December where she embarked 40 more Hurricanes for Takoradi . She sailed on 21 December and joined up with Convoy WS5A and the small carrier Argus . The German cruiser Admiral Hipper encountered the convoy on 25 December , but little damage was inflicted by Admiral Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts . No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and their torpedoes were aboard Furious . After Furious 's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper , space was made to land the Swordfish to load the torpedoes , but the Skuas could not locate Admiral Hipper because of the poor visibility . Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 and arrived back in Britain on 5 February where she was given a brief refit . She made another ferry trip to Takoradi on 4 March , carrying 12 Fairey Fulmars of 807 Squadron and six Swordfish of 825 Squadron for self @-@ defence .
Furious now had a new destination for her ferry trips and she transported 24 Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to Ark Royal to be flown off for Malta . She sailed for a brief refit at Belfast immediately afterwards . While in Belfast she was hit by one small bomb and near @-@ missed by two others during a German air raid in early May , but was only lightly damaged . The ship loaded another batch of 40 Hurricane IIs , plus nine Fulmars from ' X ' Flight of 800 Squadron in Liverpool , and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May . Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern . This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia . Furious loaded 48 more Hurricane IIs and arrived back in Gibraltar on 1 June where some of the fighters were transferred to Ark Royal . The two carriers departed Gibraltar on 4 June and flew off 44 of the 48 fighters . Furious returned to the Clyde for her biggest load of aircraft yet , 64 Hurricanes , leaving room for only nine Swordfish from 816 Squadron on this voyage . Upon her arrival on 25 June she transferred 22 Hurricanes to Ark Royal and that carrier flew them off to Malta the next day . Of the 42 Hurricanes left on Furious , 26 were moved to Ark Royal when she returned on 28 June . This time , however , both carriers sailed to deliver the fighters to their usual take @-@ off point west of Sicily . The tenth of Furious 's aircraft to take off crashed into her island , killing 14 men and starting a serious fire on the flight deck . The blocked flight deck forced the remaining six Hurricanes to remain on board and they were returned to Gibraltar . Furious exchanged 816 Squadron for 818 from Ark Royal , then departed for home .
In July , Furious embarked nine Fulmars of 800 Squadron , ' A ' Flight of 880 Squadron with four Sea Hurricane IBs , nine Swordfish from 812 Squadron and nine Albacores of 817 Squadron to attack the German @-@ occupied ports of Kirkenes , Norway , and Petsamo , Finland , departing Scapa Flow on the 23rd in company with the carrier Victorious , two cruisers and six destroyers . The two carriers and their escorts gathered in Seidisfjord , Iceland , under the command of Rear Admiral Wake @-@ Walker where they refuelled in late July . Furious attacked ships in Petsamo on 30 July with all of her Swordfish and Albacores , escorted by six Fulmars and all four Sea Hurricanes , but there was very little shipping present . One small ship , MV Trotter , was sunk , several oil storage tanks were set afire , and several wooden jetties were torpedoed . The British ships had been spotted before the attack and two Fulmars and an Albacore were shot down by the alerted defences . Furious was short of fuel and had to leave shortly afterwards , but she transferred her Albacores to Victorious to fill up that carrier 's decimated squadrons before she left . Sea Hurricanes of 880 Squadron shot down a shadowing Dornier Do 18 flying boat on 31 July as the ship was leaving .
On 30 August , Furious left Belfast with a load of 49 Hurricanes , carrying three Fulmars of 800 Squadron and four Sea Hurricane IBs of 880A Squadron for self @-@ defence , and nine Swordfish of 812 Squadron for Ark Royal . She arrived in Gibraltar on 6 September and transferred 40 Hurricanes to the other carrier the next day . Ark Royal sailed for the departure point the following day , but could only fly off 14 Hurricanes because some of the Bristol Blenheim bombers used to guide the fighters to Malta failed to make their rendezvous . When Ark Royal returned , she transferred the six Swordfish of 810 Squadron to Furious and both carriers departed that same day to deliver the Hurricanes . This was Furious 's last ferry mission as she was sent to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , for a lengthy refit . She arrived on 7 October and did not return to the United Kingdom until April 1942 .
Furious spent the next three months after her return working up . In August , she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal , but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta . This she did , just as Eagle was torpedoed , but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully . She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day south @-@ east of the Balearic Islands . After this mission , Furious was sent back to the Home Fleet for training . One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch and the ship arrived at Gibraltar on 27 October . She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on 29 August before returning to Gibraltar and being assigned to Force H.
As part of Operation Torch , Furious embarked 12 Supermarine Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron , another 12 Seafire IICs of 807 Squadron and nine Albacores of 822 Squadron to provide air cover for the amphibious landings by the Central Task Force . On the morning of 8 November , Furious 's Seafires strafed the Vichy French airfield at Tafraoui , destroying three aircraft on the ground and shooting down one Dewoitine D.520 fighter , the first air @-@ to @-@ air kill by a Seafire . Eight Albacores , escorted by Sea Hurricanes from two escort carriers , attacked the field at La Senia . They were attacked by D.520s as they began their attack dive , but they destroyed 47 aircraft on the ground despite the loss of an Albacore from anti @-@ aircraft fire and the loss of three and damage to two more against the French fighters . Seafires of 807 Squadron from Furious covered the landings at Oran , engaging a flight of D.520s , shooting down three and destroying about twenty aircraft on the ground .
= = = Home Waters = = =
Furious remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to the Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war . In July , the fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily ; Furious 's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report , then shoot it down . She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training . During the passage of Convoy JW @-@ 57 from the U.K. to Russia in February 1944 , Furious , escorted by the British battleship Anson and the French battleship Richelieu , attacked German shipping off the Norwegian coast on 24 February . The carrier had the Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron aboard , plus the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 Squadron and 830 Squadrons . No aircraft were lost and a beached freighter was destroyed .
In preparation for Operation Tungsten , an attack on the German battleship Tirpitz , Furious and Victorious exchanged Barracuda squadrons , 827 for 831 Squadron , so that the squadrons that trained together could fly together . Furious also embarked 880 Squadron with eight Seafire L.IIC fighters to reinforce the six Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron . On the morning of 3 April , 21 Barracudas of 827 and 830 Squadrons made the first attack just as the Tirpitz was getting under way for sea trials . The Germans were caught entirely by surprise and the Tirpitz 's smokescreen was only just beginning to form . The British aircraft enjoyed a clear view of their target and hit the German battleship six times . An hour later the second wave of 19 Barracudas from 829 and 831 Squadrons arrived and scored eight more hits . Only one Barracuda was shot down from each wave and another crashed on take @-@ off . 801 and 880 Squadrons were retained for fleet air defence during the operation . Tirpitz 's superstructure and upper hull was moderately damaged by the bombs , but her machinery was intact because the Barracuda pilots pressed home their attack below the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) altitude necessary to give their 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bombs enough velocity to penetrate Tirpitz 's main armoured deck . Nonetheless Tirpitz was under repair for three months .
The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later on 23 April , but bad weather prevented any attack from being made that day and for the next several days . Instead , the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø on 26 April , but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships . Furious and the escort carrier Searcher attacked shipping in the vicinity of Kristiansund and sank the ore carrier Almora and the tanker Saarburg for the loss of two aircraft on 6 May . Another attack on Tirpitz by the Home Fleet had to be abandoned on 15 May because of poor weather . Yet another attempt on 28 May was
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= Certifications = =
= Red Rackham 's Treasure =
Red Rackham 's Treasure ( French : Le Trésor de Rackham le Rouge ) is the twelfth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from February to September 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Completing an arc begun in The Secret of the Unicorn , the story tells of young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock as they launch an expedition to the Caribbean to locate the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham .
Red Rackham 's Treasure was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman the year following its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Seven Crystal Balls , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Red Rackham 's Treasure has been cited as one of the most important installments in the series for marking the first appearance of eccentric scientist Cuthbert Calculus , who subsequently became a core character . The story has been variously adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana , as well as for the feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
The synopsis continues a plot begun in The Secret of the Unicorn .
Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock plan an expedition to the West Indies aboard a fishing trawler , the Sirius , to search for the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham . Having previously read three parchments authored by Haddock 's ancestor , Sir Francis Haddock , the duo had discovered the coordinates to what they believe is the treasure aboard the sunken 17th century vessel , the Unicorn . An eccentric , hard @-@ of @-@ hearing inventor named Professor Cuthbert Calculus offers to aid them with the use of his shark @-@ shaped one @-@ man submarine , but they decline his assistance . Setting sail , they are joined by the police detectives Thomson and Thompson and soon discover that Calculus has stowed away on board , bringing his submarine with him .
When they reach the coordinates shown on the parchments , there is no wreckage in sight . Frustrated , Haddock ponders turning back , but Tintin soon realizes the problem : If Sir Francis had used a French instead of an English chart to calculate the position , the coordinates would have been measured on the Paris Meridian rather than the Greenwich Meridian . As they have been using the Greenwich Meridian , they realise that they are too far west .
After traveling to the correct position , they discover an unknown island . There , they find a statue of Sir Francis Haddock and other evidence ; Tintin deduces that Francis Haddock had taken refuge on the island and that the wreck of the Unicorn must be nearby . They locate the wreck using Calculus ' submarine and recover various artefacts from it , but do not find the treasure . Among the artefacts is a strongbox containing old documents revealing that Sir Francis Haddock had been the owner of the country estate Marlinspike Hall . Back in Belgium , Calculus purchases the Hall using funds from the sale of his submarine design , and gives it to Haddock . Tintin and Haddock search the house 's cellars , where Tintin spots a statue of Saint John the Evangelist holding a cross with a globe and eagle at its feet . Tintin suddenly remembers that Francis Haddock 's original three parchments said , " For ' tis from the light that light will dawn , and then shines forth the Eagle 's cross " and realises that this message referred , not to the location of the Unicorn , but to Saint John " the eagle " : his traditional symbol . Tintin locates the island on the globe , presses a secret button he finds there , and discovers Red Rackham 's treasure hidden inside .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest French @-@ language daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , Le Soir was permitted by the German authorities to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé became editor of its new children 's supplement Le Soir Jeunesse , with the help of an old friend , Paul Jamin , and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke , before paper shortages forced Tintin to be serialised daily in the main pages of Le Soir . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which numbered some 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that , without the need to satirise political types , " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be the second half of a series of connected events in two parts which had begun with the previous adventure , The Secret of the Unicorn . This two @-@ part series was the first that Hergé had produced since Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus ( 1934 – 36 ) . However , as Tintin expert Michael Farr related , whereas Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus had been largely " self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained " , the connection between The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be far closer .
= = = Influences = = =
Red Rackham 's Treasure introduced Professor Cuthbert Calculus to The Adventures of Tintin , who became a recurring character . Hergé had made use of various eccentric professors in earlier volumes of the series , such as Sophocles Sarcophagus in Cigars of the Pharaoh , Hector Alembick in King Ottokar 's Sceptre , and Decimus Phostle in The Shooting Star , all of whom prefigure the arrival of Calculus . The character 's deafness had been inspired by a colleague whom Hergé had worked with years earlier at Le Vingtième Siècle . Visually , Calculus was based on a real scientist , the Swiss inventor Auguste Piccard , who had been the first man to explore the stratosphere in a hot air balloon in 1931 . Hergé had observed Piccard walking about Brussels on a number of occasions , however the character of Calculus would be notably much shorter than Piccard . Hergé named this character Tryphon Tournesol ; while the surname meant " sunflower " , the forename was adopted from a carpenter named Tryphon Beckaert whom Hergé had encountered in Boitsfort . Tryphon Tournesol was later renamed Cuthbert Calculus in the English translation and Balduin Bienlein ( meaning " Little Bee " ) for the German translation .
Calculus ' shark @-@ shaped submarine was visually based on a real American submarine ; Hergé had seen a picture of this in a German newspaper . The diving suit worn in the story was also based on clippings that Hergé had accumulated . Similarly , the dockside bar depicted by the cartoonist was based on an illustration that he had collected . The shop where Haddock and Tintin buy the diving equipment , including the suit , was inspired from a picture of a bar which was featured in the German magazine , Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung . The tribal effigy found on a Caribbean island by Sir Francis Haddock was based on a Bamileke tribal statue from Cameroon that Hergé saw in a museum . The Sirius , which had appeared before in The Shooting Star , was named after the SS Sirius , the first ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean solely under steam power , but was visually based upon the design of a trawler , the John @-@ O.88. Hergé had sketched this ship in Ostend docks before obtaining both detailed plans of the trawler from the builders , Jos Boel & Son , and a small @-@ scale model of it from a collector . The undersea wreck of the Unicorn was loosely inspired by images of the wreck of a 17th @-@ century Swedish vessel , the Vasa , which Hergé had collected . The instance in the story in which a shark swallows a large box ( that the characters hope contains the treasure ) is based on a real account of a shark that swallowed a camera from the American underwater photographer Otis Barton , which Hergé had encountered in a French illustrated magazine .
The brief appearance of Dr. Daumière , who warns Haddock to cease drinking alcohol , was an allusion to Hergé 's own physician , Dr. Daumerie . Hergé made a comical reference to the French comedian Sacha Guitry in the story by advertising a play by Guitry titled Me in which Guitry himself plays every role . The adventure was the first to depict Tintin wearing a white shirt under a blue sweater ; this would go on to become the character 's iconic costume .
= = = Publication = = =
Le Trésor De Rackham Le Rouge began serialisation as a daily strip in Le Soir from 19 February 1943 . The title of the new adventure had been announced in an advertisement in the newspaper two days previously . In Belgium , it was then published in a 62 @-@ page book format by Editions Casterman in 1944 . Red Rackham 's Treasure contained one of Hergé 's two favourite illustrations from The Adventures of Tintin . It combines three actions encapsulating a sequence of events into one drawing : Haddock striding up the beach in the foreground , the rowboat being brought ashore in the middle ground , and the Sirius weighing anchor in the background .
Rather than immediately embark on the creation of a new Tintin adventure , Hergé agreed to a proposal that Le Soir 's crime writer , Paul Kinnet , would author a detective story featuring Thomson and Thompson . The story was titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( Thomson and Thompson , Detectives ) , and was illustrated by Hergé .
The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure were the first two Adventures of Tintin to be published in English @-@ language translations for the British market . Published by Casterman , these two editions did not sell well , and have since become rare collector 's items . They would be republished for the British market seven years later , this time by Methuen with translations provided by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper . Farr reported that Red Rackham 's Treasure is the best @-@ selling story in The Adventures of Tintin , while Harry Thompson referred to The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as " the most successful of all Tintin 's adventures " .
= = Critical analysis = =
Harry Thompson stated that the Secrets of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc marked the beginning of the third and central stage of " Tintin 's career " . He furthermore stated that in these two stories , Tintin has been converted from a reporter into an explorer to cope with the new political climate . He stated that in this story , Hergé " abandons the complex plotting of The Secret of the Unicorn in favour of an episodic style of adventure not seen since the early books " . Thompson further draws attention to the arrival of Calculus in the story , describing him as the " third and final member " of Tintin 's " family " . Thompson was critical of the use of colour in the story , stating that much of it looks better in black @-@ and @-@ white , as it was originally printed in Le Soir .
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters observed that both The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure " hold a crucial position " in The Adventures of Tintin as it establishes the " Tintin universe " with its core set of characters . He felt that while religious elements had been present in previous stories , they were even stronger in The Secret of the Unicorn and its sequel , something which he attributed to Van Melkebeke 's influence . Peeters believed that Red Rackham 's Treasure was " an unforgettable book " because it is the volume in which the " family " — meaning Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Calculus — all come together . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline echoed this idea , noting that Hergé had " settled " the three characters in their new home . Focusing on the character of Calculus , he noted that the idea of the eccentric professor was " so universal that it would be inaccurate to point to any one source " , suggesting possible influences from Charlie Chaplin and Hergé 's own father . For Assouline , the professor embodies " the gentle madness and subtle humour in comic strips " . He added that both Red Rackham 's Treasure and its predecessor " reveal Hergé at a new level in his art " , and suggested that the reason for their popularity lay in the fact that they were " the visual continuation of a literary universe that stretches from Jules Verne to Pierre Benoit " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier opined that The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc represents " a turning point " for the series as it shifts the reader 's attention from Tintin to Haddock , who has become " by far , the most interesting character " . They claim that the introduction of Calculus " completes the indispensable triangle that imbues Tintin with its mythic quality . " Asserting that here , Hergé 's " art has reached a degree of near @-@ perfection " , they awarded it five stars out of five .
Michael Farr said that the scene introducing Calculus was " a comic tour de force " marking the start of the " rich vein of humour " that the character brought to the series . Noting that unlike The Shooting Star , this two @-@ book story arc contains " scarcely an allusion to occupation and war " , he praised the arc 's narrative as " perfectly paced , without that feeling of haste " present in some of Hergé 's earlier work .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès characterised the Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as being about the characters going on a " treasure hunt that
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receipt of the letter , Galle and his student Heinrich d 'Arrest discovered Neptune , exactly where Le Verrier had predicted . There remained some slight discrepancies in the giant planets ' orbits . These were taken to indicate the existence of yet another planet orbiting beyond Neptune .
Even before Neptune 's discovery , some speculated that one planet alone was not enough to explain the discrepancy . On 17 November 1834 , the British amateur astronomer the Reverend Thomas John Hussey reported a conversation he had had with French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to George Biddell Airy , the British Astronomer Royal . Hussey reported that when he suggested to Bouvard that the unusual motion of Uranus might be due to the gravitational influence of an undiscovered planet , Bouvard replied that the idea had occurred to him , and that he had corresponded with Peter Andreas Hansen , director of the Seeberg Observatory in Gotha , about the subject . Hansen 's opinion was that a single body could not adequately explain the motion of Uranus , and postulated that two planets lay beyond Uranus .
In 1848 , Jacques Babinet raised an objection to Le Verrier 's calculations , claiming that Neptune 's observed mass was smaller and its orbit larger than Le Verrier had initially predicted . He postulated , based largely on simple subtraction from Le Verrier 's calculations , that another planet of roughly 12 Earth masses , which he named " Hyperion " , must exist beyond Neptune . Le Verrier denounced Babinet 's hypothesis , saying , " [ There is ] absolutely nothing by which one could determine the position of another planet , barring hypotheses in which imagination played too large a part . "
In 1850 James Ferguson , Assistant Astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory , noted that he had " lost " a star he had observed , GR1719k , which Lt. Matthew Maury , the superintendent of the Observatory , claimed was evidence that it must be a new planet . Subsequent searches failed to recover the " planet " in a different position , and in 1878 , CHF Peters , director of the Hamilton College Observatory in New York , showed that the star had not in fact vanished , and that the previous results had been due to human error .
In 1879 , Camille Flammarion noted that the comets 1862 III and 1889 III had aphelia of 47 and 49 AU , respectively , suggesting that they might mark the orbital radius of an unknown planet that had dragged them into an elliptical orbit . Astronomer Georges Forbes concluded on the basis of this evidence that two planets must exist beyond Neptune . He calculated , based on the fact that four comets possessed aphelia at around 100 AU and a further six with aphelia clustered at around 300 AU , the orbital elements of a pair of hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets . These elements concorded suggestively with those made independently by another astronomer named David Peck Todd , suggesting to many that they might be valid . However , sceptics argued that the orbits of the comets involved were still too uncertain to produce meaningful results .
In 1900 and 1901 , Harvard College Observatory director William Henry Pickering led two searches for trans @-@ Neptunian planets . The first was begun by Danish astronomer Hans Emil Lau who , after studying the data on the orbit of Uranus from 1690 to 1895 , concluded that one trans @-@ Neptunian planet alone could not account for the discrepancies in its orbit , and postulated the position of two planets he believed were responsible . The second was launched when Gabriel Dallet suggested that a single trans @-@ Neptunian planet lying at 47 AU could account for the motion of Uranus . Pickering agreed to examine plates for any suspected planets . In neither case were any found .
In 1909 , Thomas Jefferson Jackson See , an astronomer with a reputation as an egocentric contrarian , opined " that there is certainly one , most likely two and possibly three planets beyond Neptune " . Tentatively naming the first planet " Oceanus " , he placed their respective distances at 42 , 56 and 72 AU from the Sun . He gave no indication as to how he determined their existence , and no known searches were mounted to locate them .
In 1911 , Indian astronomer Venkatesh P. Ketakar suggested the existence of two trans @-@ Neptunian planets , which he named Brahma and Vishnu , by reworking the patterns observed by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace in the planetary satellites of Jupiter and applying them to the outer planets . The three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter , Io , Europa and Ganymede , are locked in a complicated 1 : 2 : 4 resonance called a Laplace resonance . Ketakar suggested that Uranus , Neptune and his hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets were locked in Laplace @-@ like resonances . His calculations predicted a mean distance for Brahma of 38 @.@ 95 AU and an orbital period of 242 @.@ 28 Earth years ( 3 : 4 resonance with Neptune ) . When Pluto was discovered 19 years later , its mean distance of 39 @.@ 48 AU and orbital period of 248 Earth years were close to Ketakar 's prediction ( Pluto in fact has a 2 : 3 resonance with Neptune ) . Ketakar made no predictions for the orbital elements other than mean distance and period . It is not clear how Ketakar arrived at these figures , and his second planet , Vishnu , was never located .
= = Planet X = =
In 1894 , with the help of William Pickering , Percival Lowell , a wealthy Bostonian , founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff , Arizona . In 1906 , convinced he could resolve the conundrum of Uranus 's orbit , he began an extensive project to search for a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , which he named Planet X. The X in the name represents an unknown and is pronounced as the letter , as opposed to the Roman numeral for 10 ( at the time , Planet X would have been the ninth planet ) . Lowell 's hope in tracking down Planet X was to establish his scientific credibility , which had eluded him thanks to his widely derided belief that channel @-@ like features visible on the surface of Mars were canals constructed by an intelligent civilization .
Lowell 's first search focused on the ecliptic , the plane encompassed by the zodiac where the other planets in the Solar System lie . Using a 5 @-@ inch photographic camera , he manually examined over 200 three @-@ hour exposures with a magnifying glass , and found no planets . At that time Pluto was too far above the ecliptic to be imaged by the survey . After revising his predicted possible locations , Lowell conducted a second search from 1914 to 1916 . In 1915 , he published his Memoir of a Trans @-@ Neptunian Planet , in which he concluded that Planet X had a mass roughly seven times that of Earth — about half that of Neptune — and a mean distance from the Sun of 43 AU . He assumed Planet X would be a large , low @-@ density object with a high albedo , like the giant planets . As a result , it would show a disc with diameter of about one arcsecond and an apparent magnitude of between 12 and 13 — bright enough to be spotted .
Separately , in 1908 , Pickering announced that , by analysing irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , he had found evidence for a ninth planet . His hypothetical planet , which he termed " Planet O " ( because it came after " N " , i.e. Neptune ) , possessed a mean orbital radius of 51 @.@ 9 AU and an orbital period of 373 @.@ 5 years . Plates taken at his observatory in Arequipa , Peru , showed no evidence for the predicted planet , and British astronomer P. H. Cowell showed that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit virtually disappeared once the planet 's displacement of longitude was taken into account . Lowell himself , despite his close association with Pickering , dismissed Planet O out of hand , saying , " This planet is very properly designated " O " , [ for it ] is nothing at all . " Unbeknownst to Pickering , four of the photographic plates taken in the search for " Planet O " by astronomers at the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1919 captured images of Pluto , though this was only recognised years later . Pickering went on to suggest many other possible trans @-@ Neptunian planets up to the year 1932 , which he named P , Q , R , S , T and U ; none were ever detected .
= = = Discovery of Pluto = = =
Lowell 's sudden death in 1916 temporarily halted the search for Planet X. Failing to find the planet , according to one friend , " virtually killed him " . Lowell 's widow , Constance , engaged in a legal battle with the observatory over Lowell 's legacy which halted the search for Planet X for several years . In 1925 , the observatory obtained glass discs for a new 13 in ( 33 cm ) wide @-@ field telescope to continue the search , constructed with funds from Abbott Lawrence Lowell , Percival 's brother . In 1929 the observatory 's director , Vesto Melvin Slipher , summarily handed the job of locating the planet to Clyde Tombaugh , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Kansas farm boy who had only just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings .
Tombaugh 's task was to systematically capture sections of the night sky in pairs of images . Each image in a pair was taken two weeks apart . He then placed both images of each section in a machine called a blink comparator , which by exchanging images quickly created a time lapse illusion of the movement of any planetary body . To reduce the chances that a faster @-@ moving ( and thus closer ) object be mistaken for the new planet , Tombaugh imaged each region near its opposition point , 180 degrees from the Sun , where the apparent retrograde motion for objects beyond Earth 's orbit is at its strongest . He also took a third image as a control to eliminate any false results caused by defects in an individual plate . Tombaugh decided to image the entire zodiac , rather than focus on those regions suggested by Lowell .
By the beginning of 1930 , Tombaugh 's search had reached the constellation of Gemini . On 18 February 1930 , after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars , Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year . A lesser @-@ quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement . Upon confirmation , Tombaugh walked into Slipher 's office and declared , " Doctor Slipher , I have found your Planet X. " The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X Lowell had suggested ; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated . After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs , news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13 , 1930 . The new object was later precovered on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915 . The decision to name the object Pluto was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell , as his initials made up the word 's first two letters . After discovering Pluto , Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects . He found hundreds of variable stars and asteroids , as well as two comets , but no further planets .
= = = Pluto loses Planet X title = = =
To the observatory 's disappointment and surprise , Pluto showed no visible disc ; it appeared as a point , no different from a star , and , at only 15th magnitude , was six times dimmer than Lowell had predicted , which meant it was either very small , or very dark . Because Lowell astronomers thought Pluto was massive enough to perturb planets , they assumed that it should have an albedo of 0 @.@ 07 ( meaning that it reflected only 7 % of the light that hit it ) ; about as dark as asphalt and similar to that of Mercury , the least reflective planet known . This would give Pluto an assumed diameter of about 8 @,@ 000 km , or about 60 % that of Earth . Observations also revealed that Pluto 's orbit was very elliptical , far more than that of any other planet .
Almost immediately , some astronomers questioned Pluto 's status as a planet . Barely a month after its discovery was announced , on 14 April 1930 , in an article in the New York Times , Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto 's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet : " The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5 . Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter , or it may be one of many long @-@ period planetary objects yet to be discovered , or a bright cometary object . " In that same article , Harvard Observatory director Harlow Shapley wrote that Pluto was a " member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets , and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune . " In 1931 , using a mathematical formula , Ernest W. Brown asserted ( in agreement with E. C. Bower ) , that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet , and thus that Lowell 's supposed prediction was " purely accidental " .
Throughout the mid @-@ 20th century , estimates of Pluto 's mass were revised downward . In 1931 , Nicholson and Mayall calculated its mass , based on its supposed effect on the giant planets , as roughly that of Earth ; a value somewhat in accord with the 0 @.@ 91 Earth mass calculated in 1942 by Lloyd R. Wylie at the US Naval Observatory , using the same assumptions . In 1949 , Gerard Kuiper 's measurements of Pluto 's diameter with the 200 inch telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory led him to the conclusion that it was midway in size between Mercury and Mars and that its mass was most probably about 0 @.@ 1 Earth mass .
In 1973 , Dennis Rawlins conjectured , based on the similarities in the periodicity and amplitude of brightness variation between Pluto and Neptune 's moon Triton , that Pluto 's mass must be similar to Triton 's . This is , in fact , true , and had been argued by astronomers Walter Baade and E. C. Bower as early as 1934 . However , because Triton 's mass was then believed to be roughly 2 @.@ 5 % that of the Earth – Moon system ( more than ten times its actual value ) , Rawlins 's determination for Pluto 's mass was similarly incorrect . It was nonetheless a meagre enough value for him to conclude that Pluto was not Planet X. In 1976 , Dale Cruikshank , Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii analysed spectra from Pluto 's surface and determined that it must contain methane ice , which is highly reflective . This meant that Pluto , far from being dark , was in fact exceptionally bright , and thus was probably no more than 0 @.@ 01 Earth mass .
Pluto 's size was finally determined conclusively in 1978 , when American astronomer James W. Christy discovered its moon Charon . This enabled him , together with Robert Sutton Harrington of the U.S. Naval Observatory , to measure the mass of the Pluto – Charon system directly by observing the moon 's orbital motion around Pluto . They determined Pluto 's mass to be 1 @.@ 31 × 1022 kg ; roughly one five @-@ hundredth that of Earth or one @-@ sixth that of the Moon , and far too small to account for the observed discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets . Lowell 's " prediction " had been a coincidence : If there was a Planet X , it was not Pluto .
= = = Further searches for Planet X = = =
After 1978 , a number of astronomers kept up the search for Lowell 's Planet X , convinced that , because Pluto was no longer a viable candidate , an unseen tenth planet must have been perturbing the outer planets .
In the 1980s and 1990s , Robert Harrington led a search to determine the real cause of the apparent irregularities . He calculated that any Planet X would be at roughly three times the distance of Neptune from the Sun ; its orbit would be highly eccentric , and strongly inclined to the ecliptic — the planet 's orbit would be at roughly a 32 @-@ degree angle from the orbital plane of the other known planets . This hypothesis was met with a mixed reception . Noted Planet X sceptic Brian G. Marsden of the Minor Planet Center pointed out that these discrepancies were a hundredth the size of those noticed by Le Verrier , and could easily be due to observational error .
In 1972 , Joseph Brady of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory studied irregularities in the motion of Halley 's Comet . Brady claimed that they could have been caused by a Jupiter @-@ sized planet beyond Neptune at 59 AU that is in a retrograde orbit around the Sun . However , both Marsden and Planet X proponent P. Kenneth Seidelmann attacked the hypothesis , showing that Halley 's Comet randomly and irregularly ejects jets of material , causing changes to its own orbital trajectory , and that such a massive object as Brady 's Planet X would have severely affected the orbits of known outer planets .
Although its mission did not involve a search for Planet X , the IRAS space observatory made headlines briefly in 1983 due to an " unknown object " that was at first described as " possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System " . Further analysis revealed that of several unidentified objects , nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " interstellar cirrus " ; none were found to be Solar System bodies .
In 1988 , A. A. Jackson and R. M. Killen studied the stability of Pluto 's resonance with Neptune by placing test " Planet X @-@ es " with various masses and at various distances from Pluto . Pluto and Neptune 's orbits are in a 3 : 2 resonance , which prevents their collision or even any close approaches , regardless of their separation in the z axis . It was found that the hypothetical object 's mass had to exceed 5 Earth masses to break the resonance , and the parameter space is quite large and a large variety of objects could have existed beyond Pluto without disturbing the resonance . Four test orbits of a trans @-@ Plutonian planet have been integrated forward for four million years in order to determine the effects of such a body on the stability of the Neptune – Pluto 3 : 2 resonance . Planets beyond Pluto with masses of 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 0 Earth masses in orbits at 48 @.@ 3 and 75 @.@ 5 AU , respectively , do not disturb the 3 : 2 resonance . Test planets of 5 Earth masses with semi @-@ major axes of 52 @.@ 5 and 62 @.@ 5 AU disrupt the four @-@ million @-@ year libration of Pluto 's argument of perihelion .
= = = Planet X disproved = = =
Harrington died in January 1993 , without having found Planet X. Six months before , E. Myles Standish had used data from Voyager 2 's 1989 flyby of Neptune , which had revised the planet 's total mass downward by 0 @.@ 5 % — an amount comparable to the mass of Mars — to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus . When Neptune 's newly determined mass was used in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Developmental Ephemeris ( JPL DE ) , the supposed discrepancies in the Uranian orbit , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . There are no discrepancies in the trajectories of any space probes such as Pioneer 10 , Pioneer 11 , Voyager 1 , and Voyager 2 that can be attributed to the gravitational pull of a large undiscovered object in the outer Solar System . Today , most astronomers agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist .
= = Discovery of further trans @-@ Neptunian objects = =
After the discovery of Pluto and Charon , no more trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) were found until ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 in 1992 . Since then , thousands of such objects have been discovered . Most are now recognized as part of the Kuiper belt , a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System 's formation that orbit near the ecliptic plane just beyond Neptune . Though none were as large as Pluto , some of these distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Sedna , were initially described in the media as " new planets " .
In 2005 , astronomer Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of 2003 UB313 ( later named Eris after the Greek goddess of discord and strife ) , a trans @-@ Neptunian object then thought to be just barely larger than Pluto . Soon afterwards , a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory press release described the object as the " tenth planet " .
Eris was never officially classified as a planet , and the 2006 definition of planet defined both Eris and Pluto not as planets but as dwarf planets because they have not cleared their neighbourhoods . They do not orbit the Sun alone , but as part of a population of similarly sized objects . Pluto itself is now recognized as being a member of the Kuiper belt and the largest dwarf planet , larger than the more @-@ massive Eris .
A number of astronomers , most notably Alan Stern , the head of NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto , contend that the IAU 's definition is flawed , and that Pluto and Eris , and all large trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Makemake , Sedna , Quaoar , Varuna and Haumea , should be considered planets in their own right . However , the discovery of Eris did not rehabilitate the Planet X theory because it is far too small to have significant effects on the outer planets ' orbits .
= = Subsequently proposed trans @-@ Neptunian planets = =
Although most astronomers accept that Lowell 's Planet X does not exist , a number have revived the idea that a large unseen planet could create observable gravitational effects in the outer Solar System . These hypothetical objects are often referred to as " Planet X " , although the conception of these objects may differ considerably from that proposed by Lowell .
= = = Orbits of distant objects = = =
Sedna 's orbit
When Sedna was discovered , its extreme orbit raised questions about its origin . Its perihelion is so distant ( approximately 75 AU ) that no currently observed mechanism can explain Sedna 's eccentric distant orbit . It is too far from the planets to have been affected by the gravity of Neptune or the other giant planets and too bound to the Sun to be affected by outside forces such as the galactic tides . Hypotheses to explain its orbit include that it was affected by a passing star , that it was captured from another planetary system , or that it was tugged into its current position by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet . The most obvious solution to determining Sedna 's peculiar orbit would be to locate a number of objects in a similar region , whose various orbital configurations would provide an indication as to their past history . If Sedna had been pulled into its orbit by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , any other objects found in its region would have a similar perihelion to Sedna ( around 80 AU ) .
Elongated orbits of group of Kuiper belt objects
In 2012 , Rodney Gomes modelled the orbits of 92 Kuiper belt objects and found that six of those orbits were far more elongated than the model predicted . He concluded that the simplest explanation was the gravitational pull of a distant planetary companion , such as a Neptune @-@ sized object at 1500 AU or a Mars @-@ sized object at around 53 AU .
Discovery of 2012 VP113 and the orbital clustering of Kuiper belt objects
In 2014 , astronomers announced the discovery of 2012 VP113 , a large object with a Sedna @-@ like 4200 @-@ year orbit and a perihelion of roughly 80 AU , which led them to suggest that it offered evidence of a potential trans @-@ Neptunian planet . Trujillo and Sheppard argued that the orbital clustering of arguments of perihelia for VP113 and other extremely distant TNOs suggests the existence of a " super @-@ Earth " of between 2 and 15 Earth masses beyond 200 AU and possibly on an inclined orbit at 1500 AU .
In 2014 astronomers at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid suggested that the available data actually indicate more than one trans @-@ Neptunian planet .
Further analysis & Planet Nine hypothesis
On January 20 , 2016 , Brown and Konstantin Batygin published an article corroborating Trujillo and Sheppard 's initial findings ; proposing a super @-@ Earth ( dubbed Planet Nine ) based on a statistical clustering of the arguments of perihelia ( noted before ) near zero and also ascending nodes near 113 ° of six distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects . They estimated it to be ten times the mass of Earth ( about 60 % the mass of Neptune ) with a semimajor axis of approximately 400 – 1500 AU .
= = = Probability = = =
Even without gravitational evidence , Mike Brown , the discoverer of Sedna , has argued that Sedna 's 12 @,@ 000 @-@ year orbit means that probability alone suggests that an Earth @-@ sized object
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– 400 AU ; one with a mass of 2 times that of Earth , further than 496 – 570 AU ; and finally one with a mass of 15 times that of Earth , further than 970 – 1111 AU . Moreover , Iorio stated that the modern ephemerides of the Solar System outer planets has provided even tighter constraints : no celestial body with a mass of 15 times that of Earth can exist closer than 1100 – 1300 AU . However , work by another group of astronomers using a more comprehensive model of the Solar System found that Iorio 's conclusion was only partially correct . Their analysis of Cassini data on Saturn 's orbital residuals found that observations were inconsistent with a planetary body with the orbit and mass similar to those of Batygin and Brown 's Planet Nine having a true anomaly of − 130 ° to − 110 ° or − 65 ° to 85 ° . Furthermore , the analysis found that Saturn 's orbit is slightly better explained if such a body is located at a true anomaly of 117 @.@ 8 ° + 11 °
− 10 ° . At this location , it would be approximately 630 AU from the Sun .
= = = Survey telescopes = = =
Large Synoptic Survey Telescope ( LSST )
Pan @-@ STARRS
Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE )
= Redshift =
In physics , redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength , or shifted to the red end of the spectrum . In general , whether or not the radiation is within the visible spectrum , " redder " means an increase in wavelength – equivalent to a lower frequency and a lower photon energy , in accordance with , respectively , the wave and quantum theories of light .
Some redshifts are an example of the Doppler effect , familiar in the change of apparent pitches of sirens and frequency of the sound waves emitted by speeding vehicles . A redshift occurs whenever a light source moves away from an observer . Another kind of redshift is cosmological redshift , which is due to the expansion of the universe , and sufficiently distant light sources ( generally more than a few million light years away ) show redshift corresponding to the rate of increase in their distance from Earth . Finally , gravitational redshift is a relativistic effect observed in electromagnetic radiation moving out of gravitational fields . Conversely , a decrease in wavelength is called blueshift and is generally seen when a light @-@ emitting object moves toward an observer or when electromagnetic radiation moves into a gravitational field . However , redshift is a more common term and sometimes blueshift is referred to as negative redshift .
Knowledge of redshifts and blueshifts has been applied to develop several terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns . Redshifts are also seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects . Its value is represented by the letter z .
A special relativistic redshift formula ( and its classical approximation ) can be used to calculate the redshift of a nearby object when spacetime is flat . However , in many contexts , such as black holes and Big Bang cosmology , redshifts must be calculated using general relativity . Special relativistic , gravitational , and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws . There exist other physical processes that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation , including scattering and optical effects ; however , the resulting changes are distinguishable from true redshift and are not generally referred to as such ( see section on physical optics and radiative transfer ) .
= = History = =
The history of the subject began with the development in the 19th century of wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena associated with the Doppler effect . The effect is named after Christian Doppler , who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842 . The hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot in 1845 . Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon should apply to all waves , and in particular suggested that the varying colors of stars could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth . Before this was verified , however , it was found that stellar colors were primarily due to a star 's temperature , not motion . Only later was Doppler vindicated by verified redshift observations .
The first Doppler redshift was described by French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 , who pointed to the shift in spectral lines seen in stars as being due to the Doppler effect . The effect is sometimes called the " Doppler – Fizeau effect " . In 1868 , British astronomer William Huggins was the first to determine the velocity of a star moving away from the Earth by this method . In 1871 , optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in Fraunhofer lines using solar rotation , about 0 @.@ 1 Å in the red . In 1887 , Vogel and Scheiner discovered the annual Doppler effect , the yearly change in the Doppler shift of stars located near the ecliptic due to the orbital velocity of the Earth . In 1901 , Aristarkh Belopolsky verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors .
The earliest occurrence of the term " red @-@ shift " in print ( in this hyphenated form ) appears to be by American astronomer Walter S. Adams in 1908 , in which he mentions " Two methods of investigating that nature of the nebular red @-@ shift " . The word does not appear unhyphenated until about 1934 by Willem de Sitter , perhaps indicating that up to that point its German equivalent , Rotverschiebung , was more commonly used .
Beginning with observations in 1912 , Vesto Slipher discovered that most spiral galaxies , then mostly thought to be spiral nebulae , had considerable redshifts . Slipher first reports on his measurement in the inaugural volume of the Lowell Observatory Bulletin . Three years later , he wrote a review in the journal Popular Astronomy . In it he states , " [ ... ] the early discovery that the great Andromeda spiral had the quite exceptional velocity of – 300 km ( / s ) showed the means then available , capable of investigating not only the spectra of the spirals but their velocities as well . " Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire celestial sphere , all but three having observable " positive " ( that is recessional ) velocities . Subsequently , Edwin Hubble discovered an approximate relationship between the redshifts of such " nebulae " and the distances to them with the formulation of his eponymous Hubble 's law . These observations corroborated Alexander Friedmann 's 1922 work , in which he derived the famous Friedmann @-@ Lemaître equations . They are today considered strong evidence for an expanding universe and the Big Bang theory .
= = Measurement , characterization , and interpretation = =
The spectrum of light that comes from a single source ( see idealized spectrum illustration top @-@ right ) can be measured . To determine the redshift , one searches for features in the spectrum such as absorption lines , emission lines , or other variations in light intensity . If found , these features can be compared with known features in the spectrum of various chemical compounds found in experiments where that compound is located on Earth . A very common atomic element in space is hydrogen . The spectrum of originally featureless light shone through hydrogen will show a signature spectrum specific to hydrogen that has features at regular intervals . If restricted to absorption lines it would look similar to the illustration ( top right ) . If the same pattern of intervals is seen in an observed spectrum from a distant source but occurring at shifted wavelengths , it can be identified as hydrogen too . If the same spectral line is identified in both spectra — but at different wavelengths — then the redshift can be calculated using the table below . Determining the redshift of an object in this way requires a frequency- or wavelength @-@ range . In order to calculate the redshift one has to know the wavelength of the emitted light in the rest frame of the source , in other words , the wavelength that would be measured by an observer located adjacent to and comoving with the source . Since in astronomical applications this measurement cannot be done directly , because that would require travelling to the distant star of interest , the method using spectral lines described here is used instead . Redshifts cannot be calculated by looking at unidentified features whose rest @-@ frame frequency is unknown , or with a spectrum that is featureless or white noise ( random fluctuations in a spectrum ) .
Redshift ( and blueshift ) may be characterized by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths ( or frequency ) of an object . In astronomy , it is customary to refer to this change using a dimensionless quantity called z . If λ represents wavelength and f represents frequency ( note , λf = c where c is the speed of light ) , then z is defined by the equations :
After z is measured , the distinction between redshift and blueshift is simply a matter of whether z is positive or negative . See the formula section below for some basic interpretations that follow when either a redshift or blueshift is observed . For example , Doppler effect blueshifts ( z < 0 ) are associated with objects approaching ( moving closer to ) the observer with the light shifting to greater energies . Conversely , Doppler effect redshifts ( z > 0 ) are associated with objects receding ( moving away ) from the observer with the light shifting to lower energies . Likewise , gravitational blueshifts are associated with light emitted from a source residing within a weaker gravitational field as observed from within a stronger gravitational field , while gravitational redshifting implies the opposite conditions .
= = Redshift formulae = =
In general relativity one can derive several important special @-@ case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries , as summarized in the following table . In all cases the magnitude of the shift ( the value of z ) is independent of the wavelength .
= = = Doppler effect = = =
If a source of the light is moving away from an observer , then redshift ( z > 0 ) occurs ; if the source moves towards the observer , then blueshift ( z < 0 ) occurs . This is true for all electromagnetic waves and is explained by the Doppler effect . Consequently , this type of redshift is called the Doppler redshift . If the source moves away from the observer with velocity v , which is much less than the speed of light ( v ≪ c ) , the redshift is given by
<formula> ( since <formula> )
where c is the speed of light . In the classical Doppler effect , the frequency of the source is not modified , but the recessional motion causes the illusion of a lower frequency .
A more complete treatment of the Doppler redshift requires considering relativistic effects associated with motion of sources close to the speed of light . A complete derivation of the effect can be found in the article on the relativistic Doppler effect . In brief , objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the time dilation of special relativity which can be corrected for by introducing the Lorentz factor γ into the classical Doppler formula as follows ( for motion solely in the line of sight ) :
<formula>
This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G.R. Stilwell , called the Ives – Stilwell experiment .
Since the Lorentz factor is dependent only on the magnitude of the velocity , this causes the redshift associated with the relativistic correction to be independent of the orientation of the source movement . In contrast , the classical part of the formula is dependent on the projection of the movement of the source into the line @-@ of @-@ sight which yields different results for different orientations . If θ is the angle between the direction of relative motion and the direction of emission in the observer 's frame ( zero angle is directly away from the observer ) , the full form for the relativistic Doppler effect becomes :
<formula>
and for motion solely in the line of sight ( θ
= 0 ° ) , this equation reduces to :
<formula>
For the special case that the light is approaching at right angles ( θ =
90 ° ) to the direction of relative motion in the observer 's frame , the relativistic redshift is known as the transverse redshift , and a redshift :
<formula>
is measured , even though the object is not moving away from the observer . Even when the source is moving towards the observer , if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source will be redshifted .
= = = Expansion of space = = =
In the early part of the twentieth century , Slipher , Hubble and others made the first measurements of the redshifts and blueshifts of galaxies beyond the Milky Way . They initially interpreted these redshifts and blueshifts as due solely to the Doppler effect , but later Hubble discovered a rough correlation between the increasing redshifts and the increasing distance of galaxies . Theorists almost immediately realized that these observations could be explained by a different mechanism for producing redshifts . Hubble 's law of the correlation between redshifts and distances is required by models of cosmology derived from general relativity that have a metric expansion of space . As a result , photons propagating through the expanding space are stretched , creating the cosmological redshift .
There is a distinction between a redshift in cosmological context as compared to that witnessed when nearby objects exhibit a local Doppler @-@ effect redshift . Rather than cosmological redshifts being a consequence of relative velocities , the photons instead increase in wavelength and redshift because of a feature of the spacetime through which they are traveling that causes space to expand . Due to the expansion increasing as distances increase , the distance between two remote galaxies can increase at more than 3 × 108 m / s , but this does not imply that the galaxies move faster than the speed of light at their present location ( which is forbidden by Lorentz covariance ) .
= = = = Mathematical derivation = = = =
The observational consequences of this effect can be derived using the equations from general relativity that describe a homogeneous and isotropic universe .
To derive the redshift effect , use the geodesic equation for a light wave , which is
<formula>
where
ds is the spacetime interval
dt is the time interval
dr is the spatial interval
c is the speed of light
a is the time @-@ dependent cosmic scale factor
k is the curvature per unit area .
For an observer observing the crest of a light wave at a position r
= 0 and time t =
tnow , the crest of the light wave was emitted at a time t
= tthen in the past and a distant position r =
R. Integrating over the path in both space and time that the light wave travels yields :
<formula>
In general , the wavelength of light is not the same for the two positions and times considered due to the changing properties of the metric . When the wave was emitted , it had a wavelength λthen . The next crest of the light wave was emitted at a time
<formula>
The observer sees the next crest of the observed light wave with a wavelength λnow to arrive at a time
<formula>
Since the subsequent crest is again emitted from r
= R and is observed at r =
0 , the following equation can be written :
<formula>
The right @-@ hand side of the two integral equations above are identical which means
<formula>
Using the following manipulation :
<formula>
we find that :
<formula>
For very small variations in time ( over the period of one cycle of a light wave ) the scale factor is essentially a constant ( a
= anow today and a =
athen previously ) . This yields
<formula>
which can be rewritten as
<formula>
Using the definition of redshift provided above , the equation
<formula>
is obtained . In an expanding universe such as the one we inhabit , the scale factor is monotonically increasing as time passes , thus , z is positive and distant galaxies appear redshifted .
Using a model of the expansion of the Universe , redshift can be related to the age of an observed object , the so @-@ called cosmic time – redshift relation . Denote a density ratio as Ω0 :
<formula>
with ρcrit the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands . This density is about three hydrogen atoms per thousand liters of space . At large redshifts one finds :
<formula>
where H0 is the present @-@ day Hubble constant , and z is the redshift .
= = = = Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects = = = =
For cosmological redshifts of z < 0 @.@ 01 additional Doppler redshifts and blueshifts due to the peculiar motions of the galaxies relative to one another cause a wide scatter from the standard Hubble Law . The resulting situation can be illustrated by the Expanding Rubber Sheet Universe , a common cosmological analogy used to describe the expansion of space . If two objects are represented by ball bearings and spacetime by a stretching rubber sheet , the Doppler effect is caused by rolling the balls across the sheet to create peculiar motion . The cosmological redshift occurs when the ball bearings are stuck to the sheet and the sheet is stretched .
The redshifts of galaxies include both a component related to recessional velocity from expansion of the Universe , and a component related to peculiar motion ( Doppler shift ) . The redshift due to expansion of the Universe depends upon the recessional velocity in a fashion determined by the cosmological model chosen to describe the expansion of the Universe , which is very different from how Doppler redshift depends upon local velocity . Describing the cosmological expansion origin of redshift , cosmologist Edward Robert Harrison said , " Light leaves a galaxy , which is stationary in its local region of space , and is eventually received by observers who are stationary in their own local region of space . Between the galaxy and the observer , light travels through vast regions of expanding space . As a result , all wavelengths of the light are stretched by the expansion of space . It is as simple as that ... " Steven Weinberg clarified , " The increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does not depend on the rate of change of a ( t ) [ here a ( t ) is the Robertson @-@ Walker scale factor ] at the times of emission or absorption , but on the increase of a ( t ) in the whole period from emission to absorption . "
Popular literature often uses the expression " Doppler redshift " instead of " cosmological redshift " to describe the redshift of galaxies dominated by the expansion of spacetime , but the
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formula>
So there is an infinity of values which are possible candidates for the value of ii , one for each integer k . All of them have a zero imaginary part so one can say ii has an infinity of valid real values .
= = = Failure of power and logarithm identities = = =
Some identities for powers and logarithms for positive real numbers will fail for complex numbers , no matter how complex powers and complex logarithms are defined as single @-@ valued functions . For example :
The identity log ( bx )
= x ⋅ log b holds whenever b is a positive real number and x is a real number . But for the principal branch of the complex logarithm one has
<formula>
Regardless of which branch of the logarithm is used , a similar failure of the identity will exist . The best that can be said ( if only using this result ) is that :
<formula>
This identity does not hold even when considering log as a multivalued function . The possible values of log ( wz ) contain those of z ⋅ log w as a subset . Using Log ( w ) for the principal value of log ( w ) and m , n as any integers the possible values of both sides are :
<formula>
The identities ( bc ) x =
bxcx and ( b / c ) x
= bx / cx are valid when b and c are positive real numbers and x is a real number . But a calculation using principal branches shows that
<formula>
and
<formula>
On the other hand , when x is an integer , the identities are valid for all nonzero complex numbers .
If exponentiation is considered as a multivalued function then the possible values of ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 are { 1 , − 1 } . The identity holds but saying { 1 } =
{ ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 } is wrong .
The identity ( ex ) y = exy holds for real numbers x and y , but assuming its truth for complex numbers leads to the following paradox , discovered in 1827 by Clausen : For any integer n , we have :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
but this is false when the integer n is nonzero .
There are a number of problems in the reasoning :
The major error is that changing the order of exponentiation in going from line two to three changes what the principal value chosen will be .
From the multi @-@ valued point of view , the first error occurs even sooner . Implicit in the first line is that e is a real number , whereas the result of e1 + 2πin is a complex number better represented as e + 0i . Substituting the complex number for the real on the second line makes the power have multiple possible values . Changing the order of exponentiation from lines two to three also affects how many possible values the result can have . <formula> , but rather <formula> multivalued over integers n .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Monoids = = =
Exponentiation can be defined in any monoid . A monoid is an algebraic structure consisting of a set X together with a rule for composition ( " multiplication " ) satisfying an associative law and a multiplicative identity , denoted by 1 . Exponentiation is defined inductively by :
<formula> for all <formula>
<formula> for all <formula> and non @-@ negative integers n
Monoids include many structures of importance in mathematics , including groups and rings ( under multiplication ) , with more specific examples of the latter being matrix rings and fields .
= = = Matrices and linear operators = = =
If A is a square matrix , then the product of A with itself n times is called the matrix power . Also <formula> is defined to be the identity matrix , and if A is invertible , then <formula> .
Matrix powers appear often in the context of discrete dynamical systems , where the matrix A expresses a transition from a state vector x of some system to the next state Ax of the system . This is the standard interpretation of a Markov chain , for example . Then <formula> is the state of the system after two time steps , and so forth : <formula> is the state of the system after n time steps . The matrix power <formula> is the transition matrix between the state now and the state at a time n steps in the future . So computing matrix powers is equivalent to solving the evolution of the dynamical system . In many cases , matrix powers can be expediently computed by using eigenvalues and eigenvectors .
Apart from matrices , more general linear operators can also be exponentiated . An example is the derivative operator of calculus , <formula> , which is a linear operator acting on functions <formula> to give a new function <formula> . The n @-@ th power of the differentiation operator is the n @-@ th derivative :
<formula>
These examples are for discrete exponents of linear operators , but in many circumstances it is also desirable to define powers of such operators with continuous exponents . This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups . Just as computing matrix powers with discrete exponents solves discrete dynamical systems , so does computing matrix powers with continuous exponents solve systems with continuous dynamics . Examples include approaches to solving the heat equation , Schrödinger equation , wave equation , and other partial differential equations including a time evolution . The special case of exponentiating the derivative operator to a non @-@ integer power is called the fractional derivative which , together with the fractional integral , is one of the basic operations of the fractional calculus .
= = = Finite fields = = =
A field is an algebraic structure in which multiplication , addition , subtraction , and division are all well @-@ defined and satisfy their familiar properties . The real numbers , for example , form a field , as do the complex numbers and rational numbers . Unlike these familiar examples of fields , which are all infinite sets , some fields have only finitely many elements . The simplest example is the field with two elements <formula> with addition defined by <formula> and <formula> , and multiplication <formula> and <formula> .
Exponentiation in finite fields has applications in public key cryptography . For example , the Diffie – Hellman key exchange uses the fact that exponentiation is computationally inexpensive in finite fields , whereas the discrete logarithm ( the inverse of exponentiation ) is computationally expensive .
Any finite field F has the property that there is a unique prime number p such that <formula> for all x in F ; that is , x added to itself p times is zero . For example , in <formula> , the prime number p = 2 has this property . This prime number is called the characteristic of the field . Suppose that F is a field of characteristic p , and consider the function <formula> that raises each element of F to the power p . This is called the Frobenius automorphism of F. It is an automorphism of the field because of the Freshman 's dream identity <formula> . The Frobenius automorphism is important in number theory because it generates the Galois group of F over its prime subfield .
= = = In abstract algebra = = =
Exponentiation for integer exponents can be defined for quite general structures in abstract algebra .
Let X be a set with a power @-@ associative binary operation which is written multiplicatively . Then xn is defined for any element x of X and any nonzero natural number n as the product of n copies of x , which is recursively defined by
<formula>
One has the following properties
<formula>
If the operation has a two @-@ sided identity element 1 , then x0 is defined to be equal to 1 for any x .
<formula>
If the operation also has two @-@ sided inverses and is associative , then the magma is a group . The inverse of x can be denoted by x − 1 and follows all the usual rules for exponents .
<formula>
If the multiplication operation is commutative ( as for instance in abelian groups ) , then the following holds :
<formula>
If the binary operation is written additively , as it often is for abelian groups , then " exponentiation is repeated multiplication " can be reinterpreted as " multiplication is repeated addition " . Thus , each of the laws of exponentiation above has an analogue among laws of multiplication .
When there are several power @-@ associative binary operations defined on a set , any of which might be iterated , it is common to indicate which operation is being repeated by placing its symbol in the superscript . Thus , x ∗ n is x ∗ ... ∗ x , while x # n is x # ... # x , whatever the operations ∗ and # might be .
Superscript notation is also used , especially in group theory , to indicate conjugation . That is , gh = h − 1gh , where g and h are elements of some group . Although conjugation obeys some of the same laws as exponentiation , it is not an example of repeated multiplication in any sense . A quandle is an algebraic structure in which these laws of conjugation play a central role .
= = = Over sets = = =
If n is a natural number and A is an arbitrary set , the expression An is often used to denote the set of ordered n @-@ tuples of elements of A. This is equivalent to letting An denote the set of functions from the set { 0 , 1 , 2 , ... , n − 1 } to the set A ; the n @-@ tuple ( a0 , a1 , a2 , ... , an − 1 ) represents the function that sends i to ai .
For an infinite cardinal number κ and a set A , the notation Aκ is also used to denote the set of all functions from a set of size κ to A. This is sometimes written κA to distinguish it from cardinal exponentiation , defined below .
This generalized exponential can also be defined for operations on sets or for sets with extra structure . For example , in linear algebra , it makes sense to index direct sums of vector spaces over arbitrary index sets . That is , we can speak of
<formula>
where each Vi is a vector space .
Then if Vi
= V for each i , the resulting direct sum can be written in exponential notation as V ⊕ N , or simply VN with the understanding that the direct sum is the default . We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn , although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n , this is defined only up to isomorphism . Taking V to be the field R of real numbers ( thought of as a vector space over itself ) and n to be some natural number , we get the vector space that is most commonly studied in linear algebra , the real vector space Rn .
If the base of the exponentiation operation is a set , the exponentiation operation is the Cartesian product unless otherwise stated . Since multiple Cartesian products produce an n @-@ tuple , which can be represented by a function on a set of appropriate cardinality , SN becomes simply the set of all functions from N to S in this case :
<formula>
This fits in with the exponentiation of cardinal numbers , in the sense that | SN | =
| S | | N | , where | X | is the cardinality of X. When " 2 " is defined as { 0 , 1 } , we have | 2X | = 2 | X | , where 2X , usually denoted by P ( X ) , is the power set of X ; each subset Y of X corresponds uniquely to a function on X taking the value 1 for x ∈ Y and 0 for x ∉ Y.
= = = In category theory = = =
In a Cartesian closed category , the exponential operation can be used to raise an arbitrary object to the power of another object . This generalizes the Cartesian product in the category of sets . If 0 is an initial object in a Cartesian closed category , then the exponential object 00 is isomorphic to any terminal object 1 .
= = = Of cardinal and ordinal numbers = = =
In set theory , there are exponential operations for cardinal and ordinal numbers .
If κ and λ are cardinal numbers , the expression κλ represents the cardinality of the set of functions from any set of cardinality λ to any set of cardinality κ . If κ and λ are finite , then this agrees with the ordinary arithmetic exponential operation . For example , the set of 3 @-@ tuples of elements from a 2 @-@ element set has cardinality 8 = 23 . In cardinal arithmetic , κ0 is always 1 ( even if κ is an infinite cardinal or zero ) .
Exponentiation of cardinal numbers is distinct from exponentiation of ordinal numbers , which is defined by a limit process involving transfinite induction .
= = Repeated exponentiation = =
Just as exponentiation of natural numbers is motivated by repeated multiplication , it is possible to define an operation based on repeated exponentiation ; this operation is sometimes called hyper @-@ 4 or tetration . Iterating tetration leads to another operation , and so on , a concept named hyperoperation . This sequence of operations is expressed by the Ackermann function and Knuth 's up @-@ arrow notation . Just as exponentiation grows faster than multiplication , which is faster @-@ growing than addition , tetration is faster @-@ growing than exponentiation . Evaluated at ( 3 , 3 ) , the functions addition , multiplication , exponentiation , and tetration yield 6 , 9 , 27 , and 7625597484987 (
= 327 =
333 = 33 ) respectively .
= = Zero to the power of zero = =
= = = Discrete exponents = = =
There are many widely used formulas having terms involving natural @-@ number exponents that require 00 to be evaluated to 1 . For example , regarding b0 as an empty product assigns it the value 1 , even when b
= 0 . Alternatively , the combinatorial interpretation of b0 is the number of empty tuples of elements from a set with b elements ; there is exactly one empty tuple , even if b =
0 . Equivalently , the set @-@ theoretic interpretation of 00 is the number of functions from the empty set to the empty set ; there is exactly one such function , the empty function .
= = = Polynomials and power series = = =
Likewise , when working with polynomials , it is often necessary to assign <formula> the value 1 . A polynomial is an expression of the form <formula> where x is an indeterminate , and the coefficients <formula> are real numbers ( or , more generally , elements of some ring ) . The set of all real polynomials in x is denoted by <formula> . Polynomials are added termwise , and multiplied by the applying the usual rules for exponents in the indeterminate x ( see Cauchy product ) . With these algebraic rules for manipulation , polynomials form a polynomial ring . The polynomial <formula> is the identity element of the polynomial ring , meaning that it is the ( unique ) element such that the product of <formula> with any polynomial <formula> is just <formula> . Polynomials can be evaluated by specializing the indeterminate x to be a real number . More precisely , for any given real number <formula> there is a unique unital ring homomorphism <formula> such that <formula> . This is called the evaluation homomorphism . Because it is a unital homomorphism , we have <formula> That is , <formula> for all specializations of x to a real number ( including zero ) .
This perspective is significant for many polynomial identities appearing in combinatorics . For example , the binomial theorem <formula> is not valid for x
= 0 unless 00 =
1 . Similarly , rings of power series require <formula> to be true for all specializations of x . Thus identities like <formula> and <formula> are only true as functional identities ( including at x
= 0 ) if 00 =
1 .
In differential calculus , the power rule <formula> is not valid for n
= 1 at x =
0 unless 00 = 1 .
= = = Continuous exponents = = =
Limits involving algebraic operations can often be evaluated by replacing subexpressions by their limits ; if the resulting expression does not determine the original limit , the expression is known as an indeterminate form . In fact , when f ( t ) and g ( t ) are real @-@ valued functions both approaching 0 ( as t approaches a real number or ± ∞ ) , with f ( t ) > 0 , the function f ( t ) g ( t ) need not approach 1 ; depending on f and g , the limit of f ( t ) g ( t ) can be any nonnegative real number or + ∞ , or
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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lutetium from ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the naming honor therefore went to him , but neoytterbium was eventually reverted to ytterbium and in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . Ironically , Charles James , who had modestly stayed out of the argument as to priority , worked on a much larger scale than the others , and undoubtedly possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time .
Lawrencium was first synthesized by the Albert Ghiorso and his team on February 14 , 1961 , at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory ( now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ) at the University of California in Berkeley , California , United States . The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three @-@ milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron @-@ 10 and boron @-@ 11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator ( HILAC ) . The nuclide 257103 was originally reported , but then this was reassigned to 258103 . The team at the University of California suggested the name lawrencium ( after Ernest O. Lawrence , the inventor of cyclotron particle accelerator ) and the symbol " Lw " , for the new element , but " Lw " was not adopted , and " Lr " was officially accepted instead . Nuclear @-@ physics researchers in Dubna , Soviet Union ( now Russia ) , reported in 1967 that they were not able to confirm American scientists ' data on 257103 . Two years earlier , the Dubna team reported 256103 . In 1992 , the IUPAC Trans @-@ fermium Working Group officially recognized element 103 , confirmed its naming as lawrencium , with symbol " Lr " , and named the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co @-@ discoverers of lawrencium .
So far , no experiments were conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element ; if lutetium and lawrencium are considered to be group 3 elements , then the next element in the group should be element 153 , unpenttrium ( Upt ) . However , after element 120 , filling electronic configurations stops obeying Aufbau principle . According to the principle , unpenttrium should have an electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s25g186f147d1 and filling the 5g @-@ subshell should be stopped at element 138 . However , the 7d @-@ orbitals are calculated to start being filled on element 137 , while the 5g @-@ subshell closes only at element 144 , after filling of 7d @-@ subshell begins . Therefore , it is hard to calculate which element should be the next group 3 element . Calculations suggest that unpentpentium ( Upp , element 155 ) could also be the next group 3 element . If lanthanum and actinium are considered group 3 elements , then element 121 , unbiunium ( Ubu ) , should be the fifth group 3 element . The element is calculated have electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s28p1 / 21 , which is not associated with transition metals , without having a partially filled d @-@ subshell . No experiments have been performed to create unpenttrium , unbiunium or any element that could be considered the next group 3 element ; however , unbiunium is the element with the lowest atomic number that has not been tried to be created and thus has chances to be , while unpenttrium , unpentpentium or any other element considered if preceded by lawrencium is very unlikely to be created due to drip instabilities that imply that the periodic table ends soon after the island of stability at unbihexium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Like other groups , the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations , especially the outermost shells , resulting in trends in chemical behavior . However , lawrencium is an exception , since its last electron is transferred to the 7p1 / 2 subshell due to relativistic effects .
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group ; chemical properties of both actinium and especially lawrencium are not well @-@ characterized . The remaining elements of the group ( scandium , yttrium , lutetium ) are reactive metals with high melting points ( 1541 ° C , 1526 ° C , 1652 ° C respectively ) . They are usually oxidized to the + 3 oxidation state , even through scandium , yttrium and lanthanum can form lower oxidation states . The reactivity of the elements , especially yttrium , is not always obvious due to the formation of a stable oxide layer , which prevents further reactions . Scandium ( III ) oxide , yttrium ( III ) oxide , lanthanum ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide are white high @-@ temperature @-@ melting solids . Yttrium ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide exhibit weak basic character , but scandium ( III ) oxide is amphoteric . Lanthanum ( III ) oxide is strongly basic .
= = = Physical = = =
Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas ( scandium , yttrium , lanthanum , actinium ) show a clear trend in their physical properties , such as hardness . At the same time , if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium , several trends are broken . For example , scandium and yttrium are both soft metals . Lanthanum is soft as well ; all these elements have their outermost electrons quite far from the nucleus compared to the nuclei charges . Due to the lanthanide contraction , lutetium , the last in the lanthanide series , has a significantly smaller atomic radius and a higher nucleus charge , thus making the extraction of the electrons from the atom to form metallic bonding more difficult , and thus making the metal harder . However , lutetium suits the previous elements better in several other properties , such as melting and boiling points . Very little is known about lawrencium , and none of its physical properties have been confirmed .
= = Group borders = =
It is disputed whether lutetium and lawrencium should be included in group 3 , rather than lanthanum and actinium . Other d @-@ block groups are composed of four transition metals , and group 3 is sometimes considered to follow suit . Scandium and yttrium are always classified as group 3 elements , but it is controversial which elements should follow them in group 3 , lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium . Scerri has proposed a resolution to this debate on the basis of moving to a 32 @-@ column table and consideration of which option results in a continuous sequence of atomic number increase . He thereby finds that group 3 should consist of Sc , Y , Lu , Lr . The current IUPAC definition of the term " lanthanoid " includes fifteen elements including both lanthanum and lutetium , and that of " transition element " applies to lanthanum and actinium , as well as lutetium but not lawrencium , since it does not correctly follow the Aufbau principle . Normally , the 103rd electron would enter the d @-@ subshell , but quantum mechanical research has found that the configuration is actually [ Rn ] 7s25f147p1 due to relativistic effects . IUPAC thus has not recommended a specific format for the in @-@ line @-@ f @-@ block periodic table , leaving the dispute open .
Lanthanum and actinium are sometimes considered the remaining members of group 3 . In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion forms , these elements do not possess any partially filled f @-@ orbitals , thus continuing the scandium — yttrium — lanthanum — actinium trend , in which all the elements have relationship similar to that of elements of the calcium — strontium — barium — radium series , the elements ' left neighbors in s @-@ block . However , different behavior is observed in other d @-@ block groups , especially in group 4 , in which zirconium , hafnium and rutherfordium share similar chemical properties lacking a clear trend .
In other tables , lutetium and lawrencium are classified as the remaining members of group 3 . In these tables , lutetium and lawrencium end ( or sometimes succeed ) the lanthanide and actinide series , respectively . Since the f @-@ shell is nominally full in the ground state electron configuration for both of these metals , they behave most similarly to other period 6 and period 7 transition metals compared to the other lanthanides and actinides , and thus logically exhibit properties similar to those of scandium and yttrium .
Some tables , including the official IUPAC table refer to all lanthanides and actinides by a marker in group 3 . This sometimes is believed to be the inclusion of all 30 lanthanide and actinide elements as included in group 3 . Lanthanides , as electropositive trivalent metals , all have a closely related chemistry , and all show many similarities to scandium and yttrium , but they also show additional properties characteristic of their partially filled f @-@ orbitals which are not common to scandium and yttrium .
Exclusion of all elements is based on properties of earlier actinides , which show a much wider variety of chemistry ( for instance , in range of oxidation states ) within their series than the lanthanides , and comparisons to scandium and yttrium are even less useful . However , these elements are destabilized , and if they were stabilized to more closely match chemistry laws , they would be similar to lanthanides as well . Also , the later actinides from californium onwards behave more like the corresponding lanthanides , with only the valence + 3 ( and sometimes + 2 ) shown .
= = Occurrence = =
Scandium , yttrium , and lutetium tend to occur together with other lanthanides ( except promethium ) tend to occur together in the Earth 's crust , and are often harder to extract from their ores . The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust for group 3 is quite low — all the elements in the group are uncommon , the most abundant being yttrium with abundance of approximately 30 parts per million ( ppm ) ; the abundance of scandium is 16 ppm , while that of lutetium is about 0 @.@ 5 ppm . For comparison , the abundance of copper is 50 ppm , that of chromium is 160 ppm , and that of molybdenum is 1 @.@ 5 ppm .
Scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals . Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Madagascar such as gadolinite , euxenite , and thortveitite are the only known concentrated sources of this element , the latter containing up to 45 % of scandium in the form of scandium ( III ) oxide . Yttrium has the same trend in occurrence places ; it is found in lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project in a relatively high content as well .
The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite , ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 , which contains 0 @.@ 003 % of the element . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . Pure lutetium metal is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 / kg , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold .
= = Production = =
The most available element in group 3 is yttrium , with annual production of 8 @,@ 900 tonnes in 2010 . Yttrium is mostly produced as oxide , by a single country , China ( 99 % ) . Lutetium and scandium are also mostly obtained as oxides , and their annual production by 2001 was about 10 and 2 tonnes , respectively .
Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct from the extraction of other elements . The metallic elements are extremely rare ; the production of metallic yttrium is about a few tonnes , and that of scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year ; production of lutetium is not calculated , but it is certainly small . The elements , after purification from other rare earth metals , are isolated as oxides ; the oxides are converted to fluorides during reactions with hydrofluoric acid . The resulting fluorides are reduced with alkaline earth metals or alloys of the metals ; metallic calcium is used most frequently . For example :
Sc2O3 + 3 HF → 2 ScF3 + 3 H2O
2 ScF3 + 3 Ca → 3 CaF2 + 2 Sc
= = Applications = =
= = Biological chemistry = =
Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility , and have low availability to the biosphere . No group 3 element has any documented biological role in living organisms . The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .
Scandium has no biological role , but it is found in living organisms . Once reached a human , scandium concentrates in the liver and is a threat to it ; some its compounds are possibly carcinogenic , even through in general scandium is not toxic . Scandium is known to have reached the food chain , but in trace amounts only ; a typical human takes in less than 0 @.@ 1 micrograms per day . Once released into the environment , scandium gradually accumulates in soils , which leads to increased concentrations in soil particles , animals and humans . Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment , due to the fact that damps and gases can be inhaled with air . This can cause lung embolisms , especially during long @-@ term exposure . The element is known to damage cell membranes of water animals , causing several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system .
Yttrium has no known biological role , though it is found in most , if not all , organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver , kidney , spleen , lungs , and bones of humans . There is normally as little as 0 @.@ 5 milligrams found within the entire human body ; human breast milk contains 4 ppm . Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm ( fresh weight ) , with cabbage having the largest amount . With up to 700 ppm , the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations .
Lutetium has no biological role as well , but it is found even in the highest known organism , the humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not .
The high radioactivity of lawrencium would make it highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .
= = Links to related articles = =
= Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site =
The Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site , or Hill Farm Site , designated 25WT1 by archaeologists , is a site near the village of Guide Rock in Webster County , in the south central portion of the state of Nebraska , in the Great Plains region of the United States . It was the location of a village of the Kitkehahki band of the Pawnee people , in a region of the Republican River valley that they occupied intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s .
In 1806 , the village was visited by a Spanish expedition led by Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and , soon after , by an American expedition led by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike . At the village , Pike persuaded the Pawnee leaders to haul down a Spanish flag that they had received from Melgares , and to raise the flag of the United States in its stead .
The location of the village visited by Pike was not known for many years . In the early 20th century , two sites were proposed : this one in Nebraska , and one in Republic County in northern Kansas . A dispute between the historical societies of the two states ensued , titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " . The dispute was eventually resolved in favor of the Nebraska site .
Investigations conducted at the site by William Duncan Strong , Waldo Wedel , and A. T. Hill were instrumental in the development of Great Plains archaeology , and of Pawnee archaeology in particular .
The site is a National Historic Landmark , and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Description = =
The site lies on a terrace on the Republican River 's south side , near the village of Guide Rock . At the terrace 's north edge is a near @-@ vertical 25 – 30 @-@ foot ( 8 – 9 m ) bank ; the floodplain of the river extends about one @-@ fourth mile ( about one @-@ half kilometer ) from the bank 's base to the present channel . The remains of over 100 earth lodges lie on the terrace between the bank and hills to the south , which rise 125 feet ( 38 m ) above the site . On the hills are five cemeteries . The village complex also includes a council site and two open courts where a hoop game was played .
The village extended for at least 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) from east to west . On its east and west sides were creeks , now dry , that ran northward into the Republican . At the time of the village 's occupation , springs in the western creek flowed year @-@ round ; these would have provided a more convenient source of water than the river , since access to the latter was hampered by the steep bank . The springs ceased to flow at some time after the land came under cultivation in the 1870s .
Not far downstream from the site is a hill known to the Pawnees as Pa @-@ hur , or " hill that points the way " . In the traditional Pawnee religion , this was one of five lodges of the nahurac , spirit animals with supernatural healing powers .
= = History 1770 – 1806 = =
= = = The Southern Pawnees move north = = =
The ancestors of the modern Pawnee people were not a single unified tribe . At the middle of the 18th century , they consisted of two major groups . The Skidis , or Wolf Pawnees , had migrated northward with the Arikaras , and had probably been in Nebraska since 1600 or earlier . By the beginning of the 18th century , they were established on the Loup River , which flows through central Nebraska into the Platte River from the north .
The second major division of the ancestral Pawnees was the Southern , or Black Pawnees . Their migration history is not well documented ; but by 1750 they , with the related and allied Wichitas , had established what seemed to be a secure territory on the Arkansas River .
The security of the southern bands depended on French trade in arms , and this was disrupted by the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) . In 1763 , France surrendered the Louisiana Territory under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau . Great Britain obtained the portion of the territory east of the Mississippi River . Spain received the territory west of the Mississippi , including New Orleans , although they did not make their claim to that city effective until Governor Alejandro O 'Reilly suppressed the Rebellion of 1768 . Once in control of New Orleans , the Spanish imposed severe restrictions on trade up the Mississippi , cutting off the supply of arms to the Southern Pawnees and Wichitas .
The neighboring Osages were not so affected , as they had access to arms smuggled by French traders from British territory in present @-@ day Illinois . With superior weaponry , they drove between the Southern Pawnees and the Wichitas , pushing the latter group southward to the Red River . The Pawnees moved northward into Nebraska , possibly because of news that modern weapons were available from traders on the Platte .
The dates of the moves are not known exactly . The Wichita move from the Arkansas to the Red occurred at some time between 1768 and 1772 . The Osages occupied the former Pawnee @-@ Wichita hunting grounds on the Arkansas in 1774 , indicating that the Pawnees had left by then ; in 1777 , a Spanish report indicated that they were in Nebraska .
The Southern Pawnees were divided into three bands : the Chauis , or Grand Pawnees ; the Pitahawiratas , or Tappage Pawnees ; and the Kitkehahkis , or Republican Pawnees . The Chauis were regarded as the nominal leaders , and in the traditional account they led the migration to Nebraska , followed by the Pitahawiratas . However , the Kitkehahkis declined to follow the Chaui chiefs to their new settlements on the Platte ; instead , they established themselves on the Republican River , near what is now the Nebraska @-@ Kansas border .
= = = Occupation history = = =
There is much debate among historians and archaeologists concerning the dates of occupation of the Webster County village . Four Kitkehahki village sites on the Republican are known , two of them quite large : this one , and the Pawnee Indian Village Site near Republic , Kansas , 49 kilometres ( 30 mi ) downstream . The band inhabited the Republican valley intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s . Unfortunately , there is little information on which villages were occupied at what times , although there is a strong consensus that this village is the one visited by Pike in 1806 . The following account , therefore , can only describe what is known about Kitkehahki occupation and abandonment of the Republican valley , and not the history of this particular village .
The Pawnees did not live in their villages year @-@ round . In the spring , they planted and hoed crops near their villages . In mid @-@ June , they left on their summer buffalo hunt . In September , they returned to harvest the crops and to hold their harvest festival ; they then cached a portion of their food in their villages and left on the winter buffalo hunt , from which they did not return until planting time in the spring . Thus the villages were deserted for at least eight months of the year .
The Kitkehahkis also moved , both in small groups and en masse , between the Republican and the Platte . The Pitahawiratas and the Chauis seem to have lived together amicably from the time of their arrival in Nebraska . However , the Kitkehahkis were divided between those who wanted to live independently on the Republican , and those who wanted to live near the Chauis on the Platte . The three bands frequently moved together on the summer and winter buffalo hunts , so there was regular contact between them . It was common for people to move from one household to another , especially upon returning from a buffalo hunt ; this would have facilitated moves from village to village .
At times , the entire Kitkehahki band abandoned the Republican and moved to the Platte . Generally , this took place in times of war , when the bands sought protection in numbers . Movement between the Republican and the Platte probably occurred continually until about 1825 .
= = = War with the Skidis = = =
When the Southern Pawnees arrived in Nebraska , the Skidis were not pleased to see them on lands that they regarded as their own . Nevertheless , they were willing to accept them as neighbors , so long as they kept to the south side of the Platte . However , the Chaui leaders demanded that they be recognized as the heads of the entire Pawnee people , above the Skidi chiefs . They defied the Skidis by sending a large hunting party to Prairie Creek , on the north side of the Platte within sight of the Skidi villages on the Loup . The Skidis responded by attacking the Chaui hunters and driving them back across the Platte . The Chauis and Pitahawiratas resolved on war , and summoned the Kitkehahki fighters to join them against the Skidis ; the Kitkehahkis , unwilling to leave their people unprotected against Skidi raids , left the Republican and moved to the Platte near the other bands .
The conflict with the Skidis probably took place sometime between 1770 and 1775 . It concluded with the defeat of the Skidis , who , although nominally conquered , remained on the Loup and continued to hunt separately from the other three bands . By 1777 , the Kitkehahkis had moved back to the Republican .
At some time between 1777 and 1785 , the Kitkehahkis again abandoned and then re @-@ occupied the Republican valley . A Spanish account of 1785 describes a village on the south side of the Platte in Butler County , not far from the modern town of Linwood , Nebraska ; this village was occupied by the Kitkehahkis until about 1785 , when they returned to the Republican .
= = = War with the Omahas = = =
War came to the Kitkehahkis on the Republican in 1798 . The Omahas , under the leadership of Chief Blackbird , had become perhaps the most powerful group in Nebraska . They were located at the junction of the French trade route up the Missouri River and an overland route across northern Iowa whereby the Sac and Fox brought British arms and goods westward . This allowed them to levy tribute and exercise control over trade on the Missouri .
During the height of their power in the late 1790s , bands of Omaha warriors frequently visited the Kitkehahkis to perform the calumet ceremony . This traditional peacemaking ritual had degenerated into what the Omahas called " smoking for horses " : the Kitkehahkis were obliged to give feasts and presents of horses to their uninvited guests . In 1798 , a group of Omahas under Little Grizzly Bear went for this purpose to the Republican . The Kitkehahkis , feeling imposed upon by the frequency of these visits , stripped and beat the Omahas and drove them out of the village .
When Blackbird learned of this , he ordered an attack on the Kitkehahkis . The Omahas descended upon the band 's village , burned and plundered many of the lodges , and killed about one hundred Pawnees at the cost of about fifteen of their own men . The remaining Kitkehahkis had withdrawn into four lodges , occupying a position too strong for the Omahas to reach them and massacre them without unacceptable losses .
Whether the Republican valley was abandoned after the Omaha attack is not recorded . The invading Omahas had camped on the Platte , undisturbed by the Chauis , on their way to the Kitkehahkis ; this might indicate that the two Pawnee bands were on bad terms at the time . The power of the Omahas was broken soon thereafter : in about 1801 , a smallpox epidemic spread from the Skidis to the Omahas , killing half of the tribe , Blackbird among them .
When the Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the Platte in 1804 , they found the Kitkehahkis ( whom they mistakenly called Arapahos ) living there . They were told that the band had returned to the Republican about ten years before ( that is , before the conflict with the Omahas ) , but had recently moved to the Platte under pressure from the Kanzas . By 1806 , however , the Kitkehahkis were at peace with the Kanzas , and were once again living on the Republican .
= = 1806 : Melgares and Pike = =
Under the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso , Spain returned the Louisiana Territory to France . In connection with this transfer , France agreed not to sell the territory to a third party ; French foreign minister Talleyrand had indicated that a strong French Louisiana would halt the expansion of Britain and the United States in the New World .
Napoleon quickly reneged on this agreement . In the 1803 Louisiana Purchase , France sold the territory to the United States . This led to conflict between the latter nation and Spain . The Spanish contended that the sale of Louisiana to the United States was invalid , and that the territory had reverted to them . Although they were unable to prevent American occupation of New Orleans , they sought to check American activity west of the Mississippi River .
Spain and the United States both sought allies among the Native Americans of the disputed territory . In June 1806 , Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and 600 men were dispatched from
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the Spanish provincial capital of Santa Fe down the Red River and then northward into present @-@ day Nebraska . Although no Spanish records of the Melgares expedition are known to exist , it is believed that its purpose was to find and arrest the Lewis and Clark party , and to establish alliances with the Native Americans of the region , including the Pawnees .
About a month later , Lieutenant Zebulon Pike left St. Louis with an American party of 23 men , and orders to negotiate peace between the Kanzas and Osages , to contact the Comanches of the high plains , and to explore the headwaters of the Red and Arkansas Rivers . For guides and interpreters to the Comanches , Pike turned to the Pawnees ; his Osage and Pawnee guides led him northwest through present @-@ day Kansas toward the Kitkehahki village on the Republican .
Melgares was the first to arrive at the village . His journey north had not been easy . Mutiny had broken out and been suppressed among his New Mexican militia ; and many of his horses had gone lame , or had been stolen by Pawnee raiders . He had left 240 of his men on the Arkansas in southern Kansas before turning northward with the other half of his force . In the Republican village , he met with Kitkehahki and Chaui leaders , to whom he presented gifts , including Spanish flags . The Pawnees agreed to expel Americans from their territory , but also opposed the Melgares expedition 's continuing to the Missouri River . In the face of this opposition , and with no supply lines and a force too large to live off the country , Melgares returned to the Arkansas and thence to Santa Fe .
= = = Pike at the village = = =
Pike 's party reached the Kitkehahki village on September 25 , 1806 , shortly after Melgares 's departure . Upon his arrival , he was greeted by the ranking chief , Sharitarish , who invited him to eat in his lodge and told him of Melgares 's recent visit . The Pawnees presented eight horses to the Osages accompanying Pike , and members of the two tribes smoked pipes together . Pike 's party established a camp fortified with rifle pits on a hill on the north bank of the Republican opposite the village .
On the following day , a delegation of 12 Kanzas arrived at the village ; on September 28 , they held a council with the Osages . Pipes were smoked in token of peace between the tribes .
On September 29 , Pike held a " grand council " with the Pawnees . At this council , one of Melgares 's Spanish flags was displayed at the chief 's lodge . Pike urged the Pawnees to haul it down and replace it with that of the United States . When the Pawnee chiefs demurred ,
... I again reiterated the demand for the flag , adding " that it was impossible for the nation to have two fathers ; that they must either be the children of the Spaniards , or acknowledge their American father " . After a silence of some time an old man rose , went to the door , took down the Spanish flag , brought it and laid it at my feet ; he then received the American flag , and elevated it on the staff which had lately borne the standard of his Catholic Majesty .
This was favorably received by the Osages and Kanzas , but apparently caused distress to the Pawnees . Perceiving this , Pike returned the Spanish flag to them , asking only that they not fly it during his party 's stay in the village . " At this , there was a general shout of applause ... "
Pike had planned for the Pawnees to guide him to the Comanches . However , upon his arrival at the village , he was informed that the two tribes were at war . When Pike expressed his intention of continuing inland toward the headwaters of the Arkansas , Sharitarish urged him to turn back : he had prevented the Spanish from going further into American territory , and would likewise resist an American movement toward Spanish land .
Pike refused to be intimidated . He told the chief
... that the young warriors of his great American father were not women , to be turned back by words ; that I should therefore proceed , and if he thought proper to stop me , he could attempt it ; but that we were men , well armed , and would sell our lives at a dear rate to his nation ; that we knew our great father would send his young warriors there to gather our bones and revenge our deaths on his people ...
The Pawnees relented , though unwillingly and with much dissent . Pike obtained horses from them , and set out on October 7 . He ordered his party to stay in a compact body , with guns and bayonets and sabers at the ready ; he estimated that " it would have cost them at least 100 men to have exterminated us " . With no guides to the Comanches , he was forced to abandon that part of the mission ; instead , he returned south into Kansas , where he attempted to follow Melgares 's trail toward the Arkansas .
= = 1806 – 1833 = =
Sharitarish was a Chaui who , at some time before 1805 , had been involved in a struggle over the leadership of that band . In the course of this struggle , he had brought his clan to the Kitkehahki village on the Republican , where he had deposed Iskatappe , the hereditary chief of the Kitkehahki . Although the exact situation is not known , it is thought that Sharitarish was trying to bring the Kitkehahkis back to the Platte , to support his faction in the Chaui village .
After 1806 , the Spanish continued their efforts to win the friendship of the Pawnees . Messages were dispatched to the Pawnee chiefs , urging them to come to Santa Fe ; and most of these messages went to Sharitarish . The fact that he received them while Long Hair , the Chaui head chief , was ignored , fed his self @-@ importance . In 1809 , in an ill @-@ judged attempt to impress the Pawnees , he led the Kitkehahki to war with the Kanzas . By 1811 he had been defeated , and the Kitkehahkis had been forced to abandon the Republican and move to the Platte .
There is no firm documentary evidence of occupation of the Webster County village after 1809 . However , analysis of pottery and glass beads suggests that the site was re @-@ occupied during the second decade of the 19th century ; and three letters from 1823 and 1825 suggest that the Kitkehahki were living on the Republican . By 1833 , however , the village had been abandoned and the band was living on the Loup River . In that year , the four Pawnee bands , treated as a single tribe by the U.S. government , signed a treaty in which they gave up their lands south of the Platte .
= = Rediscovering the village = =
Webster County was opened to homesteaders in 1870 . In 1872 , the village site was homesteaded and placed under cultivation .
In 1875 , Elizabeth Johnson discovered the remains of a Pawnee village in Republic County , Kansas . She thought that it might be the site of Pike 's flag incident ; but hearing of another village in Webster County , Nebraska , she dispatched her husband and another man to investigate this site . Because the surface had been altered by cultivation , they found little evidence of habitation , and Johnson was persuaded that the Republic County site was Pike 's village . She prevented its being plowed on several occasions , and eventually purchased the land .
Johnson 's claim was supported by Elliott Coues , who had edited Pike 's journal ; with his endorsement , it was accepted by the Kansas State Historical Society . In 1901 , Johnson donated the land to the state of Kansas , which built a 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) granite monument commemorating Pike 's symbolic triumph over Spain . At the dedication of the monument , several of the speakers drew parallels between the Pike episode and the recent American victory in the Spanish – American War . In 1906 , a four @-@ day festival was held to celebrate the centennial of the flag incident .
= = = A. T. Hill = = =
One of those attending the 1906 ceremonies at the Kansas monument was A. T. Hill , a resident of Logan , Kansas . Hill had no formal training as an archaeologist — indeed , his formal education had ended in the fourth grade . However , he had developed a strong interest in the history and archaeology of the Great Plains .
Upon reading Pike 's journal , Hill became convinced that the Kansas site could not be the correct one . To him , the local topography did not appear to match that described by Pike ; and when he attempted to retrace Pike 's route , he concluded that the actual village site must be some distance northwest of the Kansas monument .
In 1912 , Hill moved to Hastings , Nebraska , where he went to work for an automobile dealership . In his job , he traveled throughout central Nebraska ; in the course of this , he spoke with many collectors and investigated possible Pike sites . When he reached a managerial position at the dealership , he recruited his salesmen to bring him reports on archaeological sites and collections .
In 1923 , Hill learned of the remains of a Spanish saddle obtained from the George DeWitt farm in Webster County . He visited the farm , and learned from DeWitt , the son of the original homesteader , that when the land was first plowed , it was covered with Native American relics . Hill opened a grave and found a Spanish bridle bit and spur ; across the river , on land that had never been plowed , he found traces of a camp , including rifle pits . The topography of the site closely matched Pike 's description ; and when Hill attempted to follow Pike 's route from the site to the Arkansas River , he recognized a number of landmarks from Pike 's account .
Hill called the attention of the Nebraska State Historical Society ( NSHS ) to the site and , in 1924 , joined representatives of the Society in conducting further excavations , showing that a village of considerable size had existed there . In 1925 , to ensure archaeological access to the site and to protect it from relic @-@ hunting , he bought the two farms on whose land it lay . Between 1924 and 1930 , he excavated two lodges and over fifty graves .
= = = Nebraska versus Kansas = = =
By 1927 , Hill and the NSHS were persuaded that the Webster County site was the scene of the Pike flag incident . In that year , they challenged Kansas 's claim . A full issue of the Society 's journal , Nebraska History , was devoted to the matter . The issue , provocatively titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " , included articles by representatives of the Nebraska society and of the Kansas Historical Society , each claiming the Pike site for his own state .
More than historical accuracy was at stake . In a 1901 address delivered at the Republic County site , Katherine S. Lewis of the Kansas Daughters of the American Revolution had declared that " we have been seeking out antiquity for Kansas ; we felt that our state was too new to be interesting " . In 1927 , Kansans still regarded their Pike site as a focus of state pride , and were unwilling to give it up : in the Nebraska History issue , George Morehouse of the KHS wrote , " It is now very strange that ... our Nebraska friends should become so enthusiastic in trying to take from our Pike 's Pawnee Republic Village its halo of glory . "
In their articles , the champions of each state argued that Pike 's account of his route supported their site , and entirely ruled out the other . Both sides also argued that Pike 's description of the local topography matched their site and differed significantly from the other .
The proponents of the Nebraska site cited the artifacts that had been recovered from their village . These included a Spanish peace medal dated 1797 and bearing the image of Charles IV , an American peace medal of the type issued after 1801 , and soldier 's buttons and brass medallions bearing 15 stars , one of which bore the number " 1 " , that of Pike 's infantry regiment .
The Kansans had no such artifacts to show . However , they argued that the Nebraska village postdated the Pike episode . The Kansas village , they stated , had been the one visited by Pike , and was occupied by the Pawnees until they were driven north by the Delawares in the early 1830s ; the fleeing Pawnees had then established the village on the Republican , where they had been devastated by smallpox . In this account the epidemic , and not long habitation , explained the number of graves found by Hill ; the medals had not been buried with their original owners , but had been treasured by the band for decades , until the time that the pestilence was blamed on " evil gifts from the whites " and they were cast away .
Further work at both sites strengthened the case for Nebraska . Kansas supporters gave ground reluctantly : a major celebration was held at the Republic County site in 1933 , and as late as 1947 , an article in the Kansas Historical Quarterly spoke of the issue as " debatable ground " . Today , however , the Webster County site is generally acknowledged as the true one : an exhibit at the Republic County site states as much , and a Kansas historical marker near the 1901 monument states that " the village was long believed ... to be that visited by Zebulon M. Pike " .
Although Elizabeth Johnson was mistaken about the Pike village site , her mistake is held to be a fortunate one . The Webster County site had been subjected to decades of cultivation and relic hunting . The Republic County site was not entirely pristine , due to surface collecting and possibly to amateur excavation ; but it was far better preserved . Today , the Kansas Historical Society operates a museum on the site , built in 1967 over one of the excavated earth lodges .
= = Investigation history = =
Hill continued work at the site through 1930 . In that year , he was joined by William Duncan Strong , who the previous year had been named a professor of anthropology at the University of Nebraska , and by Strong 's research assistant Waldo Wedel . The collaboration of these three was crucial to the new science of Central Plains archaeology , and to Pawnee studies in particular : up to this time , the conventional wisdom among anthropologists was that there was no useful archaeological work to be done on the Plains . In 1936 , Wedel published his 1930 master 's thesis as the seminal An Introduction to Pawnee Archaeology .
In the summer of 1941 , a WPA crew excavated a number of lodges , cache pits , and graves at the site . Some testing and surface collecting were conducted in 1943 . More recently , a magnetic survey was conducted over a portion of the village in 1982 , and some testing was carried out in 1987 .
Hill plotted the remains of 102 lodges . Pike reported finding 44 lodges at the village ; the difference is probably due to the abandonment or destruction of lodges and the building of new ones on different sites . At least 90 graves have been investigated by archaeologists ; an estimated 75 – 100 additional graves are thought to have been opened by relic hunters .
= = Preservation = =
In 1964 , the site was listed as a National Historic Landmark . In 1966 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The boundaries of the historic site were expanded to nearly 300 acres ( 120 ha ) at some time in 1977 or later .
The site is owned and preserved by the Nebraska State Historical Society Foundation . There is no museum or visitor center there , and the site is not open to the public .
= Australia national baseball team =
The Australian national baseball team represents Australia in international baseball tournaments and competitions . They are ranked as the top team in Oceania , and are the Oceanian Champions , having been awarded the title in 2007 when New Zealand withdrew from the Oceania Baseball Championship . After achieving a last ( 16th ) place in the 2013 World Baseball Classic , their ranked dropped to 13 , which is the lowest rank Australia ever got . The highest rank they have achieved was 9th .
The Australian team participated in the Summer Olympic Games in 1996 , 2000 and 2004 , but failed to qualify for 2008 . The team has also participated in both of the other major international baseball tournaments recognised by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) : the Baseball World Cup and most recently the World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) .
The team is controlled by the Australian Baseball Federation , which is represented in the Baseball Confederation of Oceania ( BCO ) . Prior to the BCO 's formation , Australia competed in the Asian Baseball Championship under the Baseball Federation of Asia ( BFA ) . Australia continues to have a relationship with the BFA ; the 2011 resumption of the Asia Series includes the Australian Baseball League 's champion team .
= = Current roster = =
On 17 January 2013 , the Australian Baseball Federation announced the 28 players that made up the provisional roster for Australia at the 2013 World Baseball Classic in March . The final roster was announced on 20 February , and included only one change from the provisional roster : Shane Lindsay was added after Peter Moylan withdrew himself from the team as a result of signing with a new team , the Los Angeles Dodgers .
Of the players named in the roster , eight have previous Major League experience , four pitchers and four position players : Brad Harman , Justin Huber , Luke Hughes , Shane Lindsay , Chris Oxspring , Ryan Rowland @-@ Smith , Chris Snelling and Brad Thomas . Assistant Coach Graeme Lloyd has also had 10 seasons as a Major League pitcher , including two World Series championships with the New York Yankees . Coaches Greg Jelks and Glenn Williams have also had Major League experience as players . Peter Moylan ,
* – Player has not played for Australia in international competition prior to 2013 WBC
† – Player did not play for Australia in WBC prior to 2013
= = World ranking = =
In January 2009 the International Baseball Federation created a ranking system so that the nations involved in international competition could be compared independently . Teams receive points based on the position they finish at the end of tournaments . The system takes into account results not only of the senior men 's teams but also of junior teams . Weightings that emphasise the importance of certain tournaments are based on the number of teams competing , the number of continents represented ( or eligible to be represented ) , and in the case of continental tournaments such as the Oceania Baseball Championship the relative strength of teams eligible . Only results within the previous four years are used , so points are added and removed over time . Since the system began , the rankings have been adjusted after the completion of tournaments qualifying for the ranking process ; the most recent was the 2009 Baseball World Cup .
When the rankings were first introduced , Australia was listed at 10th position . The high @-@ water mark was after the 2009 World Baseball Classic when they were in 9th . The lowest position they have been in the ranking since its inception is 11th . At the end of 2010 , Australia had returned to their original position of 10th .
* – The tournaments that Australia participated in since the previous release of the rankings .
* * – Multiple tournaments were held since the previous release of the rankings .
† – Denotes a rankings release that had no tournaments Australia participated in .
= = International competition = =
In January 2009 the IBAF , in releasing the first edition of the world rankings , announced the classifications of various tournaments that contributed to the rankings themselves . In doing so , they identified that of the " world " tournaments , there were different levels with differing levels of weighting towards the ranks : major world championships , minor world championships , world qualifying tournaments and continental championships / qualifying tournaments .
= = = Major world championships = = =
There are currently three recognised tournaments that are considered " major " by the IBAF : the World Baseball Classic , the Summer Olympic Games and the Baseball World Cup . Of those , the Summer Olympics will be phased out of the rankings structure , as baseball will no longer be contested as an Olympic event .
= = = = World Baseball Classic = = = =
Australia has competed in all three editions of the World Baseball Classic . All sixteen teams that played in the 2006 edition were invited to compete in the second in 2009 . By virtue of their third @-@ place finish in their first @-@ round pool , Australia qualified compete at the 2013 edition of the WBC . ; however , they were eliminated with an 0 – 3 record and finished in last place overall .
Australia , which has not progressed beyond the first round of competition , achieved its highest finish , 12th , in the 2009 tournament . Unusual for international competition in baseball , the squads selected in the World Baseball Classic tournaments featured players active in Major League Baseball in addition to Minor League , Nippon Professional Baseball and local players . Generally players in the Major Leagues are unavailable for international representative teams due to their contracts with the respective clubs .
= = = = = United States , 2006 = = = = =
Prior to formally starting their campaign , Australia played an exhibition game , which they lost , against a Boston Red Sox squad at City of Palms Park in Fort Myers , Florida . This was also the site of their training camp .
Australia competed in Pool D — along with Dominican Republic , Italy and Venezuela — in the first round at Cracker Jack Stadium in Orlando , Florida . The other three teams were able to field a large number of Major League players . Of players born outside the United States on 2006 Major League Opening Day rosters , the Dominican Republic ( 85 ) and Venezuela ( 43 ) had more than all other countries and between them accounted for more than 57 % of foreign @-@ born players in the leagues . Italy is among the top nations in Europe and had access to Italian @-@ American players under the eligibility rules for the tournament . Thus , Australia was considered the underdog in the pool .
Having failed to win any of their round @-@ robin pool games , they finished last in their pool , and were eliminated with Canada , China , Chinese Taipei , Italy , Netherlands , Panama and South Africa . The eventual champions were Japan .
= = = = = Mexico , 2009 = = = = =
Australia was based in Peoria , Arizona — the site of the Seattle Mariners spring training camp — for their preparation for the formal start of their 2009 campaign . Unlike 2006 , in which they had one exhibition game , they competed against three different Major League clubs : the Seattle Mariners , the Milwaukee Brewers and the Chicago White Sox . Their game against Seattle was Ken Griffey , Jr . ' s first game playing for the Mariners since October 1999 , and was also their first victory as part of a World Baseball Classic tour .
Australia was drawn in Pool B for the 2009 tournament , along with Cuba , Mexico and South Africa , competing at Foro Sol Stadium in Mexico City . After beating Mexico in their opening game , they lost their next two games to Cuba and Mexico , and were eliminated from the tournament . The Australians set a WBC record against Mexico : 22 hits in a single game is more than any other team has achieved in either tournament .
= = = = = Taiwan , 2013 = = = = =
In June 2011 , it was announced that the field for the 2013 WBC would be expanded to include an additional 12 teams and that a qualifying round would be several months prior to the main tournament . The qualifying tournament involved the 12 newly invited teams , as well as the four lowest @-@ placed teams from the 2009 tournament ; all teams who
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øyen and Lysaker , so there is little regularity or speed potential to gain from the construction , since the Oslo Tunnel from Skøyen to Oslo Central Station will still remain a bottleneck with only two tracks . Advocates have claimed that there is no gain from building this section without building two additional tracks all the way to the central station .
= = Operation = =
Norges Statsbaner ( NSB ) operates their express trains on the Bergen and Sørland Line on the Asker Line , along with the regional trains along the Vestfold Line . They also operate some of Oslo Commuter Rail trains , that do not stop on the intermediate stations . Other commuter trains use the old Drammen Line , along with freight trains . However , in 2006 , the night freight trains were moved to the new line , despite operating at less than 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The Flytoget airport express train operates along the line three times per hour using Class 71 multiple units , connecting the main stations west of Oslo to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
With the opening of the new line , NSB stopped operating their commuter trains from Drammen to Oslo with stops at Høn , Hvalstad and Billingstad . Passengers from Drammen now need to transfer in Asker , but all other passengers have travel times reduced from 48 to 36 minutes .
= Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad =
The Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad ( reporting mark DME ) is a Class II railroad subsidiary of the Canadian Pacific Railway operating across South Dakota and southern Minnesota in the Northern Plains of the United States . Portions of the railroad also extend into Wyoming , Nebraska and Iowa .
DM & E began operations on September 5 , 1986 , over trackage spun off from the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company in South Dakota and Minnesota . Many of the negotiations were handled by the office of Senator Larry Pressler and his legal counsel Kevin V. Schieffer . After DME 's successful first decade , Schieffer succeeded J. C. McIntyre as president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 .
DM & E purchased the assets of I & M Rail Link railroad in 2002 , renaming it Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad . DM & E combined its management and dispatching duties with those of ICE under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . The combined system directly connects Chicago through Iowa to Kansas City , Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul and continues as far west as Rapid City , South Dakota . Smaller branches extend into portions of Wisconsin , Wyoming and Nebraska .
In September 2007 it was announced that Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP ) would acquire the DM & E upon approval by the Surface Transportation Board of the US Department of Transportation . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 . The merger was completed , and the official last day of operations for the DM & E was October 30 , 2008 .
= = 1986 – 1996 : Startup and initial expansion = =
In the early 1980s , Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) announced plans to abandon a section of railroad through Minnesota and South Dakota that dated to 1859 . Due to pressure from customers and Senator Larry Pressler from South Dakota , a deal was reached and announced on April 24 , 1986 , creating the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad out of sections of CNW from Winona , Minnesota , to Rapid City , South Dakota . This deal also included buildings , rolling stock and locomotives , mostly rebuilt EMD SD9s , from the CNW .
DM & E began operations on this track on September 5 , 1986 . The railroad was expanded in 1995 when it acquired additional former CNW branch lines from Rapid City , South Dakota , to Colony , Wyoming , and Crawford , Nebraska .
From startup to the railroad 's ten @-@ year anniversary in 1996 , DM & E hauled nearly 500 @,@ 000 carloads of freight , which includes 700 million bushels of grain . DM & E celebrated the anniversary with picnics and employee appreciation events and excursions in Waseca , Minnesota , and Pierre , South Dakota .
Kevin V. Schieffer , whom former United States President George H. W. Bush had appointed as US Attorney for South Dakota in 1991 , became president of DM & E on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer was no newcomer to the railroad ; he first became involved with DM & E in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of the former CNW lines that eventually formed the first sections of DM & E 's mainline . Maintaining the status quo on DM & E was not the fate that he had in mind for the railroad as he took the reins .
= = 1997 – 2006 : plans for expansion into the Powder River Basin = =
= = = Expansion plans = = =
In 1997 , DM & E announced plans to expand into the Powder River Basin ( PRB ) in Wyoming and start providing unit coal train service from that area . The railroad filed an application for the expansion to the Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) on February 20 , 1998 . Burlington Northern Railroad built into this area in 1979 , and the Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) also sought to access the PRB coalfields , a project accomplished by CNW 's successor Union Pacific Railroad . DM & E would become the third railroad to tap into the coal deposits in the region .
DM & E 's expansion would require the construction of 281 miles ( 452 km ) of new track , upgrading 598 miles ( 962 km ) of existing track ( including all of the railroad 's mainline track in Minnesota ) , new mainline connections Owatonna and Mankato , Minnesota , and three new rail yards . The plan would be the largest new railroad construction in the United States since the completion of Milwaukee Road 's Pacific extension to Seattle , Washington , in 1909 .
= = = Initial approval and lawsuits = = =
The STB approved the application on December 10 of that year pending completion of an Environmental Impact Statement ( EIS ) , which was released by the STB on September 27 , 2000 .
An analysis of the plan by Minnesota 's Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad Working Group in 2001 showed support among customers and freight shippers , but DM & E 's expansion plan led to complaints among residents in communities along the railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way . While some communities welcomed the railroad 's expansion plan as an opportunity for increased business within their own cities , other residents and businesses felt that roads in the area were not built with enough overpasses and underpasses to deal with the traffic flow problems that the longer and more frequent unit trains would produce at grade crossings . The objectors cited concerns of the general public in safely and quickly traversing their communities as well as the ability of emergency vehicles to cross the tracks to reach emergency scenes or hospitals . The city of Rochester , Minnesota filed a lawsuit to force the railroad to build a bypass around the city . The bypass was estimated to cost around US $ 100 million .
= = = Further legal actions = = =
After a period of public comment that lasted until March 16 , 2001 , and further review by the STB , the final EIS was issued on November 19 , 2001 . In this final approval , the STB agreed with DM & E that no new bypasses around cities would be required even though the cities of Rochester , Minnesota , Brookings and Pierre , South Dakota , had requested them . In 2003 , a ruling by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ordered the STB to re @-@ examine potential environmental issues around Rochester . The STB 's preliminary report , released in early 2005 , noted that no additional steps were needed by the railroad to alleviate noise and vibration caused by the projected increase in train traffic .
The court upheld the STB 's approval with stipulations for the new line 's environmental impact , including the projected increase in the frequency of train horn soundings along the line . From the court 's ruling , the STB prepared a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement which sets forth mitigation strategies for the railroad . On February 15 , 2006 , the United States Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) announced its final approval of the railroad 's 1998 application .
In April 2004 , DM & E was awarded the power of eminent domain in South Dakota by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit in Pierre , South Dakota . The ruling overturned part of South Dakota legislation passed in 1999 ( two years after the railroad first announced its intentions to expand ) that would have impaired railroad operations and construction in the state . This decision restores the legal process by which the railroad can effectively force landowners along the proposed new route to sell their land to the railroad .
= = = Funding = = =
With the final EIS in place and approval from the STB , DM & E had the authority to undertake the expansion as proposed , but needed financing . On February 26 , 2007 , the FRA rejected a proposed $ 2 @.@ 3 billion loan to DM & E. In announcing the decision , Administrator Joseph H. Boardman noted that the project proposal met many federal requirements for the loan but cited concerns that the railroad might not be able to handle cost overruns during construction or to repay such a hefty amount after construction is completed .
= = 2002 – 2007 : consolidation with IC & E = =
DM & E hauled nearly 60 @,@ 000 carloads of various freight shipments in fiscal year 2002 , serving approximately 130 customers along the railroad 's mainline . Of these shipments , 53 % were grains or grain products , 24 % were bentonite and kaolin clay , 7 % were cement , and 5 % were wood and lumber products ; the remaining 11 % were split among all other types of freight .
On February 21 , 2002 , DM & E announced that it would purchase the railroad assets of 1 @,@ 700 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) I & M Rail Link ( IMRL ) from its then current owners Washington Corporation . DM & E renamed the IMRL property to Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ( IC & E ) and began operating it under that name on July 30 , 2002 . Although a purchase price was not stated in the original announcement , an article in the May 2002 Trains Magazine suggests that several industry sources believed the total to be around $ 150 million .
DM & E and IC & E combined management under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . Locomotives of both railroads were given a unified paint scheme ( see below ) and interchanges were streamlined between the two railroads . The administration of both railroads is handled by Cedar , further streamlining processes between the two railroads . As a result , the combined DM & E / IC & E system makes up the largest Class II railroad ( by route @-@ miles ) in the United States ; it is also the eighth largest system of all American railroads and the only system with direct rail connections with all Class I railroads in North America .
In its first twenty years of operations , the railroad 's revenues had increased more than tenfold , from $ 22 million in 1987 to $ 258 million in 2006 , with $ 290 million projected in 2007 and $ 340 million for 2008 . Its operating ratio ( the ratio of operating expenses to revenues ) declined to 70 @.@ 2 % in 2006 and was projected to improve further to 67 @.@ 6 % in 2007 . Its traffic was a mix of agricultural , coal , and industrial products , and ethanol shipments were projected to exceed one billion gallons in 2008 .
= = Acquisition by Canadian Pacific Railway = =
On September 4 , 2007 , the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) announced it was acquiring the DM & E from its owners , London @-@ based Electra Private Equity , for US $ 1 @.@ 48 billion , and future payments of over $ 1 @.@ 0 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River basin . The transaction will include the ICE and other affiliated companies . The merger is an " end @-@ to @-@ end " consolidation ; the lines presently interchange at three points , including the Winona , Minnesota connection between the DM & E 's main line across southern Minnesota and CP 's Chicago main . Kevin Schieffer , president of the DM & E , has called CP the DM & E 's " natural partner " and the transaction a " natural fit " .
The acquisition will give CP access to shipments of agricultural products and ethanol in addition to coal from the Wyoming coal fields . CP has stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the Powder River and ship coal to midwestern and eastern utilities . The transaction is subject to approval of the Surface Transportation Board , which is expected to take a year . Securities analysts have stated that competing railroads for Powder River coal , the Union Pacific and BNSF , could challenge the acquisition and delay STB approval , but are unlikely to prevent it . At least until approval is received , the DM & E will continue to operate as a separate entity .
On October 4 , 2007 , CP announced that it has completed the financial transactions to acquire the DM & E and subsidiaries . Control of DM & E has been placed into a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as trustee ; the trust will remain in effect until the STB issues its decision on the acquisition . CP plans to integrate DM & E 's operations once it receives STB approval . CP expected STB approval of the purchase in October 2008 . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 , with no conditions other than those that CP had already agreed to in the original plan ; the effective date of the purchase was October 30 , 2008 . CP assumed control of DM & E and IC & E on October 30 , 2008 . CP plans to invest $ 300 million in capital improvements to the former DM & E lines by 2011 .
= = Recent developments = =
On December 3 , 2012 , CP announced it was indefinitely placing on hold plans for building new trackage into the Powder River Basin . The next day the railroad announced its intention to sell the entire ex @-@ DM & E west of Tracy , Minnesota , roughly 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of track . On January 2 , 2014 CP announced that all track west of Tracy , Minnesota was to be sold to Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern Railroad , a subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming , a short line operator . The sale was completed on May 30 , 2014 for $ 210 million . Most of the Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern 's employees came over from the DM & E.
= = Subdivisions = =
DM & E operated over twelve subdivisions . The divisions were located in Minnesota , South Dakota , Iowa , and Nebraska .
Waseca Subdivision — Winona to Waseca , Minnesota
Hartland Subdivision — Waseca , Minnesota to Mason City , Iowa
Tracy Subdivision — Waseca to Tracy , Minnesota
Huron Subdivision — Tracy , Minnesota to Huron , South Dakota
Yale Spur Subdivision — Huron to Watertown , South Dakota
Redfield Subdivision — Aberdeen to Wolsey , South Dakota
Mansfield Subdivision — Redfield to Mansfield , South Dakota
Pierre Subdivision — Huron to Pierre , South Dakota
Onida Subdivision — Blunt to Onida , South Dakota
PRC Subdivision — Pierre to Rapid City , South Dakota
Black Hills Subdivision — Bentonite ( at Colony , WY ) to Rapid City to Dakota Junction , Nebraska
Crawford Subdivision — Chadron to Crawford , Nebraska
= = Rolling stock = =
DM & E originally purchased used first @-@ generation locomotives from a variety of railroads ; in the early years it was more common to see a locomotive with a Milwaukee Road or Chicago and North Western Railway paint scheme than a DM & E paint scheme . Over the years , the locomotives were repainted , and many of them are now in DM & E 's paint scheme ( which is closely mirrored by that of sister Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ) of blue with a yellow stripe along its length .
DM & E eventually assigns names to all of its locomotives when they are repainted , usually after locations along its right @-@ of @-@ way , but a few exceptions have been named for people ( like road number 550 , named after Senator Larry Pressler ) . All of the first @-@ generation diesel locomotives purchased from Chicago and North Western and Milwaukee Road have since been replaced with more recent locomotives , although the newer locomotives were also bought used .
In 1987 , at the railroad 's one @-@ year anniversary , DM & E owned 39 locomotives and leased five more for a total of 44 locomotives rostered . By the railroad 's tenth anniversary in 1996 , DM & E owned 6
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9 locomotives and owned or leased over 1 @,@ 500 cars including over 600 covered hoppers for grain and cement shipments . In 2001 , the number of locomotives owned stayed about the same , while the number of cars increased to about 5 @,@ 000 with 52 % of them in dedicated grain service .
= = Company officers = =
DM & E has had three men serve as president of the railroad :
J. C. ( Pete ) McIntyre ( 1986 – 1996 ) began his railroad career in 1953 , eventually working for Chicago and North Western in the early 1980s . When DM & E was formed in 1986 , McIntyre became the new railroad 's first president .
Kevin V. Schieffer ( 1996 – 2008 ) served as counsel for Senator Larry Pressler starting in 1982 . Schieffer began working with DM & E business in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of C & NW branch lines that would eventually form the beginnings of DM & E. He initiated the negotiations in 1985 that led to DM & E 's creation . He was promoted to Chief of Staff for Senator Pressler in 1987 , a position he held until 1991 when United States President George H. W. Bush appointed Schieffer to be US Attorney for South Dakota . In 1993 , Schieffer left his US Attorney post and became the legal counsel for DM & E ; as legal counsel for the railroad , he oversaw the railroad 's recapitalization in 1994 and the acquisition of C & NW 's Colony line . He held this position until he was unanimously elected president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer left the DM & E on October 7 , 2008 , shortly after the Surface Transportation Board approved the proposed purchase of the railroad by Canadian Pacific ; DM & E 's COO Ed Terbell and CFO Kurt Feaster were named to manage the railroad until CP completed the acquisition October 30 , 2008 .
Vern Graham ( 2008 – 2010 ) was appointed president November 5 , 2008 .
= Javier López ( baseball ) =
Javier Alfonso López ( born July 11 , 1977 ) is a Puerto Rican @-@ born professional baseball pitcher for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball . He is 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) tall and weighs 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) . López previously pitched for the Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) , Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) , Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 09 ) and Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) . He is a left @-@ handed specialist known for his sidearm delivery . He also bats left @-@ handed .
López attended the University of Virginia , earning a degree in psychology despite leaving early to begin his baseball career . He was selected by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his career as a starting pitcher but struggled and converted into a sidearm ( or submarine ) reliever while still in the Diamondbacks ' organization . Before the 2003 season , he was selected by the Boston Red Sox in the Rule 5 draft , but he was traded to the Colorado Rockies during spring training . He spent all of 2003 on Colorado 's roster , nearly tying the franchise record for most consecutive batters retired and finishing third among major league rookies in games pitched . He struggled the next two seasons , getting claimed off waivers and later sent to the minors by Arizona in 2005 . In 2006 , he signed with the Chicago White Sox but failed to make the team and spent the first part of the season in the minors before getting traded to Boston during the year .
López served four stints with Boston in 2006 . In 2007 , he had three different stints but appeared in 61 games , posting a 3 @.@ 10 earned run average ( ERA ) . He posted a 15 @.@ 43 ERA in the playoffs but won his first World Series ring as the Red Sox defeated Colorado in four games . In 2008 , he spent the entire season on a major league roster for the first time since 2003 . He posted a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in his first 14 games of 2009 before getting sent to the minors for the rest of the season . In 2010 , he signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates but was traded to the San Francisco Giants during the season . He had his lowest ERA that year ( 2 @.@ 34 ) and won another World Series as the Giants defeated the Texas Rangers to win their first World Series since 1954 . In 2011 , López was one of two major league relief pitchers to throw at least 50 innings without giving up a home run . He won his third World Series in 2012 as the Giants defeated the Detroit Tigers in four games . In 2013 , López posted a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA . He won his fourth World Series in 2014 as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games . As of 2014 , he is the only active player to have played on 4 or more World Series championship teams .
= = Early life = =
Although he was born in Puerto Rico , López grew up in Fairfax , Virginia . He and his wife , Renee , attended Robinson Secondary School in Fairfax , Virginia . Growing up , his dream was to be an FBI agent like his father .
López went to college at the University of Virginia ( UVA ) and played for the Virginia Cavaliers baseball team . Through August 2011 , he was one of 29 former UVA players to have made it to the major leagues , along with among others Mark Reynolds , and Ryan Zimmerman . While playing at UVA , he went 12 – 9 with a 6 @.@ 30 earned run average ( ERA ) . As a hitter , he had a batting average of .319 , 15 home runs , and 71 runs batted in ( RBI ) . However , while still at UVA , he discovered that pitching was most likely to get him to the major leagues . Despite leaving college after only three years to play professional baseball , López continued working on his degree in psychology , which he earned in 2002 to fulfill a promise to his father @-@ in @-@ law . He also said , " I had done three years at a great university . I figured I should finish . "
= = Professional career = =
= = = Drafts and minor leagues = = =
After three seasons at UVA , López was drafted by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his minor league career as a starting pitcher for the South Bend Silver Hawks of the A Midwest League . In 16 games ( 19 starts ) , he had a 2 – 4 record , a 6 @.@ 55 ERA , 31 strikeouts , and 30 walks in 44 innings pitched . He remained at South Bend in 1999 , posting a 4 – 6 record , a 6 @.@ 00 ERA , and 70 strikeouts over 99 innings pitched in 20 starts . In 2000 , López was promoted to the High Desert Mavericks of the A @-@ Advanced California League . In 30 games ( 21 starts ) , he had a 4 – 8 record , a 5 @.@ 22 ERA , 98 strikeouts , and two saves in 136 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2001 , deciding that he would not be able to reach the major leagues as a starter , López converted to a submariner and moved to the bullpen . He said , " I don 't know if that was desperation as much as it was admitting failure . " He began the season with Arizona 's A @-@ Advanced affiliate , which was now the Lancaster JetHawks . In 17 games , he had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 62 ERA , 18 strikeouts , and one save in 24 innings pitched . He was promoted to the El Paso Diablos of the AA Texas League that season , where he had a 1 – 0 record , a 7 @.@ 42 ERA , 21 strikeouts , and 40 innings pitched in 22 games ( one start , his last professionally ) . In 2002 , he played in 61 games for El Paso as a reliever , allowing only a .204 opponent batting average . That year , he went 2 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , 47 strikeouts , and six saves in 46 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
= = = = 2003 = = = =
In December 2002 , the Boston Red Sox selected López in the Rule 5 draft , intending for him to compete for a role as a left @-@ handed specialist in the Red Sox ' bullpen . However , on March 18 he was traded to the Colorado Rockies for a player to be named later ( Ryan Cameron ) . López made the roster and made his MLB debut for the Rockies on Opening Day in 2003 , pitching a scoreless inning in a 10 – 4 loss to the Houston Astros . He got his first major league strikeout in his next game on April 5 , punching out Tony Womack in a 4 – 3 victory over the Diamondbacks . On April 10 , he got his first win , pitching 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 7 – 6 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . He posted an 0 @.@ 72 ERA , which led all NL relievers , in his first 30 games through June 8 , posting an 18 2 ⁄ 3 innings scoreless streak at the end of that run . However , his ERA jumped up to 3 @.@ 16 on June 12 , when he allowed seven runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in a 15 – 3 loss to the Minnesota Twins . From July 31 through August 16 , López almost tied a franchise record by retiring 18 straight hitters over the span of 17 days , but he fell short of the record of 21 set by Darren Holmes in 1996 when he intentionally walked Jason Phillips in a 13 – 4 loss to the New York Mets . On August 12 , he recorded his first career save by pitching a scoreless 11th inning in a 6 – 3 victory over the Montreal Expos . He played in 72 games , the third @-@ most among rookies in the major leagues , trailing only Óscar Villareal ( 86 ) and Brad Lidge ( 78 ) . He had a 4 – 1 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , and 1 save .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
López started off badly in 2004 , going 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 93 ERA in 46 games by mid @-@ season . He was then sent down to the AAA Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the Pacific Coast League on July 18 . While in AAA , he went 0 – 1 and had a 4 @.@ 00 ERA in eight games . He was called back to the majors on August 10 to replace an injured Aaron Cook and played the rest of the season in Colorado . He pitched better the rest of the season , allowing only two runs for a 1 @.@ 54 ERA in his final 18 games . In 64 games , López had a 1 – 2 record , a 7 @.@ 52 ERA , 20 strikeouts , and no saves in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
López began 2005 with the Rockies , but after allowing five runs in his first three games ( for a 22 @.@ 50 ERA ) , he was optioned to Colorado Springs on April 11 .
= = = Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) = = =
Before he could appear in any games with Colorado Springs , López was claimed off waivers by the Arizona Diamondbacks on April 14 . Due to major league rules , Arizona was unable to call him up until April 24 . He had another poor season , having a record of 1 – 1 and an 11 @.@ 02 ERA , the highest in the majors among relievers who made at least 30 appearances . On July 5 , López was designated for assignment to make room on the roster for Armando Almanza . He cleared waivers and was sent down to the Tucson Sidewinders of the Pacific Coast League for the rest of the season . He went 0 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 22 ERA . On October 15 , he was granted free agency .
= = = Chicago White Sox organization ( 2006 ) = = =
López signed a minor league deal for the Chicago White Sox in 2006 . He competed with Boone Logan for the role of left @-@ handed specialist , but Logan won the role , and López was sent to AAA to begin the season . Playing for the Charlotte Knights of the International League , he went 2 – 1 with 12 saves and an 0 @.@ 55 ERA in 26 games .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
On June 15 , 2006 , López was traded to the Boston Red Sox for David Riske . He posted a 4 @.@ 32 ERA in 14 appearances before getting sent to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the International League on July 17 because it was too " tough " for the Red Sox to carry a left @-@ handed specialist at that point in the season , according to manager Terry Francona . He was called up for two short stints from July 28 through August 1 and from August 20 through 22 , appearing in one game each time . On September 4 , he was recalled for the remainder of the season . In 11 September outings , López allowed only one run . He finished the year going 1 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 70 ERA in 27 games . With Pawtucket , he had no record and a 4 @.@ 86 ERA in 13 games ( 16 2 ⁄ 3 innings ) .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
López made the Red Sox ' Opening Day roster in 2007 , but after four scoreless outings he was optioned to Pawtucket on April 9 to make room for Mike Timlin , who had started the season on the disabled list . He was recalled on May 11 when Devern Hansack was sent down . On this stint , he posted a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 40 appearances before getting sent down on August 5 to make room for Curt Schilling , who was returning from the disabled list . With the Red Sox about to face several tough left @-@ handed hitters in late August , Jon Lester was sent down on August 23 to make room for López on the roster . In 2007 , López made 61 appearances , posting a 2 – 1 record with a 3 @.@ 10 ERA in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings . Despite his three stints in the minors , his 61 appearances ranked second on the club to Hideki Okajima 's 66 . He made 17 appearances for Pawtucket , going 2 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 78 ERA . López was a member of the playoff roster for the Red Sox , posting a 15 @.@ 43 ERA but winning his first World Series as the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
On 18 January 2008 , López agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Red Sox for $ 840 @,@ 000 , avoiding the arbitration process . In 2008 , López spent the full season on a major league roster for the first time since his rookie year . On June 6 , he threw a career @-@ high three innings , allowing no runs in an 8 – 0 loss to the Seattle Mariners . In 70 games , López had a 2 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 43 ERA , and 38 strikeouts in 59 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He had the fifth @-@ lowest ERA among major league left @-@ handed relievers and appeared in the fifth @-@ most games of AL left @-@ handers . He had the second @-@ lowest ERA among Red Sox pitchers in 2008 .
López made the playoffs for the second year in a row as the Red Sox won the AL Wild Card . He made one appearance in the AL Division Series ( ALDS ) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , taking the loss in Game 3 after giving up a game @-@ winning , twelfth @-@ inning single to Erick Aybar . That was Boston 's only loss of the series , as they defeated the Angels in four games . He made two appearances in the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) against the Tampa Bay Rays , allowing no runs as the Red Sox were defeated in seven games .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On April 30 , 2009 , López allowed five runs in 1 ⁄ 3 inning and played the remainder of the eighth inning in right field after Francona switched him with right fielder Jonathan Van Every . This game , a 13 – 0 loss to the Rays , was the first time a Red Sox pitcher had played another position in a major league game since Tom Burgmeier played left field on August 3 , 1980 . On May 10 , López was designated for assignment to make room for pitcher Daniel Bard after he started the year 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in 14 games . Shortly thereafter , he was outrighted to the minors . He spent the rest of the season in Pawtucket , going 1 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 38 games . On October 5 , he was granted free agency . López ended his Red Sox tenure with a string of 152 straight games without a save , the longest stretch for a Red Sox pitcher since Rheal Cormier had 160 in 1995 and from 1999 – 2000 .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) = = =
On December 18 , 2009 , López signed a one @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates where he replaced John Grabow , who was traded mid @-@ 2009 , as the Pirates ' left @-@ handed specialist . After posting a 10 @.@ 80 ERA in his first two games , he posted a 2 @.@ 43 ERA over his next 48 through July 31 .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2010 – present ) = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
On July 31 , 2010 , López was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Joe Martinez and John Bowker . He appeared in 27 games for the Giants , earning a 2 – 0 record with an ERA of 1 @.@ 42 . His combined record of 4 – 2 for the year with both Pittsburgh and San Francisco came in 77 appearances with an ERA of 2 @.@ 34 , both career records . Left @-@ handed batters hit only .162 against López , lowest among all National League left @-@ handers ( minimum 85 at @-@ bats ) . He ended the season five days short of qualifying for free agency .
López reached the playoffs as the Giants won the NL West for the first time since 2003 . He made two appearances in the NLDS against the Atlanta Braves to face Jason Heyward , whom he struck out both times . The Giants won the series in four games . Against the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLCS , he made five appearances , all scoreless except for Game 4 , in which he allowed a run . In the deciding Game 6 , he pitched a scoreless seventh inning and was charged with the win after Juan Uribe hit a game @-@ winning home run against Ryan Madson in the eighth inning . López made two appearances against the Texas Rangers in the 2010 World Series , striking out the two batters he faced . In Game 2 , he struck out Josh Hamilton to end the top of the eighth inning with a runner on second and preserve a 2 – 0 lead , although the Giants went on to win 9 – 0 . He won his second World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Since joining the Giants in 2010 , López has become one of the premier lefty specialists in the game . On May 12 , 2011 , he recorded his first save since 2006 in a 3 – 2 victory over the Diamondbacks . Following the game , he crossed his arms , imitating Giants ' closer Brian Wilson 's post @-@ save gesture . In 70 games in 2011 , he had a 5 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , and 40 strikeouts in 50 innings pitched . He and Brad Ziegler were the only relief pitchers in the major leagues to toss at least 50 innings without allowing a home run . His .163 opponent batting average ( OBA ) against left @-@ handers was the eighth @-@ lowest in the NL .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
After the 2011 season , the Giants re @-@ signed López to a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract . On July 6 , 2012 , López gave up his first home run since joining the Giants in 2010 when he allowed a 457 @-@ foot home run to Pedro Álvarez in a 6 – 5 victory over the Pirates . That brought his ERA to 4 @.@ 00 , but he posted a 1 @.@ 00 ERA over his last 32 games . Following struggles by Santiago Casilla ( who had replaced an injured Wilson as the Giants ' closer ) , Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy announced on August 7 that the Giants would be going to a " bullpen by committee " strategy , with López , Sergio Romo , and Jeremy Affeldt pitching the final two innings of close games , depending on which hitters they would be facing . Romo and López received most of the save opportunities ; Affeldt only had one save after that point . López received six save opportunities after August 7 and converted each of them . In 70 games , López had a 3 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 50 ERA , and 28 strikeouts in 36 innings while converting seven out of nine save opportunities . He stranded 87 @.@ 9 % of inherited runners , the third @-@ best mark in the NL . López made five appearances in the NLDS and the NLCS , allowing no runs as the Giants won both of those series . He did not pitch in the World Series but won his third career World Series ring as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
López recorded his only save of the 2013 season on September 19 , pitching the final 2 ⁄ 3 of the ninth inning in a 2 – 1 victory over the Mets . He made 69 appearances in 2013 , going 4 – 2 with a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA and striking out 37 in 39 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He held left @-@ handed hitters to a .156 OBA . On November 20 , 2013 , López was re @-@ signed by the Giants to a three @-@ year , $ 13 million contract .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
López appeared in 65 games in 2014 , recording a 3 @.@ 11 ERA with 22 strikeouts and 19 walks . In the 2014 NLDS , NLCS , and World Series , he recorded 11 outs over nine appearances , allowing 4 hits and a walk . Lopez won his fourth World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
In 2015 , López matched his career high with 77 appearances , setting new career @-@ bests with a 1 @.@ 60 ERA and 0 @.@ 890 WHIP . He struck out 26 batters in 391 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = Pitching style = =
López 's main pitch is a two @-@ seam fastball in the low 80s , and his secondary pitch is a slider in the high 70s . Against left @-@ handed hitters he will sometimes mix in a curveball . López 's distinctive sidearm delivery makes him appealing as a left @-@ handed specialist ; through the 2013 season , lefties have hit only .209 against him , while righties have hit .297 .
After López struggled to begin his professional career , throwing over the top , he decided he needed to change his style . In the Diamondbacks ' system in 2002 , with the help of Mike Myers , he began throwing sidearm ( or submarine ) , which Andy Baggarly called " a decision that changed his life . "
= = Personal life = =
López is married to Renée Richards , with whom he attended high school and college . The couple has two children : Kylan ( March 19 , 2010 ) and Christian ( October 26 , 2012 ) . Because López was in the 2012 World Series when Christian was born , he had to fly back home for the birth between Games 2 and 3 . He and his family reside in Denver , Colorado . López is a Christian . He says , " I do everything through faith , for sure . "
= Domitian =
Domitian ( / dəˈmɪʃən , -iən / ; Latin : Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 ) was Roman emperor from 8
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Place , Texas within hours of one another . In 2010 the city voted 5 @-@ 2 to ban the feeding of cats on public property and establish a rule requiring the permission of the owner of a piece of private property in order to feed cats on private property . The city received negative e @-@ mail feedback from various locations , including Switzerland .
In 2011 Phil Nauert was elected as the new Mayor of Bellaire . In 2014 , long @-@ time City Manager Bernie Satterwhite retired and was replaced by Paul Hofmann .
= = = County , state , and federal government = = =
Bellaire is within Harris County Precinct 3 . As of 2008 Steve Radack serves as the commissioner of that precinct . It is in Constable Precinct One . As of 2008 Jack Abercia heads the constable precinct .
Bellaire is located in District 134 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2011 , Sarah Davis represents the district . Bellaire is within District 17 of the Texas Senate .
Bellaire is in Texas 's 7th congressional district ; as of 2008 John Culberson is the representative . The designated United States Postal Service office is the Bellaire Post Office along Bellaire Boulevard in Bellaire . Bellaire first received a post office in 1911 .
= = Transportation = =
Bellaire is a member city of the Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County , Texas ( METRO ) . The city is served by bus lines 2 ( Bellaire ) , 17 , 33 ( Post Oak Crosstown ) , 49 ( Chimney Rock Crosstown ) , and 65 ( Bissonnet ) . The Bellaire Transit Center , located at 5100 Bellaire Boulevard at South Rice Avenue , has four lines ( 2 , 33 , 49 , 65 ) . As of 2010 METRO has proposed to build the Bellaire Station as part of the METRORail University Line .
In Bellaire 's early history , Bellaire Boulevard and a historic street car line connected Bellaire to Houston . The street car line , which ran a four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) stretch from central Bellaire to Houston 's Main Street , started construction in 1909 . The streetcar line consisted of one railway track and an overhead electric wire . A waiting pavilion and a turnaround loop were located at the terminus in Bellaire . The Houston Electric Company had simultaneously constructed a south end line from Eagle Avenue to what is now Fannin Street to connect to the Bellaire Boulevard line . Service , with one required transfer at Eagle Avenue , began on December 28 , 1910 . The streetcar was nicknamed the " Toonerville Trolley " . On September 26 , 1927 , the trolley line was abandoned and replaced by a bus line . This was due to frequent derailments caused by a worn @-@ out track and the advent of the automobile . In 1985 , a similar streetcar was acquired in Portugal and brought to Bellaire for permanent display .
= = Economy = =
The City of Bellaire has property zoned for light industrial , commercial , and mixed @-@ use residential and commercial uses . Bellaire has some high @-@ rise office buildings along Interstate 610 . Frost Bank 's Houston @-@ area offices are located in Bellaire . AT & T Inc. operates its Houston @-@ area headquarters in an office building at 6500 West Loop South in Bellaire ; the building was with SBC Corporation before it absorbed the former AT & T. The Houston Metropolitan Chamber , previously the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce , assists economy activity in Bellaire . The main offices of the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce were previously located in Bellaire . Chevron has a 33 @-@ acre ( 130 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus at 4800 Fournace Place in Bellaire that is the headquarters for the Chevron Pipe Line Company along with several other business units . Prior to the merger between Chevron and Texaco , the facility belonged to Texaco . Texaco built the 502 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 600 m2 ) square foot facility . South Texas Dental has its corporate headquarters in Bellaire .
In 1953 the Consulate @-@ General of Sweden moved to Bellaire . At one point the Consulate @-@ General of Honduras in Houston was located in Suite 360 at 6700 West Loop South in Bellaire . As of 2009 the Honduran Consulate @-@ General and the Swedish Honorary Consulate are located in Houston .
Bellaire had 8 @,@ 120 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census , including 3 @,@ 835 females . Of the civilian workers , 5 @,@ 368 ( 66 @.@ 1 % ) were private for profit wage and salary workers . Of them 689 ( 8 @.@ 5 % of the total Bellaire civilian workforce ) were employees of their own corporations . 952 ( 11 @.@ 7 % ) were private non @-@ profit wage and salary workers . 446 ( 5 @.@ 5 % ) worked for local governments . 479 ( 5 @.@ 9 % ) were state government workers . 111 ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) were federal workers . 754 ( 9 @.@ 3 % ) were self @-@ employed ; none of them worked in agriculture , forestry , fishing , or hunting . 10 ( .1 % ) were unpaid family workers .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Bellaire has several parks within the city limits operated by the city . Bellaire Zindler Park , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) park , was given its current name in honor of Marvin Zindler , a Houston journalist ; it was originally named Bellaire Park . Bellaire Zindler Park includes a neighborhood pool , two lighted tennis courts , a gazebo , a picnic area , a jogging trail , an open playground , the Bellaire Recreation Center , and the Bellaire Civic Center , which includes auditoriums and meeting rooms . The .875 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 540 m2 ) Vic Driscoll Park consists entirely of open green space . The 2 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 500 m2 ) Evergreen Park includes a neighborhood pool and a playground and picnic area . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ acre ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) Feld Park includes an adult softball field , a playground , two lighted tennis courts , and the Feld Scout House . The .2 @-@ acre ( 810 m2 ) Joe Gaither Park includes a play structure with swings and green space . The 3 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 13 @,@ 000 m2 ) Horn Field ( Avenue B at Holly Street ) includes two lighted baseball fields , youth soccer ( football ) fields , and a T @-@ Ball field . The .489 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 980 m2 ) Jacquet Park consists of a playground and picnic area . The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 6 @,@ 100 m2 ) Lafayette Park includes a playground and picnic area , an open play area , and the Officer Lucy Dog Park , a dog park . The .75 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 000 m2 ) Locust Park consists of an open play area and a shaded picnic area . The 1 @.@ 795 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 260 m2 ) Loftin Park consists of open green space . The 2 @.@ 547 @-@ acre ( 10 @,@ 310 m2 ) Mulberry Park at 700 Mulberry Lane includes a playground area , a picnic shelter , a youth baseball field , and three lighted tennis courts . The 6 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 27 @,@ 000 m2 ) Paseo Park along Bellaire Boulevard includes an esplanade , the Bellaire Trolley and the Special Event area . The 7 @-@ acre ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) Pin Oak Park along the West Loop South ( 610 Loop ) includes two lighted baseball fields , one lighted soccer and American football field , one jogging track , and three basketball / tennis courts . The 4 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 17 @,@ 000 m2 ) Russ Pitman Park includes the Henshaw House , the Nature Discovery Area , a playground area , a sheltered picnic area , a self @-@ guided nature trail , two pavilions , and an aviary . The dedication ceremony of the future Evelyn 's Park was held on June 25 , 2011 .
As of 1996 Bellaire prohibits smoking in public parks and dogs in all non @-@ dog public parks ; as of that year smoking in public parks brings a fine of $ 500 . The ordinance was adopted around 1996 on a 4 @-@ 3 vote .
Bellaire holds annual Fourth of July parades and annual " ' snow ' in the park " Christmas celebrations .
Bellaire 's Little League baseball team entered the Little League World Series in 2000 ; the team lost to the team of Maracaibo , Venezuela . In 2002 Bellaire 's little league team was placed in the same league as the West University Place team . Previously they played in separate leagues .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary public schools = = =
The city is served by Houston Independent School District ( HISD ) . Bellaire is within Trustee District V.
Pupils who live in Bellaire inside of the 610 Loop are zoned to Paul W. Horn Academy for elementary school , while students in Bellaire outside of the 610 Loop are zoned to either Condit Elementary School or Lovett Elementary School , the latter of which is in Houston . In addition , all Bellaire pupils are zoned to Pershing Middle School in the Braeswood Place neighborhood of Houston and Bellaire High School in Bellaire . In addition , a middle school called Pin Oak Middle School , which was built in 2002 , is located in Bellaire . Students zoned to Johnston , Long , and Pershing Middle Schools may choose to attend Pin Oak instead ; therefore Bellaire students may attend Pin Oak . Pin Oak was named a National Blue Ribbon School in 2008 .
In 2012 HISD opened the Mandarin Chinese Language Immersion Magnet School Chinese language @-@ immerson magnet school in Bellaire , in the Gordon Elementary School building . It is HISD 's first Chinese immersion school . In the future the school will move to the St. George Place area of Houston .
Gabriela Mistral Early Childhood Center is the closest public early childhood center to the city of Bellaire and Kolter Elementary School is the closest school with a tuition @-@ based early childhood program . Only economically disadvantaged students , homeless students , students who are not proficient in English , or children of active @-@ duty members of the U.S. military or whose parent has been killed , injured , or missing in action while on active duty may be enrolled in tuition @-@ free HISD preschools . Students who are eligible for HISD 's preschools may attend any Early Childhood Center in Houston ISD for free . Students not eligible may enroll in tuition @-@ based HISD preschool programs .
HISD is building a new campus for Condit Elementary School , and this campus , designed by VLK Architects , will have a capacity of 750 students . The groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 10 , 2014 .
= = = = History = = = =
Bellaire 's first school opened in 1909 ; the school moved to a new site in 1914 and an addition opened in 1927 ; when the addition opened the school was renamed " Condit . " Horn opened in 1949 , Pershing opened in 1927 , Bellaire High School opened in 1955 . Pin Oak opened in 2002 . Pershing 's current campus opened in January 2007 . The current Horn and Lovett buildings were scheduled to open in August 2011 . The rebuilds of Horn , Lovett , and Herod Elementary of Houston together had a cost of $ 49 million and were a part of a $ 1 billion bond program approved by HISD voters in 2007 .
Maud W. Gordon Elementary School in Bellaire does not have a zoning boundary ; before 2012 it drew excess students from apartments west of Bellaire , in Houston , to relieve other schools in Houston west of Bellaire such as Benavidez , Cunningham , Elrod , and Milne . From its opening to 1953 to 1983 Gordon served as a neighborhood school . After its closure Gordon temporarily housed the Post Oak School and later served as administrative offices . It re @-@ opened as a relief school in 1988 for Elrod and Cunningham schools . It was scheduled to re @-@ open in September of that year .
On April 29 , 1992 , during an attendance boundary hearing committee for Southwest Houston , residents of a small portion of Bellaire zoned to Cunningham Elementary School , a school in Houston that was one block away from the city limits of Bellaire , advocated for a rezoning to Condit Elementary School , a facility in the City of Bellaire that was about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away from that section . Condit was about 50 % White and had a middle class student body while Cunningham was 95 % Hispanic . On May 21 , 1992 , the HISD board voted to rezone that portion to Condit .
Around the early 1990s portions of Bellaire west of the 610 Loop were zoned to Jane Long Middle School , while portions inside the 610 Loop were zoned to Pershing . During that decade , the Bellaire Area School Improvement Committee , or BASIC , was formed to improve the reputation of HISD in Bellaire and to improve Bellaire area schools . The committee opened after HISD 's failed attempt to acquire property in Bellaire for the West University relief school . An attempt to buy land at Bissonnet Street at Newcastle Drive in the City of Bellaire for a school to relieve West University Elementary School failed since City of Bellaire officials and parents living in Bellaire complained when they learned that they would not be zoned to the new school while losing what Tim Fleck of the Houston Press described as " a prime chunk of taxable property . "
After its formation , BASIC installed a gifted and talented magnet at Jane Long , a school which Donald R. McAdams , a former HISD school board member and author of Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning ! : Lessons from
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942 , after which she joined the fleet in La Spezia and replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship . Impero was laid down at the Ansaldo shipyard on 14 May 1938 . She was launched on 15 November 1939 , but she was never completed . After the entrance of Italy to World War II , the Italian Navy moved the unfinished ship from Genoa to Brindisi , out of fears of French attacks on the vessel . Work was not resumed .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were declared operational on 2 August 1940 , and were assigned to the 9th Division of the 1st Squadron . On 31 August , the two ships , along with three of the older battleships steamed with a force of ten cruisers and thirty @-@ one destroyers to engage the Operation Hats convoy , but poor reconnaissance prevented the Italian force from engaging the British ships . The ships made another unsuccessful sortie to attack another Malta convoy on 29 September . During the attack on Taranto on 12 November 1940 , Littorio was hit twice by torpedoes , suffering serious damage . Significant flooding caused the ship to settle by the bow . The ship was dry @-@ docked on 11 December , with repairs completed by 11 March 1941 . Vittorio Veneto , however , emerged from the attack undamaged . While her sister was being repaired , she took over flagship duties and was transferred to Naples .
Vittorio Veneto sortied on 26 November and encountered British forces south of Sardinia . During the resulting Battle of Cape Spartivento , Swordfish torpedo bombers from the carrier HMS Ark Royal attacked Vittorio Veneto , though she evaded the torpedoes . She briefly engaged British cruisers with her rear main battery turret , without scoring any hits . During the engagement , one of her Ro.43 reconnaissance planes was shot down by a Skua fighter . On the night of 8 – 9 January 1941 , the Royal Air Force attacked Naples with heavy bombers , but failed to hit the ship . In February , Vittorio Veneto , Andrea Doria and Giulio Cesare attempted to attack what was believed to be a Malta convoy . The British squadron was in fact Force H , steaming to bombard Genoa . The two fleets did not make contact , however , and the Italians returned to port .
On 26 March 1941 , Vittorio Veneto departed port to attack British convoys to Greece . Germany pressured the Italian Navy to begin the operation , under the impression that they had disabled two of the three battleships assigned to the British Mediterranean Fleet . This resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan the following day , during which Vittorio Veneto engaged British cruisers . She was then attacked by torpedo bombers from HMS Formidable ; the first wave failed , but the second scored a single hit on both Vittorio Veneto and the heavy cruiser Pola . The battleship was flooded with some 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ; 4 @,@ 400 short tons ) of water , though she got underway after ten minutes and eventually reached Taranto on 29 March . Repairs lasted until July .
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had both returned to active duty by August 1941 , and on the 22nd the two ships sortied to attack a convoy . They returned to port without encountering any British forces , however . On 26 September , the two battleships attempted to intercept the Operation Halberd convoy , but they broke off the operation without attacking the convoy . While escorting a convoy to North Africa , Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge ; repairs lasted until Spring , 1942 . Shortly thereafter , on 13 December , Littorio escorted another convoy to North Africa . This operation resulted in the First Battle of Sirte , which ended inconclusively . She provided distant cover to another convoy on 3 – 6 January 1942 . On 21 March , she sortied to attack a British convoy , which led to the Second Battle of Sirte . During the engagement , she badly damaged the destroyers Havock and Kingston .
Repairs to Vittorio Veneto were completed in time for her to join Littorio on attacks on the convoys Vigorous and Harpoon , which had departed Alexandria and Gibraltar to reinforce Malta simultaneously in mid @-@ June . Combat was limited to the opposing light forces , and Littorio and Vittorio Veneto did not see action ; the British nevertheless broke off Operation Vigorous due to the ships ' presence and heavy air attacks . While returning to port , Littorio was hit by a bomb from an American B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bomber ; the bomb struck the forward gun turret , though it did minimal damage . Before returning to port , a British Wellington bomber torpedoed the ship . The torpedo struck her starboard bow , though she returned to port . Repairs were completed and on 12 December , both ships were moved from Taranto to La Spezia in response to the Allied landings in North Africa . Roma joined the fleet shortly after the attacks on the two convoys , and joined her sisters for the move to La Spezia . There , she replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship .
In June 1943 , a series of Allied air raids attacked La Spezia in an attempt to neutralize the three battleships . On 5 June , she was hit by two large bombs that struck her port side . She was transferred to Genoa for repairs , which were not completed before the Armistice that ended Italian participation in the war . Littorio was hit by three bombs on 19 June , a week after her sister was damaged . She was renamed Italia after Benito Mussolini 's regime collapsed . Roma was damaged during the 5 June attack and again in a third attack on 23 June . In September 1943 , following the withdrawal of Italy from the war , all three ships and a significant portion of the Italian fleet left port to be interned in Malta . While en route , German bombers laden with Fritz @-@ X radio @-@ guided bombs attacked the formation . One hit Italia in the bow forward the main battery turrets , causing serious damage . Two hit Roma ; one passed through the ship and exploded under her keel , and the second hit near the forward magazines . The bomb detonated the magazines , causing a massive explosion that destroyed the ship with heavy casualties .
Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta , where they remained until 14 September , when they were transferred to Alexandria . They remained at the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal for the rest of the war . On 6 June 1946 , Vittorio Veneto steamed to Augusta in Sicily , where , under the Treaty of Peace with Italy , she was allocated to Britain . On 14 October 1946 , she was moved to La Spezia , paid off on 3 January 1948 , and broken up for scrap . Italia left Great Bitter Lake on 5 February 1947 , to join her sister in Augusta . Allocated to the United States , she was stricken on 1 June 1948 and scrapped in La Spezia . The incomplete Impero had meanwhile been seized by the retreating Germans in 1943 , who used her as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers on 20 February 1945 . In October 1947 , the ship was raised and towed to Venice , where she was broken up .
= = The Littorio design in foreign navies = =
In 1939 , Spain 's General Francisco Franco briefly considered a naval building program after seizing power in the Spanish Civil War . Franco concluded several agreements with the Italian government that would have seen the building of four Littorio @-@ class battleships in Spain . The Italians promised to provide all necessary technical and material support for the construction of the ships . The Italian Navy pushed to modernize and enlarge the existing shipyards in Spain , so that they could handle a vessel as large as the Littorio class . The project was abandoned after Italy became involved in World War II , and as a result of limited Spanish industrial capacity .
In the early 1930s , the Soviet Navy began a naval construction program , and sought advice from foreign shipbuilders for a new class of battleships . On 14 July 1939 , Ansaldo completed a design proposal for the Soviet Navy , for a ship largely based on the Littorio class , designated U.P. 41 . The design was for a 42 @,@ 000 t ( 41 @,@ 000 long tons ; 46 @,@ 000 short tons ) ship armed with nine 406 mm guns in triple turrets . The Italians did not disclose the specifications of the Pugliese system and instead used a multiple @-@ torpedo bulkhead system . Regardless , the Soviet Navy did not use the U.P. 41 design as the basis for the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships they laid down in the late 1930s . They were , however , equipped with the Pugliese system , the details of which were revealed through Soviet espionage .
In preparing the design for the Design 1047 type of battlecruisers in early 1940 , the Dutch Navy inspected Vittorio Veneto , then under construction , in hopes of gathering some experience on the underwater protection system . The Italians refused to disclose the details of the Pugliese system , however .
= = Endnotes = =
Notes
Citations
= Typhoon =
A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180 ° and 100 ° E. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin , and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth , accounting for almost one @-@ third of the world 's annual tropical cyclones . For organisational purposes , the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions : the eastern ( North America to 140 ° W ) , central ( 140 ° to 180 ° W ) , and western ( 180 ° to 100 ° E ) . The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan , with other tropical cyclone warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii ( the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ) , the Philippines and Hong Kong . While the RSMC names each system , the main name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year . The Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country .
Within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year . Like any tropical cyclone , there are six main requirements for typhoon formation and development : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . The majority of storms form between June and November while tropical cyclone formation is at a minimum between December and May . On average , the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally . Like other basins , they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west or northwest , with some systems recurving near and east of Japan . The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls , with China and Japan being impacted slightly less . Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China . Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region , with a thousand @-@ year sample via documents within their archives . Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins .
= = Nomenclature = =
= = = Etymology and usage = = =
The term Typhoon is the regional name in the northwest Pacific for a severe ( or mature ) tropical cyclone , whereas hurricane is the regional term in the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic . Elsewhere this is called a tropical cyclone , severe tropical cyclone , or severe cyclonic storm .
The Oxford English Dictionary cites several Oriental words from Persian and Chinese giving rise to two early forms in English : touffon ( from Persian ) and tuffoon / tay @-@ fun ( from Chinese ) .
The Persian source is the word توفان tūfān ( " storm " ; also Arabic طوفان ( ṭūfān , " to turn round " ) , Hindi तूफ ़ ान ( tūfān ) ) from the verb tūfīdan ( Persian : توفیدن / طوفیدن , " to roar , to blow furiously " ) .
The Chinese source is the word tai fung ( simplified Chinese : 台风 ; traditional Chinese : 颱風 ; pinyin : táifēng ) , cited as a common dialect form of Mandarin dà " big " and fēng " wind " . In Mandarin the word for the windstorm is 大风 ( dàfēng , " big wind " ) and in Cantonese 大風 ( daai6 fung1 , " big wind " ) .
The Ancient Greek Τυφῶν ( Tuphôn , " Typhon , father of the winds " ) is unrelated but has secondarily contaminated the word .
= = = Intensity classifications = = =
A tropical depression is the lowest category that the Japan Meteorological Agency uses and is the term used for a tropical system that has wind speeds not exceeding 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) . A tropical depression is upgraded to a tropical storm should its sustained wind speeds exceed 34 knots ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) . Tropical storms also receive official names from RSMC Tokyo . Should the storm intensify further and reach sustained wind speeds of 48 knots ( 55 mph ; 89 km / h ) then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm . Once the system 's maximum sustained winds reach wind speeds of 64 knots ( 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) , the JMA will designate the tropical cyclone as a typhoon — the highest category on its scale .
From 2009 the Hong Kong Observatory started to further divide typhoons into three different classifications : typhoon , severe typhoon and super typhoon . A typhoon has wind speed of 64 @-@ 79 knots ( 73 @-@ 91 mph ; 118 – 149 km / h ) , a severe typhoon has winds of at least 80 knots ( 92 mph ; 150 km / h ) , and a super typhoon has winds of at least 100 knots ( 120 mph ; 190 km / h ) . The United States ' Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) unofficially classifies typhoons with wind speeds of at least 130 knots ( 67 m / s ; 150 mph ; 241 km / h ) — the equivalent of a strong Category 4 storm in the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale — as super typhoons . However , the maximum sustained wind speed measurements that the JTWC uses are based on a 1 @-@ minute averaging period , akin to the U.S. ' National Hurricane Center and Central Pacific Hurricane Center . As a result , the JTWC 's wind reports are higher than JMA 's measurements , as the latter are based on a 10 @-@ minute averaging interval .
= = Genesis = =
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation , they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form . Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres ( 160 ft ) is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . A minimum distance of 500 km ( 300 mi ) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis .
Whether it be a depression in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) or monsoon trough , a broad surface front , or an outflow boundary , a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis . About 85 to 90 percent of Pacific typhoons form within the monsoon trough . Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability , the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low . Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m / s ( 20 kn , 33 ft / s ) between the ocean surface and the tropopause is required for tropical cyclone development . Typically with Pacific typhoons , there are two outflow jets : one to the north ahead of an upper trough in the Westerlies , and a second towards the equator .
In general , westerly wind increases associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation lead to increased tropical cyclogenesis in all tropical cyclone basins . As the oscillation propagates from west to east , it leads to an eastward march in tropical cyclogenesis with time during that hemisphere 's summer season . On average , twice per year twin tropical cyclones will form in the western Pacific ocean , near the 5th parallel north and the 5th parallel south , along the same meridian , or line of longitude . There is an inverse relationship between tropical cyclone activity in the western Pacific basin and the north Atlantic basin , however . When one basin is active , the other is normally quiet , and vice versa . The main reason for this appears to be the phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , or MJO , which is normally in opposite modes between the two basins at any given time .
= = Frequency = =
Nearly one @-@ third of the world 's tropical cyclones form within the western Pacific . This makes this basin the most active on Earth . Pacific typhoons have formed year round , with peak months from August to October . The peak months correspond to that of the Atlantic hurricane seasons . Along with a high storm frequency , this basin also features the most globally intense storms on record . One of the most recent busy seasons was 2013 . Tropical cyclones form in any month of the year across the northwest Pacific ocean , and concentrate around June and November in the northern Indian ocean . The area just northeast of the Philippines is the most active place on Earth for tropical cyclones to exist . Across the Philippines themselves , activity reaches a minimum in February , before increasing steadily through June , and spiking from July through October , with September being the most active month for tropical cyclones across the archipelago . Activity falls off significantly in November , although Typhoon Haiyan , the strongest Philippine typhoon on record , was a November typhoon . The most frequently impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern and central Luzon and eastern Visayas . A ten @-@ year average of satellite determined precipitation showed that at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones , while the southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones . The genesis and intensity of typhoons are also modulated by slow variation of the sea surface temperature and circulation features following a near @-@ 10 @-@ year frequency .
= = Paths = =
Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving north and northeast into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience many fewer September – November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E , which would favor the Japanese archipelago . During La Niña years , the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shifts westward across the western Pacific ocean , which increases the landfall threat to China and greater intensity to Philippines . Those that form near the Marshall Islands find their way to Jeju Island , Korea .
Typhoon paths follow three general directions .
Straight track ( or straight runner ) . A general westward path affects the Philippines , southern China , Taiwan , and Vietnam .
A parabolic , recurving track . Storms recurving affect eastern Philippines , eastern China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and the Russian Far East .
Northward track . From point of origin , the storm follows a northerly direction , only affecting small islands .
A rare few storms , like Hurricane John , were redesignated as typhoons as its track originated from the Eastern / Central Pacific and moved its way into the western Pacific .
= = Basin monitoring = =
Within the Western Pacific , RSMC Tokyo @-@ Typhoon Center , part of the Japan Meteorological Agency has had the official warning responsibility for the whole of the Western Pacific since 1989 , and the naming responsibility for systems of tropical storm strength or greater since 2000 . However each National Meteorological and Hydrological Service within the western Pacific has the responsibility for issuing warnings for land areas about tropical cyclones affecting their country , such as the Joint Typhoon Warning Center for United States agencies , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) for interests in the island archipelago nation , and the Hong Kong Observatory for storms that come close enough to cause the issuance of warning signals .
= = = Name sources = = =
The list of names consists of entries from 14 Southeast and East Asian nations and the United States who have territories directly affected by typhoons . The submitted names are arranged into five lists , and each list is cycled with each year . Unlike tropical cyclones in other parts of the world , typhoons are not named after people . Instead , they generally refer to animals , flowers , astrological signs , and a few personal names . However , PAGASA retains its own naming list , which does consist of human names . Therefore , a typhoon can possibly have two names . Storms that cross the date line from the central Pacific retain their original name , but the designation of hurricane becomes typhoon . In Japan , people use the numerical designation of typhoons according to the sequence of their occurrence in the calendar year .
= = Records = =
The most active Western Pacific typhoon season was in 1964 , when 39 storms of tropical storm strength formed . The least activity seen in the northwest Pacific ocean was during the 2010 Pacific typhoon season , when only 14 tropical storms and seven typhoons formed . In the Philippines , the most active season , since 1945 , for tropical cyclone strikes was 1993 when nineteen tropical cyclones moved through the country . There was only one tropical cyclone that moved through the Philippines in 1958 . The 2004 Pacific typhoon season was the busiest for Okinawa since 1957 . Within Guangdong in southern China , during the past thousand years , the most active decades for typhoon strikes were the 1660s and 1670s .
The highest reliably @-@ estimated maximum sustained winds on record for a typhoon were those of Typhoon Haiyan at 195 miles per hour ( 314 km / h ) shortly before its landfall in the central Philippines on Nov. 8 , 2013 . The most intense storm based on minimum pressure was Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979 , which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals ( 26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots ( 85 m / s , 190 mph , 310 km / h ) . The deadliest typhoon of the 20th century was Typhoon Nina , which killed nearly 100 @,@ 000 in China in 1975 due to a flood that caused 12 reservoirs to fail . After Typhoon Morakot landed in Taiwan at midnight on August 8 , 2009 , almost the entire southern region of Taiwan ( Chiayi County / Chiayi City , Tainan County / Tainan City ( now merged as Tainan ) , Kaohsiung County / Kaohsiung City ( now merged as Kaohsiung ) , and Pingtung County ) and parts of Taitung County and Nantou County were flooded by record @-@ breaking heavy rain . The rainfall in Pingtung County reached 2 @,@ 327 millimeters ( 91 @.@ 6 in ) , breaking all rainfall records of any single place in Taiwan induced by a single typhoon , and making the cyclone the wettest known typhoon .
= Halo Original Soundtrack =
The Halo Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack for the video game Halo : Combat Evolved . Composed and produced by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori for Bungie , the soundtrack was released on June 11 , 2002 . Most of the music from Halo : Combat Evolved is present on the CD , although some songs have been remixed by O 'Donnell in medley form for " more enjoyable " listening . The first piece O 'Donnell wrote , known as " Halo " , became the basis for Halo 's " signature sound " which has been heard in the other games of the main trilogy .
The soundtrack features a wide range of musical styles , including chanting , string orchestra , and percussion . Upon release , the soundtrack was well received by critics . Some complimented the wide range of musical styles , and most agreed that playing the game is not required to enjoy the soundtrack . A special edition of the soundtrack was released on October 28 , 2003 , featuring a DVD with a trailer , demo movie , and high quality music for Halo 2 .
= = Background = =
As the audio director for Bungie , Martin O 'Donnell was tasked with writing the music for Halo : Combat Evolved . He had scored previous Bungie projects , including Myth : The Fallen Lords , while working for his audio company , TotalAudio , along with Michael Salvatori . O 'Donnell was nervous about the project , saying he approached it , " with fear and trepidation " . O 'Donnell stated his main influences were music he liked — " a little Samuel Barber meets Giorgio Moroder " . Bungie 's Director of cinematics , Joseph Staten told O 'Donnell , " the music should give a feeling of importance , weight , and sense of the ' ancient ' to the visuals of Halo " .
O 'Donnell 's first piece of music , " Halo " , which would become " the signature theme for Halo " , was written and recorded in three days . O 'Donnell convinced Alex Seropian to allow him to produce an original piece of music for the game 's 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo demonstration . He drew inspiration for the theme from The Beatles ' " Yesterday " . O 'Donnell recruited Salvatori and three other colleagues he had recorded jingles with — Robert Bowker , Jeffrey Morrow , and Rob Trow — to produce the " chanting monks " that open the piece . Originally , he had intended the Qawwali accents to be sung by one of the professionals , but after singing an example of what he wanted , the others suggested using O 'Donnell 's own rendition instead . The theme premiered at the 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo .
The remaining themes were written , recorded , and produced throughout 2001 . The music was written with a variety of equipment including , " keyboards , synths , and samplers as well as digital recording equipment controlled by computers " . Live instrumentations , from members of the Chicago Symphony and Chicago Lyric Opera Orchestra , were added where needed . The soundtrack features a wide range of sounds , O 'Donnell described it as , " Gregorian chant , string orchestra , percussion and just a bit of a ' Qawwali voice ' " . Working closely with level designers , O 'Donnell divided the music " into chunks " . Based on these " chunks " , " [ Halo 's ] audio engine could play [ the music ] back dynamically based on the player 's actions " . For the soundtrack release , O 'Donnell rearranged the music featured in the game in order to make listening to the soundtrack " more enjoyable " .
Bungie had previously released soundtracks for their games due to fan request , but Microsoft was hesitant to commit to producing a soundtrack for Halo ; at the time most video games did not get a commercial soundtrack release . The publisher finally relented after pressure from O 'Donnell and the outside solicitation of musician Nile Rodgers .
= = Reception = =
Reception of the soundtrack was generally positive from critics . IGN praised the soundtrack for its wide use of instruments stating , " Where other videogame scores tend to miss their mark when combining electronic and organic elements , O 'Donnell and Salvatori seem to have found a rather stable balance between the two divergent sounds . " Adding , overall , the soundtrack is " one of the better videogame oriented musical experiences out there " and playing the game is not required to find enjoyment within the score . Reviewing for Monsters At Play , Michael Johnson called the soundtrack " 66 minutes of orchestral goodness " citing the wide range of music covered as a strong point . Nuketown gave the soundtrack 9 out of 10 , stating , " the soundtrack is a welcome and invigorating reminder of good times had blasting unstoppable alien hordes " . The release went on to sell over 40 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All music was written and composed by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori .
" Opening Suite " – 3 : 33
" Truth and Reconciliation Suite " – 8 : 25
" Brothers in Arms " – 1 : 29
" Enough Dead Heroes " – 3 : 00
" Perilous Journey " – 2 : 26
" A Walk in the Woods " – 1 : 52
" Ambient Wonder " – 1 : 57
" The Gun Pointed at the Head of the Universe " – 2 : 26
" Trace Amounts " – 1 : 51
" Under Cover of Night " – 3 : 41
" What Once Was Lost " – 1 : 40
" Lament for Pvt. Jenkins " – 1 : 14
" Devils ... Monsters ... " – 1 : 30
" Covenant Dance " – 1 : 57
" Alien Corridors " – 1 : 48
" Rock Anthem for Saving the World " – 1 : 17
" The Maw " – 1 : 06
" Drumrun " – 1 : 01
" On a Pale Horse " – 1 : 35
" Perchance to Dream " – 1 : 00
" Library Suite " – 6 : 47
" The Long Run " – 2 : 12
" Suite Autumn " – 4 : 22
" Shadows " – 0 : 59
" Dust and Echoes " – 2 : 49
" Halo " – 4 : 22
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the CD credits .
= Icewind Dale II =
Icewind Dale II is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment , released on August 27 , 2002 . Like its 2000 predecessor Icewind Dale , the game is set in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting in the Icewind Dale region . The player assumes control of a group of mercenaries in a war between the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale and a coalition of persecuted races and religions .
The game is designed as an action @-@ oriented alternative to other Infinity Engine games , with less emphasis on exploration and story . It uses a real @-@ time adaptation of the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) Third Edition ruleset . The Infinity Engine was extensively modified to comply with the Third Edition , but the team was forced to remove certain rules because of the engine 's outdated nature . It was the final game to be developed using the Infinity Engine .
The game was well received by critics , who praised its combat , pacing , and use of the Third Edition rules . However , some reviewers felt that the graphics and engine had become outdated , and could not compete with its contemporaries .
= = Gameplay = =
Icewind Dale II is a real @-@ time adaptation of the D & D Third Edition ruleset . The game is viewed from an isometric perspective , and a head @-@ up display ( HUD ) occupies the bottom of the screen . Accessible from the HUD are an automap and a journal that records quests and important events . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the game ; for example , clicking on the ground moves
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the selected player character , and clicking on a passive non @-@ player character ( NPC ) will initiate dialogue . When conversations occur , the game presents multiple dialogue options . The game world is separated into area maps — obscured by fog of war — that are revealed as the area is explored . A multiplayer mode is available for up to six players over a local area network or the Internet . The " Heart of Fury " mode is also available , which increases the game 's difficulty and contains more powerful items . The game features over seven hundred items ; the designers included a system that randomizes the items the player obtains from enemies .
When beginning the game , the player may choose to play a pre @-@ selected party , or to create a party of up to six characters ; unlike the Baldur 's Gate series , Icewind Dale II does not permit the player to import characters from previous Icewind Dale games . While creating characters , the player chooses their gender , race , class , alignment , and attributes , among other things . The player can sometimes choose a subvariety of a race or class , such as Deep Gnome or Cleric of Ilmater . Race , alignment , and attributes affect the player character 's available dialogue options , as well as NPC responses . For example , some NPCs will be prejudiced against certain races , or a character of low intelligence will have limited dialogue options . Some sub @-@ races in the game are significantly more powerful than the core races present in AD & D Third Edition ; these sub @-@ races must earn more experience points than others before leveling up . Characters can reach a maximum level of thirty . It is possible to add additional characters to the party at any time , including during combat .
Icewind Dale II 's gameplay is focused on combat . The combat system is a real @-@ time adaptation of the turn @-@ based system used in D & D Third Edition , which caused the developers to remove certain aspects , such as " attacks of opportunity " . Dice rolls are simulated by the game . In place of the turn @-@ based rounds used in D & D , characters have independent rounds , during which they may execute one or more actions , depending on such factors as the duration of the action . The player can pause the game and issue orders to characters at any time . Each character can carry a limited amount of items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Icewind Dale II takes place in the Forgotten Realms D & D campaign setting , on the continent of Faerûn . It centers on the northern Icewind Dale region , and is set thirty years after the original game . The game begins in the harbor town of Targos , one of the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale , which is under siege by a goblin army . The goblins are directed by the Legion of the Chimera , an army composed of outcast races and religious factions , such as goblinoids , half @-@ breeds , and followers of winter goddess Auril . Targos hires mercenaries to defend against the attack . Areas encountered in the game include : the Black Raven Monastery , built over an entrance to the Underdark ; the town of Kuldahar , constructed around a magical tree that emits heat ; the Severed Hand , an ancient elven fortress that was lost during a war with goblinoids ; and the Dragon 's Eye , a network of volcanic caverns inhabited by yuan @-@ ti . Other areas include the Underdark and the Jungles of Chult .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins as the player 's group of mercenaries arrives by ship to defend Targos . They report to the town palisade and fend off an assault by the goblin army . Afterwards , the mayor of Targos orders them to start an offensive on the goblin army . The group kills the chieftain of the army , and discovers that he was under the command of a woman named Sherincal . When they return to Targos , the mayor asks them to rendezvous with reinforcements from Neverwinter . The group travels to meet them in an airship piloted by Oswald Fiddlebender .
A storm causes the ship to crash , and the group awakens to discover that a glacier blocks the reinforcements ' path . While investigating the glacier , the group finds Sherincal , a half @-@ dragon , guarding the entrance to an Aurilite temple . They learn that Sherincal leads the Legion of the Chimera 's western forces , and that the leaders of the Legion of the Chimera , cambion twins named Isair and Madae , reside in the Severed Hand . Inside the Aurilite temple , the group finds a prisoner from Kuldahar , who asks them to warn Kuldahar of the threat posed by the Legion of the Chimera . After this , the group creates a passage through the glacier , and meets with the reinforcements .
As the group travels to Kuldahar , they meet a drow ( dark elf ) named Nym , who tells them that the pass to Kuldahar is guarded by the Legion of the Chimera , and that an alternate path through the Underdark exists . Later , Isair and Madae locate the group with information from Nym . They state their intention to attack Kuldahar , and warn the group to not interfere . The group then passes through the Black Raven Monastery to enter the Underdark . After exiting the Underdark , they are flown to Kuldahar by Oswald Fiddlebender .
When the group lands in Kuldahar , they discover it has been invaded by the Legion of the Chimera . They meet the Archdruid of Kuldahar , who tells them that a portal has been opened to allow yuan @-@ ti from the Jungles of Chult to assault Kuldahar . After the group prevents the attack , the Archdruid tells them that they may reach the Severed Hand through an exit at the bottom floor of the Dragon 's Eye . The group travels through Dragon 's Eye , and proceeds to the Severed Hand . Once inside , they learn that the war between the Ten Towns and the Legion of the Chimera was caused by the mayor of Bryn Shander , who had sent Isair and Madae poisoned food . They also discover that a mythal that was cast on the Severed Hand has been corrupted , and the structure will be transported to the plane of limbo . Eventually , the group finds Isair and Madae , and kills them .
= = Development = =
During summer 2001 , Black Isle Studios employed three development teams . These included the Icewind Dale team , the team developing Torn , and a team working on an unannounced project . Before and during Torn 's development , several members of its team expressed interest in developing another game using the Infinity Engine . The development team was not made aware of Black Isle Studios ' decision to develop Icewind Dale II until Torn 's cancellation . Lead designer J. E. Sawyer described , " I don 't know when the producers decided to make the game , but I was told that we were making the game when I learned that TORN was being cancelled ... on a Wednesday afternoon " , and that Feargus Urquhart " asked me to work with Steve Bokkes to create a story and area overview by Thursday afternoon . Steve and I talked about it for the rest of the day . I went home that night and worked on the overviews until the next day . I came in and turned the docs in , and after the Friday division meeting , the project was in development . " During this period , Interplay Entertainment relied on Black Isle Studios ' games to alleviate financial trouble , which put pressure to release games quickly . The decision to develop Icewind Dale II was based partly on the original Icewind Dale 's reception , and the development teams ' ability to create a game with the Infinity Engine relatively quickly . Sawyer said of the decision , " In all honesty , the reasons for making Icewind Dale II have to do with limiting risks and maximizing our chances for a popular title . " Conceptualization of Icewind Dale II progressed during the development of the Icewind Dale expansions , and production began late July 2001 , shortly after the completion of Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster . After six months of development , Icewind Dale II was officially announced on February 4 , 2002 .
Icewind Dale II was originally planned to be an incomplete conversion to the D & D Third Edition ruleset , with many rules omitted . The kit system ( class specialization ) introduced in Baldur 's Gate 2 was to be used , but this idea was later abandoned . Sawyer and several other members of the team pushed for the game 's conversion to Third Edition . The development team was eventually granted an extension , which allowed them to complete the change to Third Edition rules . The Infinity Engine required extensive modification to comply with Third Edition rules , as it had originally been designed for Second Edition rules ; certain elements of the rules were removed due to interface and engine issues . The game 's interface was redesigned , and all @-@ new art was created . It features new item icons , with new spell icons by Brian Menze ; Menze had previously created Planescape : Torment 's spell icons . Jason Manley , the portrait artist for the previous Icewind Dale games , left Black Isle Studios in late 2001 ; several new works he painted before his departure were later used in Icewind Dale II . Black Isle Studios artist Justin Sweet was asked to substitute . The game 's resolution was increased to a minimum resolution of 800x600 , with an unofficially supported maximum resolution of 2048x1536 .
J. E. Sawyer managed rule implementation , but the areas of the game were divided between designers . For example , designer Chris Avellone created the opening sequence , designer Dave Maldonado developed the Black Raven Monastery and a large area of wilderness , and designers John Deiley and Damien Foletto created the ending areas . Partway through development , Sawyer left the team to work as the lead designer on another internal project ; Dave Maldonado and Chris Avellone were given his areas to finish . The developers wanted the game to contain more breaks from combat , with character interaction and puzzle solving , than the previous Icewind Dale . The decision to include more puzzles was influenced by the positive reception to the puzzles in Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster .
The game went gold on August 5 , 2002 , and was released on August 27 . After the release of Icewind Dale II , Sawyer expressed dissatisfaction over the Icewind Dale series , saying that , " I wasn 't particularly thrilled with how my work on [ Icewind Dale ] came out ... " and , " ... [ Heart of Winter ] managed to actually be worse than my Icewind Dale stuff . " In regards to Icewind Dale II he said , " [ It ] came out better than I expected , but still , not exactly awe @-@ inspiring . " Chris Avellone later said , " Icewind Dale was a fun series , but it didn 't try to set the bar for anything other than a fun romp . People may remember enjoying it , but it wasn ’ t trying to break any new ground or do anything revolutionary . In some respects , it was almost a step back from other games we 'd done and focused more on exploration and dungeon crawls . " A Collector 's Edition containing bonus material , such as a full @-@ color cloth map and soundtrack CD , was also released . Icewind Dale II was the final game developed using the Infinity Engine .
= = = Audio = = =
The music of the game was composed by Inon Zur , whose previous works included Baldur 's Gate 2 : Throne of Bhaal and Fallout Tactics . Inon Zur worked with Jeremy Soule , the composer for Icewind Dale , to maintain the tone of the music . Inon Zur also worked closely with Interplay audio director Adam Levenson while composing the music ; Zur and Levenson had worked together on several previous titles . Inon Zur said that while composing the theme for the game , " I wrote and rewrote the main theme several times " , and " we tried to create a piece that would preserve the sound of the first Icewind Dale [ ... ] we made great efforts to convey the new elements also . Capturing all of this in 30 @-@ 45 seconds was not easy however I believe that we eventually found the right path for this game 's soundtrack . " Zur described the composing process , " After learning the storyboard and getting additional insight from the producers / music supervisor I 'll start to compose . The thematic idea ( main melody or rhythmical groove ) comes first . Then comes the accompaniment followed by the orchestration , " and that , " each piece should have its own unique flavour so every step is carefully examined . I have to make sure that the main idea of the piece is reflected in all these steps . " He called the composing experience " very pleasant and rewarding . "
The music was composed in five weeks , and the recording and mixing lasted three weeks . As the game 's music budget was low , a small Los Angeles orchestra was used to record the music ; the sound of the each instrument was doubled during production . Inon Zur described the music as having " some uniqueness to it , that basically it developed throughout the game [ with ] the [ inclusion ] of more instruments , taking flutes and percussion and combining them with the standard orchestra . " Zur later said , " I thought that we definitely met some high standards ; we compared our products to big budget films scores , " and , " in the end we were quite happy . " The game features voice work from Gabrielle Carteris , Peter Stormare , and Grey DeLisle , among others .
= = Reception = =
Icewind Dale II reached sixth on the NPD PC games sales chart in the last week of August 2002 , and climbed to fourth during the first week of September . Icewind Dale II 's reception was generally positive . Game Informer hailed it as , " one of the best RPGs ever released for the PC , " and GameSpot called it , " simply a great role @-@ playing game . " However , PC Format said , " it 's uninspired and uninspiring , giving itself a narrow remit and fulfilling that unspectacularly . " Certain reviewers compared Icewind Dale II to Neverwinter Nights . IGN said , " [ Compared to Neverwinter Nights ] the pace of IWD2 is more varied , its balance better , the gameplay more interesting , " and Game Informer considered the interface superior to that of Neverwinter Nights . PC Format said , " in the light of Neverwinter Nights in particular , there ’ s little that stands out in Icewind Dale II to recommend it , " and PC Zone said , " it 's not the BG2 killer we had all hoped for and neither does it stack up to Neverwinter Nights . "
Many reviewers praised the game 's combat and pacing . G4 called the game 's combat " sublime , " and said that " no Infinity Engine game thus far has had such interesting and intricate tactical combat . " GameSpot called it " expertly paced . " PC Zone complained that certain gameplay mechanics had become outdated , but that " the only real downer is the antiquated spell system and the inexplicable necessity to rest after every fight . " The game was also praised for its implementation of the Third Edition rules and interface . Computer Gaming World said that " IWD II has the Third Edition rules down , and in no other place in the game is it more apparent than with character development , " and PC Gamer said it had " a dazzling implementation of the D & D 3rd Edition rules . " GameSpot called the interface " a big improvement on the spread @-@ out interface of all previous Infinity Engine games , " and IGN said that " the customization improvements to the interface that seem so natural , they make you wonder why they weren 't thought of before . " Game Informer called the interface " absolutely inspired " and its inventory system " second to none . "
The game was criticized for its graphics and engine , which reviewers considered to be outdated . G4 called the engine " old " and " clunky " , and PC Format said that " the whole thing is limited by the creaking engine . " However , certain sources praised the engine . Game Informer called it " the best role @-@ playing engine that has ever been invented , " and GameSpot said that " ' immortal ' may be a better word to describe the engine , because the fact is , Icewind Dale II plays great . " In regards to the graphics , GameSpot said that " in many ways Icewind Dale II represents the best use of the Infinity Engine 's prerendered , isometric settings to date , [ but ] that doesn 't change the fact that Icewind Dale II generally looks dated . " IGN thought the sprites had become out @-@ dated , and that " the animations are crude by today 's standards . " New Straits Times agreed , saying that although some of the effects were attractive , the " dated Infinity engine " could not compare to contemporaries Dungeon Siege and Neverwinter Nights . However , Computer Gaming World believed that " it consistently offers the same striking and imaginative environments that establish the tone and immersive charm of the game , " and Computer Games Magazine said , " it may not look like much , but it 's got it where it counts . " The game 's pre @-@ rendered backgrounds received praise . IGN said that " the artwork is attractive , both conceptually and in its final form , " and Game Informer called them " beautiful " . Many reviewers complained about the game 's pathfinding AI , which PC Zone called " outrageously bad . "
Game Informer called the writing and story " on par with any fantasy novel . " PC Gamer said it had " some of the richest and most enjoyable dialogue since Planescape Torment , " and an " impressive storyline . " GameSpot called the story " engrossing , " and said that " the game is very well written , offering up a number of strong characters and serious themes . " PC Zone noted that , " thanks to the excellent NPCs , the battles have a lot more meaning , as there is a strong storyline behind the endless hacking and slashing . " PC Format thought that " IDII also suffers , like its predecessor , from a story irrevocably weakened by anonymous central characters – the six you create . " In regards to the audio , GameSpot said that " Inon Zur does a truly fantastic job that 's perhaps even better than Soule 's effort in the original Icewind Dale , " and that " the voice acting in Icewind Dale II is as great as you 've perhaps come to expect from a Black Isle Studios role @-@ playing game . " Computer Gaming World said that " [ the ] sound effects , music , and voiceovers are all excellent . "
Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , " While nobody would mistake it for " 2002 RPG of the Year " material , Black Isle Studios managed to give the Infinity engine a terrific game as its swan song . "
= Wu Zuguang =
Wu Zuguang ( Chinese : 吴祖光 ; Wade – Giles : Wu Tsu @-@ kuang ; 21 April 1917 – 9 April 2003 ) was a Chinese playwright , film director and social critic who has been called a " legendary figure in Chinese art and literary circles " . He authored more than 40 plays and film scripts , including the patriotic drama City of Phoenix , one of the most influential plays during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , and Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . He directed The Soul of the Nation , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his own historical drama Song of Righteousness .
He was also well known as an outspoken critic of China 's cultural policies , both of the Kuomintang ( KMT ) and the Communist governments , and was repeatedly persecuted as a result . He fled to Hong Kong in 1945 to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and returned to Beijing after the foundation of the People 's Republic China in 1949 . He was denounced as a " rightist " during the Anti @-@ Rightist Movement and performed hard labour in the " Great Northern Wilderness " for three years , and was again persecuted during the Cultural Revolution . His wife , the celebrated pingju actress Xin Fengxia , refused to divorce him and became disabled after undergoing beatings and penal labour . Despite these ordeals , Wu continued to criticize government censorship and to call for political freedom , and was widely admired for his moral conviction .
= = Early life = =
Wu was born on 21 April 1917 to a prominent scholar @-@ official family in Beijing , with ancestral roots in Changzhou , Jiangsu Province . His grandfather Wu Zhiying ( 吴稚英 ) was a muliao of the Qing dynasty reformer Zhang Zhidong and participated in the Xinhai Revolution . His father Wu Ying ( 吴瀛 ) was a founder and curator of the Beijing Palace Museum . His mother Zhou Qinqi ( 周琴绮 ) gave birth to 15 children , 11 of whom ( four sons and seven daughters ) survived to adulthood . She gave birth to Wu Zuguang , her first child , in the mansion of Wu Ying 's uncle Zhuang Yunkuan , a minister of the Republic of China government .
In 1935 , Wu entered Sino @-@ French University in Beijing . The next year , a relative who was running a drama school in Nanjing persuaded him to move there and teach at his school . There he met several people who would become prominent dramatists , including Cao Yu and Chen Zhice .
= = Wartime career = =
At the outset of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 , Wu wrote the patriotic war play City of Phoenix ( 凤凰城 ) , which made him well @-@ known in China at age 20 . It was one of the most performed dramas during the eight @-@ year war . He later wrote several critically acclaimed plays , including Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . His works are strongly influenced by the May Fourth New Culture Movement .
As eastern China fell to the Japanese , he moved to the wartime capital Chongqing , where he worked as an editor for the Xinmin Wanbao newspaper . In 1945 , he published Mao Zedong 's now famous poem " Snow : to the Tune of Garden in Full Spring " , which infuriated the Kuomintang government . He escaped to British Hong Kong to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and made a living writing screenplays and making films . He directed The Soul of the Nation ( 国魂 ) , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his historical drama , Song of Righteousness , about the Song dynasty patriot Wen Tianxiang . He also made Return on a Snowy Night into a film , as well as two others . In 1946 , Wu married the actress Lü En ( 吕恩 ) in Shanghai .
= = Early People 's Republic = =
After the Communist Party of China won the Civil War and established the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Wu returned to Beijing . Like many intellectuals at the time , he held high hopes for the new People 's Republic which finally restored peace in a united China after decades of war and division . He wanted to return to writing plays , but was assigned by the government to direct Song of the Red Flag , a film about women textile workers . As he had no experience with factory life , it took him a year to finish the film , which he considered a " worthless failure . " He and Lü En divorced amicably in 1950 , due to differences in personality and interests .
In 1951 , his friend Lao She introduced him to the famous pingju opera performer Xin Fengxia , who had acted in one of Wu 's plays and admired his talent . They married that year , despite the fact that they were from differing socioeconomic backgrounds ; she had no formal education and was nearly illiterate , while he was from a prominent family of scholars . Wu helped her to study reading , writing , and calligraphy .
During this period he made the Peking opera film Goddess of the Luo River ( 洛神 ) and Mei Lanfang and His Stage Art , a documentary about Mei Lanfang . He also wrote the Peking operas Three Beatings of Tao Sanchun ( 三打陶三春 ) and San Guan Yan ( 三关宴 ) .
= = Persecution = =
During Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , Wu was denounced as a " rightist " in 1957 and sent to the Great Northern Wilderness in Heilongjiang to be " reformed through labour . " His crime was to criticize the Communist Party 's control of the theatre and to argue that the neihang ( experts ) should have a greater role in such matters . He was called an enemy of the Party , even by his renowned colleague Tian Han . Tian later referenced Wu 's work approvingly , which is seen by some as an implicit apology , and was himself persecuted to death . Xin Fengxia was pressured to divorce him , but refused . Citing a legendary love story from one of her operas , she said " Wang Baochuan waited 18 years for Xue Pinggui , and I will wait 28 years for Wu Zuguang . " As a result , she was herself labeled a rightist and went through struggle sessions .
Wu returned to Beijing after three years of hard labour , but six years later , China fell into the even greater turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , which began in 1966 . Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang were both denounced at the beginning of the period . She became disabled below her left knee after a severe beating . Their friend Lao She drowned himself after being similarly tortured . During the tumultuous decade Wu and Xin both served years of forced labour . In December 1975 , she became paralyzed after suffering a stroke , and Wu took care of her for the rest of her life .
= = Post @-@ Cultural Revolution = =
After the end of the Cultural Revolution , Wu was politically rehabilitated in 1980 and inducted into the Communist Party , an event he described as " neither an occasion for laughter or tears " , and his publication ban was lifted after two decades . His play Itinerant Players ( 闯江湖 ) , based on Xin Fengxia 's experiences , was performed that year . In 1983 , Wu traveled to the University of Iowa in the U.S. to attend the International Writing Program .
Wu was in general loyal to Deng Xiaoping 's government , but continued to be an outspoken critic . In 1983 , he dismissed Deng 's Anti @-@ Spiritual Pollution Campaign as futile . In September 1986 , he read an essay at a meeting of the China Writers Association entitled " Against Those Who Wield the Scissors — a Plea for an End to Censorship " . It was enthusiastically received by the audience , but only a censored version was published , minus 1 @,@ 000 characters deemed " acrimonious " . After the December 1986 student demonstrations , he was pressured to leave the Communist Party in 1987 . Retired Politburo member Hu Qiaomu came to his home in person to demand his resignation from the Party . He obliged , as he did not think he was " the sort of person who should be in the Party . " In spring 1989 , Wu signed a petition calling for greater political freedom . Following the army crackdown of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , Wu called for a reassessment of the incident , but was forbidden to speak at a CPPCC meeting .
Xin Fengxia died on 12 April 1998 , during a trip to Changzhou , Wu 's ancestral hometown . He was devastated by the loss and his health quickly deteriorated . He suffered three strokes in the next few years , and died on 9 April 2003 .
= = Children = =
Wu Zuguang and Xin Fengxia had three children . Their son Wu Huan is also a writer , painter , and calligrapher . After the deaths of Wu Zuguang , he organized the exhibition " A Hundred Years of the Wu Family " at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing . It was also held in France , Hong Kong , and Taiwan .
= Zara Yaqob =
Zar 'a Ya`qob or Zera Yacob ( Ge 'ez ዘርአ : ያዕቆብ zar 'ā yāʿiqōb " Seed of Jacob , " modern zer 'a yā 'iqōb ) ( 1399 – 26 August 1468 ) was nəgusä nägäst ( 19 or 20 June 1434 – 1468 ) of Ethiopia ( throne name Kwestantinos I Ge 'ez ቈስታንቲኖስ qʷastāntīnōs or Constantine I ) , and a member of the Solomonic dynasty . Born at Tilq in the province of Fatagar ( now part of the Oromia Region , near the Awash River ) , Zara Yaqob was the youngest son of Dawit I and his youngest queen , Igzi Kebra .
The British expert on Ethiopia , Edward Ullendorff , stated that Zara Yaqob " was unquestionably the greatest ruler Ethiopia had seen since Ezana , during the heyday of Aksumite power , and none of his successors on the throne – excepted only the emperors Menelik II and Haile Selassie – can be compared to him . "
Paul B. Henze repeats the tradition that the jealousy of his older brother Tewodros I forced the courtiers to take Zara Yaqob to Tigray where he was brought up in secret , and educated in Axum and at the monastery of Debre Abbay . While admitting that this tradition " is invaluable as providing a religious background for Zar 'a @-@ Ya 'iqob 's career " , Taddesse Tamrat dismisses this story as " very improbable in its details . " The professor notes that Zara Yaqob wrote in his Mashafa Berhan that " he was brought down from the royal prison of Mount Gishan only on the eve of his accession to the throne . "
= = Reign = =
Upon the death of Emperor Dawit , his older brother Tewodros ordered Zara Yaqob confined on Amba Geshen ( around 1414 ) . Despite this , Zara Yaqob 's supporters kept him a perennial candidate for Emperor , helped by the rapid succession of his older brothers to the throne over the next 20 years , and left him as the oldest qualified candidate . David Buxton points out the effect that his forced seclusion had on his personality , " deprived of all contact with ordinary people or ordinary life . " Thrust into a position of leadership " with no experience of the affairs of state , he [ Zara Yaqob ] was faced by a kingdom seething with plots and rebellions , a Church riven with heresies , and outside enemies constantly threatening invasion . " Buxton continues ,
In the circumstances it was hardly possible for the new king to show adaptability or tolerance or diplomatic skill , which are the fruit of long experience in human relationships . Confronted with a desperate and chaotic situation he met it instead with grim determination and implacable ferocity . Towards the end of his life , forfeiting the affection and loyalty even of his courtiers and family he became a lonely figure , isolated by suspicion and mistrust . But , in spite of all , the name of this great defender of the faith is one of the most memorable in Ethiopian history .
Although he became Emperor in 1434 , Zara Yaqob was not crowned until 1436 at Axum , where he resided for three years . It was not unusual for Ethiopian rulers to postpone their coronation until later in their reigns .
After he became Emperor , Zara Yaqob married princess Eleni , who had converted from Islam before their marriage . Eleni was the daughter of the king of Hadiya , one of the Sidamo kingdoms south of the Abay River . Although she failed to bear him any children , Eleni grew into a powerful political person . When a conspiracy involving one of his Bitwodeds came to light , Zara Yaqob reacted by appointing his two daughters , Medhan Zamada and Berhan Zamada , to these two offices . According to the Chronicle of his reign , the Emperor also appointed his daughters and nieces as governors over eight of his provinces . These appointments were not successful .
He defeated Badlay ad @-@ Din , the Sultan of Adal at the Battle of Gomit in 1445 , which consolidated his hold over the Sidamo kingdoms in the south , as well as the weak Muslim kingdoms beyond the Awash River . Similar campaigns in the north against the Agaw and the Falasha were not as successful .
After witnessing a bright light in the sky ( which most historians have identified as Halley 's Comet , visible in Ethiopia in 1456 ) , Zara Yaqob founded Debre Berhan and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign .
In his later years , Zara Yaqob became more despotic . When Takla Hawariat , abbot of Dabra Libanos , criticized Yaqob 's beatings and murder of men , the emperor had the abbot himself beaten and imprisoned , where he died after few months . Zara Yaqob was convinced of a plot against him in 1453 , which led to more brutal actions . He increasingly became convinced that his wife and children were plotting against him , and had several of them beaten . Seyon Morgasa , the mother of the future emperor Baeda Maryam I , died from this mistreatment in 1462 , which led to a complete break between son and father . Eventually relations between the two were repaired , and Zara Yaqob publicly designated Baeda Maryam as his successor .
= = The Ethiopian church = =
At the time Zara Yaqob assumed the throne , the Ethiopian church had been divided over the issue of Biblical Sabbath observance for roughly a century . One group , loyal to the Coptic bishops , believed that the day of rest should be observed only on Sunday , or Great Sabbath ; another group , the followers of Ewostatewos , believed with their founder that both the original seventh @-@ day Sabbath ( i.e. , Saturday , or Lesser Sabbath ) and Sunday should be observed .
He was successful in persuading two recently arrived Egyptian bishops , Mikael and Gabriel , into accepting a compromise aimed at restoring harmony with the House of Ewostatewos , as the followers of Ewostatewos were known . At the same time , he made efforts to pacify the House of Ewostatewos . While the Ewostathians were won over to the compromise by 1442 , the two Egyptian bishops only agreed to the compromise at the Council of Debre Mitmaq in Tegulet ( 1450 ) .
Emperor Zara Yaqob also continued as the defender of the Patriarch of Alexandria . When he heard in 1441 of the destruction of the Egyptian monastery of Dabra Mitmaq by Sultan Jaqmaq , he called for a period of mourning , then sent a letter of strong protest to the Sultan . He reminded Jaqmaq that he had Muslim subjects whom he treated fairly , and warned that he had the power to divert the Nile , but refrained from doing so for the human suffering it would cause . Jaqmaq responded with gifts to appease Zara Yaqob 's anger , but refused to rebuild the Coptic Churches he had destroyed .
According to Richard Pankhurst the Emperor was also " reputedly an author of renown " , having contributed to Ethiopian literature as many as three important theological works . One was Mahsafa Berha ( " The Book of Light " ) , an exposition of his ecclesiastical reforms and a defence of his religious beliefs ; the others were Mahsafa Milad ( " The Book of Nativity " ) and Mahsafa Selassie ( " The Book of the Trinity " ) .
= = Foreign affairs = =
Zara Yaqob sent a diplomatic mission to Europe ( 1450 ) , led by a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo who had previously been successful in a mission to India , specifically asking for skilled labor . Rombulo first visited Pope Nicholas V , but his ultimate goal was the court of Alfonso V of Aragon , who responded favorably . The Catholic Ecumenical Council of Florence ( 1438 – 1445 ) declared that Zara Yaqob was the legendary rumored king Prester John .
= Fujiwara no Teika =
Fujiwara Sadaie ( 藤原定家 ) , better @-@ known as Fujiwara no Teika ,
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The website 's critical consensus reads , " Jessica Jones builds a multifaceted drama around its engaging antihero , delivering what might be Marvel 's strongest TV franchise to date . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on 31 critics , indicating what the website considers to be " universal acclaim " .
The early screening of the first episode at New York Comic Con was met by a very positive reaction from the crowd . George Marston of Newsarama gave the first episode a 10 out of 10 , saying the series " strikes a balance between self @-@ aware noir and Marvel ’ s first flirtations with psychological horror .... not just another hit for Marvel and Netflix , but a landmark moment for female superheroes on TV . " Eric Goldman of IGN felt that " Jessica Jones starts out with a strong premiere episode that ... easily goes further than anything in the MCU in terms of sexuality . " He called Ritter " a commendably tough , sardonic " Jessica Jones and praised the supporting cast for the strong impressions they made , later scoring the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Evan Valentine of Collider.com gave the episode 5 stars out of 5 , feeling that Tennant would " ascend to the same level as Tom Hiddleston ’ s Loki and Vincent D 'Onofrio ’ s Wilson Fisk as one of the cornerstones of villainy in the MCU " . Katharine Trendacosta of io9 also had positive thoughts on " AKA Ladies Night " , highlighting the episode 's use of light and color , especially with purple , and the way it portrays New York as how it " actually looks — not overly bright and shiny and clean , but not suffering a never @-@ ending power @-@ outage either " . Abraham Riesman noted the episode 's presentation of sexuality , which " was shockingly and refreshingly honest " , compared to Marvel 's other films and television series . He concluded by applauding the series ' bringing up of the topics of rape and PTSD .
Reviewing the first seven episodes of the series , Maureen Ryan of Variety gave positive thoughts on Jessica Jones , stating , " The show , which features an exceptional performance from Krysten Ritter and sure @-@ handed guidance from executive producer Melissa Rosenberg , is not just a contender for the title Best Marvel @-@ related TV property ; in a supremely crowded TV scene , it is one of the year ’ s most distinctive new dramas . " Jack Shepard of The Independent , also on the first seven episodes , felt the series " not only matches [ Daredevil ] but exceeds expectations . " Shepard gave exceptional praise to Tennant 's Kilgrave , feeling he was one of the best villains produced by Marvel , and possibly " the best on @-@ screen comic book villain since Heath Ledger ’ s Joker . " Forbes ' Merrill Barr stated that after seeing the first seven episodes , " the answer is a resounding yes " if lightning could strike twice for Marvel Television , claiming , " In no uncertain terms , Jessica Jones is the best thing Marvel Television has ever produced . It contains all the hopeful anticipation of [ Agents of ] S.H.I.E.L.D. , all the feminist @-@ overtones of Agent Carter and all the grittiness of Daredevil . "
Deadline.com 's Dominic Patten also had praise for the series , particularly Rosenberg 's influence on it , the coverage of topics such as " PTSD , abuse , assault , shame , and death " and the cast , highlighting Tennant 's Kilgrave as the actor 's best role as well as the MCU 's best villain . Mary McNamara from the Los Angeles Times felt Jessica Jones " rewrote the definition of superhuman " and was " a marvel " , lauding the series ' " breathtaking " examination of recovery from a sexually , emotionally and physically abusive relationship . Daniel Fienberg for The Hollywood Reporter was also positive , saying the series " looks and feels a bit like a cable anti @-@ hero series — but it 's really more of a post @-@ hero story , making it fascinating and unique in a marketplace that doesn 't lack for costumed do @-@ gooders of all types . " His one criticism was that " the show shares Jessica 's monomaniacal fixation on [ Kilgrave ] and the result is a sort of narrative claustrophobia ... Everything in these opening episodes ties back to Kilgrave and Kilgrave is such a twisted figure that it 's hard for any light to get in . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly was slightly more critical of the series , awarding it a " B " . Though Maerz felt Ritter was a good choice for Jessica and enjoyed the cinematography , she felt the series " could 've made for a gritty character drama if it weren 't for the noir clichés ( saxophone music , shadows through glass ) and a procedural structure that 's very CSI : Marvel . The show 's biggest weakness is the same as Jessica 's : It starts out with extraordinary potential , but somewhere along the way , it loses what make it special . "
Goldman , later reviewing the whole season , gave it a 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 . He commended all the actors , the relationship between Jessica and Trish , and the episode " Sin Bin " , though was critical of the character Robyn . Additionally , Goldman also felt the series spent " too many scenes devoted to Jeri ’ s marital strife " and that it hit its peak " a bit before the actual end of the season " similar to Daredevil , with most of the thrilling moments earlier in the season .
= = = Analysis = = =
Libby Hill of the Los Angeles Times commented on how Jessica Jones exposed modern day sexism and misogyny through Kilgrave 's use of the phrase " Smile " , calling the series " the most innocuous and incisive cultural critique " from Marvel to date . Hill likened an early scene that shows Kilgrave asking Jones to smile , and her obliging , to " similar well @-@ meaning scenarios [ that ] play out in the real world time and again each day " many in the form of gendered street harassment , that resonates with many women . Hill also added that " Kilgrave serves as an exaggerated representation of perceived consent , " due to the response he gives later in the series to Jessica about never knowing if someone is doing what they want or what he tells them to do . She concludes that " Jessica Jones is revolutionary because in acknowledging casual misogyny and exaggerating its most destructive tendencies , it exposes the pervasive toxicity therein . It does all of this without making a show of its politics , instead resting easy on the knowledge that all too many women will relate to the subtleties of its premise . " Amy C. Chambers , writing for The Science and Entertainment Laboratory , noted how the season moved away from sexism even more so than the comics , by changing Kilgrave 's abilities from phermone based , with a particular effect on women , to viral , with equal effect no matter gender , indicating that " powerlessness is not gendered . "
Kwame Opam at The Verge chose to examine rape and the nature of consent in the series . Comparing Jessica Jones to other television series that have depicted rape ( Game of Thrones , Orange Is the New Black , and Outlander ) , Opam felt that " since rape is one of the show ’ s core themes , we never need to see it ... rape is a foundational part of the text , and its presence is constant . Even if it ’ s invisible , it ’ s always there . " He also felt the series took the time to examine how rape happens and what it means , especially in terms of power and consent , concluding , " Jessica Jones moves the conversation about rape forward by treating it as a complex subject worth investigating , rather than as spice for a story ... Maybe we don ’ t need to see it anymore to grasp how violent it is . Maybe our energies are better spent thinking deeply about why it happens at all . " The Guardian 's Lili Loofbourow also discussed the series depiction of rape and consent , noting the complications that come with Kilgrave telling his victims how to feel rather than just how to act , and saying , " however exceptional Kilgrave ’ s power seems , the moral quagmire it produces is all too common . It ’ s the condition of the rape victim who had an orgasm during her assault . It ’ s the condition of the soldier trained to kill when he suspects his targets are innocent . It ’ s the condition of the battered woman who goes back to her abuser and stays “ of her own free will ” . It ’ s the condition of ... any person , really , who agrees , whatever the context , to consent to forgo consent in the future . " Loofbourow also discussed the character of Simpson , comparing his power @-@ inducing red pill to the anti @-@ feminist " red pillers " , and noting that his taking of the pills " renders him not just dangerously delusional , but so utterly at odds with nature and reality of any kind that he will forget to breathe unless he counteracts the pill ’ s effects . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Jessica Jones was included on multiple Best / Top TV Shows of 2015 lists , ranking on People 's ( 1st , along with Daredevil ) , Indiewire and The Star @-@ Ledger 's ( 2nd ) , NPR 's ( 3rd ) , ScreenCrush 's ( 4th ) , Digital Spy 's ( 5th ) , Complex 's ( 6th ) , Vulture 's ( 7th ) , Slate Magazine 's ( 9th ) , and TV Guide 's ( 11th ) . It was also included on un @-@ ranked lists from Maureen Ryan of Variety , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , The Week , and Wired . In December 2015 , IGN named Jessica Jones the Netflix 's best original series released to date , and it was named one of the Best New Shows of 2015 by Ryan , as well as the tenth best new show of 2015 by Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen . The Atlantic named " AKA WWJD ? " one of the best television episodes of 2015 . Additionally , Jessica Jones was the second most trending television series search on Google for 2015 .
= Deepak Tijori =
Deepak Tijori ( born 28 August 1961 ) is an Indian film director and actor who works in Bollywood films and is well known for his supporting roles in Aashiqui ( 1990 ) , Khiladi ( 1992 ) , Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar ( 1992 ) , Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa ( 1993 ) , Anjaam ( 1994 ) , Ghulam ( 1998 ) and Baadshah ( 1999 ) . He also starred as a lead actor in Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) . Tijori started his directing career with Oops ! ( 2003 ) , a film about male strippers . This was followed by Fareb ( 2005 ) , Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat ( 2005 ) , Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) and Fox ( 2009 ) . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .
Tijori has also been the housemate on Bigg Boss 1 ( 2006 ) . His wife is a fashion designer and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Kabir Sadanand is a film director . In 2009 Tijori 's daughter was kidnapped for a few hours .
= = Early life and career = =
Tijori received his college education from Narsee Monjee College in his hometown Mumbai . While in college , Tijori joined an amateur theatre group . Aamir Khan , Ashutosh Gowariker , Paresh Rawal and Vipul Shah were also the members of the same group . His friends influenced him to pursue a career in film acting , in which during his early career he struggled . He said in an interview with Rediff.com " For three years , I sat outside offices trying to get a word with producers [ ... ] I managed to do some tiny roles , which were very pathetic . " He had worked for Cine Blitz magazine and also as a hotel manager .
= = = Acting career = = =
Tijori portrayed minor characters in Tera Naam Mera Naam ( 1988 ) , Parbat Ke Us Paar ( 1988 ) and Main Tera Dushman ( 1989 ) before appearing as one of the antagonist 's hitman in Shashilal K. Nair 's Kroadh ( 1990 ) . Tijori 's first important role came when Mahesh Bhatt cast him to play the role of protagonist 's friend in his romantic drama Aashiqui ( 1990 ) . The film turned out to be a commercial success and his hand gestures in the film were widely copied by the youth of that time . He played minor roles in Afsana Pyar Ka ( 1991 ) and Kaun Kare Kurbanie ( 1991 ) . In the same year , he was cast again by Bhatt to play supporting roles in two of his films ; romantic drama Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin and romantic thriller Sadak . The latter film was loosely based on Martin Scorsese 's Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) and Tijori played a man who is killed by a pimp after he runs away with one of the prostitutes . In 1992 , he featured in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's suspense thriller Khiladi alongside Akshay Kumar , Ayesha Jhulka and Sabeeha . Tijori played Boney and was paired with Sabeeha . Khiladi was a commercial success . Tijori 's next important role came with the Mansoor Khan @-@ directed coming @-@ of @-@ age sports drama Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar alongside Aamir Khan , in which Tijori played the role of Shekhar Malhotra , a successful and arrogant cyclist , who wins the Inter @-@ School Championship every year . Akshay Kumar had auditioned and Milind Soman was signed for Malhotra 's role before Tijori played it . Rediff.com ranked Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar , ninth in its Bollywood 's top 10 college movies list .
Tijori produced and played his only lead role in Gowariker @-@ directed murder mystery Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) , alongside Pooja Bhatt and Raveena Tandon . Upon release , the film received poor reviews and failed at the box office . In the same year , he appeared as the antagonist in D Rama Naidu @-@ directed Santaan . Tijori starred alongside Shah Rukh Khan in Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa and Anjaam ( both 1994 ) . The latter one is considered one of the most violent films in Bollywood . In 1995 , he starred in another Mahesh Bhatt @-@ directed film Naajayaz . Tijori played a supporting role in action drama Mrityudata ( 1997 ) which did not receive favourable reviews from critics . He portrayed supporting characters in Aamir Khan @-@ starrer Ghulam ( 1998 ) and the Abbas @-@ Mustan @-@ directed comedy thriller Baadshah . In the latter , he featured as the titular undercover CBI agent .
In the same year , Tijori acted in Mahesh Manjrekar @-@ directed crime drama Vaastav : The Reality ( 1999 ) and the Gujarati language film Hu Tu Ne Ramtudi . He played supporting roles in the romantic comedy Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge ( 2000 ) , Vaastav : The Reality 's sequel Hathyar ( 2002 ) and Kabir Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Popcorn Khao ! Mast Ho Jao ( 2004 ) . In 2012 , he played a police officer in Ram Gopal Varma 's action film Department . Tijori had approached Varma for the villain 's role but he felt that Tijori 's image did not match the character 's and refused to give him the role . Tijori changed his look in one month 's time and was eventually cast by Varma . The following year , he was cast to play the antagonist in Devang Dholakia @-@ directed Tina and Lolo . He had to lose weight for his role . Tijori stated that he himself " was looking for a change " while referring to his salt @-@ and @-@ pepper look in the film . Dholakia said that he was " looking for a new suave villain " and Tijori suited the role . He featured in the crime thriller Raja Natwarlal ( 2014 ) and played the role of a terrorist in the Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Gollu Aur Pappu ( 2014 ) .
= = = Directorial career = = =
Tijori made his directorial debut in 2003 , with an adult film about male strippers Oops ! He was also credited as the producer and the writer . The film was produced on a budget of ₹ 2 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) and considered controversial because of the subject matter and initially it faced troubles with the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was released in two versions – Hindi and English . India Today called Tijori 's direction amateurish and termed the film " an example of brave new breed " . Oops ! did not receive favourable reviews but proved to be a turning point in actress Mink Brar 's career . His next directorial venture was Fareb ( 2005 ) , starring sisters Shilpa Shetty and Shamita Shetty . Like his previous film , Fareb too had troubles with the censor board and was given A certificate implying that it was to be viewed only by adult audience . It received negative reviews . In the same year , he directed the thriller Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat featuring Shilpa Shetty , Juhi Chawla , Rakhi Sawant and debutante Kainaaz Perveez . The film received mixed response . The following year Tijori directed the comedy Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) . In a review for India Today , Anupama Chopra called it the year 's worst film .
Tijori 's thriller Fox starring Arjun Rampal and Sunny Deol was delayed due to production issues . Upon release in September 2009 , the film received poor reviews . In the same year it was announced that Tijori would direct a Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film titled Bhaag Johny . The cast included Muzzamil Ibrahim and 2 new actresses . During the film 's shooting , Ibrahim had to leave the film due to his differences with Tijori and subsequently the film was shelved for a brief period . The following year , Bhatt announced that he himself will direct the film , there would be a different lead actor and Tijori would play the role of a Pakistani policeman . Two years later it was reported that Tijori would direct Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film Love Games . His next directorial was an adult suspense thriller titled Dare You , starring debutante Alisha Khan who was selected after an audition of more than 800 girls . The film 's poster was the first of its kind and featured the lead actress showing her middle finger . However , Tijori left the project due to creative differences with the film 's producers . In 2013 , he directed the film Rock 'In Love which featured Hanif Hilal and Sandeepa Dhar in lead role . Do Lafzon Ki Kahani starring Randeep Hooda is Tijori 's next directorial project .
= = = Bigg Boss = = =
He played the role of a housemate in the first season of Bigg Boss , as a replacement for Salil Ankola . Ankola had signed an agreement with Balaji Telefilms , which refrained him from participating or acting in television shows made by other production houses that " directly or indirectly compete with Balaji Telefilms . " On the seventh day , the Bombay High Court ordered Ankola to leave the house or face criminal charges . He was replaced by Tijori . During Tijori 's stay at the Bigg Boss house , his wife Shivani Tijori sent text messages to her friends , family members and media @-@ persons to help Tijori in getting out of the house . After he was evicted from the show , Tijori said that he would make a film based on the show . Tijori called the show " a laundered reality " but denied that it was scripted .
= = = Television career = = =
Tijori 's production house Tijori Films produced television serials . One of his most popular serials was Rishtey , a turning point in actor Murali Sharma 's career . Tijori directed the action sequences in several of his serials . He had also planned to produce 1984 — Black October , a film based on the assassination of Indira Gandhi and the riots that followed , along with Hollywood actors . He had hired a casting director for it . Tijori himself acted in TV serial Bombay Blue and produced thriller serials like Saturday Suspense , Khauff , Dial 100 and X @-@ Zone . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .
= = Personal life = =
Tijori 's wife Shivani is a fashion designer . Film director Kabir Sadanand and singer Kunika Lal are his brother @-@ in @-@ law and sister @-@ in @-@ law respectively . On 10 May 2009 , Tijori 's then 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was kidnapped for a few hours . Based on her testimony , a suspect was arrested and charged for the crime .
Goregaon ’ s Garden Estate Co @-@ operative Housing Society asked Tijori and his family to vacate their house in November 2012 , following complaints from their neighbours . The Tijori family had been living there since 2009 . The residents of the building accused them of behaving rudely , not paying charges on time , insulting the society 's office bearers and bringing disrepute to them . After a general meeting of the members , the society passed a resolution and sent a notice to Tijori , asking him to vacate his flats within the next 30 days . The resolution was sent to the local registrar . He responded by filing a criminal case against nine members of the society and in October 2014 , the registrar gave the decision in his favour . Tijori called the legal proceedings a " long nightmarish battle " and accused the society for charging wrongful maintenance money .
Tijori has featured in an advertisement for Vadilal . He was one of the judges of Miss India Worldwide 2006 and has also hosted the Miss India Worldwide 2009 . During the 2002 elections for Municipal Corporation of Delhi , he had campaigned for Indian National Congress .
= = Filmography = =
= Triptych , May – June 1973 =
Triptych , May – June 1973 is a triptych completed in 1973 by the Irish @-@ born artist Francis Bacon ( 1909 – 1992 ) . The oil @-@ on @-@ canvas was painted in memory of Bacon 's lover George Dyer , who committed suicide on the eve of the artist 's retrospective at Paris 's Grand Palais on 24 October 1971 . The triptych is a portrait of the moments before Dyer 's death from an overdose of pills in their hotel room . Bacon was haunted and preoccupied by Dyer 's loss for the remaining years of his life and painted many works based on both the actual suicide and the events of its aftermath . He admitted to friends that he never fully recovered , describing the 1973 triptych as an exorcism of his feelings of loss and guilt .
The work is stylistically more static and monumental than Bacon 's earlier triptychs of Greek figures and friends heads . It has been described as one of his " supreme achievements " and is generally viewed as his most intense and tragic canvas . Of the three Black Triptychs Bacon painted when confronting Dyer 's death , Triptych , May – June 1973 is generally regarded as the most accomplished . In 2006 , The Daily Telegraph 's art critic Sarah Crompton wrote that " emotion seeps into each panel of this giant canvas ... the sheer power and control of Bacon 's brushwork take the breath away " . Triptych , May – June 1973 was purchased at auction in 1989 by Esther Grether for $ 6 @.@ 3 million , then a record for a Bacon painting .
= = Biographical context = =
Francis Bacon met George Dyer in a Soho pub . According to Bacon " George was down the far end of the bar and he came over and said ' You all seem to be having a good time , can I buy you a drink ? ' " ( Francis Bacon quoted in : Michael Peppiat , Francis Bacon : Anatomy of an Enigma , London 2008 , p . 259 ) . From that point on , Dyer became devoted to Bacon . He admired his intellect and power and was in awe of his self @-@ confidence . He felt as if he had found a purpose , as the prominent artist 's companion . Dyer was then about thirty years old and had grown up in the East End of London in a family steeped in crime . He had spent his life drifting between theft , juvenile detention center and jail . Typical of Bacon 's taste in men , Dyer was fit , masculine , and not an intellectual .
Bacon 's relationships prior to Dyer had all been with older men who were as tumultuous in temperament as the artist himself , but each had been the dominating presence . Peter Lacy , his first lover , would often tear up the young artist 's paintings , beat him up in drunken rages , and leave him on the street half @-@ conscious . Bacon was attracted to Dyer 's vulnerability and trusting nature . Dyer was impressed by Bacon 's self @-@ confidence and his artistic success , and Bacon acted as a protector and father figure to the insecure younger man . Dyer was , like Bacon , a borderline alcoholic and similarly took obsessive care with his appearance . Pale @-@ faced and a chain @-@ smoker , Dyer typically confronted his daily hangovers by drinking again . His compact and athletic build belied a docile and inwardly tortured personality ; the art critic Michael Peppiatt described him as having the air of a man who could " land a decisive punch " . Their behaviours eventually overwhelmed their affair , and by 1970 , Bacon was merely providing Dyer with enough money to stay more or less permanently drunk .
As Bacon 's work moved from the extreme subject matter of his early paintings to portraits of friends in the mid @-@ 1960s , Dyer became a dominating presence in the artist 's work . Bacon 's treatment of his lover in these canvasses emphasises his subject 's physicality while remaining uncharacteristically tender . More than any other of the artist 's close friends portrayed during this period , Dyer came to feel inseparable from his effigies . The paintings gave him stature , a raison d 'etre , and offered meaning to what Bacon described as Dyer 's " brief interlude between life and death " . Many critics have cited Dyer 's portraits as favourites , including Michel Leiris and Lawrence Gowling . Yet as Dyer 's novelty diminished within Bacon 's circle of sophisticated intellectuals , the younger man became increasingly bitter and ill at ease . Although Dyer welcomed the attention the paintings brought him , he did not pretend to understand or even like them . " All that money an ' I fink they 're reely ' orrible " , he observed with choked pride . He abandoned crime but soon descended into alcoholism . Bacon 's money allowed Dyer to attract hangers @-@ on who would accompany him on massive benders around London 's Soho . Withdrawn and reserved when sober , Dyer was insuppressible when drunk , and would often attempt to " pull a Bacon " by buying large rounds and paying for expensive dinners
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" Let 's Stay Together " ) . Winfrey stated , " We don 't need another hero . We need more heroines like you , Tina . You make me proud to spell my name w @-@ o @-@ m @-@ a @-@ n , " In November , Turner released All the Best – Live Collection and it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Turner participated in the soundtrack to All the Invisible Children , providing duet vocals to the song " Teach Me Again " , with singer Elisa , finding success in Italy where it peaked at the top spot .
In 2007 , Turner gave her first live performance in seven years , headlining a benefit concert for the Cauldwell 's Children Charity at London 's Natural History Museum . That year , Turner performed a rendition of Joni Mitchell 's " Edith and The Kingpin " on Herbie Hancock 's Mitchell tribute album , River : The Joni Letters . Turner 's original vocals for Carlos Santana 's " The Game of Love " were included in a Santana greatest hits compilation . Label demands led to Turner 's vocals being replaced at the last minute by Michelle Branch .
On December 12 , 2007 , Turner 's former husband Ike Turner died from a cocaine overdose . He had also been suffering from emphysema and cardiovascular disease . Reached for comment , Turner issued a brief statement through her spokesperson stating : " Tina hasn 't had any contact with Ike in more than 30 years . No further comment will be made . " Turner made her public comeback in February 2008 at the Grammy Awards where she performed alongside Beyoncé . In addition , she picked up a Grammy as a featured artist on River : The Joni Letters . In October 2008 , Turner embarked on her first tour in nearly ten years with the Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour . In support of the tour , Turner released another hits compilation . The tour became a huge success and culminated in the release of the live album / DVD , Tina Live . In 2009 , Turner participated in the singing project Beyond with fellow musicians Regula Curti , Selda Bagcan , and Dechen Shak Dagsay . Their first album Buddhist And Christian Prayers combined Buddhist chants and Christian choral music along with a spiritual message read by Turner . The album was released only in Germany and a handful of other countries . It peaked at number 7 in Switzerland .
In April 2010 , mainly due to an online campaign by fans of the Rangers Football Club , Turner 's 1989 hit , " The Best " , returned to the UK singles chart , peaking at number 9 on the chart . In 2011 , Beyond 's second album Children - With Children United In Prayer followed and charted again in Switzerland . Turner promoted the album by performing on TV shows in Germany and Switzerland in December that year . In May 2012 , Turner was spotted attending a fashion show in Beijing to support Giorgio Armani . Turner appeared on the cover of the German issue of Vogue magazine in April 2013 , becoming at the age of 73 the oldest person worldwide to feature on the cover of Vogue . On February 3 , 2014 , Parlophone Records released a new compilation titled Love Songs . Later in the year , Beyond 's third album Love Within ' was released with Turner contributing some gospel tracks .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and marriages = = =
= = = = Raymond Hill = = = =
After moving to St. Louis , Tina ( then called Anna Mae Bullock ) and her sister became acquainted with members of the Kings of Rhythm , and Anna Mae dated the band 's saxophonist Raymond Hill . After Anna Mae gave birth to their son Craig , the couple 's relationship became strained . Allegedly , after a fight between the two broke out , Ike and other Kings of Rhythm members confronted Hill and beat him up , with one member tackling him to the ground , instantly breaking his leg . The injury was so severe that Hill had to return to his hometown of Clarksdale , Mississippi . Ike later adopted Anna Mae and Hill 's son , adding his own last name legally .
= = = = Ike Turner = = = =
Tina and Ike 's early relationship was friendly and " like siblings . " In late 1958 , Tina moved into Ike 's home in East St. Louis . During that period , Ike began musically training Tina . At the beginning , the two had no mutual attraction ; Tina felt Ike was not the " ideal @-@ looking man " , while Ike viewed her as a sister and favored " curvaceous women . " Ike was still married to his common @-@ law wife , Lorraine Taylor , during this period .
Ike and Tina began a sexual relationship in 1959 , much to Tina 's chagrin . Ike also felt guilt over the relationship , stating later that having sex with Tina felt as if he were having sex with a sibling . In her book , Tina stated the couple married in Tijuana , in 1962 . She recalled the first time Ike physically abused her began after she told him she was considering leaving Ike 's group due to financial disputes and their own confusing relationship . Tina said Ike grabbed a shoe stretcher and hit her in the head with it . Afterwards , Tina said , Ike asked her to have sex with him . Tina wrote in her memoirs , I , Tina , that the incident was the first time Ike had " instilled fear " in her .
Ike 's accounts of his relationship with Tina , including the incidents of abuse , differed . In a 1985 interview with Spin magazine , Ike admitted , " Yeah I hit her , but I didn 't hit her more than the average guy beats his wife .... If she says I abused her , maybe I did . " He worded this slightly differently in his memoirs , Taking Back My Name ( 1999 ) , writing : " Sure , I 've slapped Tina .... There have been times when I punched her to the ground without thinking . But I have never beat her . "
Ike also claimed on more than one occasion that he and Tina weren 't even legally married . In the 1985 Spin article , Ike said , " As God is my judge , of all my wives , Tina is the only one I was never legally married to . " He explained in later years that Tina took his name in order to discourage a former lover from returning to her .
Ike said he had married at least 14 times , and five times before he allegedly married Tina . Tina admits she " never felt like [ she ] was married " to Ike . A musician associate of Ike 's later recounted that , except for a few arguments , he never witnessed Ike being abusive to Tina or anyone else in his close circle .
Before a show in Los Angeles , in 1968 , Tina tried to commit suicide by swallowing 50 Valiums , after a fight with Ike . After their July 1976 fight in Dallas , Tina filed for divorce . In the final divorce decree , Tina took responsibility for missed concert dates as well as an IRS lien , and requested to be allowed to retain use of her stage name as a means to find work as a performer . Following the divorce , Turner claimed she had corrective surgery on her nasal septum , which she says was injured by Ike 's frequent hitting . Turner dismissed popular notions that she was a " victim " of Ike Turner 's abuse , stating she " was in control every minute there " during the abusive marriage .
Friends and relatives of Ike 's said he never fully got over their divorce . Their son Ronald once alleged that Ike used to come to his house occasionally and snoop through his address book to locate Tina .
After divorcing Ike in 1978 , Tina abstained from relationships for a long time , as she set on bringing her career back on track .
= = = = Erwin Bach = = = =
While at a record label party in London in 1985 , Tina met German music executive Erwin Bach . Initially friends , Turner and Bach began dating the following year , and have remained together ever since . In July 2013 , after a 27 @-@ year romantic partnership , the couple married in a civil ceremony on the banks of Lake Zurich , in Küsnacht , northern Switzerland .
= = = Children = = =
Turner has two sons . Her first , Raymond Craig , born in 1958 when Turner was 18 , is the child of Kings of Rhythm saxophonist Raymond Hill . Her second , Ronald Turner , born in October 1960 , is Turner 's only child with Ike Turner .
After moving to Los Angeles in 1960 , Ike Turner 's estranged wife , Lorraine Turner , left her and Ike 's sons , Ike Jr . ( born 1958 ) and Michael ( born 1959 ) , to be raised by Ike and Tina . During Ike and Lorraine 's divorce trial , Ike sent the four boys to live with Tina at her home . In 1985 , Ike accused Tina of bad parenting , even alleging she had sent Michael to a mental hospital . Tina denied his claims , telling Australian magazine TV Week , " he gave me those children and not a penny to look after them with . "
= = = Religion = = =
Turner has sometimes referred to herself a Buddhist @-@ Baptist , alluding to her upbringing in the Baptist church and her later conversion to Buddhism . Throughout her childhood and early adulthood , Turner was Baptist . In a 2016 interview , Turner stated that " I consider myself a Buddhist . "
Turner was introduced to Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism in 1973 by a friend of Ike 's named Valerie Bishop . Turner wrote in her autobiography I , Tina that after Valerie taught her to recite the Buddhist chant Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , Tina observed that Ike , instead of hitting her for singing supposed wrong notes during recording sessions , would give her money to go shopping , something she regarded as a benefit of her newfound spiritual practice .
In an August 2011 interview with Shambhala Sun Buddhist magazine , Turner stated she adheres to the teachings and values of the Buddhist association Soka Gakkai International .
Turner has collaborated with Tibetan Buddhists and met with the 14th Dalai Lama , Tenzin Gyatso in Einsiedeln , Switzerland in 2005 , citing this as an inspiration for a spiritual music project she later co @-@ founded called Beyond . In a 2011 public interview with Shambala Sun , Turner indicated that she no longer follows the morning and evening Gongyo practice in a regimented schedule and hosts various types of Buddhist statues in her home altar located in the upper attic of one of her guesthouses in Switzerland .
In a March 2016 interview with Lion 's Roar magazine , Turner says she prays and chants each day , stating the following :
" Nam Myoho Renge Kyo is like a song . In the Soka Gakkai tradition we are taught how to sing it . It is a sound and a rhythm and it touches a place inside you . That place we try to reach is the subconscious mind . I believe that is the highest place . "
= = = Residences and citizenship = = =
Turner has been living in a lake house , Château Algonquin in Küsnacht , next to Zurich , since moving there in 1994 . She owned property in Cologne , London , and Los Angeles , and a villa on the French Riviera named Anna Fleur .
On January 25 , 2013 , it was announced that Turner had applied for Swiss citizenship , and that she would relinquish her U.S. citizenship . In April , she undertook a mandatory citizenship test which included advanced knowledge of the German language and of Swiss history . On April 22 , 2013 , she became a citizen of Switzerland and was issued a Swiss passport . Turner signed the paperwork to give up her American citizenship at the U.S. embassy in Bern on October 24 , 2013 .
= = Awards and accolades = =
In 2008 , Turner was listed at the 17th place on Rolling Stone 's list " The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time . "
Turner is a Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee .
Three of her recordings , " River Deep – Mountain High " ( 1999 ) , " Proud Mary " ( 2003 ) , and " What 's Love Got to Do with It " ( 2012 ) , are in the Grammy Hall of Fame .
Turner has won eight Grammy Awards .
Bryan Adams , who performed with her on the Private Dancer Tour , praised Turner 's live performances , saying : " I never saw Tina walk through a performance , she always put on a great show , and was gracious and grateful to her audience . "
When Turner became a recipient of the 2005 Kennedy Center Honors , her legs were noted specifically by President George W. Bush .
At age 73 , Turner became the oldest person to be featured on the front cover of Vogue , surpassing Meryl Streep , who covered American Vogue in 2012 , aged 62 .
Turner has her own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the St. Louis Walk of Fame .
= = Discography = =
Tina Turns the Country On ! ( 1974 )
Acid Queen ( 1975 )
Rough ( 1978 )
Love Explosion ( 1979 )
Private Dancer ( 1984 )
Break Every Rule ( 1986 )
Foreign Affair ( 1989 )
What 's Love Got to Do With It ( 1993 )
Wildest Dreams ( 1996 )
Twenty Four Seven ( 1999 )
= = Tours = =
1977 : Australian Tour
1978 – 79 : The Wild Lady of Rock Tour
1982 : Nice ' n ' Rough Tour
1984 : 1984 World Tour
1985 : Private Dancer Tour
1987 – 88 : Break Every Rule World Tour
1990 : Foreign Affair : The Farewell Tour
1993 : What 's Love ? Tour
1996 – 97 : Wildest Dreams Tour
2000 : Twenty Four Seven Tour
2008 – 09 : Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour
= = Filmography = =
= Fursuit =
Fursuits are animal costumes . Fursuits can be worn for personal enjoyment , work or charity .
The term " fursuit " is believed to have been coined in 1993 by Robert King and is usually used to describe custom @-@ made animal costumes owned and worn by cosplayers or members of the furry fandom . Unlike mascot suits , which are usually affiliated with a team or organization , fursuits represent a stand @-@ alone character .
Fursuiters may adopt another personality while in costume for the purpose of performance . Fursuits are typically sold online by commission or auction , but can also be sold at conventions .
= = Creation and construction = =
Most fursuits are created by specialized online businesses if they are not self @-@ made . Workmanship quality varies widely depending on the cost of the suit and skill of the maker . A fursuit may cost more than a thousand dollars .
Many suits include special padding or undersuits to give the character its desired shape ( this is especially present in larger characters or those of a particular gender ) .
Other suit variations include the partial suit , which only has a mask , gloves , a tail , and possibly feet , with regular clothing covering the rest of the body . Three @-@ quarter suits also include part of the body , like the torso or legs . This type of fursuit works well for characters who only wear a shirt without pants or just a pair of pants without a shirt . Quadsuits are designed with arm @-@ extending stilts so that the wearer can walk on all fours , for a more realistic appearance .
Fursuits can be expensive to clean .
= = Applications = =
Animal costumes have been part of human culture since prehistorical times . Some of the customs have continued such as the Kurentovanje festival in Ptuj Slovenia , where participants dress in costumes of sheep or rabbit fur with feathers and animal horns and part of a fertility rite .
Fursuits are worn to furry conventions and other events such as anime or gaming conventions . Fursuits may also be worn in public .
Some fursuit owners use their suits as temporary costumed characters to bring attention to an event or charity . A subset of fursuits more resemble creature suits and may be used in live action role @-@ playing games ( LARP ) or films .
= Matt Striebel =
Matt Striebel ( born January 12 , 1979 ) is a
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Chittering valley . Its subspecific name is derived from the Latin pumilio " small " , relating to the flowers .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia sphaerocarpa is distributed widely across southwestern Western Australia — from Eneabba in the north , south to the Whicher Range , Nannup , Albany and Jerramungup , and eastwards to the vicinity of Hyden . It is mainly found on sandy soils in flat or gently sloped areas in shrubland , mallee or open woodland .
= = Conservation = =
As a species , B. sphaerocarpa is not considered to be under threat , but two of the five varieties , have been placed on the Declared Rare and Priority Flora List . B sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla has been gazetted as " Declared Rare Flora – Extant " under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 . Banksia sphaerocarpa var. latifolia , though not afforded legislative protection , has been identified as a " Priority Two – Poorly Known " taxon , because so few populations are known .
= = Ecology = =
Various animals , including mammals , birds , and insects such as bees , wasps , ants and beetles , have been recorded visiting Banksia sphaerocarpa inflorescences , including the colletid bee species Hylaeus sanguinipictus . Botanist Stephen Hopper found pollen of B. sphaerocarpa on New Holland honeyeaters ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) and honey possums ( Tarsipes rostratus ) at Cheyne Beach in a field study published in 1980 .
Knowledge of the breeding system of B. sphaerocarpa comes from a 2009 study of genetic structure within and across fragmented plant populations , which made a case study of B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia populations in the vicinity of Dongolocking , where the landscape has been severely fragmented by land clearing . Very little self @-@ pollination was observed . Most mating was between plants in the same population , but inter @-@ population mating accounted for 15 – 33 % of seed , a " very significant contribution ... to overall reproductive dynamics " . This figure was lowest in the smallest populations , which also exhibited lower rates of germination , smaller plants , and less genetic diversity than larger populations . One possible interpretation of this is that interpopulation mating confers a fitness advantage . There was also evidence of fine @-@ scale genetic structure , with plants tending to be more closely related to nearby plants than to more distant plants . The authors suggest that gene flow was probably always limited in these populations , even before they were fragmented .
Banksia sphaerocarpa is one of five closely related Banksia species that have highly unusual flower nectar . Whereas other Banksia species produce nectar that is clear and watery , the nectar of these species is pale yellow initially , but gradually becomes darker and thicker , changing to a thick , olive @-@ green mucilage within one to two days of secretion , and eventually becoming " an almost black , gelatinous lump adhering to the base of the flowers " . It was first noted by Byron Lamont in 1980 ; he attributed it to cyanobacteria that feed off the nectar sugars . Noting that many of these cyanobacteria had heterocysts , he speculated that they aid the plant by fixing atmospheric nitrogen , which is then washed off the flower heads by rain , and absorbed by the proteoid root mat . This purported symbiosis was investigated by Barrett and Lamont in 1985 , but no evidence of nitrogen fixing was found . Further investigation by Markey and Lamont in 1996 suggested that the discolouration is not caused by cyanobacteria or other microorganisms in the nectar , but is rather " a chemical phenomenon of plant origin " . Their analyses indicated that the nectar had unusually high levels of sugar and free amino acids , but three of these species , including B. sphaerocarpa , have since been shown to have normal nectar sugar compositions .
Like most Western Australian Banksia species , B. sphaerocarpa is susceptible to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi . In one experiment , 43 % of plants were dead within three months of inoculation , and the species was therefore rated as " moderately susceptible " . In another experiment , 37 % of plants were dead within three months , and 85 % within a year ; yet this study rated the species ' susceptibility as " high " . In the latter study , it took 35 to 40 days for the death rate to reach its maximum , and thereafter the death rate continued at that level throughout the year , only dipping slightly in the dry summer months .
= = Cultivation = =
None of the varieties of Banksia sphaerocarpa are commonly seen in cultivation . They are difficult to grow in the wetter conditions of Australia 's east coast . Trials with grafting have been very limited and results have been poor . Otherwise , they adapt well to gardens with good drainage , sandy soils and sunny aspects in drier and Mediterranean ( winter moisture ) climates , and are also frost tolerant . They are good bird @-@ attracting plants , and flower when not much else is in flower . Seeds do not require any treatment prior to sowing , and take 20 to 48 days to germinate .
= Hugh of Wells =
Hugh of Wells ( Hugh de Wells , or Hugh of Welles , sometimes Hugh Troteman ; died 7 February 1235 ) was a medieval Bishop of Lincoln . He began his career in the diocese of Bath , where he served two successive bishops , before joining royal service under King John of England . He served in the royal administration until 1209 , when he was elected to the see , or bishopric , of Lincoln . When John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III in November 1209 , Hugh went into exile in France , where he remained until 1213 .
When he returned to England , he continued to serve both John and John 's son King Henry III , but spent most of his time in his diocese . He introduced new administrative methods into the diocese , as well as working to improve the educational and financial well @-@ being of his clergy and to secure the canonisation of his predecessor Hugh of Avalon as a saint in 1220 . Although the medieval writer Matthew Paris accused Hugh of being opposed to monastic houses and monks , there is little evidence of the bishop being biased , and after his death on 7 February 1235 parts of his estate were left to religious houses , including nunneries .
= = Early life = =
Hugh was the son of Edward of Wells and elder brother of Jocelin of Wells , Bishop of Bath . Hugh 's year of birth is unknown , but he was probably an old man at his death in 1235 . The fact that he never left his residence from March 1233 until his death implies that he was impaired from old age . He first appears as a witness on documents of Reginald fitzJocelin , the Bishop of Bath in the late 1180s . After fitzJocelin 's death in 1191 , Hugh continued in the service of the next bishop , Savaric FitzGeldewin . By the end of the 1190s , Hugh was a canon of Wells Cathedral . Although Hugh 's brother Jocelin was given the title of magister , implying that he attended a university , Hugh is never called magister , making it unlikely that he ever received much schooling .
Hugh was a keeper of the king 's seal , serving as deputy to Simon of Wells , the Archdeacon of Wells who was Keeper of the Great Seal from around 1199 to 1204 . Simon was also a relative of Hugh 's , and seems to have helped secure positions for both Hugh and Jocelin in the royal administration . Hugh was a royal clerk in the chancery , the royal secretariat , and was named Archdeacon of Wells sometime before 25 April 1204 . He held prebends in the diocese of Lincoln and diocese of London as well . His service in the chancery would have involved him in Hubert Walter 's administrative innovations during his term as Chancellor .
Besides his episcopal appointments , Hugh was rewarded with two manors in Somerset , including the Treasurer 's House in Martock which he made his primary residence , and the right to collect taxes and fines in two hundreds in Somerset . He also served as the royal custodian of the diocese of Lincoln while the see was vacant between 1200 and 1203 , collecting the revenues of the see , most of which went to the king while a see was without a bishop . In 1205 and 1206 , Hugh was royal custodian for the diocese of Bath , which was similarly vacant .
= = Bishop of Lincoln = =
Hugh was elected to the see of Lincoln about 14 April 1209 , after a papal command to the cathedral chapter to elect a new bishop , as Lincoln had again been without a bishop since 1206 . During the summer of 1209 , Hugh , along with his brother , was one of the councilors of King John urging the king to settle with Pope Innocent III before the pope excommunicated the king . However , negotiations with papal representatives got nowhere , and the king was excommunicated on 8 November 1209 . Hugh and his brother Jocelin had continued to support King John until this , two years after many of their fellow bishops had deserted the king , but by late in the year , Hugh left the king 's service and went into exile .
The election , meanwhile , had aroused papal suspicions of undue royal influence , and Innocent sent Stephen Langton , the exiled Archbishop of Canterbury to investigate Hugh and the circumstances of his election . Langton was also to investigate rumours that Hugh was not celibate , and had two daughters . The results of the investigation must have been satisfactory , as Hugh was consecrated on 20 December 1209 at Melun . The consecration was performed by Langton . Hugh was in exile in France until he returned to England on 16 July 1213 . His only known activity while in exile was the writing of a will , which was dated November 1212 and was drawn up at St Martin de Garenne , near Paris .
Hugh attended the papal Fourth Lateran Council held in 1215 in Rome , along with a number of other English bishops , and both English archbishops . Soon after his return from the council , Hugh served as a royal judge , serving as one of the justices of the eyre for Lincolnshire , Nottinghamshire , and Derbyshire in 1218 and 1219 . In 1226 he was once more a royal justice . Later , he was employed by King Henry III as an ambassador , helping negotiate with King Louis VIII of France over the status of Normandy and Poitou . Hugh also worked to secure the canonisation of his predecessor Hugh of Avalon as a saint , which occurred in 1220 .
= = Diocesan affairs = =
In 1222 , along with the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Norwich , Hugh ordered that all those in their dioceses refrain from contact with Jews . This decree , however , was countermanded by a royal decree to the county sheriffs in the affected dioceses ordering them to imprison any residents who refused to interact with Jews . Besides these activities , Hugh was active in his diocese , including supervising the various monastic houses within it . In 1227 , a visitation to Eynsham Abbey resulted in Hugh deposing the abbot . Although the 12th chronicler Matthew Paris accused Hugh of being biased against monks and nuns , and even called him the " untiring persecutor of monks , the hammer of canons , nuns and all the religious " , there is little evidence that Hugh singled out monks for persecution . One reason for Paris ' dislike of the bishop may have been the fact that the chronicler 's own abbey of St Alban 's had to compromise with Hugh over two legal disputes , dealing with the right to appoint to various benefices .
Hugh once was credited with creating 300 new vicarages within the diocese , largely on the basis of his surviving documents dealing with this , known as the Liber Antiquus . Further research has shown that a number of the vicarages he was once assumed to have founded were instead earlier foundations that Hugh either augmented or reassessed . Hugh also worked to improve the educational level of this clergy , even refusing to allow some candidates to benefices to be installed because of their lack of education . The bishop also worked to improve the conditions of the poorer clergy in his diocese , attempting to ensure that all the clergy in his diocese had enough to live on . Previously , it was thought that Hugh had sent out a set of articles of inquiry to his diocesan clergy , but these articles are now shown to have been produced by Hugh 's successor , Robert Grosseteste .
In the administration of his diocese , Hugh introduced new methods of recording documents . This system was modelled on that which Hubert Walter had introduced into the chancery , with separate registers for each archdeaconry , and registers , or rolls , for charters and memoranda , much like the Charter Roll or Memoranda Roll of the royal chancery . He also undertook a survey of the endowments of the vicarages within his diocese .
Hugh supported the building campaign of Salisbury Cathedral , ordering that money be collected throughout his diocese . Likewise , he ordered similar collections for Daventry Priory , Sulby Abbey and parish churches in his diocese . Not only churches benefited from these sorts of collections , as the bishop offered indulgences to those who helped build bridges at Brampton , Rockingham , and Aynho .
= = Death and legacy = =
Hugh died on 7 February 1235 , at his episcopal residence at Stow Park . He was buried on 10 February 1235 in Lincoln Cathedral , in the north aisle . In 1233 he had written a new will , which mentions his brother and a niece named Agatha . He left bequests to his family , his household , Lincoln Cathedral , and a number of monasteries in his diocese . What was left after the specific legacies was to be divided between poor religious houses , such as the Barrow Gurney Nunnery , students and teachers at Oxford University , Jewish converts and the poor on the episcopal manors .
Hugh 's register of ordinations still survives , and is in the Lincoln cathedral archives . Parts of this were published by Alfred Gibbons in 1888 , and others in 1904 by the Canterbury and York Society . These records give not only the name of the person receiving a benefice , but what the clerical status of each new benefice holder was .
= Panzer Dragoon =
Panzer Dragoon ( パンツァードラグーン , Pantsā Doragūn ) is a rail shooter video game developed by Team Andromeda and released on the Sega Saturn console in 1995 ; and later released on R @-@ Zone , PC , PlayStation 2 , and as a bonus in its sequel Panzer Dragoon Orta for Xbox . The game follows the journey of Keil Fluge ( unnamed in localized versions ) , a member of a hunting party who becomes the rider of a powerful blue dragon ( red dragon in the R @-@ Zone version ) and joins it on its mission to stop a rival dragon from wreaking havoc on the world . The player moves an aiming reticle ( representing the dragon 's laser and the rider 's gun ) over the screen and shoots enemies while the dragon automatically flies through 3D environments on a predetermined track .
As one of six games available at the Sega Saturn 's surprise North American launch , Panzer Dragoon was the first game created by Team Andromeda . The game also marked the directorial debut of game designer Yukio Futatsugi , who was 25 years old at the time of the game 's release . It is the first game in the Panzer Dragoon series , and introduced the series ' gameplay elements and art style .
Panzer Dragoon received positive reviews , both in 1995 and in recent retrospective coverage . It was Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Game of the Month " in July 1995 , was named " Best Saturn Game of 1995 " in EGM 's 1996 Buyers ' Guide , and ranked 140th in EGM 's " The Greatest 200 Videogames of their time " in 2006 . In particular , its original art direction and post @-@ apocalyptic science fantasy universe gained critical acclaim . It was followed by a prequel , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei , in 1996 , and two sequels : Panzer Dragoon Saga in 1998 , and Panzer Dragoon Orta in 2002 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game spans six levels , each lasting about five minutes , with a variety of boss battles . Over the course of the game , the plot is revealed through cutscenes using the game 's own graphic engine . Gameplay consists of a player controls a flying dragon and his rider through an aiming reticle that can be moved over the whole screen with the D @-@ pad ; the player must shoot a variety of enemies ( ranging from machines to monsters ) in a 3D post @-@ apocalyptic fantasy environment of barren landscapes and mysterious ruins of a fallen civilization . Progression through the levels is made at a predetermined pace , as the player is constantly set along a rail of gameplay . The only time the game pauses is during boss battles . The field of vision can be directed with the aiming reticle on the x and y @-@ axis , but the overall direction of travel is predetermined . The dragon follows the reticle movements , allowing the player to avoid enemy projectiles and obstacles .
The player has a full , 360 @-@ degree field of view , and can quickly look left , right , forward , and behind the dragon . Enemies come from all directions , varying in size and health , and also appear on an on @-@ screen radar that monitors the dragon 's surroundings . Two weapons are available : the rider 's handgun , which can be fired with a single button press when an enemy enters the aiming reticle , and the homing laser fired by the dragon , which can lock on up to eight enemies by moving the reticle over them while holding down the fire button . Some situations with many enemies on screen require the use of the lock @-@ on laser , while in others , quick gunshots to weak spots will prove more efficient .
= = Plot = =
In the distant future , thousands of years after a great war between humans and their biologically engineered weapons , humans live in everything from small tribes to large nations . One nation , the Empire , has discovered a black tower in the middle of a lake near their capital , which gave them access to large amounts of ancient weapons which they used to beat back and control the ever present monsters in the world . The Imperials were corrupted by this power and became conquerors of others as opposed to liberators from a violent world .
The introduction movie opens with the protagonist , Keil Fluge ( unnamed in the North American version ) , hunting in a canyon . After seeing an Imperial flying battleship in the sky , he is attacked by two creatures and chases one of them to a large , ancient complex built directly into the rock . He explores the ruin , and sees relics of old technology still hanging from the ceilings . Another gigantic creature suddenly attacks him , and though his weapon is useless against the armored creature , a rumbling triggers a cave in , which crushes the monster and saves Keil . From the newly created hole , an armored , blue dragon flies down the cavern with a rider across its shoulders , being chased by an even bigger black dragon as the cavern is destroyed in an explosion . Regaining consciousness outside , Keil sees the two dragons locked in combat in the air before him . Dodging a blast from the black dragon , the blue dragon 's rider is then hit by single shot to the chest , and the black dragon flies away . The blue dragon flies towards Keil . A psychic connection is made between the rider and Keil , who is told not to let the black dragon reach the black tower . The rider then dies and Keil picks up his fallen gun , climbs atop the dragon and flies away , determined to finish the rider 's quest .
During the first level of the game , Keil and his dragon fly through a drowned city , where they encounter a small Imperial patrol ship . That ship sends a report to a large fleet of ships flying above the clouds . It is revealed that the Imperial forces are specifically searching for the blue dragon . The second level is a desert , where Keil and the dragon encounter gigantic worm @-@ like creatures . At the stormy edge of the desert , they are confronted by the Black Dragon , which is defeated and speeds away . The third level is a mountainous landscape at night @-@ time where Keil and the dragon get reacquainted with the Imperial forces , which were exploring ancient ruins . These encounters illustrate the ongoing conflict between the Imperial forces and the ancient machines and creatures . The fourth level is an ancient facility in which Keil and the dragon are pursued by both Imperial airships and cybernetic sentinels left behind by the ancient civilization . During the fifth level , they defeat a large armada of the most powerful Imperial ships over a forested area . A cutscene then shows a fleet of dragon @-@ like creatures coming out of the tower to attack the Imperial forces . The sixth level features the black dragon and Keil racing through the battle @-@ scarred Imperial capital . During this , they are both waylaid by the creatures and machines seen attacking the Imperial fleet around the tower while also being fired on by Imperial defenses . The black dragon then reaches the Tower and is mutated into a gigantic super @-@ dragon and begins a climactic battle with Keil and the blue dragon , after which the black dragon is defeated and falls into the ocean .
In the ending cutscene , Keil and the dragon enter the tower . While traveling down a long corridor , the dragon surrounds Keil in a force field , lifting him from the saddle and suspending him in the hallway . Keil watches as the dragon continues on to the core of the tower , then a blinding light is seen and the tower explodes . Keil wakes up some time later in a desert area abutting the ocean . Looking down , he sees the foot prints of the blue dragon around him , indicating that after the explosion , the dragon carried him to safety and flew away .
= = Development = =
Panzer Dragoon was created in the early 1990s as the Japanese video game company Sega was getting ready to release its Saturn console . At the time , the Saturn lacked third @-@ party games ; because of this , Sega had to internally develop games in every genre , including shoot ' em up . In 1993 , Sega asked its developers for new game ideas , and it was then that Yukio Futatsugi , a young developer who had joined Sega only two years before , proposed several new concepts . One of these concepts was accepted and became Panzer Dragoon . Futatsugi , then 23 years old , was put in charge of the project and became the head of Team Andromeda , a development team that Sega assembled for the occasion in early 1994 and was built around the duo formed by Futatsugi and Manabu Kusunoki , art designer on the project . Overall , development lasted almost a year , and 15 people worked on the game .
The project was designed as arcade @-@ style from the start , as core members of the team like Kusunoki came from Sega 's arcade department . Team Andromeda wanted to create a fully 3D arcade game , having worked on similar games such as Out Run which were not truly 3D . With influences like Space Harrier , Starblade , Star Fox , and RayForce , the project became a 3D rail shooter . Usually , in 3D shooters , the player rides a 3D object like a jet fighter or a tank . Futatsugi and Kusunoki decided , however , that it would be more original for the player to ride an armored dragon , a living creature which would also allow for richer animations . The game 's name originates from its original concept , referred to as " armored dragon " ( kiko @-@ ryu in Japanese ) , but Futatsugi , feeling that this was too bland , decided to translate it to German .
With this basic concept in mind , the creators had 3 months to define a visual identity and a setting for their game , prior to development . The game would be set in a post @-@ apocalyptic science fantasy world , featuring ruins and relics of a fallen civilization and mankind struggling for survival , something typical in anime at that time . Futatsugi was particularly influenced by one of his childhood readings , The Long Afternoon of Earth , a science @-@ fiction novel by Brian Aldiss , in which one side of the earth became perpetually hot , the other perpetually cold . The first presentation video featured a green dragon , in line with traditional European / medieval depictions , however the team quickly decided to change it and make it " more sci @-@ fi " . In order for the dragon to be more original , it was made blue and covered in a white , bone @-@ like armor . The dragon was supposed to come from the ancient times , so ruins and ancient flying technology also featured this white , shell @-@ like material .
The overall fantasy look of the game 's world , which mixed natural and technological elements , was also chosen in order to set it apart from classic science @-@ fiction 3D games of the time . This world , as well as dragon and character designs , were mainly the work of Manabu Kusunoki , who took inspiration from various sources , including anime and manga , and who pushed the art direction toward a more Turkish / Ottoman style to avoid the European aesthetics of the early presentation video . Critics have noted similarities with the works of French artist Moebius ( notably his comic book Arzach , ) of whom Kusunoki was a fan , as well as with Hayao Miyazaki 's Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind , and David Lynch 's Dune movie . However , Kusunoki was adamant not to include big robots from popular Gundam @-@ like anime , and unrealistic designs like the spiky and colorful @-@ haired characters wielding impossibly large swords from the Final Fantasy series . Kentaro Yoshida , texturing and modeling artist , described the creation process as similar in style to Star Wars , in that it " made an unearthly world appear so real " . Takashi Iwade , in charge of the opening cutscene and character models , designed the enemies using a lot of various influences : " I got inspiration from antique clocks and various industrial products from the era of the industrial revolution for mechanics , and myriapods , marine mollusks , ammonite , and a rusty fishing boat for creatures when I started thinking of the original battleship " . The team wanted a famous artist to make the game 's cover art . Manabu Kusunoki suggested Moebius , who accepted , and the team sent him designs that he was to interpret . The resulting illustration was used as the cover art for the Japanese release of the game .
The Saturn 's hardware was new to the team , and it was their first attempt at creating an original environment . It was also Futatsugi 's first year working as a full developer at Sega , so he was only able to do simple things while having a clear vision of what he wanted , which helped him to keep the overall style pure , with stark and minimalist cutscenes . Similarly , Iwade kept the enemies easy to understand visually , with simple shapes , and this overall simple style ended up fitting well with the Saturn 's hardware . Then , Team Andromeda set to work on elaborating an extensive back story , and Futatsugi , to be original and to avoid using Japanese or English , went so far as to create a new language for the game : a mix of Ancient Greek , Latin and Russian . This was apparently inspired by the anime The Wings of Honneamise , of which team members were fans and which also features an invented language .
After the story and art were established , the team set to work on the graphics . Working on new hardware proved difficult for the young team , and the game ended up missing the initial deadline given by Sega , which was the Saturn Japanese launch on November 1994 . One of the problems was that the Saturn hardware was only finalized in mid @-@ 1994 , and without actual Saturn prototype to test their progress , the programmers initially had to work with hypothetical hardware performance . Team Andromeda created its own graphics library and mapping tools instead of using Sega 's , in order to make the most of their first game on the new system . The game 's graphics and cutscenes were done with Softimage , and the 3D elements were programmed on SGI workstations using OpenGL . The programmers were eventually able to transition to the debug Saturn they had received , but the process was difficult and the game had a very low frame rate at first , before it could be locked at 20 FPS . The six levels of Panzer Dragoon are barren landscapes with ancient ruins , which is consistent with the " simple " style appropriate for the Saturn . The first two levels that the team programmed , a desert ( level 2 ) and a forest ( level 5 ) , did not have any objects or anything besides sand and forest effects , again because the team was unsure how far the hardware could be pushed . Keeping CPU limitations in mind , simple tornado effects were added to level 2 , so that it did not look too bland .
Work on the soundtrack began after completion of the game , similar to the way movie soundtracks are made . The idea was to create musics that would specifically reflect each level art @-@ style and events . As the game had an " on rail " progression system , the developers knew exactly where the player would be at any given time , so they showed videos to the composer and asked him to write specifically timed pieces that would match the player 's progression in each level . The soundtrack was outsourced to Yoshitaka Azuma , who was composing musics for NHK TV programs at that time . The music of Panzer Dragoon is a mix between orchestral and synthesizer tracks .
Sega of America made several alterations to the game in order to make the North American release more challenging than the Japanese version . These alterations were retained in the PAL version .
= = Releases = =
The game was first released in Japan on March 10 , 1995 , then in North America on May 11 , 1995 and in Europe on August 30 , 1995 , on the Sega Saturn console . The next year , Panzer Dragoon was ported on PC . Identical to the Saturn version except with a higher resolution , this PC port was also included as an unlockable bonus in the Xbox game Panzer Dragoon Orta , released in 2002 . Aside from providing the source code , Team Andromeda had no involvement in the development of the PC version . The PlayStation 2 console saw the release of an updated version of the game in 2006 in Japan , as part of the Sega Ages 2500 collection . The port was handled by development studio Land Ho , and features both the original Saturn game and an " arrange " version with anti @-@ aliasing filter , better texturing , and improved 3D models for the dragon and some enemies . The " arrange " version also includes new unlockable extras such as level selection and artworks , in the form of a " Pandora 's Box " option menu ( similar to Panzer Dragoon II Zwei ) .
= = Reception = =
Panzer Dragoon received positive reviews , both in 1995 and in retrospective coverage . Though sales were not as high as Sega expected , possibly due to the success of Sony 's PlayStation console over the Saturn , they were substantial enough for Sega to allow the series to continue with the 1996 prequel Panzer Dragoon II Zwei , also released on the Saturn .
As one of the first Saturn titles , the game was highly anticipated by journalists after its appearance in promotional material . Ed Semrad and Danyon Carpenter from Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the game for its " innovative game play " and its " awe @-@ inspiring visuals " from the opening cinematic to the backgrounds and the dragon 's animations . Al Manuel and Ken Williams criticized the game 's lack of diversity in weapons and its predetermined progression ; but the four EGM reviewers agreed that it was a must @-@ have game for Saturn owners . Similarly , The Unknown Gamer from GamePro called the game a " masterpiece " , highlighted its high @-@ quality graphics and musics , and described the story as " captivat [ ing ] " . However , the journalist noted the game 's overall difficulty " will single out all but advanced players " with its lack of power @-@ ups or extra lives of any kind . Nevertheless , the game was seen as a good example of the Saturn 's capabilities . In contrast , a reviewer from Maximum said that the game was much too easy even on the highest difficulty setting , greatly reducing its already low longevity . He also said the gameplay would be too simplistic for many players , with its on @-@ rails shooting and selection of only two weapons , but was overall very positive in his assessment of the game , highly praising the 360 degrees of rotation and most especially the textured 3D graphics of the enemies , settings , and bosses .
Patrick Gabbatta from Game Players stated that while the game may come off as " just a simple shooter " , it is at least a " very good one " that " puts a twist on the tired formula " , again praising the game play and the variety in camera angles . Chris Gore from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment named the game " the best shooter since Star Fox " , and a must @-@ have for fantasy and sci @-@ fi fans , with its " eerie " atmosphere noted by editor Betty Hallock . While the story itself was said to be " somewhat typical " and editor Chris Bieniek criticized the on @-@ rail aspect , Gore noted the game 's " spectacular visuals " , and presented it as one of the Saturn 's system sellers . Famitsu magazine 's Reader Cross Review gave the game a 9 out of 10 in April 1995 , and it was named " Best Saturn Game of 1995 " by Electronic Gaming Monthly in their 1996 Buyers ' Guide . The game 's universe itself was deemed " coolly surreal " by Entertainment Weekly reviewer Albert Kim , who thought the game 's seven @-@ minute " movie @-@ quality " introduction was " gorgeous " and " nearly overshadowed the game itself " . Kim argued that Panzer Dragoon could be seen as a " lyrical and exhilarating epic " , a " story , not just a game " which could pave the way for a " transformation " of the videogame industry . Film director Steven Spielberg approached Team Andromeda to say he was impressed by the game 's presentation at the 1995 E3 show .
James Mielke from online game magazine 1UP.com gave Panzer Dragoon a retroactive review of 8 / 10 for what the game offered in 1995 , but gave it a modern score of 6 / 10 . Mielke highlighted the music as " one of the finest game soundtracks ever produced , " but said that the game itself " staggers a bit under the glaring light of a critical rereview [ sic ] " , arguing it is " little more than Space Harrier with a 3D camera and cut @-@ scenes . " By contrast , Levi Buchanan from IGN gave the game a retrospective score of 9 / 10 , opining that " the fact that Panzer Dragoon holds up as well in 2008 as it did in 1995 is a just testament to the staying power of good art and tight gameplay . " Kurt Kalata , in a Gamasutra retrospective , also praised its art and universe , but said the actual game looked " a bit cut and dried " compared to its sequ
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els . Panzer Dragoon ranked 140th in EGM ′ s " The Greatest 200 Videogames of their time " feature published in 2006 .
= The Converted Deacon =
The Converted Deacon is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows the daughter who disobeys her father by associated with the theater and becomes a star on the stage . She keeps it a secret , but he father arrives in town and takes her home because her mother is ill . John DeLacy follows her home and disguises himself to secure a position on the farm . A newspaper reveals the daughter 's fame and only after a song and dance does the father 's anger abate and allows the two lovers to marry . Little is known about the production of the film , but the Thanhouser films were distinguished as being the best of the Independent companies in a The New York Dramatic Mirror editorial . The film was released on July 15 , 1910 , and met with mixed reception . The film is presumed lost
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 16 , 1910 . It states : " May Sanders is the daughter of a farmer , Deacon Sanders , who is nearly as poor as he is religious . May goes to the city to seek employment , and her father warns her to shun theatres and bad company . Her first job is a maid in the home of Mrs. Carr , wife of a theatrical manager . Mrs. Carr discovers that May can sing and dance exceptionally well , and her husband places May on the stage . She makes a hit right from the start . Also she annexes the affections of John DeLacy , a wealthy young man . But she does not dare tell her parents about her new vocation . Matters drag along until the Deacon unexpectedly arrives in town . May has still pretended to be the maid of Mrs. Carr , and the father finds her in the house when she calls . He tells her that her mother is ill , and she is needed at home . She goes and is promptly put to work on the farm . John follows his sweetheart to the country , and to be near her , pretends to be poor and secures a job on the farm . The newspaper gives the Deacon a clue to the mystery , and he prepares to disown his daughter . But when she sings and dances , his anger melts , he forgives May and John , who later marry with a paternal blessing . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director and the cameraman are unknown and no known credits for the cast are cited by film historian , Q. David Bowers . Members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming .
Despite the lack of production details , the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers . An editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " The editorial warned that American audiences were not subject to be entertained by the novelty of moving images and cautioned the Independents that there was distinct danger in quantity over quality . The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company , a Licensed company , and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on July 15 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release in the United States , theaters showing advertisements include those in Kansas , North Carolina , Maryland , Indiana , Pennsylvania , Arizona , and Missouri . One of the last advertisements for the film was in Neosho , Missouri on May 14 , 1913 .
The film received mixed reception in trade publications , but some advertisements would boast the power of the film or go so far as to call it a great American drama . The The Moving Picture News stated , " As a sketch of country folk , admirable because it is true . The situations are well worked out . The conversion ! Could it be ? A New England church meeting would be a good place to exhibit and - ask questions . " Though the reviewer in the The New York Dramatic Mirror however disagreed that the premise was plausible , " A [ straight @-@ laced ] old deacon forms the complicating element in this rather conventional and rather improbable story . That a girl could become a comic opera star without the knowledge of her parents is a strain for the imagination . That a simple little dance like the one in the picture could effect such a conversion is another tax on belief . The acting is good , especially in the heroine 's role . The deacon displays an unnatural tendency in such a stern character when he rapturously kisses the photograph of his daughter . " It is unknown if the character of Deacon Sanders is really a church deacon because the synopsis states Deacon Sanders is a farmer who is " nearly as poor as he is religious " .
= Christian metal =
Christian metal , also known as white metal or heavenly metal , is a form of heavy metal music usually defined by its message using song lyrics as well as the dedication of the band members to Christianity . Christian metal is typically performed by professed Christians sometimes principally for Christians who listen to heavy metal music and often produced and distributed through various Christian networks .
Christian metal bands exist in all the subgenres of heavy metal music , and the only common link among most Christian metal bands are the lyrics . The Christian themes are often melded with the subjects of the genre the band is rooted in , regularly providing a Christian take on the subject matter . It has been argued that the marginal yet transnational Christian metal subculture provides its core members an alternative religious expression and Christian identity , and that the music serves the purpose of offering a positive message through lyrical content . This may not necessarily show a direct connection or reference to the Christian faith but often it does .
Christian metal emerged in the late 1970s as a means of evangelization to the wider heavy metal music scene and was pioneered by the American Resurrection Band and Barnabas , the Swedish Jerusalem , and Canadian Daniel Band . Los Angeles ' Stryper achieved wide success in the 1980s . In the mid to late 1980s , extreme metal genres were popularized by bands such as Vengeance Rising , Deliverance , Believer and Tourniquet . In the early 1990 , the Australian death metal band Mortification rose to prominence within its country 's underground metal scene . At the turn of the 21st century , the nu metal band P.O.D , with two platinum @-@ selling albums , achieved a mainstream commercial success rivaling that of Stryper . The metalcore groups Underoath , Demon Hunter , As I Lay Dying and Norma Jean ( dubbed by Revolver Magazine as " The Holy Alliance " ) also brought some mainstream attention to the movement in the first decade of the 2000s , achieving ranks in the Billboard 200 .
= = Characteristics = =
Christian metal is not a solitary style of music , but rather an ideological umbrella term that comprises almost every subgenre of heavy metal music . The musicians within Christian metal bands typically base their lyrics on Judeo @-@ Christian traditions . The lyrical approach of Christian metal bands is somewhat varied , as some emphasize the positive aspects of faith matters while others iterate the teachings of Christ . Some bands keep their message hidden in metaphors . Only a minority take an aggressive attitude towards those who speak against Christianity , " preaching full @-@ on fire and brimstone and Old Testament style God 's wrath back at extreme Satanists " . References to eschatology and apocalyptic themes , particularly the ongoing spiritual warfare between good and evil as well as the Last Judgment and fall from grace are typical .
The lyrical style varies depending on culture , denomination , and country . For example , in Northern Europe the bands with Lutheran members usually prefer a personal lyrical approach , which is seldom meant to " convert " in an aggressive manner , since evangelism has been more typical among American bands . Christian bands never deny their conviction but typically avoid preaching , and sometimes the matter is left unexpressed , leaving religion as a private issue of the listener . Certain bands choose to deal with every day life experiences from a Christian perspective in order to draw both Christian and non @-@ Christian listeners . In such cases , identifying a " Christian band " can be difficult . Secular bands that occasionally deal with Christian topics are a different matter altogether . Defining a Christian band is a much debated issue on Christian metal forums . A Christian band is expected to have either professed Christian members or a Christian message , preferably both .
= = History = =
= = = Background : Heavy metal music and Christianity = = =
The term ' heavy metal ' , as it was used by Lester Bangs and Dave Marsh at Creem , referred to a sound best exemplified by albums such as Led Zeppelin 's Led Zeppelin II , Deep Purple 's Deep Purple in Rock , and Black Sabbath 's Paranoid .
An examination of some of the lyrics from bands such as these show a lack of any explicitly negative themes . Led Zeppelin 's " Whole Lotta Love " could just as well be a conversation between husband and wife , as not . Black Sabbath 's " Electric Funeral " exactly parallels the blood red moon of St. John 's Revelation , while their " Hand of Doom " describes the ravages of drug abuse . Ozzy Osbourne could be heard preaching to his audience in the earlier song , " Children of the Grave " : " Tell the world that love is still alive you must be brave ; or the children of today are children of the grave . " Later , in the song " In My Time Of Dying " , Robert Plant even pleaded to Jesus : " Meet me Jesus , meet me ; Meet me in the middle of the air ; if my wings should fail me Lord , please meet me with another pair . " Perhaps not overtly Christian , but songs such as these exhibited similar themes .
Early heavy metal fans were viewed by the populace as a counter @-@ culture , just as the fans of rock and roll , in general , were . Early heavy metal lyrics and themes were often accused of challenging Christian values , and as the genre grew , some bands actually did .
Among the early bands who were accused of adding negative connotations to the term was Black Sabbath , combining heavy metal music with " occult symbols and odes to the Devil " . The early bands ' use of tritones , a " dissonant sound of the medieval ' Devil 's chord ' " , led to heavy metal being " cast as dumb , crass , and , on occasions , satanic ; music hardly fit for intelligent debate , let alone theological reflection . Despite such accusations , more serious examinations of Black Sabbath lyrics find several songs actually advocate Christianity and specifically warn audiences about the Devil .
Bands such as Mötley Crüe , Ratt , and Twisted Sister took " themes of generalized rage , sexual abandon , drug abuse , violence , and despair into the homes of millions of young record buyers . " In the 1980s , with the growing appeal of metal , the National Coalition on Television Violence " called attention to the destructive potential of music videos , many of which graphically depict violence and rebellion . " A British cleric and metal fan analysed that because of distorted guitar sounds , " intense " beats and " muscular " vocals , heavy metal music songs are " unafraid to deal with death , violence and destruction " and that " much of metal 's fascination with Satan or evil is play @-@ acting , driven by a desire to shock . " The Italian Capuchin friar and former metal vocalist Cesare Bonizzi ( " Fratello Metallo " ) stated that there are " maybe " some Satanic metal bands " but I think it 's an act so that they sell more , " and went to add that " metal is the most energetic , vital , deep and true musical language that I know . "
= = = Origins = = =
Christian metal has its origins in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the Jesus movement , a hippie movement with Christian ideology consisting of hippies that converted to Christianity . The Christian hippies within this movement , known as " Jesus People " , developed a musical movement called Jesus music , which primarily began in southern California , ex . Los Angeles when hippie street musicians converted to Christianity . These musicians continued playing the same styles of music they had played before converting , among them heavy metal music , though they infused their lyrics with a Christian message . Larry Norman was one of the earliest Christian rock musicians who released his first album titled Upon This Rock in 1969 which is arguably the first Christian rock album produced . Norman 's song " Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music ? " summarised the ideas of these musicians .
The first Christian hard rock group was possibly the California @-@ based band Agape , formed in the late 1960s . Known for their psychedelic rock and blues influences , the band released an album titled Gospel Hard Rock in 1971 , followed by Victims of Tradition in 1972 . After Agape , the Resurrection Band was formed in 1972 in Milwaukee 's Jesus People community and released the hard rock album Music to Raise the Dead in 1974 . The Swedish group Jerusalem was formed in 1975 and is cited as another early Christian hard rock group . In 1978 , Resurrection Band released its album Awaiting Your Reply and Jerusalem released Jerusalem ( Volume 1 ) . Both albums had a notable impact on Christian music culture . During that time , heavy metal was a new style of music for the Christian music industry , and many Christian labels did not expect it to sell well . However , Awaiting Your Reply hit big in the Christian market , and reached No. 6 on the Gospel album sales charts . Jerusalem also became an instant hit among listeners , and within the first six months the record sold 20 @,@ 000 copies , unheard of within the genre of Christian rock in Europe . The Canadian Daniel Band is cited among the first bands , as is Barnabas .
= = = 1980s = = =
In the early 1980s , there were four notable Christian heavy metal groups : Messiah Prophet , Leviticus , Saint , and Stryper . Although it is debatable as to which band was formed first , the Orange County native glam metal group Stryper was the most popular one . Stryper was also the first band to identify as Christian metal . Stryper gained attention with their way of throwing Bibles to the audience at their concerts . In the beginning , mostly Christians went to Stryper 's concerts but soon they reached non @-@ Christian audience . In the 1980s , Christian metal bands closely followed the trends of mainstream metal bands .
During the mid @-@ 1980s , heavy metal music divided into autonomous subgenres . Weinstein ( 2000 ) described the thematic diversity that cross @-@ cuts musical styles : " In the 1980s , white metal and black metal emerged . Their lyrical themes are at polar opposites to each other , one of them bringing the ' good news ' and the other the ' bad news . ' Both include bands whose sounds span the full spectrum of metal . White metal is commonly called Christian metal . In part a response to the popularity of the heavy metal genre , it transforms the code of heavy metal to serve purposes of Evangelical Christian sects and other denominations . In part , also , Christian metal is a well @-@ crafted missionary effort to recruit members and save souls . [ ... ] Black metal stands in the thematic opposition to Christianity , not looking upward to heaven but setting its sights on the underworld . Satanic symbols and imagery have been a staple of heavy metal since its beginnings with Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin . In the West , there is no better symbol for rebellion . But groups such as Mercyful Fate claimed that they were not playing . Their claims to be true believers , followers of the lord of the underworld , were seen by many to be a commercial ploy . " Chicago doom metal group Trouble was known to be the first band that was publicly marketed as " white metal " since their early albums Psalm 9 and The Skull feature Biblical references . The origin of the " white metal " term remains unclear ; it is merely known that the non @-@ Christian label Metal Blade Records used " white metal " as a marketing term , in contrast to black metal .
Soon the Christian metal bands became controversial for their beliefs and often evangelistic goals in the metal music scene , which typically holds individualism in particularly high esteem . Stryper , for instance , although a commercial success at that time , received a hostile reception when they played at a Dutch metal festival in 1985 . Regardless of this , Stryper helped to popularize the genre . They were the first Christian band to reach platinum status on an album . The 1986 album To Hell with the Devil sold 2 million copies and achieved a Grammy nomination . The music videos for " Free " , " Calling on You " , and the power ballad " Honestly " all spent many weeks on Music Television 's Top 10 , and " Free " was in the No. 1 position for 12 weeks ( 60 days ) , May 4 – July 24 , 1987 .
Not only was Christian metal criticized by non @-@ Christian metal fans , but soon the movement was also criticized by fundamentalists ; Allmusic wrote that " when church leaders were accusing heavy metal of encouraging Satanism , Stryper set out to prove that metal and hard rock could be used to promote Christianity . The southern California band was viewed with suspicion by both ministers ( who refused to believe that Christianity and metal were compatible ) and fellow headbangers — and yet , Stryper managed to sell millions of albums to both Christian and secular audiences . " For example , the televangelist Jimmy Swaggart wrote a book titled Religious Rock n ' Roll – A Wolf in Sheep 's Clothing in 1987 and criticized the scene , particularly Stryper , for using heavy metal music to preach the gospel of Christianity . Many new bands began to arise , eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music .
In contrast , however , many Christian evangelists and church organizations took a more supportive role . For example , televangelist Jim Bakker expressed public support for the group Stryper , watching them perform and becoming personal friends with the band 's members . Many new bands began to arise , eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music .
= = = = Emergence of fanzines , record labels , and Sanctuary International = = = =
Christian metal soon developed into its own independent record labels and networks . The first Christian metal label was Pure Metal Records , a sublabel of Refuge Records . Soon there appeared other labels such as R.E.X. Records and Intense Records . Fanzines were published in several countries , with Heaven 's Metal as the first one in the US in 1985 . During that time almost every Christian record label became interested in Christian metal , and they advertised the newly signed metal bands on their roster on Heaven 's Metal since it was the only publication exclusively covering the movement . Soon Heaven 's Metal achieved more popularity and became an official , professional publication . Heaven 's Metal achieved a dedicated flock of 15 @,@ 000 readers . Bands ' sales usually rose when the ensembles were covered on the magazine . During the 1980s and early 1990s , the more underground Christian metal releases were typically distributed in Christian bookstores , and those as well as the fanzines also traded Christian metal cassette copies with the music fans .
Many rock and metal fans that became Christians through the ministry of Christian metal bands were rejected from churches in the 1980s . In 1984 , California pastor Bob Beeman saw this problem and soon started the ministry called Sanctuary - The Rock and Roll Refuge . This fellowship brought many musicians together and formed groups such as Tourniquet , Deliverance , Vengeance and Mortal that would soon become ground breaking acts in Christian music culture . Sanctuary 's first worship leader was Stryper 's vocalist Michael Sweet and later Barren Cross ' bass player Jim LaVerde . Sanctuary sponsored the first Christian metal festival , The Metal Mardi Gras , held in 1987 in Los Angeles . This proved influential and soon Christian metal festivals were organized elsewhere as well . Sanctuary 's activities began spreading , and it had 36 parishes all over the United States at its peak by the 1990s . The Sanctuary parishes had a significant impact on the Christian metal movement : groups that would later become notable such as P.O.D. performed their first concerts in Sanctuary .
By the late 1990s , the parish 's workers felt that regular churches ' attitudes towards metalheads , rockers and punks had become more permissive , and therefore did not feel the need to keep Sanctuary going on any longer , hence , most of the parishes of Sanctuary were closed . Sanctuary became Sanctuary International , and it currently gives international studies and lessons on Christianity . Sanctuary also runs an internet radio station called " Intense Radio " which , in 2003 , reached approximately 150 @,@ 000 listeners .
= = = Late 1980s and 1990s = = =
Doug Van Pelt of HM Magazine stated that Christian metal had its " heyday " in the late 1980s and early
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01 , New Jersey Congressman Steven Rothman introduced legislation to revive the Assay Commission , stating that re @-@ establishing the commission would assure public confidence in the gold , silver , and platinum bullion coins struck by the Mint . The bills died in committee .
= = Functions and activities = =
The general function of the Assay Commission was to examine the gold and silver coins of the Mint and ensure they met the proper specifications . Assay commissioners were placed on one of three committees in most years : the Counting , Weighing , and Assaying Committees . The Counting Committee verified that the number of each type of coin in packets selected from the pyx matched what Mint records said should be there . The Weighing Committee measured the weight of coins from the pyx , checking them against the weight required by law . The Assaying Committee worked with the Philadelphia Mint 's assayer as he measured the precious metal content of some of the coins . In some years there was a Committee on Resolutions — in 1912 , it urged that a leaflet be published for visitors to the Mint 's coin collection , and that a medal be struck to commemorate the collection . The full Assay Commission adopted that committee 's report .
Congress in 1828 had required that the weights kept by the Mint Director be tested for accuracy in the presence of the assay commissioners each year . By statute passed in 1911 , the commission was required to inspect the weights and balances used in assaying at the Philadelphia Mint , and to report on their accuracy . This included the government 's official standard pound weight that had been brought from the United Kingdom .
According to a description of the 1948 meeting , silver coins selected for assay were first placed between steel rollers until the thickness was reduced to .0001 inches ( 0 @.@ 0025 mm ) , and then were chopped into fine pieces and dissolved in nitric acid . The fineness of the silver in the coin could be determined by the amount of salt solution needed to precipitate all the silver in the liquid . Numismatist Francis Pessolano @-@ Filos described the work of the Assay Commission :
Using balances and weights , the commission weighed several examples of each type of coin , then used calipers to examine them for proper thickness , and finally , using various acids and solvents , determined the amount of alloy used in manufacture of the planchets . Ledgers and journal books on the mint were also examined . If there were any imperfections or deviations from the legal standards in the coins examined , the information was immediately sent to the president of the United States .
The commission operated under rules first adopted by the 1856 commission , and then passed down , year to year , and amendable by any Assay Commission , although in practice little change was made . Under the rules , the Director of the Mint called the assay commissioners to order , then introduced the federal judge who was an ex officio member , who presided over the meetings ; if the judge was absent , the members elected a chairman . The chairman divided the members into the committees . If there had been a change of officers at a mint , commissioners examined coins from before and after . After the committees completed their work , the members re @-@ assembled to report their findings and to vote on their report .
Every Assay Commission passed the coinage that it was called upon to examine . If pieces varying from the standard were found , that was also noted ; the 1885 Assay Commission reported the one substandard silver coin , which came from the Carson City Mint , but urged the president to take no action , noting that the coin was underweight by an amount too small to be measured by the scales at Carson City .
Remains of coins used in the assay were melted by the Mint ; those put aside for the Assay Commission that were not used were placed in circulation from Philadelphia , and were not marked or distinguished in any way . There were thousands of coins for the commission , of which only a few were assayed . Commissioners often purchased some of the remaining pieces as souvenirs , although commemorative coins could not be purchased if Congress had given the exclusive right to sell them to a sponsoring organization — they were instead destroyed .
= = Commissioners = =
Appointments of members of the public to the Assay Commission by the president are known to have been made as early as 1841 ; the final ones were made in 1976 . Many early commissioners were chosen for their scientific or intellectual attainments . Such qualifications were not required of later public appointees , who included such prominent figures as Ellin Berlin , wife of songwriter Irving Berlin . The first women to be appointed to the Assay Commission were Mrs. Kellogg Fairbanks of Chicago and Mrs. B.B. Munford of Richmond , Virginia , both in 1920 .
The recordholder for service as a commissioner is Herbert Gray Torrey , 36 times an assay commissioner between 1874 and 1910 ( missing only 1879 ) by virtue of his office as assayer of the New York Assay Office . The recordholder as a presidential appointee is Dr. James Lewis Howe , head of the Department of Chemistry at Washington and Lee University , 18 times an assay commissioner , serving in 1907 and then each year from 1910 to 1926 . An employee of the National Bureau of Standards was included in the presidential appointments each year ; he brought with him the weights used in the assay , which were checked by the agency in advance . Although no future president served as an assay commissioner , Comptroller of the Currency Charles G. Dawes was a commissioner in 1899 and 1900 ; he was Vice President of the United States from 1925 to 1929 .
Among those appointed was coin collector and Congressman William A. Ashbrook , 14 times an assay commissioner between 1908 and 1934 . Ashbrook 's presence on the 1934 Assay Commission has led to speculation that he might have used his position as an assay commissioner ( he left Congress in 1921 ) to secure one or more 1933 Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagles , almost all of which were melted due to the end of gold coinage for circulation . Assay commissioners were traditionally allowed to purchase coins from the pyx that were not assayed , and numismatic historian Roger Burdette speculates that Ashbrook , generally well @-@ treated by the Treasury Department due to his onetime congressional position , might have exchanged other gold pieces for the 1933 coins .
The three known specimens of the 1873 @-@ CC quarter , without arrows by the date , and the only known dime of that description , may have been salvaged from assay pieces , as the remainder of those coins had been ordered melted as underweight . A similar mystery attends the 1894 Barber dime struck at San Francisco ( 1894 @-@ S ) of which the published mintage is 24 , although it is not certain whether this total includes the one sent to Philadelphia to await the 1895 Assay Commission . The fact that one of the 1895 assay commissioners was Robert Barnett , chief clerk of the San Francisco Mint , has led numismatic writers Nancy Oliver and Richard Kelly to speculate that he may have been made an assay commissioner in order to retrieve the dime . The 1895 Assay Commission report confirms that the dime was there , as it was counted by the Counting Committee . The dime is not mentioned as having been either weighed or assayed ; Oliver and Kelly , in a May 2011 article in The Numismatist , suggest that Barnett used that privilege of assay commissioners to obtain the rarity . He is not known , however , to have written or spoken of the matter before his murder in 1904 .
In 1964 , former assay commissioners formed the Old Time Assay Commissioners Society ( OTACS ) . When President Carter stopped appointing public members to the commission in 1977 , the OTACS fundraised in an unsuccessful attempt to induce the government to continue that tradition . The society met annually through 2012 , usually at the site of the yearly convention of the American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) . With the number of surviving OTACS members at less than three dozen , the society plans no further meetings ; its 2012 session in conjunction with the ANA convention in Philadelphia included an event at the mint .
= = Medals = =
Assay Commission medals were struck from a variety of metals , including copper , silver , bronze , and pewter . The first Assay Commission medals were struck in 1860 at the direction of Mint Director James Ross Snowden . The initial purpose in having medals struck was not principally to provide keepsakes to the assay commissioners , but to advertise the Mint 's medal @-@ striking capabilities . The nascent custom lapsed when Snowden left office in 1861 .
Numismatists R.W. Julian and Ernest E. Keusch , in their work on Assay Commission medals , theorize that the resumption of Assay Commission medal striking in 1867 was at the request of Mint Engraver James B. Longacre to new Mint Director William Millward . Medals to be given to assay commissioners were struck each year after that until public members ceased to be appointed to the Assay Commission in 1977 .
Early assay medals featured on the obverse a bust of Liberty or figure of Columbia , and on the reverse a wreath surrounding the words " annual assay " and the year . The 1870 obverse , by Longacre 's successor William Barber , features Moneta surrounded by implements of the assay , such as scales and the pyx . The distinctive designs for each year would sometimes be topical — the 1876 medal bears a design for the centennial of American Independence , and 1879 's depicted the recently deceased Mint Director Henry Linderman . Beginning in 1880 , they most often featured the president or Treasury Secretary . The medals in 1901 and from 1903 to 1909 were rectangular , a style popular at the time . The 1920 reverse , by Engraver George T. Morgan , had a design which symbolized the ending of World War I ; in 1921 , an extra medal was struck in gold , given by the assay commissioners to outgoing President Woodrow Wilson as a mark of respect .
The 1936 issuance was a mule of the Mint 's medals for the president at the time , Franklin Roosevelt , and the first president , George Washington . Bearing the words , " annual assay 1936 " on the edge , the medal was prepared in this manner by order of Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross after Mint officials realized that they had forgotten to prepare a special design for an assay medal . The 1950 medal illustrates a meeting of three 1792 officeholders ( Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton , Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Chief Justice John Jay ) . Although they were officeholders designated by the Mint Act of 1792 , no assay took place until 1797 , by which time all three had left those offices . There was no specially designed medal in 1954 ; instead , the assay commissioners , who met in Philadelphia on Lincoln 's Birthday , February 12 , 1954 , chose to receive the Mint 's standard presidential medal depicting Abraham Lincoln , with the commissioner 's name on the edge . The final medals , 1976 and 1977 , were oval and of pewter . The 1977 medal , depicting Martha Washington , was not needed for presentation , as no public assay commissioners were appointed . They were presented to various Mint and other Treasury officials , and when there was public objection , more were struck and were placed on sale for $ 20 at the mints and other Treasury outlets in 1978 . Material was available for about 1 @,@ 500 medals , and they were initially not available by mail . They were still available in person , and by mail order , in 1980 .
All Assay Commission medals are extremely rare . Except for the 1977 medal , none is believed to have been issued in a quantity of greater than 200 , and in most years fewer than 50 were struck . Additional copies of several 19th @-@ century issues are known to have been illicitly struck ; the Mint ended such practices in the early 20th century . The obverse of the 1909 issue , depicting Treasury Secretary George Cortelyou , was reused as Cortelyou 's entry in the Mint 's series of medals honoring Secretaries of the Treasury . The later pieces were struck with a blank reverse , but in the early 1960s , the reverse design from the Assay Commission issue was used with the Cortelyou obverse , and an unknown number sold to the public . The restrikes are said to be less distinctly struck than the originals .
= Fortifications of Mdina =
The fortifications of Mdina ( Maltese : Is @-@ Swar tal @-@ Imdina ) are a series of defensive walls which surround the former capital city of Mdina , Malta . The city was founded as Maleth by the Phoenicians in around the 8th century BC , and it later became part of the Roman Empire under the name Melite . The ancient city was surrounded by walls , but very few remains of these have survived .
The city walls were rebuilt a number of times , including by the Byzantine Empire in around the 8th century AD , the Arabs in around the 11th century , and the Kingdom of Sicily in the medieval period until the 15th century . Most of the extant fortifications were built by the Order of Saint John between the 16th and 18th centuries .
The city has withstood a number of sieges , and it was defeated twice – first by the Aghlabids in 870 and then by Maltese rebels in 1798 . Today , the city walls are still intact except for some outworks , and they are among the best preserved fortifications in Malta . Mdina has been on Malta 's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 .
= = Punic @-@ Roman walls = =
The city of Mdina occupies the tip of a plateau located on high ground in the northern part of the island of Malta , far away from the sea . The site has been inhabited since prehistory , and by the Bronze Age it was a place of refuge since it was naturally defensible . The Phoenicians colonized Malta in around the 8th century BC , and they founded the city of Maleth on this plateau . It was taken over by the Roman Republic in 218 BC , becoming known as Melite . The Punic @-@ Roman city was about three times the size of present @-@ day Mdina , extending into a large part of modern Rabat . Melite 's walls had a thickness of around 5 m ( 16 ft ) and were surrounded by a 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) -long ditch .
Very little remains of the Punic @-@ Roman walls of Melite still survive . The remains of a city gate or tower were discovered in Saqqajja in modern Rabat , about 5 m ( 16 ft ) below the current street level . Parts of the ditch have survived under present @-@ day St. Rita Street and the Church of St. Paul . The lower foundations of some Punic @-@ Roman ramparts , consisting of rusticated ashlar blocks three courses high still in situ , were found near the Magazine Curtain in the western part of Mdina . The only other remains of the ancient walls are Punic @-@ Roman masonry blocks which were reused in the medieval period . These include a wall around Greeks Gate , and some stones which were discovered in excavations at Inguanez Street and the Xara Palace .
= = Medieval walls = =
At some point following the fall of the Western Roman Empire , a retrenchment was built within the city , reducing it to its present size . This was done to make the city 's perimeter more easily defensible , and similar reductions in city sizes were common around the Mediterranean region in the early Middle Ages . Although it was traditionally assumed that the retrenchment was built by the Arabs , it has been suggested that it was actually built by the Byzantine Empire in around the 8th century , when the threat from the Arabs increased .
In 870 , Melite was captured by the Aghlabids , who massacred its inhabitants and " demolished its fortress " according to the chronicler Al @-@ Himyarī . This account further mentions that Malta remained almost uninhabited until it was resettled in around 1048 or 1049 by a Muslim community and their slaves , who built a settlement called Medina on the site of Melite . Archaeological evidence suggests that the city was already a thriving Muslim settlement by the beginning of the 11th century , so 1048 – 49 might be the date when the city was officially founded and its walls were constructed . The Byzantines besieged Medina in 1053 – 54 , but were repelled by its defenders .
Medina surrendered peacefully to Roger I of Sicily after a short siege in 1091 , and Malta was subsequently incorporated into the County and later the Kingdom of Sicily , being dominated by a succession of feudal lords . The fortifications of Mdina were rebuilt and modified a number of times over the following centuries . A castle known as the Castellu di la Chitati or the castrum civitas was built on the southeast corner of the city near the main entrance , probably on the site of an earlier Byzantine fort . The city withstood a siege by Hafsid invaders in 1429 .
By the 15th century , most of Mdina 's enciente had a system of double walls . The land front was flanked by four towers , one near Greeks Gate , another at the centre of the land front , the Turri Mastra ( also known as Turri dila bandiera ) near the main entrance and the Turri di la Camera at the southeast corner of the city . A barbican was built near Mdina 's main entrance sometime after 1448 . In the 1450s there were fears of a Barbary or Ottoman attack , so efforts were made to improve Mdina 's walls . The main ditch was completed , and the Castellu di la Chitati was partially demolished by royal licence in 1453 , due to its ruinous state and the excessive cost for its upkeep .
By 1474 , cannons had been introduced in Mdina . Other extensive preparations for an attack were made in the 1480s , when the fortifications were once again improved under the direction of Sicilian military engineers . At this point , some buildings in Rabat were demolished to clear the fortifications ' line of fire . By 1522 , the fortifications were being modernized with the construction of embrasures . However , the walls were still regarded as obsolete , since they lacked bastions and could not resist bombardment from modern artillery .
Most of the medieval walls of Mdina were gradually dismantled between the 1530s and 1720s , when the city 's fortifications were being upgraded by the Hospitallers . One of the most significant visible remnants of the medieval fortifications is the Greeks Gate and the surrounding curtain walls , which still retains its medieval form apart from the outer portal which was built in the 18th century . Parts of the double walls , including the remains of two gun loops , still stand between the gate and the Torre dello Standardo . Most of the northern and eastern walls date back to the medieval period , although some sections were rebuilt by the Hospitallers . The northern ramparts contain a medieval wall tower , while the remains of Byzantine antemurals and the foundations of a late 15th @-@ century artillery platform have been found in the eastern walls .
= = Hospitaller walls = =
When the Order of Saint John took over in Malta in 1530 , the nobles ceremoniously handed over the keys of the city to Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L 'Isle @-@ Adam . The Order settled in Birgu and Mdina lost its status as capital city , but L 'Isle @-@ Adam converted the remaining part of the Castellu di la Chitati into a palace , which became the meeting place of the civil administrative council known as the Università .
The first major upgrade of Mdina 's fortifications occurred in the 1540s , during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon . Two new bastions were built at the extremities of the land front , possibly to designs of the military engineer Antonio Ferramolino . Parts of the eastern walls were also rebuilt en crémaillère , the only instance this style is found in Malta . The 15th @-@ century barbican in front of the main gate was demolished in 1551 since it obstructed the line of fire of the newly built bastions . That year , the city withstood a brief Ottoman attack .
Mdina was not attacked directly during the Great Siege of Malta , but it nonetheless played a crucial role in the siege . Ottoman general Lala Mustafa Pasha wanted to take over the poorly @-@ defended city first , but was overruled by Piali Pasha who wanted to attack Fort Saint Elmo . The fort was taken over after a month of heavy fighting , but the Ottomans had lost crucial time in doing so . On 7 August 1565 , the Order 's cavalry in Mdina attacked the unprotected Ottoman field hospital , which led in the invaders abandoning a major assault on the main fortifications in Birgu and Senglea . The Ottomans tried to take over the city in September so as to winter there , but abandoned their plans when Mdina fired its cannon , leading them to believe that the city had ammunition to spare .
After the siege , Maltese military engineer Girolamo Cassar drew up plans to reduce Mdina 's size by half and turning it into a fortress , but these were never implemented due to protests by the city 's nobles . The city 's main gate was reconstructed in the early 17th century , but the next major alterations were not made until the 1650s , when the large De Redin Bastion was built at the centre of the land front . Despite these modifications , by 1658 there were also proposals to abandon or demolish the entire fortress due to its state of disrepair , although these plans were opposed by the locals . In the late 17th century , some of Mdina 's medieval double walls began to be encased in sloping ramparts .
A major restoration of Mdina 's fortifications was undertaken in the 1720s by the French military engineer Charles François de Mondion , during the magistracy of António Manoel de Vilhena . L 'Isle @-@ Adam 's palace , including the remaining parts of the Castellu di la Chitati , were demolished to make way for Palazzo Vilhena , while the main gate was walled up and a new city gate was built in the Baroque style . A Baroque portal was also added to the Greeks Gate . The remaining medieval towers in the land front were demolished and the Torre dello Standardo was built on the site of the Turri Mastra , while the entire western walls of the city were demolished to make way for a single casemated curtain wall known as Magazine Curtain . D 'Homedes Bastion was modified with the addition of a bastionette , while traverse @-@ like batteries were built at the extremities of the land front . The city was further protected with the construction of outworks , including a covertway , two places @-@ of @-@ arms and a glacis .
Mondion also made further plans to strengthen Mdina 's fortifications , but they were not implemented since the Order focused on building its fortifications in the harbour area . The only major addition to the Mdina fortifications after Mondion 's reconstruction was Despuig Bastion , which was built during the reign of Ramon Despuig between 1739 and 1746 .
On 10 June 1798 , Mdina was captured by French forces without much resistance during the French invasion of Malta . A French garrison remained in the city , but a Maltese uprising broke out on 2 September of that year . The following day , rebels entered the city through a sally port in Despuig Bastion and massacred the garrison of 65 men . These events marked the beginning of a two @-@ year uprising and blockade , which ended in 1800 with Malta becoming a British protectorate .
Mdina 's fortifications remained in use during the British period , and some minor alterations such as the installation of gun emplacements were made in the 19th century . By the end of the century , the city was regarded as forming part of the defensive system of the Victoria Lines .
In the 1890s , the battery near St. Peter Bastion was demolished and a gateway known as the Għarreqin Gate was opened within the Magazine Curtain . This was done in order to facilitate access to the newly @-@ built railway station located nearby . The fortifications were included on the Antiquities List of 1925 .
Some of the countermine galleries in Mdina 's ditch were used as air raid shelters during World War II .
= = Recent history = =
Sections of the medieval walls of Mdina were rediscovered by Dr. Stephen C. Spiteri and Mario Farrugia while they were surveying the bastions in 2002 .
The first plans to undertake a major restoration of Mdina 's walls were made in 2006 , as part of a project that also included restoration of the fortifications of Valletta , Birgu and the Cittadella . In the case of Mdina , the main focus was to consolidate the terrain , since the city is built on a blue clay plateau which is prone to subsidence . The multimillion @-@ euro restoration was partially financed by the European Regional Development Fund . Works began in early 2008 by the Restoration Unit . The process of restoration was documented by Dr. Spiteri .
In 2011 , steel rods were inserted into D 'Homedes Bastion in order to prevent the walls from slipping down the clay slopes . The ditch was inaugurated as a public garden in March 2013 . All ERDF @-@ financed work was completed in late 2013 , but the Restoration Directorate later restored other parts of the fortifications , including the northern walls , St. Peter Bastion and the area around Greeks Gate . The project was fully completed in early 2016 .
Throughout the course of the restoration , a number of archaeological discoveries were made . Excavations along the eastern part of the city walls unearthed Byzantine antemurals and the base of a late 15th @-@ century cubete artillero ( artillery platform ) . In 2010 , remains of foundations of the Punic @-@ Roman walls were found when excavations were made along the Magazine Curtain . A late 14th @-@ century stone block bearing the coat of arms of Guglielmo Murina , possibly originating from the Castellu di la Chitati , was discovered in 2012 during the restoration of D 'Homedes Bastion . This block is now displayed at the Fortifications Interpretation Centre in Valletta .
= = Layout = =
The present configuration of Mdina 's fortifications consists of an irregular perimeter of curtain walls stiffened by a number of bastions . The northern , western and eastern walls are built on the perimeter of the natural plateau , so they were difficult to attack . The southern perimeter of the city is built on level ground , along what is now the border with Rabat . It was the only realistic direction to assault the city , and was hence known as the Mdina Land Front . The southern perimeter contains an arrowhead @-@ shaped bastion with rectangular orillons on each extremity , with a large pentagonal bastion in the centre :
St. Peter Bastion , also known as Greeks Gate Bastion – built in the 1550s during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon
De Redin Bastion – built in the 1650s during the magistracy of Martin de Redin
D 'Homedes Bastion , also known as St. Paul Bastion or the belguardo del Palacio – built between the 1540s and 1551 during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon It is further defended by a bastionette .
The two gates into the city , Mdina Gate and Greeks Gate , are located within the curtain walls of the land front . Remains of the medieval double walls as well as the 18th @-@ century Torre dello Standardo are located just within the city walls . The land front is surrounded by a deep ditch , and a traverse @-@ like battery is located in its eastern extremity .
Most of the eastern walls of the city consist of an en crémaillère enciente built in the mid @-@ 16th century , although parts of the walls date back to the medieval period . The pentagonal Despuig Bastion , built in the 1740s during the magistracy Ramon Despuig , is g
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Contz and Sierck , at the apex of the Dreiländereck , over the three borders area , he shot down his first aircraft of the war , a Curtiss P @-@ 36 ( according to other historians , it was one of a trio of French Hawk H @-@ 75As ) , of Groupe de Chasse II / 5 ( Sgt Queginer bailed out ) . Thanks to that victory , he earned the Iron Cross 2nd Class . He recalled his first victory :
On 26 September 1939 , JG 53 was ordered to form its III . Gruppe . Mölders relinquished command of 1 . / JG 53 to Oberleutnant Hans @-@ Karl Mayer and organised the formation of III . / JG 53 at Wiesbaden – Erbenheim ; within two weeks , Gruppenkommandeur Mölders reported that the Gruppe was conditionally operational with 40 pilots and 48 aircraft .
On 22 December , Mölders , leading four Bf 109s from III . / JG 53 , engaged three Hawker Hurricanes over the Saar River , between Metz and Thionville , that were trying to intercept an unidentified aircraft . Mölders and Hans von Hahn shot down two Hurricanes flown by Sergeants R.M. Perry and J. Winn , becoming the first German fighter pilots to shoot down a Hawker Hurricane . Mölders shot down another Hurricane on 2 April , when he forced Flight Lieutenant C.D. " Pussy " Palmer of No. 1 Squadron RAF , to bail out , and on 20 April , he destroyed a French Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk ( H @-@ 75A ) east of Saarbrücken .
By the time the Phoney War ended and Operation Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb , the invasion of France and the Low Countries on 10 May 1940 ) opened the Battle of France , Mölders ' tally of aerial victories on the Western Front had increased to nine . This number included one Bristol Blenheim , two Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawks , two Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s and four Hawker Hurricanes . On 14 May , while engaging enemy bombers over Sedan , Mölders was shot down , but bailed out safely . He claimed his 19th and 20th victories on 27 May 1940 , downing two Curtiss Hawks 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southwest of Amiens . Subsequently , he became the first fighter pilot to be awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) and on 29 May 1940 was honourably mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report , the first of 11 such mentions .
On 5 June 1940 , on his 133rd combat mission of the war , engaging in aerial combat for the 32nd time , Mölders was shot down near Compiègne at about 18 : 40 by Sous lieutenant René Pomier Layrargues , flying a French Air Force Dewoitine D.520. Mölders was taken prisoner but liberated three weeks later upon the armistice with France . While in French captivity , Mölders asked to shake hands with the pilot who had shot him down , and learned that Pomier @-@ Layrargues had been killed in action 30 minutes after their encounter . His initial experience in French captivity was harsh ; he sustained abrasions to his face and his Knight 's Cross was stolen from him . A French officer , Capitaine Giron , intervened , ensured he was treated fairly , and returned the stolen medal . When a French soldier was later sentenced to death by the Germans for beating Mölders , Mölders approached Hermann Göring and requested clemency , which was granted .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
Returning to Germany , Mölders was promoted to Major on 19 July 1940 and took command the following day of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 ) from the recently promoted Generalmajor Theo Osterkamp . At the time , JG 51 were based at Saint @-@ Inglevert , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France . Mölders flew his first combat sortie with JG 51 on 28 July , attacking a No. 41 Squadron Supermarine Spitfire flown by Flying Officer A.D.J. Lovell . On this mission , according to legend , Mölders was hit in a dogfight over Dover by the South African ace Sailor Malan , sustaining three splinter wounds in the lower leg , one in the knee and one in the left foot . Oberleutnant Richard Leppla shot down the pursuing Spitfire , and Mölders was able to make an emergency landing at Wissant , France . Recent research suggests Mölders was actually wounded in combat by Flight Lieutenant J.T ( John Terence ) " Terry " Webster DFC in a Spitfire of 41 Squadron . Webster was killed in action on 5 September 1940 . Mölders wounds , although not serious , kept him from further operational flying for a month . Generalmajor Osterkamp briefly led the Geschwader again during Mölders ' convalescence . On 7 August 1940 , Mölders returned to the Geschwader without medical clearance for combat , to participate in Operation Eagle Attack ( code name Adlertag ) . Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) on 1 August 1940 ; the strategic objective was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain .
Mölders returned to approved operational flying status and flew his next two combat missions on 28 August 1940 . His aide and wingman , Oberleutnant Kircheis , was shot down and taken prisoner during one of these missions ; Oberleutnant Georg Claus took his place . Mölders claimed two Hurricanes on 31 August and was mentioned again in the Wehrmachtbericht . Oberleutnant Victor Mölders , his younger brother , who had been appointed Staffelkapitän of the 2 . / JG 51 on 11 September , was shot down and taken prisoner of war on 7 October 1940 by Archie McKellar . Two Spitfires of No. 92 Squadron RAF ( Sgt PR Eyles and P / O HP Hill both killed ) were shot down near Dungeness on 20 September increased Mölders ' tally of aerial victories to 40 . He was the first fighter pilot to reach this number during the war and was awarded the 2nd Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 21 September 1940 . The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 23 September in the new Reichskanzlei in Berlin . After the award ceremony , Hermann Göring invited Mölders to his hunting lodge in the Rominter Heide .
Mölders returned to his unit by the end of September and continued to win aerial victories . On 11 October , Mölders claimed his 43rd victory . The 66 Squadron Spitfire I X4562 was flown by Pilot Officer J. H. T. Pickering , who bailed out , wounded , over Canterbury . Three Hurricanes on 12 October brought his tally to 51 victories , and he received a preferential promotion to Oberstleutnant in recognition of his 50 victories on 25 October 1940 . While a severe bout of influenza then kept him grounded for a few weeks , his wingman in over 60 aerial combats , Oberleutnant Georg Claus , was killed over the Thames . On 1 December , Mölders claimed his last and 55th victory of 1940 , 25 of which occurred in the Battle of France and 30 in the Battle of Britain .
Mölders and members of JG 53 spent a couple of weeks of R & R skiing in the Vorarlberg before continuing operations against the RAF over the Channel and occupied France during early 1941 . His new wingman from January 1941 was Oberleutnant Hartmann Grasser . Mölders claimed his first aerial victory after the lengthy vacation on 10 February 1941 ; his tally reached 60 on 26 February and stood at 68 when the Geschwader was recalled from the Channel front . His logbook showed 238 combat missions plus an additional 71 reconnaissance flights ; he had engaged in aerial combat 70 times .
= = = Eastern Front = = =
In June 1941 , JG 51 and the majority of the Luftwaffe were transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . On the first day of combat operations , 22 June 1941 , Mölders shot down three Tupolev SB bombers and one Curtis Hawk , earning him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) . Mölders was only the second German serviceman to receive this award ; Adolf Galland , Fighter Squadron Commodore ( Geschwaderkommodore ) of Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( JG 26 ) , had received one the day before . The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 3 July 1941 in the Wolfsschanze Hitler 's Headquarters in Rastenburg . On 30 June , Mölders had become the highest @-@ scoring fighter pilot in the history of aerial warfare after downing five Soviet bombers and bringing his tally to 82 , two more than the record set in World War I by the " Red Baron " , Manfred von Richthofen .
On 12 July 1941 , JG 51 under the leadership of Mölders reported that it had destroyed 500 Soviet aircraft since the beginning of hostilities against the Soviets on 22 June , and had suffered three casualties . That day , JG 51 also reported its 1,200th aerial victory of the war , the credit going to Hauptmann Leppla . Three days later , on 15 July 1941 , Mölders surpassed the C mark , claiming victories Nos. 100 and 101 , and celebrated with a victory roll over the airfield . The following day he received news that he had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) . Mölders was the first of 27 German servicemen to receive this award . The diamonds added to the Knight 's Cross were introduced officially on 28 September 1941 , more than two months after Mölders earned the award . Mölders was promoted to Oberst on 20 July 1941 , effective immediately , and banned from further combat flying . Surrendering command of JG 51 to Major Friedrich Beckh he was transferred to the Reich Air Ministry , a temporary position he held until 6 August 1941 . Mölders was summoned to the Wolfsschanze again , where he received the Diamonds from Adolf Hitler on 26 July 1941 . On 7 August 1941 , he was appointed Inspector of Fighters ( Inspekteur der Jagdflieger ) .
= = = High command = = =
An Oberst at 28 , Mölders was appointed Inspector General of Fighters , a post responsible for deciding the ongoing tactical and operational doctrine of the Luftwaffe 's fighter strategies . Returning to Russia in September 1941 , he set up a command post at Chaplinka airfield , from where he flew in his personal Fieseler Fi 156 Storch ( stork ) on tours of the Jag
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of delivery and lyrical & poetic substance . His lyrics contain layered rhythms , multi @-@ syllabic compounded rhymes , internal half rhymes , assonance , and ear @-@ bending enjambment . Music critic Marc Lamont Hill of PopMatters elaborates on Nas 's lyricism and delivery throughout the album , stating " Nas ' complex rhyme patterns , clever word play , and impressive vocab took the art [ of rapping ] to previously unprecedented heights . Building on the pioneering work of Kool G Rap , Big Daddy Kane , and Rakim , tracks like ' Halftime ' and the laid back ' One Time 4 Your Mind ' demonstrated a [ high ] level of technical precision and rhetorical dexterity . " Hill cites " Memory Lane ( Sittin ' in da Park ) " as " an exemplar of flawless lyricism " , while critic Steve Juon wrote that the lyrics of the album closer , " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " , are " just as quotable if not more @-@ so than anything else on the LP – what album could end on a higher note than this ? " :
Focusing on poetic forms found in his lyrics , Princeton University professor Imani Perry describes Nas 's performance as that of a " poet @-@ musician " indebted to the conventions of jazz poetry . She suggests that Nas 's lyricism might have been shaped by the " black art poetry album genre , " pioneered by Gil Scott @-@ Heron , The Last Poets , and Nikki Giovanni . Chicago @-@ based poet and music critic Kevin Coval attributes Nas 's lyricism to his unique approach to rapping , which he describes as a " fresh @-@ out @-@ the @-@ rhyme @-@ book presentation " : " It 's as if Nas , the poet , reporter , brings his notebook into the studio , hears the beat , and weaves his portraits on top with ill precision . " Coval also comments on the rapper 's vignettes of inner @-@ city life , which are depicted using elaborate rhyme structures : " All the words , faces and bodies of an abandoned post @-@ industrial , urban dystopia are framed in Nas 's tightly packed stanzas . These portraits of his brain and community in handcuffs are beautiful , brutal and extremely complex , and they lend themselves to the complex and brillantly compounded rhyme schemes he employs . "
= = Production = =
Illmatic also garnered praise for its production . According to critics , the album 's four major producers ( Large Professor , DJ Premier , Pete Rock , and Q @-@ Tip ) extensively contributed to the cohesive atmospheric aesthetic that permeated the album , while still retaining each 's individual , trademark sound . ' For instance , DJ Premier 's production on the album is noted by critics for his minimalist style , which featured simple loops over heavy beats . Charles Aaron of Spin wrote of the producers ' contributions , " nudging him toward Rakim @-@ like @-@ rumination , they offer subdued , slightly downcast beats , which in hip hop today means jazz , primarily of the ' 70s keyboard @-@ vibe variety " . Q magazine noted that " the musical backdrops are razor sharp ; hard beats but with melodic hooks and loops , atmospheric background piano , strings or muted trumpet , and samples ... A potent treat . " One music critic wrote that " Illmatic is laced with some of the finest beats this side of In Control Volume 1 " .
The majority of the album consists of vintage funk , soul , and jazz samples . Commenting on the album and its use of samples , Pitchfork ' s Jeff Weiss claims that both Nas and his producers found inspiration for the album 's production through the music of their childhood : " The loops rummage through their parent 's collection : Donald Byrd , Joe Chambers , Ahmad Jamal , Parliament , Michael Jackson . Nas invites his rolling stone father , Olu Dara to blow the trumpet coda on " Life 's a Bitch " . Jazz rap fusion had been done well prior , but rarely with such subtlety . Nas didn 't need to make the connection explicit — he allowed you to understand what jazz was like the first time your parents and grandparents heard it . " Similarly , journalist Ben Yew comments on the album 's nostalgic sounds , " The production , accentuated by infectious organ loop [ s ] , vocal sample [ s ] , and synthesizer @-@ like pads in the background , places your mind in a cheerful , reminiscent , mood . "
= = Content = =
= = = Tracks 1 – 5 = = =
The intro , " The Genesis " , is composed as an aural montage that begins with the sound of an elevated train and an almost @-@ inaudible voice rhyming beneath it . Over these sounds , a snatch of dialogue , two men arguing . It samples Grand Wizard Theodore 's " Subway Theme " from the 1983 film Wild Style , the first major hip hop motion picture . Nas made another ode to Wild Style , while shooting the music video for his single , " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " , on the same stage as the finale scene for the film . His verse on " Live at the Barbeque " is played in the background of " The Genesis " . According to music writer Mickey Hess , in the intro , " Nas tells us everything he wants us to know about him . The train is shorthand for New York ; the barely discernible rap is , in fact , his " Live at the Barbeque " verse ; and the dialogue comes from Wild Style , one of the earliest movies to focus on hip hop culture . Each of these is a point of genesis . New York for Nas as a person , ' Live at the Barbeque ' for Nas the rapper , and Wild Style , symbolically at least , for hip hop itself . These are my roots , Nas was saying , and he proceeded to demonstrate exactly what those roots had yielded . "
Setting the general grimy , yet melodic , tone of the album , " N.Y. State of Mind " features a dark , jazzy piano sample by DJ Premier . It opens with high @-@ pitched guitar notes looped from jazz and funk musician Donald Byrd 's " Flight Time " ( 1972 ) , while the prominent groove of piano notes was sampled from the Joe Chambers composition " Mind Rain " ( 1978 ) . The lyrics of " N.Y. State of Mind " have Nas recounting his participation in gang violence and philosophizing that " Life is parallel to Hell , but I must maintain " , while his rapping spans over forty bars . " N.Y. State of Mind " focuses on a mind state that a person obtains from living in Nas 's impoverished environment in New York City . Critic Marc Hill of PopMatters wrote that the song " provides as clear a depiction of ghetto life as a Gordon Parks photograph or a Langston Hughes poem . "
In other songs on Illmatic , Nas celebrates life 's pleasures and achievements , acknowledging violence as a feature of his socio @-@ economic conditions rather than the focus of his life . " Life 's a Bitch " contains a sample of The Gap Band 's hit " Yearning for Your Love " ( 1980 ) , and has guest vocals from East New York @-@ based rapper AZ . It also features Nas 's father , legendary jazz player Olu Dara , playing trumpet as the music fades out . A columnist for OhWord.com wrote that Dara 's contribution to the song provides a " beautifully wistful end to a track that feels drenched in the dying rays of a crimson sunset over the city . " " The World Is Yours " provides a more optimistic narrative from Nas 's viewpoint , as he cites political and spiritual leader Gandhi as an influence in its verse , in contrast to the previous Scarface references of " N.Y. State of Mind " . While citing " Life 's a Bitch " as " possibly the saddest hip @-@ hop song ever recorded " , Rhapsody 's Sam Chennault wrote that " The World Is Yours " " finds optimism in the darkest urban crevices " . " The World Is Yours " was named the seventh greatest rap song by About.com.
= = = Tracks 6 – 10 = = =
The nostalgic " Memory Lane ( Sittin ' in da Park ) " contains a Reuben Wilson sample , which comprises the sound of a Hammond organ , guitar , vocals and percussion , and adds to the track 's ghostly harmonies . Spence D. of IGN wrote that the lyrics evoke " the crossroads of Old School and New School . " " One Love " is composed of a series of letters to incarcerated friends , recounting mutual acquaintances and events that have occurred since the receiver 's imprisonment , and address unfaithful girlfriends , emotionally tortured mothers , and underdog loyalty . The phrase " one love " signifies street loyalty in the song . After delivering " shout @-@ outs to locked down comrades " , Nas chastises a youth who seems destined for prison in the final verse , " Shorty 's laugh was cold blooded as he spoke so foul / Only twelve tryin to tell me that he liked my style [ ... ] Words of wisdom from Nas , try to rise up above / Keep a eye out for Jake , shorty @-@ wop , one love " . Produced by Q @-@ Tip , " One Love " samples the double bass and piano from the Heath Brothers ' " Smilin ' Billy Suite Part II " ( 1975 ) and the drum break from Parliament 's " Come In Out the Rain " ( 1970 ) , complementing the track 's mystical and hypnotic soundscape .
" One Time 4 Your Mind " features battle rhyme braggadocio by Nas . With a similar vibe as " N.Y. State of Mind " , the rhythmic " Represent " has a serious tone , exemplified by Nas ' opening lines , " Straight up shit is real and any day could be your last in the jungle / get murdered on the humble , guns will blast and niggaz tumble " While the majority of the album consists of funk , soul and jazz samples , " Represent " contains a sample of " Thief of Bagdad " by organist Lee Erwin from the 1924 film of the same name . Nas discusses his lifestyle in an environment where he " loves committin ' sins " and " life ain 't shit , but stress , fake niggas and crab stunts " , while describing himself as " The brutalizer , crew de @-@ sizer , accelerator / The type of nigga who be pissin ' in your elevator " . " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " is a braggadocio rap : " Vocals 'll squeeze glocks , MC 's eavesdrop / Though they need not to sneak / My poetry 's deep , I never fail / Nas 's raps should be locked in a cell " It opens with guitars and synths of Michael Jackson 's " Human Nature " ( 1983 ) ; the song 's vocals are sampled for the intro and chorus sections , creating a swirling mix of horns and tweaked @-@ out voices . Large Professor looped in drum samples from Stanley Clarke 's " Slow Dance " ( 1978 ) and saxophone from Kool & the Gang 's " N.T. " ( 1971 ) .
= = Artwork = =
On the vinyl and cassette pressings of Illmatic , Nas replaces the traditional Side A and Side B division with " 40th Side North " and “ 41st Side South , ” respectively – the main streets that form the geographic boundaries that divide the Queensbridge housing projects . Professor Sohail Daulatzai views this labeling as significant , since it transforms Illmatic into " a sonic map . " The album serves as the legend for Nas ’ s ghetto cartography , as he narrates his experiences and those who live in the Queensbridge ” In a 2009 interview with XXL , Nas discussed the purpose behind the album artwork among other promotional efforts , stating " Really the record had to represent everything Nasir Jones is about from beginning to end , from my album cover to my videos . My record company had to beg me to stop filmin ' music videos in the projects . No matter what the song was about I had ' em out there . That 's what it was all about for me , being that kid from the projects , being a poster child for that , that didn ’ t exist back then . "
= = = Album cover = = =
The album cover of Illmatic features a picture of Nas as a child , which was taken after his father , musician Olu Dara , returned home from an overseas tour . The original cover was intended to have a picture of Nas holding Jesus Christ in a headlock , reflecting the religious imagery of Nas 's rap on " Live at the Barbeque " ; " When I was 12 , I went to hell for snuffing Jesus " .
The accepted cover , designed by Aimee Macauley , features a photo of Nas as a child superimposed over a backdrop of a New York city block , taken by Danny Clinch . In a 1994 interview , Nas discussed the concept behind the photo of him at age 7 , stating " That was the year I started to acknowledge everything [ around me ] . That 's the year everything set off . That 's the year I started seeing the future for myself and doing what was right . The ghetto makes you think . The world is ours . I used to think I couldn 't leave my projects . I used to think if I left , if anything happened to me , I thought it would be no justice or I would be just a dead slave or something . The projects used to be my world until I educated myself to see there 's more out there . " As yet , Nas has not pointed to any outside influence for the artwork of his album cover . Yet according to Ego Trip , the cover of Illmatic is " reputedly " believed to have been inspired by a jazz album , Howard Hanger Trio 's A Child Is Born ( 1974 ) -- whose cover also features a photograph of a child , superimposed on an urban landscape .
Since its release , the cover art of Illmatic has also gained an iconic reputation - having been subject to numerous parodies and tributes . Music columnist Byron Crawford later called the cover for Illmatic " one of the dopest album covers ever in hip @-@ hop . " Commenting on the cover 's artistic value , Rob Marriott of Complex writes , " Illmatic 's poignant cover matched the mood , tone , and qualities of this introspective album to such a high degree that it became an instant classic , hailed as a visual full of meaning and nuance . " XXL magazine called the album cover a " high art photo concept for a rap album " and described the artwork as a " noisy , confusing streetscape looking through the housing projects and a young boy superimposed in the center of it all . " The XXL columnist also compared the cover to that of rapper Lil Wayne 's sixth studio album Tha Carter III ( 2008 ) , stating that it also " reflects the reality of disenfranchised youth today . "
On the song " Shark Niggas ( Biters ) " from his debut album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) , rapper Raekwon with Ghostface Killah criticized the cover of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s Ready to Die ( 1994 ) , which was released a few months after Illmatic , for featuring a picture of a baby with an afro , implying that his cover had copied the idea from Nas . This generated longstanding controversy between the rappers , resulting in an unpublicized feud which Nas later references in his 2002 album God 's Son , on the song " Last Real Nigga Alive . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Illmatic was released on April 19 , 1994 through Columbia Records in the United States . The album also featured international distribution that same year in countries including France , the Netherlands , Canada and the United Kingdom . In its first week of release , Illmatic made its debut on the Billboard 200 albums chart at number 12 , while selling 59 @,@ 000 copies . In spite of this , initial record sales fell below expectations . The album 's five radio singles failed to obtain considerable Billboard success , as each single did not gain significant charting on the Billboard Hot 100 . The lead single " Halftime " only charted on the Hot Rap Singles chart at number 8 , while " Life 's a Bitch " did not chart at all . The album also suffered from extensive bootlegging prior to its release . " Regional demand was so high , " writes music critic Jeff Weiss , " that Serch claimed he discovered a garage with 60 @,@ 000 bootlegged copies . " While initial sales were low , the album was eventually certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 17 , 1996 after shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies ; the RIAA later certified Illmatic platinum on December 11 , 2001 , following shipments in excess of one million copies . As of April 20 , 2014 , the album sold 1 @,@ 686 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In April 2002 , the album was also certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments in excess of 50 @,@ 000 copies in Canada .
= = Critical reception = =
Illmatic received universal acclaim from contemporary music critics , who hailed it as a hip hop masterpiece . NME called its music " rhythmic perfection " , and Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune cited it as the best hardcore hip hop album " out of the East Coast in years " . Dimitri Ehrlich of Entertainment Weekly credited Nas for giving his neighborhood " proper respect " while establishing himself and said that the clever lyrics and harsh beats "
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Alisia Dragoon and repeated much of the same sentiments as the Mean Machines reviewers . Noting Gainax 's catalog of games , he noted that Alisia Dragoon was very different from the rest ; instead of targeting hardcore fans of anime and focusing on exploitive themes , the game 's appeal was for everyone . In light of this , Ciolek called Alisia Dragoon " the best video game Gainax ever touched " and " a spectacular ride in its own right " .
Alisia Dragoon has been recognized retrospectively as a relatively early video game to challenge a gender bias prevalent in the industry at the time . In the early 1990s , the video game market was skewed toward the young male demographic , and games often portrayed women as " damsels in distress " , submissive and requiring rescue by the male protagonists . Along with contemporary games like Streets of Rage or Wurm : Journey to the Center of the Earth , Alisia Dragoon featured a female leading character who can defend herself without the help of a male hero .
= Maurice ( Shelley ) =
" Maurice , or the Fisher 's Cot " is a children 's story by the Romantic writer Mary Shelley . Written in 1820 for Laurette Tighe , a daughter of friends of Percy and Mary Shelley , Mary Shelley tried to have it published by her father , William Godwin , but he refused . The text was lost until 1997 , when a manuscript copy was discovered in Italy .
" Maurice " tells the story of a boy searching for a home and his encounters with a traveller who turns out to be his long @-@ lost father . The story is narrated in a melancholy tone from several points of view and focuses on the theme of loss , particularly the separation of parents and children . Shelley explored this partly autobiographical theme in other works written at the same time , including her novel Mathilda and her play Proserpine . The story 's straightforward language reflects that of the Romantic poet William Wordsworth , whose works Shelley was reading while she composed " Maurice " .
= = Background = =
In 1814 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mary Shelley ( Mary Godwin , at the time ) ran off with Percy Bysshe Shelley to continental Europe , accompanied by Claire Clairmont , Mary 's stepsister . After six weeks of travelling , they returned to England but continued to live together . Mary returned pregnant with Percy 's child , but their infant daughter died soon after her premature birth . Percy was alienated from his family and received little financial support from them ; he was therefore harassed by creditors . In 1816 , Mary and Percy had a second child , William . The same year , Claire Clairmont began an affair with the poet Lord Byron , and in January 1817 she had a daughter by him , Allegra . The group spent the summer of 1817 with Byron at Lake Geneva , where Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein . That fall , Percy 's wife , Harriet , committed suicide , and in December Percy and Mary were married . In September 1817 , Mary and Percy had another child , Clara .
The group traveled to Italy in early 1818 . They first surrendered Allegra to Byron in April , much to Claire 's distress . In August , Percy Shelley took Claire to see Allegra , at her request . Percy arrived in Venice , telling Byron he had the entire family . Mary was thus summoned to Venice to substantiate Percy 's story . However , baby Clara Shelley was sick and traveling made her even more ill . She died shortly after arriving in Venice . In the winter of 1818 , Percy registered a child in Naples to himself and Mary : Elena Adelaide . However , it is unclear who this child 's parents really were .
In 1819 , the group moved to Rome , where Mary and Percy Shelley 's son William died . Mary Shelley had now lost all three of her children and was very depressed . Claire became increasingly concerned about Allegra , as Byron refused to allow her to see their daughter or reveal where she was . Mary , however , became pregnant again , with Percy Florence , and the group traveled from Rome to Pisa and Florence . En route , they became friends with a couple who helped and inspired them : Lady Mountcashell , who as Margaret King had been an eager pupil of Mary Shelley 's mother , Mary Wollstonecraft ; and George William Tighe , the agricultural theorist for whom she had left her husband and children . Both were poets and , like the Shelleys , were republicans and freethinkers . Lady Mountcashell referred to herself as " Mrs. Mason " after a character from Wollstonecraft 's own children 's story Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) . The couple had two children , Anna Laura Georgiana ( called Laurette ) and Nerina , who quickly became attached to Mary and Claire .
After traveling to Florence , Mary Shelley wrote to Lady Mountcashell , praising Laurette 's " simplicity and frankness " . By way of her mother , Laurette inquired after Mary 's health and requested her presence . Mary Shelley invited Laurette to stay with her in Florence two months after the birth of Percy Florence , but the girl 's mother could not bear to part with her . In early 1820 , the group moved to Pisa and Claire became like an elder sister to Laurette , taking her to operas and the Carnival . In the summer , the group moved again , from Pisa to Livorno , and Mary Shelley began researching her historical novel Valperga . Throughout the summer , Claire wrote anxiously to Byron , begging to see Allegra . Believing that the Shelleys were careless parents who were responsible for the deaths of their children and concerned that the children were not receiving proper religious training , he consistently refused to let Claire see their daughter .
= = Writing and publication = =
Mary Shelley wrote " Maurice " for Laurette Tighe on 10 August 1820 . Shelley 's journal for that day notes : " Thursday 10 — Write a story for Laurette — Walk on the mountain — Le Buche delle Fate [ fairy grottoes or caves ] — The weather is warm & delightful " . Claire Clairmont and Laurette had spent Laurette 's birthday together in Pisa and the following day on the coast with Mary Shelley ; this excursion may have inspired the story , which may have been a birthday present . Shelley suggested that her father , philosopher William Godwin , publish Maurice as part of his Juvenile Library , but he refused . He may have thought it was too short or that it too closely resembled a story by Caroline Barnard entitled The Fisher @-@ boy of Weymouth that he had just published in 1819 . In his article on " Maurice " , L. Adam Mekler suggests that Godwin may also have rejected the story because of the " strong biographical parallels " with the history of the Shelleys and the Godwins .
The manuscript was lost until Cristina Dazzi discovered it in the summer of 1997 in the home of the Dazzi family , Casa Cini , in San Marcello Pistoiese . She was looking through a box of old papers , searching for " something interesting " to add to an exhibit about the winter of 1827 – 28 when the poet Giacomo Leopardi had visited and met Lady Mountcashell and her daughter . Excerpts were first published in an Italian book about Lady Mountcashell by Mario Curreli in 1997 . One year later , Percy Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft biographer Claire Tomalin published the entire story , along with a lengthy introduction and a typescript of the manuscript .
= = Plot summary = =
In " Part I " , a traveller arrives in Torquay , Devonshire . He sees a funeral procession passing by and notices a beautiful , distressed young boy taking part . The traveller goes to a local inn , where a countryman tells the story of Maurice and the late @-@ dead Old Barnet . Old Barnet was a fisherman married to Dame Barnet . She had died a little over a year ago and Old Barnet was distraught ; he had no wife to come home to . One day , Maurice showed up and volunteered to help him out around the house while he was out fishing . Poor and sickly , Maurice could not perform difficult tasks , but he was diligent . Old Barnet grew to love Maurice , as did the villagers .
" Part II " opens with Old Barnet 's brother informing Maurice that he must leave the cottage after one week . Maurice spends his days mourning the fisherman . One day the traveller returns to the village and seeks out Maurice ; he stops at the cottage and asks to stay the night . He and Maurice talk and Maurice tells of his plans to leave the cottage and find work on a farm . He also tells the traveller of his poor family and how he does not want to be a bother to them , revealing that his father used to beat him because he did not believe Maurice was really ill . The traveller and Maurice sit together , enjoying nature , and discuss the pleasures of country life and reading . The traveller offers to care for Maurice and to educate him .
The traveller explains in " Part III " how he is the son of an Oxford mathematics professor . When young , he loved to read outdoors and wanted to know how the world worked . He became an architect and travelled throughout Europe . Eventually he married a lovely woman with whom he had a son , Henry . One day the couple left their son with his nurse during an outing and she fell asleep . When they returned , their son was gone , and he could not be found . The traveller spent years searching the countryside for his son ; one day he met the woman , Dame Smithson , who had stolen his son . To please her sailor husband who wanted a child , she lied to him and said she was pregnant . Before his return , she needed a child , so she stole the traveller 's . Unused to the harsh life of a peasant , the child suffered and became sickly . As a result , the woman 's husband disliked him and beat him , believing him to be worthless . Hearing this story , Maurice reveals himself to be the traveller 's son ; he had changed his name to avoid the person he believed to be his cruel father . Overjoyed to be reunited with his son , the traveller buys the cottage for him and they return every once in a while . Maurice is educated , grows up , and travels widely . He returns to see that the cottage has disintegrated ; he builds a new one for another poor fisherman 's family , beside the lot of the old one .
= = Style , genre , and themes = =
Maurice is divided into three parts , perhaps reflecting the trend for triple @-@ decker novels for adults at the time , and contains multiple narrators . It is written in a melancholy tone , beginning with a funeral and finishing with the decay of the cottage . However , in her review of the Tomalin edition in the New York Times , Marina Warner writes that the story " contains little of the seething originality , moral complexity or sinister Gothic speculativeness of Frankenstein " .
Mary Shelley was reading the poetry of William Wordsworth while she wrote Maurice . Tomalin has argued that " Wordsworth does seem to preside over Maurice , with its clear , straightforward language , and its setting among simple people and poor labourers , and against elemental backgrounds of rocks and trees , cliffs and seashore " .
Maurice 's natural goodness never wavers in the story . Unlike Shelley 's Frankenstein , which suggests that environment determines a person 's morality , Maurice assumes that people can be innately good . Maurice even forgives Dame Smithson , who stole him from his nurse . The story aims to generate sympathy in its readers . In contrast with other children 's stories of its day , it lacks didacticism and draws no clear distinctions between virtue and vice .
Despite the appeal to sympathy , loss is the predominant theme of Maurice : parents lose their child ; a mother yearns for a child to the point that she steals one ; and " Maurice " loses his sense of identity . The overarching themes of the story are Romantic , according to Tomalin : " the vulnerability of childhood , and of parenthood ; displacement , loss , pain , death and rehabilitation ; delight in the natural world ; and the power of time both to heal and to destroy " .
The loss of children , in particular , may have had autobiographical and biographical resonances . Lady Mountcashell had separated from her husband and been forced to give up her children . A court had ruled Percy Bysshe Shelley unfit to raise the children from his marriage to his deceased first wife and placed them in the care of a court @-@ appointed guardian . A third reference may be to the death of three of Mary and Percy 's children . Literary critic A. A. Markley points out that Shelley wrote other works at this time that engaged with the issue of child @-@ parent separation , most notably her novel Mathilda and the children 's drama Proserpine , both of which she worked on in 1820 . Markley explains that Maurice is a reworking of Mathilda , " in which a long deferred reunion of father and child is orchestrated with happy rather than tragic results " . This theme is also explored in Mary Shelley 's short stories " The Mourner " , " The Evil Eye " , and " The Pilgrims " , as well as her novel Lodore ( 1835 ) .
Mekler argues that the story may be a veiled criticism of Mary Shelley 's stepmother , Mary Jane Clairmont . Dame Smithson lies to her husband regarding her children , a possible allusion to the origins of Mary Jane Clairmont 's own first two children and to her " propensity for falsehood " . ( Clairmont represented herself as a widow , with legitimate children , which was not the case . ) Mekler speculates that " in her theft of the first @-@ born son , Dame Smithson replicates in metaphorical fashion Mary Jane 's usurpation of the role as mother of the male heir that had originally belonged to Mary Wollstonecraft " .
= = Reception = =
According to Miranda Seymour , author of a biography of Mary Shelley , while the story itself was " no great work ... the public responded to the discovery with an interest not shown , for example , towards recently found letters of [ Percy ] Shelley and Byron " . She explained this occurred because Mary Shelley is now considered a significant Romantic writer , her works have become increasingly accessible to the public , and her authorship of Frankenstein is often mentioned in the popular press .
= Concurrent use registration =
A concurrent use registration , in United States trademark law , is a federal trademark registration of the same trademark to two or more unrelated parties , with each party having a registration limited to a distinct geographic area . Such a registration is achieved by filing a concurrent use application ( or by converting an existing application to a concurrent use application ) and then prevailing in a concurrent use proceeding before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ( " TTAB " ) , which is a judicial body within the United States Patent and Trademark Office ( " USPTO " ) . A concurrent use application may be filed with respect to a trademark which is already registered or otherwise in use by another party , but may be allowed to go forward based on the assertion that the existing use can co @-@ exist with the new registration without causing consumer confusion .
The authority for this type of registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , which permits concurrent use registration where the concurrent use applicant made a good @-@ faith adoption of the mark prior to the registrant filing an application for registration . Such registrations are most commonly achieved by agreement of the parties involved , although the USPTO must still determine that no confusion will be caused .
= = Statutory basis = =
The authority of the USPTO to issue a concurrent use registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , section 2 ( d ) , enacted in 1947 and coded at 15 U.S.C. § 1052 , which states in relevant part :
Through these provisions , the Act effectively places three requirements on marks for which a later applicant seeks a concurrent use registration :
1 ) the later applicant must have used the mark in commerce prior to the time that the earlier registrant filed its application for registration , unless the senior registrant consents to the junior user 's registration ;
2 ) the later applicant 's use in commerce must have been lawful
3 ) concurrent use of the marks may not result in a likelihood of confusion .
The statute essentially codifies the Tea Rose @-@ Rectanus doctrine , established by the United States Supreme Court in two cases decided in 1916 and 1918 . The Court had established in those cases that a junior user of a mark that is geographically remote from the senior user of the mark may establish priority over a senior user 's claim to the mark in the junior user 's area .
Any party may voluntarily limit the geographic scope of its application while conceding the rights of another party to a different geographic territory . A concurrent use application may not be filed based on a party 's intent to use a mark , but must rely on actual use in commerce . The concurrent use application must identify all other parties who are entitled to use the mark , and provide the names and addresses of the parties identified . Instead of making the usual assertion that no other party has the right to use the mark , the applicant must assert that no other party " except as specified in the application " has such a right .
Where two or more geographically unrestricted applications are pending at the same time , and no registration has yet been issued , the USPTO will proceed with the earliest application , and put all later applications on hold pending a determination on the earliest .
= = = Use in commerce prior to an adverse filing for registration = = =
By the terms of the Act , the critical dates with respect to concurrent registration are the date of the applicant ’ s first use and the earliest filing date of any other registrant . In other words , as the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Manual of Procedure ( " TBMP " ) states , " an application seeking concurrent registration through a concurrent use proceeding normally must assert a date of first use in commerce prior to the earliest application filing date of the application ( s ) ... involved in the proceeding . "
The Lanham Act requires that an Applicant ’ s use in commerce must have been lawful . The TTAB ( and its predecessor , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals ( " CCPA " ) ) has read this to mean that the applicant 's use must not have infringed another party 's use at the time that applicant adopted its mark . Therefore , one potential pitfall facing applicant is that " [ g ] enerally , concurrent rights arise when a party , in good faith , and without knowledge of a prior party ’ s use in another geographic area , adopts and uses the same or similar mark for the same or similar goods or services within its own geographic area . "
The mere fact that an applicant 's use was geographically remote from a registrant or other opposer ’ s use does not establish good faith , as " courts have generally held that the remote use defense ... is unavailable where the junior user adopts a substantially identical mark in a remote geographic area with full knowledge of the senior user ’ s prior use elsewhere . " However , the TTAB has also previously held that " mere knowledge of the existence of the prior user should not , by itself , constitute bad faith . "
= = = Likelihood of confusion = = =
The factors under which the TTAB evaluates the likelihood of confusion were established in In re E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co . , and are commonly referred to as the " du Pont factors " .
The thirteen du Pont factors are :
( 1 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of the marks in their entireties as to appearance , sound , connotation and commercial impression .
( 2 ) The similarity or dissimilarity and nature of the goods or services as described in an application or registration or in connection with which a prior mark is in use .
( 3 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of established , likely @-@ to @-@ continue trade channels .
( 4 ) The conditions under which and buyers to whom sales are made , i.e. " impulse " vs. careful , sophisticated purchasing .
( 5 ) The fame of the prior mark ( sales , advertising , length of use ) .
( 6 ) The number and nature of similar marks in use on similar goods .
( 7 ) The nature and extent of any actual confusion .
( 8 ) The length of time during and conditions under which there has been concurrent use without evidence of actual confusion .
( 9 ) The variety of goods on which a mark is or is not used ( house mark , " family " mark , product mark ) .
( 10 ) The market interface between applicant and the owner of a prior mark :
( a ) a mere " consent " to register or use .
( b ) agreement provisions designed to preclude confusion , i.e. limitations on continued use of the marks by each party .
( c ) assignment of mark , application , registration and good will of the related business .
( d ) laches and estoppel attributable to owner of prior mark and indicative of lack of confusion .
( 11 ) The extent to which applicant has a right to exclude others from use of its mark on its goods .
( 12 ) The extent of potential confusion , i.e. , whether de minimis or substantial .
( 13 ) Any other established fact probative of the effect of use .
In many instances , only a few of the categories will be applicable to the facts of the case before the TTAB .
= = Procedure to acquire = =
The procedures to acquire such a registration are set forth in the TBMP Chapter 1100 . They are initiated when a concurrent use application is submitted to the USPTO , which will initiate a concurrent use proceeding to determine if the applicant is entitled to such registration . An existing application that has been denied registration because of a conflict with an existing mark may be converted into a concurrent use application against that existing mark . In either case , the applicant must assert that its mark was used in commerce before the owner of the existing registration , called the " senior registr
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ant " , had filed its own application for registration . The applicant must also demonstrate that the marks can both be used in their specific geographic areas without causing a likelihood of confusion .
The USPTO will contact the senior registrant to inform that party of the claim against their mark . The proceeding in which the respective rights of the parties are determined is like a trial in which the applicant must submit evidence showing that the applicant had adopted the mark in good faith , that the applicant had adopted the mark prior to the senior registrant 's date of registration , and that the confusion is not likely . The senior registrant may present evidence to the contrary , in order to prevent the loss of control over the use of the registered mark in the applicant 's claimed territory . Both parties may take discovery in the form of requests for admission , interrogatories , requests for production , and depositions . As with a regular trial , the TTAB may be called upon to resolve disputes over whether discovery requests are overbroad , and whether discovery responses are inadequate .
The senior registrant in such a proceeding has ample incentive to oppose the grant of a concurrent use registration , because a registered trademark is presumed to apply throughout the entire United States . Thus , the grant of a concurrent use registration carves out some geographic territory from the senior registrant 's exclusive control .
As 15 U.S.C. § 1052 ( d ) indicates , a concurrent use registration may also be issued " when a court of competent jurisdiction has finally determined that more than one person is entitled to use the same or similar marks in commerce . " As a matter of right , the TTAB will issue such a registration pursuant to a court order that an applicant has the right to use its mark in certain geographic area . Where a court has issued such an order , a concurrent use proceeding is not needed , as evidence has already been taken in the court proceeding , and the rights of the parties have already been determined .
Most concurrent use proceedings result in a legal settlement between the parties . Frequently , one party will surrender its concurrent use claim and instead receive a trademark license from the other party . In other situations , each party may agree to geographic limitations on its use of the mark at issue , which the TTAB will honor if the settlement stipulates to facts which show that no confusion is likely . A benefit of such an agreement is that the parties can agree to terms beyond the scope of the TTAB 's decision , such as specific restrictions on time and place of advertising , or modifications to the appearance of either mark . However , irrespective of the agreement reached , the TTAB must still make an independent finding that no consumer confusion is likely to result from the concurrent use registration . Even if both parties assert that no confusion is likely , the TTAB may still make findings of fact which demonstrate that confusion is likely , and deny registration to the junior user of the mark .
A pivotal factor in assessing the likelihood of confusion in such a circumstance " is whether the parties whose marks are in question have agreed , in some form , to memorialize methods of avoiding confusion . " In that case , the court held that such an agreement " is viewed in light of the parties ’ interests and the prevailing marketplace " , further stating :
Furthermore , the issuance of concurrent use registrations need not prevent either party from engaging in advertising or other activities which might result in the incidental publication of one registrant ’ s mark in the territory of the other registrant . In the Amalgamated Bank case , the Federal Circuit found acceptable a term in the agreement that " nothing in this agreement will preclude Amalgamated New York from conducting advertising which might enter in the State of Illinois or from dealing with customers who happen to be located in the State of Illinois . " Courts have similarly held that a concurrent use registration does not curtail either party from advertising over the Internet , particularly where the junior user includes a disclaimer of some form on their website .
= = Geographic divisions = =
A concurrent use registration can be very detailed in the geographic divisions laid down . It may , for example , allow one party to own the right to use a mark within a fifty @-@ mile radius around a handful of selected cities or counties , while the other party owns the right to use the same mark everywhere else in the country . It may even divide the rights to use a mark within a particular city by reference to roads or other landmarks in that city .
The TTAB succinctly describes its territorial analysis in Weiner King , Inc. v. Wiener King Corp. :
The TTAB has found that in concurrent use proceedings , " [ t ] he area for which registration is sought is usually more extensive than the area in which applicant is actually using the mark . " " As a general rule , a prior user of a mark is entitled to a registration covering the entire United States limited only to the extent that the subsequent user can establish that no likelihood of confusion exists and that it has concurrent rights in its actual area of use , plus its area of natural expansion . "
Between lawful concurrent users of the same mark in geographically separate markets , the senior registrant has the right to maintain his registration for at least those market areas in which it is using the mark . However , the senior registrant does not always maintain the right to use the mark in territories not yet occupied by either party . In Pinocchio 's Pizza , for example , the first applicant ( but the junior user of the mark in commerce ) owned one small restaurant in Maryland and had expressed no plans for expansion , while the second applicant ( but senior user of the mark in commerce ) owned multiple restaurants in Texas and was planning aggressive expansion . The TTAB held that " purpose of the statute is best served by granting [ the second ] applicant a registration for the entire United States except for registrant ’ s trading area . " The TTAB therefore restricted the first applicant ’ s registration to permit exclusive use in Maryland , and within 50 miles of the first applicant ’ s restaurant in areas crossing into other states .
Furthermore , although the general rule provides that the entire United States should be covered by the respective registrations , it is permissible for parties to a proceeding to resolve the issue of territorial rights in a way that leaves some part of the country uncovered entirely . In a contested proceeding In re Beatrice Foods Co . , the court held that the senior user of a mark was entitled to a registration covering the entire United States , outside of the junior user 's area of actual use . However , the court went on to say :
The few courts that have considered the antitrust implications of concurrent use registration have determined that it does not raise any violation of antitrust laws . Although it is considered a violation of such laws for companies to agree to divide up geographic territories for the sale of goods , concurrent use agreements dividing up trademark territories are specifically provided for by Congress . Furthermore , even with such an agreement in place , a company can still sell competing products in the trademark territory of another company , so long as the intruding party sells that product under a different mark .
= = Impact = =
The availability of concurrent use registration is not commonly invoked , even where the applicant might stand an excellent chance of demonstrating the existence of geographically distinct markets . Proceedings before the TTAB , like proceedings before any court , can be expensive and time @-@ consuming . A contested concurrent use proceeding may last for two or three years before the resolution of a claim , and the outcome will remain uncertain until the end . The outcome of the proceeding will then be subject to an appeal before the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , or to a collateral challenge in a United States District Court .
Perhaps the most notable instance of a continuing concurrent use registration is that of Holiday Inn . Although the national chain owns numerous trademark registrations , there is one registration for an unrelated " Holiday Inn " which is " restricted to the area comprising the town of Myrtle Beach , S.C. " . The Myrtle Beach hotel had used that name since the 1940s , and initiated a concurrent use proceeding in 1970 . While this proceeding was pending , the national chain commenced an action in the United States District Court . The concurrent use proceeding was suspended during the pendency of the federal litigation , which resulted in a judgment in 1973 authorizing the Myrtle Beach hotel to use a distinctive , noninfringing Holiday Inn service mark within the Town of Myrtle Beach . The concurrent use proceeding resumed , and in 1976 , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals awarded the Myrtle Beach hotel a federal trademark registration .
Even where a concurrent use registration is issued , the parties may eventually come to an agreement under which one party will surrender its registration . In some instances , a party will simply happen to cease using the mark in favor of a new brand name , and the registration will lapse . In other cases , the larger company will eventually acquire the smaller .
A final note is that concurrent use registration was devised before the advent of the Internet , which serves to diminish geographic distinctions between sellers . John L. Welch , a Harvard @-@ educated attorney who writes a well @-@ known blog on the proceedings of the TTAB , has noted that " vigorously contested proceedings may well make it clear that concurrent use registrations are , in this Internet Age , a dying breed " .
= TV Everywhere =
TV Everywhere ( also known as authenticated streaming or authenticated video on @-@ demand ) refers to a business model wherein access to streaming video content from a television channel requires users to " authenticate " themselves as current subscribers to the channel , via an account provided by their participating pay television provider , in order to access the content .
Under the model , broadcasters offer their customers the ability to access content from their channels through internet @-@ based services and mobile apps — either live or on @-@ demand , as part of their subscription to the service . Time Warner Cable first proposed the concept in 2009 ; in 2010 , many television providers and networks began to roll out TV Everywhere services for their subscribers , including major networks such as TBS and TNT ( whose owner was an early supporter of the concept ) , ESPN , and HBO among others . Broadcast television networks also began to adopt TV Everywhere restrictions for their online content .
Although providers have touted the advantages of being able to access content across multiple platforms ( including on the internet , and on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets ) as part of their television subscription , TV Everywhere services have been criticized for being difficult for end @-@ users to set up , while media activists have criticized the concept for being a paywall that extends the existing oligarchy of the subscription television industry to the internet , and considering it to be collusion against " cord cutters " — those who drop cable and satellite entirely in favor of accessing content via terrestrial television , the internet , and subscription video on demand ( SVOD ) services .
= = Rationale = =
TV Everywhere services were developed in an attempt to compete with the market trend of " cord cutting " , where consumers drop traditional pay television subscriptions in favor of accessing TV content exclusively through over @-@ the @-@ air television and / or online on @-@ demand services , including Hulu , Netflix , YouTube , and other sources . Authenticated streaming and video on @-@ demand services allow traditional television providers to directly compete with these competitors , and add value to existing television subscriptions in an effort to retain subscribers .
In particular , broadcasters and providers have emphasized the use of TV Everywhere services to allow multi @-@ platform access to their content , on devices such as personal computers , smartphones , tablets , and video game consoles .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
ESPN first introduced a TV Everywhere @-@ like concept with ESPN360 , a service which allowed users to stream sports programming from its networks either live or on @-@ demand through a website . However , access to ESPN360 was restricted to the users of internet service providers who had negotiated deals with ESPN to offer the service ; a model closer in nature to cable television carriage . Similar tactics were soon used by several other channels , such as NFL Network ( who used the technique to restrict access to its Game Extra service for Thursday Night Football ) and Epix . David Preschlack , ESPN 's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing , foresaw a future in the model , believing that access to exclusive content would soon play a greater role in competition between high @-@ speed internet providers . Although the model was deemed a violation of the principles of net neutrality by critics , the FCC 's policies on net neutrality only apply to ISPs and not content providers .
= = = Introduction and adoption = = =
In 2009 , Time Warner Cable announced an initiative known as TV Everywhere , a set of principles which were " designed to serve as a framework to facilitate deployment of online television content in a way that is consumer friendly , pro @-@ competitive . " The concept would enable users of their respective cable television services to access live and on @-@ demand online content from channels that they subscribe to by using an account @-@ based authentication system . TWC CEO Jeffrey Bewkes believed that the TV Everywhere principles were " good concepts " that are " likely to be the general direction for all TV networks and all the distribution connections that are out there . " That summer , both TWC and Comcast began trials of services based on the system ; Turner Broadcasting was an early supporter of the system , providing access to TBS and TNT content as part of the trials . Comcast officially launched a public beta of its TV Everywhere @-@ based portal , Xfinity Fancast , in December 2009 for all double @-@ play television and internet customers . Afterwards , other providers began to follow suit .
In 2010 , broadcasters and television providers began a wider roll @-@ out of TV Everywhere @-@ based services ; for the 2010 Winter Olympics , NBC Sports offered live and video on @-@ demand access to events throughout the Games that required users to authenticate for access . Also in February , HBO launched HBO Go , a video on demand service exclusive to HBO subscribers on participating providers . In September 2010 , Disney would begin launching an array of TV Everywhere @-@ based services , including WatchESPN ( allowing users to stream ESPN 's entire suite of channels ) , accompanied by the later launches of similar " Watch " services for Disney Channel and Disney XD .
In August 2011 , Fox became the first over @-@ the @-@ air network to restrict on @-@ demand access with a TV Everywhere @-@ based system ; " next day " on @-@ demand episodes ( either through its website or Hulu , itself a joint venture between Fox , NBC , and ABC at the time ) would only be available online to users authenticating themselves as a subscriber to a cable or satellite provider , or those who subscribe to the Hulu Plus service . All other users would be subject to an 8 @-@ day delay . On September 1 , 2011 , fellow Fox property Big Ten Network ( a college sports network dedicated to the Big Ten Conference , operated in partnership with Fox Sports ) also launched a TV Everywhere service known as BTN2Go .
= = = Expansion = = =
Matt Strauss , Comcast senior vice president of digital and emerging platforms , considered the 2012 Summer Olympics to be a " watershed " event for TV Everywhere services ; NBCUniversal announced that a total of nearly 10 million authenticated devices accessed its online coverage during the Games across both the NBCOlympics.com site and NBC Olympics Live Extra app ; in particular , parent company Comcast accounted for 3 @.@ 3 million devices from 1 @.@ 5 million users . Following the Games , the NBC Olympics Live Extra app was re @-@ launched as NBC Sports Live Extra , serving as a general TV Everywhere app for NBC Sports . TV Everywhere services also began to appear in Canada , with the Canadian launch of HBO Go in 2012 , and the 2013 announcement of TV Everywhere services from Bell Media ( beginning with Bravo Go , and also including CTV Go and TSN Go ) and Shaw Media ( beginning with Global ) . The majority of Canadian broadcasters are vertically integrated ; both Bell and Shaw operate internet service providers and national satellite television services .
In May 2013 , ABC released its Watch ABC mobile app , which allows viewers on participating providers to access live streams from participating ABC affiliates . In December 2013 , ABC confirmed that it would impose a similar restriction to Fox for " next day " on @-@ demand episodes beginning on January 6 , 2014 , with 7 @-@ day exclusivity for authenticated users and Hulu Plus subscribers . NBC unveiled its own plans for a similar TV Everywhere app to its affiliate board in April 2014 .
In November 2015 , after negotiations surrounding revenue sharing and infrastructural mandates ( including a proposed requirement that the games only be available through the league 's existing apps ) , Major League Baseball reached a three @-@ year deal with Fox to allow it to offer in @-@ market online streaming on Fox Sports Go ( though streamed using MLB Advanced Media infrastructure ) for the 16 teams that it holds regional rights to through the Fox Sports Networks division . In December 2015 , Discovery Communications , a long hold @-@ out on the concept , launched Discovery Go , a centralized TV Everywhere service and mobile app for Discovery Channel , TLC , as well as sister networks American Heroes Channel , Animal Planet , Destination America , Discovery Life , Investigation Discovery , Science Channel , and Velocity .
= = Reception = =
The TV Everywhere concept has been met with mixed reception . Some broadcasters were initially hesitant to introduce TV Everywhere services , with concerns that they might affect advertising revenue and not be adequately counted by Nielsen ratings . Media activists have criticized the system for protecting the existing closed , regionalized oligarchy of multichannel television by tying internet @-@ based content to traditional television providers , thus harming competitors that are purely internet @-@ based . Public Knowledge believed that " under the ' TV Everywhere ' plan , no other program distributors would be able to emerge , and no consumers will be able to ' cut the cord ' because they find what they want online . As a result , consumers will be the losers . "
In 2010 , Free Press released a report entitled " TV Nowhere : How the Cable Industry Is Colluding to Kill Online TV " , contending that " under TV Everywhere , traditional cable TV distributors will continue to serve only consumers within their current geographically limited footprints , not competing with providers in other areas " and that " by tying programming to local cable subscriptions , while denying content to pure online TV distributors , the incumbent industry hopes to artificially reproduce the lack of competition for TV distribution to which it is accustomed , based on geographical fiefdoms and turf . " The National Cable and Telecommunications Association ( NCTA ) denied many of Free Press ' arguments , stating that " [ TV Everywhere ] is an effort to ensure more content than ever is distributed over the Internet at no extra charge to consumers . " On the other hand , Songwriters Guild of America president Rick Carnes praised the TV Everywhere concept and other recent developments for helping to provide easier , legal access to premium content online .
In July 2014 , BTIG analyst Richard Greenfield criticized the video on demand services offered through TV Everywhere systems for being ad @-@ supported . In examples from FX and TNT , he noticed that ads often repeated , and that in TNT 's case , its version of an episode of The Last Ship included 20 minutes of unskippable ads across 45 minutes of programming . In conclusion , he contended that viewers would rather wait for programs to appear on commercial @-@ free SVOD services rather than use TV Everywhere services .
= = = Viewer awareness = = =
Despite efforts by broadcasters to educate viewers on TV Everywhere services and how to utilize them ( including Fox , who featured a promotional video with Jane Lynch as her Glee character Sue Sylvester , describing the process as being less painful than waterboarding ) , critics and end @-@ users criticized the registration and authentication processes for being frustrating and difficult . In response , providers took steps to improve their user experiences ; Disney reported that use of its TV Everywhere services increased after it simply changed its process to use the term " verify " instead of " authenticate " , Comcast and Cablevision introduced systems that automatically verify users with their residential gateways , and Synacor ( a provider of authentication platforms used by providers ) added the ability for users to link their provider account to a social network login , such as Facebook or Twitter .
For the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics , NBC worked closer with providers to help educate users , and produced customized marketing materials and video tutorials featuring Carson Daly ( 2012 ) and Ryan Seacrest ( 2014 ) to help inform users . As an incentive , NBC also allowed authenticated users to enter a sweepstakes to win a trip to London ( 2012 ) or Rio de Janeiro ( 2014 ) . Still , dissatisfaction with the system and the quality of NBC 's overall coverage led to an increase in the use of virtual private network ( VPN ) services to access the more comprehensive online coverage of the Games being provided by broadcasters in Canada ( CTV in London , CBC in Sochi ) and the United Kingdom ( BBC ) , which did not use authentication , but cannot normally be viewed inside the United States due to territorial rights restrictions .
In April 2014 , the Cable & Telecommunications Association for Marketing ( CTAM ) unveiled an industry @-@ wide initiative for marketing and educating subscribers about TV Everywhere services provided by broadcasters and providers ; these efforts include a stylized " tv everywhere " logo which the organization intends providers to use as a unified brand to denote TV Everywhere services . The logo consists of interlocking rectangles , representing multiple " screens " ( platforms ) for viewing content . The association also provided design recommendations for TV Everywhere user experiences , aiming to alleviate the confusion that had been experienced by users during the authentication process .
= = = Adoption = = =
In a December 2013 survey of 4 @,@ 205 pay television subscribers , NPD Group found that 21 % of them used a TV Everywhere service at least once per month , and that 90 % of them were satisfied with the experience . NPD analyst Russ Crupnick felt that " aggressive " use of the model was helping to counter cord cutting , which " speaks to the level of engagement they have with programming and a comfort in using the Internet to both access and interact with that programming . " The study also found that 3 out of 10 pay television subscribers who were also subscribed to an SVOD service used TV Everywhere services at least once a week ( in comparison to 2 out of 10 for those who were not ) .
Amid criticism of NBC 's coverage , adoption of NBC 's TV Everywhere services during the 2014 Winter Olympics was still significantly large : on February 21 , 2014 , coverage of the Men 's hockey semi @-@ final featuring the U.S. and Canada recorded the largest Live Extra audience in NBC Sports history , with 2 @.@ 12 million unique viewers , augmenting the average NBCSN television audience of 3 @.@ 9 million . ESPN 's coverage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup drew similarly heavy online viewership : during a group stage match between the U.S. and Portugal , at least 1 @.@ 7 million concurrent viewers were using WatchESPN ( though , not all of the viewers were necessarily watching the game ) .
In December 2015 , research firm GfK estimated that 53 % of the United States ' pay television subscribers have used a TV Everywhere service — an increase from 42 % in 2012 , that overall use had doubled since 2012 , and 79 % of those surveyed found the login process easy . However , only 25 % of those surveyed were aware of the term " TV Everywhere " or the CTAM logo , leading to the firm believing that consumer awareness and education was still a " critical missing piece " in the adoption of these services .
= = = Platform non @-@ neutrality = = =
In 2014 , Comcast was criticized for its decision to arbitrarily block access to HBO Go on PlayStation 3 and Roku devices , but still allowing its use on competing Apple TV and Xbox 360 . Comcast similarly blocked access to Showtime Anytime on Roku as well . A spokesperson for the provider stated that " with every new website , device or player we authenticate , we need to work through technical integration and customer service which takes time and resources . Moving forward , we will continue to prioritize as we partner with various players . "
During both the FCC 's net neutrality hearings and comments regarding Comcast 's then @-@ proposed merger with Time Warner Cable ( which , by contrast , allows HBO Go access on all supported devices ) , Roku criticized the provider for contradicting the TV Everywhere concept by discriminating against specific devices , thus prioritizing its own on @-@ demand platform over external services . The company argued that providers could selectively favor certain platforms over others , further stating that " a large and powerful MVPD may use this leverage in negotiations with content providers or operators of streaming platforms , ultimately favoring parties that can either afford to pay for the privilege of authentication , or have other business leverage that can be used as a counterweight to discriminatory authentication . "
On December 15 , 2014 , Comcast enabled the ability to use HBO Go and Showtime Anytime on Roku devices . However , Comcast still blocks HBO Go on PlayStation consoles .
= Stanley Internment Camp =
Stanley Internment Camp ( Chinese : 赤柱拘留營 ) was a civilian internment camp in Hong Kong during World War II . Located in Stanley , on the southern end of Hong Kong Island , it was used by the Japanese imperial forces to hold non @-@ Chinese enemy nationals after their victory in the Battle of Hong Kong , a battle in the Pacific campaign of World War II . About 2 @,@ 800 men , women , and children were held at the non @-@ segregated camp for 44 months from early January 1942 to August 1945 when Japanese forces surrendered . The camp area consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself .
= = Evacuation and arrival at camp = =
In 1939 , the British government had drawn up evacuation plans for the British and other European residents of Hong Kong , which was a Crown colony of the United Kingdom ( UK ) at the time . The War Office by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff thought the city would inevitably fall to Japanese forces in the event of an attack , so it should not be reinforced with more defensive forces . The presence of a large number of British women and children would have been an " embarrassment " for the government when the Japanese forces take Hong Kong , and additionally it was thought the internment of thousands of British civilians would cause unnecessary suffering and serve the Japanese as propaganda material . In July 1940 , the colonial government of Hong Kong received orders from the UK to proceed with the evacuations . By 3 August , all service families and registered non @-@ service British women and children were moved to the Philippines . However , the hurried compulsory evacuations prompted criticism from many evacuees , their husbands , and their employees , who felt the evacuations were premature and unnecessary . According to Bernice Archer and Kent Fedorowich , respectively of the University of Essex and the University of the West of England , the local Chinese population were angered by their exclusion from the evacuations and condemned the plans as racist . Additionally , the plans excluded British passport holders who were not of European ancestry . Amidst the criticism , the government subsequently made the evacuations non @-@ compulsory . Existing evacuations already ordered were cancelled provided evacuees volunteered for auxiliary roles , such as nursing or administrative work .
On 8 December 1941 , Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong , marking the start of the Battle of Hong Kong . Seventeen days later , on Christmas Day of 1941 , which came to be known as " Black Christmas " , the Hong Kong government surrendered , and Hong Kong came under Japanese occupation . On 4 January 1942 , a notice appeared in an English @-@ language newspaper that all " enemy nationals " were to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds . Many people did not see the notice , but about 1 @,@ 000 people were eventually gathered on the grounds . In addition to those who gathered voluntarily , there were people forcibly removed from their homes .
The people assembled were marched to and initially interned in hotel @-@ brothels on the waterfront near the present @-@ day Macau Ferry Pier . The conditions there were dirty and overcrowded , and the food was poor . After 17 days , the internees were taken by boat to Stanley . The " enemy nationals " who failed to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds avoided internment at the hotel @-@ brothels . However , by the end of January , most of the civilians to be interned were moved to Stanley . Upon arrival at camp , the internees discovered little was prepared for them there . There were no cooking facilities , no furniture , little crockery or cutlery . The toilet facilities were dirty , inadequate , and without water . The rooms were soon overcrowded with random assortments of people unrelated to each other , and with little attention paid to hygiene or public health .
= = Camp grounds = =
The Stanley site was chosen by the Japanese through consultation with two Hong Kong government officials – Dr. P. S. Selwyn @-@ Clarke , Director of Medical Services , and F. C. Gimson , the Colonial Secretary . Located on Stanley Peninsula , which was about nine kilometres from the city at the time , the camp consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself ; the prison was used by the Japanese authorities to hold what they considered " criminals " from Hong Kong . Several hundred internees lived at St. Stephen 's , while the majority of them lived on the prison grounds . Prior to Japanese occupation , St. Stephen '
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the pilgrim sanctity and ecological fragile geography . Being an island town , the traditional occupation was fishing , but due to poor returns , the people in fishing community have gradually shifted to other professions . Banks such as State Bank of India , Indian Bank and RDCC Bank have their branches in Rameswaram .
= = Transport and Communication = =
Pamban Bridge is a cantilever bridge on the Palk Strait that connects Rameswaram to mainland India . The railway bridge is 6 @,@ 776 ft ( 2 @,@ 065 m ) and was opened to traffic in 1914 . The railroad bridge is a double @-@ leaf bascule bridge section that can be raised to let ships pass under it . The railway bridge historically carried metre @-@ gauge trains on it , but Indian Railways upgraded the bridge to carry broad @-@ gauge trains in a project that finished on 12 August 2007 . Historically , the two leaves of the bridge were opened manually using levers by workers . About 10 ships – cargo carriers , coast guard ships , fishing vessels and oil tankers pass through the bridge every month . After completion of bridge , metre @-@ gauge lines were laid from Mandapam up to Pamban Station , from where the railway lines bifurcated into two directions , one towards Rameswaram about 6 @.@ 25 miles ( 10 @.@ 06 km ) up and another branch line of 15 miles ( 24 km ) terminating at Dhanushkodi . The noted Boat Mail ran on this track between 1915 and 1964 from Chennai Egmore up to Dhanushkodi , from where the passengers were ferried to Talaimannar in Ceylon . The metre @-@ gauge branch line from Pamban Junction to Dhanushkodi was abandoned after it was destroyed in a cyclone in 1964 .
There are daily express trains connecting major cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Madurai , Trichy and Coimbatore . There are weekly express trains connecting Coimbatore , Varanasi and Bhubaneswar . Passenger trains ply from Rameswaram to Madurai and Trichy daily , making railways as the major mode of transportation . The Ramanathapuram – Rameswaram National Highway is the main connecting link from Rameswaram to the mainland . Prior to the 1914 train service linking the mainland with Rameswaram , boats were the only mode of transport to Rameswaram island .
The National highway NH 49 connects Madurai to Dhanushkodi , linking major towns like Manamadurai , Paramakkudi , and Ramanathapuram in the Ramanathapuram district . The Rameswaram municipality covers a total road length of 52 km and 20 km of national highway covering about 80 percent of the town . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation runs daily services connecting various cities to Rameswaram and operates a computerised reservation centre in the municipal bus stand of Rameswaram .
Rameswaram is the important port among all the ports in the district , having a ferry service to Talaimannar of Sri Lanka , though not operational throughout the year . Limited foreign trade is conducted with Jaffna , Kaits , Talaimannar and Colombo .
The Rameswaram TV Tower is the tallest tower in India . The tower is a 323m tall circular concrete tower with a square steel mast of 45m height , diameter of 24m at the bottom tapering to 6.5m at top . The tower has been designed for a wind velocity of 160 km / h . There are two lighthouses in Rameswaram , the Pamban lighthouse and Rameswaram lighthouse .
= = Education and utility services = =
Ramanathapuram district has one of the lowest literacy rates in the state of Tamil Nadu and Rameswaram , following the district statistics has a lower literacy rate . There are a couple of Government high schools , one each for boys and girls . There are seven other schools namely , Swami . Vivekananda vidyalaya Matriculation School ( which provide excellent education in the island and secure district and state level ranks in board exams frequently ) , St. Joseph Higher Secondary School , Mandapam Panchayat Union 9 – School , Micro Matriculation School , Sri Sankara Vidhyalaya , Holy Island Little Flower School and Kendriya Vidhyalaya School . Alagappa University Evening College is the only college present in the town and all the nearest colleges are located in Ramanathapuram and Paramakudi .
Electricity supply to the town is regulated and distributed by the Ramanathapuram circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Rameswaram Municipality – the head works is located at Nambunayaki Amman Kovil , Meyyambuli , Semmamadam & Natarajapuram and distributed through four over head tanks having a total capacity of 1430 @,@ 000 litres . About 6 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the town every day in the four zones covering the whole of the town . Rameswaram does not have a sewerage system for disposal of sullage and the disposal system consists of septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying area .
Rameswaram comes under the Karaikudi Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service along with other major internet service provider like Reliance .
= = Religion = =
Being a Hindu pilgrimage centre , Hindus form the visitor base of the city . There is a minority of Christians belonging to the fishing community . C.S.I island mission church and St Antony 's Church at Oriyur on the eastern shore of the island are prominent Churches in the island .
= = = Ramanathaswamy Temple = = =
The Ramanathaswamy Temple is the most notable historic landmark of the town . Located in the centre of town , Ramanathaswamy Temple is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to the god Shiva . The temple is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga shrines , where Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlinga meaning " pillar of light " . It is also one of the 275 Paadal Petra Sthalam temples and is glorified in hymns by the three of the most revered Nayanar saints ( 7th century Saivite saints ) , Appar , Sundarar and Tirugnana Sambandar . The temple in its current structure was built during the 12th century by Pandya Dynasty . The temple has the longest corridor among all Hindu temples in India . The breadth of these columned corridors varies from 17 to 21 feet with a height of 25 feet . Each pillar is sculpted in Nayak style as in Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple . The contribution of the kings of the Sethupathy dynasty ( 17th century ) to the temple was considerable . Large amount of money was spent during the tenure of Pradani Muthirulappa Pillai towards the restoration of the pagodas which were falling into ruins – the Chockattan Mantapam or the cloistered precincts of the temple was reconstructed by him . The rulers of Sri Lanka contributed to the temple – Parakrama Bahu ( 1153 – 1186 CE ) was involved in the construction of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple . The eastern tower and shrine of Nataraja were built by Dalavai Sethupathy in 1649 CE . The second enclosure is ascribed to Chinna Udayar Sethupathy and his son Ragunatha Thirumalai ( 1500 – 1540 CE ) . The third enclosure was constructed by Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathy ( 1725 – 1771 CE ) – his statue is located in the entrance of the corridor .
= = = Temple Tanks = = =
There are sixty @-@ four Tīrthas or Theerthams ( holy water bodies ) in and around Rameswaram . According to the Skanda Purana , twenty @-@ four of them are important . Of the 24 , 14 are in the form of tanks and wells within the precincts of the temple . Bathing in these tanks is a major aspect of the pilgrimage to Rameswaram and is considered equivalent to penance . Twenty @-@ two of the tanks are within the Ramanathaswamy Temple . The foremost one is called Agni Theertham , the sea ( Bay of Bengal ) . Jatayu , King of the Birds , who fought in vain with the demon @-@ king Ravana to save Sita , is said to have fallen down at Jadayu Theertham as his wings were severed . Villoondi Theertham literally translates to ' buried bow ' , is located around 7 kilometres from the main temple on the way to Pamban . It is believed to be the place where Rama quenched the thirst of Sita by dipping the bow into the sea water . Other major holy bodies are Hanuman Theertham , Sugreeva Theertham and Lakshmana Theertham .
= = = Gandhamathana Parvatham = = =
Gandhamathan Parvatham , a hillock situated 3 km to the north of the temple is the highest point in the island . There is a two storeyed hall , where Rama 's feet is found as an imprint on a chakra ( wheel ) . The Ramarpatham Temple is located on the hillock .
= = = Dhanushkodi = = =
Dhanushkodi is the southernmost tip of the island and houses the Kothandaramaswamy Temple dedicated to Rama . Though Dhanushkodi was washed away during the 1964 cyclone , the temple alone remained intact . It is 18 km way from the centre of the town and can be reached by road . A popular belief is that , Dhanushkodi is where Vibishana , a brother of Ravana surrendered before Rama in the epic Ramayana .
= = = Hindu Pilgrimage = = =
Rameswaram is significant for many Hindus as a pilgrimage to Varanasi is considered to be incomplete without a pilgrimage to Rameswaram . The town along with the Ramanathaswamy temple is one of the holiest Hindu Char Dham ( four divine sites ) sites comprising Badrinath , Puri and Dwarka . Though the origins are not clearly known , the Advaita school of Hinduism established by Sankaracharya , attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer . The four monasteries are located across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North , Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East , Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameswaram in the South . Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism , namely Saivism and Vaishnavism , the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all Hindu affair . The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetime . Traditionally the trip starts at the eastern end from Puri , proceeding in clockwise direction in a manner typically followed for circuambulation in Hindu temples . The temple is one of the famous pilgrimage sites historically – the Maratha kings who ruled Thanjavur established chatrams or rest houses all through Mayiladuthurai and Rameswaram between 1745 and 1837 CE and donated them to the temple .
= = Interaction with Sri Lanka = =
Rameswaram is frequently in headlines over fishermen issues like attack , arrest and alleged harassment by Sri Lankan navy for alleged cross border activities , Sethusamudram canal project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and also on intercountry smuggling between India and Sri Lanka . As an initial step to curb enhanced smuggling , the Tamil Nadu government has set up 30 more marine police stations to bring the state ’ s entire coastal belt under close vigil .
= = = Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees = = =
During the intense civil war of Sri Lanka , post 1980 , Rameswaram acted as one of the focal points of smuggling and intense patrolling was carried out during the period . There are a total of 65 @,@ 940 registered destitute Sri Lankan refugees dwelling in 129 Refugee camps situated in different parts of Tamil Nadu as of Apr 2000 and a majority of them enter via Rameswaram . There are an additional 20 @,@ 667 non @-@ camp refugees who entered via Rameswaram , registered in Mandapam transit camp and opted to reside outside the camps in various parts of Tamil Nadu . On 11 March 1990 , a record number of 2 @,@ 337 refugees in 38 boats arrived from Talaimannar in Sri Lanka to Rameswaram – this was the largest number of refugees arriving in a single day since the ethnic violence from July 1983 . As of October 2006 , an estimated 200 @,@ 000 refugees have been reported in Mandapam Camp . Sivarasan , one of the mastermind behind the Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi , the ex @-@ prime minister of India registered as refugee in Rameswaram camp on 12 September 1990 .
= = = Rameswaram Fishery = = =
Being an island , a significant population is involved in fishery traditionally . There have been incremental cases of Rameswaram
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60 walks . His 1959 season was the first with more than 20 home runs or 90 runs batted in . López twice had .350 on @-@ base percentages , but in each season he recorded over 400 plate appearances without recording the qualifying number for unofficial league leadership . Thus , his career high on @-@ base percentage in a season in which he qualified for statistical leadership was .347 in 1956 . He was the first to finish among the top 10 in his league in each of the aforementioned statistical categories , and the first to lead his league in any official statistical batting category ( sacrifice flies in 1958 ) . López was the first Panamanian to accumulate a sufficient number of career appearances to qualify for career statistical leadership ( which depending upon the source is based on 3000 , 4000 or 5000 at bats ) , although his career .269 batting average , .330 on @-@ base percentage and .415 slugging percentage are not historically significant .
He also represented Panama in the 1960 Caribbean Series and tied with Félix Torres and Herman Davis for the tournament home run leadership . He continues to be considered a legendary world champion who represented the country . In 2006 , he was cited by professional basketball coach , Joseph Clarke , as ranking alongside such noted Panamanian sports personalities as Ismael Laguna , Roberto Durán , and Mariano Rivera as Panamanian World Champions . López has two sons . Ever since López ' performances with the Yankees , the team has had a huge following in Panama .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Lopez retired following the 1966 season at the age of 36 . That year , he also participated in his first Old @-@ Timers ' Day . He has returned to the annual event every year ( totaling 49 years as of 2015 ) .
= Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer =
Maria Goeppert Mayer ( June 28 , 1906 – February 20 , 1972 ) was a German @-@ born American theoretical physicist , and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus . She was the second female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .
A graduate of the University of Göttingen , Goeppert Mayer wrote her doctorate on the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted this . Today , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert Mayer ( GM ) unit .
Maria Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer and moved to the United States , where he was an associate professor at Johns Hopkins University . Strict rules against nepotism prevented Johns Hopkins University from taking her on as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant and published a landmark paper on double beta decay in 1935 . In 1937 , she moved to Columbia University , where she took an unpaid position . During World War II , she worked for the Manhattan Project at Columbia on isotope separation , and with Edward Teller at the Los Alamos Laboratory on the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb .
After the war , Goeppert Mayer became a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the University of Chicago ( where Teller and her husband worked ) and a senior physicist at the nearby Argonne National Laboratory . She developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 , which she shared with J. Hans D. Jensen and Eugene Wigner . In 1960 , she was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego .
= = Early life = =
Maria Göppert was born on June 28 , 1906 , in Kattowitz ( now Katowice , Poland ) , a city in Prussia , the only child of Friedrich Göppert and his wife Maria née Wolff . In 1910 , she moved with her family to Göttingen when her father , a sixth @-@ generation university professor , was appointed as the professor of pediatrics at the University of Göttingen . Goeppert was closer to her father than her mother . " Well , my father was more interesting , " she later explained . " He was after all a scientist . "
Göppert was educated at the Höhere Technische in Göttingen , a school for middle @-@ class girls who aspired to higher education . In 1921 , she entered the Frauenstudium , a private high school run by suffragettes that aimed to prepare girls for university . She took the abitur , the university entrance examination , at age 17 , a year early , with three or four girls from her school and thirty boys . All the girls passed , but only one of the boys did .
In the Spring of 1924 , Göppert entered the University of Göttingen , where she studied mathematics . A purported shortage of women mathematics teachers for schools for girls led to an upsurge of women studying mathematics at a time of high unemployment , and there was even a female professor of mathematics at Göttingen , Emmy Noether , but most were only interested in qualifying for their teaching certificate .
Instead , Goeppert became interested in physics , and chose to pursue a Ph.D. In her 1930 doctoral thesis she worked out the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . Eugene Wigner later described the thesis as " a masterpiece of clarity and concreteness " . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted the first experimental verification in 1961 when two @-@ photon @-@ excited fluorescence was detected in a europium @-@ doped crystal . To honor her fundamental contribution to this area , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert @-@ Mayer ( GM ) unit . One GM is 10 − 50 cm4 s photon − 1 . Her examiners were three future Nobel prize winners : Max Born , James Franck and Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus .
On January 19 , 1930 , Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer , an American Rockefeller fellow who was one of James Franck 's assistants . The two had met when Mayer had boarded with the Goeppert family . The couple moved to Mayer 's home country of the United States , where he had been offered a position as associate professor of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University . They had two children , Maria Ann and Peter Conrad .
= = United States = =
Strict rules against nepotism ostensibly prevented Johns Hopkins University from hiring Goeppert Mayer as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant in the Physics Department working with German correspondence . She received a very small salary , a place to work and access to the facilities . She taught some courses , published an important paper on double beta decay in 1935 .
There was little interest in quantum mechanics at Johns Hopkins , but Goeppert Mayer worked with Karl Herzfeld , collaborating on a number of papers . She also returned to Göttingen in the summers of 1931 , 1932 and 1933 to work with her former examiner Born , writing an article with him for the Handbuch der Physik . This ended when the NSDAP came to power in 1933 , and many academics , including Born and Franck , lost their jobs . Goeppert Mayer and Herzfeld became involved in refugee relief efforts .
Joe Mayer was fired in 1937 . He attributed this to the hatred of women on the part of the dean of physical sciences , which he thought was provoked by Goeppert Mayer 's presence in the laboratory . Herzfeld agreed and added that , with Goeppert Mayer , Franck and Herzfeld all at Johns Hopkins , some thought that there were too many German scientists there . There were also complaints from some students that Mayer 's chemistry lectures contained too much modern physics . Mayer took up a position at Columbia University , where the chairman of the Physics Department , George B. Pegram , arranged for Goeppert Mayer to have an office , but she received no salary . She soon made good friends with Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi , who arrived at Columbia in 1939 . Fermi asked her to investigate the valence shell of the undiscovered transuranic elements . Using the Thomas – Fermi model , she predicted that they would form a new series similar to the rare earth elements . This proved to be correct .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In December 1941 , Goeppert Mayer took up her first paid professional position , teaching science part @-@ time at Sarah Lawrence College . In the spring of 1942 , with the United States embroiled in World War II , she joined the Manhattan Project . She accepted a part @-@ time research post from Urey with Columbia University 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . The objective of this project was to find a means of separating the fissile uranium @-@ 235 isotope in natural uranium ; she researched the chemical and thermodynamic properties of uranium hexafluoride and investigated the possibility of separating isotopes by photochemical reactions . This method proved impractical at the time , but the development of lasers would later open the possibility of separation of isotopes by laser excitation .
Through her friend Edward Teller , Goeppert Mayer was given a position at Columbia with the Opacity Project , which researched the properties of matter and radiation at extremely high temperatures with an eye to the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb , the wartime program for the development of thermonuclear weapons . In February 1945 , Joe was sent to the Pacific War , and Goeppert Mayer decided to leave her children in New York and join Teller 's group at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Joe came back from the Pacific earlier than expected , and they returned to New York together in July 1945 .
In February 1946 , Joe became a professor in the Chemistry Department and the new Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago , and Goeppert Mayer was able to become a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the school . When Teller also accepted a position there , she was able to continue her Opacity work with him . When the nearby Argonne National Laboratory was founded on July 1 , 1946 , Goeppert Mayer was also offered a part @-@ time job there as a senior physicist in the Theoretical Physics Division . She responded " I don 't know anything about nuclear physics . " She programmed the Aberdeen Proving Ground 's ENIAC to solve criticality problems for a liquid metal cooled reactor using the Monte Carlo method .
= = Nuclear shell model = =
During her time at Chicago and Argonne in the late 1940s , Goeppert Mayer developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , which she published in 1950 . Her model explained why certain numbers of nucleons in an atomic nucleus result in particularly stable configurations . These numbers are what Eugene Wigner called magic numbers : 2 , 8 , 20 , 28 , 50 , 82 , and 126 . Enrico Fermi provided a critical insight by asking her : " Is there any indication of spin orbit coupling ? " She realised that this was indeed the case , and postulated that the nucleus is a series of closed shells and pairs of neutrons and protons tend to couple together . She described the idea as follows :
Think of a room full of waltzers . Suppose they go round the room in circles , each circle enclosed within another . Then imagine that in each circle , you can fit twice as many dancers by having one pair go clockwise and another pair go counterclockwise . Then add one more variation ; all the dancers are spinning twirling round and round like tops as they circle the room , each pair both twirling and circling . But only some of those that go counterclockwise are twirling counterclockwise . The others are twirling clockwise while circling counterclockwise . The same is true of those that are dancing around clockwise : some twirl clockwise , others twirl counterclockwise .
Three German scientists , Otto Haxel , J. Hans D. Jensen , and Hans Suess , were also working on solving the same problem , and arrived at the same conclusion independently . Their results were announced in the issue of the Physical Review before Goeppert Mayer ' s announcement in June 1949 . Afterwards , she collaborated with them . Hans Jensen co @-@ authored a book with Goeppert Mayer in 1950 titled Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure . In 1963 , Goeppert Mayer , Jensen , and Wigner shared the Nobel Prize for Physics " for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure . " She was the second and most recent female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1960 , Goeppert Mayer was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego . Although she suffered from a stroke shortly after arriving there , she continued to teach and conduct research for a number of years . She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 . Goeppert Mayer died in San Diego , California , on February 20 , 1972 , after a heart attack that had struck her the previous year left her comatose . She was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego .
After her death , the Maria Goeppert Mayer Award was created by the American Physical Society to honor young female physicists at the beginning of their careers . Open to all female physicists who hold Ph.D.s , the winner receives money and the opportunity to give guest lectures about her research at four major institutions . Two of her former universities also honor her . The Argonne National Laboratory presents an award each year to an outstanding young woman scientist or engineer , while the University of California at San Diego hosts an annual Maria Goeppert Mayer symposium , bringing together female researchers to discuss current science . Crater Goeppert Mayer on Venus with a diameter of about 35 km is also named after Goeppert @-@ Mayer . In 2011 , she was included in the third issuance of the American Scientists collection of US postage stamps , along with Melvin Calvin , Asa Gray , and Severo Ochoa . Her papers are in the Geisel Library at the University of California , San Diego , and the university 's physics department is housed in Mayer Hall , which is named after her and her husband .
= Powhatan Beaty =
Powhatan Beaty ( October 8 , 1837 – December 6 , 1916 ) was an African American soldier and actor . During the American Civil War , he served in the Union Army 's 5th United States Colored Infantry Regiment throughout the Richmond – Petersburg Campaign . He received America 's highest military decoration , the Medal of Honor , for taking command of his company at the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm after all officers had been killed and / or wounded .
Following the war , he became an orator and actor , appearing in amateur theater productions in his home of Cincinnati , Ohio . His most well @-@ known stage performance was an 1884 appearance at Ford 's Opera House on 9th Street in Washington , D.C. , opposite Henrietta Vinton Davis .
= = Early life = =
Beaty was born into slavery on October 8 , 1837 , in Richmond , Virginia . He moved to Cincinnati , Ohio , in 1849 , where he received an education . He gained his freedom sometime on or before April 19 , 1861 ; the exact date is unknown and may have been before his move to Ohio . While in school , he developed an interest in theater and made his public acting debut at a school concert . After leaving school , he was apprenticed to a black cabinet maker and eventually worked as a turner . He continued to study acting privately and received training in the field from several coaches , including James E. Murdock , a retired professional stage actor from Philadelphia .
A year after the outbreak of the Civil War , with the Confederate victory at the Battle of Richmond , Kentucky , on August 30 , 1862 , rumors of an impending Confederate attack on Cincinnati began to circulate . Richmond was one hundred miles to the south of Cincinnati , and no organized Union troops lay between the two cities . An attack by Confederate Colonel John Hunt Morgan , who had led his cavalry on a raid behind Union lines in Kentucky the previous month , was also feared . On September 2 , the men of Cincinnati were organized into work units to build fortifications around the city .
Although Cincinnati 's African Americans were initially pressed into service at bayonet point , after the appointment of William Dickson as commander of the black troops their treatment improved significantly . Dickson promised that they would be treated fairly and kept together as a distinct unit , to be called the Black Brigade . He then allowed them to return home to prepare for military service , with orders to report the next morning for duty . About four hundred men were released that day , September 4 , and the next morning about seven hundred reported for duty . Among those men was Beaty , who served in Company Number 1 of the Brigade 's 3rd Regiment . Despite the danger of Confederate attack , the unarmed unit was assigned to build defenses near the Licking River in Kentucky , far in advance of the Union lines . For the next fifteen days , they cleared forests , constructed forts , magazines and roads , and dug trenches and rifle pits . The brigade was disbanded on September 20 , the threat of attack having receded .
= = United States Colored Troops service = =
By June 1863 , Ohio had not yet fielded an African American combat unit , but Ohio blacks were being recruited for service in the regiments of other states . Beaty enlisted from Cincinnati on June 7 , 1863 for a three @-@ year term of service in the Union Army ; he was among a group of men recruited for a Massachusetts regiment . He joined as a private but was promoted to sergeant only two days later . He was placed in charge of a squad of forty @-@ seven other recruits and ordered to report to Columbus , Ohio , from where they would be sent to Boston . Upon arriving in Columbus on June 15 , however , they learned that the Massachusetts regiments were full and unable to accept their service . The Governor of Ohio , David Tod , immediately requested permission from the Department of War to form an Ohio regiment of African Americans . Permission was granted , and on June 17 , Beaty and his squad became the first members of the 127th Ohio Volunteer Infantry , later re @-@ designated the 5th United States Colored Troops . After three months of recruitment and organization in Camp Delaware , on the Olentangy River outside of Delaware , Ohio , the unit set out for Virginia .
By the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm on September 29 , 1864 , Beaty had risen to the rank of first sergeant in Company G. His regiment was among a division of black troops assigned to attack the center of the Confederate defenses at New Market Heights . The defenses consisted of two lines of abatis and one line of palisades manned by Brigadier General John Gregg 's Texas Brigade . The attack was met with intense Confederate fire and was turned back after reaching a line of abatis . During the retreat , Company G 's color bearer was killed ; Beaty returned through about 600 yards of enemy fire to retrieve the flag and return it to the company lines . The regiment had suffered severe casualties in the failed charge . Of Company G 's eight officers and eighty @-@ three enlisted men who entered the battle , only sixteen enlisted men , including Beaty , survived the attack unwounded . With no officers remaining , Beaty took command of the company and led it through a second charge at the Confederate lines . The second attack successfully drove the Confederates from their fortified positions , at the cost of three more men from Company G. By the end of the battle , over fifty percent of the black division had been killed , captured , or wounded . For his actions , Beaty was commended on the battlefield by General Benjamin Butler and seven months later , on April 6 , 1865 , awarded the Medal of Honor .
Beaty continued to distinguish himself in the 5th Regiment 's further engagements . His actions during the Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road in October 1864 earned him a mention in the general orders to the Army of the Potomac . The regimental commander , Colonel Giles Shurtleff , twice recommended him for a promotion to commissioned officer . Nothing came of Colonel Shurtleff 's requests , however Beaty did receive a brevet promotion to lieutenant . By the time he was mustered out of the Army he had participated in thirteen battles and numerous skirmishes .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
After the war , Beaty returned to Cincinnati and raised his family . His son , A. Lee Beaty , became an Ohio state legislator and an assistant U.S. District Attorney for southern Ohio . He resumed his career as a turner and pursued amateur acting and public speaking engagements . He gave public readings for charitable causes and became a well @-@ known elocutionist among the African American community of Cincinnati . Through the 1870s he acted in local theaters and directed music and drama exhibitions in the city . He wrote a play about a rich southern planter entitled Delmar , or Scenes in Southland , which was performed in January 1881 with himself in the lead role . Set in Kentucky , Mississippi , and Massachusetts , the work covered the end of slavery and transition to freedom for blacks from 1860 to 1875 . The privately run play was well received , but Beaty did not engage in self @-@ promotion and it never moved into public theaters .
In January 1884 , Beaty was working as an assistant engineer at the Cincinnati water works when Henrietta Vinton Davis , a prominent African American actress , came to perform in the city . Together , he and Davis put on a large musical and dramatic festival in Melodeon Hall which proved to be very successful . Included in the show were productions of Ingomar , the Barbarian and Robert Montgomery Bird 's The Gladiator , in which Beaty took the role of Spartacus . The culmination of the festival was a performance of selected scenes from Macbeth , with Beaty playing the title role and Davis as Lady Macbeth . Newspapers in both the black and white communities of Cincinnati praised the performances of the two actors , with the Commercial stating that Beaty " threw himself into his part with masterly energy and power " .
The successful festival led to Beaty being invited to play as a principal actor in a Washington , D.C. , Shakespearean production organized by Davis . A company including Davis , Beaty , and amateur actors from the D.C. area performed Richard III almost in entirety , three scenes from Macbeth , and one scene from Ingomar , the Barbarian . Davis , the premier black Shakespearean actress of the time , was the star of the show and Beaty played opposite her as Macbeth , King Henry VI , and Ingomar . The May 7 , 1884 , production was played in Ford 's Opera House to a full house of more than 1 @,@ 100 people ; among them was Frederick Douglass . There was some heckling during the play , primarily from some of the white attendees , however a reviewer from The Washington Post reported that " the earnestness and intelligence of several of the leading performers were such as to command the respect of those most disposed to find cause for laughter in everything that was said or done " . Washington newspapers praised the principal actors , but noted that the inexperience of some of the supporting cast was evident . Reviewers for African American newspapers were especially pleased to see such a production in an important venue like Ford 's Theater . The New York Globe wrote of the performance " [ t ] hus leap by leap the colored man and woman encroach upon the ground so long held sacred by their white brother and sister " .
Beaty continued to tour with Davis and performed a show in Philadelphia before returning to Cincinnati . He helped form his city 's Literary and Dramatic Club and , in 1888 , became the organization 's drama director . He lived out the rest of his life in Cincinnati and died at age seventy @-@ nine on December 6 , 1916 ; he was buried at Union Baptist Cemetery .
= = Medal of Honor citation = =
Citation :
Took command of his company , all the officers having been killed or wounded , and gallantly led it .
= Ra.One =
Ra.One is a 2011 Indian science fiction superhero film directed by Anubhav Sinha , and starring Shah Rukh Khan , Arjun Rampal , Kareena Kapoor , Armaan Verma , Shahana Goswami and Tom Wu in pivotal roles . The script , written by Anubhav Sinha and Kanika Dhillon , originated as an idea that Anubhav Sinha got when he saw a television commercial , and which he subsequently expanded . The film follows Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who creates a motion sensor @-@ based game in which the antagonist ( Ra.One ) is more powerful than the protagonist ( G.One ) . The former escapes from the game 's virtual world and enters the real world ; his aim is to kill Lucifer , the game ID of Shekhar 's son and the only player to have challenged Ra.One 's power . Relentlessly pursued , the family is forced to bring out G.One from the virtual world to defeat Ra.One and protect them .
Principal photography began in March 2010 and took place in India and the United Kingdom , and was overseen by an international crew . The post @-@ production involved 3 @-@ D conversion and the application of visual effects , the latter being recognised as a technological breakthrough among Indian films . With a budget of ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) , inclusive of publicity costs , Ra.One was one of the most expensive Indian films at the time of release . The producers spent ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) out of a ₹ 52 crore ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , which involved a nine @-@ month publicity campaign , brand tie @-@ ups , merchandise , video games and viral marketing .
Ra.One was initially scheduled to release on 3 June 2011 , but delays due to a lengthy post @-@ production process and escalating costs pushed back the release date . The film also faced controversies involving plagiarism , content leaks and copyright challenges . Consequently , Ra.One was theatrically released on 26 October 2011 , the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , in 2D , 3D and dubbed versions , with three international premieres being held between October 24 & 26 , 2011 . The film witnessed the largest international theatrical release for an Indian film as of 2011 , and was preceded by high audience and commercial expectations .
Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews , with critics praising the visuals and music , but criticising the script and direction . Commercially , the film became the third highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 domestically , the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 worldwide , and broke a number of opening box office records , though it failed to sustain at the box office after its extended opening weekend . Although the film earned more than Rs 170 crores it was still not considered as a hit film as the distributors failed to recover their investment . The film subsequently won a number of awards for its technical aspects , notably one National Film Award , one Filmfare Award and four International Indian Film Academy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who works for the London @-@ based Barron Industries , has delivered a number of commercial failures ; an irate Barron ( Dalip Tahil ) gives him his last chance to develop a successful game . To impress his sceptical son Prateek ( Armaan Verma ) , and upon the request of his wife Sonia ( Kareena Kapoor ) , Shekhar uses his son 's idea that the antagonist should be more powerful than the protagonist . His colleague , computer programmer Jenny ( Shahana Goswami ) , uses Shekhar 's face as a model for that of the game 's protagonist G.One ( Shah Rukh Khan ) ( Technically Good One and in Hindi Jeevan , which means life ) , while the shape @-@ shifting antagonist Ra.One ( Technically Random Access Version One and in Hindi Ravan , a mythical demon ) is made faceless . Another colleague , Akashi ( Tom Wu ) , implements the characters ' movements . The game , named Ra.One , contains three levels , the final level being the only one in which either character can be killed . Each character possesses a special device – the H.A.R.T ( Hertz Amplifying Resonance Transmitter ) which gives them their powers . Upon reaching the last level , the characters gain a gun with one bullet ; the other character can be killed by this bullet but only if his H.A.R.T is attached .
When Ra.One undergoes final tests , Akashi notices unusual glitches but chooses to ignore them . When the game is officially launched , it receives a standing ovation from the audience ; an enamored Prateek insists on playing it immediately . He logs in under the ID Lucifer and proceeds to the second level , but is interrupted by Akashi . Ra.One , unable to end his turn with Lucifer and angry that a player has proceeded so far , becomes determined that Lucifer will die . He uses a wireless technology ( which Jenny had introduced in a conference ) to enter the real world , a process which causes the mainframe to malfunction . Akashi informs Shekhar , who partially understands the situation and rushes home , fearing for his son 's life . Meanwhile , Ra.One murders Akashi and assumes his appearance ; he goes to find Lucifer , and meets Shekhar in the process . In an attempt to save his son , Shekhar claims that he is Lucifer , but his lie is exposed when Ra.One scans his identity card . Consequently , Ra.One kills Shekhar and makes it look like a car accident .
Sonia , devastated after Shekhar 's death , tells Prateek that the family will return to India after Shekhar 's funeral . A suspicious Prateek notices digital patterns on the fateful road and realises that Ra.One has come to life . He convinces Jenny of the same when they see the destroyed game laboratory , and the latter tries to bring G.One into the real world . Meanwhile , Ra.One , having taken the form of Akashi , chases the family on their way to the airport , but G.One enters the real world and causes a gas explosion which temporarily destroys Ra.One. G.One takes Ra.One 's H.A.R.T. and accompanies the family to Mumbai after Sonia realises that she needs him .
Subsequently , Ra.One returns to life , takes the form of a billboard model ( Arjun Rampal ) , and tracks down G.One to Prateek 's birthday party . Hypnotising Sonia , he assumes her form to kidnap Prateek . Ra.One then instructs G.One to give him his H.A.R.T. back , and sends the real Sonia in a malfunctioning local train . The train crashes into the Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus , but G.One saves Sonia in time . To save Prateek , he returns to the virtual world and fights Ra.One ; both reach the third level , the former left with little power . G.One tricks Ra.One into shooting him without his H.A.R.T. attached , leaving Ra.One helpless ; furious , the latter creates ten copies of himself . Prateek , unable to identify the real Ra.One , asks G.One to quote Shekhar : " If you join the forces of evil , its shadows shall always follow you " . The duo realise that only one of the ten Ra.Ones has a shadow : the original one . G.One shoots and destroys him , absorbs Ra.One 's remains and disappears .
Six months later , Prateek and Sonia return to London , where the former manages to restore G.One to the real world .
= = Cast = =
The major characters of Ra.One were played by protagonists Shahrukh Khan and Kareena Kapoor , and primary antagonist Arjun Rampal . Supporting roles were played by Tom Wu , Shahana Goswami and child artist Armaan Verma . The film featured cameo appearances by Rajinikanth playing the Enthiran character Chitti , Sanjay Dutt and Priyanka Chopra , the latter two being characters in a dream sequence . Additional minor roles were played by Dalip Tahil and Satish Shah , and an important voice @-@ over was provided by Amitabh Bachchan . Khan performed both as Shekhar and G.One. The titular character Ra.One was enacted by three actors – Rampal , Wu and Kapoor , signifying the character 's shape @-@ shifting ability .
Khan was the first actor to be cast in the film . Three actors had initially been considered for the lead female role ; Kapoor was ultimately chosen because she insisted on playing the part . Rampal accepted the role of Ra.One after Sinha expressed a strong desire to cast him in the film . Wu was contracted to the film in July 2010 , and Goswami was cast one month later . Bachchan agreed to be a part of the film after being requested by Khan and Sinha . Several cast members prepared extensively for their roles ; Rampal and Kapoor followed special diets to lose weight , and Verma learnt capoeira . Khan and Verma performed their own stunts , and Kapoor subsequently did so as well despite initial reluctance .
However , the cast did encounter problems during production . Khan faced difficulties with his superhero suit and prosthetic makeup , and injured his left knee . The decision to cast Rampal was met with scepticism due to " questionable acting abilities , " a statement Sinha criticised . In addition , Rampal encountered back problems ( which were treated by the time production began ) , prompting speculation of a possible replacement by Vivek Oberoi . Jackie Chan had initially been approached for the role of Akashi , but he declined the offer . Rajnikanth suffered from health problems which caused a delay in the filming of his cameo appearance . Dutt faced a scheduling conflict with Agneepath ( 2012 ) , which was later resolved .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
According to director Anubhav Sinha , the idea of Ra.One originated when he saw an advertisement on television which showed children remotely controlling a human . He was attracted to the concept and wrote a script based on it . Sinha then approached Khan , who liked the story and decided to produce the film under his production company Red Chillies Entertainment . Sinha was apprehensive of retaining Khan 's support after the former 's previous film Cash ( 2007 ) became a commercial failure , but Khan reportedly " remained unchanged " .
Shahrukh Khan felt that the film possessed significant commercial potential , in addition to being a fulfilment of his " childhood dream " to be a superhero and to fly . He stated that he wanted to " make a film that gives me the right to deserve the iconic status that I 've got for 20 years . " He also said that he wanted to make a film dedicated to father @-@ son relationships , which were , in his opinion , " neglected " in Bollywood . Khan 's idea was to make a simple family drama which expanded into an action film . He declined to make the film in English to increase its appeal for Western audiences , feeling that " cracking Hollywood on their terms " was unnecessary . Both Khan and Sinha credited their children for providing encouragement , and regularly " approving " the film 's execution .
Red Chillies Entertainment continued to work on other projects before finalising the production aspects of Ra.One. After providing the visual effects for My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , the studio focused solely on Ra.One and did not take up any other films . Khan initially approached a number of directors to helm the film , including Aditya Chopra and Karan Johar , but they declined ; eventually , Sinha was made the film 's director . To prepare the film 's premises and characterisation , Sinha spent several months viewing video clips , digital art portals and comic books . Sinha and Khan also watched around 200 superhero films from all over the world . The storyboards were designed by Atul Chouthmal , who was contracted after he met Khan at Yash Raj Studios . While the former began work on the storyboards , the producers hired a storyboard artist from Hollywood . Chouthmal revealed that Khan and the other artist differed on their visions of the film , and so he was brought back . Before filming , Khan reportedly took tips from actor Kamal Hassan regarding the production of large @-@ scale films , having been impressed by Hassan 's Dasavathaaram ( 2008 ) .
The title of the film received significant media attention due to it being the name of the antagonist rather than the protagonist . The move was considered innovative , and noted as a sign of the
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-@ nineteenth century people and things , such as : artists Francisco Goya , Cruikshank , and Rowlandson ; writers Frances Burney , William Beckford , Monk Lewis , Lord Byron , and Ann Radcliffe ; Maria Edgeworth 's Belinda and Austen 's Emma ; publisher John Murray ; politicians Lord Castlereagh and George Canning ; The Gentleman 's Magazine and The Edinburgh Review ; Chippendale and Wedgwood furnishings ; and the madness of King George III . Clarke has said that she hopes the magic is as realistic as that in Le Guin 's Earthsea trilogy . This realism has led other reviewers , such as Polly Shulman , to argue that Clarke 's book is more of an historical fiction , akin to the works of Patrick O 'Brian . As she explains , " Both Clarke 's and O 'Brian 's stories are about a complicated relationship between two men bound together by their profession ; both are set during the Napoleonic wars ; and they share a dry , melancholy wit and unconventional narrative shape . " Shulman sees fantasy and historical fiction as similar because both must follow rigid rules or risk a breakdown of the narrative .
As well as literary styles , Clarke pastiches many Romantic literary genres : the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , the silver @-@ fork novel , the military adventure , the Byronic hero , and the historical romance of Walter Scott . In fact , Clarke 's novel maps the literary history of the early nineteenth century : the novel begins with the style and genres of Regency England , an " Austenian world of light , bright , sparkling dialogue and well @-@ mannered gentility " , and gradually transforms into a dark , Byronic tale . Clarke combines these Romantic genres with modern ones , such as the fantasy novel , drawing on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien , Philip Pullman , T. H. White , and C. S. Lewis . As Maguire notes , Clarke includes rings of power and books of spells that originate in these authors ' works . In contrast , Sacha Zimmerman suggests in The New Republic that while Tolkien 's world is " entirely new " , Clarke 's world is more engaging because it is eerily close to the reader 's . Although many reviewers compare Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell to the Harry Potter series , Annie Linskey contends in The Baltimore Sun that " the allusion is misleading " : unlike J. K. Rowling 's novels , Clarke 's is morally ambiguous , with its complex plot and dark characters .
= = Themes = =
= = = Friendship = = =
Reviewers focus most frequently on the dynamic between Norrell and Strange , arguing that the novel is about their relationship . In her review for the Times Literary Supplement , Roz Kaveney writes that the two illustrate Harold Bloom 's notion of the " anxiety of influence " in addition to romantic friendship . The two are a " study in contrasts " , with Norrell " exceptionally learned but shy and fussy " while Strange is " charming , young , fashionable and romantic " . As one reviewer remarks , " Clarke could have called the book Sense and Sensibility if the title weren 't already taken . "
= = = Reason and madness = = =
The novel is not about the fight between good and evil but rather the differences between madness and reason — and it is the fairy world that is connected to madness ( mad people can see fairies , for example ) . Lady Pole , who is taken away into the fairyland of Lost @-@ Hope every night , appears insane to those around her . She is hidden away , like the character type examined by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar in their seminal book The Madwoman in the Attic ( 1979 ) . Developing a " divided consciousness " , she is passive and quiet at home at the same time she is vengeful and murderous in the fairy land .
= = = Englishness = = =
Clarke 's book is identified as distinctively English not only because of its style but also because of its themes of " vigorous common sense " , " firm ethical fiber " , " serene reason and self @-@ confidence " , which are drawn from its Augustan literary roots . The " muddy , bloody , instinctual spirit of the fairies " is equally a part of its Englishness , along with " arrogance , provincialism and class prejudice " . The fairy tradition that Clarke draws on is particularly English ; she alludes to tales from children 's literature and others which date back to the medieval period . As Feeley notes , " The idea of fairies forming a hidden supernatural aristocracy certainly predates Spenser and Shakespeare , and seems to distinguish the English tales of wee folk from those of Scotland and Ireland . " In these medieval English stories , the fairies are depicted as " capricious , inconsistent in their attitude toward humankind , [ and ] finally unknowable " , characteristics which Clarke integrates into her own fairies . Clarke notes in an interview that she drew the idea of unpredictable , amoral fairies from the works of Neil Gaiman .
In an interview with Locus , Clarke explains why and how she integrated the theme of " Englishness " into Jonathan Strange : " I wanted to explore my ideas of the fantastic , as well as my ideas of England and my attachment to English landscape . ... Sometimes it feels to me as though we don 't have a fable of England , of Britain , something strong and idealized and romantic . I was picking up on things like Chesterton and Conan Doyle , and the sense ( which is also in Jane Austen ) of what it was to be an English gentleman at the time when England was a very confident place " . In particular , " it 's the sort of Englishness which is stuffy but fundamentally benevolent , and fundamentally very responsible about the rest of the world " , which connects Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes to Clarke 's Jonathan Strange .
= = = Historical otherness = = =
Using techniques of the genre of alternative history , Clarke creates events and characters that would have been impossible in the early nineteenth century . She also explores the " silencing " of under @-@ represented groups : women , people of colour , and poor whites . Both Strange and Norrell suppress the voices of these groups in their rise to power . Mr Norrell , for example , attempts to buy up all the books of magic in England to keep anyone else from acquiring their knowledge . He also barters away half of Emma Wintertowne 's ( Lady Pole 's ) life for political influence , a deal about which , due to an enchantment , she cannot speak coherently .
Clarke explores the limits of " English " magic through the characters of Stephen Black and Vinculus . As Clarke explains , " If you put a fairy next to a person who is also outside English society ... suddenly the fact that there is this alien race seems more believable , because you 've got another alien and the two of them can talk about the English in this very natural way . " The gentleman with the thistle @-@ down hair sees Stephen as a noble savage and enslaves him — like Lady Pole , Stephen is silenced . Both " suffer under a silencing spell that mimics gaps in the historical record " . Furthermore , the gentleman 's desire to acquire Stephen for his dancing hall is reminiscent of the English objectification of black slaves . Stephen vows to hate all white Englishmen after he discovers that they enslaved his mother , but when the gentleman shows him the hanging of the white Vinculus , he weeps . Both Strange and Norrell see the essence of Englishness in the Raven King , a character who was raised by fairies and could not speak English . As Elizabeth Hoiem explains , " The most English of all Englishmen , then , is both king and slave , in many ways indistinguishable from Stephen Black . This paradox is what ultimately resolves the plot . When Strange and Norrell summon ' the nameless slave ' , the Raven King 's powerful alliances with nature are transferred to Stephen Black , allowing Stephen to kill the Gentleman and free himself from slavery . " In the end , it is Strange and Norrell who are trapped in everlasting darkness while the silenced women , people of colour , and poor whites defeat the antagonist .
= = Reception = =
To promote Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Bloomsbury — who also published the Harry Potter series — launched what The Observer called " one of the biggest marketing campaigns in publishing history " . Their campaign included plans for newspaper serialisations , book deliveries by horse and carriage , and the placement of " themed teasers " , such as period stationery and mock newspapers , in United States coffeeshops . 7 @,@ 500 advance readers ' copies were sent out , a limited number wrapped in paper and sealed with wax . These sold for more than US $ 100 each on eBay in England in the weeks leading up to publication . By 2005 , collectors were paying hundreds of pounds for signed copies of a limited edition of the novel .
The book debuted at No. 9 on the New York Times best @-@ seller list , rising to No. 3 two weeks later . It remained on the list for eleven weeks . Four weeks after the book 's initial publication , it was in Amazon 's top ten . Clarke went on a 20 @-@ city tour to promote the novel , after its near @-@ simultaneous publication in 20 countries . Endorsements from independent booksellers helped the book sell out its first printing ; by the end of September 2004 , it had gone through eight printings .
The novel met with " a crackle of favorable reviews in major papers " . The New Republic hailed it as " an exceptional work " , both " thoughtful and irrepressibly imaginative " . The Houston Chronicle described Clarke as " a superb character writer " , and the Denver Post called her a " superb storyteller " . The reviews praised Clarke 's " deft " handling of the pastiche of styles , but many criticised the novel 's pace , The Guardian complaining that " the plot creaks frightfully in many places and the pace dawdles " . In his review for Science Fiction Weekly , Clute suggested that " almost every scene in the first 300 pages should have been carefully and delicately trimmed " ( emphasis in original ) since they do little to advance the story . He argued that , at times , Clarke 's Austenesque tone gets in the way of plot development . On the other hand , The Baltimore Sun found the novel " a quick read " . Complaining that the book leaves the reader " longing for just a bit more lyricism and poetry " , The Washington Post reviewer noted , with others , that " sex plays virtually no role in the story ... [ and ] one looks in vain for the corruption of the innocent " . The New Statesman reviewer , Amanda Craig , praised the novel as " a tale of magic such as might have been written by the young Jane Austen – or , perhaps , by the young Mrs Radcliffe , whose Gothic imagination and exuberant delicacy of style set the key . " However , she also criticised the book : " As fantasy , it is deplorable , given that it fails to embrace the essentially anarchic nature of such tales . What is so wonderful about magicians , wizards and all witches other than Morgan le Fay is not just their magical powers , but that they possess these in spite of being low @-@ born . Far from caring about being gentlemen , wizards are the ultimate expression of rank 's irrelevance to talent " . However , reviewers were not in universal agreement on any of these points . Maguire wrote in the New York Times :
What keeps this densely realised confection aloft is that very quality of reverence to the writers of the past . The chief character in Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell isn 't , in fact , either of the magicians : it 's the library that they both adore , the books they consult and write and , in a sense , become . Clarke 's giddiness comes from finding a way at once to enter the company of her literary heroes , to pay them homage and to add to the literature .
While promoting the novel , Neil Gaiman said that it was " unquestionably the finest English novel of the fantastic written in the last 70 years " , a statement which has most often been read hyperbolically . However , as Clute explains , what Gaiman meant was that Jonathan Strange is " the finest English novel of the fantastic since Hope Mirrlees 's great Lud @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Mist ( 1926 ) , which is almost certainly the finest English fantasy about the relationship between England and the fantastic yet published " ( emphasis in original ) . Clute writes that " a more cautious claim " would be : " if Susanna Clarke finishes the story she has hardly begun in Strange ... she may well have then written the finest English novel of the fantastic about the myth of England and the myth of the fantastic and the marriage of the two ever published , bar none of the above , including Mirrlees . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Adaptations and sequel = =
= = = Film = = =
On 15 October 2004 , New Line Cinema announced that it had bought a three @-@ year option on the film rights to Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell . Clarke received an undisclosed " seven @-@ figure sum " , making the deal " one of the biggest acquisitions of film rights for a book in recent years " . New Line chose Christopher Hampton , whose adaptation of Dangerous Liaisons won an Academy Award , to write it ; New Line executives Mark Ordesky and Ileen Maisel were overseeing the production . On 7 November 2005 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Hampton had finished the first draft : " As you can imagine , it took a fair amount of time to work out some way to encapsulate that enormous book in a film of sensible length ... [ b ] ut it was lots of fun – and very unlike anything I have ever done before . " At that time , no director or cast had yet been chosen . As of June 2006 , Hampton was still working on the screenplay . Julian Fellowes then took over writing duties before the collapse of New Line Cinema .
= = = Television = = =
A seven @-@ part adaptation of the book by the BBC began broadcast on BBC One on Sunday 17 May 2015 . The book was adapted by Peter Harness , directed by Toby Haynes , and produced by Cuba Pictures and Feel Films . A number of co @-@ producers joined the project , including BBC America , Screen Yorkshire , Space and Far Moor , and it is to be distributed by Endemol Worldwide Distribution .
Pre @-@ production began in April 2013 , and filming later in the year , including locations in Yorkshire and Canada .
= = = Audio book = = =
The 32 @-@ hour audio book of Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was released by Audio Renaissance in 2004 . According to a review in The Boston Globe , reader Simon Prebble " navigates this production with much assuredness and an array of accents . ... Prebble 's full voice is altered to a delicate softness for young ladies of a certain breeding , or tightened to convey the snarkiness often heard in the costive Norrell . " Prebble interrupts the main text to read the footnotes , announcing them with the word footnote . According to the AudioFile review , the " narrative flow suffers " because of these interruptions and the reviewer recommends listening " with text in hand " . Each note is on its own track , so listeners have the option of skipping them without missing text from the main narrative . When doing public readings , Clarke herself skips the notes .
= = = Sequel = = =
In 2004 , Clarke announced that she was working on a book that begins a few years after Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ends . It is intended to centre on characters such as Childermass and Vinculus who , as Clarke says , are " a bit lower down the social scale " .
= Union Bank of Switzerland =
Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) was a large integrated financial services company located in Switzerland . The bank , which at the time was the second largest bank in Switzerland , merged with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998 , to become UBS to form what was then the largest bank in Europe and the second largest bank in the World .
UBS was formed in 1912 through the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and Toggenburger Bank , both founded in the early 1860s . UBS then continued to grow through acquisitions , including Aargauische Kreditanstalt in 1919 , Eidgenössische Bank in 1945 , Interhandel Basel in 1967 , Phillips & Drew in 1986 , and Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. in 1997 among others .
The historical UBS logo features a horizontal acronym " UBS " referring to the " Union Bank of Switzerland " , " Union de Banques Suisses " or " Unione di Banche Svizzere " . The vertical acronym " SBG " refers to the name of the bank in German " Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft " . " UBS " ceased to be considered a representational abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland after the bank 's 1998 merger with Swiss Bank Corporation and is today considered a standalone brand .
= = 1980 – 1998 = =
By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .
In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .
In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order
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outside Switzerland . The bank had total assets of nearly CHF578 billion and shareholders ' equity of nearly CHF28 billion as of the end of 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins of the Union Bank of Switzerland = = =
In 1862 , The Bank in Winterthur was founded in Winterthur , Switzerland , with an initial share capital of CHF5 million . The Bank in Winterthur operated primarily as a commercial bank , providing financing for a range of companies and projects . The bank would be involved in funding the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works , the hotel Baur au Lac in Zurich and many other companies . The bank capitalized on its location at an important Swiss railroad junction and its large warehousing facilities allowed the bank to take advantage of the dramatic rise in cotton prices caused by the American Civil War . The Bank in Winterthur saw its share capital double by the end of the war .
Meanwhile , in 1863 , the Toggenburger Bank was founded in Lichtensteig , Switzerland with an initial share capital of CHF1.5 million . The Toggenburger Bank was a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers with a branch office network in Eastern Switzerland . In 1882 , Toggenburger Bank opened a branch in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland and began to shift its operations there through the end of the 19th century .
The Union Bank of Switzerland was formed in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur merged with the Toggenburger Bank . The combined bank had total assets of CHF202 million and a total shareholders ' equity of CHF46 million . This combination was part of a larger trend toward concentration in the banking sector in Switzerland at the time . Through the next few years , the bank would begin to shift its operations to Zurich from its historical headquarters in the cities of Winterthur and St. Gallen , Switzerland . In 1917 , UBS completed construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse , considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland .
The new bank used different names in its three core languages : German , French and English . In German , the bank was Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft and was known by the initials SBG . The original English name for the combined bank was the Swiss Banking Association , but it was later changed to Union Bank of Switzerland in 1921 to mirror the French form of the name : Union de Banques Suisses . The bank 's logo , introduced in 1966 , would later reflect both the German SBG and the English and French name UBS .
UBS acquired a number of banks in its first decade as a combined bank and expanded its branch network , establishing representation throughout Switzerland by 1923 . UBS acquired a controlling interest in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1913 and Banque Ch . Masson & Cie. in 1916 . Although the bank suffered during World War I and the postwar economic crises in Europe , UBS continued to make acquisitions after the conclusion of World War I. The bank purchased the remaining stake in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1919 that it had not acquired in 1913 . Also in 1919 , the bank acquired Commandit @-@ AG Weibel & Cie. in Fleurier and William Cuénod & Cie . In 1920 , UBS acquired Banca Svizzera @-@ Americana with branches in Locarno and Lugano ; Unionbank Geneva and Banque Henry Rieckel & Cie . , based in La Chaux @-@ de @-@ Fonds . Three years later , in 1923 , UBS acquired the Schweizerische Vereinsbank in Bern establishing representation in the last of the major cities in Switzerland .
Through the Great Depression , UBS pared its assets considerably shrinking from CHF993 million in 1929 to CHF441 million at the end of 1935 . The bank saw its shareholders ' capital decline from CHF100 million in 1929 to CHF80 million in 1933 and then further to CHF40 million by 1936 . However , the bank continued to acquire smaller , weaker competitors , purchasing Banca Unione di Credito in Lugano and Chiasso in 1935 followed by Berner Handelsbank in Bern in 1938 . In 1937 , UBS established Intrag AG , an asset management business responsible for investment trusts ( i.e. , mutual funds ) and set up the " America @-@ Canada Trust Fund AMCA " . Over the years , Intrag would set up a series of other funds , including the " Mutual Fund for Swiss Stocks FONSA " and the " South Africa Trust Fund SAFIT " .
The Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank merge to form the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft . Its French name is Union de Banques Suisses ( UBS ) and its Italian name is Unione di Banche Svizzere ( UBS ) . The English name of the bank at first is Swiss Banking Association . In 1921 that somewhat inappropriate name is changed into Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) .
The merged bank shows the following figures for 1912 : Total assets : CHF202 million . Shareholders ' Equity : CHF46 million . Profit : CHF2.4 million .
Dr. Rudolf Ernst ( 1865 – 1956 )
First Chairman of the Board of Directors of the merged bank from 1912 until 1941 is Rudolf Ernst , of Winterthur , until 1921 alternating with C. Emil Grob @-@ Halter of Lichtensteig .
After the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) , Dr. Rudolf Ernst became the merged bank 's first chairman in 1912 . Following his resignation in 1941 , he was elected as an Honorary chairman of Union Bank of Switzerland .
Rudolf Ernst joined the Bank in Winterthur in 1895 . He was also financial director of the City of Winterthur for 16 years . At the young age of 36 , he was elected in 1901 to the Board of Directors of the Bank in Winterthur and as its chairman at the same time . During his chairmanship , the bank changed its focus from its original lending business and began to expand its issuing and asset management franchise . With the acquisition of the Bank in Baden in 1906 , the bank gained a branch in Zurich and a seat on the stock exchange , one of the cornerstones for the successful merger in 1912 with the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland . Rudolf Ernst also held directorships on the boards of various industrial and insurance companies . Between 1912 and his retirement in 1941 , he was chairman of the Board of Union Bank of Switzerland , in an alternating capacity with Carl Emil Grob @-@ Halter , who held the chairmanship in 1916 and 1918 as the representative of the merger partner Toggenburger Bank .
= = = Activities in World War II = = =
On the eve of World War II , UBS was the recipient of a large influx of foreign funds for safekeeping . During the war , the bank 's traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest clients . Still , unlike many of its peers , UBS 's business lagged through much of the war .
Decades after the war , it was demonstrated that Union Bank of Switzerland likely took active roles in trading stolen gold , securities and other assets during World War II . The issue of " unclaimed property " of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid @-@ 1990s and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997 . UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts that had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank 's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account . UBS 's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S. UBS came under significant pressure , particularly from American politicians , to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank .
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland , found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany . The shredding was in direct violation of a recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material . UBS acknowledged that it had " made a deplorable mistake " , but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust . Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy , which is a criminal offence in Switzerland . Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997 .
Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS , following a criminal investigation . Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum . By contrast , in the U.S. , Meili was largely regarded as a hero and whistleblower and received a particularly warm reception from the American Jewish community .
In 1997 , the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks ( WJC ) was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II . Negotiations involving Union Bank of Switzerland , Credit Suisse , the WJC and Stuart Eizenstat , on behalf of the U.S. , ultimately resulted in a settlement of US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 . The settlement , which coincided with UBS 's merger with Swiss Bank , together with the bank 's embarrassment in the Long Term Capital Management collapse in 1998 brought a degree of closure to the issue .
= = = 1945 – 1979 = = =
Shortly after the end of World War II , UBS completed the acquisition of Eidgenössische Bank , a large Zurich @-@ based bank that became insolvent . As a result of the merger , UBS exceeded CHF1 billion of assets for the first time and completed the transition of its operations to Zurich . Although UBS opened an office in New York in 1946 , the bank remained primarily focused on its domestic business . Prior to the end of World War II , the Swiss banking landscape was dominated by Swiss Bank Corporation and Credit Suisse . UBS was among the next group of large banks that included Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank or Swiss Popular Bank ) and Bank Leu . Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the Union Bank of Switzerland , which was at best the third largest bank in Switzerland would catch up to its larger peers and by the 1970s surpass them in terms of size .
UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland growing from 31 offices in 1950 to 81 offices by the beginning of the 1960s . Throughout the 1950s , UBS was the most acquisitive bank in Switzerland , acquiring Banque Palézieux & Cie . ( 1948 ) , Volksbank Interlaken ( 1952 ) , Weck , Aebi & Cie ( 1954 ) , Banque Tissières fils & Cie . ( 1956 ) , Banque de Sion ( 1956 ) , Banque de Brigue ( 1957 ) , the Crédit Gruyérien ( 1957 ) , Crédit Sierrois ( 1957 ) , Bank Cantrade AG ( 1960 ) and Volksbank in Visp ( 196
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management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .
After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .
= = = Long @-@ Term Capital Management = = =
Union Bank of Switzerland , suffering criticism of its conservative business model , was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank 's growth . In 1997 , UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM and the hedge fund quickly became the bank 's largest client , generating US $ 15 million in fees for UBS . Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7 @-@ year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM , then valued at about US $ 800 million . It hedged this option by purchasing a US $ 800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US $ 300 million in the hedge fund . Following the merger , Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS . Ultimately , UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998 .
By November 1998 , UBS 's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at approximately CHF790 million . UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse , ultimately writing off CHF950 million . The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US $ 3 @.@ 625 billion by the hedge fund 's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets . UBS contributed US $ 300 million to the bailout effort , which would largely be recovered . In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse , Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS along with three other executives .
= = = Acquisition history = = =
Union Bank of Switzerland , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation was the result of the combination of dozens of individual firms , many of which date to the 19th century . The following is an illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors , although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list :
= Ginga Legend Weed =
Ginga Legend Weed ( Japanese : 銀牙伝説ウィード , Hepburn : Ginga Densetsu Wīdo , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to Takahashi 's 1980s manga Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and focuses on Weed , the son of Gin , the original series ' protagonist . Weed , named after the English word for wild plant , leaves his birthplace to search for his father in the Ōu Mountains . Upon arriving , Weed immediately begins protecting Ōu and its soldiers from dangerous threats . As the series progresses , Weed and his allies journey throughout Japan , aiding those in need and preventing takeovers .
Ginga Legend Weed was originally serialized in the magazine Weekly Manga Goraku from 1999 to 2009 . Publisher Nihon Bungeisha released 60 bound volumes and later reprinted early volumes . ComicsOne licensed the series for release in Canada and the United States , but issued only three volumes before it went out of business . Ginga Legend Weed has not been relicensed and distributed in the English language .
In addition to the main series , Takahashi authored several side stories and books relating to Weed and the supporting cast . In 2005 , Studio Deen produced an anime series that aired on Animax . The show was released on several DVDs between 2006 and 2007 in Japan , and was licensed and distributed in Taiwan and several Nordic countries . Takahashi also published a prequel to Ginga Legend .
= = Plot = =
Several years after the events of Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , Gin 's son is born in the Japanese Alps . After the puppy 's mother Sakura dies from an illness , an English Setter named GB pledges to bring him to the Ōu Mountains and reunite him with his father . GB decides to name the pup Weed , after the English word for wild plant , because he is " small but powerful " . Upon arriving at Ōu , the pair learn that a monstrous creature is wreaking havoc and Ōu has fallen into turmoil . Gin is away , on a desperate search for his mate . Weed , GB , and other Ōu soldiers meet a team of dogs led by the German shepherd Jerome . Jerome explains that the monster is a mutated dog that escaped from a laboratory after killing several scientists . Weed 's group joins them and they succeed in killing the monster , though lose several soldiers in the process , among them Gin 's old ally , Smith .
The series then introduces Hōgen and Genba , Great Dane brothers who plan to create an army and overthrow Gin . When Gin and his close friends John and Akame are found by Hōgen and his troops , Akame escapes to alert Ōu , while Gin , John , and Hiro ( a dog loyal to Gin ) are taken as hostages . John escapes , but is killed while acting as a diversion for Hiro . Akame locates Weed and explains the situation , prompting him to search for dogs to join Ōu 's army . Gin escapes and starts recruiting soldiers . Hōgen , alone after having to mercy kill Genba , launches his attack on Ōu . Weed clashes with Hōgen and is injured , but spirits of dead Ōu soldiers appear to give him strength . Weed defeats Hōgen but chooses not to kill him . Hōgen stumbles away and is found by Shōji Sudou , a policeman whose partner was killed by Genba and Hōgen . Shōji shoots and kills Hōgen .
Later , Weed encounters a dog named Yukimura , and learns that a group of monkeys have been terrorizing the area . Leading them is Shōgun , a vicious baboon that feeds on young monkeys and puppies . Shōgun had previously attacked Yukimura and his family , permanently damaging his adopted father Saheiji . Weed , his comrades , Yukimura , and several rebellious monkeys attack Shōgun and his followers . Yukimura is able to injure Shōgun enough to ensure his death , but dies in the process . Saheiji reveals that Yukimura was Weed 's brother : Sakura , too sick to care for all of her children , had given two of her puppies to Saheiji to raise as foster sons .
While Jerome is in Hokkaidō , he is captured by a Russian German shepherd named Victor , who aims to conquer the island . Jerome escapes and alerts Hakurō , a former Ōu soldier who resides in Hokkaidō . Hakurō and several of his sons are attacked and killed by Victor 's forces . Gin and Weed go to Hokkaidō , but are unable to defeat Victor 's troops . Jerome rejoins the Ōu soldiers with Lydia and Maxim , two subordinates of Victor . Angry at Maxim 's betrayal , Victor orders a friend of Maxim , Alam , to kill him . Alam feels an intense regret for following orders , but later learns that Maxim survived . Alam decides to drown Victor by dragging him underwater and entangling him in seaweed . With Victor gone , Lydia chooses to stay with Jerome while Maxim and his remaining subordinates swim back to Russia .
While traveling , Weed meets his other brother , Joe . Joe dislikes Gin for leaving Sakura unattended in the Alps . He is unaware that Sakura had left Ōu under the false impression that Gin was dead , and that Gin had been unaware of Sakura 's leaving . Joe explains that a large hybrid bear has attacked and killed his mate , Hitomi . Weed 's group joins Joe to defeat the animal . During the battle , GB dies saving Weed , and Weed vows to avenge him . Weed knocks himself and the bear into a river . The bear dies after hitting a floodgate and Weed manages to survive . He returns to Ōu and learns that his mate , Koyuki , is pregnant . Weeks later , she gives birth to four pups .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Ginga Legend Weed was written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to his 1980s series Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and follows the son of Gin , the title character from the original series . It began serialization in Weekly Manga Goraku magazine in 1999 . The Japanese publisher Nihon Bungeisha released the series in collected volumes from January 2000 to September 2009 . Cumulatively , 60 volumes were published . In October 2006 , Nihon Bungeisha released the first volume of a reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Weed . The company has released 22 volumes of the reprint edition , with the latest published in December 2007 . The American company ComicsOne licensed the series for release in the United States and Canada in 2000 with the first three volumes released between March and June 2001 . Additionally , they provided an Adobe Digital Editions e @-@ book version . ComicsOne later went bankrupt . American publisher DrMaster acquired the rights to some of ComicsOne 's titles , but not Ginga Legend Weed . While the physical copies are out @-@ of @-@ print , the e @-@ book version is still available .
Under their G @-@ Comics imprint , Nihon Bungeisha released several Ginga Legend Weed omnibus editions labeled as " specials " . A series of three specials were released in April 2004 called Gajō no Kettō Hen ( 牙城の血闘編 ) . Throughout 2009 and 2010 , another set of eight " specials " were produced : Tabidachi Hen ( September 2009 ) , Senshi no Shōmei Hen ( October 2009 ) , Inuzoku no Tsutome Hen ( November 2009 ) , Otoko no Yakusoku Hen ( December 2009 ) , Taiman Shōbu Hen ( January 2010 ) , Taishō no Utsuwa Hen ( February 2010 ) , Dōshu Taiketsu Hen ( March 2010 ) , and Uketsuga Reshi Kiba Hen ( April 2010 ) .
= = = Related books = = =
Nihon Bungeisha released several books authored by Takahashi that relate to the main series . Ginga Legend Weed Gaiden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード外伝 ) , first released on August 9 , 2001 and re @-@ released in December 2007 , is a collection of four short stories , including a side @-@ story about a Golden Retriever named Mel , who is a character in the main series , and the story of Takahashi 's past dog Hanako . My Dog , My Weed ( ぼくの犬 僕のウィード ) , a collection of art , essays , and personal experiences pertaining to the attachment between people and animals , was released in November 2001 . In 2002 , Nihon Bungeisha released a magazine called Weed World , which centered around Ginga Legend Weed and related material . In total , 5 issues were published between March and May . In January 2002 , an art book entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Gengashū ( 銀牙伝説ウィード原画集 ) was released . Ginga Legend Weed : Meishōbu Retsuden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード名勝負列伝 ) , a book containing character biographies and statistics , was released in May 2003 . In November 2005 , Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han ( 銀牙伝説ウィード特別版 ) , an omnibus volume containing the prequel Ginga Legend Riki and Weed Gaiden , was released .
= = = Anime = = =
In 2005 , Studio Deen produced a 26 @-@ episode animated adaptation of Ginga Legend Weed , directed by Toshiyuki Kato . In Japan , the series aired from November 3 , 2005 to May 11 , 2006 on Animax with the SKY PerfecTV ! service . Dohatsuten , a Japanese band , performed both the opening and ending themes , Ginga Densetsu Weed and Tsuki Akari ( つきあかり ) , respectively . On December 7 , 2005 , Imperial Records released a single containing the themes and karaoke versions . The full soundtrack for the series , composed by Y2 DOGS , was released by Imperial Records on January 25 , 2006 . The entirety of Ginga Legend Weed was initially released on 13 DVDs published between February 17 , 2006 and March 1 , 2007 . On August 29 , 2008 , a complete box set containing all 13 discs was released . The electronics company Sankyo created a Ginga Legend Weed pachinko game that utilizes the anime character designs .
Top @-@ Insight International licensed Ginga Legend Weed for release in Taiwan . The company released seven individual DVDs , and one complete box set . The series aired in Taiwan on China Television . Future Film licensed and released the series in Finland . The company released Ginga Legend Weed on eight separate DVDs between August 2 , 2006 and December 5 , 2006 . On November 14 , 2007 , Future Film released the entire series on a collector 's edition . The release was bundled with a Weed booklet and mobile phone charm . In Sweden , AudVid distributed the series in one box set on June 15 , 2007 . The set included an extra 16 @-@ page booklet . The Finnish and Swedish releases included both Swedish and Finnish subtitles . In Denmark , Scanbox Entertainment released eight DVDs containing the series in 2007 , and in 2008 produced two box sets containing episodes 1 @-@ 13 and 14 @-@ 26 , respectively . In addition to a Danish dub , Scanbox 's release included Danish and Norwegian subtitles .
= = Reception = =
The 55th volume of Ginga Legend Weed was listed as number 30 on the Oricon sales chart in Japan for the week December 9 – 15 , 2008 . Its sales numbers for the week were 20 @,@ 059 copies , for a cumulative total of 21 @,@ 320 since its release .
Ginga Legend Weed was featured on Jason Thompson 's House of 1000 Manga segment on Anime News Network . He praised the series for its story and took note of the " flavor " of having a combination of physically realistic dogs , " shōnen tropes " , the dogs ' knowledge of the human world ( such as job occupations and dog breeds ) , and dog behavior involving honor , loyalty , honorifics , and auras . However , Thompson noted that the " noble melodrama sometimes gets to be a little much " , and felt that several characters , with the exception of Weed , began " to blur together " due to the difficulty of drawing a very large cast of dogs . Additionally , he commented that the fights weren 't visually " exciting " , as dogs are " lacking prehensile arms " . Overall , Thompson felt that the series was unique , stating that " no one else [ is ] making manga quite like this . " In a later installment of House of 1000 Manga , Thompson expressed his preference for Takahashi 's original work , Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , stating that it felt " more exciting and natural " than its " stiffer and more pompous " sequel .
= = Legacy = =
In 2002 , Takahashi began publishing Ginga Legend Riki ( 銀牙伝説リキ , lit . Silver Fang Legend Riki ) , a prequel to Ginga Legend Weed and Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin . It was originally serialized in the Weed @-@ centric magazine Weed World , published by Nihon Bungeisha , between March 31 , 2002 and December 10 , 2002 . In March 2003 , Nihon Bungeisha released the collected chapters in a single book and in December 2005 , it was included in the omnibus Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han with Weed Gaiden . A reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Riki was released in March 2007 . The one @-@ shot follows Riki , father of Gin and former leader of the Ōu soldiers . Riki , though sired by the prized bear hound Shiro , is born a runt and never homed . After his mother Yamabuki is returned to her owner , Riki , stricken with sadness , decides to visit her .
During his trek , Riki is attacked by a pack of dogs and falls into a river . Riki is rescued by his father , Shiro , who advises him about the importance of strength and leaves , not knowing Riki is his son . Influenced by Shiro , Riki aims to become strong and continually visits his mother . On a later trip , Riki sees a young boy , Daisuke , hit by a truck on a mountain road and sent over the road railing . Riki howls for help , but instead attracts the dogs that had attacked him . Riki defends Daisuke until Shiro and his owner , Gohei , arrive . Shiro learns that Riki is his son . The book ends with Gohei and Shiro fighting the bear Akakabuto . A bullet becomes lodged in Akakabuto 's brain , driving him insane . Riki watches as the bear grabs Shiro and they fall off a cliff .
Takahashi began a sequel to Ginga Legend Weed , entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Orion ( 銀牙伝説ウィード オリオン , Ginga Densetsu Wīdo : Orion , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed : Orion ) , in issue # 2173 of Manga Goraku , released on July 24 , 2009 . The first collected volume was released by Nihon Bungeisha in November 2009 . 30 volumes have been published and the series as of July 2014 . The new series follows Weed 's offspring : Bellatrix , Rigel , Sirius , and , in particular , Orion . They are all named after astronomical phenomenon : Orion after the Orion constellation , Rigel after the star Rigel , Sirius after the star Sirius , and Bellatrix after the star Bellatrix . Orion bears a close physical resemblance Riki and possesses an inborn strength , but is rude and hot @-@ headed . Rigel shares Orion 's fiery personality , while Sirius , who resembles his father , is level @-@ headed and a peace @-@ keeper . Bellatrix , Weed 's only daughter , is portrayed as immature and whiny .
An earthquake and subsequent volcanic eruption separates Orion from his parents and siblings . Joe locates Orion and brings him to safety but disappears in the process , while the other siblings are put under the charge of the Ōu soldier Sasuke . With the Ōu Mountains in complete disarray , new threats arrive to exploit its weaknesses . Three sons of the Irish Wolfhound Kamakiri , a platoon leader for Hōgen , wish to avenge their father 's death . Kurohabaki Masamune , the leader of the Kurohabaki Clan of ninja dogs , aims to take over Ōu and strengthen his army . He is the adoptive son of the former Kurohabaki leader , Terumune , and was previously denied leadership of the clan , despite his striving for approval . Instead , Terumune decided that his blood @-@ related son Yamabiko , born after Masamune 's arrival , would become leader . Thereafter , Masamune banished Terumune and took control of the clan . He holds a grudge against Yamabiko and plans to find and kill him . Meanwhile , members of the Kurohabaki clan roam Ōu , gathering recruits and killing those who resist .
= Manuel Alberti =
Manuel Máximiliano Alberti ( 28 May 1763 – 31 January 1811 ) was a priest from Buenos Aires , when the city was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . He had a curacy at Maldonado , Uruguay during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata , and returned to Buenos Aires in time to take part in the May Revolution of 1810 . He was chosen as one of the seven members of the Primera Junta , which is considered the first national government of Argentina . He supported most of the proposals of Mariano Moreno and worked at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper . The internal disputes of the Junta had a negative effect on his health , and he died of a heart attack in 1811 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Colonial times = = =
Manuel Alberti was born in Buenos Aires on 28 May 1763 to Antonio Alberti and Juana Agustina Marín . He was baptized on the following 1 June at the Concepción parish ; his godparents were Juan Javier Dogan and Isabel de Soria y Santa Cruz . He had three brothers , Isidoro , Manuel Silvestre and Félix , and three sisters , Casimira , Juana María and María Clotilde . The Alberti family became benefactor of the House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires by donating them a land plot so it could move its headquarters .
He made his first studies at the Real Colegio de San Carlos in February 1777 , graduating in philosophy , logic , physics and metaphysics . He studied with Hipólito Vieytes , and ended his secondary education on 17 February 1779 . He moved to Córdoba the following year , to get university studies of theology at the National University of Córdoba . Despite a brief return to Buenos Aires during his second year because of health problems , he could finish all the syllabus . He got his doctorate in theology and physics on 16 July 1785 . He got his degree at the Church of the Company from interim provost Fray Pedro Gaitán .
He received the presbyterate in the first months of 1786 , and was appointed for the Concepción parish , the same one where he was baptized . He also worked at the aforementioned House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires . He got the curacy of Magdalena on 12 September 1790 , but resigned a year later because of health problems . He returned in 1793 , and resigned definitively on 21 February 1794 . After this , he moved to Maldonado . There are few historical records of his activities in those curacies .
The territory fell briefly under British rule during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . There was looting after the failed resistance , and Alberti hid all the valuable things from the half @-@ built parish . In defiance of the new British rule , Alberti gave medical aid to the Spanish soldiers and Catholic burials to the deceased , and mailed the Spanish
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In October 1934 , she conveyed King Alexander to France for a state visit , and carried his body back to Yugoslavia following his assassination in Marseille .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Dubrovnik was captured by the Italians . After a refit , which included the replacement of some of her weapons and the shortening of her mainmast and funnels , she was commissioned into the Royal Italian Navy as Premuda . In Italian service she was mainly used as an escort and troop transport . In June 1942 , she was part of the Italian force that attacked the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to relieve the island of Malta . In July 1943 , she broke down and put in to Genoa for repair and a refit . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .
At the time of the Italian surrender to the Allies in September 1943 , Premuda was still docked in Genoa , and was seized by Germany . Plans to convert her into a radar picket for night fighters were abandoned . In August 1944 , following the replacement of her armament , she was commissioned into the German Navy as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with the designation TA32 . The ship saw action shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast and laying naval mines . In March 1945 , she took part in the Battle of the Ligurian Sea against two Royal Navy destroyers , during which she was lightly damaged . She was scuttled the following month as the Germans retreated from Genoa .
= = Development = =
Following the demise of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS ) , Austria @-@ Hungary transferred the vessels of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to the new nation . The Kingdom of Italy was unhappy with this , and convinced the Allies to share the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships among the victorious powers . As a result , the only modern sea @-@ going vessels left to the KSCS were 12 torpedo boats , and they had to build their naval forces from scratch . During the 1920s , many navies were pursuing the flotilla leader concept , building large destroyers similar to the World War I Royal Navy V and W @-@ class destroyers . In the interwar French Navy , these ships were known as contre @-@ torpilleurs , and were intended to operate with smaller destroyers , or as half @-@ flotillas of three ships . The idea was that such a half @-@ flotilla could defeat an Italian light cruiser of the Condottieri @-@ class . The Navy of the KSCS decided to build three such flotilla leaders , ships that would have the ability to reach high speeds and with a long endurance . The long endurance requirement reflected Yugoslav plans to deploy the ships into the central Mediterranean , where they would be able to operate alongside French and British warships .
At the time the decision was made , French shipyards were heavily committed to producing vessels for the French Navy . So , despite its intention to develop a French concept , the KSCS engaged Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow , Scotland to build the ships . Unlike the French , who preferred to install guns of their own manufacture , Yarrow was happy to order the guns from the Czechoslovak firm Škoda . The initial Yarrow design was based on an expanded version of the British Shakespeare @-@ class , with five Skoda 14 cm / 56 naval guns . Excessive top weight resulted in the deletion of one of the guns , to be replaced with a seaplane mounting . The final version replaced the seaplane mounting with improved anti @-@ aircraft armament . The intention to build three flotilla leaders was demonstrated by the fact that Yarrow ordered a total of 12 Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns , four per ship . In the late summer of 1929 , the KSCS ( the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 3 October 1929 ) signed a contract with Yarrow for a destroyer named Dubrovnik . Soon after she was ordered , the onset of the Great Depression meant that only one ship of the planned half @-@ flotilla was ever built .
= = Description and construction = =
Dubrovnik was similar in many respects to the British destroyers being manufactured at the same time , having a square box @-@ like bridge , a long forecastle , and a sharp raked stem similar to the later Tribal @-@ class . Her rounded stern was adapted for minelaying . She had an overall length of 113 @.@ 2 metres ( 371 ft 5 in ) , with a 10 @.@ 67 m ( 35 ft ) beam and a mean draught of 3 @.@ 58 m ( 11 ft 9 in ) ( maximum draught of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft 5 in ) ) . Her standard displacement was 1 @,@ 880 long tons ( 1 @,@ 910 t ) , ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 439 t ) at full load ) . Dubrovnik had two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , located in separate boiler rooms , and the turbines were rated at 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , the ship had a maximum speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . In 1934 , under ideal conditions , she achieved a maximum speed of 40 @.@ 3 knots ( 74 @.@ 6 km / h ; 46 @.@ 4 mph ) . A separate Curtis turbine , rated at 900 shp ( 670 kW ) , was installed for cruising , with which she could achieve a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of fuel oil .
Her main armament consisted of four Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) L / 56 superfiring guns in single mounts , two forward of the superstructure and two aft . For air defence , Dubrovnik had twin @-@ mounted Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 guns , and six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns , arranged in two twin mounts and two single mounts . She was also equipped with two triple 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , two depth charge throwers and two depth charge rails , two Škoda 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) machine guns and 40 mines . Her crew comprised 20 officers and 220 ratings . She was laid down on 10 June 1930 , and was launched on 11 October 1931 .
= = Service history = =
= = = Dubrovnik = = =
Dubrovnik was completed at the Yarrow shipyards in Glasgow in 1932 , at which time her main guns and light anti @-@ aircraft guns had been installed . After sailing to the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic , she was fitted with her heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was commissioned with the Royal Yugoslav Navy in 1932 , and her captain was Armin Pavić . In late September 1933 , the ship left the Bay of Kotor and sailed through the Turkish Straits to Constanța on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria , where she embarked King Alexander and Queen Maria of Yugoslavia . She then visited Balcic in Romania and Varna in Bulgaria , before returning via Istanbul and the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , arriving back at the Bay of Kotor on 8 October . On 6 October 1934 , King Alexander left the Bay of Kotor on board Dubrovnik for a state visit to France , arriving in Marseille on 9 October . He was killed that same day by a Bulgarian assassin , and Dubrovnik conveyed his body back to Yugoslavia , escorted by French , Italian and British ships . Soon after , Vladimir Šaškijević replaced Pavić as captain . In August 1935 , Dubrovnik visited Corfu and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . In August 1937 , Dubrovnik visited Istanbul and the Greek ports of Mudros in the northern Aegean Sea and Piraeus near Athens .
In April 1941 , Yugoslavia entered World War II when it was invaded by the German @-@ led Axis powers . At the time , Dubrovnik was still under the command of Šaškijević and was assigned as flagship of the 1st Torpedo Division , along with the three smaller Beograd @-@ class destroyers , Beograd , Ljubljana and Zagreb .
= = = Premuda = = =
The Italians captured Dubrovnik in the Bay of Kotor on 17 April 1941 ; she had been damaged by Yugoslav civilians prior to her seizure . Dubrovnik was sailed to Taranto in southern Italy on 21 May , where she underwent repairs and a refit . She was renamed Premuda , after the Dalmatian island near which an Italian motor torpedo boat had sunk the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought Szent István in June 1918 . Her aft deckhouse and emergency bridge was removed and replaced with an anti @-@ aircraft platform , and her mainmast and funnels were shortened . Her twin Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by a 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L15 howitzer firing star shells for illumination , while the six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by four Breda Model 35 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / L65 machine guns in single mounts . Later in her Italian service , the 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) howitzer was replaced by a twin Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / L54 anti @-@ aircraft gun mount . In Italian service , her crew consisted of 13 officers and 191 enlisted ranks .
Premuda was commissioned in the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) in February 1942 . Later that month she rescued British prisoners of war who survived the sinking of the SS Ariosto , an Italian ship ferrying them from Tripoli to Sicily . In early June , the Italian submarine Alagi fired on Premuda , mistaking her for a British destroyer due to her similarities with a British H @-@ class destroyer . The attack missed Premuda and struck the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Antoniotto Usodimare , sinking her . From 12 – 16 June 1942 , Premuda took part in operations against the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to reach the beleaguered island of Malta from Gibraltar . As part of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla , Premuda supported the Italian 7th Cruiser Squadron , comprising the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia and Raimondo Montecuccoli . The force that attacked the Operation Harpoon convoy included most of the fighting power of the Italian Navy , including two battleships and two heavy cruisers . The Allied naval escort lost one cruiser , three destroyers and several merchant ships to a combination of air attacks , submarines and naval mines . One Italian battleship was damaged , and the Trento @-@ class cruiser Trento was sunk . One of the other damaged Italian ships was the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Ugolino Vivaldi , and Premuda was tasked to tow her to safety in the harbour of Pantelleria , an island in the Strait of Sicily , under escort from the destroyer Lanzerotto Malocello .
On 6 – 7 January 1943 , Premuda and 13 other Italian destroyers transported troops to the Axis @-@ held port of Tunis in North Africa , completing two more such missions over the next two months . On 17 July , she developed serious engine problems in the Ligurian Sea near La Spezia , and was brought to Genoa for a major boiler and engine overhaul . It was decided to rebuild her along the lines of the Navigatori @-@ class , including a wider beam to improve her stability . As shells for her Škoda @-@ built main guns were in short supply , the decision was made to replace them with Italian @-@ made 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) / L45 guns in single mounts . The rebuild had not been completed when Italy surrendered to the Allies , and Premuda was seized by Germany at Genoa on 9 September 1943 . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .
= = = TA32 = = =
When she was captured by the Germans , Premuda 's new guns had not been completed . Their initial plans called for the ship to serve as a radar picket for night fighters , with three 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts , Freya early @-@ warning radar , Würzburg gun @-@ laying radar and a FuMO 21 surface fire @-@ control system . These plans were soon abandoned due to the German lack of destroyers and torpedo boats in the Mediterranean , and the decision was made to commission her as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with a DeTe radar instead of the Freya and Würzburg radar sets . Her armament was replaced with four 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 naval guns , eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and between thirty @-@ two and thirty @-@ six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns in quadruple and twin mounts . The number of torpedo tubes was reduced from six to three . The number of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns was later increased to ten , in four twin and two single mounts . In German service , she had a total crew of 220 officers and men .
She was commissioned in the German Navy ( German : Kriegsmarine ) on 18 August 1944 , as TA32 , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Emil Kopka . She served in the Ligurian Sea with the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla , and was immediately committed to shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast , then scouting and minelaying tasks in the western Gulf of Genoa . On 2 October 1944 , TA32 , along with TA24 and TA29 , sailed towards Sanremo to lay mines , where they encountered the destroyer USS Gleaves . After exchanging fire , the three ships returned to Genoa without being hit . By mid @-@ March 1945 , TA32 , TA24 and TA29 were the only ships of the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla that remained operational . On the night of 17 – 18 March 1945 , TA32 placed 76 naval mines off Cap Corse , the northern tip of Corsica , in an offensive minelaying operation , along with TA24 and TA29 . After being detected by a shore based radar , the ships were engaged by the destroyers HMS Lookout and HMS Meteor , in what would become known as the Battle of the Ligurian Sea . Outgunned , TA24 and TA29 were sunk , while TA32 managed to escape with light damage to her rudder , after firing a few rounds and making an unsuccessful torpedo attack . TA32 was finally scuttled at Genoa on 24 April 1945 , as the Germans retreated . Her wreck was raised and broken up in 1950 .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
= Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle =
" Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle " is the series finale for the Nickelodeon television series Avatar : The Last Airbender . It was directed by Ethan Spaulding , Giancarlo Volpe , and Joaquim Dos Santos , and written by Michael Dante DiMartino , Bryan Konietzko , and Aaron Ehasz . Although the finale is split into four episodes , it aired as a two @-@ hour four @-@ part movie on July 19 , 2008 . Before the week of July 14 – 19 , no episodes had been shown since November 30 , 2007 . The Saturday airing of Sozin 's Comet acted as a climax to a week of ten new episodes that concluded Avatar 's third season .
The finale focuses on series protagonist Aang 's non @-@ violent personality and his reluctance to kill Fire Lord Ozai . The finale also follows the exploits of many of Aang 's friends and allies , including Sokka , Toph and Suki 's struggle to destroy a Fire Nation airship armada , Zuko and Katara 's battle against Zuko 's sister Azula , and Iroh , King Bumi , and the Order of the White Lotus ' attempt to liberate Ba Sing Se .
Sozin 's Comet received positive reception from critics and fans alike . The initial showing averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , a 195 % increase in ratings compared with ratings from mid @-@ July 2007 . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet 's release received over 19 million views , of which 5 @.@ 6 million were from the premiere of Sozin 's Comet . At the 2008 Annie Awards , the director of the third part of Sozin 's Comet won an award for " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " .
Although " Sozin 's Comet " is the series finale , Avatar : The Last Airbender has continued as an ongoing graphic novel series , taking place after the finale and before the sequel series The Legend of Korra , which has been published by Dark Horse Comics since January 2012 , with each annual story arc split into three parts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 : " The Phoenix King " = = =
Aang suddenly abandons his Firebending lesson with Zuko to have a beach party , causing Zuko to attack him in his frustration . Aang explains he plans to challenge Fire Lord Ozai only after Sozin 's Comet and its enhancement of Firebending have come and gone , due to his own self @-@ perceived lack of Firebending skills at the moment . When Zuko tells the group Ozai plans to use the comet 's power to burn down the Earth Kingdom , Aang resolves to face him before the comet arrives . Sokka decides to have a simulation fight against a scarecrow , but Aang refuses to kill it due to his pacifistic nature and non @-@ violent upbringing , and even berates his friends as they tell him that he may eventually have no choice but to kill Ozai .
That night , Aang sleepwalks to an island not to be found in the morning . After the group fails to locate him , Zuko takes them to June , a tracker who might be able to locate Aang . Meanwhile , Fire Lord Ozai proclaims himself to be ruler of the world , under the title " Phoenix King " , and declares Azula to be the new Fire Lord , setting off to burn the world and rebuild it under his new order .
= = = Part 2 : " The Old Masters " = = =
Zuko 's tracker , June , is unable to locate Aang , but he is reunited with his uncle , Iroh , who reconcile with each other after Zuko 's betrayal in Ba Sing Se . He and several other characters ( Katara 's Waterbending master Pakku , Aang 's first Firebending instructor Jeong Jeong , Aang 's Earthbender friend King Bumi , and Sokka 's swordmaster Piandao ) are part of an otherwise non @-@ aligned group known as the " Order of the White Lotus " , which plans to liberate the Earth Kingdom capital , Ba Sing Se , from Fire Nation rule . Zuko and Katara decide to fight Azula in the Fire Nation capital while Sokka , Toph , and Suki attempt to destroy the airship fleet .
Meanwhile , Aang awakens on a floating island . Frustrated with his inability to find a way to defeat Ozai without killing him , he asks four of his past lives for advice . Unsatisfied with their answers , he asks the island for help . The island , which is actually a giant " lion @-@ turtle " , provides Aang with the power of energybending and leaves him on the Earth Kingdom shores while Ozai readies his airship fleet for takeoff .
= = = Part 3 : " Into the Inferno " = = =
The Comet appears in the sky , and Azula 's coronation takes place . Azula banishes nearly all of her subjects ( including her Dai Li agents ) in fear of betrayal , haunted by the actions of former friends Mai and Ty Lee in " The Boiling Rock , Part 2 " . Her paranoia and loneliness begin to drive her insane . Before she is crowned , Zuko and Katara arrive . Zuko accepts Azula 's challenge of an Agni Kai , or " fire duel " , because he feels that something is wrong with Azula and he does not want Katara injured . Just as Zuko is on the verge of defeating Azula , she shoots a bolt of lightning at Katara instead of Zuko . Zuko throws himself in front of her and intercepts the lightning , preventing Katara from getting hurt , but he gravely injures himself after he fails to correctly redirect the lightning .
Meanwhile , Sokka , Toph , and Suki hijack a Fire Nation airship , and use it to destroy many others , effectively stopping Ozai 's plan of incinerating the Earth Kingdom . In Ba Sing Se , the Order of the White Lotus , led by Iroh , lays siege to the Fire Nation forces within the city , with the sole intention of re @-@ conquering it in the name of the Earth Kingdom . Aang reappears and begins to duel the Fire Lord . However , when Aang successfully redirects lightning he intentionally aims it into the sky to avoid killing Ozai . Because of Aang 's pacifism , Ozai begins to gain the advantage .
= = = Part 4 : " Avatar Aang " = = =
Zuko lies on the ground twitching as Katara and Azula fight . After several minutes of running and being unable to gain the advantage at first , Katara freezes Azula and chains her to the ground defeating her . Katara then uses her waterbending to revive and heal Zuko . As a result of her defeat by two people she considers less than worthless , Azula 's mind finally snaps and she screams and sobs in fury , breathing blue fire out of her mouth , yet unable to escape her chains .
After a fierce battle , Ozai slams Aang into a rock , hitting the scar on his back from Azula 's lightning in the previous season and inadvertently releasing his locked seventh chakra , allowing Aang to enter the Avatar State . With the combined power of his past lives , Aang quickly overwhelms Ozai . Once Ozai is subdued , Aang refuses to kill him , instead locking him down with earth ; understanding the lion @-@ turtle 's meaning , he uses Energybending to strip Ozai of his Firebending powers , removing his ability to wage war . Then Aang raises and lowers the nearby ocean to undo the damage from the Fire Nation ; Sozin 's Comet vanishes beyond the horizon afterward .
The Order of the White Lotus liberates Ba Sing Se in the name of the Earth King . During his coronation , Zuko promises
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there along with an ally from the Convention , Philippe @-@ François @-@ Joseph Le Bas . The two men were charged with " extraordinary powers " to impose discipline and reorganize the troops .
From the start , Saint @-@ Just dominated the mission . He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers . On his first day at the front , he issued a proclamation promising " examples of justice and severity as the Army has not yet witnessed . " Within a short time , many officers were dismissed and many more were executed by firing squad , including at least one general . The entire army was placed immediately under the harshest discipline .
Among soldiers and civilians alike , Saint @-@ Just repressed opponents of the Revolution but he did not agree to the mass executions ordered by some of the other deputies on the mission . He vetoed much of the deputies ' work and had many of them recalled to Paris . Local politicians were even more vulnerable to him : even the powerful Eulogius Schneider , the revolutionary leader of Alsace 's largest city and called the " Marat of Strasbourg " , was arrested by Saint @-@ Just 's orders and rapidly dispatched to the guillotine . Saint @-@ Just worked closely only with General Charles Pichegru , a reliable Jacobin whom he respected . Under Saint @-@ Just 's unblinking surveillance , Pichegru and General Lazare Hoche ably secured the frontier and began an invasion of the German Rhineland .
With the army revitalized , Saint @-@ Just returned briefly to Paris where his success was applauded . However , there was little time to celebrate . He was quickly sent back to the frontlines , this time in Belgium where the Army of the North was experiencing the same problems of discipline and organization . Again he delivered results ruthlessly and effectively , but after less than a month the mission was cut short . As Paris convulsed in political violence , his assistance was required by Robespierre .
= = President of the Convention = =
With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed , the left @-@ wing Montagnards , led by the Jacobins and Robespierre , controlled the Convention . In these circumstances , on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution ( 19 February 1794 ) , Saint @-@ Just was elected president of the National Convention .
With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees , under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic émigré property and distribute it to needy sans @-@ culottes . But these acts of wealth redistribution , arguably the most revolutionary acts of the French Revolution , never went into operation . The Committee faltered in creating procedures for their enforcement , and the frantic pace of unfolding political events left them behind .
Opponents of the Jacobins saw the Ventôse Decrees as a cynical ploy to appeal to the militant extreme left . Sincere or not , Saint @-@ Just made impassioned arguments for them . One week after their adoption , Saint @-@ Just urged that the Decrees be exercised vigorously , and hailed them for ushering in a new era : " Eliminate the poverty that dishonors a free state ; the property of patriots is sacred but the goods of conspirators are there for the wretched . The wretched are the powerful of the earth ; they have the right to speak as masters to the governments who neglect them . "
= = = Germinal = = =
As the spring of 1794 approached , the Committee of Public Safety , led by Robespierre , Couthon , Lebas and Saint @-@ Just , exercised near complete control over the government . Despite the vast reach of their powers , however , rivals and enemies remained . One of the thorniest problems , at least to Robespierre , came in the shape of the populist agitator Jacques Hébert , who discharged torrents of criticism against bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper , Le Père Duchesne . Ultra @-@ radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the sans @-@ culottes , and the most extreme Hébertists even called openly for insurrection .
Saint @-@ Just , in his role as president of the Convention , announced unequivocally that " whoever vilified or attacked the dignity of the revolutionary government should be condemned to death " , and the Convention agreed in a vote on 13 Ventôse . Hébert and his closest associates were arrested the following day . Saint @-@ Just vowed , " No more pity , no weakness towards the guilty ... Henceforth the government will pardon no more crimes , " and on 4 Germinal ( 24 March 1794 ) , the Revolutionary Tribunal sent Hébert , Ronsin , Vincent and most other prominent Hébertists to the guillotine .
The ongoing political combat – bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror – spread more and more widely . When the Hébertists fell , Robespierre felt compelled to eliminate his other rivals in the Cordeliers , starting with Fabre d 'Églantine and his close friend Georges Danton . These powerful deputies were difficult prey , but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a " convenient pretext " . Robespierre again sent Saint @-@ Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee " report " ( 31 March 1794 ) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and " the last partisans of royalism " . After a tumultuous show @-@ trial , Fabre , Desmoulins , and other top supporters of Danton went to the scaffold with their leader on 16 Germinal ( 5 April 1794 ) . In his report , Saint @-@ Just had promised that this would be a " final cleansing " of the Republic 's enemies .
The violent removal of the Hébertists and Dantonists provided only a mirage of stability for Saint @-@ Just and Robespierre . The deaths caused deep resentment and their absence only made it more difficult for the Jacobins to influence the dangerously unpredictable masses of sans @-@ culottes . This lack of support in the street would prove fatal during the events of Thermidor .
As the deliverer of Committee reports , Saint @-@ Just served as the public face of the Terror , and he became known widely as the " Angel of Death " . After the events of Germinal , Saint @-@ Just intensified his control over the state @-@ security apparatus . He created a new bureau of " general police " for the Committee of Public Safety which matched – and usurped – the powers that had been given officially to the Committee of General Security . Shortly after its establishment , however , administration of the new bureau passed to Robespierre when Saint @-@ Just left Paris once more for the front lines .
= = Last days = =
= = = Battle of Fleurus = = =
Sent back on mission to the army in Belgium , Saint @-@ Just again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus . This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 sent the Austrian army into retreat and marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition . France would remain on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797 . After his return from the battle , Saint @-@ Just was treated as a hero and " cheered from all sides . "
Back in Paris , Saint @-@ Just discovered that Robespierre 's political position had degraded significantly . As the Terror reached its apogee – the so @-@ called " Great Terror " – the danger of a counterstrike by his enemies became almost inevitable . Saint @-@ Just , however , remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre . The French victory at Fleurus , and others which followed , reduced the need for national security during the war which had been predicated as a justification for the Terror . " The excuse for the Terror was at an end . " Opponents of the Terror used Saint @-@ Just 's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793 .
With political combat reaching a fever pitch , the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the " Law of Suspects " – the Law of 22 Prairial . With it , a new category of " enemies of the people " was established in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused . Defendants were not permitted legal counsel and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death . The bill was swiftly shepherded into law by Robespierre , and although Saint @-@ Just was not directly involved in its composition , he was certainly supportive . The new statutes defined the Great Terror : in their first month , the average of executions in Paris rose from five per day to seventeen , soaring in the following month to twenty @-@ six .
The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of Robespierre . Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention , and Saint @-@ Just was compelled to address the division . Barère and other Thermidorians have claimed that he proposed a dictatorship for Robespierre , but nonetheless some of them considered him to be redeemable , or at least useful – until he delivered his uncompromising public defence of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor ( 27 July 1794 ) .
= = = Thermidor = = =
On the dais , Saint @-@ Just declared the absolute necessity of current law , and conspiring deputies buzzed angrily as he spoke . Finally several of them physically shoved him away from the lectern , and each started his own address in which they called for the removal of Robespierre and all his supporters . Amid the uproar , recalled Barras , Saint @-@ Just " did not leave the platform , in spite of the interruptions which would have driven any one else away . He only came down a few steps , then mounted again , to continue his discourse proudly ... Motionless , unmoved , he seemed to defy everyone with his calm . "
Saint @-@ Just saved his dignity at the lectern but not his life . Rising in his support , Robespierre sputtered and lost his voice ; his brother Augustin , Philippe Lebas , and other key allies all tried to sway the deputies , but failed . The meeting ended with an order for their arrest . Saint @-@ Just , still on the platform , remained unmoved and " looked on contemptuously " at the scene . His confidence seemed validated when troops from the Paris Commune under Hanriot arrived to liberate them , but within hours the entire group was confined to the Hôtel de Ville . When soldiers finally broke inside , a number of the defeated Jacobins tried to commit suicide ; Saint @-@ Just stood beside Lebas who shot himself in the head . Any contemplation of his own suicide is unclear , but he alone emerged unruffled from the wild , violent final arrest – among the captured , " only St. Just , his hands bound but his head held high , was able to walk . " Robespierre , Saint @-@ Just and twenty of their allies were guillotined the next day , and Saint @-@ Just reputedly accepted his death with coolness and pride . At a last formality of identification , he gestured to a copy of the Constitution of 1793 and said , " I am the one who made that . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Other writings = = =
Throughout his lifetime , Saint @-@ Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution , but he did not survive to see any of them published . They have been collected and edited in various Œuvres complètes . These include Organt , L 'Esprit de la Revolution , published speeches and legislative proposals , as well as military orders , notes , drafts , and private correspondence .
Many of Saint @-@ Just 's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society – they were published as a single volume , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines . The proposals were far more radical than the constitution of 1793 , and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta . Many of them are interpreted as proto @-@ socialist precepts : the overarching theme is equality , which Saint @-@ Just at one point summarizes as " Man must be independent ... There should be neither rich nor poor . "
= = = = De la Nature = = = =
Saint @-@ Just also composed a lengthy draft of his own philosophical views , De la Nature , which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951 . Soboul first published this work in 1951 under the title " Un manuscrit oublié de Saint @-@ Just " in the Annales historiques de la révolution française , No. 124 . An expanded version is included in Alain Liénard 's Saint @-@ Just , théorie politique and later versions of Œuvres complètes . De la Nature outlines Saint @-@ Just 's ideas on the nature of society ; the actual date it was written is disputed , but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792 .
Based on the assumption that man is a social animal , Saint @-@ Just argues that in nature there is no need for contracts , legislation , or acts of force . These constructs only become necessary when a society is in need of moral regeneration and serve merely as unsatisfactory substitutes for the natural bonds of free people . Such constructs permit small groups to assume unwarranted powers which , according to Saint @-@ Just , leads to corruption within society . Because a return to the natural state is impossible , Saint @-@ Just argues for a government composed of the most educated members of society , who could be expected to share an understanding of the larger social good . Outside the government itself , Saint @-@ Just asserts there must be full equality between all men , including equal
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security in material possessions and personal independence . Property must be protected by the state but , in order to secure universal independence , all citizens ( including women ) must own property .
= = = = Posthumous publications = = = =
Saint @-@ Just , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines ( French )
Saint @-@ Just , Théorie politique , edited by Alain Liénard , Seuil , Paris , 1976 . ( French )
= = = = Complete collections = = = =
Œuvres de Saint @-@ Just , précédés d 'une notice historique sur sa vie edited by Adolphe Havard , Paris , 1834 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes de Saint @-@ Just in two volumes edited by Charles Vellay , Paris , 1908 . ( French )
Œuvres choisies , with introduction by Jean Gratien , Paris , 1946 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes , edited by Michèle Duval , Paris , 1984 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes , edited by Anne Kupiec and Miguel Abensour , Paris , 2004 . ( French )
= = = Character = = =
Ambitious and active @-@ minded , Saint @-@ Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals : " For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb . " He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant , believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character . This self @-@ assurance manifested itself in a superiority complex , and he always “ made it clear … that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law . ” Camille Desmoulins once wrote of Saint @-@ Just , " He carries his head like a sacred host . "
Saint @-@ Just 's rise to power wrought a remarkable change in his personality . Freewheeling and passionate in his youth , Saint @-@ Just quickly became focused , " tyrannical and pitilessly thorough . " He became " the ice @-@ cold ideologist of republican purity , " " as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions . " A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of Thérèse Gellé , who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint @-@ Just in late 1793 . Saint @-@ Just – who had already developed something of a relationship , tepid but potentially expedient , with the sister of his colleague Lebas – refused to see her . Gelle stayed there for over a year , returning to Blérancourt only after Saint @-@ Just was dead . No record exists of any exchanges they might have had , but Saint @-@ Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to " citizen Thorin " .
In his public speaking , Saint @-@ Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre . Regarding France 's internal strife , he spared few : “ You have to punish not only the traitors , but even those who are indifferent ; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic , and who does nothing for it . ” He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies , to enforce the “ complete destruction of its opposite . ” Regarding the war , he declared without regret to the Convention , “ The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood . ” He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that “ a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses . ”
Despite his flaws , Saint @-@ Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions . Although his words and actions may be viewed as reprehensible , his commitment to them is rarely questioned : he was " implacable but sincere " . Like Robespierre , he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda .
= = = = Camus and Saint @-@ Just = = = =
In Albert Camus 's The Rebel ( 1951 ) , Saint @-@ Just is discussed extensively in the context of an analysis of rebellion and man 's progression towards enlightenment and freedom . Camus identifies Saint @-@ Just 's successful argument for the execution of Louis XVI as the moment of death for monarchical divine right , a Nietzschean Twilight of the Idols . Saint @-@ Just 's dedication to " the sovereignty of the people and the sacred power of laws " is described as " a source of absolutism " and indeed " the new God " . His kind of " deification of the political " is examined as the source of the creeping totalitarianism which grew so powerfully in Camus ' own lifetime .
= = = = In popular culture = = = =
Representations of Saint @-@ Just include those found in the novel Stello ( 1832 ) by Alfred de Vigny , and in the plays Danton 's Death ( 1835 , by Georg Büchner ) and Poor Bitos ( Pauvre Bitos , ou Le dîner de têtes , 1956 , by Jean Anouilh ) . In film , Saint @-@ Just has been portrayed by Abel Gance in Napoléon ( 1927 ) ; Jess Barker in Reign of Terror ( 1949 ) ; Bogusław Linda in Danton ( 1983 ) ; and Christopher Thompson in La Révolution française ( 1989 ) . Jean @-@ Pierre Léaud plays a surreal caricature of Saint @-@ Just in Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's Week End ( 1967 ) . Saint @-@ Just is the main character in the fantasy novel Light from Aphelion : Rising from Dust ( 2016 , by Martine Carlsson ) .
= Feeling This =
" Feeling This " is a song recorded by American rock band Blink @-@ 182 for their eponymously titled fifth studio album ( 2003 ) . The song was released as the lead single from Blink @-@ 182 on October 2 , 2003 through Geffen Records . It was written by guitarist Tom DeLonge , bassist Mark Hoppus , and drummer Travis Barker , and was produced and mixed by Jerry Finn . The song originated on the first day of producing the album . Its lyrics are purely sexual in nature ; the band attempted to juxtapose lust and passion between verses and choruses , thematically connected with a wistful , regretful tone .
The song 's composition contains elements of spoken word in the verses and a Latin @-@ inspired backbeat in the chorus , and the song ends in a melodic , harmonized duet split between DeLonge and Hoppus . Elements of the song were inspired by rock groups Led Zeppelin and the Beach Boys . The song 's music video , photographed by David LaChapelle , depicts a dystopian correctional facility that is overtaken by its inmates . An early version of the song , erroneously titled " Action " , was released on the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 .
" Feeling This " received critical acclaim and the song peaked to number two on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 2003 . It was also a top 20 hit in the United Kingdom and Australia . The digital single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 . Blink @-@ 182 has performed " Feeling This " in a number of live appearances , including on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
= = Background = =
" Feeling This " was the first track that was recorded for Blink @-@ 182 in early 2003 . On the first day of pre @-@ production on the album , bassist Mark Hoppus asked an engineer to explain Pro Tools to him , as it was the first time the band would record their music digitally . He began recording guitar and bass parts and experimenting with the software . When guitarist Tom DeLonge and drummer Travis Barker arrived , they too began adding new tracks to the project . The song was written in one day . " I think if I sit there and try to analyze everything , what would be cool here or there , I just feel like I get so far away from what I would do , and I think your gut instinct is usually the best thing , " said Barker at the time .
The lyrics were written with Hoppus and DeLonge going into separate rooms — Hoppus writing the choruses and DeLonge writing the verses . The two had not spoken to each other about the lyrics ahead of time , and it turned out that the two had both written about sex . When put together , the song represents the lustful side of sex during the verses , the passionate side in the bridge and the romantic side in the chorus , creating a juxtaposition between both voices . It has been interpreted as a description for failed romance , one that " illustrates a scenario of lust , ambivalence and regret . " For Barker , the song 's drum track was " super in respect to John Bonham . [ ... ] We were kind of messing around with the verse . It ’ s like , ' Well , I want to do a four @-@ bar drum intro and just see how it works for the song . ' And we never second @-@ guessed it . We were like , ' That sounds rad . ' "
According to engineer Ryan Hewitt , the track contains " four distinct drum sounds created by old school tape editing . " The song was recorded " part @-@ by @-@ part , committing to different sounds by changing relative levels , EQ , and compression throughout , " and the engineers would slightly move microphones used to record Barker 's drum kit to tailor the natural ambience of the home it was recorded in . Upon playback of a rough mix of the song , the engineer automated the music to fade at the song 's conclusion , but mistakenly forgot to do the same for the vocal tracks . Hoppus , who had been listening to the Beach Boys at the time , liked the a cappella interplay of their voices . All agreed to keep it in the final version of the song .
= = Composition = =
The song is composed in the key of E major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 173 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from E3 to B4 .
" Feeling This " opens with flanged drums . Although computer technology offered it during the album ’ s production , according to Hoppus , the band opted to produce the effect " the old school way " , opting for two tape machines . Originally taking root as a faster @-@ paced drum ' n ' bass @-@ inspired track , Barker imitated that genre 's groove on open hi @-@ hats . The influence of John Bonham is most explicit in the song 's first few seconds , in which Barker performs eighth @-@ note triplets on his bass drum , much like the Led Zeppelin song " Good Times Bad Times " ( 1969 ) . Following a sample from Captain America ( 1990 ) — " Get ready for action ! — the song moves into a " stabbing guitar rhythm " over the verses , which are " half @-@ barked " and contain delivery reminiscent of hip @-@ hop . The " harmony @-@ rich " chorus of the song , which contains the refrain " Fate fell short this time , smile fades in the summer / Place your hand in mine , I 'll leave when I wanna " , is replete with a " syncopated Latin @-@ flavored backbeat . " In the chorus , Barker plays a cowbell , which he initially included as a joke , believing Hoppus and DeLonge would " hate it . "
The song is particularly memorable for a section of the chorus of the song ( right before the bridge begins ) , in which guitarist Tom DeLonge sings the vocals loudly and off @-@ key . According to the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , DeLonge stated that the recording was done in a 30 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) living room at the home previously mentioned , with microphones 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) away . The end of the song is a melodic duet between the band 's two vocalists , both singing conflicting but harmonizing parts .
= = Release = =
Blink @-@ 182 first performed " Feeling This " alongside other new songs from Blink @-@ 182 during their performances at the 2003 Reading and Leeds festivals . The band picked " Feeling This " as the first single because they felt it representative of the transition they had undergone since their fourth studio album , Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) . A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title " Action " . Barker explained in an interview that " ' Action ' just sounded kind of dorky to us . Like we would always call it ' Feeling This ' and then someone at our label , I think , like wrote it as ' Action ' one time and sent out singles to people . And it was always supposed to be ' Feeling This ' . "
To promote Blink @-@ 182 , the group performed " Feeling This " , as well as their past hit " Dammit " on Total Request Live on November 11 , 2003 , and on the late @-@ night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in November 26 , 2003 . Richard Cheese covered the song on their 2004 album I 'd Like a Virgin .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Feeling This " debuted at number 40 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart on October 18 , 2003 , jumping to number 13 in its second week , which was at that time the fourth @-@ biggest move in the history of that chart . The song moved upwards on the chart over the following weeks , eventually achieving a peak of number two on November 29 , 2003 . It remained at number two for two more weeks before dropping to number three , after which it continued dropping before exiting the top 20 on February 21 , 2004 . In total , it spent nine weeks on the chart . It spent eight weeks on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , which acts as an extension to the Billboard Hot 100 chart ; it peaked at number two on December 20 , 2003 .
In the United Kingdom , " Feeling This " debuted at number 15 on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending date November 30 , 2003 . It dropped to number 35 the following week before exiting the chart on December 28 ; in all , it spent ten weeks on the chart .
= = Critical reception = =
" Feeling This " received favorable reviews from music critics . Kelefa Sanneh , writing for The New York Times felt the song was an " appealing hybrid , " while noting the growing popularity of emo could have influenced the " more anguished " tone . Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly praised the vocal harmonies , calling them reminiscent of Queen . Joshua Klein of The Washington Post similarly complimented the interplay between DeLonge and Hoppus and its " multiple @-@ perspective portrait of first love . " Andy Doerschuk of Drum ! praised Barker 's " fat , syncopated beat " and noted elements of Bonham as well as James Brown 's drummers . Rolling Stone 's Jenny Eliscu made note of its " catchy hooks " , while Stephen Thompson , writing for The A.V. Club , considered it among many songs on the album that were " straightforwardly conventional . "
= = Music video = =
The video follows students at a dystopian @-@ based correctional facility who rebel and take over the establishment , intertwined with shots of the band performing outside the prison in a cage , providing a " soundtrack to the chaos . " Hoppus described their idea for the facility : " It 's kind of a combination of prep school and reform school , and it 's very repressed and kids are being held down . There is a lot of authority and a lot of strict regiment , and the kids lash out and take over the school and destroy the place . " The band 's main goal for the video was for it to resemble an art piece , much in the same way they viewed the production of the album , to keep in line with tone . To this end , they enlisted director David LaChapelle . LaChapelle 's input — which " ranges from an evil prison warden cracking a whip at marching school kids to escapees ripping their uniforms and doing acrobatic moves down the hallways " — was regarded by the band as " completely wacked out and twisted , which is exactly what we love . "
In the narrative , the boys and girls are separated at the school and sexually repressed , and release their energies when they meet between a glass window . The clip was shot at the abandoned Lincoln Heights Jail north of downtown Los Angeles .
= = Formats and track listings = =
All songs written and composed by Tom DeLonge , Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker , except where noted .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Blink @-@ 182 , Geffen Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Scipione Piattoli =
Scipione Piattoli ( Italian pronunciation : [ ʃiˈpjoːne ˈpjattoli ] ; November 10 , 1749 – April 12 , 1809 ) was an Italian Catholic priest — a Piarist — an educator , writer and political activist , and a major figure of the Enlightenment in Poland . After ten years as a professor at the University of Modena in Italy , he migrated to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , where he became associated with several magnate families — the Potockis , Lubomirskis and Czartoryskis . He was a member of the Duchess Dorothea von Medem 's court in Courland ( Lithuania ) and of King Stanisław August Poniatowski 's court in the Commonwealth .
Piattoli was politically active in Warsaw during and after the Four @-@ Year Sejm ( 1788 – 92 ) . He served as intermediary between the reformist Patriotic Party and King Stanisław August Poniatowski , and as an aide to the King ( 1789 – 93 ) . He is best remembered for his participation in drafting the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , a milestone act in the history of Polish political legislation . He was one of the organizers of the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence in 1794 , which was the last armed struggle to be held under the banners of the Commonwealth . After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 , Piattoli was interned by the Austrians for several years , together with another Polish activist of the Constitution movement , Hugo Kołłątaj . Freed in 1800 , he worked several years with Polish and Russian statesman Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski in the service of Russia , before retiring to Courland .
Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .
= = Early life = =
Scipione Piattoli was born in Florence on November 10 , 1749 , to a family of painters ( father , Gaetano Piattoli ; mother , Maria Anna Bacherini ; brother , Giuseppe Piattoli ) .
In 1763 he joined the Piarist order , taking the name Urban . Some historians have questioned whether he ever took Holy Orders ; in any case he was known for a rather secular lifestyle . He taught rhetoric in Piarist schools in Messa and Corregio , and got his doctorate from the University of Florence . From 1772 to 1782 he was a professor at the University of Modena , teaching religious history and Greek . Soon he became involved in political activism , and in 1774 he published ( anonymously ) a brochure titled Saggio intorno al luogo del seppellire , which focused on the issue of hygiene and burials near churches . Also in 1774 he received permission to leave the Piarists , and resumed using the name Scipione . He would , however , keep and use the title of " the priest " ( l 'abbé ) for most of his life . By the turn of the decade , Piattoli found himself in a faction that was losing in the politics of Modena , and decided to move , giving up his professorship in 1782 .
Piattoli arrived in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth that year , as a tutor for the sons of Piotr Potocki , a member of the magnate Potocki family . It was said in a contemporary account that his entire material wealth at that time was composed of a “ sizable library ” . Piattoli ended his service with the Potocki family around 1784 due to personal disagreements with Pelagia Potocka and Maria Radziwiłł . In the meantime , he became associated with the Lubomirski family — Izabela Lubomirska in particular — and through them befriended Stanisław Kostka Potocki and Grzegorz Piramowicz . Through Potocki and Piramowicz he became a member of the Society for Elementary Books in 1784 . In the Society he was tasked with writing a textbook on the history of science . Around that time he was also active in Warsaw freemasonry .
Piattoli traveled through Europe in the retinue of the Lubomirski family , including Izabela , and as a tutor of young Henryk Lubomirski . During that time he developed extensive contacts at various European courts in Courland , Austria ( Vienna ) , Italy ( Turin ) and France ( Paris ) . During his three @-@ year stay in the Lubomirskis ' Parisian residence , he was in touch with many important men of the Age of Enlightenment . He met — often through another Florentinian , Filippo Mazzei — Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Thomas Jefferson , the Marquis de Lafayette , Luigi Landriani , Girolamo Lucchesini , and the Marquis de Condorcet . He also corresponded with J. G. Herder . In Poland , he developed close contacts with Ignacy Potocki and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicza . From 1787 he also tutored Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , later an important politician in the Russian Empire , on whom Piattoli would retain significant influence .
= = Reformer and constitution drafter = =
Piattoli developed contacts with notable figures on the Polish political scene , initially from the group opposed to the royal faction . By the end of his stay in Paris , he likely became a supporter of reforms in France and Poland , and begun taking his first serious steps in political activism , through the involvement in the Quattuowirat , a group of magnates planning a ( never realized ) confederacy . He became a foreign member of the Société des Amis des Noirs .
Through his freemason contacts with Pierre Maurice Glayre , Piattoli won the confidence of Poland 's King Stanisław August Poniatowski , becoming his agent in Paris and , by the end of 1789 , his private secretary and librarian , although without any official title . Acting as a sort of cultural aide , Piattoli , who had strong ties to the reformist and often anti @-@ royal opposition , became an important link between the reformers — Ignacy Potocki in particular — and the king . In the words of a Swedish diplomat , L. Engstrom , he was “ like a tireless spring ” , constantly mediating between the two factions .
Due to his association with the reformers , in conservative Rome he became infamous as a staunch supporter of revolutionary ideals and was accused of " democratism " . Vatican diplomats criticized the king for hiring such a " revolutionary " , but the king defended Piattoli quite vividly . In any case , many such claims were exaggerations or rumours spread by his political enemies : according to one such rumour , Piattoli was alleged to incite crowds in France to kill the king . In reality , Piattoli supported the Monarchiens of the French Revolution 's early stages , but more in the direction of peaceful transformation into a constitutional republic than the regicidal excesses .
Between 1790 and 1792 , Piattoli was sent on several sensitive diplomatic missions for the king to Berlin and other places . He was involved in the negotiations of the Polish @-@ Prussian alliance . He collaborated with Ignacy Potocki , helping draft many texts connected with Potocki 's work in the Sejm , the legislature of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was also an active supporter of Poniatowski 's plan for a hereditary succession . Piattoli , as Poniatowski 's secretary and a resident of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , has been credited with winning the King over to the idea of social reforms and with playing a part in the drafting of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . The exact nature of Piattoli 's role in regard to the Constitution remains uncertain ; modern historians disagree to what degree he was an executor , a mediator , or an initiator . He played a role in convincing the King to collaborate with the leaders of the Patriotic Party on drafting a constitution . He might have prepared or expanded drafts of the document , based on discussions among the principal authors , including the King , Hugo Kołłątaj ( another politically active Roman Catholic priest ) and Ignacy Potocki . At a minimum , he seems to have helped catalyze the process . Historian Emanuel Rostworowski describes him as a vital secretary @-@ editor , who certainly participated in related discussions and influenced both Potocki and the king , and calls Piattoli 's quarters in the Royal Palace a “ creche ” of the constitution . Piattoli was , finally , involved in the final preparations for the vote that took place during the Sejm session on May 3 .
Later that month he became a founder of the Friends of the Constitution . He was active in various political causes and worked closely with other key figures in Poland such as Hugo Kołłątaj . He became a trusted adviser to Dorothea von Medem , Duchess of Courland . He supported reforms to improve the status of the burghers and Jews .
= = Final years = =
During the War in Defence of the Constitution in 1792 , Piattoli found himself on another diplomatic mission to Dresden , where he stayed after the Commonwealth 's defeat at the hands of Imperial Russia resulted in the Second Partition of Poland . In Dresden and nearby Leipzig , Piattoli was active in the circles of Polish patriotic emigres , who included Potocki and Kolłątaj . In 1793 he officially parted ways with Poniatowski , receiving a letter in which he was discharged from his service . In 1794 he was involved in the preparations for the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence , and in negotiations with the newly republican France , in which Polish reformists proposed an alliance with France , promising to turn Poland into a second republic in Europe . At the same time , he was involved in much more conservative negotiations with Russians .
In July 1794 he and several other activists were exiled from Leipzig , and Piattoli was soon arrested by the Austrian authorities . After the failure of the Kościuszko Insurrection later in 1794 , many prisoners were set free , but Piattoli was kept imprisoned , together with Kołłątaj , as the Russian authorities insisted that the two were “ extremely dangerous ” . Hence , even after the final Partitions of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Piattoli was kept interned in Prague by the Austrian Empire authorities until 1800 , despite requests for his release from Poniatowski and even Napoleon Bonaparte . His release in 1800 seems to have been the result of efforts of the Czartoryski family and Duchess Dorothea .
After his release he returned to Dorothea 's Courland court , where he served as a tutor for her daughter . Around 1803 he began cooperating with Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , who was now working for the Russian authorities . Around that time , he and Czartoryski authored a plan for a European federal organization of states intended to prevent armed conflicts and to maintain perpetual peace . Piattoli , through Czartoryski , briefly worked in the diplomatic service and administration of the Russians , too . Like Czartoryski , Piattoli tried to push for a more lenient and friendly attitude towards Poland at the Russian court , but with little success .
In 1807 Scipione Piattoli returned to Courland . There he finally settled , abandoned the priesthood , and married one of the ladies of the court . In his final years in Courland he was involved with Courland 's educational system , and hoped to pursue some scientific studies , a lifelong dream for which he never found enough time . He died of a lung infection in Altenburg on April 12 , 1809 . He was buried in a park in Löbichau .
= = Remembrance = =
Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .
= Sudirman =
General of the Army Raden Soedirman ( Perfected Spelling : Sudirman ; 24 January 1916 – 29 January 1950 ) was a high @-@ ranking Indonesian military officer during the Indonesian National Revolution . The first commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces , he continues to be widely respected in the country .
Born in Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies , Sudirman moved to Cilacap in 1916 and was raised by his uncle . A diligent student at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run school , he became respected within the community for his devotion
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Lovefilm and 25 Fireman Street — were influenced by the French New Wave in their experimentation with flashbacks , dream sequences , and unconventional narrative structures built on these techniques .
Szabó emphasizes iconography in his films , insofar as he tends to invest certain objects and places with symbolic meaning . Tram cars play this role in many of his films , and one becomes the central image in Budapest Tales . Budapest itself plays an important role in many of his films , including scenes of the Danube and of buildings Szabó lived in when he was a child .
Acting also plays a key role in Szabó ’ s films , as he values psychological complexity in his central characters . In his first several features , he tended to use the same lead actors over and over — first András Bálint , then Klaus Maria Brandauer . Consistent with this focus on acting , he frequently employs long close @-@ up shots to emphasize the play of emotions on the faces of his characters .
= = = Other work = = =
In addition to writing and directing films , Szabó has also served in a variety of other capacities in the film industry , including writing and directing television movies and episodes , short films , and documentaries , as well as serving as assistant director , screenwriter , producer , and actor in films directed by others . In 1969 , he was a member of the jury at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival .
Szabó has directed several operas , including Tannhäuser in Paris , Boris Godunov in Leipzig , Il Trovatore in Vienna , and Three Sisters in Budapest . He has taught at film schools in Budapest , London , Berlin , and Vienna . In 1989 , he was one of the founding members of the European Film Academy , and , in 1992 , of the Széchenyi Academy of Literature and Arts .
= = Filmography = =
= = Television = =
= = Appearances in documentaries = =
= Jim and Mary McCartney =
James " Jim " McCartney ( 7 July 1902 – 18 March 1976 ) and Mary Patricia McCartney ( née Mohan ) ( 29 September 1909 – 31 October 1956 ) were the parents of musician , author and artist Paul McCartney of the Beatles and Wings , and younger brother photographer and musician Mike McCartney ( better known professionally as Mike McGear ) , who worked with the comedy rock trio the Scaffold .
Like many families in Liverpool , the McCartney and Mohin families are of Irish descent . Jim worked for most of his life in the cotton trade , as well as playing in ragtime and jazz bands in Liverpool , while Mary was a trained nurse and midwife .
The McCartney family lived in council houses during Mary 's life , but Paul later bought his father a house called Rembrandt , in Heswall , Cheshire . Jim encouraged his two sons to take up music by buying instruments for them to learn , as well as improving their education . Mary was Paul 's inspiration for the song , " Let It Be " . After Mary 's death , Jim married Angela Williams and adopted her daughter from a previous marriage , Ruth McCartney .
= = McCartney and Mohin = =
Jim 's great @-@ grandfather , James McCartney ( an upholsterer ) , was born in Ireland , but it was previously unknown where Jim 's grandfather , James McCartney II , was born . New evidence found in Scottish archives suggests that James McCartney moved with his family ( including James McCartney II ) from Ireland to Galloway , Scotland , around 1859 , before moving south and settling in Liverpool .
James II ( a plumber and painter ) married Elizabeth Williams in 1864 , in Liverpool . The pair were both under @-@ age when they were wed , but found a place to live together in Scotland Road . Jim 's father , Joseph " Joe " McCartney ( born 23 November 1866 ) was a tobacco @-@ cutter by trade when he married Florence " Florrie " Clegg ( born 2 June 1874 ) in the Christ Church , Kensington , Liverpool , on 17 May 1896 . Joe never drank alcohol , went to bed at 10 o 'clock every night , and the only swear word he used was " Jaysus " . Florrie was known as " Granny Mac " in the neighbourhood and was often consulted when families had problems .
Mary 's father was born in Tullynamalrow , County Monaghan , Ireland , in 1880 , as Owen Mohan , but permanently changed his name to Mohin when he was at school to avoid confusion with many other pupils with the same surname . After moving to Liverpool , he worked as a coalman , and married Mary Theresa Danher from Toxteth Park , at St. Charles Roman Catholic Church , on 24 April 1905 .
= = = Jim = = =
Jim was born at 8 Fishguard Street , Everton , Liverpool and was the third eldest of seven children . The McCartney children were John ( Jack ) , Edith , James ( Jim ) , Ann , Millie , Jane ( Jin ) and Joe ( who was named after a brother who died in infancy ) . Joe and Florrie McCartney moved shortly after Jim 's birth to 3 Solva Street in Everton , which was a run @-@ down terraced house about three @-@ quarters of a mile from the Liverpool city centre , where Jim attended the Steers Street Primary School off Everton Road . After leaving school at 14 , Jim found work for six shillings a week as a cotton " sample boy " , at A. Hanney & Co . ; a cotton broker in Chapel Street , Liverpool . Jim 's job entailed running up and down Old Hall Street with large bundles of cotton that had to be delivered to cotton brokers or merchants in various salesrooms . He worked ten @-@ hour days , five days a week , although he received a bonus at Christmas that was almost double his annual salary .
When World War II started Jim was too old to be called up for active service , as well as having previously been disqualified on medical grounds after falling from a wall and smashing his left eardrum when 10 years old . After the cotton exchange closed for the duration of the war , Jim worked as an inspector at Napier 's engineering works , which made shell cases that were later filled with explosives . He volunteered to be a fireman at night and often watched Liverpool burning from his rooftop observer 's position . Between 1940 and 1942 , Liverpool endured 68 air @-@ raids , which killed or injured more than 4 @,@ 500 of the population and destroyed more than 10 @,@ 000 homes . After the war he worked as an inspector for Liverpool Corporation 's Cleansing Department before returning to the cotton trade in 1946 .
Jim avidly read the Liverpool Echo or Express , liked solving crosswords and instigated discussions about varied subjects . His attitude to life was based upon self @-@ respect , perseverance , fairness and a strong work ethic . His political views were far from left @-@ wing , as he insisted that there was nothing anyone could do about the situation the working classes were in at the time , and nothing would ever change .
62 @-@ year @-@ old Jim was earning £ 10 a week in 1964 , but Paul suggested that his father should retire , and bought " Rembrandt " ; a detached mock @-@ Tudor house in Baskervyle Road , Heswall , Cheshire , for £ 8 @,@ 750 . He bought his father a horse called " Drake 's Drum " , and a couple of years later , the horse won the race immediately preceding the Grand National .
Jim died of bronchial pneumonia on 18 March 1976 . His second wife , Angela McCartney ( née Williams ) said that his last words were " I 'll be with Mary soon . " Jim died two days before a Wings European tour ; his eldest son was unable to attend the funeral . Jim was cremated at Landican Cemetery , near Heswall , Merseyside on 22 March 1976 .
= = = Mary = = =
Mary Patricia Mohan was born at 2 Third Avenue , Fazakerley , Liverpool . After two years Mary 's father met and married his second wife , Rose , while on a trip to Monaghan , in Ireland . Rose arrived in Liverpool with two children from a previous marriage , but Mary , who had until then been looking after the Mohan family , realised that Rose did not care much for domesticity or her new husband 's children . After a year she chose to live with her aunts . In 1923 , at the age of 14 years , Mary started work as a nurse trainee at the Smithdown Road Hospital , and then took a three @-@ year training course at Walton Road Hospital in Rice Lane , Liverpool ; eventually becoming a state registered nurse .
Mary became a domiciliary health visitor and midwife , and was on @-@ call day or night , riding a bicycle to houses where she was needed as a midwife . Her eldest son , Paul , said his first memory was watching her cycling away when it was snowing heavily . After she had been diagnosed with cancer , Mary still carried on cycling to work , but often doubled up in pain and had trouble breathing . The day Mary was due to have a mastectomy operation , she cleaned the McCartney house and laid her two sons ' school clothes out ; ready for the next day . She said to Dill Mohin , her sister @-@ in @-@ law , " Now everything 's ready for them in case I don 't come back . " Mary died of an embolism on 31 October 1956 , after an operation to stop the spread of breast cancer . Her last words to Dill Mohin were " I would love to have seen the boys growing up . " Mary was buried on 3 November 1956 at Yew Tree Cemetery , Finch Lane , Liverpool . Paul later named his daughter Mary after his mother , and Michael released an album entitled Woman in 1972 , including the song , " Woman , " with a photo of Mary on the front cover .
= = Marriage = =
Mary met her future husband during an air raid on Liverpool in 1940 , when Jim was 38 years old , and had settled into what his friends thought was , " a confirmed bachelorhood . " Mary had been too career @-@ conscious to think of marriage and , at the age of 31 years , was thought of as a spinster . They met in June 1940 , at 11 Scargreen Avenue , West Derby , the McCartney family home . Mary was staying with Jim 's sister , Jin , because of the lack of accommodation in Liverpool at the time . As Mary sat quietly in an armchair , the air @-@ raid sirens sounded at 9 : 30 . At that time , the group moved to the Anderson shelter in the back garden to wait for the all @-@ clear , but as there was an intensive bombing raid , the signal did not come and everyone was thus forced to sit in the cellar until dawn . Mary talked long enough with Jim to become romantically interested in him , and thought that he was " utterly charming and uncomplicated , " as well as being entertained by his " considerable good humour . " They took out a marriage licence at Liverpool Town Hall on 8 April 1941 , and were married a week later at St. Swithin 's Roman Catholic chapel in Gillmoss , West Derby , on 15 April 1941 . They first lived at 10 Sunbury Road , Anfield , and then resided for a short time at 92 Broadway , Wallasey , during November 1942 . Jim 's job at Napiers was classified as war work , so the McCartneys were given a small , but temporary , prefab house at 3 Roach Avenue , Knowsley .
Mary 's job enabled the McCartneys to move to a ground @-@ floor flat at 75 Sir Thomas White Gardens , off St. Domingo Road in Everton , to live in a rent @-@ free flat that was supplied by her employers . They moved shortly after , in February 1946 , to 72 Western Avenue in Speke . In 1948 , the family moved again to 12 Ardwick Road ( also in Speke ) which was part of a new estate in the suburbs of Liverpool . The frequent moves to better areas were Mary 's idea , as she wanted to raise her children in the best neighbourhood possible .
In 1955 , the McCartney family moved for the last time to a small three @-@ bedroomed brick @-@ built terrace house at 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton , which is now owned by The National Trust . It only cost £ 1 : 6s : 0d per week , which was due to Mary 's seniority at the hospital . Before moving to Forthlin Road , Jim had been secretary of the Speke Horticultural Society , and had often sent his sons out to canvass for new members . Jim planted dahlias and snapdragons in the front garden of Forthlin Road and regularly trimmed the lavender hedge , although it was Paul 's job to collect horse manure from the local streets in a bucket to be dug into the flowerbeds . As Jim was a heavy smoker , Jim would first dry and then crush sprigs of Lavender and then burn them ( like incense ) in the ashtrays to kill the smell of his cigarette smoke .
Money was a problem in the McCartney house , as Jim only earned up to £ 6 @.@ 00 a week , which was less than his wife . Because of their financial situation , the McCartney family could not afford to buy a television set until the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 , and never owned a car . His two sons were the first in the McCartney family line to buy cars . When The Beatles became successful , Jim had to leave Forthlin Road because fans used to stand outside and stare through the windows , which made him feel uncomfortable and nervous . Eight years after Mary 's death , Jim married Angela Williams , on 24 November 1964 . Williams had a daughter from a previous marriage , Ruth , whom Jim legally adopted .
= = = Children = = =
James Paul McCartney ( born 18 June 1942 ) and Peter Michael McCartney ( born 7 January 1944 ) were both delivered in the Walton General Hospital in Rice Lane , Liverpool , where Mary had previously worked as a nursing sister in charge of the maternity ward . Mary was welcomed back shortly before she gave birth to her first son by being given a bed in a private ward . Jim was not present at the birth as he was fighting a warehouse fire , but arrived at the hospital two hours later .
As Mary was a Roman Catholic and Jim a Church of England Protestant — who later turned agnostic — their children were baptised Roman Catholic but raised non @-@ denominationally , although Mary had married Jim on the promise that any children would be baptised in the Catholic faith . Although registered on his birth certificate as James Paul McCartney their first son was known as Paul thereafter . The two boys were not enrolled in Catholic schools , as their father believed that they leaned too much towards religion instead of education . Paul remembers his mother encouraging her children to use the Queen 's English and not the Liverpudlian dialect , which was unusual for the area they lived in .
Jim and Mary would often take Paul and Michael for a walk to the local rustic village of Hale ( home of the giant Childe of Hale 's gravesite ) . According to Paul , these frequent trips out of Liverpool to the countryside inspired his love of nature . The McCartneys had a full set of George Newnes encyclopedias which Jim encouraged Paul and Michael to use , and told his sons to look up any word they did not understand . After Paul had passed the Eleven @-@ plus Exam — meaning he would automatically gain a place at the Liverpool Institute — it was hoped that Paul would become a doctor or a teacher . Michael would also attend the Liverpool Institute two years later . After Mary 's death , Paul and Michael were sent to live with Jim 's brother Joe , and his wife Joan , for two months , so as to let their father grieve in private . Jim depended heavily on his sisters , Jin and Millie , to help around the house . Jim later took part in the running of the household , as Cynthia Lennon remembered that when she and John Lennon used to visit Forthlin Road , Jim would often answer the door with his sleeves rolled up , a tea towel in his hand and an apron tied around his waist . When Paul later played at The Cavern during lunchtimes , Jim would drop off food there that Paul would later put in the oven at Forthlin Road . Ruth remembered that Jim was funny and musical with her , but also strict when she was young , and was insistent that she learned good table manners and etiquette when speaking to people .
= = Music = =
Joe McCartney , Jim 's father , was a traditionalist who liked opera and played an E @-@ flat tuba in the local Territorial Army band that played in Stanley Park , and the Copes ' Tobacco factory Brass Band where he worked . He also played the double bass at home , sang , and hoped to interest his children in music . Jim learned how to play the trumpet and piano by ear , and at the age of 17 started playing ragtime music . Joe McCartney thought that ragtime — the most popular music of the period — was " tin @-@ can music " . Jim 's first public appearance was at St Catherine 's Hall , Vine Street , Liverpool , with a band that wore black masks as a gimmick , calling themselves the Masked Melody Makers . He later led Jim Mac 's Jazz Band in the 1920s , with his brother Jack on trombone , and composed his first tune , " Eloise " . Paul would later record it as , " Walking in The Park With Eloise " . Jim had an upright piano in the Forthlin Road front room that he had bought from Harry Epstein 's North End Music Store ( NEMS ) and Brian Epstein , Harry 's son , later became The Beatles ' manager .
Jim had a collection of old , 78 rpm records that he would often play , or perform his musical " party @-@ pieces " — the hits of the time — on the piano . He used to point out the different instruments in songs on the radio to his sons , and took them to local brass band concerts . Jim also taught them a basic idea of harmony between instruments , and Paul credits Jim 's tuition as being helpful when later singing harmonies with Lennon . After Mary 's death , Jim bought Paul a nickel @-@ plated trumpet as a birthday present . When skiffle music became popular , Paul swapped the trumpet for a £ 15 Framus Zenith ( model 17 ) acoustic guitar . Paul also played his father 's Framus Spanish guitar when writing early songs with Lennon .
With encouragement from Jim , Paul started playing the family piano and wrote " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " on it . Jim advised Paul to take some music lessons , which he did , but soon realised that he preferred to learn ' by ear ' ( as his father had done ) and because he never paid attention in music classes . After Paul and Michael became interested in music , Jim connected the radio in the living room to extension cords connected to two pairs of Bakelite headphones so that they could listen to Radio Luxembourg at night when they were in bed .
After first meeting Lennon , Jim warned Paul that he would get him " into trouble " , although he later allowed The Quarrymen to rehearse in the dining room at Forthlin Road in the evenings . Jim was reluctant to let the teenage Paul go to Hamburg with The Beatles until Paul said the group would earn £ 15 per week each . As this was more than he earned himself , Jim finally agreed , but only after a visit from the group 's then @-@ manager , Allan Williams , who said that Jim should not worry . Jim was later present at a Beatles ' concert in Manchester when fans surrounded drummer Pete Best , and ignored the rest of The Beatles . Jim criticised Best by saying , " Why did you have to attract all the attention ? Why didn 't you call the other lads back ? I think that was very selfish of you " . Bill Harry recalled that Jim was probably " The Beatles ' biggest fan " , and was extremely proud of Paul 's success . Shelagh Johnson — later to become director of The Beatles ' Museum in Liverpool — said that Jim 's outward show of pride embarrassed his son . Jim enlisted Michael 's help when sorting through the ever @-@ increasing sacks of fan letters that were delivered to Forthlin Road , with both composing " personal " responses that were supposedly from Paul . Michael would later have success on his own with the group The Scaffold .
= = = Songs = = =
Paul wrote " I Lost My Little Girl " just after Mary had died , and explained that it was a subconscious reference to his late mother . He also wrote " Golden Slumbers " at his father 's house in Heswall , and said the lyrics were taken from Ruth McCartney 's sheet @-@ music copy of Thomas Dekker 's lullaby — also called " Golden Slumbers " — that Ruth had left on the piano at Rembrandt . Hunter Davies , who was at Jim 's house at the time doing an interview for his Beatles ' biography , remembered Jim listening to an acetate disc of " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " . Davies wrote that Paul recorded the song specifically for his father , as Jim was then 64 years old and had married Angela two years previously . Paul wrote " Let It Be " , because of a dream he had in 1968 . He said that he had dreamt of his mother , and the " Mother Mary " lyric was about her . He later said , " It was great to visit with her again . I felt very blessed to have that dream . So that got me writing ' Let It Be ' . "
In 1974 , Paul recorded a song his father had previously written , entitled " Walking in the Park with Eloise " , which was released by Wings under the pseudonym , " The Country Hams " . The Country Hams ' single was backed with a tune entitled " Bridge on the River Suite " . Both songs can be found on the CD Wings at the Speed of Sound from The Paul McCartney Collection .
= M @-@ 99 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 99 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Ohio state border , where it connects to State Route 15 ( SR 15 ) , north to Lansing , where it terminates at a junction with Interstate 496 ( I @-@ 496 ) and the Capitol Loop . The highway mainly serves local communities along the route as it passes through farm lands in the southern part of the state . One segment is routed concurrently with US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in Jonesville while the northern end runs through urban areas on a street named for Martin Luther King , Jr. in Lansing .
The current highway is the third to carry the M @-@ 99 designation . The others were located near Lake Michigan near Muskegon in the Lower Peninsula and Gulliver in the Upper Peninsula in the 1920s and 1930s . The current highway was first designated as parts of M @-@ 34 and M @-@ 64 in 1919 . These numbers were later dropped in favor of an M @-@ 9 designation in 1929 . For part of 1934 , a loop route was designated M @-@ 158 in Hillsdale County that was used for a rerouted M @-@ 9 in the area . The M @-@ 99 designation was applied to the highway in 1940 . Since then , the state has completed paving twice ; one segment was returned to gravel surface for two years in the 1950s . The southern section in Hillsdale County was rerouted in the 1960s , and sections were converted into divided highways in the late 1970s .
= = Route description = =
SR 15 ends at the Michigan state line just north of Pioneer , Ohio , where it becomes M @-@ 99 . The roadway travels northward from the state line on Pioneer Road , through mostly agricultural areas of Hillsdale County before reaching a junction with M @-@ 34 just west of Osseo . The trunkline turns westward on Hudson Road , which curves to the north around Baw Beese Lake just southeast of Hillsdale . M @-@ 99 passes through Hillsdale on a northwest course on Broad Street and Carlton Road , passing just a few blocks to the west of Hillsdale College . After leaving town , the road bends to the north as Olds Street as it runs parallel to the St. Joseph River to Jonesville . In that community , M @-@ 99 intersects US 12 . The two highways run concurrently through Jonesville for less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before M @-@ 99 returns to its northwesterly course . It leaves the town toward Litchfield continuing parallel to the river .
In Litchfield , M @-@ 99 enters the town from the southeast , passing near downtown where it meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 49 . The highway leaves Litchfield heading northwest on Homer Road for a few miles before bending to the north as it crosses into Calhoun County . The trunkline passes through more farmland as it runs toward Homer on Hillsdale Street . In Homer , after passing through a roundabout , M @-@ 99 meets up with M @-@ 60 and the two highways run concurrently through the town to the northeast . The road briefly splits into a divided highway near the end of the concurrency . M @-@ 99 heads north , while M @-@ 60 continues eastward . From here , M @-@ 99 continues northward on 28 Mile Road toward the city of Albion . After crossing the Kalamazoo River in downtown , M @-@ 99 merges with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) . M @-@ 99 continues east concurrently with the business loop on Michigan Avenue passing near Albion College before heading back north to an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 124 ; this interchange marks the end of BL I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 99 continues northward on Eaton Rapids Road .
M @-@ 99 heads north through farmland to the village of Springport where it turns eastward along Main Street as it passes through the town . The highway continues easterly on Eaton Rapids Road before turning northward to cross into Eaton County . Shortly after crossing the county line , M @-@ 50 comes in from the southwest to meet up with M @-@ 99 . The two highways travel together into Eaton Rapids . Together they form Main Street in the city before they separate on the north side of town . M @-@ 50 leaves to the northwest as Dexter Road , and M @-@ 99 continues to the northeast as Canal and Michigan streets . For the next few miles , the trunkline splits into a divided highway and runs parallel to the general course of the Grand River . M @-@ 99 crosses the river southeast of Diamondale after the opposing directions merge back together as an undivided highway . North of the river crossing , M @-@ 99 meets I @-@ 96 at the latter 's exit 101 on the southern border of Lansing .
From I @-@ 96 , the road continues north through residential neighborhoods into Lansing as Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard . The highway travels northeasterly through the southern side of the capital city , as far as Jolly Road . There it turns northward through the Old Everett Neighborhood . The street is bordered by commercial properties in this area . M @-@ 99 widens into a boulevard south of the intersection with Mount Hope Avenue before crossing the Grand River . North of the river , the highway is bordered by the site of the former Lansing Car Assembly plant , which for a century produced Oldsmobiles and other GM cars . M @-@ 99 ends at a junction with I @-@ 496 just north of the assembly plant area at exit 5 ; MLK Boulevard continues north from this interchange as the Capitol Loop .
M @-@ 99 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation
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of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 99 were the 32 @,@ 262 vehicles daily north of Mount Hope Avenue in Lansing ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 300 vehicles per day between the state line and the M @-@ 34 junction . No section of M @-@ 99 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
When the state highway system was originally signed in 1919 , M @-@ 99 was designated on a road between the Lake Michigan shoreline and M @-@ 11 ( now US 31 ) between Muskegon and Hart . This highway was decommissioned in 1929 . In 1931 , M @-@ 99 was designated on a gravel road in the Upper Peninsula from US 2 just east of Gulliver ) to Port Inland on Lake Michigan . This highway was decommissioned as well in 1939 .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1919 , the highway that is now M @-@ 99 was first signed as M @-@ 64 from the Ohio state line to Hillsdale and as M @-@ 34 from Hillsdale to the Litchfield area . In 1924 , the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was extended to Homer where it terminated at M @-@ 60 . Just a few years later , in 1926 , the western terminus was truncated , to end at Hillsdale , with the remainder to Jonesville becoming an extension of the M @-@ 64 .
In 1929 , this version of M @-@ 64 was renumbered M @-@ 9 . In 1934 , M @-@ 9 traveled on Pioneer Road in Hillsdale County , from the Ohio border before turning west on Burt Road , north on Clark Road , west on Montgomery Road then north onto Hillsdale Road . During this time a loop was planned to continue north from the corner of Pioneer and Burt Roads to Montgomery Road where it turned west and met back up with M @-@ 9 at Clark Road . This short loop was designated M @-@ 158 , however later in the year the routing of M @-@ 9 was shifted onto the M @-@ 158 alignment , eliminating that route . By the middle of 1936 , the highway was extended northward to end in Lansing . The M @-@ 9 designation was replaced with M @-@ 99 in 1940 .
By 1947 , M @-@ 99 was completely paved . One segment between Litchfield and Homer was converted back to gravel surface in 1952 ; a change that was reverted two years later . By 1960 , the former US 12 / M @-@ 99 concurrency through Albion was redesignated Business US 12 through the city when the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway was completed . Within a year , that business loop was redesignated BL I @-@ 94 when the US 12 designation was removed from the freeway and applied to the former US 112 ; at the same time , the US 112 / M @-@ 99 concurrency in Jonesville became US 12 / M @-@ 99 as well .
A new alignment of M @-@ 99 highway was opened from the Ransom area north to Osseo in 1966 ; the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was scaled back to end at the new highway near Osseo and M @-@ 99 supplanted M @-@ 34 from Osseo to Hillsdale . The divided highway section of M @-@ 99 was opened north of Eaton Rapids in 1979 .
= = Major intersections = =
= 1853 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1853 Atlantic hurricane season featured eight known tropical cyclones , none of which made landfall . Operationally , a ninth tropical storm was believed to have existed over the Dominican Republic on November 26 , but HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – now excludes this system . The first system , Tropical Storm One , was initially observed on August 5 . The final storm , Hurricane Eight , was last observed on October 22 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . At two points during the season , pairs of tropical cyclones existed simultaneously . Four of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data , so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable .
Of the season 's eight tropical cyclones , four reached hurricane status . Furthermore , two of those four strengthened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The strongest cyclone of the season , the third hurricane , peaked at Category 4 strength with 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds . With a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) , it was the most intense tropical cyclone recorded in the Atlantic basin until the 1924 Cuba hurricane . The hurricane caused 40 fatalities after a brig went missing off the coast of North Carolina . Despite remaining offshore , Tropical Storm Five brought very strong winds to the Mexican city of Veracruz . Hurricane Eight brought strong winds and rough seas to North Florida and Georgia , causing significant damage in the latter .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Meteorologist William C. Redfield first observed the season 's third tropical storm south of Cape Verde on August 30 , which was the first Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane ever recorded . Initially , the storm moved west @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 1 . Over the next two days , the hurricane intensified significantly and reached Category 2 strength early on September 2 . The system strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane by September 3 , attaining its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) was recorded by the barque Hermann soon thereafter . It was the most intense storm in the Atlantic until the 1924 Cuba hurricane , a Category 5 hurricane with a minimum pressure of 910 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . The Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 may have been stronger , though it is discounted because HURDAT records did not begin until the 1851 season .
By September 5 , the hurricane curved toward the northwest and began to weaken . Early on September 7 , it turned northward and fell to Category 3 intensity , situated about 340 miles ( 550 km ) east of Charleston , South Carolina . The hurricane passed offshore North Carolina later that day , and its outer rainbands produced heavy rainfall along the state 's southern coastlines . The brig Albermarle was lost at sea on September 7 with 40 of its crewmen missing ; they were later presumed to have drowned . The hurricane recurved east @-@ northeastward and continued to deteriorate steadily , weakening to Category 1 status by September 9 . The storm was last observed late on September 10 , centered about 525 miles ( 845 km ) north @-@ northwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The ship Gilbert Gallatin encountered the fourth hurricane of the season on September 8 , which was centered about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east of the third hurricane . Sustained winds were initially observed to have reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , indicative of a Category 3 hurricane . Several other ships reportedly encountered this storm as it tracked northeastward . With winds decreasing to 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , it weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on September 10 . The storm was last noted by the ship Josephine later that day , while located about 615 miles ( 990 km ) north @-@ northeast of Graciosa in the Azores .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
The sixth hurricane of the season was first observed as a tropical storm to the southeast of Bermuda on September 26 . Initially , the storm headed north @-@ northwestward , before curving north @-@ northeastward on September 27 , while bypassing Bermuda . Later that day , the storm strengthened into a hurricane . The brig Samuel and Edward encountered the hurricane on September 2 , reporting winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; this was the maximum sustained wind speed associated with the storm . Thereafter , the storm executed a cyclonic loop , which lasted until September 30 . It curved northeastward on October 1 and was last noted at 0600 UTC , while located about 590 miles ( 950 km ) northeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
The barque Edward reported a hurricane about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Grand Bahama on October 19 . Several other ships encountered the storm between October 19 and October 20 . It moved slowly north @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened . On October 20 , the storm reached maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . Additionally , ships reported a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane on October 21 , the storm veered east @-@ northeastward , avoiding a landfall in the Southeastern United States . It was last noted on October 22 , while centered about 80 miles ( 130 km ) east @-@ southeast of Charleston , South Carolina .
Strong winds , combined with tides in Jacksonville , Florida , pushed water over wharfs and onto Bay Street . William Gaston Captain Thomas E. Shaw reported that the gale at Brunswick , Georgia caused significant damage to the town . An engine @-@ house belonging to the Brunswick Railroad Company was flattened , as was a large cotton shed , a blacksmith shop , and a new frame house , and a number of other buildings were damaged . The new railroad wharf was washed away and its remains were floating in the harbor . Offshore , there were numerous shipwrecks , including the schooners W. Mercer , G. W. Pickering , Mary Ann , and the Steamer Planter . Additionally , the schooner James House reported " a perfect hurricane " .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the four tropical cyclones of the season , there were four others with only a single point on their track , due to the sparsity of data . The barque W.B. Bowen encountered a gale with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) near 33 @.@ 5 ° N , 69 @.@ 2 ° W on August 5 , which is located about 255 miles ( 410 km ) east of Bermuda . This system would later be listed in HURDAT records as Tropical Storm One . However , due to heavy prevailing weather , further data on this storm is unavailable . A publication by meteorologist Ivan R. Tannehill indicates that Tropical Storm Two was centered near Barbados on August 10 . However , due its weak nature – maximum sustained winds were only 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) – only a single data point is known of the storm 's path .
Tropical Storm Five was reported to have existed on September 21 at 20 ° N , 95 ° W , which is located in the Bay of Campeche . The Elize and Crichton encountered a heavy " norther " upon arriving at Veracruz , Veracruz on that day . Although it was centered offshore , very strong winds were reported in Veracruz , possibly induced by the funneling effect from the Sierra Madre Oriental . Further information of this tropical storm is sparse . Two separate reports
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. The Home Guard company then took over the post from the Ustaše . The same day , two new battalions arrived in Mostar , the 23rd Battalion from Osijek and the 15th Battalion from Travnik . These reinforcements arrived just as Prpić received confirmation that Avtovac had been captured by the rebels . The remaining small garrison in Gacko , consisting of only 20 gendarmes and 30 Ustaše , were holding out but expecting more attacks by the rebels . In the morning , the attack by elements of the 10th Battalion stalled until the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Julije Reš , personally took command of the operation , clearing the way for the Italians . The promised Italian intervention commenced about midday , and about 100 trucks of Italian soldiers arrived in Gacko about 17 : 00 . As they had passed through Avtovac , the rebels had left the town and withdrawn to villages to the east . About 18 : 00 , the 10th Battalion relieved the besieged gendarmes in the village schoolhouse . ZNDH aircraft from Mostar airfield flew reconnaissance sorties over the area and dropped leaflets over Stolac , Stepen , Avtovac , Gacko and Plužine .
After the garrison of Nevesinje had been relieved , Laxa directed his main effort towards the Gacko and Avtovac districts . Sensitive to the fact that the Italians had not respected the territorial borders of the NDH when they sent their column to Gacko , he considered it very important that Croatian military and political prestige be restored , otherwise the Italians might decide to remain in the area rather than withdraw to their garrison near the Adriatic coast . He planned to follow this consolidation by clearing the border areas with Montenegro then clearing the hinterland of any remaining rebels . For this last task he intended to deploy a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed special unit to be led by Lieutenant Colonel Josip Metzger . The task of re @-@ asserting NDH authority in the Gacko and Avtovac districts was allocated to Prohaska 's group , consisting of the 6th Battalion , one company of the 18th Battalion , two companies of the 17th Battalion , and the recently arrived 15th and 21st Battalions , which were to be sent to Nevesinje from Mostar . Prohaska was to act in concert with the 11th Battalion who were already in the vicinity of Plužine , just to the north of the Nevesinje – Gacko road . In preparation , the 15th Battalion was trucked to Nevesinje , and a company of the 17th Battalion conducted a coordinated attack with the 11th Battalion on rebel positions near Kifino Selo . This attack was defeated by the rebels , and a battalion commander was killed .
During the remainder of the day , the Italians collected the bodies of their dead from the rebel ambush on 28 June , and rescued some Home Guard troops that had escaped Avtovac , but then returned to Plana , just north of Bileća . The value of further operations in the Gacko and Avtovac areas was brought into question when the Italians reported that both towns had been burned to the ground , and all the inhabitants had been massacred . The Italians blamed Montenegrins attached to the rebels for the destruction and killings in the two towns . The Italian estimate of rebel strength was around 3 @,@ 000 armed with machine guns , artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns . A German intelligence officer from Sarajevo arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to receive a briefing on the situation . The small garrison of Gacko was anticipating an attack by rebels during the night , but in the afternoon 180 Home Guardsmen that had withdrawn from Avtovac arrived to bolster their position , and the night passed without incident .
= = = 1 – 7 July = = =
On 1 July , an Italian armoured unit arrived in Gacko to reinforce the garrison . An Ustaše operation to clear the insurgents from the Stolac district began on 3 July , meeting with success and opening of the road from Berkovci north to Odžak . The Ustaše did not go closer to Nevesinje as they were not in uniform , and were concerned that the Home Guards would mistake them for rebels . During this operation , three Ustaše were killed , including their commander , and the Ustaše fighters killed ten rebels and captured two . In the belongings of one of the captured rebels , the Ustaše located a report by the " National Movement for the Liberation of Nevesinje " ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Narodni pokret za oslobođenje Nevesinja ) , which was apparently how the rebels referred to themselves . The report made it clear that the rebels were using military tactics and organisation , and hinted at co @-@ operation with the Italians . According to information gathered by the police , the local rebel leadership included former Mostar merchant Čedo Milić , the Bjelogrlić brothers from Avtovac , the Orthodox priest Father Mastilović from Nadinići , and a Captain Radović from Avtovac . Montenegrins involved in the leadership of the uprising included Colonel Bajo Stanišić , Major Minja Višnjić , and Radojica Nikčević from Nikšić .
Following the Italian intervention , Prpić was able to proceed with the task of clearing the wider area of Nevesinje from 3 July , ensuring NDH control of population centres and roads . On 5 July , he replaced his deputy Prohaska with Colonel Franjo Šimić , and assigned him a force consisting of the 6th , 11th , 15th and 17th Battalions , a company of the 18th Battalion and a troop of artillery . The force numbered 62 officers and 2 @,@ 062 men , with heavy weapons including four 100 mm Skoda houfnice vz 14 mountain howitzers , six heavy machine guns and twenty @-@ seven light machine guns . Šimić seized the crossroads near Kifino Selo and Plužine , securing it with one company of the 11th Battalion , then sent the 15th Battalion to Gacko and the 17th Battalion to Berkovići . A half company of the 21st Battalion secured the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Once this was completed , the major roads in eastern Herzegovina were secured . These operations proceeded without significant fighting , as some of the rebels retreated over the border with Montenegro , and others hid their weapons in the mountains and returned to their homes . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control over all the towns and transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .
= = Aftermath = =
Tomasevich states that the uprising was a " spontaneous , unorganised outburst " that was doomed to failure , and involved neither the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović nor the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) . He contends that the uprising was the result of several factors , including the Ustaše persecutions , fear and hatred of the NDH authorities , a local tradition of rebellion against the Ottoman Empire , the poor economic conditions in eastern Herzegovina , and news of the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union . Hoare concurs with Tomasevich that the uprising was in the tradition of the Herzegovinian rebellions against the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century , such as the uprisings in 1875 – 77 . Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , the German Plenipotentiary General in the NDH , believed that the Italians might have deliberately avoided interfering in the uprising . General Renzo Dalmazzo , the commander of the Italian 6th Army Corps , blamed the Ustaše and Muslims for stoking the revolt .
In eastern Herzegovina , the KPJ had little impact until mid @-@ August 1941 , well after the initial revolt had been suppressed . During the lead @-@ up to the mass uprising , the KPJ organisation in Herzegovina would not commit itself , as it was waiting for orders from the provincial organisation in Sarajevo , which was expecting direction from the KPJ Central Committee to launch a general uprising across Yugoslavia . Once they became aware of the German attack on the Soviet Union , the KPJ in Herzegovina voted to join the mass uprising , but this only occurred on 24 June , when the uprising was already in full swing . According to Milazzo , the rebels remained a threat throughout eastern Herzegovina well into July , although the uprising in Herzegovina did not advance until the Bosnia @-@ wide revolt occurred at the end of July , by which time the KPJ was ready for active involvement in the fighting .
= Katori @-@ class battleship =
The Katori class ( 香取型戦艦 , Katori @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the early 1900s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships itself , they were designed and built in the UK . They were the last battleships to be built for Japan at overseas shipyards , and the last to be equipped with a ram . The ships were delivered after the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . They saw no action during World War I , although both were present when Japan joined the Siberian Intervention in 1918 . They were disarmed and scrapped in 1923 – 25 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
= = Design and description = =
The Katori @-@ class ships were ordered under the 1903 Third Fleet Extension Program . As with the earlier battleships , Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships , and turned again to the United Kingdom , placing orders with Armstrong and Vickers in January 1904 . The next class of battleships , the Satsuma class , were built in Japan .
The design of the Katori class was a modified and improved version of the King Edward VII @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . The Vickers @-@ built Katori was slightly smaller than her sister ship , Kashima . They had an overall length of 456 @.@ 25 – 470 @.@ 6 feet ( 139 @.@ 1 – 143 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 78 – 78 @.@ 16 feet ( 23 @.@ 8 – 23 @.@ 8 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 @.@ 6 – 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 2 m ) . They displaced 15 @,@ 950 – 16 @,@ 383 long tons ( 16 @,@ 206 – 16 @,@ 646 t ) at normal load . The crew consisted of 864 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by a pair of four @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 20 Niclausse boilers using a mixture of coal and fuel oil . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 600 – 16 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 – 12 @,@ 400 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) although they proved to be faster during their sea trials . Kashima reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 24 knots ( 35 @.@ 63 km / h ; 22 @.@ 14 mph ) using 17 @,@ 280 ihp ( 12 @,@ 890 kW ) and Katori made 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) from 18 @,@ 500 ihp ( 13 @,@ 800 kW ) . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 120 long tons ) of coal and 377 – 750 long tons ( 383 – 762 t ) of fuel oil which allowed them to steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Katori class were equipped with four 45 @-@ calibre Elswick Ordnance Company 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Type 41 guns mounted in twin @-@ gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets . The barbettes were positioned fore and aft of the superstructure . These were more powerful than the 40 @-@ calibre guns on Mikasa and earlier Japanese battleships . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) .
The King Edward VII class introduced an intermediate calibre of 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) guns between the primary 12 @-@ inch guns and the secondary six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and the Japanese upgraded these to 45 @-@ calibre 10 @-@ inch Type 41 guns in four single barbettes mounted at the corners of the superstructure . The guns had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 707 ft / s ( 825 m / s ) when firing 500 @-@ pound ( 227 kg ) shells . The Japanese added an additional pair of quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch Type 41 guns , making a total of 12 guns , compared to the 10 of the King Edward VIIs . Ten of these guns were mounted in the hull and the remaining two were placed in the superstructure between the 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) gun turrets . Their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) when fired by the Type 41 guns .
Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by 12 to 16 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and three 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF three @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . The 12 @-@ pounders fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ( 719 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline main belt of the Katori @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armour 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , of which 2 feet 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) was above the waterline at normal load . It had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships . It was only 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) inches thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six @-@ inch , 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) strake of armour that ran between the main gun barbettes and protected most of the secondary guns . The barbettes for the main guns were 5 – 12 inches ( 130 – 300 mm ) thick and those for the intermediate turrets were protected by six inches of armour . The armour of the main gun
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887 . Haggard claimed that this period was an intensely creative moment : the text " was never rewritten , and the manuscript carries but few corrections " . Haggard went on to declare : " The fact is that it was written at white heat , almost without rest , and that is the best way to compose . " He admitted to having had no clear story in mind when he began writing :
Various scholars have detected a number of analogues to She in earlier literature . According to Brantlinger , Haggard certainly read and was aware of the stories of Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton , in particular A Strange Story ( 1862 ) which includes a mysterious , veiled woman called " Ayesha " , and The Coming Race ( 1871 ) about the discovery of a subterranean civilisation . Similarly , the name of the underground civilisation in She , known as Kôr , is derived from Norse mythological romance , where the " deathbed " of the goddess Hel is called Kör and means " disease " in Old Norse . In She , a plague destroyed the original inhabitants of Kôr .
According to Haggard , he wrote the final scene of Ayesha 's demise while waiting for his literary agent , A. P. Watt , to return to his offices . Upon completion , he entered Watt 's office and threw the manuscript " ... on the table with the remark : ' There is what I shall be remembered by ' " .
An interesting and obscure reference to She appears in Lieut . George Witton 's 1907 Book , Scapegoats of the Empire ; The True Story of the Bushveldt Carbineers :
" By midday we reached the Letaba Valley , in the Majajes Mountains , inhabited by a powerful tribe of natives once ruled by a princess said to be the prototype of Rider Haggard 's ' She ' . "
= = = Publication = = =
She was first published as a serial story in the Graphic , a large folio magazine printed weekly in London , between October 1886 and January 1887 . The serialisation was accompanied with illustrations by E. K. Johnson . An American edition was published by Harper and Bros. in New York on 24 December 1886 ; this included the Johnson illustrations . On 1 January 1887 , an English edition was published by Longmans , Green , and Co . , but without any images . It was the first publication of She in book format , and featured significant textual revisions from the Graphic serial made by Haggard . He made further revisions for an 1888 edition , which included illustrations by Maurice Greiffenhagen and C. H. M. Kerr . In 2006 a Broadview publication of She became the first edition to reproduce the Graphic serial text since 1887 .
= = = Narrative revisions = = =
Haggard contended that romances such as She or King Solomon 's Mines were best left unrevised , because " wine of this character loses its bouquet when it is poured from glass to glass . " However , he made a number of alterations to the original Graphic version of She before its publication as a novel in 1887 . One of the most significant was to the third chapter concerning the sherd , which was substantially expanded from the original to include the tale of Amenartas in uncial and cursive Greek scripts . Facsimile illustrations were also included of an antique vase , made @-@ up by Haggard 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Agnes Barber to resemble the sherd of Amenartas . A number of footnotes were also included containing historical references from the narrator . Haggard was keen to stress the historicity of the narrative , improving some of the information about geography and the history of ancient civilisations in chapters 4 , 13 , and 17 .
The 1887 novel also featured a substantial rewrite of the " hotpot " scene in chapter eight , when Mahomed is killed . In the original serialisation of She , the cannibal Amahagger grow restless and hungry and place a large heated pot over the head of Mahomed , enacting the hotpotting ritual before eating him . Haggard 's stories were criticised at the time for their violence , and he toned down this scene for the novel publication . The novel revised the hotpotting incident , with Mahomed dying instead when Holly shoots him accidentally in the scuffle with the Amahagger . Comparing the serial and novel editions of She , Stauffer describes the more compact narrative of the original as a reflection of the intense but short burst of creativity in which Haggard composed the story , arguing that " the style and grammar of the Graphic [ edition ] is more energetic and immediate " , although as he noted , " sometimes more flawed " .
Haggard continued to revise She for later publications , with the " New Edition " of 1888 containing over 400 minor alterations . The last revision by Haggard to be published was in 1896 .
= = Genre = =
= = = Fantasy and science fiction = = =
She is one of the foundational works of fantasy literature , coming around the time of The Princess and the Goblin ( 1858 ) by George MacDonald , William Morris ' The Wood Beyond the World and The Well at the World 's End , and the short stories of Lord Dunsany . It is marked by a strong element of " the marvelous " in the figure of Ayesha , a two @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ old sorceress , and the ' Spirit of the World ' , an undying fire that confers immortality . Indeed , Haggard 's story is one of the first in modern literature to feature " a slight intrusion of something unreal " into a very real world – a hallmark of the fantasy genre . Similarly , the carefully constructed " fantasy history " of She foreshadows the use of this technique that characterises later fantasies such as The Lord of the Rings and The Wheel of Time series , and which imparts a " degree of security " to the secondary world . However , the story of She is firmly ensconced in what fantasy theorists call ' primary world reality ' , with the lost kingdom of Kôr , the realm ruled by the supernatural She , a fantastic " Tertiary World " at once directly part of and at the same time indirectly set apart from normative " primary " reality . Along with Haggard 's prior novel , King Solomon 's Mines , She laid the blueprints for the " Lost World " subgenre in fantasy literature , as well as the convention of the " lost race " . As Brantlinger has noted of the novel 's importance to the development of the " secondary world " in fantasy literature : " Haggard may seem peripheral to the development of science fiction , and yet his African quest romances could easily be transposed to other planets and galaxies " . In his history of science fiction , Billion Year Spree , Brian Aldiss notes the frequency with which Ayesha 's death in the Pillar of Fire has been imitated by later science fiction and fantasy writers : " From Haggard on , crumbling women , priestesses , or empresses – all symbols of women as Untouchable and Unmakeable – fill the pages of many a scientific romance " .
= = = Adventure romance = = =
She is part of the adventure subgenre of literature which was especially popular at the end of the 19th century , but which remains an important form of fiction to the present day . Along with works such as Treasure Island ( 1883 ) and Prince Otto ( 1885 ) by Robert Louis Stevenson , and Jules Verne 's A Journey to the Centre of the Earth ( 1871 ) and Around the World in Eighty Days ( 1875 ) , She had an important formative effect on the development of the adventure novel . Indeed , Rider Haggard is credited with inventing the romance of archaeological exploration which began in King Solomon 's Mines and crystallised in She . One of the most notable modern forms of this genre is the Indiana Jones movie series , as well as the Tarzan novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and recently Alan Moore 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen ( 2000 ) . In such fictional narratives the explorer is the hero , with the drama unfolding as they are cast into " the nostrum of the living past " . Holly and Leo are prototypes of the adventurer , who has become a critical figure in modern fiction .
= = = Imperial Gothic = = =
She is also one of the central texts in the development of Imperial Gothic . Many late @-@ Victorian authors during the fin de siècle employed Gothic conventions and motifs in their writing , stressing and alluding to the supernatural , the ghostly , and the demonic . As Brantlinger has noted , " Connected to imperialist adventure fiction , these interests often imply anxieties about the stability of Britain , of the British Empire , or , more generally , of Western civilisation " . Novels like Dracula and the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde present depictions of repressed , foreign , and demonic forces at the heart of the imperial polity . In She the danger is raised in the form of Ayesha herself :
She 's threat to replace Queen Victoria with herself echoes the underlying anxiety over imperialism and European colonialism emblematic of the Imperial Gothic genre . Indeed , Judith Wilt characterises the narrative of She , in which British imperialist penetration of Africa ( represented by Holly , Leo , and Job ) suddenly suffers a potential " counter @-@ attack " ( from Ayesha ) , as one of the archetypal illustrations of the " reverse colonalism " motif in Victorian Gothic . Similarly , She marks one of the first fictional examples to raise the spectre of the natural decline of civilisation , and by extension , British imperial power , which would become an increasingly frequent theme in Gothic and invasion literature until the onset of World War I.
= = Style = =
Rider Haggard 's writing style was the source of much criticism in reviews of She and his other works . His harshest critic was Augustus Moore , who wrote " God help English literature when English people lay aside their Waverley novels , and the works of Defoe , Swift , Thackeray , Charlotte Brontë , George Eliot , and even Charles Reade for the penny dreadfuls of Mr Haggard " ; adding , " The man who could write ' he spoke to She ' can have no ear at all " . A more common sentiment was expressed by the review of She in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine : " Mr. Rider Haggard is not an exquisite workman like Mr. [ Robert Louis ] Stevenson , but he has a great deal of power in his way , and rougher qualities which are more likely , perhaps , to ' take the town ' than skill more delicate " .
Modern literary criticism has tended to be more circumspect . As Victorian scholar Daniel Karlin has noted , " That Haggard 's style is frequently bathetic or clumsy cannot be denied ; but the matter is not so easily settled " . Stauffer cites the passage where Holly is meditating as he tries to fall asleep as emblematic of " the charges against " Haggard 's writing . In this scene , Holly lays down ,
The passage concludes with a wry remark from Holly , " I at last managed to get to sleep , a fact for which anybody who reads this narrative , if anybody ever does , may very probably be thankful " . According to Stauffer , " the disarming deflation of the passage goes a long way toward redeeming it , and is typical of the winning contradictions of the narrator 's style " . Tom Pocock in Rider Haggard and the Lost Empire has also highlighted the " literary framework " that Haggard constructs throughout much of the narrative , referencing Keats , Shakespeare , and Classical literature to imbue the story with a " Gothic sensibility " . Yet as Stauffer notes , " Ultimately , however , one thinks of Haggard 's plots , episodes , and images as the source of his lasting reputation and influence .
= = Themes = =
= = = Imperialism = = =
She is set firmly in the imperialist literature of the late @-@ Victorian period . The so @-@ called " New Imperialism " marking the last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a further expansion of British power , particularly on the African continent , and was characterised by a seemingly confident sentiment in the merits of empire and English civilisation . Thus She " invokes a particularly British view of the world " as Rider Haggard projects concepts of the English self against the foreign otherness of Africa . One such example occurs when Holly is first ushered into the presence of Ayesha , walking into the chamber behind a grovelling Billali who warns Holly to follow his example , or " a surety she will blast thee where thou standest " . Indeed , She is preoccupied with stressing quintessential British qualities through the " adventure " of empire , usually in contrast to foreign barbarism . However , the notion of imperialism is further compounded by the figure of She , who is herself a foreign colonising force . " In a sense then " , writes Stauffer , " a single property line divides the realm of Queen Victoria and that of She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed , two white queens who rule dark @-@ skinned natives of the African continent " .
= = = Race and evolution = = =
Like many of his Victorian contemporaries , Rider Haggard " proceeds on the
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assumption that whites are naturally superior to blacks , and that Britain 's imperial extensions into Africa are a noble , civilising enterprise " . Although Haggard penned a number of novels that portrayed Africans in a comparatively realistic light , She was not among their number . Even in King Solomon 's Mines , the representation of Umbopa ( who was based on an actual warrior ) and the Kukuanas , drew upon Haggard 's knowledge and understanding of the Zulus . In contrast , She makes no such distinctions . Ayesha , the English travellers , and the ancient inhabitants of Kôr are all white embodiments of civilisation , while the darker Amahagger , as a people , illustrate notions of savagery , barbarity , and superstition . Nonetheless , the " racial politics of the novel are more complex than they first appear " , given that Ayesha is in origin an ancient Arabian , Leo is descended from , and physically resembles a blond Hellenistic Greek , while Holly is said to resemble a baboon in facial appearance – an animal Victorians typically associated with black Africans . Whilst critics like Wendy Katz , Patricia Murphy , and Susan Gubar have analysed the strong racist undercurrent in She , Andrew Stauffer has taken note of the qualifications through which " the novel suggests deeper connections among the races , an ancient genealogy of ethnicities and civilizations in which every character is a hybrid " .
Indeed , there is a strong Darwinian undercurrent framing the representation of race in She , stemming from Haggard 's own interest in evolutionary theory and archaeological history . In particular the theme of racial degeneration is a prominent aspect in the novel . Moving into the fin de siècle , late @-@ Victorians were increasingly concerned about cultural and national decline resulting from racial decay . In She , this evolutionary concept of degeneration is manifested in Ayesha and the Amahagger . Haggard represents the Amahagger as a debased mixture of ethnicities , " a curious mingling of races " , originally descended from the inhabitants of Kôr but having intermarried with Arabs and Africans . Racial hybridisation of any kind " entailed degeneration " to Victorians , a " decline from the pure blood " of the initial races , and thus " an aspect of their degeneration is the idea that the Amahagger have lost whatever elements of civilization their Kôr ancestors may have imparted to them " . Thus , Ayesha proudly proclaims her own racial purity as a quality to be admired : " for Arabian am I by birth , even ' al Arab al Ariba ' ( an Arab of the Arabs ) , and of the race of our father Yárab , the son of Khâtan [ ... ] of the true Arab blood " . However , the novel 's starkest evocation of the evolutionary principle occurs in the regressive demise of Ayesha . Stepping into the Pillar of Fire , the immortal She begins to wither and decay , undergoing as death what Judith Wilt describes as the " ultimate Darwinian nightmare " , evolution in reverse .
= = = Female authority and sexuality = = =
When Rider Haggard first conceived of She he began with the theme of " an immortal woman inspired by an immortal love " . Although ostensibly a romance , the novel is part of the wider discourse regarding women and womanhood in late @-@ Victorian Britain . Many scholars have noted how She was published as a book in 1887 , the year of Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee , and Adrienne Munich argues that Haggard 's story " could fittingly be considered an ominous literary monument to Victoria after fifty years of her reign " . Indeed , in her devotion to Kallikrates ( two thousand years after his death ) , Ayesha echoes the long @-@ lasting fidelity of Victoria to her husband , Albert . However , unlike the " benign " Victoria , the question of female authority is realised to the extreme in the figure of She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed , whose autonomous will seemingly embodies Victorian anti @-@ feminist fears of New Women desiring ' absolute personal independence coupled with supreme power over men ' . Haggard constantly emphasises this anxiety over female authority in She , so that even the rationally minded and misogynistic Holly , who has put his " heart away from such vanity as woman 's loveliness " , ultimately falls upon his knees and worships Ayesha " as never woman was worshipped " . Similarly , although the masculine and chivalric Leo is determined to reject Ayesha for killing the devoted native girl Ustane , he too quickly falls under her will . In fact , Ayesha 's absolute command over the male sex is one of the most startling and unnerving aspects of the story .
In her role as the seductive femme fatale , Ayesha is part of " a long tradition of male fantasy that includes Homer 's Circe , Shakespeare 's Cleopatra , and Keats 's ' La Belle Dame sans Merci ' " . Brantlinger identifies the theme of " the white ( or at least light @-@ skinned ) queen ruling a black or brown @-@ skinned savage race " as " a powerfully erotic one " with its opposite being " the image of the helpless white woman captured by savages and threatened , at least , with rape " . The figure of She both inspires male desire and dominates male sovereignty , represented in her conquest of the enlightened Victorians Holly and Leo . The two Englishmen embody the powers of manhood , with Leo a reflection of masculine physicality and Holly a representation of man 's intellectual strength ; but both are conquered by the feminine powers of She , who rules as much through sex @-@ appeal as through sorcery , immortality , and will . Thus Steven Arata describes her as " the veiled woman , that ubiquitous nineteenth @-@ century figure of male desire and anxiety , whose body is Truth but a Truth that blasts " . Similarly , Sarah Gilbert sees the theme of feminine sexuality and authority realised in Ayesha as critical to the novel 's success : " Unlike the women earlier Victorian writers had idealised or excoriated , She was neither an angel nor a monster . Rather , She was an odd but significant blend of the two types – an angelically chaste woman with monstrous powers , a monstrously passionate woman with angelic charms " .
= = Reception = =
After its publication in 1887 She became an immediate success . According to The Literary World " Mr. Rider Haggard has made for himself a new field in fiction " . Comparing the novel to King Solomon 's Mines the review declared : " The book before us displays all the same qualities , and we anticipate for it a similar popularity . There is even more imagination in the later than in the earlier story ; it contains scenes of greater sensuous beauty and also of more gruesome horror " . The Public Opinion was equally rapturous in its praise :
The fantasy of She received particular acclaim from Victorian readers and critics . The review appearing in The Academy on 15 January was impressed by the " grown @-@ up " vision of the novel , declaring " the more impossible it gets the better Mr. Haggard does it ... his astonishing imagination , and a certain vraisemblance [ " verisimilitude " ( French ) ] makes the most impossible adventures appear true " . This sentiment was echoed in The Queen : The Lady 's Newspaper , with the reviewer pronouncing that " this is a tale in the hands of a writer not so able as Mr. Haggard might easily have become absurd ; but he has treated it with so much vividness and picturesque power as to invest it with unflagging interest , and given to the mystery a port of philosophic possibility that makes us quite willing to submit to the illusion .
The Spectator was more equivocal in its appraisal of She . The review described the narrative as " very stirring " and " exciting " and of " remarkable imaginative power " , adding : " The ingenuity of the story ... is as subtle as ever romancer invented , and from the day when Leo and Holly land on the coast of Africa , to the day when the Pillar of Fire is revealed to them by the all but immortal ' She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed ' , the interest of the tale rises higher and higher with every new turn in its course " . However , the review took issue with the characterisation of She and the manner of her demise : " To the present writer there is a sense of the ludicrous in the end of She that spoiled , instead of concluding with imaginative fitness , the thread of the impossible worked into the substance of this vivid and brilliantly told story " . Haggard was moved to respond to the criticism of Ayesha 's death , writing that " in the insolence of her strength and loveliness , she lifts herself up against the Omnipotent . Therefore , at the appointed time she is swept away by It ... Vengeance , more heavy because more long delayed , strikes her in her proudest part – her beauty " .
A number of reviews were more critical of Haggard 's work . Although the reviewer of She in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine considered it better than King Solomon 's Mines , he opined , " Mr. Rider Haggard has not proved as yet that he has anything that can be called imagination at all ... It might be wrought up into an unparalleled stage effect : but it is rather a failure in pen and ink . The more fearful and wonderful such circumstances are intended to be , the more absurd is the failure of them " . Even more scathing was Augustus Moore in the May edition of Time : A Monthly Miscellany , who declared : " In Mr Haggard 's book I find none of the powerful imagination , the elaborate detail , the vivid English which would entitle his work to be described as a romance ... [ rather ] it seems to me to be the method of the modern melodrama " . Moore was particularly dismissive of the novel 's style and prose : " Mr Haggard cannot write English at all . I do not merely refer to his bad grammar , which a boy at a Boarding School would deserve to be birched for ... It can only have been written by a man who not only knew nothing , but cared nothing for ' English undefiled ' . " Haggard 's English was a common source of criticisms , but Moore was even dismissive of the character of She who widely garnered universal praise . " Ayesha " , Moore declares , " is about as impressive as the singing chambermaid who represents the naughty fairy of a pantomime in tights and a tow wig " . Concluding his review , Moore wondered at the success that had greeted She :
Despite such criticism , the reception that met She was overwhelmingly positive and echoed the sentiments expressed by anthropologist and literary critic Andrew Lang before the story 's first publication : " I think She is one of the most astonishing romances I ever read . The more impossible it is , the better you do it , till it seems like a story from the literature of another planet " .
= = Modern interpretations = =
= = = Feminist = = =
Feminist literary historians have tended to define the figure of She as a literary manifestation of male alarm over the " learned and crusading new woman " . In this view , Ayesha is a terrifying and dominant figure , a prominent and influential rendering of the misogynistic " fictive explorations of female authority " undertaken by male writers that ushered in literary modernism . Ann Ardis , for instance , views the fears Holly harbours over Ayesha 's plan to return to England as being " exactly those voiced about the New Woman 's entrance in the public arena " . According to the feminist interpretation of the narrative , the death of She acts as a kind of teleological " judgement " of her transgression of Victorian gender boundaries , with Ardis likening it to a " witch @-@ burning " . However , to Rider Haggard , She was an investigation into love and immortality and the demise of Ayesha the moral end of this exploration :
Indeed , far from being a radical or threatening manifestation of womanhood , recent academics have noted the extent to which the character of She conforms to traditional conceptions of Victorian femininity ; in particular her deferring devotion to Kallikrates / Leo , whom she swears wifely obedience to at the story 's climax : " ' Behold ! ' and she took his [ Leo 's ] hand and placed it upon her shapely head , and then bent herself slowly down till one knee for an instant touched the ground – ' Behold ! in token of submission do I bow me to my lord ! Behold ! ' and she kissed him on the lips , ' in token of my wifely love do I kiss my lord ' . " Ayesha declares this to be the " first most holy hour of completed womanhood " .
= = Legacy = =
She is one of the most influential novels in modern literature , with authors like Rudyard Kipling , Henry Miller , Graham Greene , J.R.R. Tolkien , and Margaret Atwood all acknowledging the importance of the work to their own and others ' writing . With over 83 million copies sold , the work is one of the biggest selling fictional titles of all time and has been translated into 44 languages . According to Stauffer , " She has always been Rider Haggard 's most popular and influential novel , challenged only by King Solomon 's Mines in this regard " . Such was the popularity and influence of the novel that it was cited in the psychoanalytical theories of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung , the latter describing the character of She as a manifestation of the anima figure .
The story is one of the most important texts of imaginative literature and had a lasting impact on the fantasy genre , directly giving rise to the ' lost civilisation ' tales of Edgar Rice Burroughs and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , and the creation of mythologised locations such as Shangri @-@ la
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They may be soldiers . ' Ice too observed , ' No one then knew who the enemy were – of what tribe . ' ... They were soon to find out . " ( Utley 1992 : 122 – 24 )
Sitting Bull 's refusal to adopt any dependence on the US government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains . When Native Americans were threatened by the United States , numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes , such as the North Cheyenne , came to Sitting Bull 's camp . His reputation for " strong medicine " developed as he continued to evade the European Americans .
After the January 1st ultimatum of 1876 , when the US Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation , Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull 's camp . He took an active role in encouraging this " unity camp " . He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors , and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them . An example of his generosity was Sitting Bull 's taking care of Wooden Leg 's Northern Cheyenne tribe . They had been impoverished by Captain Reynold 's March 17 , 1876 attack and fled to Sitting Bull 's camp for safety .
Over the course of the first half of 1876 , Sitting Bull 's camp continually expanded , as natives joined him for safety in numbers . His leadership had attracted warriors and families , creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10 @,@ 000 people . Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25 , 1876 . Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle ; instead he acted as a spiritual leader . A week prior to the attack , he had performed the Sun Dance , in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms .
Custer ’ s 7th Cavalry advance party attacked Cheyenne and Lakota tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River ( known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota ) on June 25 , 1876 . The U.S. Army did not realize how large the camp was . More than 2 @,@ 000 Native American warriors had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull . Inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull ’ s , in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe ’ s camp , the Cheyenne and Lakota fought back . Custer 's badly outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat . The tribes led a counter @-@ attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge , ultimately annihilating them .
The Native Americans ' victory celebrations were short @-@ lived . Public shock and outrage at Custer 's death and defeat , and the government 's knowledge about the remaining Sioux , led them to assign thousands more soldiers to the area . Over the next year , the new American military forces pursued the Lakota , forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender . Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North @-@ West Territories , Canada . He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain , refusing a pardon and the chance to return . When crossing the border into Canadian territory , Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region . During this meeting , James Morrow Walsh , commander of the North @-@ West Mounted Police , explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law . Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice . Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives .
While in Canada , Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot , who was a leader of the Blackfeet , long @-@ time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne . Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot . As an advocate for peace himself , Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering . Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him . Sitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for 4 years . Due to the smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada , Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed his people , who were starving and exhausted . Sitting Bull ’ s presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments . Before Sitting Bull left Canada , he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento .
= = = Surrender = = =
Hunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull , and 186 of his family and followers , to return to the United States and surrender on July 19 , 1881 . Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester lever @-@ action carbine to Major David H. Brotherton , commanding officer of Fort Buford , Sitting Bull said to Major David H. Brotherton , " I , Takanka Iyotanka , wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle . " To the Oglala Lakotas , Dakotas and Nakota , " to surrender my rifle " in this context meant " We have killed enough white men with your own rifles so I give this rifle back to you , for Tunkasila Wakantanka ( Grandfather Great Mystery ) will use a different way to help us overcome the white man . " In the parlor of the Commanding Officer 's Quarters in a ceremony the next day , he told the four soldiers , 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world . Two weeks later , after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada , the Army transferred Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Yates , the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency . This reservation straddles the present @-@ day boundary between North and South Dakota .
Sitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency . Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands . On August 26 , 1881 , he was visited by census taker William T. Selwyn , who counted twelve people in the Hunkpapa leader 's immediate family . Forty @-@ one families , totaling 195 people , were recorded in Sitting Bull 's band .
The military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall , to be held as prisoners of war . Loaded onto a steamboat , the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall ( near present @-@ day Pickstown , South Dakota ) on the southern border of the state . There they spent the next 20 months . They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883 .
In 1883 , rumors were reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church . James McLaughlin , Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency , dismissed these reports , saying that " The reported baptism of Sitting @-@ Bull is erroneous . There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware . "
= = Meets Annie Oakley = =
In 1884 show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and the northern United States . The show was called the " Sitting Bull Connection . " It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in Minnesota . He was so impressed with Oakley 's skills with firearms that he offered $ 65 for a photographer to take a photo of the two together . The admiration and respect was mutual . Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made a " great pet " of her . In observing Oakley , Sitting Bull 's respect for the young sharpshooter grew . Oakley was quite modest in her attire , deeply respectful of others , and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height . Sitting Bull felt that she was " gifted " by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands . As a result of his esteem , he symbolically " adopted " her as a daughter in 1884 . He named her " Little Sure Shot " — a name that Oakley used throughout her career .
= = Wild West Show = =
In 1885 , Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody ’ s Buffalo Bill 's Wild West . He earned about $ 50 a week for riding once around the arena , where he was a popular attraction . Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show , the historian Utley contends that he did not . Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young , and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites . The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884 , during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway .
Sitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home . During that time , audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior . He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture , although he often gave his money away to the homeless and beggars .
= = Ghost Dance Movement = =
Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill 's Wild West show . Tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased and each became more wary of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation . During that period , in 1889 Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn , New York , a member of the National Indian Defense Association " NIDA " , reached out to Sitting Bull , acting to be his voice , secretary , interpreter and advocate . She joined him , together with her young son Christy at his compound on the Grand River , sharing with him and his family home and hearth . A Paiute Indian , named Wovoka , spread a religious movement from Nevada eastward to the Plains in 1889 that preached a resurrection of the Native . This was a time of severe conditions of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation . It was known as the “ Ghost Dance Movement ” , because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and return of the buffalo . When the movement reached Standing Rock , Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp . Although he did not appear to participate in the dancing , he was viewed as a key instigator . Alarm spread to nearby white settlements as the Sioux added a new feature to the dance – shirts that were said to stop bullets .
= = Death and burial = =
In 1890 , James McLaughlin , the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency , feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers , so he ordered the police to arrest him . On December 14 , 1890 , McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lt. Henry Bullhead ( noted as Bull Head in lead ) , an Indian agency policeman , that included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull . The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15 , and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally . Bullhead decided against using the wagon . He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest .
Around 5 : 30 a.m. on December 15 , 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull 's house . They surrounded the house , knocked and entered . Lt. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside . Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time , the camp awakened and men converged at the house . As Lt. Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse , he said the Indian Affairs agent needed to see the chief , and then he could return to his house . When Sitting Bull refused to comply , the police used force on him . The Sioux in the village were enraged . Catch @-@ the @-@ Bear , a Lakota , shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead , who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull . Another police officer , Red Tomahawk , shot Sitting Bull in the head , and he dropped to the ground . He died between 12 and 1 p.m.
A close @-@ quarters fight erupted , and within minutes several men were dead . The Lakota killed six policemen immediately and two more died shortly after the fight , including Lt. Bullhead . The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site , along with two horses .
Sitting Bull 's body was taken to Fort Yates , where it was placed in a coffin ( made by the Army carpenter ) and buried . A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota .
In 1953 Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull 's remains , transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge , South Dakota , his birthplace . A monument to him was erected there .
= = Legacy = =
Following Sitting Bull 's death , his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition . Native American dancers also performed at the Exposition .
On September 14 , 1989 , the United States Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28 ¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull .
On March 6 , 1996 , Standing Rock College was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor . Sitting Bull College serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull 's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota .
The American historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood ( 2010 ) , a revisionist examination of the Lakota medicine man . Anderson stresses the Little Big Horn in light of past successes of the Lakota Nation and the merits of Sitting Bull himself , rather than simply a mishap by Custer .
In August 2010 , a research team led by Eske Willerslev , an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen , announced their intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull , with the approval of his descendants , using a hair sample obtained during his lifetime .
= = Representation in popular culture = =
Sitting Bull was the subject of , or a featured character in , several Hollywood motion pictures and documentaries , which have reflected changing ideas about him and Lakota culture in relation to the United States . Among them are :
Sitting Bull : The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief ( 1914 )
Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre ( 1927 )
Annie Oakley ( 1935 )
Annie Get Your Gun ( 1950 )
Sitting Bull ( 1954 ) , with J. Carrol Naish in the title role , Iron Eyes Cody as Crazy Horse ; with Dale Robertson and William Tannen .
Cheyenne ( 1957 ) , with Clint Walker in the title role of the episode " The Broken Pledge " ; Frank DeKova plays Sitting Bull , and Whit Bissell , George Custer
Buffalo Bill and the Indians , or Sitting Bull 's History Lesson ( 1976 )
Buffalo Girls ( 1995 TV film )
Into the West ( 2005 )
Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee ( 2007 )
Sitting Bull : A Stone in My Heart ( 2008 ) Documentary
As time passed , Sitting Bull has become a symbol and archetype of Native American resistance movements as well as a figure celebrated by descendants of his former enemies :
Legoland Billund , the first Legoland park , contains a Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull , the largest sculpture in the park .
Sitting Bull is featured as the leader for the Native American Civilization in the computer game Civilization IV .
Sitting Bull is lionized as one of 13 great Americans in President Barack Obama 's children 's book , Of Thee I Sing : A Letter to My Daughters .
Sitting Bull is a major character in Sharon Pollock 's play " Walsh " ( 1973 ) , in which he is depicted as a wise and tragic figure during the Lakota nation 's time at Fort Walsh in Saskatchewan . The play is sympathetic to the character of Sitting Bull and hostile to the legend of George Armstrong Custer , re @-@ presenting the General from the perspective of Native Americans as a butcher of women and children .
= The Boat Race 1905 =
The 62nd Boat Race took place on 1 April 1905 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race . In this year 's race , umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 35 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 34 – 27 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1904 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 33 victories to Cambridge 's 27 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by John Edwards @-@ Moss who had rowed in the 1902 and 1903 races , Francis Escombe and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were William Fletcher , who rowed for them in the 1890 , 1891 , 1892 and 1893 races and C. K. Philips who had represented the Dark Blues four times between 1895 and 1898 . The umpire for the third year was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 0 lb ( 76 @.@ 0 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained five rowers with Boat Race experience , including A. K. Graham who was rowing in his third consecutive race . Cambridge saw four rowers return to their crew , including P. H. Thomas who was making his fourth appearance in the event . All of the participants in the race were registered as British .
According to former Oxford rower and author George Drinkwater , the Dark Blues , while they " had no great difficulties in training ... never got really together or attained any great place " . Conversely , the Cambridge crew " suffered many misfortunes . " Old Etonian W. P. Wormald was forbidden from joining the crew by doctors , his replacement Stanley Bruce had to stand down soon after the Light Blues arrived at Putney , and he was replaced by novice P. H. Thomas who was unfit having recently returned from Africa .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race started at 11 : 30 a.m. under the command of umpire Pitman , and the Dark Blues took the lead . According to Drinkwater , they " had the race well in hand at the Mile " and " won as they liked it . " Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 35 seconds . It was their first victory in four years and the narrowest winning margin since the 1901 race .
= Tropical Storm Elena ( 1979 ) =
Tropical Storm Elena was a weak tropical storm that moved ashore along Texas in the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical storm of the season , Elena developed from a tropical wave to the south of Louisiana on August 29 . It tracked generally west @-@ northwest , strengthening little before making landfall on Matagorda Island on September 1 as a minimal tropical storm ; the storm quickly dissipated over land . Elena dropped moderate rainfall along its path , causing two direct deaths in Houston from drowning ; storm damage was minor , amounting to less than $ 10 million ( 1979 USD , $ 28 million 2007 USD ) . Lightning from the storm set fire to an oil supertanker in Houston , causing three indirect deaths and 13 injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 17 . It tracked westward , passing through the Lesser Antilles on August 22 , and on August 27 the weak wave axis crossed through Florida . A tropical disturbance organized along the wave axis , with ship and buoy reports indicating the development of a low @-@ level circulation by August 29 . At 2308 GMT later that day , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported the existence of a tropical depression ; it was classified as Tropical Depression Thirteen , while located about 240 miles ( 390 km ) south of the mouth of the Mississippi River . With a ridge of high pressure located over the southeastern United States , the depression continued tracking generally westward and intensified into Tropical Storm Elena late on August 30 . Elena was the sixth tropical storm of the season , as Hurricane Frederic attained tropical storm status six hours prior to Elena .
Unfavorable northerly vertical wind shear persisted through much of Elena 's duration , which prohibited the development of convection . An approaching frontal trough weakened the high pressure system to its north , which resulted in Elena turning northwestward toward the Texas coastline . The storm remained poorly organized , failing to strengthen further , and on September 1 it made landfall on Matagorda Island as a minimal tropical storm . The cyclone rapidly weakened after moving ashore , and early on September 2 Elena degenerated into a remnant low pressure area over southeastern Texas . Trapped between two high pressure systems , the remnant mid @-@ level circulation drifted southwestward just inland for several days before dissipating on September 6 .
= = Impact = =
As Elena was upgraded to a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a gale warning from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana ; these remained in effect until the storm moved ashore . Winds were fairly minor in association with the storm ; a station in Galveston , Texas recorded a peak wind gust of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . As Elena moved ashore , it produced a 3 foot ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) storm tide at Galveston and Baytown . Rainfall from the storm was generally limited to the coastline , and peaked at 10 @.@ 3 inches ( 261 mm ) at Palacios ; light rainfall also extended along the coastline of Louisiana . Near Houston , 4 @.@ 6 inches ( 117 mm ) of precipitation was reported , which caused two drownings from flooding . Overall storm damage was fairly minor , totaling to less than $ 10 million ( 1979 USD , $ 28 million 2007 USD ) .
At a dock owned by Shell Oil Company in Deer Park near Houston , a lightning bolt from thunderstorms of Elena struck the oil supertanker SS Chevron Hawaii . The lightning started a fire on the ship , which expanded and wrecked one adjacent barge and burned nearby docks . The ship was nearly split in half from the lightning strike , and oil seeped into Houston Ship Channel for several hours .
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ally sexually dimorphic , with no difference in plumage and little in size between males and females . The juvenile vulture has a dark bill and eyes , and a downy , gray neck that soon begins to turn the orange of an adult . Younger vultures are a slate gray overall , and , while they look similar to the adult by the third year , they do not completely molt into adult plumage until they are around five or six years of age . Jack Eitniear of the Center for the Study of Tropical Birds in San Antonio , Texas reviewed the plumage of birds in captivity of various ages and found that ventral feathers were the first to begin turning white from two years of age onwards , followed by wing feathers , until the full adult plumage was achieved . The final immature stages being a scattered black feathers in the otherwise white lesser wing coverts .
The vulture 's head and neck are featherless as an adaptation for hygiene , though there are black bristles on parts of the head ; this lack of feathers prevents bacteria from the carrion it eats from ruining its feathers and exposes the skin to the sterilizing effects of the sun .
Dark @-@ plumaged immature birds may be confused with turkey vultures , but soar with flat wings , while the pale plumaged adults could feasibly be confused with the wood stork , although the latter 's long neck and legs allow for easy recognition from afar .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The king vulture inhabits an estimated 14 million km2 ( 5 @.@ 4 million mi2 ) between southern Mexico and northern Argentina . In South America , it does not live west of the Andes , except in western Ecuador , north @-@ western Colombia and far north @-@ western Venezuela . It primarily inhabits undisturbed tropical lowland forests as well as savannas and grasslands with these forests nearby . It is often seen near swamps or marshy places in the forests . This bird is often the most numerous or only vulture present in primary lowland forests in its range , but in the Amazon rainforest it is typically outnumbered by the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture , while typically outnumbered by the lesser yellow @-@ headed , turkey and American black vulture in more open habitats . King vultures generally do not live above 1500 m ( 5000 ft ) , although are found in places at 2500 m ( 8000 ft ) altitude east of the Andes , and have been rarely recorded up to 3300 m ( 10000 ft ) They inhabit the emergent forest level , or above the canopy . Pleistocene remains have been recovered from Buenos Aires Province in central Argentina , over 700 km ( 450 mi ) south of its current range , giving rise to speculation on the habitat there at the time which had not been thought to be suitable .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The king vulture soars for hours effortlessly , only flapping its wings infrequently . While in flight , its wings are held flat with slightly raised tips , and from a distance the vulture can appear to be headless while in flight . Its wing beats are deep and strong . Birds have been observed engaging in tandem flight on two occasions in Venezuela by naturalist Marsha Schlee , who has proposed it could be a part of courtship behaviour .
Despite its size and gaudy coloration , this vulture is quite inconspicuous when it is perched in trees . While perched , it holds its head lowered and thrust forward . It is non @-@ migratory and , unlike the turkey , lesser yellow @-@ headed and American black vulture , it generally lives alone or in small family groups . Groups of up to 12 birds have been observed bathing and drinking in a pool above a waterfall in Belize . One or two birds generally descend to feed at a carcass , although occasionally up to ten or so may gather if there is significant amount of food . King vultures have lived up to 30 years in captivity , though their lifespan in the wild is unknown . This vulture uses urohidrosis , defecating on its legs , to lower its body temperature . Despite its bill and large size , it is relatively unaggressive at a kill . The king vulture lacks a voice box , although it can make low croaking noises and wheezing sounds in courtship , and bill @-@ snapping noises when threatened . Its only natural predators are snakes , which will prey upon the vulture 's eggs and young , and large cats such as jaguars , which may surprise and kill an adult vulture at a carcass .
= = = Diet = = =
The king vulture eats anything from cattle carcasses to beached fish and dead lizards . Principally a carrion eater , there are isolated reports of it killing and eating injured animals , newborn calves and small lizards .
Although it locates food by vision , the role smell has in how it specifically finds carrion has been debated . Consensus has been that it does not detect odours , and instead follows the smaller turkey and greater yellow @-@ headed vultures , which do have a sense of smell , to a carcass , but a 1991 study demonstrated that the king vulture could find carrion in the forest without the aid of other vultures , suggesting that it locates food using an olfactory sense . The king vulture primarily eats carrion found in the forest , though it is known to venture onto nearby savannas in search of food . Once it has found a carcass , the king vulture displaces the other vultures because of its large size and strong bill . However , when it is at the same kill as the larger Andean condor , the king vulture always defers to it . Using its bill to tear , it makes the initial cut in a fresh carcass . This allows the smaller , weaker @-@ beaked vultures , which can not open the hide of a carcass , access to the carcass after the king vulture has fed . The vulture ’ s tongue is rasp @-@ like , which allows it to pull flesh off of the carcass ’ s bones . Generally , it only eats the skin and harder parts of the tissue of its meal . The king vulture has also been recorded eating fallen fruit of the moriche palm when carrion is scarce in Bolívar state , Venezuela .
= = = Breeding = = =
The reproductive behaviour of the king vulture in the wild is poorly known , and much knowledge has been gained from observing birds in captivity , particularly at the Paris Menagerie . An adult king vulture sexually matures when it is about four or five years old , with females maturing slightly earlier than males . The birds mainly breed during the dry season . King vultures mate for life and generally lay a single unmarked white egg in its nest in a hollow in a tree . To ward off potential predators , the vultures keep their nests foul @-@ smelling . Both parents incubate the egg for the 52 to 58 days before it hatches . If the egg is lost , it will often be replaced after about six weeks . The parents share incubating and brooding duties until the chick is about a week old , after which they often stand guard rather than brood . The young are semi @-@ altricial — they are helpless when born but are covered in downy feathers ( truly altricial birds are born naked ) , and their eyes are open at birth . Developing quickly , the chicks are fully alert by their second day , and able to beg and wriggle around the nest , and preen themselves and peck by their third day . They start growing their second coat of white down by day 10 , and stand on their toes by day 20 . From one to three months of age , chicks walk around and explore the vicinity of the nest , and take their first flights at about three months of age .
= = Conservation = =
This bird is a species of least concern to the IUCN , with an estimated range of 14 million km2 ( 5 @.@ 4 million mi2 ) and between 10 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 wild individuals . However , there is evidence that suggests a decline in population , though it is not significant enough to cause it to be listed . This decline is due primarily to habitat destruction and poaching . Although distinctive , its habit of perching in tall trees and flying at altitude render it difficult to monitor .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The king vulture is one of the most common species of birds represented in the Mayan codices . Its glyph is easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird ’ s beak and by the concentric circles that make up the bird ’ s eyes . Sometimes the bird is portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head . According to Mayan mythology , this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods . It is also used to represent Cozcacuauhtli , the thirteenth day of the month in the Mayan calendar ( 13 Reed ) . An ocellated turkey ( Meleagris ocellata ) was also considered to be the bird depicted , but the hooked bill and wattle point to the raptor .
The bird ’ s blood and feathers were also used to cure diseases . The king vulture is also a popular subject on the stamps of the countries within its range . It appeared on a stamp for El Salvador in 1963 , Belize in 1978 , Guatemala in 1979 , Honduras in 1997 , Bolivia in 1998 , and Nicaragua in 1999 .
Because of its large size and beauty , the king vulture is an attraction at zoos around the world . The king vulture is one of several bird species with an AZA studbook , which is kept by Shelly Collinsworth of the Fort Worth Zoo .
= William R. Purnell =
Rear Admiral William Reynolds Purnell ( 6 September 1886 – 3 March 1955 ) was an officer in the United States Navy who served in World War I and World War II . A 1908 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , he captained destroyers during World War I. He was awarded the Navy Cross for his role in protecting convoys against German submarines as commander of the USS Lamson .
He was promoted to rear admiral in November 1941 . During World War II , he was Chief of Staff of the ill @-@ fated Asiatic Fleet at the start of the Pacific War . He later served as Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for Materiel . He was the Navy representative on the Joint Committee on New Weapons and Equipment , and , from September 1942 , the Navy representative on the Military Policy Committee , the three @-@ man committee that oversaw the Manhattan Project . Purnell helped coordinate its activities with those of the Navy . In 1945 , he travelled to Tinian as the representative of the Military Policy Committee , and coordinated preparations for the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with senior Army and Navy commanders in the Pacific . He retired from the Navy in 1946 and died in 1955 .
= = Early life = =
William Reynolds Purnell was born in Bowling Green , Missouri , on 6 September 1886 . In 1908 , he graduated from the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . He was commissioned as an ensign in 1910 . During World War I , he commanded the destroyers USS Lamson , USS Patterson , USS Rowan , and USS Montgomery . For his services , he was awarded the Navy Cross . His citation read :
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Lieutenant Commander William Reynolds Purnell , United States Navy , for distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commanding Officer of the USS Lamson , engaged in the important , exacting and hazardous duty of patrolling the waters infested with enemy submarines and mines , in escorting and protecting vitally important convoys of troops and supplies through these waters , and in offensive and defensive action , vigorously and unremittingly prosecuted against all forms of enemy naval activity during World War I.
In January 1917 , while he was serving on the Rowan , he married Ada Dodge Curtiss , the daughter of Walter Phelps Dodge and the ex @-@ wife of Gerald S. Curtiss . They had one son , William Reynolds Purnell , Jr .
After the war , he commanded the tanker USS Cuyama from 1934 to 1936 . Alternating duty afloat with service ashore , he then became secretary to the General Board . He commanded the cruiser USS New Orleans from January to December 1939 .
= = World War II = =
Purnell became Chief of Staff of Admiral Thomas C. Hart 's Asiatic Fleet . Purnell represented the United States at a planning conference in Singapore in April 1941 at which American , British , Dutch , Australian , and New Zealand commanders attempted to coordinate their plans for an increasingly likely war with Japan . He was promoted to rear admiral in November 1941 . On 7 December , Purnell played golf with Hart . War broke out the next morning . The Japanese advanced quickly and the Asiatic Fleet moved from the Philippines to Java in January . As the Japanese closed in on Java , Purnell flew to Broome on 25 February .
In Australia , Purnell became Chief of Staff to Vice Admiral William A. Glassford , the Commander , US Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific . When Glassford departed in May 1942 , Purnell took his place . He too left Australia in June 1942 , for duty in Washington , DC , in the Office of the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest J. King . For his services , he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Rear Admiral William Reynolds Purnell , United States Navy , for especially meritorious service as Chief of Staff to Commander in Chief , Asiatic Fleet , and Commander U.S. Forces , Southwest , Pacific , since the outbreak of war for duties involving great responsibility connected with formulation plans , counseling their application and aid in directing execution , especially of offensive missions of forces of this command which have resulted in substantial damage to the enemy together with skill and tact displayed in negotiating , conferring and dealing with Commanders of the Allied Forces during World War II .
Purnell became Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Materiel . He was also the Navy representative on the Joint Committee on New Weapons and Equipment , and , from September 1942 , the Navy representative on the Military Policy Committee , the three @-@ man committee that oversaw the Manhattan Project . Purnell helped coordinate the activities of the Manhattan Project with those of the Navy , particularly the navy 's thermal diffusion research , and he helped provide scientists and technicians from the Navy for the project .
In February 1945 , Purnell arranged for Commander Frederick Ashworth to go to Guam to brief Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz on the project . He provided Ashworth with a letter from King stressing the project 's importance and the need for secrecy . Ashworth selected a base site for the Manhattan Project 's operations . He inspected facilities on Guam and Tinian , and chose the latter .
Tinian 's harbor suffered from congestion due to extensive base development work , and ships sometimes took months to unload . The director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , went to Purnell , who arranged for an order from King to Nimitz stating that all shipments related to the Manhattan Project and the 509th Composite Group had to be unloaded immediately on arrival , regardless of the consequent disruption to the port 's operations .
Problems like this underlined the value of having high @-@ ranking officers on hand to deal with local commanders to make decisions on the spot if necessary . In drawing up an organization for command of the Manhattan Project 's operations , Groves and Purnell agreed that Purnell should to be present on Tinian as both the representative of the Military Policy Committee and the personal representative of Admiral King . He was joined by Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , the Manhattan Project 's Deputy for Operations , and the two shared responsibility for coordinating the Manhattan Project 's activities with the senior Army and Navy commanders in the Pacific . Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the director of Project Alberta , they formed what became informally known as the " Tinian Joint Chiefs " .
Purnell was the first proponent of the idea that two atomic attacks , one following quickly after the other , would be required to end the war . This was something that Groves and Purnell discussed a number of times . " I knew that with him and Farrell on the ground at Tinian , " Groves wrote . " There would be no unnecessary delay in exploiting our success " after the bombing of Hiroshima . The main difficulty with the second mission , then scheduled for 11 August , was the weather , which was predicted to be good until 9 August but bad for at least five days starting on 10 August . Parsons agreed to work the assembly team around the clock to get the Fat Man bomb ready by the evening of 8 August .
Before Major Charles Sweeney took off on the mission , Purnell took him aside and asked him if he knew how much the bomb cost . Sweeney did not know ; Purnell told him it was about $ 2 billion . He then asked if Sweeney knew how much his aircraft was worth . This Sweeney did know ; over half a million dollars . Purnell then told him : " I 'd suggest you keep those relative values in mind for this mission . "
= = Later life = =
After the war , Purnell served as a member of the Army @-@ Navy Evaluation Board during Operation Crossroads . He retired from the Navy in October 1946 , and moved to Palo Alto , California , where he died on 5 March 1955 . He was buried in Golden Gate National Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , Ada Dodge Purnell , and his son , William R. Purnell , Jr .
= Adam Air Flight 172 =
Adam Air Flight 172 refers to an accident suffered by a Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , when it landed in Surabaya at the end of a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Ngurah Rai Airport to Juanda Airport . On 21 February 2007 , the plane bent on landing , with the fuselage cracking in the middle of the passenger section . All six of Adam Air 's remaining 737s were immediately grounded , and five
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Beamer announced that he would not be departing for North Carolina or any other school . Beamer also was considered for the vacant head @-@ coaching position with the NFL 's Washington Redskins , but he also declined that position . Other Virginia Tech football coaches were targeted by teams to fill vacant head @-@ coaching positions . Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle was interviewed for a job at Toledo , but he declined the position . Virginia Tech defensive coordinator Bud Foster was interviewed for the head @-@ coaching job at Virginia , but he likewise declined the job .
Tech 's situation was not reflected at Clemson , where offensive coordinator Rich Rodriguez announced that he was leaving the team for the head football coach job at West Virginia University , where he competed as a player in the 1980s . Rodriguez did not participate in Clemson 's practices prior to the Gator Bowl , and he did not coach during the game . Replacing Rodriguez as temporary offensive coordinator was Brad Scott . Joining him in the press box during the Gator Bowl was Mike O 'Cain , who was hired as Clemson 's new quarterbacks coach . In an effort to prevent further defections , Clemson awarded head coach Tommy Bowden a seven @-@ year contract extension worth $ 1 @.@ 1 million annually plus incentives .
= = = Michael Vick debate = = =
Throughout the regular season , a constant question hanging over the Virginia Tech Hokies football team was whether or not star quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year at the school . The National Football League requires that players be at least three years out of high school before they are eligible for the NFL Draft . Vick , who had not played during his freshman year at the school , would be three years out of high school in the spring following the Gator Bowl .
Vick attempted to defuse the discussion when he announced on December 15 that he would be returning for his fourth year with the team . But in late December , Vick wavered on that decision when it became clear that if he left the team , he would be selected as the No. 1 overall pick in the draft . Heading into the Gator Bowl , his decision was still up in the air .
= = = Clemson offense = = =
During the regular season , Clemson was No. 10 in rushing yards , averaging 236 @.@ 4 per game . Its passing offense was somewhat weaker , ranked No. 63 and averaging 210 @.@ 1 yards per game . In total , however , Clemson 's offense ranked No. 10 when the two amounts were added together . In scoring offense , the Tigers averaged 36 @.@ 0 points per game , good enough for No. 14 in the country in that category .
Clemson 's offense was led by quarterback Woodrow Dantzler , who finished the regular season having completed 58 percent of his passes for 1 @,@ 691 yards , 10 touchdowns , and six interceptions . He also ran the ball extremely successfully , gaining 947 yards and 13 touchdowns on the ground . In the running game , Dantzler had the second @-@ most yards on the team . No. 1 was running back Travis Zachery , who ran 201 times for 1 @,@ 012 yards and 13 touchdowns . Zachery also was one of Dantzler 's favorite passing targets . He caught 27 passes for 288 yards and four touchdowns during the regular season .
Wide receivers Rod Gardner and Jackie Robinson were the No. 1 and No. 3 recipients , respectively , of Dantzler 's passes . Gardner caught 51 passes for 956 yards and six touchdowns . Robinson , unrelated to the baseball player of the same name , caught 24 passes for 276 yards and three touchdowns .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was No. 5 nationally in rushing yards , averaging 270 @.@ 5 per game . Their passing offense was abysmal , however . The Hokies were ranked No. 100 in that category after averaging 155 @.@ 9 yards per game during the regular season . Combined , Tech was ranked No. 20 in total offense . In scoring offense , they found success comparable to their rushing game . After averaging 40 @.@ 3 points per game , they were ranked No. 5 .
Virginia Tech 's offense was led by quarterback Michael Vick , who carried the ball 104 times for 617 yards and eight touchdowns despite an ankle injury that limited his mobility in the final six games of the regular season . Tech also had two successful running backs : Lee Suggs and Andre Kendrick . Suggs had 222 carries for 1 @,@ 207 yards and 27 touchdowns during the regular season , while Kendrick had 102 rushes for 547 yards and three touchdowns . Suggs was the No. 1 rusher in the Big East in terms of touchdowns and rushing yards . In recognition of his accomplishments , he was given the Dudley Award , which recognizes the top college football player in Virginia .
One of Vick 's favorite targets in the limited Tech passing attack was wide receiver Andre Davis , who caught 24 passes for 318 yards and two touchdowns . Davis was limited by the fact that he played in only nine of Tech 's 11 games , but he still finished as the Hokies ' No. 2 receiver in terms of yardage . Tech 's No. 1 receiver was Emmett Johnson , who caught 34 passes for 574 yards and three touchdowns .
= = = Clemson defense = = =
Clemson 's defense was strongest against the rush . During the regular season , the Tigers allowed an average of 101 @.@ 8 yards per game on the ground , good enough for No. 18 nationally . Their passing defense was not nearly as successful . On average , the Tigers allowed 238 @.@ 6 yards per game through the air , making their pass defense the 97th best in division I @-@ A football during the regular season . With both categories combined , the defense was ranked No. 37 . In terms of points allowed , rather than yardage , the Tigers were ranked No. 23 after giving up an average of 19 @.@ 3 yards per game .
Linebacker Chad Carson was the team 's defensive leader . He had 146 tackles ( the most on the team ) , two pass breakups , and one forced fumble during the regular season . Fellow linebacker Keith Adams was No. 2 on the team in tackles with 138 , including five sacks . He also had one interception , three forced fumbles , and three pass breakups . In pass defense , the Tigers ' highest achiever was cornerback Alex Ardley , who led the team in interceptions with five . He also had seven pass breakups .
One notable absence from the Tigers ' defense during the Gator Bowl was defensive end Nick Eason , who led the team in sacks but suffered a torn Achilles tendon during a mid @-@ December practice . Backup defensive end Marcus Lewis also missed the game due to injury . He tore an anterior cruciate ligament in a pregame practice .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Virginia Tech 's defense likewise was more successful against opponents ' rushing offense than their passing attack . Tech permitted an average of 99 @.@ 3 yards per game on the ground ( 16th ) , but allowed 224 @.@ 4 yards per game through the air ( 79th ) . In total , Tech was ranked the No. 27 defense in the country — slightly better than Clemson . In scoring defense , the Hokies allowed 22 @.@ 6 points per game on average , good enough for No. 45 . In this category , they were worse than the Tigers .
Linebacker Ben Taylor was the Hokies ' defensive leader . He was No. 1 on the team in tackles with 103 . That figure included 1 @.@ 5 sacks . He also had two interceptions , five pass breakups , and one forced fumble . Four year starting linebacker Jake Houseright was the team 's No. 2 tackler . He had 75 , including five tackles for loss . He also had five pass breakups and recovered one fumble . Free safety Willie Pile , who was in his first year as a starter on the defense , was Tech 's leading performer in pass coverage . He had six interceptions — the most on the team — broke up 10 passes , forced one fumble , and recovered one fumble .
= = Game summary = =
The 2001 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1 , 2001 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . At kickoff , the weather was partly cloudy at 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) degrees , with 41 percent humidity and a 6 miles per hour ( 10 km / h ) wind from the northwest . Virginia Tech won the traditional pregame coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Clemson to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
Clemson fielded the opening kickoff at the two @-@ yard line and returned it to their 25 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers ' offense performed the game 's first offensive play , a one @-@ yard scramble by Dantzler . A subsequent running play and an incomplete pass caused Clemson to go three @-@ and @-@ out before punting . Clemson punter Jamie Somaini mishandled the ball , however , and Virginia Tech 's defense tackled him at the Tigers ' 23 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play after the turnover ,
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quarterback Michael Vick completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to Jared Ferguson for a touchdown . The extra point kick by Carter Warley was successful , and Virginia Tech had a 7 – 0 lead with 13 : 23 remaining in the first quarter .
Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was downed at the Clemson 26 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers began their second offensive possession . It began no better than the first , as Dantzler was tackled for a three @-@ yard loss by defensive tackle Lamar Cobb . A rush for no gain and a short pass forced Clemson to again punt before gaining a first down . Somaini 's second punt was kicked cleanly , and the Hokies returned the punt to their 42 @-@ yard line . Two rushes and a pass to the 50 @-@ yard line were not enough for a first down , and Tech punted to the Clemson 17 @-@ yard line .
The Tigers ' third possession didn 't produce anything more than their first two possessions did . A running play was stopped for no gain , Dantzler was sacked for a loss of three yards by David Pugh , and a scramble by Dantzler gained only four yards . Clemson 's punt was downed at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies had another chance on offense . On the first play of the drive , Vick scrambled for a nine @-@ yard gain . On the next play , Tech gained a first down on a run by backup running back Andre Kendrick to the Clemson 46 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , Vick completed a six @-@ yard toss to Kendrick . A five @-@ yard offsides penalty gave Tech a first down at the Clemson 35 @-@ yard line , then Vick completed a six @-@ yard throw to wide receiver Emmett Johnson . This was followed by Vick scrambling for a first down at the Clemson 19 @-@ yard line . A reverse run by Johnson picked up five yards , then a run up the middle gained a first down at the Clemson nine @-@ yard line . Two rushes by Kendrick failed to reach the five @-@ yard line , then Vick ran six yards for Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The extra point was good , and Tech extended its lead to 14 – 0 with 1 : 08 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Clemson 26 @-@ yard line , and the drive began with an incomplete pass from Dantzler . After that , the Tigers gained their first down of the game with a pass from Dantzler to wide receiver Rod Gardner at the 38 @-@ yard line . A run by Dantzler gained three yards , then Zachery gained five more with a run to the left side . Zachery 's run ran the final seconds off the clock in the first quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech leading , 14 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and facing third and two at its 46 @-@ yard line . The Tigers gained a first down with the first play of the quarter , a four @-@ yard rush by Zachery . From midfield , Dantzler threw an incomplete pass then ran for no gain . On third down , Dantzler completed a long pass to Justin Watts , who gained a first down at the Tech 23 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Dantzler completed a pass to Zachery , who ran into the end zone for Clemson 's first points of the game . During the play , Zachery broke his foot and was kept out of the rest of the game . The extra point was good , and the Tigers narrowed Tech 's lead to 14 – 7 with 13 : 34 remaining in the first half .
Clemson 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was bobbled by kick returner Andre Kendrick at the Tech one @-@ yard line , but Kendrick broke free of the Clemson defense for a 34 @-@ yard return to the 35 @-@ yard line . Tech 's first play after the return was an 11 @-@ yard run by Lee Suggs up the right side of the field . After the first down , Suggs ran straight ahead for a short gain , then Vick scrambled to the Clemson 37 @-@ yard line and another first down . Suggs then gained 18 yards on a run to the left side of the field . At the Clemson 19 @-@ yard line , Suggs was stopped for a loss of one yard , then Vick was sacked for a loss of five yards . The third @-@ down play was an incomplete pass , and Carter Warley entered the game to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal . The kick bounced off the field goal crossbar but did not cross it , thus denying the Hokies three points . With 10 : 33 remaining in the half , Tech still had a 14 – 7 lead .
Following the missed field goal , Clemson 's offense started at its 25 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the drive , Dantzler completed a pass to wide receiver Rod Gardner , who ran for 25 yards and a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . A nine @-@ yard shovel pass play was followed by a run up the middle for a first down at the Tech 37 @-@ yard line . Dantzler completed an eight @-@ yard pass , then a running play was stopped short of the first @-@ down marker . On third down , Dantzler faked a quarterback sneak in order to attempt a long pass downfield . Dantzler was unable to pass , however , and was sacked for a four @-@ yard loss . Rather than attempt a field goal or punt the ball , Clemson coach Tommy Bowden had his team attempt to gain a first down . Dantzler scrambled forward , but didn 't gain the five yards needed . The Tigers thus turned the ball over on downs at the Tech 28 @-@ yard line .
Tech began its drive with an incomplete pass , which was followed by a short run . On third down , Vick prepared to throw the ball , but he was hit by Clemson defender Keith Adams and fumbled the ball . Fellow Clemson defender Terry Jolly recovered the loose football and returned it to the Tech 14 @-@ yard line before he was tackled . Following the turnover , Dantzler was stopped on a short run then threw two incomplete passes . Rather than again attempt to convert a fourth down , Bowden sent in kicker Aaron Hunt to attempt a 28 @-@ yard field goal . The kick soared through the uprights , and Clemson narrowed Virginia Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 with 5 : 45 remaining in the quarter .
Kendrick returned Clemson 's post @-@ score kickoff to the Tech 23 @-@ yard line . A two @-@ yard run by Suggs was followed by a pass to Davis at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line for a first down . Two running plays set up third down and two , then Vick completed a 50 @-@ yard pass to Kendrick , who picked up a first down at the Clemson four @-@ yard line . From there , it took Suggs two rushes to pass the goal line for Virginia Tech 's third touchdown of the game . The extra point was good , and Tech extended its lead to 21 – 10 with 2 : 26 before halftime .
Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff bounced to the Clemson two @-@ yard line before it was returned to the Clemson 12 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass on first down was followed by a first @-@ down pass to Gardner at the 22 @-@ yard line . Dantzler then completed a pass to Watts at the 34 @-@ yard line for another first down . After an incomplete pass , Dantzler scrambled for a first down at the Clemson 47 @-@ yard line , where he completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to Robinson as time ticked below one minute remaining . From the Tech 36 @-@ yard line , Dantzler completed a pass to Gardner at the Tech 29 @-@ yard line . After a time out with 33 seconds remaining , Dantzler threw an incomplete pass . This was followed by another incomplete pass , and Clemson converted the first down with a pass to the Tech 24 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass on first down was followed by another on second down . Following the play , there was only eight seconds left on the clock , and coach Bowden ordered Hunt into the game to attempt a 41 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was short and to the right , and Clemson turned the ball over with two seconds remaining . Vick took a knee to run the final seconds off the clock , and Virginia Tech entered halftime with a 21 – 10 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Clemson received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Kendrick received the kickoff at the Tech goal line and returned it to the 20 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies started the first possession of the second half . On the first play , Virginia Tech committed a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty . Suggs gained five yards with a run up the middle , then Vick completed a pass to tight end Browning Wynn at the 28 @-@ yard line . On third down , the Hokies were stopped short of the first down marker and punted for only the second time in the game . During the kick , Clemson committed a 15 @-@ yard roughing the kicker penalty . The penalty allowed the Hokies to retain the football and gave them a first down at their 44 @-@ yard line . On the first play after the penalty , Vick completed a 55 @-@ yard pass to Davis at the Clemson one @-@ yard line . After the pass , Suggs ran straight ahead for his second touchdown of the game . The extra point was missed by Warley , but Tech still extended its lead to 27 – 10 with 12 : 19 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was recovered and Clemson 's kick returner ran out of bounds at the Tigers ' 12 @-@ yard line . Dantzler scrambled for two yards , but Virginia Tech linebacker Jake Houseright was injured during the play and left the game . After a delay while the injured Houseright was helped off the field , Dantzler scrambled for six yards . Bernard Rambert gained a first down with a two @-@ yard run , then he gained five yards on a run up the middle . Dantzler followed the gain with a 13 @-@ yard run of his own and a first down at the Clemson 40 @-@ yard line . Rambert caught a five @-@ yard pass from Dantzler , then he ran for one yard up the left side of the field . During the play , Rambert was injured and had to be helped off the field . He was replaced by third @-@ string freshman running back Keith Kelly . Dantzler threw an incomplete pass on third down , then Somaini punted the ball to Virginia Tech . The kick bounced off the chest of the Virginia Tech kick returner , and the loose ball was scooped up by Robert Carswell of Clemson . Following the turnover , Clemson 's offense had a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line with 8 : 44 remaining in the quarter .
Kelly gained one yard on first down , then Dantzler picked up 11 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field . An incomplete pass was followed by a run for no gain and another incomplete pass . Facing fourth and goal at the eight @-@ yard line , Bowden sent in his field @-@ goal kicker . After the Tigers called a time out , Hunt completed a 27 @-@ yard field goal attempt and cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 27 – 13 with 7 : 19 remaining in the quarter .
Clemson 's post @-@ score kickoff was fielded at the five @-@ yard line by Kendrick and returned to the Tech 25 @-@ yard line . The first play of the drive was an option run with Vick and Kendrick , who broke free of the Clemson defense for a 45 @-@ yard run and a first down at the Clemson 29 @-@ yard line . Two short rushes were followed by a pass to fullback Cullen Hawkins at the 10 @-@ yard line for a first down . Clemson committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , then Ferguson ran straight ahead for a touchdown . The extra point kick was good , and Tech took a 34 – 13 lead with 5 : 14 left in the quarter .
The post @-@ touchdown kickoff was returned to the Clemson 30 @-@ yard line , where it was fumbled . The loose football jetted forward and was recovered by a Clemson player at the 34 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers ' offense began another drive . The first play of the possession was a nine @-@ yard pass from Dantzler to Kelly , and it was followed by a shovel pass to Kelly , who gained a first down at the Tech 47 @-@ yard line . From there , Kantzler ran straight ahead for 27 yards and a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . After two incomplete passes , Clemson completed a five @-@ yard false @-@ start penalty . A one @-@ yard run by Dantzler was followed by an unsuccessful fourth @-@ down conversion attempt . Dantzler attempted a pass downfield , but the ball was intercepted by Ronyell Whitaker , who returned the ball to the Tech 32 @-@ yard line .
In possession of the ball and a large lead , Virginia Tech proceeded to start running out the clock by executing running plays , which do not halt the game clock at their conclusion as do incomplete passing plays . Suggs gained nine yards on a run up the middle , then Ferguson was tackled for a loss after an incomplete pass by Vick . Tech punted , and the ball was downed at the 26 @-@ yard line . Following the punt , Clemson put backup quarterback Willie Simmons into the game . On his first play , Simmons was sacked by Jim Davis for a five @-@ yard loss . The second play was a repeat of the first , as Davis again sacked Simmons , this time for an 11 @-@ yard loss . On third down , Simmons threw an incomplete pass , and Clemson punted after going three and out .
The kick bounced out of bounds at the Clemson 44 @-@ yard line , and Virginia Tech 's offense returned to the field . On the first play , Vick attempted a pass into the end zone . The throw was intercepted by Clemson defender Robert Carswell , who downed the ball in the end zone for a touchback . The interception was the final play of the third quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech in the lead , 34 – 13 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and starting a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line following a touchback . On the first play of the drive , Simmons threw an interception to Virginia Tech defender Willie Pile at the 50 @-@ yard line . Following the turnover , the Hokies continued running out the clock with rushing plays up the middle of the field . A short gain by Suggs was followed by a five @-@ yard offsides penalty against Clemson , which advanced the Hokies to the Clemson 45 @-@ yard line . Ferguson then gained a first down on a run to the 32 @-@ yard line . On first down , Vick was slightly injured after attempting to pitch the ball forward . He left the game and was replaced by backup quarterback Dave Meyer . Tech advanced the ball on short runs , setting up fourth down and seven . Tech coach Frank Beamer called a time out , allowing Vick to re @-@ enter the game . The fourth @-@ down play was an incomplete pass , and Tech turned the ball over on downs with 11 : 49 remaining in the game .
Following the turnover , Clemson received the ball at its 28 @-@ yard line . Simmons ran the ball straight ahead for an eight @-@ yard gain , gained one yard on a run , then Kelly ran for a first down at the 40 @-@ yard line . On first down , Simmons completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Gardner at the Tech 42 @-@ yard line . Simmons then completed a six @-@ yard pass before throwing a shovel pass to Kelly for a first down at the Tech 32 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass was followed by six @-@ yard toss and a pass to Watts at the 12 @-@ yard line . Simmons ran out of bounds for a two @-@ yard loss , then completed a touchdown pass to Gardner . The extra point kick was good , and Clemson closed Virginia Tech 's lead to 34 – 20 with 7 : 19 remaining .
With limited time remaining , Clemson attempted an onside kick in an effort to retain possession and have a chance to make up some of the scoring deficit . The kick was recovered by Virginia Tech , however , and the Vick @-@ led Tech offense returned to the field at the Clemson 44 @-@ yard line . Suggs was stopped for no gain on a run up the middle , Vick threw an incomplete pass , then he completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Wynn for a first down at the Clemson 30 @-@ yard line . After the first down , Ferguson gained a few yards on a run up the middle , then Suggs advanced the ball to just short of the first @-@ down marker . On third down , Suggs gained the first down with a run up the middle . Following the first down , Clemson defender Alex Ardley was called for a personal foul and ejected from the game . The penalty gave Virginia Tech a first down at the Clemson 10 @-@ yard line . From there , Clemson was called for a five @-@ yard offsides penalty . On the first play after the consecutive penalties , Vick pitched the ball to Suggs , who ran into the end zone untouched . The extra point kick was good , and Virginia Tech extended its lead to 41 – 20 with 3 : 41 remaining in the game .
Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was returned to the 23 @-@ yard line , and Clemson went three and out after Simmons threw three incomplete passes . The Tigers ' punt was returned to the Tech 30 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another possession . Vick was again replaced by Meyer at the quarterback position , and running back Dwayne Ward ran up the middle of the field for a short gain . Third @-@ string running back Keith Burnell gained more yardage with a run up the middle , then Ward picked up a first down with a run up the left side of the field . During the play , Tech committed a 10 @-@ yard penalty , but the resulting yardage was still enough for a first down . Tech proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock , and the Virginia Tech Hokies earned a 41 – 20 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of his success in leading the Hokies to a bowl game win , Virginia Tech quarterback Michael Vick was named the most valuable player of the winning team . Vick finished the game having completed 10 of 18 passes for 205 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Vick also ran the ball nine times for a gain of 21 yards and a touchdown . He was sacked twice , resulting in a loss of two yards . On the opposite side of the ball , Clemson wide receiver Rod Gardner was named the MVP of the losing team . He caught seven passes for 94 yards and a touchdown during the game .
Virginia Tech outgained Clemson on the ground by a nearly 3 : 1 margin . Tech running back Lee Suggs carried the ball 20 times for 73 yards and three touchdowns . At the time , Suggs ' three touchdowns were a Virginia Tech bowl game record and tied the Gator Bowl record for most touchdowns by a player . Fellow running backs Andre Kendrick and Jarrett Ferguson gained 52 yards and 26 yards , respectively . Suggs ' scores and the two by Ferguson also marked the first time the Hokies had two players with two or more touchdowns in a bowl game .
On the other side of the ball , Clemson 's 44 pass attempts and 21 pass completions were the most allowed by Virginia Tech in any bowl game to that point . The Tigers outgained Virginia Tech through the air by almost 40 yards , and Clemson 's two quarterbacks performed consistently throughout the game . Dantzler completed 15 of 32 passes for one touchdown and 180 yards , while Simmons completed six of 12 passes for 63 yards , one touchdown , and two interceptions . On the ground , Dantzler led all rushers with 18 carries for 81 yards . Clemson 's No. 2 rusher was Zachery , who had five carries for 15 yards .
Defensively , Virginia Tech intercepted two Clemson passes and sacked Clemson quarterbacks six times for a loss of 28 yards . The Tech defense held Clemson without a first down and to -2 yards of total offense until less than two minutes were left in the first quarter . Clemson 's defense sacked Vick twice for a total loss of two yards .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's win brought it to a final record of 11 – 1 , while Clemson 's loss lowered it to a final record of 9 – 3 . Despite the Hokies ' win , they did not advance in either the Associated Press or Coaches ' polls . Tech ended the year ranked No. 6 in both polls and No. 5 in the BCS . Clemson also remained relatively stationary in the polls . The Tigers remained at No. 16 in the Associated Press poll and dropped from No. 13 to No. 14 in the Coaches ' Poll . The victory was the first in three bowl trips for the Hokies . The loss was Clemson 's fifth straight in a bowl game and fourth in eight trips to the Gator Bowl at that point .
= = = Michael Vick = = =
Immediately after the conclusion of the Gator Bowl , Vick was asked by an NBC broadcaster if he intended to return to Virginia Tech for another year of collegiate football . He responded that he would discuss matters with his family and Tech head coach Frank Beamer before making a decision . That announcement sparked a fresh round of speculation from sports pundits and fans wondering if Vick would choose to return to school or enter the 2001 NFL Draft . Virginia Tech , through its football coaching staff , began an intensive lobbying campaign in an effort to convince Vick to stay . On January 11 , 2001 , Vick held a press conference to announce that he would be forgoing his final two years of collegiate eligibility to enter the NFL Draft . Immediately after the announcement , he was predicted to be the No. 1 pick in the draft , a hypothesis realized on April 21 , when he was selected by the Atlanta Falcons , who had traded draft picks in order to have the right to select Vick .
= = = 2001 NFL Draft = = =
Vick was not the only player for whom the 2001 Gator Bowl was the final collegiate contest . Virginia Tech had two other players selected in the draft , and Clemson had three . From the Hokies , defensive back Cory Bird was selected with the 91st pick and center Matt Lehr was taken with the 137th selection . Clemson 's first NFL draft selection was wide receiver Rod Gardner , who was taken 15th . Also picked was defensive back Robert Carswell ( 244th ) .
= Invisible Circles =
Invisible Circles is the third studio album by Dutch symphonic metal band After Forever . It was released on 25 March 2004 , by the small Dutch label Transmission Records . It is After Forever 's first full @-@ length album since the dismissal of guitarist and composer Mark Jansen , whose musical tastes had strongly influenced the sound of their first work Prison of Desire ( 2000 ) and their successful second offering Decipher ( 2001 ) . In this work After Forever choose a new musical direction , mostly revolving around elements of progressive metal instead of the gothic and symphonic metal of previous albums . The creative process for Invisible Circles took more than a year and required the use of three recording studios in the Netherlands and Germany . A long tour to support the album brought the band to some of the most important European rock festivals and to Central and South America .
Invisible Circles is a concept album about the dynamics of quarrelsome families and psychological child abuse . The theme was inspired by guitarist Sander Gommans ' work as an art teacher , in direct contact with dysfunctional families and teen @-@ age problems . It is also a metal opera , with a storyline that follows the lives of an abused child and her parents since her conception to adulthood . The album was received with mixed reviews , but entered the charts in the Netherlands and Belgium .
= = Background = =
By the end of 2001 , After Forever appeared as rising stars on the dynamic scene of Dutch metal , which included bands like The Gathering , Within Temptation , Gorefest and Ayreon . Their second album Decipher ( 2001 ) had received very positive reviews and their name was well known in the underground scene of the Netherlands . Critics were impressed by the remarkable musicianship of the young members of the band and in particular by Floor Jansen ’ s vocals , both in studio and in live performances . In contrast with these premises for a bright future , the relationships within the band were not so idyllic . Soon after the release of Decipher , After Forever faced a strong creative contrast between founding member and guitarist Mark Jansen and the rest of the band . Mark Jansen had been the main composer of the band together with Sander Gommans and his love for movie soundtracks and classical music had had a strong influence on the musical style of After Forever ’ s first two albums , Prison of Desire ( 2000 ) and Decipher . Moreover , his interest for religious and moral themes had characterized his lyrics for many songs , often collected under a common title ( e.g. The Embrace That Smothers and My Pledge of Allegiance ) . In the next album , Mark Jansen meant to further explore complex interactions between classical instruments , choruses in Latin and death metal elements , while Gommans and the others preferred a more direct and aggressive approach to music , retaining some elements that made the sound of the band recognizable , but expanding it in new and different directions . These musical differences led to Mark Jansen leaving the band , in what he felt as an actual dismissal .
He quickly formed another band called Sahara Dust , which later developed into the symphonic metal band Epica . His place was taken by Bas Maas , who had been the guitar technician for After Forever during the tours of 2001 and 2002 . August and September 2002 were dedicated to a European tour , supporting Finnish act Nightwish and attending some rock festivals , which exposed the band to larger audiences and gained them even more favourable press . Further media exposure came from Floor Jansen 's collaboration with Dutch multi @-@ instrumentalist and composer Arjen Anthony Lucassen , for the recording of Star One 's album Space Metal and the subsequent tour in late 2002 . Jansen 's activities , as well as the regular jobs and studies of the After Forever band members , reduced the band 's live performances for the rest of 2002 and half of 2003 . It was known that the band was working at a new album from the beginning of 2003 , but their first release was the EP Exordium in October 2003 , containing an instrumental track , three new songs and two covers . In Jansen ’ s words " the EP Exordium was like an introduction to this new full length album and the subjects of the lyrics are already connected to the concept ( ... ) meaning they are also dealing with modern , social problems " .
The reviewers noticed some musical changes in the new work , but some of them suspended their judgement , waiting for a full album to express their opinions about the new course of After Forever .
= = Concept and storyline = =
The concept of Invisible Circles was shaped by After Forever 's singer and lyricist Floor Jansen , taking inspiration from Sander Gommans ' job as an art teacher . His daily contact with children with social and family problems had given him the desire to make people aware of these problems by incorporating their stories into songs . He had also realized that those children 's problems often stemmed from the psychological traumas that their parents had experienced in their past . Gommans described the title and the concept of the album in these terms : " Invisible Circles describes the paths of life that someone can follow . Life consists of several circles that you can follow ; many times you will come back at the beginning of a circle , although you have tried to get out of that particular circle . "
The plot revolves around a dysfunctional family , comprising a father , a mother , their daughter and the father 's mother . The story begins with two lovers , whose relationship is running dry . They decide to have a child , which the woman believes may save their relationship ( " Between Love and Fire " ) . The birth of a baby girl destroys in the mother her hopes for a brilliant professional career and smothers her passion . On the other hand , the newborn child causes in the father a stiffening of his feelings and the refusal to compromise his career for a " spoilt brat " ( " Sins of Idealism " ) . The girl , perceived in the family as an unwanted burden , tries to adapt to the psychological abuse she receives , but she is the object of frequent quarrels and grows sad and depressed ( " Beautiful Emptiness " ) . She searches for quietness and strength in her inner fantasy world , and friendship and love on the internet , becoming ever more detached from the real world and eccentric in the eyes of her schoolmates and parents ( " Eccentric " , " Digital Deceit " , " Through Square Eyes " ) . The line of pain that connects the child to her parents appears indestructible and the situation gets worse when the father thinks of leaving ( " Blind Pain " , " Two Sides " ) . The intervention of the girl 's grandmother reveals that the father was himself a neglected child and a victim of his family ( " Victim of Choices " ) . The father 's anger is a reaction to his abuse as a child and this realization seems to soften the girl 's pain , bringing her out of her defensive shell ( " Reflections " ) . In conclusion , the grown @-@ up daughter , now a mother herself , faces the same dilemmas of her parents and is bound to repeat her parents ' mistakes , closing the invisible circle that endures from one generation to another ( " Life 's Vortex " ) .
= = Production = =
Sander Gommans started the composition of the basic melodies for Invisible Circles at the beginning of 2003 in his home studio in Reuver , working at the same time on new songs for the EP Exordium . This part of the creative process had been shared with Mark Jansen for the previous albums and it would be shared with keyboard player Joost van den Broek for the following ones . Gommans wrote the songs for the new album with the precise idea of pushing the music of the band closer to progressive metal , reducing the gothic atmospheres of the previous releases to a minimum and adopting as many different musical styles as he felt necessary to the convey the message of the songs . Meanwhile , his fiancée Floor Jansen was writing the lyrics and shaping the plot for the concept album .
The band reunited at Excess Studios in Rotterdam in July 2003 , a few weeks after recording Exordium , to arrange the new songs and to record the instrumental tracks , under supervision of producer Hans Pieters and sound engineer Dennis Leidelmeijer . Every member of the band contributed to the music , which is credited for the most part to all six musicians . When the instrumental tracks were ready , the band moved in August 2003 to Gate Studio in Wolfsburg , Germany , where all solo vocal parts were arranged by the band , under supervision of American singer and producer Amanda Somerville . She also contributed , along with Jay Lansford , the recited parts that connect the songs to each other and explain parts of the plot . The solo vocals of Jansen , Gommans and Bas Maas were recorded separately by producers Sascha Paeth and Michael “ Miro ” Rodenberg . Female soprano vocals , grunts and clean male vocals represent in the songs different feelings and behaviours of the characters . The final stage of the recording process was executed at Arts Music Recording studio in Rhoon from 20 to 24 October 2003 , under supervision of Peter Arts . The orchestra and choir parts were arranged there by Cees ’ Kieboom , who also contributed some additional keyboards to smooth the transition between the different instrumental parts . The final mixing of all the parts was executed by Sascha Paeth at The Pathway Studio in Wolfsburg , Germany in November and December 2003 , except the instrumental introduction " Childhood in Minor " mixed by Sander Gommans . The album was mastered at Sound Factory by Peter van ' t Riet for a release in early 2004 .
Invisible Circles was released by Transmission Records on 25 March 2004 . " Digital Deceit " was the only single issued from the album and released on 20 May 2004 . A high tech video clip was produced for the song by D 'iMages , the same company that had done the video clip for the 2003 single " My Choice " , extracted from Exordium . The video was aired on Dutch MTV and on local musical TV stations .
= = Packaging = =
The artwork for the album was created by German designer Carsten Drescher and his graphics company Media Logistics . Drescher was responsible for the After Forever logo and the cover concepts of every After Forever album and single since then . The girl he photographed is in fact his daughter Aimee Drescher , who also appeared in the video clip for the song " Digital Diceit " . He inserted the photos in a dark urban landscape tinted blue , completing the front cover artwork with the digital overlay of circles in the water to evoke the title of the album . The same circles were extensively used in the CD booklet and in every other artwork related to the album . Together with the dominant blue colour the circles were also present in the live show scenography .
The photos of the band were taken by Dutch photographer Angelique van Woerkom in November 2003 and each member dressed in a tight black and blue suit with a lightning motif , the same colors of the CD sleeve . The same suits were used for the video clip of the single " Digital Deceit " and sometimes appeared in live shows during the following tour .
= = Tour = =
The Invisible Circles tour started in February 2004 , just before the album release , in Mexico , home of the independent label Raw Metal Records , which distributed After Forever albums for all the American continent . An intensive European tour followed , touching the Netherlands , Germany and France .
Two months after the release of the album , keyboard player Lando van Gils left the band on amicable terms . He played his last gig with
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km / h ( 106 @.@ 43 mph ) , July 29 , 2003 .
500 Kilometer Triangle World Record * 187 @.@ 12 km / h ( 116 @.@ 27 mph ) , November 15 , 2003 .
1 @,@ 000 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return World Record * 166 @.@ 46 km / h ( 103 @.@ 43 mph ) , December 12 , 2002 .
1 @,@ 500 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return World Record * 156 @.@ 61 km / h ( 97 @.@ 31 mph ) , November 14 , 2003 .
Triangle Distance ( Declared ) World Record * 1 @,@ 502 @.@ 6 km , December 13 , 2003 .
Out @-@ and @-@ Return Distance ( Declared ) World Record * 1 @,@ 804 @.@ 7 km , November 14 , 2003 .
Fossett and co @-@ pilot Einar Enevoldson flew a glider into the stratosphere on August 29 , 2006 . The flight set the Absolute Altitude Record for gliders at 15 @,@ 460 metres ( 50 @,@ 720 ft ) . Since the glider cockpit was unpressurized , the pilots wore full pressure suits ( similar to space suits ) so that they would be able to fly to altitudes above 45 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Fossett and Enevoldson had made previous attempts in three countries over a period of five years before finally succeeding with this record flight . This endeavor is known as the Perlan Project .
= = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = =
As a young adventurer , Fossett was one of the first participants in the Worldloppet , a series of cross country ski marathons around the world . While he had little experience as a skier , he was in the first group of ' citizen athletes ' to participate in the series debut in 1979 . And in 1980 , he became the eighth skier to complete all 10 of the long distance races , earning a Worldloppet medallion . He has also set cross @-@ country skiing records in Colorado , setting an Aspen to Vail record of 59 h , 53 min , 30 s in February 1998 , and an Aspen to Eagle record of 12 hr , 29 min in February 2001 .
= = = Mountain climbing = = =
Fossett was a lifelong mountain climber and had climbed the highest peaks on six of the seven continents . In the 1980s , he became friends with Patrick Morrow , who was attempting to climb the highest peaks on all seven continents for the " Seven Summits " world record , which Morrow achieved in 1985 . Fossett accompanied Morrow for his last three peaks , including Vinson Massif in Antarctica , Carstensz Pyramid in Oceania , and Elbrus in Europe . While Fossett went on to climb almost all of the Seven Summits peaks himself , he declined to climb Mount Everest in 1992 due to asthma . He later returned to Antarctica to climb again .
= = = Other accomplishments = = =
Fossett competed in and completed premier endurance sports events , including the 1 @,@ 165 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 875 km ) Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race , in which he finished 47th on his second try in 1992 after training for five years . He became the 270th person to swim across the English Channel on his fourth try in September 1985 with a time of 22 hours , 15 minutes . Although Fossett said he was not a good enough swimmer " to make the varsity swim team " , he found that he could swim for long periods . Fossett competed in the Ironman Triathlon in Hawaii ( finishing in 1996 in 15 : 53 : 10 ) , the Boston Marathon , and the Leadville Trail 100 , a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) Colorado ultramarathon which involves running up elevations of more than 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) in the Rocky Mountains .
Fossett raced cars in the mid @-@ 1970s and later returned to the sport in the 1990s . He competed in the 24 hours of Le Mans road race in 1993 and in 1996 , along with the Paris to Dakar Rally .
= = = Previous attempts at records = = =
Fossett tried six times over seven years for the first solo balloon circumnavigation . His fifth attempt cost him $ 1 @.@ 25 million of his own money ; his sixth and successful attempt was commercially sponsored . Two of the attempts were launched from Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis , Missouri . Washington University in St. Louis served as control center for four of the six flights , including the record @-@ breaking one .
In 1998 , one of the unsuccessful attempts at the ballooning record ended with a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) plummet into the Coral Sea off the coast of Australia that nearly killed Fossett ; he waited 72 hours to be rescued , at a cost of $ 500 @,@ 000 . The first attempt began in the Black Hills of South Dakota and ended outside Hampton , New Brunswick 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) later . The second attempt , launched from Busch Stadium , cost $ 300 @,@ 000 and lasted 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) before being downed halfway in a tree in India ; the trip set records at the time for duration and distance of flight ( with Fossett doubling his own previous record ) and was called Solo Spirit after Lindbergh 's Spirit of St. Louis . Fossett slept an average of two hours a night for the six @-@ day journey , conducted in below @-@ zero temperatures . After taking too much fuel to cross the Atlantic Ocean and circling Libya for 12 hours while officials decided whether or not to allow him into their airspace , Fossett did not have enough fuel to finish the flight . That year , Fossett flew farther for less money than better @-@ financed expeditions ( including one supported by Richard Branson ) in part due to his ability to fly in an unpressurized capsule , a result of his heavy physical training at high altitudes . The Solo Spirit capsule was put on display at the Smithsonian 's National Air and Space Museum across from the Apollo 11 command module .
= = Scouting = =
Fossett grew up in Garden Grove , California and earned the Eagle Scout award in 1957 . He credited his experience in Scouting as a foundation for much of his later success . " As a Scout , I learned how to set goals and achieve them , " he once said . " Being a Scout also taught me leadership at a young age when there are few opportunities to be a leader . Scouting values have remained with me throughout my life , in my business career , and now as I take on new challenges . " In his later years , he was described as a " legend " by fellow Scouts . As a national BSA volunteer , he served as Chairman of the Northern Tier High Adventure Committee , Chairman of the Venturing Committee , member of the Philmont Ranch Committee , and member of the National Advisory Council . He later became a member of the BSA National Executive Board , and in 2007 , Fossett succeeded Secretary of Defense Robert Gates as president of the National Eagle Scout Association . Fossett previously had served on the World Scout Committee .
Fossett was honored with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in 1992 . In 1999 he received the Silver Buffalo Award , BSA 's highest recognition of service to youth .
= = Awards and honors = =
In 2002 , Fossett received aviation 's highest award , the Gold Medal of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) and in July 2007 , he was inducted into the Aviation Hall of Fame . He was presented at the ceremony by Dick Rutan .
In 1997 , Fossett was inducted into the Balloon and Airship Hall of Fame . In February 2002 , Fossett was named America 's Rolex Yachtsman of the Year by the American Sailing Association at the New York Yacht Club . He was the oldest recipient of the award in its 41 @-@ year history , and the only recipient to fly himself to the ceremony in his own plane .
He received the Explorers Medal from the Explorers Club following his solo balloon circumnavigation . He was given the Diplôme de Montgolfier by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in 1996 . He received the Harmon Trophy , given annually " to the world 's outstanding aviator and aeronaut " , in 1998 and 2002 . He received the Grande Médaille of the Aéro @-@ Club de France , and the British Royal Aero Club 's Gold Medal in 2002 . He received the Order of Magellan and the French Republic 's Médaille de l 'Aéronautique in 2003 .
The Scaled Composites White Knight Two VMS Spirit of Steve Fossett , was named in Fossett 's honor by his friend Richard Branson , in 2007 . Following his disappearance , Peggy Fossett and Dick Rutan accepted the Spread Wings Award in Steve Fossett 's behalf at the 2007 Spreading Wings Gala , Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum , Denver , Colorado .
= = Death = =
= = = Disappearance and search = = =
At 8 : 45 am on the morning of Monday , September 3 , 2007 ( Labor Day ) , Fossett took off in a single @-@ engine Super Decathlon light aircraft from the Flying @-@ M Ranch private airstrip ( 38 ° 36 ′ 13 ″ N 119 ° 00 ′ 11 ″ W ) , near Smith Valley , Nevada .
After failing to return , searches were launched about six hours later . The aircraft had tail number N240R registered to the " Flying M Hunting Club , Inc . " There was no signal from the plane 's emergency locator transmitter ( ELT ) designed to be automatically activated in the event of a crash , but it was of an older type notorious for failing to operate after a crash .
It was first thought that Fossett may have also been wearing a Breitling Emergency watch with a manually operated ELT that had a range of up to 90 miles ( 140 km ) , but no signal was received from it . On September 13 , Fossett 's wife , Peggy , issued a statement clarifying that he owned such a watch but was not wearing it when he took off for the Labor Day flight .
Fossett took off with enough fuel for four to five hours of flight , according to spokesperson Major Cynthia S. Ryan , Public Information Officer with the Civil Air Patrol ( CAP ) . Searchers with CAP were told that Fossett had gone out for a short flight over favorite territory , possibly including the areas of Lucky Boy Pass and Walker Lake . At one point it was suggested that he might have been out scouting for potential sites to conduct a planned land speed run . A Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) spokesperson noted that Fossett apparently did not file a flight plan and was not required to do so . On the second day , Civil Air Patrol aircraft searched but found no trace of wreckage after initiating a complex and expanding search of what would later evolve into a nearly 20 @,@ 000 square miles ( 52 @,@ 000 km2 ) area of some of the most rugged terrain in North America . The search presented a severe challenge from the standpoint of safely flying hundreds of hours in very difficult conditions . On the first day of CAP searching , operations were suspended by mid @-@ day due to high winds , according to Ryan . By the fourth day , the CAP was using fourteen aircraft in the search effort , including one equipped with the ARCHER system that could automatically scan detailed imaging for a given signature of the missing aircraft . By September 10 , search crews had found eight previously uncharted crash sites , some of which were decades old , but none related to Fossett 's disappearance . The urgency of what was still regarded as a rescue mission meant that minimal immediate effort was made to identify the aircraft in the uncharted crash sites , although some had speculated that one could have belonged to Charles Clifford Ogle , missing since 1964 . All told , about two dozen aircraft were involved in the massive search , operating from the primary search base at Minden , Nevada , with a secondary search base located at Bishop , California . CAP searchers came from Wings across the United States , including Nevada , Utah , California , Arizona , New Mexico , Idaho , Oregon , Pennsylvania and Texas .
On September 7 , Google Inc. helped the search for the aviator through its connections to contractors that provide satellite imagery for its Google Earth software . Richard Branson , a British billionaire and friend of Fossett , said he and others were coordinating efforts with Google to see if any of the high @-@ resolution images might include Fossett 's aircraft .
On September 8 , the first of a series of new high @-@ resolution imagery from DigitalGlobe was made available via the Amazon Mechanical Turk beta website so that users could flag potential areas of interest for searching , in what is known as crowdsourcing . By September 11 , up to 50 @,@ 000 people had joined the effort , scrutinizing more than 300 @,@ 000 278 @-@ square @-@ foot squares of the imagery . Peter Cohen of Amazon believed that by September 11 , the entire search area had been covered at least once . Amazon 's search effort was shut down the week of October 29 , without any measurable success . Major Cynthia Ryan later said it had been more of a hindrance than a help . She said that persons purporting to have seen the aircraft on the Mechanical Turk or have special knowledge clogged her email during critical days of the search , and for even months afterward . Many of the ostensible sightings proved to be images of CAP aircraft flying search grids , or simply mistaken artifacts of old images . Psychics flooded the search base in Minden with predictions of where the aviator could be found . Ryan got the majority of these calls personally , often at her home , in the middle of the night . One man from Canada was particularly persistent with daily calls to Ryan , interfering with her press briefings . Ryan asked her Incident Commander to issue a cease and desist order , backed up by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) if necessary . Ryan noted that every message , letter , or phone call was taken seriously – which swamped the USAF specialists assigned the task of reviewing every one of them without regard to apparent plausibility . In retrospect , the crowdsource effort was " not ready for prime time , " according to Ryan .
On September 12 , survival experts speculated that Fossett was likely to be dead .
On September 17 , the Nevada Wing of the Civil Air Patrol said it was suspending all flights in connection with its search operations , but National Guard search flights , private search flights and ground searches continued .
The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) began a preliminary investigation into the likely crash of the plane that Fossett was flying . The preliminary report originally stated that Fossett was " presumed fatally injured and the aircraft substantially damaged " , but was subsequently revised to remove that assumption . Fossett 's friend and fellow explorer , Sir Richard Branson , made similar public statements .
On September 19 , 2007 , authorities confirmed they would stop actively looking for Fossett in the Nevada Desert , but would keep air crews on standby to fly to possible crash sites . " Nobody is giving up on this man " , said department spokesman . " The search is going to continue . It 's just going to be scaled back " , he said . On September 30 it was announced that after further analysis of radar data from the day of his disappearance , ground teams and two aircraft had resumed the search .
On October 2 , 2007 , the Civil Air Patrol announced it had called off its search operation Ryan later noted that the search was the largest , most complex peacetime search for an individual in U.S. history .
On August 23 , 2008 , almost a year after Fossett went missing , twenty @-@ eight friends and admirers conducted a foot search based on new clues gathered by the team . That search concluded on September 10 .
= = = Search and rescue costs = = =
On May 1 , 2008 , the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal attributed to Nevada State Governor Jim Gibbons 's spokesman , Ben Kieckhefer , the Governor 's decision to direct the state to charge Steve Fossett 's family for the $ 687 @,@ 000 expense of the search for Fossett . Kieckhefer later played that early report down , when he told the Tahoe Daily Tribune that Nevada did not intend to demand an involuntary payment from Fossett 's widow , but that such a payment would be voluntary : " We are going to request that they help offset some of these expenses , considering the scope of the search , the overall cost as well as our ongoing budget difficulties . " Hotelier Barron Hilton , from whose ranch Fossett had departed on the day he went missing , had previously volunteered $ 200 @,@ 000 to help pay for the search costs .
In his later comments to the Tahoe Daily Tribune , Kieckhefer denied outright that a bill for the family was being prepared , and he said , " It will probably be in the form of a letter " , which Kieckhefer indicated would include a financial outline of the steps taken by the state , the associated costs , and a mention of the state 's ongoing budget difficulties .
Days prior to this announcement , state Emergency Management Director Frank Siracusa noted that " there is no precedent where government will go after people for costs just because they have money to pay for it . You get lost , and we look for you . It is a service your taxpayer dollars pay for " , although he conceded that legally any decision would rest with Gibbons . At an April 10 , 2008 Legislature 's Interim Finance Committee hearing , Siracusa indicated that he had hired an independent auditor to review costs incurred by the state in searching for Fossett , but added , " We are doing an audit but not because we are critical of anybody or suspect something was done wrong " . Chairman Morse Arberry queried Siracusa as to why , since they lacked funds , had the state not billed the Fossett family for its search costs , to which Siracusa did not directly respond . In his later interview with the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal , he stated that his comments to the Committee may have given the false impression that he had hired an auditor for the purpose of later challenging the state 's financial burden incurred on its behalf by the National Guard during the search operation . Upon interview regarding reports that the state would seek payment , Arberry was recorded as stating that he was glad to hear steps were being taken to try to recoup some of the costs .
The Nevada search cost $ 1 @.@ 6 million , " the largest search and rescue effort ever conducted for a person within the U.S. " Jim Gibbons asked Fossett 's estate to shoulder $ 487 @,@ 000 but it declined , saying Fossett 's wife had already spent $ 1 million on private searching .
= = = Recovery of wreckage and remains = = =
On September 29 , 2008 , a hiker found three crumpled identification cards in the Eastern Sierra Nevada in California about 65 miles ( 100 km ) south ( 186 degrees ) of Fossett 's take @-@ off site . The items were confirmed as belonging to Fossett and included an FAA @-@ issued card , his Soaring Society of America membership card and $ 1 @,@ 005 in cash .
On October 1 , late in the day , air search teams spotted wreckage on the ground at coordinates 37 ° 40 ′ 2 @.@ 8 ″ N 119 ° 08 ′ 0 ″ W at an elevation of 10 @,@ 100 feet ( 3 @,@ 100 m ) and about 750 yards ( 690 m ) from where the personal items had been found . Later that evening the teams confirmed identification of the tail number of Fossett 's plane . The crash site is on a slope beneath the southwest side of a ridge line ( 600 feet ( 180 m ) lower than the top of the ridge ) in the Ansel Adams Wilderness in Madera County , California . Other named places near the crash site include Minaret Mine ( 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 m ) west ) , Emily Lake ( 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) northeast ) , Minaret Lake ( 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) west @-@ southwest ) , the Minaret peaks ( 3 miles ( 5 km ) west ) , Devils Postpile National Monument ( 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) southeast ) , and the town of Mammoth Lakes ( the nearest populated place , 9 miles ( 14 km ) east @-@ southeast ) . The site is 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Yosemite National Park .
Over the next two days , ground searchers found four bone fragments that were about 2 by 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 5 by 4 cm ) in size . However , DNA tests subsequently showed that these fragments were not human .
On October 29 , search teams recovered two large human bones that they suspected might belong to Fossett . These bones were found 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of the crash site . Tennis shoes with animal bite marks on them were also recovered . On November 3 , California police coroners said that DNA profiling of the two bones by a California Department of Justice forensics laboratory confirmed a match to Fossett 's DNA . Madera County Sheriff John Anderson said Fossett would have died on impact in such a crash , and that it was not unusual for animals to drag remains away .
= = = NTSB report and findings = = =
On March 5 , 2009 , the NTSB issued its report and findings . It states that the plane crashed at an elevation of about 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , 300 feet ( 90 m ) below the crest of the ridge . The elevation of peaks in the area exceeded 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) . However , the density altitude in the area at the time and place of the crash was estimated to be 12 @,@ 700 feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m ) . The aircraft , a tandem two @-@ seater , was nearly 30 years old and Fossett had flown approximately 40 hours in this type . The plane 's operating manual says that at an altitude of 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) the rate of climb would be 300 feet per minute ( about 1 @.@ 5 m / s ) . The NTSB report says that " a meteorologist from Salinas provided a numerical simulation of the conditions in the accident area using the WRF @-@ ARW ( Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting ) numerical model . At 0930 [ the approximate time of the crash ] the model displayed downdrafts in that area of approximately 300 feet per minute . " There was no evidence of equipment failure . The report stated that a postmortem examination of the skeletal fragments had been performed under the auspices of the Madera County Sheriff 's Department . The cause of death was determined to be multiple traumatic injuries .
On July 9 , 2009 , the NTSB declared the probable cause of the crash as " the pilot 's inadvertent encounter with downdrafts that exceeded the climb capability of the airplane . Contributing to the accident were the downdrafts , high density altitude , and mountainous terrain . "
= WCLG ( AM ) =
WCLG ( 1300 AM ) is an oldies and classic hits @-@ formatted broadcast radio station licensed to Morgantown , West Virginia , serving Morgantown and Monongalia County , West Virginia . WCLG is owned and operated by Bowers Broadcasting Corporation .
Launched on December 27 , 1954 , WCLG broadcast a " music @-@ news " format . The station was originally intended to be a part of a statewide network of stations . Over the years , the station was subject to an equal @-@ time rule complaint and was awarded for its coverage of the Farmington Number 9 mine disaster . Many different formats were heard on WCLG during the 1970s and 1980s , with its current format launched in 1991 . WCLG carries Cumulus Media Networks ' satellite @-@ fed Classic Hits network .
A planned 2013 sale of WCLG ( and its sister @-@ station WCLG @-@ FM ) was halted by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) due to a complaint that the company buying the stations , AJG Corporation , has close connections with another local broadcaster , West Virginia Radio Corporation .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast = = =
Martinsburg , West Virginia , businessman C. Leslie Golliday filed the initial application for the station with the FCC on September 1 , 1954 . In the application , Golliday estimated construction costs at $ 13 @,@ 608 , with a first year operation cost of $ 36 @,@ 000 . Golliday estimated an initial revenue of $ 60 @,@ 000 .
WCLG began testing equipment during the week of December 19 , 1954 , and filed its construction permit application two days later . WCLG broadcast for the first time on December 27 , 1954 . The station initially had a " music @-@ news " format , using the Associated Press news service .
In its early days , WCLG was a daytime @-@ only broadcaster , with a power of 500 watts . Owner C. Leslie Golliday used his initials for the station 's call sign . Golliday , who also owned Martinsburg 's WEPM , envisioned a network of stations across the state of West Virginia .
WCLG was officially granted its broadcast license by the FCC on January 18 , 1955 . Throughout its existence , WCLG 's studios have been at 343 High Street in Morgantown .
= = = History since launch = = =
On March 10 , 1955 , WCLG filed an application to increase its power to 1 @,@ 000 watts , proposing to continue daytime @-@ only broadcasts . The application was granted on September 28 , 1955 . In 1958 , future owner Garry L. Bowers joined the station as an announcer . WCLG was bought by Freed Broadcasting Corporation for $ 67 @,@ 000 on December 19 , 1959 .
In May 1960 , Stanley R. Cox , a candidate in the Republican primary election for the House of Representatives , filed a equal @-@ time rule complaint against WCLG . Cox objected that the station gave his opponent , Sheriff Charles Whiston , a five @-@ minute long segment called " Sheriff 's Office Calling " . In the show " arrests and other activities of interest are recited " ; it ended with a 30 @-@ second " thought for the day " . Cox had been refused equal @-@ time by the station " on the ground that the program is a public service feature . " The FCC upheld the complaint , deciding the content of the program was " determined by Sheriff Whiston and not by the station " and that remarks made by the sheriff were of an editorial nature . Whiston would go on to win the primary over Cox by about 300 votes .
The station 's coverage of the explosion at the Farmington Number 9 mine , which killed 78 , earned the station an the Associated Press Radio @-@ Television Association ( APRTA ) in early 1969 . The station earned another APRTA award for " Outstanding News Coverage " the following year .
Sister station WCLG @-@ FM began broadcasting on September 28 , 1974 . Also during 1974 , WCLG began a Top 40 format . Another change in format took place in 1978 , with middle of the road ( MOR ) music taking the place of Top 40 . WCLG became part of the NBC Radio Network on October 2 , 1978 . In 1979 , Bowers became the station 's general manager .
WCLG applied for another broadcasting power increase on November 4 , 1980 , to 2 @,@ 500 watts , but remained a daytime @-@ only station . The station added oldies to its MOR music format in 1983 .
In 1985 , WCLG switched formats to a soft adult contemporary playlist . On March 15 of that year , Freed Broadcasting Corporation sold WCLG @-@ FM and sister station WCLG to Bowers Broadcasting Corporation , owned by Garry Bowers , for $ 715 @,@ 000 .
The station changed formats again in 1988 , this time to classic hits . Two years later , WCLG began broadcasting during the nighttime with 44 watts of power , enough to cover the city of Morgantown . Another format change took place in 1991 , when the station switched to golden oldies using the " Pure Gold " format from Satellite Music Network ( now Cumulus Media Networks ) .
Bowers Broadcasting Corporation owner Garry L. Bowers died on December 24 , 2011 . On September 25 , 2013 , control of the company was transferred to Bowers ' widow , Linda K. Bowers .
= = = Sale = = =
On September 26 , 2013 , Linda Bowers entered into an agreement to sell WCLG and sister station WCLG @-@ FM to AJG Corporation , for $ 1 @.@ 8 million . Bowers also entered into a time brokerage agreement , allowing AJG to operate the station prior to the close of the sale .
The Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) rescinded the transfer @-@ of @-@ ownership application on October 21 , 2013 , after an objection by Joe Potter , Senior Vice President of IMG Sports . Potter contended there were " very close connections and operational control " between AJG Corporation and West Virginia Radio Corporation and AJG 's purchase of WCLG @-@ AM / FM would " possibly in violation of FCC regulations . " The co @-@ directors of West Virginia Radio Corporation , John and David Raese , operate AJG Corporation as a trust for their descendents .
Potter 's complaint went on to say that " IMG was close to finalizing a contract to air WVU sports " but was " prevented by the terms of AJG 's purchase agreement " , which barred Bowers Broadcasting Corporation from " ' entering into any contract or agreement ' without the consent of AJG " .
West Virginia Radio Corporation previously held the rights to West Virginia University sports before losing them to IMG Sports . West Virginia Radio Corporation filed a lawsuit against West Virginia University and IMG Sports to retain the broadcast rights , which it lost in late August 2013 .
= = Notable former staff = =
Jim Slade , a Morgantown native , was hired as news director when the station launched in 1954 . Slade was later heard on WOWO and WIND , covering the assassinations of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy on the latter station . He is best known , though , for his reporting on the Mutual Broadcasting System and at ABC News , where he covered space @-@ related stories .
Country music radio and stage performer Charlie Arnett hosted the " Old Trading Post " program on WCLG in 1959 . Arnett 's later career took him to the CBS Radio program " Renfro Valley Folks " and to Tampa , Florida , station WDAE .
Eugene Cottilli started as sports director at WCLG , before becoming the press secretary to Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio . As of 2013 , Cottilli is the Congressional Media Liaison for the United States Department of Commerce .
= = Programming = =
As of 2014 , WCLG carries programming from Cumulus Media Networks ' satellite @-@ fed Classic Hits network . Every Sunday morning , WCLG broadcasts services live from Star City 's St. Mary Roman Catholic Church at 8 : 30 a.m. and Morgantown 's Spruce Street United Methodist Church at 10 : 45 a.m. The station also carries the Living the Country Life show , the radio companion to the Living the Country Life magazine .
= Edward Elric =
Edward Elric ( エドワード ・ エルリック , Edowādo Erurikku ) , commonly nicknamed Ed ( エド , Edo ) , is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga series created by Hiromu Arakawa . Edward , titled " Fullmetal Alchemist " ( 鋼の錬金術師 , Hagane no Renkinjutsushi , lit . " Alchemist of Steel " ) , is the youngest State Alchemist in the history of the fictional country of Amestris . His left leg was divinely severed in a failed attempt to resurrect his dead mother , and then his right arm was taken in exchange for his brother 's soul . His missing limbs have been replaced with sophisticated prosthetics called automail ( 機械鎧 ( オートメイル ) , ōtomeiru ) . He and his younger brother , Alphonse , who lost his entire body and is spiritually bound to a suit of armor , scour the world in search of the Philosopher 's Stone in the hopes of restoring their bodies . Ed has appeared in other media from the series , including video games , original video animations ( OVAs ) and light novels .
Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Edward 's character . Reviewers praised Edward as a balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona . Additionally , his comedic moments have been celebrated as some of the best moments in the series . His Japanese and English voice actors , Romi Park and Vic Mignogna , have both been praised for their performances as Edward Elric and have won several awards for their work . Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released bearing Edward 's likeness , including key chains and action figures .
= = Appearances = =
Edward Elric is the youngest State Alchemist to be selected by the State Military of the country , receiving the title of " Fullmetal Alchemist " shortly thereafter from the military head ,
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what easily stands as the most emotional trade in Capitals history since Laich was dealt to Washington in a package for Peter Bondra , one journalist wrote " It 's ironic that money is what ultimately forced the Caps to move Laich . This is a guy who loves the game so much , he 'd probably play for free . "
Laich 's play improved significantly in Toronto , recording identical numbers to what he scored in Washington while playing in a third of the games .
= = International play = =
Laich debuted with Team Canada at the 2003 World Junior Championships , which were held in Halifax , Nova Scotia . In a game against Sweden , Laich scored Canada 's first goal of the tournament . He scored two goals and added four assists in six games at the tournament , where Canada won a silver medal . According to his father , Harold , his son had always dreamed of playing for Canada . Laich 's next experience with Team Canada came at the 2010 World Championships . He scored one goal in seven games as Canada finished seventh . During the tournament in a game against Russia , Laich raised the ire of his Capitals ' teammate Semyon Varlamov for slashing and cross @-@ checking Alexander Ovechkin . Varlamov said of Laich 's play , " ... Brooks Laich was constantly trying to slash and cross @-@ check him ( Ovechkin ) as painful [ sic ] as possible . After the game he certainly wished me luck and victory at the world championship , but the unpleasant impression still remains . "
= = Playing style = =
In 2009 , Capitals ' Head Coach Bruce Boudreau believed that Laich had not yet reached his full potential , saying , " ... I still don 't think we 've seen the best of Brooks . I think he 's going to be a 25- , 30 @-@ goal scorer in this league and become a staple for a while . " Boudreau also said Laich is considered one of the hardest working players on the Capitals ' roster by his coaches and teammates . Part of Laich 's inspiration comes from his father , who , during a 34 @-@ year tenure as a high school principal , only missed three days of work . Laich plays on the Capitals power play and kills penalties in addition to his ice time at even strength . Superstar Alexander Ovechkin is the Capitals current captain , but Laich has been lauded for his leadership and was considered for a more formal role in the team 's leadership structure in 2009 .
Laich is a hard worker , and dedicated to his team , saying , " If I asked you about your family , you would talk about them forever because it 's something you love . That 's the way I feel about this team . This team is my life , and I love playing here and I 'm passionate about playing hockey . So it 's easy for me to talk about it . " Boudreau has said , " You are never going to find a guy that cares more than Brooks Laich . " Laich spends time in the off @-@ season with a power skating instructor , which he feels is key to a long career .
= = Personal life = =
Laich has two siblings , an older sister and younger brother . His father worked as a high school teacher and principal . In his free time , he plays guitar and golfs . Colorado Avalanche star Joe Sakic was Laich 's favorite player growing up . He is actively involved in charity work , supporting charities related to multiple sclerosis and Athletes Against Autism . While still playing junior hockey , Laich helped his hometown of Wawota raise money to purchase a Zamboni for the local arena .
Laich received national media attention when he stopped to help two stranded Capitals fans change their flat tire after a Game 7 loss in the 2010 playoffs . When he came across the woman and her teenaged daughter stranded on the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge , Laich stopped to install their spare and apologized for the club 's early loss in the playoffs . For his efforts , Laich was hockey analyst Michael Farber 's nominee for the 2010 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year . When asked about the incident , Laich responded , " It 's not a big deal . It was just a tire . The lady was stranded on the side of the road , I saw that it was just a lady and her daughter , and I figured my tire expertise outweighed hers . "
In February 2014 , it was revealed that he started dating professional dancer and actress Julianne Hough . On August 18 , 2015 Laich officially announced via Instagram that he and Hough were engaged .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
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= = = International = = =
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= Tempus Fugit ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Tempus Fugit " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Tempus Fugit " featured guest appearances by Joe Spano , Tom O 'Brien and Brendan Beiser , and saw the return of Scott Bellis as alien abductee Max Fenig . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Tempus Fugit " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 , being watched by 18 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast . The title translates from Latin as " time flies . "
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Max Fenig — an old acquaintance of Mulder — is found dead following an airplane crash , which Mulder believes to have been caused by a UFO attempting to abduct Fenig . " Tempus Fugit " is a two @-@ part episode , with the plot continuing in the next episode , " Max " .
" Tempus Fugit " was conceived when the series ' special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate rig capable of simulating a crashing airplane . Carter and Spotnitz expanded upon the idea of a crash to bring back the character of Fenig , who had last been seen in season one 's " Fallen Angel " . " Tempus Fugit " received mixed to positive critical reception , and earned the production crew two Emmy Award nominations , including a win for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series .
= = Plot = =
Max Fenig ( Scott Bellis ) , last seen in Fallen Angel , is traveling on an airplane , Flight 549 , which flies over upstate New York . He watches another man on the plane who seems to be following him . The man heads to the plane 's bathroom , where he assembles a zip gun . However , when he comes back out , the airplane begins shaking and a bright light flashes outside , showing that the plane is encountering a UFO . The emergency door next to Max 's seat is opened .
Elsewhere , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) celebrate Scully 's birthday . They are approached by a woman named Sharon Graffia , who claims to be Max 's sister ; she tells them that Max planned to deliver something to Mulder , but that his flight to Washington has crashed . The agents head to the crash site in Northville , New York , and attend an NTSB meeting where Flight 549 's final transmissions are shown . Mulder theorizes that the plane was forced down by aliens attempting to abduct Max ; the NTSB team , led by chief investigator Mike Millar ( Joe Spano ) , dismisses his claims .
When Mulder and Scully survey the crash site , they realize that there is a nine @-@ minute disparity between the crash and the time on the victims ' wristwatches , indicating missing time . Mulder believes that Max was abducted from the plane and that his body will not be found . Meanwhile , Scott Garrett , a Man in Black posing as an NTSB investigator , steals the zip gun from the assassin 's body and erases his face and fingerprints with acid . Larold Rehbun , a passenger who sat next to Max , is found alive . His injuries indicate exposure to radiation .
Upon being confronted by Scully , Sharon denies that Max brought a radioactive substance aboard the plane , but divulges that she is not actually Max 's sister . She also gives up details about his underground life . Scully subsequently tells Mulder that Max worked at an environmental energy plant in Colorado under an alias , and believes that he may have caused the crash after bringing plutonium on board ; Mulder , however , believes that Max was taken off the plane by a UFO , and that Rehbun 's injuries were caused by exposure to the craft . Scully informs Mulder that Max 's body has already been pulled from the crash site . Meanwhile , Sharon is abducted from her hotel room .
After identifying Max 's body , Mulder finds that the wristwatches have been stolen from the other victims . He refutes the NTSB 's official explanation of malfunction as a cause of the crash , and is doubtful that the true cause will be found unless they discern what happened during the nine minutes of missing time . The agents visit Sergeant Louis Frish ( Tom O 'Brien ) , an air traffic controller from the U.S. Air Force who was on duty during the crash . Frish denies anything unusual happened . However , after the agents leave , Frish and a colleague argue over whether to reveal the " truth " about Flight 549 's demise .
After finding Sharon 's trashed hotel room , Mulder meets with Millar , who tells him that the door was pulled off the plane from the outside while it was in flight . Later , Frish finds his colleague dead from a faked suicide . A group of commandos arrive to capture Frish , but he escapes . Frish goes to see Mulder and Scully , telling them that he lied before and that his commanding officer had ordered him to track the plane 's coordinates as it was being intercepted by a second aircraft . Seconds later , there was an explosion and the plane disappeared from his radar . Mulder believes that a third aircraft , a UFO , approached the plane and was destroyed by the second aircraft , also causing the Flight 549 crash . The agents leave with Frish and are soon chased by the commandos . Meanwhile , Millar returns to the crash site and encounters a UFO . He finds Sharon nearby , having just been returned by her abductors .
Scully returns to Washington with Frish while Mulder heads to Great Sacandaga Lake , searching for the crashed UFO . Scully brings Frish to a local bar where they run into fellow FBI agent Pendrell ( Brendan Beiser ) . The Man in Black soon enters the bar seeking to kill Frish , accidentally shooting Pendrell instead . Meanwhile , Mulder arrives at the lake where he finds a team of men already searching for the crashed UFO . He dives underwater and finds the craft , including an alien body .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
During the production of the third season , special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate mock @-@ up of a Boeing 737 airplane in order to be able to simulate a crash . Series creator Chris Carter decided to make use of this rig during the fourth season . When conceiving of the episode , the desire to add to Fox Mulder 's emotional involvement by having someone he knew on board led to the writers bringing back the character
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of Max Fenig to be that person .
Scott Bellis , who had previously portrayed Fenig in the first season episode " Fallen Angel " , had auditioned for other roles on the show in the interim , but had always been rejected by the producers because his character was felt to be too memorable . Bellis met series star David Duchovny at a gym several times , and learnt from him that the character of Max was being considered for a two @-@ part episode . The episode 's co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz did not want to have Fenig 's appearance " milked " or do something the show had already done . As such he came up with the idea to kill off Fenig in the first part of the episode , which he felt was " a bold choice " .
= = = Filming = = =
Gauthier 's 737 rig — which required 400 U.S. gallons ( 1 @,@ 500 L ) of hydraulic fluid to construct — was designed to move across multiple axes in order to better simulate turbulence ; it could rotate 22 degrees each way about its length , and move four feet to either side . The fuselage could be opened up at intervals every 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to better allow cameras to record inside it . The show 's producers wanted the plane crash site and investigation to be as authentic as possible , so they used a National Transportation Safety Board official to act as their technical advisor on the episode to ensure that everything was properly recreated . The NTSB officials noted that the site was authentic in every way " except for the smell " ; Carter has noted that this level of verisimilitude left some of the crew members " frightened by their work " . Director Rob Bowman admitted that the episode exceeded its given budget , noting that Carter would often defend him from Fox studio officials angry at his production costs . Bellis ' abduction scene , in which his character is levitated through the door of the airplane , was achieved by pulling the actor out of the airplane rig with a harness ; additional coverage was achieved by repeating this with a stuntman , who Bellis notes was pulled out of the rig " a lot harder " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Tempus Fugit " premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 14 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 18 @.@ 85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated " Tempus Fugit " an A − . Handlen praised the effectiveness of the cold open , and noted the episode highlighted how " particularly ruthless " the series was with its recurring cast , noting " the mortality rate helps to create a mood of ever @-@ encroaching doom , as if the darkness that seems about to swallow Mulder and Scully in so many scenes ... is as much symbolic as it is literal " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Tempus Fugit " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , describing it as " gripping " with " lots of action " . However , Vitaris felt that the fleeting use of guest star Scott Bellis was " a waste " , and that the discovery of an alien corpse towards the end " robs this story of any ambiguity " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " the best conspiracy episode we 've seen in nearly two years " . Shearman and Peason felt that " Tempus Fugit " was " told very clearly , with remarkably little baggage " , and praised the acting of guests Tom O 'Brien and Joe Spano . Twelve members of the show 's post @-@ production crew won the 1997 Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series for their work on this episode ; while four others received a nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series .
= Pain in My Heart =
Pain in My Heart is the debut album of soul singer @-@ songwriter Otis Redding . Redding recorded for Volt Records , a subsidiary of Stax Records , based in Memphis , Tennessee . Volt LPs were initially issued on the Atco label , which released this album ( the singles were issued on the Volt label ) .
The album includes four successful singles , released in 1962 and 1963 : " These Arms of Mine " , " That 's What My Heart Needs " , " Security " , and the title track . Since Billboard did not publish an R & B singles chart from late 1963 to early 1965 , the R & B chart peaks of the latter two singles are unknown .
= = Biography = =
As a member of the Pat T. Cake and the Mighty Panthers , Redding toured in the Southern United States , mostly on the chitlin ' circuit , a string of nightclubs and dance halls hospitable to African @-@ American musicians when racial segregation of performance venues was prevalent . Guitarist Johnny Jenkins , who helped Redding win a talent contest at the Hillview Springs Social Club 15 times in row and also at the talent show " The Teenage Party " , left the band to become a featured artist with the Pinetoppers . Around this time , Redding met Phil Walden , the future founder of the recording company Phil Walden and Associates ( even though without an associate ) , and later Bobby Smith , who ran Confederate Records , a small label . He signed with Confederate and recorded his second single , " Shout Bamalama " ( a rewrite of his " Gamma Lamma " ) , with his band Otis and the Shooters . Wayne Cochran , the only solo artist signed to Confederate , became the Pinetoppers ' bass guitarist .
At the same time , Walden started to look for a record label . Atlantic Records representative Joe Galkin was interested in working with Jenkins and around 1962 proposed to send him to the Stax studio in Memphis . On the way to a Pinetoppers studio session , Redding drove for Jenkins , as the latter did not have a driver 's license . Jenkins performed with Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , and when the session ended early , Redding received the opportunity to perform two songs . The first was " Hey Hey Baby " , but studio chief Jim Stewart thought it sounded too much like Little Richard . Next , he sang " These Arms of Mine " , which became his first single for Stax . After that performance , Redding was signed by Stax .
= = Recording and release = =
Pain in My Heart includes songs from Redding 's 1962 – 1963 sessions . Stewart signed Redding for Stax and released Redding 's debut single , " These Arms of Mine " , with " Hey Hey Baby " on the B @-@ side . " These Arms of Mine " was released by Volt , a subsidiary of Stax , in October 1962 , and charted in March the following year . It was one of his most successful songs , selling more than 800 @,@ 000 copies .
In the 1963 session , " That 's What My Heart Needs " and " Mary 's Little Lamb " were recorded and cut in June 1963 ; the latter became one of the worst @-@ selling singles by Redding . Rob Bowman , in his book Soulsville , U.S.A. : The Story of Stax Records , wrote that in these two songs " Otis sings with a harsh , impassioned gospel voice reminiscent of Archie Brownlee of the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi " and further reckoned the ending of the first would have made Redding " a suberb gospel singer had he chosen to record in that idiom . " " That 's What My Heart Needs " became Redding 's second single on Stax .
The title track , recorded on September , the next year , sparked some copyright issues , as it sounded like Irma Thomas 's " Ruler of My Heart " . After a few months , " Pain in My Heart " , with the B @-@ side " Something Is Worrying Me " , peaked at number 60 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . Rob Bowman observed that " with ' Pain in My Heart , ' Otis 's dynamic control is front and center as he uses his voice as a horn , swelling and decreasing in volume , swallowing syllables and worrying the word ' heart . ' ... It was Otis 's most successful effort to date , commercially and aesthetically . "
The last single , " Security " , was released in April 1964 and reached number 97 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . According to Matthew Greenwald of Allmusic , the song is " a stinging , up @-@ tempo groover " and " showed Otis Redding stretching his funky rock & roll roots . Aided by the usual gang of Stax musicians , it 's one of his tightest early records .... [ T ] he song could have easily succeeded as an instrumental . "
The other tracks on the album are covers of popular songs , including " The Dog " , by Rufus Thomas ; " Louie Louie " , by Richard Berry ; " Lucille " , by Little Richard ; and " Stand by Me " , by Ben E. King .
Despite the alleged copyright infringement , Pain in My Heart was released on Atlantic Records ' subsidiary Atco Records on January 1 , 1964 , and peaked at number 20 on Billboard 's R & B chart and at number 85 on Billboard 's Hot 100 .
= = Reception = =
Pain in My Heart received positive critical reception . Bruce Eder of Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , reckoning that the album " was practically a road map to Mick Jagger and any number of other would @-@ be white soul shouters in the UK " , and finding elements of hard rock in " Hey Hey Baby " . He praised Redding 's version of " You Send Me " , considering it " the least stylized of any of his renditions of [ Sam ] Cooke 's songs " , but criticized Redding 's restraint , compared to future recordings , and the " somewhat less than memorable " writing , except on " Security " , " These Arms of Mine " and " That 's What My Heart Needs " . The reviewer concluded by saying " Redding exudes astonishing power , energy and boldness " .
A review of several albums by Redding in Rolling Stone magazine observed that " [ t ] he title track on [ Pain in My Heart ] set the pattern for all his ballads to come — Otis triumphed at rendering agony . Signs of the singer 's virtuosity are already apparent in the almost teasing way he lingers over some lyrics and spits out others ; virtually never would he sing a line the same way twice " . The review gave the album 4 out of 5 stars .
When Redding performed " These Arms of Mine " during his first session at Stax , witth Jenkins on guitar and Steve Cropper on piano , producer Jim Stewart praised his performance and noted , " Everybody was fixin ' to go home , but Joe Galkin insisted we give Otis a listen . There was something different about [ the ballad ] . He really poured his soul into it . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Musicians = =
Otis Redding - vocals
Booker T. Jones - keyboards , organ , piano
Isaac Hayes - keyboards , piano
Steve Cropper - guitar , keyboards , piano
Donald Dunn - bass
Al Jackson , Jr . - drums
Johnny Jenkins - guitar
Lewis Steinberg - bass
Wayne Jackson - trumpet
Charles Axton - tenor sax
Floyd Newman - baritone sax
= = Charts = =
= Southampton town walls =
Southampton 's town walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the town in southern England . Although earlier Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlements around Southampton had been fortified with walls or ditches , the later walls originate with the move of the town to the current site in the 10th century . This new town was defended by banks , ditches and the natural curve of the river and coastline . The Normans built a castle in Southampton but made no attempts to improve the wider defences of the town until the early 13th century , when Southampton 's growing prosperity as a trading centre and conflict with France encouraged the construction of a number of gatehouses and stone walls to the north and east sides of the settlement .
In 1338 Southampton was raided by French forces ; the town 's defences proved inadequate , particularly along the quays on the west and south of the city . Edward III ordered some immediate improvements to Southampton 's town walls but it was not until the 1360s that substantial work began . Over the coming decades the town was entirely enclosed by a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long stone wall , with 29 towers and eight gates . With the advent of gunpowder weapons in the 1360s and 1370s , Southampton was one of the first towns in England to install the new technology to existing fortifications and to build new towers specifically to house cannon .
Southampton 's town walls remained an important defensive feature during the 15th century , the gatehouses sometimes being used as important civic facilities , including acting as the town 's guildhall and housing the town 's gaol . From the end of the 17th century their importance steadily declined and the walls were slowly demolished or adapted for other uses throughout the 18th and 19th centuries . This process continued into the early 20th century until , in the post @-@ war years , the walls were recognised as an important historical feature of Southampton . Conservation projects have since occurred and the walls are now promoted as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 10th centuries = = =
Several earlier settlements were built near modern Southampton featuring protective town walls . Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established . It was an important trading port and a defensive outpost for the town of Winchester , located on the site of Bitterne Manor , today a suburb of modern Southampton . Clausentum was defended on its eastern , landwards side by a flint stone wall and two ditches . After the fall of the Roman Empire , in the 7th and 8th centuries the Anglo @-@ Saxons built a planned settlement called Hamwic , close to the current location of Southampton , approximately on the location of the later St Mary 's church . At least some parts of this burh town had a ditch dug around it , 3 m ( 10 feet ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 feet ) deep , and possibly was defended by a bank of earth . In the 10th century , Viking raids prompted the settlement of Southampton to move to its current location .
= = = 11th – 13th centuries = = =
By the time that the Normans conquered England in 1066 , the town of Southampton occupied a rectangular area overlooking the mouth of the River Test , an important medieval waterway . It was protected by water on most sides and by protective ditches and banks to the north and east . Southampton at this time was a relatively large town , but not as significant as in the later medieval period . The Normans built a castle within the town on the site of a probable large English hall , and considerable damage was caused to the surrounding local buildings as space was opened up for the new fortification .
During the years of the Anarchy , in which the Empress Matilda and Stephen fought for control of England , Southampton was held by William le Gros , the Bishop of Winchester and a supporter of Stephen . When Henry II came to the throne in 1153 , he took back Southampton and carried out improvements to the castle , as part of his attempt to improve the general standard of security in the south . By the second half of the 12th century , Southampton was increasingly important for coastal defence and as a base for operations on the continent . Following the threat of French invasion in the 1170s , Henry II invested modest additional resources in the castle , but no efforts were undertaken to improve the town 's ditches and banks .
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Johor sovereignty over any other territory .
= = = Sovereignty over Pedra Branca passed to Singapore = = =
The ICJ noted that under certain circumstances , sovereignty over territory may pass due to the failure of the state which has sovereignty to respond to the other state 's conduct à titre de souverain , that is , concrete manifestations of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other state .
Because there was no written agreement relating to Horsburgh Lighthouse and Pedra Branca , the Court was unable to determine whether the November 1844 replies by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor to Governor Butterworth 's query amounted to a cession of the place that would be chosen for the site of the lighthouse or was merely a permission to build , maintain and operate a lighthouse there . Although the Governor had indicated in his 28 November 1844 letter to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the replies amounted to a gratuitous cession to the East India Company , this understanding was not communicated to the Sultan and Temenggung . Similarly , the fact that Britain had not informed Johor about its decision to site the lighthouse on Pedra Branca might be seen either as recognition that Britain only had consent to build and operate it , or that Johor no longer had rights over the island . On the evidence adduced , the Court was unable to reach a conclusion on the issue . It also did not draw any conclusions about the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse , stating only that it saw the events as " bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the authorities in Johor and Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh " . It noted , though , that apart from a two @-@ day visit by the Temenggung and his followers to the island in early June 1850 , Johor had no involvement in the project .
The Court declined to accept Malaysia 's argument that the Singapore Colonial Secretary 's query about the status of Pedra Branca in 1953 indicated that the United Kingdom had no conviction that the island was part of its territory . It felt the letter of inquiry showed the Singapore authorities were not clear about events that had occurred over a century earlier and that they were unsure their records were complete , which was understandable in the circumstances . It also disagreed that the Acting State Secretary of Johor , who had stated in his letter of reply that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , had acted without authority . The Johor Agreement was irrelevant – as the Colonial Secretary was a representative of the United Kingdom government which was not a foreign state in relation to Johor at the time , there was no question of the United Kingdom having to consent to Johor issuing the reply . The Federation of Malaya Agreement also did not assist Malaysia because the action of responding to a request for information was not an " exercise " of " executive authority " . Further , since Malaysia had not invoked this argument in its negotiations with Singapore and in the ICJ proceedings until late in the oral phase , Singapore was entitled to presume that the Acting State Secretary had acted within his authority . The meaning of the reply was clear – as of 1953 , Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , and thus the Singapore authorities had no reason to doubt that the island belonged to the United Kingdom .
The Court regarded as conduct à titre de souverain Singapore 's investigation of six shipwrecks in the vicinity of Pedra Branca between 1920 and 1993 , its exclusive control over visits to the island , the installation of the military rebroadcast station on the island in 1977 , and the proposed reclamation of land around it . Malaysia was correct in asserting that the flying of an ensign was not normally a manifestation of sovereignty , and that the difference in size between Pulau Pisang and Pedra Branca had to be recognised . Nonetheless , some weight could be given to the fact that Malaysia had not requested for the Singapore ensign flying at Horsburgh Lighthouse to be taken down . The fact that Malaysia had referred to the lighthouse as a Singapore station in the 1959 and 1966 meteorological reports and had omitted it from the 1967 Malaysian report favoured Singapore 's case .
The maps published by Malaysia between 1962 and 1975 tended to confirm that it considered Pedra Branca to fall under Singapore sovereignty . The " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " annotations on the maps in respect of the island were clear and supported Singapore 's case . The maps gave a good indication of Malaysia 's official position on the matter , and could amount to an admission . Finally , Malaysia could not rely on the disclaimers on the maps as the present matter did not concern a boundary but a distinct island . In any case , the maps were statements of geographical fact , particularly since Malaysia had itself produced and disseminated it against its own interest .
In view of the above , the Court held that by 1980 sovereignty over Pedra Branca had passed from Malaysia to Singapore .
= = = Sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge = = =
None of the conduct by the United Kingdom and Singapore that led to the ICJ to conclude that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca applied to Middle Rocks . Since Johor held the ancient original title to Middle Rocks , the Court held that this title remains with Malaysia as the successor to the Johor Sultanate .
South Ledge falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . Although in the Special Agreement and in their final submissions Malaysia and Singapore had asked the Court to decide which state had sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , the Court had not been mandated to delimit the extent of the territorial waters of the two states in the area in question . Therefore , it simply held that South Ledge , as a low @-@ tide elevation , belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located .
= = Reactions and further developments = =
= = = Reactions = = =
On 23 May 2008 , Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim described the ICJ decision as creating a " win @-@ win " situation and that both countries would " forge ahead " in their bilateral relationship . Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak called the judgment a " balanced decision " as Malaysia had been " partly successful " in its territorial claims . Interviewed by journalists at The Hague , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar said : " We are pleased with the judgment because the court has awarded sovereignty over Pedra Branca , which is the main feature in dispute , to Singapore . " Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong said he was pleased with the result , and commented that bringing the dispute to the ICJ was " a good way for [ Malaysia and Singapore ] to resolve disagreements or problems while maintaining good relations with each other " .
= = = = Malaysia = = = =
On the day the ICJ released its judgment , Rais Yatim asserted that since South Ledge was within the territorial waters of Middle Rocks , " Malaysia appears to be the sovereign holder " . A week later , the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ( " Island " ) for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as " Batu Puteh " or " Pedra Branca " .
The ICJ 's decision is final and not subject to appeal . Nevertheless , in June 2008 Rais Yatim stated that Malaysia had renewed its search for the letter written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca . He noted that the rules of the ICJ allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced . In response , Singapore 's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city @-@ state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with .
Several Malaysian Members of Parliament have urged the Federal Government to assert sovereignty over Pulau Pisang which also has a lighthouse on it that is operated by Singapore , or to take over administration of the lighthouse . Concerns were also expressed for Pulau Merambong near the western boundary of Malaysia and Singapore . The Menteri Besar of Johor , Abdul Ghani Othman , assured the public that Pulau Pisang belongs to Johor under a 1900 agreement between Sultan Ibrahim of Johor and British administrators in colonial Singapore . Nonetheless , Malaysian agencies have taken up efforts to stake claims over a hundred islands , reefs , rocks and other features in the South China Sea , Malacca Straits , and off Sabahan waters that Malaysia could lose to China , Indonesia and Vietnam . Two of these islands are Pulau Unarang off eastern Sabah near the Indonesian border , and Pulau Perak to the west of Penang .
At the opening of Johor 's 12th State Assembly in June 2008 , Sultan Iskandar of Johor pledged to reclaim the island " whatever it takes " . Speaking impromptu at the end of a prepared speech , the Sultan said in Malay : " Let us be reminded that I do not forget Pulau Batu Puteh . Pulau Batu Puteh is not Singapore 's , but it belongs to Johor . It does not matter how long it may take , I will find the way to get back the island , which belongs to Johor . " The Menteri Besar of Johor said the state government had " clearly heard " what the Sultan said , but did not elaborate .
On 3 September 2008 , Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah , a Kelantan prince and MP from the state , sent a letter to Rais Yatim claiming that Johor 's interests had not been raised before the ICJ . He alleged that the seas surrounding Pedra Branca had always been in Johor 's hands and had never been surrendered to the British or to Singapore , and by accepting the ICJ decision and participating
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aka , Yoshifumi ( 2008 ) , Passing of Sovereignty : The Malaysia / Singapore Territorial Dispute before the ICJ , The Hague Justice Portal , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 January 2012 .
Wan Siti Adibah Wan Dahalan ; Adina Kamarudin ; Mahmud Zuhdi Mohd Nor ( 2009 ) , " Article 121 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention and the Maritime Delimitation in the Straits of Singapore " , Jurnal Undang @-@ undang dan Masyarakat : 13 .
Wang , Xiumei ( 2009 ) , 白礁岛 、 中岩礁和南礁案的国际法解读 [ An Interpretation of the Case of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge from the Perspective of International Law ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 19 – 25 .
Wang , Zichang ( 2009 ) , 新马岛屿争端之判决 : 依据与启示 [ The Judgment of the International Court of Justice on Territorial Disputes between Singapore and Malaysia and Its Inspirations ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 13 – 18 .
= = = News reports = = =
" KL 's claim of original title a mirage : Jaya " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Malaysian Bar website ) , 10 November 2007 , archived from the original on 10 January 2008 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .
" All the pieces in Singapore 's case ' fit perfectly together ' " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) website ) , 21 November 2007 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .
Andy Ho ( 28 November 2007 ) , " The evidence of words : The Pedra Branca case may really just turn on two treaties of 1824 " , The Straits Times .
Jessica Cheam ( 24 May 2008 ) , " A good ruling , for both [ editorial ] " , The Straits Times ( reproduced at AsiaOne ) .
Zakir Hussain ( 20 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca story told in a book : Jayakumar and Tommy Koh give behind @-@ the @-@ scenes account of 30 @-@ year saga " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs website ) , p . A4 .
= = = Books = = =
Haller @-@ Trost , Renate ( 1993 ) , Historical Legal Claims : A Study of Disputed Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh ( Pedra Branca ) [ Maritime briefing ; vol . 1 , no . 1 ] , Durham : International Boundaries Research Unit , Department of Geography , University of Durham , pp. 1 – 36 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 897643 @-@ 04 @-@ 4 .
Jayakumar , S. ; Koh , Tommy ( 2008 ) , Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court , Singapore : NUS Press in association with MFA Diplomatic Academy , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 474 @-@ 6 ( hbk . ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 457 @-@ 9 ( pbk . ) .
= 1994 Fairchild Air Force Base B @-@ 52 crash =
On Friday , 24 June 1994 , a United States Air Force ( USAF ) Boeing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base , Washington , United States , after the pilot , Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland , maneuvered the bomber beyond its operational limits and lost control . The aircraft stalled , fell to the ground and exploded , killing Holland and the other three USAF officers aboard . The crash was captured on video and was shown repeatedly on news broadcasts throughout the world .
The subsequent investigation concluded that the crash was attributable primarily to three factors : Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' delayed or inadequate reactions to earlier incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events during the aircraft 's final flight . The crash is now used in military and civilian aviation environments as a case study in teaching crew resource management . It is also often used by the U.S. Armed Forces during aviation safety training as an example of the importance of compliance with safety regulations and correcting the behavior of anyone who violates safety procedures .
= = Crash = =
At 07 : 30 local time ( Pacific Time Zone ) on 24 June 1994 , a USAF B @-@ 52H bomber crew stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base prepared to practice an aircraft demonstration flight for an airshow . The crew consisted of pilots Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland ( 46 years old ) , Lt Col Mark McGeehan ( 38 ) , Col Robert Wolff ( 46 ) , and weapon systems officer / radar navigator Lt Col Ken Huston ( 41 ) . Holland was the designated command pilot for the flight , with McGeehan as the copilot and Wolff as a safety observer . Holland was the chief of the 92nd Bomb Wing 's Standardization and Evaluation branch , McGeehan was the commander of the 325th Bomb Squadron , Wolff was the vice commander of the 92nd Bomb Wing , and Huston was the 325th Bomb Squadron 's operations officer .
The mission plan for the flight called for a demanding series of low @-@ altitude passes , 60 ° banked turns , a steep climb , and a touch @-@ and @-@ go landing on Fairchild 's runway 23 . The flight was also Wolff 's " fini flight " – a common tradition in which a retiring USAF aircrew member is met shortly after landing on his or her final flight at the airfield by relatives , friends and coworkers , and doused with water . Thus , Wolff 's wife and many of his close friends were at the airfield to watch the flight and participate in the post @-@ flight ceremony . McGeehan 's wife and two youngest sons watched the flight from the backyard of McGeehan 's living quarters , located nearby .
The B @-@ 52 aircraft , callsign Czar 52 , took off at 13 : 58 and completed most of the mission 's elements without incident . Upon preparing to execute the touch @-@ and @-@ go on Runway 23 at the end of the practice profile , the aircraft was instructed to go around because a KC @-@ 135 aircraft had just landed and was on the runway . Maintaining an altitude of about 250 feet ( 75 m ) above ground level ( AGL ) , Holland radioed the control tower and asked for permission to execute a 360 ° left turn , which was immediately granted by the tower controller . The B @-@ 52 then began the 360 ° left turn around the tower starting from about the midfield point of the runway . Located just behind the tower was an area of restricted airspace , reportedly because of a nuclear weapons storage facility . Apparently to avoid flying through the restricted airspace , Holland flew the aircraft in an extremely tight , steeply banked turn while maintaining the low , 250 @-@ foot ( 75 m ) AGL altitude . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the way around the turn , at 14 : 16 , the aircraft banked past 90 ° , descended rapidly , clipped power lines and hit the ground , exploding and killing the four crew members . McGeehan was seated in an ejection seat , but according to the medical statement , he had only " partially ejected at the time of impact " ; it does not state whether or not he cleared the aircraft . Huston was also seated in an ejection seat and the medical statement indicated that he had not initiated the ejection sequence . Wolff 's seat was not ejection @-@ capable . No one on the ground was injured .
= = Investigation = =
The USAF immediately convened a safety investigation under the direction of the USAF 's Chief of Safety , Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey . The safety investigation board released the report of its investigation into the crash on 10 August 1994 . A final evaluation of the safety investigation was released on 31 January 1995 . The USAF safety report was distributed only to U.S. Department of Defense personnel and not to the general public . An accident investigation board , called an " AFR 110 @-@ 14 Investigation , " released a separate report in 1995 . Unlike the USAF safety investigation , the AFR 110 @-@ 14 report was released to the general public .
The AFR 110 @-@ 14 investigation identified several factors which contributed to the crash , including the actual crash sequence , the personality and earlier behavior of Bud Holland , previous supervision and lack of corrective action exercised by USAF officers over Bud Holland , mission planning and execution , and other environmental and human factors .
= = = Crash sequence = = =
The investigation found that as the B @-@ 52 entered its final turn sequence around the tower , its indicated airspeed ( IAS ) was 182 knots ( 337 km / h ; 209 mph ) . Although Holland increased the engine power after starting the turn , his input came too late to maintain the aircraft 's airspeed , as the B @-@ 52 turbofan engines take up to eight seconds to respond to throttle commands . Even though the airspeed indicator was available to all four aircrew members , the aircraft 's airspeed was allowed to continue to decrease . Eight seconds before impact , the aircraft 's IAS had deteriorated to 145 knots ( 269 km / h ; 167 mph ) and the aircraft 's bank angle increased past 60 ° . At this time Holland or McGeehan applied full right spoiler , right rudder , and nose @-@ up elevator , and the aircraft entered a turning flight stall ( also called accelerated stall ) . This phenomenon is a stall that occurs at a higher airspeed than the design stall speed – which always refers to straight and level flight – because of the fact that the aircraft is turning . Due to the bank of 60 ° or more , the stall speed for the aircraft at that moment was 147 knots ( 272 km / h ; 169 mph ) . Thus , flying 2 knots slower , the aircraft stalled , without having sufficient altitude to recover before striking the ground .
= = = Holland 's previous behavior and USAF leaders ' reactions = = =
The accident board stated that Bud Holland 's personality significantly influenced the crash sequence . USAF personnel testified that Holland had developed a reputation as an aggressive pilot who often broke flight safety and other rules . The rule @-@ breaking included flying below minimum clearance altitudes and exceeding bank angle limitations and climb rates .
An earlier incident occurred in 1991 when a B @-@ 52 piloted by Holland performed a circle above a softball game in which Holland 's daughter was participating . Beginning at 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) AGL , Holland 's aircraft executed the circle at 65 ° of bank . In a maneuver described by one witness as a " death spiral , " the nose of the aircraft continued to drop and the bank angle increased to 80 ° . After losing 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of altitude , Holland was able to regain control of the aircraft .
During a 19 May 1991 air show at Fairchild , Holland was the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft violated several safety regulations , including exceeding bank and pitch limits , flying directly over the air show spectators , and possibly violating altitude restrictions . The base and wing commander , Colonel Arne Weinman , along with his staff , observed the demonstration , but apparently took no action .
On 12 July 1991 , Holland commanded a B @-@ 52 for a " flyover " during a change of command ceremony for the 325th Bomb Squadron at Fairchild . During both the practice and the actual flyover , Holland 's aircraft flew at altitudes below 100 feet ( 30 m ) – well below the established minimum altitude – flew steeply banked turns in excess of 45 ° , exceeded pitch angle limits and executed a wingover . The wingover was not specifically prohibited but was not recommended because it could damage the aircraft . After witnessing the flyover , Colonel Weinman and his deputy commander for operations ( DO ) , Colonel Julich , orally reprimanded Holland , but took no formal action .
During the 17 May 1992 Fairchild air show , Holland was again the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft again violated several safety regulations , including several low altitude steep turns in excess of 45 ° of bank and a high pitch angle climb , estimated at over 60 ° nose high which Holland finished with a wingover maneuver . The new wing commander , Colonel Michael G. Ruotsala , apparently took no action . One week later , the new DO , Colonel Capotosti , on his own initiative warned Holland that if he violated any more safety regulations , Capotosti would ground him ( remove him from flying status ) . Capotosti did not document his warning to Holland or take any other kind of formal action .
On 14 and 15 April 1993 , Holland was the mission commander of a two @-@ ship training mission to a bombing range near Guam in the Pacific Ocean . During the mission , Holland flew his B @-@ 52 closer to the other B @-@ 52 than regulations allowed . Holland also asked his navigator to videotape the bombs falling from the aircraft from inside the bomb bay , also against regulations . Holland 's navigator later brought the video to the attention of three Fairchild USAF officers . The first , Lieutenant Colonel Bullock , the current 325th Bomb Squadron commander , did not do anything about it and may have even tried to use the videotape as leverage to coerce the navigator into accepting a position as mission scheduler for the wing . The second , the deputy operations group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Harper , told the crew member to conceal the evidence . The third , the DO , allegedly responded to reports of the video by stating , " Okay , I don 't want to know anything about that video — I don 't care . "
At the 8 August 1993 Fairchild air show , Holland once again commanded the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . The demonstration profile once again included bank angles greater than 45 ° , low altitude passes , and another high pitch climbing maneuver , this time in excess of 80 ° nose high . The climb was so steep that fuel flowed out of the vent holes from the aircraft 's wing tanks . The new wing commander , Brigadier General James M. Richards , and the new DO , Colonel William E. Pellerin , both witnessed the demonstration , but neither took any action .
On 10 March 1994 , Holland commanded a single @-@ aircraft training mission to the Yakima Bombing Range to provide an authorized photographer an opportunity to document the aircraft as it dropped training munitions . The minimum aircraft altitude permitted for that area was 500 feet ( 150 m ) AGL . During the mission , Holland 's aircraft was filmed crossing one ridgeline about 30 feet ( 10 m ) above the ground . Fearing for their safety , the photography crew ceased filming and took cover as Holland 's aircraft again passed low over the ground , this time estimated as clearing the ridgeline by only three feet ( 1 m ) . The co @-@ pilot on Holland 's aircraft testified that he grabbed the controls to prevent Holland from flying the aircraft into the ridge while the aircraft 's other two aircrew members repeatedly screamed at Holland : " Climb ! Climb ! " Holland responded by laughing and calling one of the crew members " a pussy " .
After that mission , the crew decided that they would never again fly with Holland and reported the incident to the bomb squadron leadership . The squadron commander , Lieutenant Colonel Mark McGeehan , reported the incident to Pellerin and recommended that Holland be removed from flying duty . Pellerin consulted with Holland and gave him an oral reprimand and warning not to repeat the behavior , but refused to take him off flying duty . Pellerin also did not document the incident or the reprimand or notify his superiors , who remained unaware of the incident . McGeehan then decided that in order to protect his aircrews , he ( McGeehan ) would be the co @-@ pilot on any future missions in which Holland was the command pilot . Evidence suggests that after this incident , " considerable animosity " existed between Holland and McGeehan .
In preparation for the 1994 Fairchild air show , Holland was again selected as the command pilot for the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . On 15 June 1994 , Holland briefed the new wing commander , Colonel William Brooks , on the proposed flight plan . The demonstration profile as briefed by Holland included numerous violations of regulations , including steep bank angles , low altitude passes , and steep pitch attitudes . Brooks ordered Holland not to exceed 45 ° bank angles or 25 ° pitch attitude during the demonstration . During the first practice session , on 17 June , Holland repeatedly violated these orders . Brooks witnessed this , but took no action . Pellerin flew with Holland on that flight and reported to Brooks that , " the profile looks good to him ; looks very safe , well within parameters . " The next practice flight on 24 June ended with the crash .
= = = Other factors = = =
The demonstration profile as designed by Holland included a 360 ° turn around Fairchild 's air traffic control tower . Holland had not attempted this maneuver in previous air show demonstrations . During the final flight , Holland performed a series of 60 ° banked turns and a 68 ° pitch climb in violation of Brooks ' orders . No evidence exists that McGeehan or Wolff attempted to intervene as Holland executed the maneuvers .
Pellerin was originally scheduled to fly in this mission , as he had done on the 17 June flight . Pellerin was unavailable for the flight on 24 June and Wolff was selected as the replacement aircrew member . Due to the short notice of his assignment to the mission , Wolff did not participate in the pre @-@ flight briefing and boarded the aircraft after the engines were started . Thus , Wolff was not aware of the planned mission profile and did not have an opportunity to raise any objections before take @-@ off .
All of the aircrew involved in the crash had only limited flying time in the months before the crash . The B @-@ 52 's aircrew were apparently unaware that the aircraft had stalled until shortly before impact , indicated by a failure to apply standard recovery techniques to the aircraft once it entered the stall . The investigation reported that , even if the proper stall recovery techniques had been applied , the aircraft was likely too low to recover before hitting the ground .
Four days before the accident , on 20 June , Dean Mellberg , an emotionally disturbed ex @-@ USAF serviceman , entered Fairchild 's hospital and shot and killed five people and wounded many more before being killed by an Air Force Security Policeman . The crime was a major distraction for personnel stationed at Fairchild for some time afterwards .
= = = Conclusions = = =
The accident investigation concluded that the crash was primarily attributable to Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' inadequate reactions to the previous incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events and aircrew response during the final flight of the aircraft . Holland 's disregard for procedures governing the safe operation of the B @-@ 52 aircraft that he commanded and the absence of firm and consistent corrective action by his superior officers allowed Holland to believe that he could conduct his flight in an unsafe manner , culminating with the slow , steeply banked , 360 ° turn around the control tower .
The other environmental factors involved , including the addition of a new maneuver ( the 360 ° turn around the tower ) , inadequate pre @-@ flight involvement of Colonel Wolff , and the distractions from the base shooting four days prior , combined with Holland 's unsafe and risk @-@ taking piloting behavior to produce conditions favorable for the crash to occur . The final factor , according to the USAF investigation report , was the 10 @-@ knot ( 19 km / h ) wind and its effect on the maneuvers required to achieve the intended flightpath in relation to the ground .
= = Aftermath = =
On 19 May 1995 , Pellerin pleaded guilty at a USAF court @-@ martial proceeding to two counts of dereliction of duty for his actions , or lack thereof , that contributed to the crash . He was sentenced to forfeit $ 1 @,@ 500 of salary a month for five months and received a written reprimand . The USAF did not reveal whether any other officer involved in the chain of events leading to the crash received any type of administrative or disciplinary action . Critics of USAF 's safety record stated that this crash was an example of a pattern of problems related to enforcement of safety procedures within USAF .
Although the accident investigation found that procedures and policies were supposedly already in place to prevent such a crash from occurring again , the fact that this crash occurred showed that in at least one instance , the existing safety policies and their enforcement had been grievously inadequate . To re @-@ emphasize the importance of adherence to existing safety policies and correcting the actions of anyone violating them at any time , the USAF quickly distributed the findings of the accident investigation throughout the service . These measures failed to prevent – sixteen years later – the occurrence in almost identical circumstances of another accident , when a C @-@ 17 transport aircraft crashed shortly after taking off from Elmendorf Air Force Base , Alaska , on an aerial display practice flight .
Today , the Fairchild crash is used in both military and civilian aviation environments as a training aid in teaching crew resource management and to show the importance of enforcing safety regulations .
Footage of the Fairchild crash was used in the making of the 2015 film Project Almanac , depicting an airline accident , which sparked public anger among relatives of Wolff and McGeehan . After an initial claim by Paramount Pictures that the video in question was of a 2009 Tokyo crash , producer Michael Bay issued an apology to the families , and the footage was removed from the film 's theatrical release and associated trailers at Bay 's request .
= = = Printed media = = =
Diehl , Alan E. ( 2003 ) . Silent Knights : Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover @-@ Ups . Potomac Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
Kern , Tony T. ( 1999 ) . Darker Shades of Blue : The Rogue Pilot . McGraw @-@ Hill Professional Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 034927 @-@ 4 .
Piper , Joan L. ( 2001 ) . Chain of Events : The Government Cover @-@ up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly @-@ fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper . Brassey 's . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 344 @-@ 5 .
United States Air Force ( USAF ) ( 1994 ) . Summary of AFR 110 @-@ 14 USAF Accident Investigation Board Report .
= = = Web = = =
" Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the USAF Chief of Safety who led the initial investigation into the mishap .
" Brigadier General James M. Richards " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the Commander , 92nd Bomb Wing , Fairchild Air Force Base from August 1992 – August 1993
" The Crash of ' Czar 52 ' " . Check @-@ Six.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007 . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . – Contains video footage of the crash .
Kern , Tony ( 1995 ) . " Darker Shades of Blue : A Case Study of Failed Leadership " . Neil Krey 's CRM Developers Forum . Archived from the original on 16 February 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
" Lt. Col. Mark C. McGeehan " . Lou Holtz / Upper Ohio Valley Hall of Fame . 2000 . Archived from the original on 12 March 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
Thompson , Mark ( 29 May 1995 ) . " Way , Way Off in the Wild Blue Yonder " . Time . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
" B @-@ 52 Bomber Crash Fairchild Air Force Base " . 24 June 1994 . Retrieved 15 June 2015 . – Video of the crash
" Nuclear Storage Site Linked to Plane Crash " . The New York Times . 27 April 1995 . Retrieved 7 January 2008 .
" B @-@ 52crash.kml " . 5 January 2008 . Retrieved 30 January 2014 . - KML file of Czar 52 flight path just before crash
= Miles Fisher =
James Leslie Miles Fisher ( born June 23 , 1983 ) is an American film and television actor and musician .
He had a role in the 1997 CBS adaptation of the book True Women and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . In 2001 , he won Best Actor at the International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada for his role in his short film Head Shot . He also received praise in 2001 in an article in Newsday , and this helped further his career . He appeared as a member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals , which starred Robert Duvall . Fisher parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie ; a clip of Fisher from the film became popular on the Internet . He had a recurring role as a rookie police officer in 2008 on the television series The Cleaner on A & E Network . Fisher appeared in 2009 on Gossip Girl . On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed a friend of character Paul Kinsey .
= = Family and education = =
Miles Fisher is the son of Richard W. Fisher , who was formerly the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas . His mother , Nancy , serves on the national board of the American Film Institute ( AFI ) . His maternal grandfather was Representative James Collins . He was raised in Dallas , Texas , where he attended the St. Mark 's
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School of Texas . After his family moved to Washington , D.C. , he attended the St. Albans School .
Fisher graduated from Harvard University , where he was an English major . At Harvard , he was a member of the Porcellian Club , the Hasty Pudding Club and the a cappella singing group the Krokodiloes . Fisher served as the Krokodiloes tour manager , and planned events for the group in 24 countries . He was one of the two students chosen to deliver a Harvard Oration at the 2006 Harvard graduation ceremony . His undergraduate thesis , which won the LeBaron Russell Briggs prize at Harvard , was a " screenplay about a Harvard graduate who avoided the Vietnam draft by teaching in a military prep school " . Fisher has described film as his passion and said that after graduation he intended to move to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the film industry . In 2009 Fisher resided in Los Angeles , California .
He married Lucette Blodgett , daughter of late actor and writer , Michael Blodgett , on June 28 , 2014 . They were introduced by Willow Bay .
= = Acting career = =
= = = 1997 – 2008 = = =
Fisher appeared in the 1997 CBS television movie adaptation of the book True Women as " Travis " , and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . He received the Best Actor award at the 2001 International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada , for his own short film titled : Head Shot , which was among 10 @,@ 000 other entries at the festival .
In a 2001 article in Newsday titled : " Miles Fisher , ' It ' Boy " , columnist Liz Smith referred to Fisher as " wunderkind " and " the next Tom Cruise " . Smith 's comparison of Fisher to Tom Cruise led to meetings with influential managers and agents , and he signed with the talent agency Endeavor Talent Agency in 2002 . Fisher appeared in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals with Robert Duvall . Director Ron Maxwell picked Fisher to portray a heroic member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the film ; Duvall played Robert E. Lee .
He parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie . Fisher 's role in the film was popularized on the Internet on sites including Defamer , as well as on television on Entertainment Tonight and the CNN program Showbiz Tonight . The clip of Fisher was viewed on the Internet over 10 million times . A critic for The Baltimore Sun commented that Fisher 's appearance in Superhero Movie was the highlight of the film , and wrote : " Actor Miles Fisher replicates Tom Cruise 's ' I am the Way , the Thetan , the Light ' Scientology recruiting video of last year to hilarious effect . " He had a recurring role on A & E Network 's television series The Cleaner , portraying a rookie police officer named Kenneth Herman .
= = = 2009 – present = = =
Fisher wrote and produced a short film called Heatshot in 2009 with Evan Nichols ; the film was selected to be screened at the AFI Dallas International Film Festival . Alan Peppard of The Dallas Morning News reported in March 2009 that Fisher had been cast in the pilot of a television show set in 1983 in Southern California ; a spinoff of Gossip Girl . He portrayed a " sleazy " coke dealer on the television series of the same name .
On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed Geoff Graves , a friend of character Paul Kinsey . Jessica Gelt of the Los Angeles Times described his character as a " preppy drug dealer " . In 2010 , Fisher was cast in the film Final Destination 5 . In an interview with Collider.com , Fisher revealed that the film was set in a workplace environment , and was a 3 @-@ D film . Fisher appeared in Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar Hoover biopic , J. Edgar , playing Agent Garrison , an FBI employee who interviews Leonardo DiCaprio 's Hoover throughout the film .
= = Music career = =
In July 2009 , Fisher released an independently produced self @-@ titled EP , Miles Fisher , as well as a music video for his cover of the Talking Heads song " This Must Be The Place . " The video is an homage to the 2000 film American Psycho , with Fisher imitating Christian Bale 's performance as Patrick Bateman . Students from the American Film Institute helped film the video , which was shot in Los Angeles . The video was posted on YouTube and various other web sites , and received 200 @,@ 000 hits on Break.com alone within the first 24 hours . Darrell Hartman of Interview called the usage of the Talking Heads song with the American Psycho theme " a brilliant combo " , and noted that Fisher " created a viral hit " . Fisher released the song " New Romance " in video and MP3 form on iTunes and on his personal website on July 19 , 2011 . The video parodies the Final Destination series and Saved By the Bell . On May 22 , 2013 , a music video for " Finish What We Started " through AboveAverageNetwork on YouTube was posted . The music video featuring Lance Bass has yet to release a single for the song , and a subsequent album has been released , dubbed " Video Music . " The music video has been posted to Fisher 's personal website .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Video Music ( 2013 )
= = = EPs = = =
Miles Fisher ( 2009 )
= = = Singles = = =
" This Must Be the Place ( Naive Melody ) " ( 2009 ) ( cover of the Talking Heads song )
" New Romance " ( 2011 )
" Don 't Let Go " ( 2011 )
" Finish What We Started " ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas , John Lloyd Taylor )
" Finish What We Started ( Andrew Maury Remix ) " ( feat . Joe Jonas ) ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas and John Lloyd Taylor )
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Pilot ( Once Upon a Time ) =
" Pilot " is the series premiere of the American Fairy Tale / Drama television series Once Upon a Time . It introduces each of the main characters , as well as establishes the basic premises of the series , which details the beginnings of a curse placed upon the Enchanted Forest and the start of a destiny for its only survivor , a present @-@ day woman who can break the curse .
The episode was co @-@ written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write new perspectives of familiar characters , and featured the themes of hope , family , and motherhood . " Pilot " sets the template for the rest of the series , as it jumps between their curses selves in Storybrooke , Maine and their original lives in the Enchanted Forest . Every actor first approached for the series accepted after being sent a script ; this included Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White and Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan .
Before it made its debut , ABC allowed viewers in the United States to see the pilot on the Internet Movie Database 's website several days before it aired . It premiered in the United States on ABC on October 23 , 2011 . In Canada , CTV broadcast the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in most regions . The episode received mostly positive reviews and was watched by 12 @.@ 93 million viewers , scoring a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , ranking first in its timeslot . It was ABC 's most watched pilot since the first episode of Ugly Betty .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
Prince Charming ( Joshua Dallas ) rides to the rescue of Snow White ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) , who is comatose after eating a poisoned apple that was given to her by the Evil Queen ( Lana Parrilla ) . Doc informs Charming that he is too late , but Charming kisses Snow regardless , breaking the curse . On the wedding day of Snow White and Prince Charming , the Evil Queen arrives and delivers an ominous threat about a powerful curse she intends to release upon them . Some time later , a pregnant Snow White is worried about the curse and visits Rumplestiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) , who issues a prophecy that the Queen 's curse will take them all someplace terrible where there will be no happy endings . He also reveals that Snow White 's unborn daughter , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) , will return when she is 28 years old to rescue them , thus beginning a crucial battle with the Queen . Following the Blue Fairy 's ( Keegan Connor Tracy ) advice , Geppetto ( Tony Amendola ) and Pinocchio ( Jakob Davies ) fashion a wardrobe from a magical tree which will allow one person to escape the Queen 's curse . On the day Snow White gives birth to her daughter , the Queen 's curse strikes . Prince Charming places their daughter in the magic wardrobe , but is mortally wounded battling the Queen 's henchmen . The Queen stands triumphantly over Snow White and Prince Charming , as the Curse takes them " somewhere horrible . "
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In Present @-@ day Boston , Emma Swan ( Morrison ) lives a lonely existence working as a bail bondsman and bounty hunter . She is approached by a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) , who identifies himself as her son , whom she had given up for adoption as a teenager . Not wanting a relationship with him , Emma agrees to drive him back to his home in Storybrooke , Maine . Along the way , Henry shows her
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a large book of fairy tales he has , insisting that all of the stories in it are real . When they arrive in Storybrooke , Henry informs her that everyone in town is in reality a fairy tale character , exiled by the curse and with no memory of their real identities . This includes his therapist Archie Hopper ( Raphael Sbarge ) , who is really Jiminy Cricket , and his teacher Mary Margaret Blanchard ( Goodwin ) , who is really Snow White . Henry claims that time is frozen in Storybrooke and the people are unable to leave , but that the curse will be broken by Emma . A skeptical Emma returns Henry to his adopted mother , the town Mayor , Regina ( Parrilla ) , who is really the Evil Queen . Emma attempts to leave but after having drunk apple cider given to her by the Mayor and nearly hitting a wolf she has a car accident where she is knocked out . She is arrested and taken to Storybrooke Jail . When Henry runs away again , Emma makes a deal with the Mayor and Sheriff Graham ( Jamie Dornan ) : if they release her , she will find him . After exhausting all possibilities she speaks with Mary Margaret , who tells Emma to " Check his castle . " After finding Henry at a wooden jungle gym ( which bears a resemblance to Prince Charming 's castle ) , they talk and Emma decides to stay in Storybrooke temporarily , especially after Regina warns her to leave town . This leads Emma to be suspicious of the mayor 's motives .
Shortly after her conversation with Emma , Mary Margaret Blanchard volunteers at Storybrooke Hospital , placing flowers at the bedside of patients . She stops in the ICU where a John Doe ( Dallas ) , Prince Charming , is sleeping in a coma . Mary Margaret is unaware of who he is . Meanwhile , at the Mayor 's home , Regina takes the book from Henry 's room and goes downstairs to look at her mirror , with an expression that seems to acknowledge she is aware of her fairy tale existence .
As Emma arrives at Granny 's Bed & Breakfast , she is given a key to her room by the elderly proprietor ( Beverley Elliot ) , who is actually Granny from Little Red Riding Hood . She comes downstairs after yelling at Ruby ( Meghan Ory ) , her granddaughter , followed by a man who came to collect money : Mr. Gold ( Carlyle ) , Rumpelstiltskin who also helped build and owns the entire town . When Emma mentions her name , Mr. Gold pauses as if he knew something about her . Emma 's decision to stay in Storybrooke causes the hands of the town clock , previously frozen at 8 : 15 , to begin moving again .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
On February 1 , 2011 , ABC ordered six new pilots for their 2011 – 2012 television schedule , which included Once Upon a Time . The premiere episode was co @-@ written by series co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Mylod , a veteran of the Showtime drama Shameless , signed on to direct in mid @-@ February 2011 . The network picked up Once Upon a Time and six other drama series on May 13 , 2011 .
= = = Writing = = =
Eight years previous to the Once Upon a Time pilot ( the two had just completed their work on Felicity , in 2002 ) , Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairytales out of a love of " mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds . " They presented the premise to networks , but were refused because of its fantastical nature . The two learned from their time on Lost to look at the story in a different way , that " character has to trump mythology " ; they expanded , " as people , you 've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them ... For us , this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke – going at it that way as opposed to making it the ' break @-@ the @-@ curse show . ' " Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost , the writers intend them to be very different shows . To them , Lost concerned itself with redemption , while Once Upon a Time is about " hope " . Lost co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof aided in the development of the series as a consultant , but had no official credit for the pilot .
To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew , the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale . Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized , in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters , rather than the classic damsel in distress . Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way , asking themselves , " How do we make these icons real , make them relatable ? "
The pilot is meant to be the " template of the series " . Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds , as they " love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life . " The writers ' desire to present a " mash up " of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot , in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto , Pinocchio , and Grumpy . Horowitz elaborated , " One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before . "
= = = Casting = = =
Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted cast in the series accepted their offered role after being sent a script . Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White , who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience . The actress had just completed her work on the series Big Love , and was looking for a new project ; she turned to television after film scripts failed to interest her . Having said previously in interviews that she would love to play Snow White , Goodwin called her acceptance of the role " a no @-@ brainer . " Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self @-@ described big fans of Big Love , and wrote the part of Snow White with Goodwin in mind .
Joshua Dallas , who plays Prince Charming , was pleased the writers took " some dramatic license " with his character , believing the prince had become more real . He explained , " Prince Charming just happens to be a name . He 's still a man with the same emotions as any other man . He 's a Prince , but he 's a Prince of the people . He gets his hands dirty . He 's got a kingdom to run . He has a family to protect . He has an epic , epic love for Snow White . He 's like everybody else . He 's human . " Jennifer Morrison was hired for the part of Emma Swan . The actress explained her character as someone who " help [ s ] this kid who seems like he 's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional , " but noted that Emma does not yet believe there is a fairytale universe . Ten @-@ year @-@ old Jared Gilmore , known for his work on Mad Men , took the role of her son , Henry .
The role of the Evil Queen / Regina went to Lana Parrilla . She explained the character , " There 's always two stories being told when playing Regina . There 's the threat of her knowing she 's an evil queen and then there 's just the pure simple fact that the biological mother has stepped into her world and the threat of losing her son is just enormous . That 's a fear that I think any adopted mother would have . I think that 's going to really help the audience relate to Regina in some level . " The role of Rumpelstiltskin was given to Robert Carlyle ; it was written with Carlyle in mind , though the writers initially thought he would never accept the part . Horowitz recalled Carlyle 's prison sequence , which was the actor 's first day on the set as " mind @-@ blowing ... You could see Ginny actually jump , the first time he did that character . It was fantastic ! " The writers offered the part of the Blue Fairy to recording artist Lady Gaga , but never heard back from her management staff .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Executive producer Steve Pearlman referred to Once Upon a Time as " an effects @-@ heavy show , " but in ways that are not meant to be obvious to viewers . Zoic Studios provided the visual effects seen in the pilot , building virtual sets for the fairy tale sequences and using F / X for action scenes . Production and visual effects staff collaborated under a difficult schedule and limited budget . The studio has used the technology Zoic 's Environmental Unification System ( Z.E.U.S. ) for real time camera tracking , allowing for creative flexibility among the cast and crew , who work on a green screen stage . Andrew Orloff , Zoic 's Executive Creative Director , commented " Once Upon A Time is an amazing creative opportunity for Zoic . The highly detailed environments and imaginative characters of the series ' fairy tale world have challenged us to expand and fine @-@ tune both our Z.E.U.S. and animation pipelines for television . "
Zoic Studios digitally reproduced the war room and ballroom castle interiors based on concept designs created by Art Director Mark Worthington . For the wedding scene , Zoic staff extended columns , added stained glass windows , and completed the wedding party with additions of digital guests . The effect of the Evil Queen disappearing from Charming 's flying sword cost ABC a reported $ 12 @,@ 000 . Kitsis has commented that because the network has been very supportive , they are not worried about losing the " fantastical feel " of the series ' flashback sequences . He explained , " We can ’ t show this pilot and then have a cheap show after it , so it ’ s our goal to maintain this level of production values throughout . " Zoic visual effects will continue to be used for future episodes .
= = = Marketing = = =
On October 14 , 2011 – nine days before the national broadcast date – Kitsis and Horowitz presented an early screening of the pilot episode at a New York Comic Con panel and answered questions from fans . Later , viewers were able to stream the entire pilot episode from the Internet Movie Database in advance of its broadcast .
The pilot episode aired in October rather than September , which was a month after new fall season shows normally premiered . Pearlman was pleased with the later broadcast date , believing that " it creates a second wave of anticipation for an audience , too . I work in the business and I couldn 't even tell you the names of a third of the new shows this season because we were bombarded with all the messaging . "
The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
The pilot contained a number of popular culture references noted by viewers and television critics . There were several references to Lost , another series scripted by episode writers Kitsis and Horowitz . The street address of Regina 's home is 108 , the town clock is stuck at 8 : 15 ( the same number as the doomed airline flight in the aforementioned series ) , there is a Geranimo Jackson bumper sticker on Emma 's car , the smoke monster engulfing the Enchanted Forest , and Emma 's eye @-@ opening after she wakes up . Kitsis noted of the references , " [ Lost co @-@ creator ] Damon [ Lindelof ] has been a godfather to us . His name is not on the show , but he is in the DNA of it . " Horowitz also stated their intention to continue making Lost references in the future .
Snow White and Prince Charming use a powerfully magical wardrobe to transport their new @-@ born baby to a different universe ( our own " real world " ) . In The Lion , The Witch and The Wardrobe , the first volume of C. S. Lewis 's Narnia series , a similarly powerful magical wardrobe transports the main characters between the real world and the magical universe of Narnia .
Another cultural reference appeared in a scene when Emma hears Leroy ( who is actually Grumpy ) whistling Whistle While You Work ( the song used in the 1937 film version of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ) , indicating its acknowledged ties to Disney , whose subsidiary ABC Studios also happens to be the production company behind Once Upon a Time , since Disney has allowed them access to their fairy tale characters and properties for use in the series . " They 've given us license , " Kitsis said . " I could be wrong , but I think this is the first time anyone 's shown Snow White with a sword , or pregnant . " Other Disney references include the blue star candle Emma wishes on , nodding to the scene in the 1940 film version of Pinocchio where Pinocchio wishes on a blue star and his wish is granted by the Blue Fairy ( both of whom also make a brief appearance alongside Jiminy Cricket in this episode ) .
The Black Keys ' song " Howlin ' for You " is featured in Emma 's introduction scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Premiering out of its 8 : 00 pm timeslot after America 's Funniest Videos , the pilot was viewed by an estimated 12 @.@ 93 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . As a result , It was the season 's highest rated drama debut among adults 18 @-@ 49 and ABC 's biggest debut in five years . It competed against The World Series Pre @-@ Game on FOX , Football Night In America on NBC and The Amazing Race on CBS . It also competed against some of Sunday Night Football . Including DVR ratings , the episode totaled 15 @.@ 48 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 2 18 @-@ 49 rating .
In Canada , CTV debuted the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in all regions except in Saskatchewan and Winnipeg , where it debuted at 10 pm . The pilot was watched by 1 @.@ 764 million viewers , placing 14th for the week . In the UK , the pilot aired on Channel 5 on a 9 pm slot and pulled in 2 @.@ 36 million viewers , the highest throughout the week of April 9 , 2012 for the channel .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pilot " received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
In a review from Zap2it , Rick Porter gave the pilot praise for bringing together the central theme , saying " No other new show this fall is attempting to tell a bigger story , and we 're hoping the rough patches smooth out and it fulfills the potential that 's there in its very strong cast and premise . " It also cited Jennifer Morrison and Jared Gilmore 's performances when they appear in scenes together : " As such it falls to Morrison to move the story along in this world , and fortunately for the audience she 's able to pull it off . She gives a confident , grounded performance that helps keep the show from feeling too fantastical , and her rapport with Gilmore is a big plus too . " He also notes the writers and producers have put together a great premise and expects they 'll have more as the series progresses : " Given the cast and the people involved behind the scenes ... we 're more optimistic than not that Once Upon a Time will find its way . But if it doesn 't , at least it will go down swinging . "
The New York Times writer Mike Hale compared Once Upon a Time with the similarly premised series Grimm , believing that the former has a " richer premise and more interesting characters . " Hale in particular praised Goodwin and Morrison 's performances , but concluded , " Watching the pilot again , though , it became harder to ignore the soap opera underpinnings and the twee sentimentality . " IGN 's Amy Ratcliffe gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 rating , praising the casting , acting , and writing . While acknowledging there were " a few cheesy " moments , she expressed hope that the series would remain focused on its story rather than on too many special effects .
TV Fanatic 's Christine Orlando gave the episode 4 @.@ 4 out of 5 stars , calling it " a beautiful , stunning , magical journey " and saying that she was " hooked from the opening scene . " She complimented the whole cast , but especially Robert Carlyle , saying that he made " a perfectly creepy Rumpelstiltskin . " She praised the character of Henry , saying , " He 's spunky , intelligent and has just the right amount of persistence , and faith in fantasy to make you want to believe . " She concluded by simply stating that it was " very , very good . "
= Paul Butterfield =
Paul Vaughn Butterfield ( December 17 , 1942 – May 4 , 1987 ) was an American blues harmonica player and singer . After early training as a classical flautist , he developed an interest in blues harmonica . He explored the blues scene in his native Chicago , where he met Muddy Waters and other blues greats , who provided encouragement and opportunities for him to join in jam sessions . He soon began performing with fellow blues enthusiasts Nick Gravenites and Elvin Bishop .
In 1963 , he formed the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , which recorded several successful albums and were popular on the late @-@ 1960s concert and festival circuit , with performances at the Fillmore West , in San Francisco ; the Fillmore East , in New York City ; the Monterey Pop Festival ; and Woodstock . The band was known for combining electric Chicago blues with a rock urgency and for their pioneering jazz fusion performances and recordings . After the breakup of the group in 1971 , Butterfield continued to tour and record with the band Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with his mentor Muddy Waters , and with members of the roots @-@ rock group the Band . While still recording and performing , Butterfield died in 1987 at age 44 of a heroin overdose .
Music critics have acknowledged his development of an original approach that places him among the best @-@ known blues harp players . In 2006 , he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame . Butterfield and the early members of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015 . Both panels noted his harmonica skills and his contributions to bringing blues music to a younger and broader audience .
= = Career = =
Butterfield was born in Chicago and raised in the city 's Hyde Park neighborhood . The son of a lawyer and a painter , he attended the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools , a private school associated with the University of Chicago . Exposed to music at an early age , he studied classical flute with Walfrid Kujala , of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . Butterfield was also athletic and was offered a track scholarship to Brown University . However , a knee injury and a growing interest in blues music sent him in a different direction . He developed a love for blues harmonica and a friendship with guitarist and singer @-@ songwriter Nick Gravenites , who shared an interest in authentic blues music . By the late 1950s , they were visiting blues clubs in Chicago , where they met musicians such as Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , and Otis Rush , who encouraged them and occasionally let them sit in on jam sessions . The pair were soon performing as Nick and Paul in college @-@ area coffee houses .
In the early 1960s , Butterfield attended the University of Chicago , where he met aspiring blues guitarist Elvin Bishop . Both began devoting more time to music than studies and soon became full @-@ time musicians . Eventually , Butterfield , who sang and played harmonica , and Bishop , accompanying him on guitar , were offered a regular gig at Big John 's , a folk club in the Old Town district on Chicago 's North Side . With this booking , they persuaded bassist Jerome Arnold and drummer Sam Lay ( both from Howlin ' Wolf 's touring band ) to form a group with them in 1963 . Their engagement at the club was highly successful and brought the group to the attention of record producer Paul A. Rothchild .
= = = Butterfield Blues Band with Bloomfield = = =
During their engagement at Big John 's , Butterfield met and occasionally sat in with guitarist Mike Bloomfield , who was also playing at the club . By chance , producer Rothchild witnessed one of their performances and was impressed by the chemistry between the two . He persuaded Butterfield to bring Bloomfield into the band , and they were signed to Elektra Records . Their first attempt to record an album , in December 1964 , did not meet Rothchild 's expectations , although an early version of " Born in Chicago " , written by Gravenites , was included on the 1965 Elektra sampler Folksong ' 65 and created interest in the band ( additional early recordings were released on the Elektra compilation What 's Shakin ' in 1966 and The Original Lost Elektra Sessions in 1995 ) . In order to better capture their sound , Rothchild convinced Elektra president Jac Holzman to record a live album . In the spring of 1965 , the Butterfield Blues Band was recorded at the Cafe Au Go Go in New York City . These recordings also failed to satisfy Rothchild , but the group 's appearances at the club brought them to the attention of the East Coast music community . Rothchild persuaded Holzman to agree to a third attempt at recording an album .
In these recording sessions , Rothchild had assumed the role of group manager and used his folk contacts to secure the band more and more engagements outside of Chicago . At the last minute , the band was booked to perform at the Newport Folk Festival in July 1965 . They were scheduled as the opening act the first night when the gates opened and again the next afternoon in an urban blues workshop at the festival . Despite limited exposure on the first night and a dismissive introduction the following day by the folklorist and blues researcher Alan Lomax , the band was able to attract an unusually large audience for a workshop performance . Maria Muldaur , with her husband , Geoff , who later toured and recorded with Butterfield , recalled the group 's performance as stunning – it was the first time that many of the mostly folk @-@ music fans had heard a high @-@ powered electric blues combo . Among those who took notice was festival regular Bob Dylan , who invited the band to back him for his first live electric performance . With little rehearsal , Dylan performed a short , four @-@ song set the next day with Bloomfield , Arnold , and Lay ( along with Al Kooper and Barry Goldberg ) . The performance was not well received by some and generated a controversy , but it was a watershed event and brought the band to the attention of a much larger audience .
The band added keyboardist Mark Naftalin , and its debut album , The Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was finally successfully recorded in mid @-@ 1965 and released later that year . The opening song , a newer recording of the previously released " Born in Chicago " , is an upbeat blues rocker and set the tone for the album , which included a mix of blues standards , such as " Shake Your Moneymaker " , " Blues with a Feeling " , and " Look Over Yonders Wall " , and compositions by the band . The album , described as a " hard @-@ driving blues album that , in a word , rocked " , reached number 123 in the Billboard 200 album chart in 1966 , but its influence was felt beyond its sales figures .
Jazz drummer Billy Davenport was invited to replace Lay , who was ailing . In July 1966 , the sextet recorded their second album , East @-@ West , which was released a month later . The album consists of more varied material , with the band 's interpretations of blues ( Robert Johnson 's " Walkin ' Blues " ) , rock ( Michael Nesmith 's " Mary , Mary " ) , R & B ( Allen Toussaint 's " Get Out of My Life , Woman " ) , and jazz selections ( Nat Adderley 's " Work Song " ) . East @-@ West reached number 65 in the album chart .
The thirteen @-@ minute instrumental track " East @-@ West " incorporates Indian raga influences and some of the earliest jazz @-@ fusion and blues rock excursions , with extended solos by Butterfield and guitarists Mike Bloomfield and Elvin Bishop . It has been described as " the first of its kind and ... the root from which the acid rock tradition emerged " . Live versions of the song sometimes lasted nearly an hour , and performances at the San Francisco Fillmore Auditorium " were a huge influence on the city 's jam bands " . Bishop recalled , " Quicksilver , Big Brother , and the Dead – those guys were just chopping chords . They had been folk musicians and weren 't particularly proficient playing electric guitar – [ Bloomfield ] could play all these scales and arpeggios and fast time @-@ signatures ... He just destroyed them . " Several live versions of " East @-@ West " from this period were later released on East @-@ West Live in 1996 .
In England in November 1966 , Butterfield recorded several songs with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , who had recently finished the album A Hard Road . Butterfield and Mayall contributed vocals , and Butterfield 's Chicago @-@ style blues harp was featured . Four songs were released in the UK on a 45 @-@ rpm EP , John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , in January 1967 .
= = = Later Butterfield Blues Band = = =
In spite of its success , the Butterfield Blues Band soon changed its lineup . Arnold and Davenport left the band , and Bloomfield went on to form his own group , Electric Flag . With Bishop and Naftalin remaining on guitar and keyboards , the band added bassist Bugsy Maugh , drummer Phillip Wilson , and saxophonists David Sanborn and Gene Dinwiddie . This lineup recorded the band 's third album , The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , in 1967 . The album cut back on extended instrumental jams and went in a more rhythm and blues @-@ influenced horn @-@ driven direction , with songs such as Charles Brown 's " Driftin ' Blues " ( retitled " Driftin ' and Driftin ' " ) , Otis Rush 's " Double Trouble " , and Junior Parker 's " Driving Wheel " . The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw was Butterfield 's highest @-@ charting album , reaching number 52 on the album chart . Most of this lineup performed at the seminal Monterey Pop Festival on June 17 , 1967 .
On its next album , In My Own Dream , released in 1968 , the band continued to move away from its roots in Chicago blues towards a more soul @-@ influenced , horn @-@ based sound . With Butterfield singing only three songs , the album featured more band contributions It reached number 79 in the Billboard album chart . By the end of 1968 , both Bishop and Naftalin had left the band . In April 1969 , Butterfield took part in a concert at Chicago 's Auditorium Theater and a subsequent recording session organized by record producer Norman Dayron , featuring Muddy Waters backed by Otis Spann , Mike Bloomfield , Sam Lay , Donald " Duck " Dunn , and Buddy Miles . Such Waters warhorses as " Forty Days and Forty Nights " , " I 'm Ready " , " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , and " Got My Mojo Working " were recorded and later released on the album Fathers and Sons . Waters commented , " We did a lot of the things over we did with Little Walter and Jimmy Rogers and Elgin [ Evans ] on drums [ an early configuration of Waters 's band ] ... It 's about as close as I 've been [ to that feel ] since I first recorded it " . To one reviewer , these recordings represent Paul Butterfield 's best performances .
The Butterfield Blues Band was invited to perform at the Woodstock Festival on August 18 , 1969 . The band performed seven songs , and although its performance did not appear in the film Woodstock , one song , " Love March " , was included on the album Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More , released in 1970 . In 2009 , Butterfield was included in the expanded 40th Anniversary Edition Woodstock video , and an additional two songs appeared on the box set Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm .
The album Keep On Moving , with only Butterfield remaining from the original lineup
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