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Roots EPs during this period .
By the time of 1998 's Super Go ! ! ! ! ! EP and full @-@ length Super æ , the band started to break sharply from their earlier atonal noise rock / Japanoise sound by introducing many elements of sweeping electronica effects and thoroughly constructed psychedelic rock jams into their music . Perceived analogies with the music of Can became common during this period . Described as " tumultuous space @-@ sludge " , Super æ has most often been compared to the defining elements of 1970s krautrock . Soon after its initial release in Japan , Super æ was met with a considerable amount of acclaim from the international music press , recognized as a modern @-@ day avant @-@ garde artifact and progressive " masterpiece " . Notably , Super æ was considered one of the best albums of the 1990s by Pitchfork Media .
In 1999 , the band released Vision Creation Newsun in Japan . This album saw an evolution in their sound , combining the evolving space rock themes explored in their Super Roots EPs and preceding album Super æ with " a much more earthly , primal , primitively worshipful inspiration " . It features psychedelic soundscaping and " cosmic synths " , complex tribal drumming , " cathartic celebrations of noise " , and Eye 's unique power electronic and turntabalistic stylings . The album is often considered the band 's greatest achievement thus far , and has been described by critics as blending the " manic , high @-@ speed , cut @-@ up form punk rock " of their earlier albums with a new sound that is " just as intense and exhilarating , but more beautiful and more expansive " .
After its release , Eye oversaw a series of remix albums of the Boredoms catalogue by guest DJs . After the final remix album , Eye 's own Rebore , vol . 0 , was released in 2000 , Boredoms seemed to disappear for a few years with no releases or tour dates , while the members participated in various side projects and other bands .
= = = Later activities = = =
Rumors that the band had broken up began to circulate , but a smaller ensemble who called themselves V ∞ redoms resurfaced in 2003 . The group 's line @-@ up had changed considerably upon its return , stripping down to a much smaller ensemble with Yamantaka Eye on vocals , Izumi Kiyoshi ( who had performed on Vision Creation Newsun and Super æ ) on synthesizer , and Yoshimi P @-@ We , Nishimura , and EDA playing drums and percussion .
Despite the changes , the group 's music still revolves around the tribal drumming patterns heard on Vision Creation Newsun . The band was signed by Vice Records for its releases in the United States since it had been dropped by Reprise . All Super Roots releases were then reissued on Vice in early 2007 ( with the exclusion of Super Roots 2 ) . In late 2004 , Boredoms released its first album as a group in four years , Seadrum / House of Sun , most of which had been previously recorded before the band 's brief hiatus . This release also saw the band move from their label WEA Japan to the smaller Japanese label Commmons . The album was not celebrated to the extent of their previous albums , yet it still garnered mostly positive reviews , culminating with an exemplary score of 73 % on Metacritic . Following its release , EDA left the band and was replaced by Yojiro Tatekawa .
In early 2007 , the group released Super Roots 9 , the first addition to the Super Roots series since 1999 and their first major release since Seadrum / House of Sun . It was recorded during a Christmas Eve 2004 concert , making it only the band 's third official live release since 1998 's Super Seeeeee ! ! ! ! ! ! video ( discounting disc two of the Vision Creation Newsun boxset , which included a 35 @-@ minute excerpt of a live concert ) . Super Roots 9 also saw the band move from Warner International to the smaller Japanese label Commmons for domestic releases and American label Thrill Jockey for overseas . Later , in April , the group ( as V ∞ redoms ) played three dates with Sonic Youth in Japan . The band also planned to attempt using newly developed contact microphones to record the sounds made by the human body while dancing .
The band released a live DVD / CD combination called Live at Sunflancisco in December 2007 followed by the remix single Voaltz / Relerer in August 2008 , while Eye and Yoshimi have come out with new records of their own this year . During a 2008 United States tour with Iron & Wine , Eye used a new seven @-@ necked guitar called the " Sevener " or " Sevena " .
The band released another addition to the Super Roots EP series , titled Super Roots 10 , on January 28 , 2009 .
= = = = Boadrum concerts = = = =
On July 7 , 2007 , Boredoms performed a concert entitled 77 Boadrum in Brooklyn Bridge Park , New York City , with drummer Muneomi Senju replacing Nishimura . The " 77 " denoted not only the date ( 7 / 7 / 2007 ) but also the number of drummers in the ensemble . Eye has said that the number 77 became significant to him when he climbed the Sun Temple and counted 77 steps .
The band continued the concept on August 8 , 2008 , with two concerts called 88 Boadrum held in Los Angeles and Brooklyn . Boredoms headlined the Los Angeles show while Gang Gang Dance conducted the Brooklyn show .
A third concert , Boadrum 9 , took place on September 9 , 2009 at Terminal 5 in New York City . It featured 9 drummers in total , two from Boredoms ( Yoshimi and Yojiro ) and seven others from prominent experimental music acts , namely Zach Hill ( Hella ) , Hisham Bharoocha ( Soft Circle , ex : Black Dice , Lightning Bolt ) , Butchy Fuego ( Pit er Pat ) , Kid Millions ( Oneida ) , Jeremy Hyman ( Ponytail ) , Dave Nuss ( No @-@ Neck Blues Band ) and Aaron Moore ( Volcano The Bear )
In 2010 , Boredoms toured internationally including two Boadrum performances at All Tomorrow 's Parties curated by Matt Groening at Butlins Minehead , England , in addition to shows in London , Japan , Mexico and as part of the Melbourne International Arts Festival on October 10 , 2010 .
In 2011 , Boredoms premiered new material at the All Tomorrows Parties " I 'll Be Your Mirror " festival in Tokyo . Six drummers were arranged in a circle around Eye , who used motion sensors to trigger ambient drone soundscapes created by Shinji Masuko that corresponded to each drummer . The music featured highly repetitive motorik rhythms that grew in complexity over the course of the hour long set . The band was chosen by Jeff Mangum of Neutral Milk Hotel to perform at the All Tomorrow 's Parties festival that he curated in March 2012 in Minehead , England . That gig ( performed twice during the festival ) featured 14 guitarists and 6 drummers .
In June , 2015 , Boredoms performed another development of the Boardrum series at the Barbican Centre in London , UK as part of Doug Aitken 's Station to Station : A 30 @-@ Day Happening . The performance featured Eye , Yoshimi , Tatekawa , Masuko , and an expanded lineup of drummers and guitarists surrounded by 88 percussionists all playing cymbals .
= = Discography = =
Osorezan no Stooges Kyo ( 1988 )
Soul Discharge ( 1989 )
Pop Tatari ( 1992 )
Chocolate Synthesizer ( 1994 )
Super æ ( 1998 )
Vision Creation Newsun ( 1999 )
Seadrum / House of Sun ( 2004 )
= = Members = =
Yamantaka Eye – lead vocals , noise , sampler , sevena
Yoshimi P @-@ We – drums , percussion , vocals , djembe , keyboards , trumpet
Yojiro Tatekawa – drums , percussion
Shinji Masuko – guitars , noise
= = = Previous members = = =
Muneomi Senju – drums , percussion
Ikuo Taketani – drums
Hosoi Hisato – bass guitar
Tabata Mitsuru ( Tabata Mara ) – guitar
Hiyashi Hira – bass guitar , vocals , percussion
Seiichi Yamamoto – guitar , vocals , percussion
Yoshikawa Toyohito – drums , vocals
Chew Hasegawa – drums
Kazuya Nishimura ( Atari or ATR ) – drums , synth pad , vocals , samples , djembe
EDA – drums , electronic drums , djembe
Izumi Kiyoshi – synthesizer , sampler
God Mama – dancing
= Ivy Valentine =
Isabella Valentine ( イザベラ ・ バレンタイン , Izabera Barentain ) , commonly called Ivy ( アイヴィー , Aivī ) , is a fictional character in the Soul series of video games . Created by Namco 's Project Soul division , she first appeared in the original Soulcalibur and its subsequent sequels , later appearing in various merchandise related to the series . She was voiced in Japanese by Yumi Tōma between Soulcalibur and Soulcalibur III , Kanako Tōjo between Soulcalibur Legends and Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny , and Miyuki Sawashiro in Soulcalibur V ; in English , she was voiced by Renee Hewitt in Soulcalibur II and Lani Minella for the remainder of the series .
The illegitimate daughter of undead pirate Cervantes de Leon , Ivy was raised by a noble family until her father became obsessed with the cursed sword , Soul Edge , leading to his death and later her mother 's . Desiring to destroy the sword , she creates a segmented , animated blade , only to become Soul Edge 's pawn and learn that it intends to use her as its next host . After an attack by Cervantes results in the loss of her soul , Ivy uses a temporary artificial one to keep herself alive , and continues after the blade .
Since her introduction , Ivy has been well received , considered both an attractive and strong female character by various sources . She has also been included on various countdown lists regarding sexy video game characters . Scholastic studies have examined the character in the context of the series and video games in general , as well as when compared to other video game related sex symbols such as Lara Croft . Her role as a sex symbol has also been discussed by said sources and the media . Some argue that her appearance goes " too far " , while others feel it helps to define her character .
= = Conception and history = =
As a character introduced in Soulcalibur , Ivy 's weapon , a " snake sword " designed to be unique amongst the other weapons in the game , was selected before other elements of the character . Her design and concept were then built to revolve around it , starting with gender , then physical measurements , and lastly background details . After her appearance and movement were fleshed out by a concept artist , her character was rendered as a 3D model by a design team that worked solely on her , and then animated mostly by Naotake Hirata using motion capture to create her in @-@ game movements , with Yasushi Shibue designing the animations for her throws , and several animations created without the use of motion capture for positions difficult for the actors . During this phase the team additionally worked with the Soulcalibur story creators , refining the character 's own role in the plot as needed throughout development .
During development many alternatives for Ivy 's design were considered , including a male ninja , a mummy , and a little girl , while the weapon remained constant , varying only in size . With Soulcalibur II , the development team chose her as their favorite character from the previous title . Producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama felt that her fighting style was not perfectly expressed in Soulcalibur , and focused on Ivy from the start of the project to make her more " uniquely lethal " . Namco has called Ivy one of the three most popular characters in the series in North American markets , alongside Taki and Nightmare . Soulcalibur V producer Hisaharu Tago emphasized this as a reason for the character 's inclusion for the game , additionally citing her fighting style and role in the game 's storyline .
= = = Design = = =
Ivy appears as a tall , large busted woman with short , white hair . A bluish @-@ purple leotard covers her torso and arms , with patches of the fabric removed to expose her cleavage and various parts of her abdomen . Similar leggings cover her legs midway below her thighs , connected to the leotard by garters at golden metal bands at their peak . A sleeve of the same material covers her right arm and hand , while armor covers her left arm , hand , and shoulder . A smaller pauldron covers her right shoulder , while high heels cover her feet , and a white glove covers her right hand . The left shoulder pauldron incorporates the Tudor Rose , a traditional heraldic symbol of England , while the plates of the armor were designed to resemble the links of her sword . A mask covering the right side of her face and eye were also considered but abandoned after the initial character concept . While her design has been altered slightly as the series has progressed , the concept has remained consistent throughout the series , with the exception of the removal of the glove in later designs . Ivy stands 1 @.@ 79 m ( 5 ft 10 in ) tall , making her the series ' tallest female character , and with a bust measurement of 100 cm ( 39 in ) also the bustiest , though this was an aspect that the developers felt they had overdone by her appearance in Soulcalibur IV .
Ivy 's alternate character designs in the games are a contrast to her primary designs , with the secondary from Soulcalibur to Soulcalibur III consisting of countess attire of either blue or red pants , vest , and jacket , with white boots covering her feet and her hair combed back . In Soulcalibur II , a tertiary alternate design was added consisting of a red leotard and gloves with gold trimming , with red stockings on her legs ; in addition , a fourth design resembling her appearance at the conclusion of Soulcalibur was considered , incorporating a cloak and the symbol of caduceus on the front of her leotard cupping her breasts , but was unused . In Soulcalibur III , a long , rose @-@ themed dress with hat and veil was used as a tertiary alternate , one of several considered designs . For Soulcalibur IV , a similarly themed black dress was used as her sole alternate design for the game .
Some versions of the original Soulcalibur arcade game censored Ivy 's default costume by covering her bare skin with a lavender catsuit . With Soulcalibur IV , Ivy 's look on the promotional artwork was modified on the English website to hide her undercleavage , leading to suspicion of censorship in the American release of the game . When asked about the censoring , director Katsutoshi Sasaki stated he had heard of nothing of the sort having taken place . When released in North America it was shown that no actual censorship had occurred within the game .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
As introduced in Soulcalibur , Ivy was raised by the Valentines , a noble family in London , England . Ivy 's father became obsessed with the cursed sword Soul Edge , and worked himself to death . Her mother died shortly afterward , and revealed to Ivy that she was not their biological daughter . Becoming an alchemist , Ivy learned of her father 's obsession and decided to destroy Soul Edge . She created an animated , segmented sword , bringing it to life by unknowingly summoning Soul Edge 's current host , Nightmare , and was convinced to become one of his servants without realizing he wielded the blade she sought . After learning the truth , and that her real father was the sword 's previous host Cervantes and her to be its next , she departed . Continuing her quest to destroy the sword in later games , Ivy was attacked by Cervantes and her soul consumed in Soulcalibur IV . Using an artificial soul to keep herself alive , she acts as a teacher to younger warriors when the sword re @-@ appears years later .
Ivy also appears in the prequel Soulcalibur Legends , allying herself with the protagonist Siegfried , and shares an understanding with another of his allies , Lloyd Irving . In Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny 's " Gauntlet " storyline , a side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV , Ivy assists the character Hilde and her party develop a cure for her father 's ailment . When told that Cervantes ' soul would be required as payment , they attempt to renegotiate , only for Ivy to use the protagonist 's back as a chair while repeating her terms .
Designed as a weapon with the longest reach in Soulcalibur , Ivy 's sword Valentine consists of several smaller blades linked together by a chain , able to take either broadsword or chain whip forms . These forms are represented by different stances Ivy can use in the series , altering many of her attacks for each and applying different uses to either form of the weapon , with some , such as Spiral Lust , a component of an existing attack . In addition to these the sword can also have the segments be split apart , in which case they will attack the opponent in different ways before recombining on the sword 's chain . Due to her variety , Ivy has been noted as being able to attack from any range , however she has also been described as difficult to properly use unless utilizing a range the opponent is weakest at . However , attacks such as Ivy Brambler allow her greater variety in range , and allow for chaining into other attacks upon a successful strike . Other attacks , such as Summoning Suffering and Calamity Symphony , involve grappling with the opponent to damage them , though utilize complex controller inputs that require them to be utilized in tandem with other moves . With the Xbox Live release of Soulcalibur , due to its complexity the former was utilized for an achievement .
= = = Promotion and merchandising = = =
Ivy was featured amongst other characters for Soulcalibur II 's arcade flyer , and has been featured in other printed advertisements for games in the series . She has also appeared on the cover on every Sony @-@ based console game in the series , as well as Soulcalibur Legends for the Nintendo Wii . She is also visible on the white Xbox 360 Soulcalibur IV arcade joystick alongside Hilde and Siegfried , and the box art for Korean distributions of the lilac @-@ colored PSP . In addition , the character has been used to demonstrate the graphical features of both Soulcalibur IV and its follow @-@ up title , Broken Destiny in a tech demo and promotional flyer respectively . Ivy was also featured alongside Siegfried in a manga adaptation of Soulcalibur Legends printed in the Japanese shōnen Kerokero Ace ; the manga , written in a humorous tone , used a running gag of Siegfried 's annoyance that Ivy was significantly taller than he was .
Several action figures and figurines have been made bearing Ivy 's likeness . Following the release of Soulcalibur , a resin kit by Kurushima was released , alongside a figurine by Kyosho . Epoch C @-@ Works released a 1 / 12 scale Ivy action figure of in a set of three for the title as well , featuring equipable weapons . In August 2003 , Todd McFarlane Productions released an Ivy sculpture amongst a set of five based on Soulcalibur II . The immobile figure was modeled after her primary outfit and stood six inches tall with a base and retracted sword . Yujin released a four inch tall figurine based upon her Soulcalibur II artwork as part of their " Namco Girls Series # 5 " line of gashapon figurines . A twelve inch tall immobile PVC figurine modeled after her Soulcalibur III appearance was released by Enterbrain in September 2008 , using a white version of her outfit and extended sword ; a dark blue outfit for an " international color " version of the sculpture was also produced .
= = Reception = =
Although commonly cited as one of the most difficult characters to play as in the Soul series , Ivy has received a great deal of positive reception and has been described as one of the series ' most " staple " and " stalwart " characters . From her Soulcalibur II appearance , Ivy was nominated in G4 's 2004 G @-@ Phoria awards show under " Hottest Character " , alongside Vanessa Z. Schneider and Rikku ; she was also a character in their 2005 " Video Game Vixens " awards show , winning in the category of " Kinkiest Accessory " . Several other " Top Ten " lists have also featured Ivy in similar context , including those by Team Xbox , Machinima.com , and Spike TV . In 2009 , she was featured on the cover of French magazine Ig alongside other female video game characters as one of the top heroines of gaming .
Ivy was cited in the book " Disconnected America " as an example of Soulcalibur II 's contrast to titles including Mortal Kombat and Street Fighter in terms of a comparable real @-@ world experience . Play magazine called her one of the " finest females in all of 3D fighting " , adding of the characters in the series she was the one they enjoyed playing as the most . She placed second in IGN 's " Soulcalibur : The Top Ten Fighters " article , which stated " Few , if any , Soul fighters so aptly sum up what the series is about as Ivy Valentine . " IGN also included her in their list of guest characters they would have liked to have seen for Super Smash Bros. Brawl , and in their " Top 50 Chicks Behaving Badly " list , describing her as " a pain in the ass , but she 's got a tight one , so she 's okay by us " . Gamespy named her one of the " 25 Extremely Rough Brawlers " in video gaming , praising the brutality of her fighting style and weapon . Tom 's Games named her one of the fifty greatest female characters in video game history , stating that as " an anti @-@ hero who frequently clashes with other Souls , Ivy is a fascinating character for a fighting game " . UGO.com placed her sixteenth on their list of the " Top 50 Evil Women " , noting her role as an antagonist in the first Soulcalibur while adding that it could be " difficult to truly appreciate [ her ] villainy " due to her attractiveness , and adding that her appearance and attitude made her " a feared competitor " . In 2013 , Complex enlisted the 20 best characters from the series , ranking her the seventh best character .
Ivy appeared several times in GameDaily 's " Babe of the Week " series of articles , including as a stand @-@ alone article and at eleventh place in their " Top 50 Hottest Game Babes " article . They later named her amongst other female characters in the Soul series as an example of a strong and iconic female character in video gaming . The New York Times felt her appearance came from the same " Goth cyberaesthetic [ ... ] that gave us The Matrix " , one they felt was already becoming outdated . UGO.com ranked her eighteenth in their " Top 50 Videogame Hotties " article , stating " However much she instills fear in our hearts , we revel in the opportunity to stare at her from the safety of our television sets . " In later articles , they named her one of the top eleven girls of gaming at number ten and one of the top eleven video game heroines at number eight , stating " What can you say about a chick that carries a whip ? If you 're talking about Ivy from the Soul Calibur series , you could say she 's pretty intimidating . "
= = = As a sex symbol = = =
Ivy 's appearance and demeanor have been a focus of discussions , with her commonly compared to or described as a dominatrix , and has been noted both as the series ' sexiest female and one of the " most beautiful women in gaming " . She has been displayed in various third @-@ party media , her likeness appearing in material including magazine swimsuit issue pin @-@ ups , periodicals such as Play 's annual " Girls of Gaming " series , and pornographic dōjinshi . Advertisements have also focused on her visual appeal , such as Sega 's television commercial for Soulcalibur 's Dreamcast port . Other media facets have made comparisons between her and Lara Croft in terms of attractiveness , or depicted them as rivals alongside other female characters in a similar context . Other sources have used her as a standard for a character archetype , comparing later created female characters to her design and appearance . Studies on video games have noted Ivy in the subject of games " growing up " , discussing the increasing popularity of " video game babes " and the reactions of men and women towards them .
The book Game On : The History and Culture of Videogames cited Ivy as an example of realistic character design affected by " the Japanese ' deformed ' aesthetic and the global influence of cartoon animation " , noting she made characters such as Lara Croft look " positively monastic " by comparison . Race , Gender , Media : Considering Diversity Across Audiences , Content , and Producers used her as an example of most female characters in video games , describing her body and clothing as being created solely for the viewing pleasure of players , often males . Rachael Hutchinson , Assistant Professor of Japanese Studies at the University of Delaware , described her sexualized appearance and behavior as devices used by the developers to emphasize her above @-@ average height compared to other female characters in the title as " deviant " , justifying " social and cultural expectation regarding the female form " in the process . In an article on Kotaku , Gamasutra 's Leigh Alexander used Ivy as a primary example of video game representations of the ideal male and female versus the real world and the concept that " sex sells " , noting the unconscious appeal of such a character to represent oneself as in a game .
Reception of the character 's sex appeal has been mostly positive , though with a share of criticism as well as her design evolved through the series . Joystiq bemoaned her appearance in Soulcalibur IV , describing it as an extreme in lieu of games such as Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball and noting that while a full redesign was unnecessary , " At least
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0 Japanese ; three Australians were wounded . On 20 June the 2 / 12th Field Regiment fired a particularly heavy bombardment and six Allied bombers attacked the Pocket . Porter judged that this would be sufficient to suppress the Japanese defenders , and ordered that the Pocket be attacked by two companies from the 2 / 28th Battalion supported by tanks ( including " Frog " flamethrower variants of the Matilda II ) the next day .
In the early hours of 21 June a force of about 50 Japanese troops slipped out of the Pocket and attempted to attack Australian positions on Labuan . Different groups of Japanese troops attacked a prisoner of war enclosure , dock facilities and No. 1 Strip , but all were defeated by Australian and American logistics personnel and engineers . A total of 32 Japanese personnel were killed around Victoria , and another 11 were killed at the airfield . Three Americans and two Australians were killed in these engagements .
The Japanese attack did not delay the Australian assault on the Pocket . At 10 am on 21 June , C Company of the 2 / 28th Battalion began to advance to the west along Lushington Ridge , and D Company moved south from Eastman Spur . D Company was supported by a troop of three conventional Matilda tanks and two Frog flamethrowers . C Company advanced about half of the way into the Pocket before being halted by Norman who was concerned that they might be accidentally attacked by D Company , which was also making good progress . The force built around D Company subsequently completed the occupation of the Pocket , with the flamethrower tanks playing a key role . The Japanese soldiers who had survived the artillery bombardment offered little resistance to the Australian forces . The 24th Brigade assessed that 60 Japanese personnel were killed in the final assault on the Pocket , with 117 being killed by the artillery bombardment which had preceded it .
From 21 June , the 2 / 12th Commando Squadron conducted patrols of the outlying areas of Labuan to clear them of any Japanese forces ; up to this point the squadron had formed part of the 9th Division 's reserve . Each troop of the squadron was assigned a different sector of Labuan , and by mid @-@ July had completed its task . During these patrols the squadron killed 27 Japanese soldiers , mainly as part of repelling a raid on the BBCAU compound on 24 June , and captured a single prisoner . The 2 / 12th Commando Squadron was subsequently directed to undertake topographic work in order to improve the quality of maps of the island . The 24th Brigade 's total combat casualties in its operations on Labuan were 34 killed and 93 wounded . The Australian soldiers counted 389 Japanese dead and took 11 prisoners .
= = Aftermath = =
The process of bringing No. 1 Strip back into service went well . Nos 4 and 5 Airfield Construction Squadrons were assigned the task . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ by @-@ 100 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 220 by 30 m ) unsurfaced temporary runway was constructed at a 5 ° angle to the existing strip . The first RAAF aircraft , two P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks from No. 76 Squadron , landed on the strip on 17 June , and commenced operations from this base the next day . No. 457 Squadron , which was equipped with Spitfires , arrived on 18 June though two of its aircraft crashed on the still @-@ unfinished runway and had to be written off . The units based at the airfield took over responsibility for providing air support for the Army units on Labuan that day , and flew their first close air support sorties over the island on 19 June . No. 86 Wing 's two flying squadrons — No. 1 and No. 93 — also arrived on Labuan in late July , but conducted few operations from this base before the end of the war . The wing had originally been scheduled to move to Labuan in late June , but it took longer than expected to extend No. 1 Strip 's runway to the length needed by No. 1 Squadron 's Mosquito light bombers .
To reconstruct No. 1 's existing runway as an all @-@ weather strip , the bomb craters had to have the water pumped out of them and then be filled in . Sandstone from a quarry on northern Labuan was placed over the clay and sand subbase , and the runway was topped with crushed coral from the west coast of the island , and sealed with bitumen . The 5 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) runway had 70 hardstandings for aircraft . With 70 also on the dry weather strip , the air base could accommodate 140 aircraft . The 9th Division 's engineers also undertook a wide range of construction projects on Labuan . These included building 356 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 100 m2 ) of storage , new port facilities , bridges and oil tanks as well as surfacing 29 miles ( 47 km ) of roads . A wharf for Liberty ships was begun on 18 June , allowing the first ship to berth on 10 July . A fuel jetty was in operation by 20 June , and a fuel tank farm with seven 2 @,@ 300 @-@ US @-@ barrel ( 270 @,@ 000 l ; 72 @,@ 000 US gal ; 60 @,@ 000 imp gal ) tanks was completed on 12 July , as was a 600 @-@ bed hospital . Work then began on a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed general hospital . The 2 / 4th and 2 / 6th Australian General Hospitals were transferred from Morotai to Labuan during July , though the later unit 's hospital facilities were not completed until 17 September .
Once Labuan was secured , the 24th Brigade was ordered to capture the eastern shore of Brunei Bay . On 16 June , the 2 / 32nd Battalion was transported from Labuan to Padas Bay . The battalion captured the town of Weston the next day . The remainder of the 24th Brigade was transported across the bay during the last week of June , and the force advanced inland to capture the town of Beaufort which was defended by between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 Japanese personnel . Following some heavy fighting , the town was secured on 28 June . The brigade then advanced further inland to Papar in early July . Later that month the 9th Division 's commander , Major General George Wootten , relieved Norman from command over an incident in which he had lost control of the 2 / 28th Battalion during the fighting on Labuan . Following the announcement of the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945 and the formal ceremony held in Tokyo Bay on 2 September , the commander of the 37th Army , Major General Masao Baba , surrendered to Wootten on 10 September at a ceremony conducted at the 9th Division 's headquarters on Labuan .
After the war , Labuan was one of several locations at which the Australian military conducted trials to prosecute suspected Japanese war criminals . A total of 16 trials were held on the island between 3 December 1945 and 31 January 1946 , during which 128 men were convicted and 17 acquitted . Labuan War Cemetery was also established as the burial place for all of the Commonwealth personnel killed on or near Borneo . It includes 3 @,@ 900 graves , most of which are for prisoners of war who died while being held by the Japanese .
Memorials have also been erected on Labuan to mark its wartime history . These include the Australian Battle Exploit Memorial at Brown Beach , a plaque marking the location of the 37th Army 's surrender ceremony and a Japanese peace park .
= = = Works consulted = = =
24th Brigade ( 1945 ) . " AWM52 8 / 2 / 24 / 36 – June 1945 , Appendices " ( PDF ) . AWM52 8 / 2 / 24 – 24 Infantry Brigade . Australian War Memorial . Retrieved 3 January 2015 . ( page numbers cited are those of the PDF document on the AWM website )
Casey , Hugh J. , ed . ( 1951 ) . Airfield and Base Development . Engineers of the Southwest Pacific . Washington , D.C. : United States Government Printing Office . OCLC 220327037 .
Converse , Allan ( 2011 ) . Armies of Empire : The 9th Australian and 50th British Divisions in Battle 1939 – 1945 . Port Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 19480 @-@ 8 .
Coombes , David ( 2001 ) . Morshead : Victor of Tobruk and El Alamein . South Melbourne : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 551398 @-@ 3 .
Coulthard @-@ Clark , Chris ( 2001 ) . The Encyclopaedia of Australia 's Battles . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 634 @-@ 7 .
Dredge , A.C.L. ( 1998 ) . " Order of Battle : Intelligence Bulletin No. 237 , 15 June 1946 " . In Gin , Ooi Keat . Japanese Empire in the Tropics : Selected Documents and Reports of the Japanese Period in Sarawak Northwest Borneo 1941 – 1945 . Volume 2 . Athens , Ohio : Ohio University Press. pp. 572 – 598 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89680 @-@ 199 @-@ 3 .
Gill , G Herman ( 1968 ) . Royal Australian Navy , 1942 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 2 – Navy . Volume II . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 65475 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 1999 ) . Rising Sun Over Borneo : The Japanese Occupation of Sarawak , 1941 – 1945 . Basingstoke , Hampshire : Macmillan Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 71260 @-@ 9 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 2002 ) . " Prelude to invasion : covert operations before the re @-@ occupation of Northwest Borneo , 1944 – 45 " . Journal of the Australian War Memorial 37 . ISSN 1327 @-@ 0141 . Retrieved 18 April 2015 .
Gin , Ooi Keat ( 2013 ) . Post @-@ War Borneo , 1945 – 1950 : Nationalism , Empire and State @-@ Building . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 55959 @-@ 6 .
Hutchinson , Garrie ( 2006 ) . Pilgrimage : A Traveller 's Guide to Australia 's Battlefields . Melbourne : Black Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 86395 @-@ 387 @-@ 6 .
Johnston , Mark ( 2002 ) . That Magnificent 9th : An Illustrated History of the 9th Australian Division 1940 – 46 . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 1 @-@ 86508 @-@ 654 @-@ 1 .
Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VII . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 2002 ) [ 1957 ] . The Liberation of the Philippines – Luzon , Mindanao , the Visayas , 1944 – 1945 . History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Volume 13 . Champaign , Illinois : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 07064 @-@ X.
Odgers , George ( 1968 ) [ 1957 ] . Air War Against Japan , 1943 – 1945 . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 3 – Air . Volume II . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1990609 .
Pratten , Garth ( 2009 ) . Australian Battalion Commanders in the Second World War . Port Melbourne , Victoria : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 76345 @-@ 2 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2002 ) . World War II Pacific Island Guide . A Geo @-@ Military Study . Westport : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 31395 @-@ 4 .
Walker , Allan Seymour ( 1957 ) . The Island Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 5 – Medical . Volume III . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 249848614 .
Waters , Gary ( 1995 ) . " The Labuan Island and Brunei Bay Operations " . In Wahlert , Glenn . Australian Army Amphibious Operations in the South @-@ West Pacific : 1942 – 45 ( PDF ) . Canberra : Australian Army Doctrine Centre. pp. 42 – 59 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 22667 @-@ 9 .
Wilson , David ( 1998 ) . Always First : The RAAF Airfield Construction Squadrons 1942 – 1974 . Canberra : Air Power Studies Centre . ISBN 0 @-@ 642 @-@ 26525 @-@ 9 .
= From Russia , with Love ( novel ) =
From Russia , with Love is the fifth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . Fleming wrote the story in early 1956 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica ; at the time he thought it may be his final Bond book . The novel was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 8 April 1957 .
The story centres on a plot by SMERSH , the Soviet counter @-@ intelligence agency , to assassinate Bond in such a way as to discredit both him and his organisation . As bait , the Russians use a beautiful cipher clerk and the Spektor , a Soviet decoding machine . Much of the action takes place in Istanbul and on the Orient Express . The book was inspired by Fleming 's visit to Turkey on behalf of The Sunday Times to report on an Interpol conference ; he returned to Britain by the Orient Express . From Russia , with Love deals with the East – West tensions of the Cold War , and the decline of British power and influence in the post @-@ Second World War era .
From Russia , with Love received broadly positive reviews at the time of publication . The book 's sales were boosted by an advertising campaign that played upon a visit by the British Prime Minister Anthony Eden to Fleming 's Goldeneye estate , and the publication of an article in Life , which listed From Russia , with Love as one of US President John F. Kennedy 's ten favourite books . The story was serialised in the Daily Express newspaper , first in an abridged , multi @-@ part form and then as a comic strip . In 1963 it was adapted into the second film in the Bond series , starring Sean Connery .
= = Plot = =
SMERSH , the Soviet counterintelligence agency , plans to commit a grand act of terrorism in the intelligence field . For this , it targets the British secret service agent James Bond . Due in part to his role in the defeat of the SMERSH agents Le Chiffre , Mr Big and Hugo Drax , Bond has been listed as an enemy of the Soviet state and a " death warrant " has been issued for him . His death is planned to precipitate a major sex scandal , which will run in the world press for months and leave his and his service 's reputations in tatters . Bond 's killer is to be the SMERSH executioner Red Grant , a psychopath whose homicidal urges coincide with the full moon . Kronsteen , SMERSH 's chess @-@ playing master planner , and Colonel Rosa Klebb , the head of Operations and Executions , devise the operation . They instruct an attractive young cipher clerk , Corporal Tatiana Romanova , to falsely defect from her post in Istanbul having , she would claim , fallen in love with Bond after seeing a photograph on his file . As an added lure for Bond , Romanova will provide the British with a Spektor , a Russian decoding device much coveted by MI6 . She is not told the details of the plan .
The offer of defection is received by MI6 in London , ostensibly from Romanova , but is conditional that Bond collects her and the Spektor from Istanbul . MI6 is unsure of Romanova 's motive , but the prize of the Spektor is too tempting to ignore ; Bond 's superior , M , orders him to go to Turkey . Once there , Bond forms a comradeship with Darko Kerim , head of the British service 's station in Turkey . Bond meets Romanova and they plan their route out of Turkey with the Spektor . He and Kerim believe her story and the three board the Orient Express . Bond and Kerim quickly discover three Russian MGB agents on board , travelling incognito . Kerim uses bribes and trickery to have two of them taken off the train , but he is later found dead in his compartment with the body of the third agent , both — unbeknown to Bond — having been killed by Grant .
At Trieste a fellow MI6 agent , " Captain Nash " , introduces himself and Bond presumes he has been sent by M as added protection for the rest of the trip . Romanova is suspicious of Nash , but Bond reassures her that the man is from his own service . After dinner , at which Nash has drugged Romanova , they rest ; Bond wakes up to find a gun pointing at him and Nash reveals himself to be the killer Grant . Instead of killing Bond immediately , Grant reveals SMERSH 's plan , including the detail that he is to shoot Bond through the heart and that the Spektor is booby @-@ trapped to explode when examined . As Grant talks , Bond places his metal cigarette case between the pages of a magazine he holds in front of him , positioning it in front of his heart to stop the bullet . After Grant fires , Bond pretends to be wounded ; when Grant steps over him , Bond attacks and Grant is killed . Bond and Romanova escape .
Later , in Paris , after successfully delivering Romanova and the booby @-@ trapped Spektor to his superiors , Bond meets Rosa Klebb . She is captured but manages to kick Bond with a poisoned blade concealed in her shoe ; the story ends with Bond fighting for breath and falling to the floor .
= = Background and writing history = =
By January 1956 the author Ian Fleming had published three novels — Casino Royale in 1953 , Live and Let Die in 1954 and Moonraker in 1955 . A fourth , Diamonds Are Forever , was being edited and prepared for production . That month Fleming travelled to his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica to write From Russia , with Love . He followed his usual practice , which he later outlined in Books and Bookmen magazine : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " He returned to London in March that year with a 228 @-@ page first @-@ draft manuscript that he subsequently altered more heavily than any of his other works . One of the significant re @-@ writes changed Bond 's fate ; Fleming had become disenchanted with his books and wrote to his friend , the American author Raymond Chandler : " My muse is in a very bad way ... I am getting fed up with Bond and it has been very difficult to make him go through his tawdry tricks . " Fleming re @-@ wrote the end of the novel in April 1956 to make Klebb poison Bond , which allowed him to finish the series with the death of the character if he wanted . Fleming 's first draft ended with Bond and Romanova enjoying a romance . By January 1957 Fleming had decided he would write another story , and began work on Dr. No in which Bond recovers from his poisoning and is sent to Jamaica .
Fleming 's trip to Istanbul in June 1955 to cover an Interpol conference for The Sunday Times was a source of much of the background information in the story . While there he met the Oxford @-@ educated ship owner Nazim Kalkavan , who became the model for Darko Kerim ; Fleming took down many of Kalkavan 's conversations in a notebook , and used them verbatim in the novel .
Although Fleming did not date the event within his novels , John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom wrote books for Ian Fleming Publications — have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . Chancellor put the events of From Russia , with Love in 1955 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place between June and August 1954 .
In August 1956 , for fifty guineas , Fleming commissioned Richard Chopping to provide the art for the cover , based on Fleming 's design ; the result won a number of prizes . After Diamonds Are Forever had been published in March 1956 , Fleming received a letter from a thirty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old Bond enthusiast and gun expert , Geoffrey Boothroyd , criticising the author 's choice of firearm for Bond . Boothroyd 's suggestions came too late to be included in From Russia , with Love , but one of his guns — a .38 Smith & Wesson snub @-@ nosed revolver modified with one third of the trigger guard removed — was used as the model for Chopping 's image . Fleming later thanked Boothroyd by naming the armourer in Dr. No Major Boothroyd .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
As with several of his works , Fleming appropriated the names or backgrounds of people he knew or had heard of for the story 's characters : Red Grant , a Jamaican river guide — whom Fleming 's biographer Andrew Lycett described as " a cheerful , voluble giant of villainous aspect " — was used for the half @-@ German , half @-@ Irish assassin . Rosa Klebb was partly based on Colonel Rybkin — a real @-@ life member of the Lenin Military @-@ Political Academy about whom Fleming had written an article for The Sunday Times . The Spektor machine used as the bait for Bond was not a Cold War device , but had its roots in the Second World War Enigma machine , which Fleming had tried to obtain while serving in the Naval Intelligence Division .
The idea of the Orient Express came from two sources : Fleming had returned from the Istanbul conference in 1955 by the train , but found the experience drab , partly because the restaurant car was closed . He also knew of the story of Eugene Karp and his journey on the Orient Express : Karp was a US naval attaché and intelligence agent based in Budapest who , in February 1950 , took the Orient Express from Budapest to Paris , carrying a number of papers about blown US spy networks in the Eastern Bloc . Soviet assassins were already on the train . The conductor was drugged and Karp 's body was found shortly afterwards in a railway tunnel south of Salzburg . Fleming had a long @-@ standing interest in trains and , following his involvement in a near @-@ fatal crash in 1927 , associated them with danger ; they also feature in Live and Let Die , Diamonds Are Forever and The Man with the Golden Gun .
The cultural historian Jeremy Black points out that From Russia , with Love was written and published at a time when tensions between East and West were on the rise and public awareness of the Cold War was high . A joint British and American operation to tap into landline communication of the Soviet Army headquarters in Berlin using a tunnel into the Soviet @-@ occupied zone had been publicly uncovered by the Soviets in April 1956 . The same month the diver Lionel Crabb had gone missing on a mission to photograph the propeller of the Soviet cruiser Ordzhonikidze while the ship was moored in Portsmouth Harbour , an incident that was much reported and discussed in British newspapers . In October and November that year a popular uprising in Hungary was repressed by Soviet forces .
= = = Characters = = =
To make Bond a more rounded character , Fleming put further aspects of his personality into his creation . The journalist and writer Matthew Parker observes that Bond 's " physical and mental ennui " is a reflection of Fleming 's poor health and low spirits when he wrote the book . Following on from the character development of Bond in his previous four novels , Fleming adds further background to Bond 's private life , largely around his home life and personal habits , with Bond 's introduction to the story seeing him at breakfast with his housekeeper , May . The novelist Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — sees aspects of self @-@ doubt entering Bond 's mind with the " soft " life he has been leading when he is introduced in the book . Benson identifies Bond 's fear when the flight to Istanbul encounters severe turbulence from a storm , and notes Bond 's apparent nervousness when he first meets Romanova ; he seems concerned and guilty about his mission . The other characters in the book are also well developed , according to Benson . He considers that the head of the Turkish office , Darko Kerim Bey , is " one of Fleming 's more colourful characters " ; Kerim is a similar type of dependable and appealing ally that Fleming also created with Quarrel ( in Live and Let Die ) and Colombo ( in the short story " Risico " ) . Parker considers that Kerim is " an antidote " to Bond 's lethargy , while the essayist Umberto Eco sees the character as having some of the moral qualities of the villains in the series , but that those qualities are used in support of Bond .
From Russia , with Love is one of the few stories by Fleming in which the Soviets are the main enemy , although Eco considers Bond 's Russian opponents " so monstrous , so improbably evil that it seems impossible to take them seriously " . Fleming introduced what was a new development for him , a female opponent for Bond , although much like the former adversaries in the series , Rosa Klebb is described as being physically repulsive , with poor hygiene and gross tastes . Eco — and Anthony Synnott , in his examination of aesthetics in the Bond novels — consider that despite Klebb being female , the character is more akin to a " sexually neuter " individual . Red Grant was Fleming 's first " psychotic opponent " for Bond , according to Benson . Charlie Higson — who later wrote the Young Bond series — finds Grant to be " a very modern villain : the relentless , remorseless psycho with the cold dead eyes of a ' drowned man ' . "
= = Style = =
According to Higson , Fleming spent the first four novels changing the style of his books , and his approach to his characters , but in From Russia , with Love the author " finally hits on the classic Bond formula , and he happily moved into his most creative phase " . The literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek observes that the previous novels were , in essence , episodic detective stories , while From Russia , with Love is structured differently , with an " extended opening picture " that describes Grant , the Russians and Romanova before moving onto the main story and then bringing back some of the elements when least expected . The extensive prose that describes the Soviet opponents and the background to the mission takes up the first ten chapters of the book , and Bond is only introduced into the story in chapter eleven . Eco identifies that the opening passage introducing Red Grant is a " cleverly presented " beginning , similar to the opening of a film . Eco remarks that " Fleming abounds in such passages of high technical skill " .
Benson describes the " Fleming Sweep " as taking the reader from one chapter to another using " hooks " at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader onto the next . He feels that the " Fleming Sweep steadily propels the plot " of From Russia , with Love and , though it was the longest of Fleming 's novels , " the Sweep makes it seem half as long " . Kingsley Amis , who later wrote a Bond novel , considers that the story is " full of pace and conviction " , while Parker identifies " cracks " in the plot of the novel , but believes that " the action mov [ es ] fast enough for the reader to skim over them " .
Fleming used known brand names and everyday details to produce a sense of realism , which Amis calls " the Fleming effect " . Amis describes " the imaginative use of information , whereby the pervading fantastic nature of Bond 's world ... [ is ] bolted down to some sort of reality , or at least counter @-@ balanced . "
= = Themes = =
The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett consider that Fleming 's preface note — in which he informs readers that " a great deal of the background to this story is accurate " — indicates that in this novel " cold war tensions are most massively present , saturating the narrative from beginning to end " . As in Casino Royale , the concept of the loss of British power and influence during the post @-@ Second World War and Cold War period was also present in the novel . The journalist William Cook observes that , with the British Empire in decline " Bond pandered to Britain 's inflated and increasingly insecure self @-@ image
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, flattering us with the fantasy that Britannia could still punch above her weight . " Woollacott and Bennett agree , and maintain that " Bond embodied the imaginary possibility that England might once again be placed at the centre of world affairs during a period when its world power status was visibly and rapidly declining . " In From Russia , with Love , this acknowledgement of decline manifested itself in Bond 's conversations with Darko Kerim when he admits that in England " we don 't show teeth any more — only gums . "
Woollacott and Bennett argue that in selecting Bond as the target for the Russians , he is " deemed the most consummate embodiment of the myth of England " . The literary critic Meir Sternberg sees the theme of Saint George and the Dragon running through several of the Bond stories , including From Russia , with Love . He sees Bond as Saint George — the patron saint of England — in the story , and notes that the opening chapter begins with an examination of a dragonfly as it flies over the supine body of Grant .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
From Russia , with Love was released in the UK as a hardback on 8 April 1957 , by the publishers Jonathan Cape . The American edition was published a few weeks later by Macmillan . In November 1956 the Prime Minister , Sir Anthony Eden , had visited Fleming 's Jamaican Goldeneye estate , to recuperate from a breakdown in his health . This was much reported in the British press , and the publication of From Russia , with Love was accompanied by a promotional campaign that capitalised on Fleming 's raised public profile . The serialisation of the story in The Daily Express in 1957 provided a boost to the sales of the book ; a bigger rise in sales was to follow four years later . In an article in Life on 17 March 1961 , the US President John F. Kennedy listed From Russia , with Love as one of his ten favourite books . This accolade , and its associated publicity , led to a surge in sales that made Fleming the biggest @-@ selling crime writer in the US . There was a further boost to sales following the release of the film of the same name in 1963 , which saw the sales of the Pan paperback rise from 145 @,@ 000 in 1962 to 642 @,@ 000 in 1963 and 600 @,@ 000 in 1964 .
= = = Reception = = =
From Russia , with Love received mainly positive reviews from critics . Julian Symons , in The Times Literary Supplement , considered that it was Fleming 's " tautest , most exciting and most brilliant tale " , that the author " brings the thriller in line with modern emotional needs " , and that Bond " is the intellectual 's Mike Hammer : a killer with a keen eye and a soft heart for a woman " . The critic for The Times was less persuaded by the story , suggesting that " the general tautness and brutality of the story leave the reader uneasily hovering between fact and fiction " . Although the review compared Fleming in unflattering terms to Peter Cheyney , a crime fiction writer of the 1930s and 1940s , it concluded that From Russia , with Love was " exciting enough of its kind " .
The Observer 's critic , Maurice Richardson , thought that From Russia , with Love was a " stupendous plot to trap ... Bond , our deluxe cad @-@ clubman agent " and wondered " Is this the end of Bond ? " The reviewer for the Oxford Mail declared that " Ian Fleming is in a class by himself " , while the critic for The Sunday Times argued that " If a psychiatrist and a thoroughly efficient copywriter got together to produce a fictional character who would be the mid @-@ twentieth century subconscious male ambition , the result would inevitably be James Bond . "
Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — described by a Fleming biographer , John Pearson , as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — was damning in his review , saying that From Russia , with Love was Fleming 's " longest and poorest book " . Boucher further wrote that the novel contained " as usual , sex @-@ cum @-@ sadism with a veneer of literacy but without the occasional brilliant setpieces " . The critic for the New York Herald Tribune , conversely , wrote that " Mr Fleming is intensely observant , acutely literate and can turn a cliché into a silk purse with astute alchemy " . Robert R Kirsch , writing in the Los Angeles Times , also disagreed with Boucher , saying that " the espionage novel has been brought up to date by a superb practitioner of that nearly lost art : Ian Fleming . " In Kirsch 's opinion , From Russia , with Love " has everything of the traditional plus the most modern refinements in the sinister arts of spying " .
= = Adaptations = =
From Russia , with Love was serialised in The Daily Express from 1 April 1957 ; it was the first Bond novel the paper had adapted . In 1960 the novel was also adapted as a daily comic strip in the paper and was syndicated worldwide . The series , which ran from 3 February to 21 May 1960 , was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky . The comic strip was reprinted in 2005 by Titan Books in the Dr. No anthology , which also included Diamonds Are Forever and Casino Royale .
The film From Russia with Love was released in 1963 , produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , and directed by Terence Young . It was the second Bond film in the Eon Productions series and starred Sean Connery as Bond . The film version contained some changes to the novel , with the leading villains switching from SMERSH to SPECTRE , a fictional terrorist organisation . In the main it was a faithful adaptation of the novel ; the ending was changed to make clear Bond 's survival . Benson declares that " many fans consider it the best Bond film , simply because it is close to Fleming 's original story " .
In 2012 the novel was dramatised for radio by Archie Scottney , directed by Martin Jarvis and produced by Rosalind Ayres ; it featured a full cast starring Toby Stephens as James Bond and was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 . It continued the series of Bond radio adaptations featuring Jarvis and Stephens following Dr. No in 2008 and Goldfinger in 2010 .
= Who 's That Chick ? =
" Who 's That Chick ? " is a song by French DJ David Guetta from the reissue of his fourth studio album One Love ( 2009 ) , entitled One More Love ( 2010 ) . The song features guest vocals by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and was written by Kinda " Kee " Hamid , David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort and Frédéric Riesterer , with production helmed by Guetta , Tuinfort and Riesterer . It was released internationally as the second single on 22 November 2010 as a digital single , and was also released as a CD single and an Extended play ( EP ) , the latter of which was released in the United States and contained remixes of the song .
Guetta was asked to produce songs for Rihanna 's fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . After he brainstormed ideas , Guetta conceptualised " Who 's That Chick ? " and played the demo recording to Rihanna backstage at one of her Last Girl on Earth concerts . In an interview with MTV News , Guetta revealed that he thought Rihanna did not like the song on first impressions , but was honoured when she agreed to record it . It was confirmed at a later date by Rihanna that the song would not appear on Loud 's final track list , and that it would instead be included on the re @-@ release of Guetta 's One Love , in which Rihanna appeared as a featured artist . " Who 's That Chick ? " is a dance @-@ pop song and instrumentation consists of synthesizers .
" Who 's That Chick ? " received positive reviews from music critics , the majority of whom praised the collaboration between Guetta and Rihanna as well as its composition . It was described as one of the more interesting songs to be released in 2010 , due to how the song was connection to multiple projects , including a promotional campaign with Doritos and both artist 's albums . The song achieved moderate chart success ; it peaked at number one on the Wallonia singles chart in Belgium , Slovakia , the UK Dance Chart and the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart . It attained top five positions on the singles charts in Austria , Finland , France , Ireland , Norway , Spain and Switzerland . It was less successful on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , where it peaked at number 51 . Two accompanying music videos were directed by Jonas Åkerlund . A bright and colourful daytime version was shot and used to promote the Doritos campaign , whilst a more dark and sinister nighttime version was shot as the song 's official music video .
= = Background = =
" Who 's That Chick ? " was written by David Guetta , Frédéric Riesterer , Giorgio Tuinfort and Kinda " Kee " Hamid . Production of the song was helmed by Guetta , Riesterer and Tuinfort . In an interview with Akshay Bhansali for MTV News , Guetta explained that the song was originally intended for inclusion on Rihanna 's fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) , but that he decided to include it on the re @-@ release of his own album , One Love ( 2009 ) , when it did not make Loud 's final cut . Guetta revealed that he was asked to produce tracks for Loud , but did not have anything which he felt would compliment Rihanna . He stated that although two artists want to collaborate and are fans of each other , it does not always come to fruition . However , after brainstorming ideas for what he could produce for the singer , Guetta came up with an idea for a song called " Who 's That Chick ? " , and decided that it was " perfect " for Rihanna .
After he completed the demo , he pre @-@ viewed the song 's instrumental on a French radio station , but did not confirm which artist would contribute vocals . Guetta played the song to Rihanna whilst backstage at one of her Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) concerts , to which Rihanna said " Yeah , I like it . " Guetta confessed that he felt as though the singer did not like it on first impressions and doubted it , but stated that after the concert , the singer told Guetta that she could not stop thinking about the song 's beat whilst she performed , and asked to record it . The final cut of the song was included on One More Love ( 2010 ) and Rihanna appeared as a featured artist . Guetta concluded the interview by saying that he felt " honored " to have worked with Rihanna . Prior to the release of Loud , Rihanna clarified via Twitter that " Who 's That Chick ? " was not linked to Loud and that it would not appear on the album .
= = Composition = =
" Who 's That Chick ? " is a dance @-@ pop song , which lasts for 2 : 47 ( 2 minutes , 47 seconds ) . Instrumentation consists of pounding synthesizers . Rihanna 's vocals on the song are technologically processed using the Auto @-@ Tune effect . For the first verse , she " hollers " the lyrics " Feel the adrenaline / Moving under my skin / It 's an addiction " over the heavy synth beat . During the chorus , Rihanna sings " She 's been a crazy dita / Disco diva , and you wonder / Who 's that chick ? Who 's that chick ? / Too cold for you to keep her / Too hot for you to leave her / Who 's that chick ? Who 's that chick ? " , which incorporates heavy usage of Auto @-@ Tune . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy described Rihanna 's vocal performance as " nonchalant vocals feeling colder than an ice pop on a snowy day . "
= = Release = =
" Who 's That Chick " was made available to download digitally in Australia , certain territories in Europe and the United States on 22 November 2010 . In Germany , it was also released as a CD single on 26 November 2010 ; it included the original version of " Who 's That Chick ? " as well as an FMIF ! remix of the song . In the United Kingdom , the song was released as a CD single on 28 November 2010 . In the US , an extended play ( EP ) was released on 7 January 2011 ; it included a radio edit of the song , a remix by Adam F. , as well as extended and instrumental versions .
In February 2011 , Virgin / EMI label executives asked European radio stations to remove " Who 's That Chick ? " from their playlists because Rihanna had multiple songs on the chart . Due to how Rihanna 's Loud was released at the same time as Guetta 's album , label executives asked radio stations to favor her work instead . In an interview for the Daily Star , Guetta addressed the song being removed from European radio stations playlists , saying " My record label sent letters to all the radio stations asking them to stop playing Who 's That Chick as Rihanna 's album was out at the same time . It was strange because normally record labels ask radio stations to play your music . "
= = Critical reception = =
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the collaboration as one of the more confusing releases of 2010 , due to how the song was connected to three different projects , including the Dorito 's campaign and both Guetta 's and Rihanna 's albums . Copsey praised Guetta 's ability to provide a " proper dance @-@ pop stonker " and was complimentary of the its composition . He concluded his reviewing with " It 's a good job , then , that bopping along to this – and warming yourself up in the process – is pretty much impossible to resist . " A reviewer for Popjustice was divided on the song 's lyrics ; though he found the line " beating like a disco drum " fantastic , he remained unconvinced by the line , " who 's that chick " , which he labelled as being stupid . Becky Bain for Idolator praised the song for not sounding as " generic " as Katy Perry 's releases " California Gurls " and " Teenage Dream " ( 2010 ) . Tom Byron for The Vine compared the song to Australian singer Guy Sebastian 's " Who 's That Girl " and Madonna 's 1987 smash hit " Who 's That Girl " . Madonna and Patrick Leonard , the writers of " Who 's That Girl " , received co @-@ writing credit for " Who 's That Chick " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Who 's That Chick ? " achieved moderate chart success around the world . In Australia , it debuted at number 36 on 5 December 2010 . It peaked at number seven in its eighth week on the singles chart . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song debuted at 28 on 28 November 2010 , and peaked at number eight for two consecutive weeks 10 January 2011 . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies .
In Europe , " Who 's That Chick ? " debuted at number nine on the singles chart in the Wallonia region of Belgium on 12 December 2010 . It was certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) , denoting sales of 10 @,@ 000 copies . It peaked at number on the singles chart in its seventh week on 15 January 2011 . The song peaked at number four in Austria on 12 December 2010 . It debuted at number 11 in Finland on 29 November 2010 , and peaked at number five two weeks later . In France , " Who 's That Chick ? " debuted at number six on 29 November 2010 , where it remained in its second week . The song peaked at number five in its third week , where it remained for a further two weeks . The song debuted and peaked at number five in Norway on 29 November 2010 , and remained in the top ten for three more weeks . In Spain , the song debuted at number 11 on 28 November 2010 , and peaked at number five in its tenth week after fluctuating within in the top twenty . The song was certified by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) , denoting sales of 20 @,@ 000 copies . " Who 's That Chick ? " peaked at number six in the Flanders region of Belgium on 18 December 2010 , for three consecutive weeks , and number eight in Switzerland . The song was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 copies . The song was less successful in Sweden and The Netherlands , where it peaked at numbers 14 and 16 , respectively .
In the United Kingdom , " Who 's That Chick ? " debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart on 11 December 2010 . In the same chart issue , two other songs by Rihanna were also in the top ten , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " What 's My Name " , which charted at numbers seven and eight , respectively . With this feat , Rihanna became the fourth act in UK chart history to have at least three songs in the top ten of the UK Singles Chart . " Who 's That Chick ? " peaked at number six on 22 January 2011 . It debuted on the UK Dance Chart at number two on 11 December 2010 . The song spent six weeks at number two , barred by The Black Eyed Peas " The Time ( Dirty Bit ) " , before it peaked at number one on 22 January 2011 , for two consecutive weeks . The song was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) denoting shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units . " Who 's That Chick ? " peaked at number 51 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on 29 January 2011 , and remained on the chart for seven weeks . It peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart and number 33 on the Pop Songs chart . The song peaked at number 48 on the Hot Digital Songs chart . Who 's That Chick ? " ranked at number four on the top 50 best @-@ selling Dance / Clubs Songs of 2011 .
= = Music videos = =
= = = Background = = =
Although " Who 's That Chick ? " was originally intended for inclusion on Rihanna 's fifth studio album Loud , the song 's accompanying daytime video was used as part of Doritos Late Night Campaign . Jonas Åkerlund directed both daytime and nighttime versions for the song , which featured different colors and styles . The daytime video leaked onto the internet on 17 September 2010 , before it was given official release . In a press statement given by Rihanna , the singer revealed how she was exited to work with Doritos on the project , saying : " I 'm really excited about ' Who 's That Chick ? ' and wanted to find a fresh and unique way to share it with my fans ... When I saw how cool the augmented reality performance Doritos created was , I knew this was it . This was the way I wanted to make ' Who 's That Chick ? ' available to the world , and I can 't wait to see how my fans get engaged in this innovative experience . "
In an interview for Just Jared , Rihanna explained how the bright and colorful was more representational of her persona , saying " I 've started to incorporate a lot of different colors into my wardrobe now . I 'm loving that direction . Right now , it feels good and right . It was a cool concept too because it was kind of one side of me and now , it 's evolving into the new colorful stuff that we 've been doing . " In an interview for MTV News , Guetta explained his role in the music video , saying " I 'm DJing from a spaceship . It 's actually really funny , because we shot that in Los Angeles in a place where the used to shoot Star Trek , but like the old ones . And so it 's kind of retro futuristic , you know ? It 's like how people were seeing the future back in the 80s . It has a sense of humor in the video . " The nighttime version was released as the song 's official music video to download digitally on 1 February 2011 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
Both the daytime and nighttime videos for " Who 's That Chick ? " are the same , however , the former features Rihanna in a " bright and bubbly " setting while the latter depicts a darker scenario . Before the song 's audio begins to play , the video begins with a view of outer space before it cuts to what appears to be the interior of a spaceship . Guetta is then shown to step out of an airlock where smoke surrounds him . Different shots of television screens and other spaceship hardware are shown before Guetta puts a CD into a CD player . At this moment , the song 's audio begins to play . Various video stills of Rihanna sitting down on a chair and surrounded by extras are intermittently shown one after the other . The majority of the video revolves around Rihanna and the extras dancing in a room , while various special effects are incorporated ; Guetta continues to observe the singer 's actions from a control room . In the daytime video , Rihanna wears a colorful outfit , and she wears a black outfit in the nighttime video .
Rap @-@ Up commented that by having the two different videos , it shows that " every good girl has a bad side . " Becky Bain for Idolator described the daytime video as " the super @-@ colorful cheery vid " and the nighttime video as a " macabre Halloween makeover . " In another review of the video , Bain wrote that the daytime version presented Rihanna as " having the most fun she 's had in ages . " Bain continued to praise the creative direction for the video , writing " It 's so refreshing to see RiRi smiling and ready to party after her gun @-@ weilding [ sic ] , lake @-@ drowning , loving @-@ the @-@ way @-@ you @-@ lie humorless somber phase . " Amy Lee for Metro compared the daytime video 's colorful stylization to Katy Perry 's video for " California Gurls " . Nicole James for MTV Buzzworthy compared the nighttime video 's dark persona to that of Rihanna 's own for " Disturbia " . Chris Ryan for the same publication noted that the daytime video was reminiscent of Rihanna 's video for " SOS " . Ryan also noted that the video bore similarities to Perry 's videos .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Kinda " Kee " Hamid , David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort , Frédéric Riesterer , Madonna , Patrick Leonard .
Production – David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort , Frédéric Riesterer
Mixing – Véronica Ferraro
Mastering – Bruno Gruel
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Stoicism =
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC . The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment , of the active relationship between cosmic determinism and human freedom , and the belief that it is virtuous to maintain a will ( called prohairesis ) that is in accord with nature . Because of this , the Stoics presented their philosophy as a way of life ( lex devina ) , and they thought that the best indication of an individual 's philosophy was not what a person said but how that person behaved . To live a good life , one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they taught that everything was rooted in nature .
Later Stoics — such as Seneca and Epictetus — emphasized that , because " virtue is sufficient for happiness " , a sage was immune to misfortune . This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase " stoic calm " , though the phrase does not include the " radical ethical " Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free , and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious .
From its founding , Stoic doctrine was popular with a following in Roman Greece and throughout the Roman Empire — including the Emperor Marcus Aurelius — until the closing of all pagan philosophy schools in AD 529 by order of the Emperor Justinian I , who perceived them as being at odds with Christian faith . Neostoicism was a syncretic philosophical movement , joining Stoicism and Christianity , influenced by Justus Lipsius .
= = Basic tenets = =
The Stoics provided a unified account of the world , consisting of formal logic , monistic physics and naturalistic ethics . Of these , they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge , though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers .
Stoicism teaches the development of self @-@ control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions ; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason ( logos ) . A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual 's ethical and moral well @-@ being : " Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature . " This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships ; " to be free from anger , envy , and jealousy , " and to accept even slaves as " equals of other men , because all men alike are products of nature . "
The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective ; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue , Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is " like a dog tied to a cart , and compelled to go wherever it goes . " A Stoic of virtue , by contrast , would amend his will to suit the world and remain , in the words of Epictetus , " sick and yet happy , in peril and yet happy , dying and yet happy , in exile and happy , in disgrace and happy , " thus positing a " completely autonomous " individual will , and at the same time a universe that is " a rigidly deterministic single whole " . This viewpoint was later described as " Classical Pantheism " ( and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza ) .
Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire , to the point where , in the words of Gilbert Murray " nearly all the successors of Alexander [ ... ] professed themselves Stoics . "
= = History = =
Beginning at around 301 BC , Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ( i.e. , " the painted porch " ) , from which his philosophy got its name . Unlike the other schools of philosophy , such as the Epicureans , Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space , which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens , the Agora .
Zeno 's ideas developed from those of the Cynics , whose founding father , Antisthenes , had been a disciple of Socrates . Zeno 's most influential follower was Chrysippus , who was responsible for the molding of what is now called Stoicism . Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe , over which one has no direct control .
Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases :
Early Stoa , from the founding of the school by Zeno to Antipater .
Middle Stoa , including Panaetius and Posidonius .
Late Stoa , including Musonius Rufus , Seneca , Epictetus , and Marcus Aurelius .
No complete work by any Stoic philosopher survives from the first two phases of Stoicism . Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive .
= = Logic = =
= = = Propositional logic = = =
Diodorus Cronus , who was one of Zeno 's teachers , is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic . This is an approach to logic based on statements or propositions , rather than terms , making it very different from Aristotle 's term logic . Later , Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system , Stoic Syllogistic , which was considered a rival to Aristotle 's Syllogistic ( see Syllogism ) . New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century , when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic . Susanne Bobzien wrote , " The many close similarities between Chrysippus ' philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking . "
Bobzien also notes that " Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic , on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with , including speech act theory , sentence analysis , singular and plural expressions , types of predicates , indexicals , existential propositions , sentential connectives , negations , disjunctions , conditionals , logical consequence , valid argument forms , theory of deduction , propositional logic , modal logic , tense logic , epistemic logic , logic of suppositions , logic of imperatives , ambiguity and logical paradoxes . "
= = = Categories = = =
The Stoics held that all being ( ὄντα ) – though not all things ( τινά ) – is corporeal . They accepted the distinction between concrete bodies and abstract ones , but rejected Aristotle 's belief that purely incorporeal being exists . Thus , they accepted Anaxagoras ' idea ( as did Aristotle ) that if an object is hot , it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object . But , unlike Aristotle , they extended the idea to cover all accidents . Thus if an object is red , it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object .
They held that there were four categories .
substance ( ὑποκείμενον )
The primary matter , formless substance , ( ousia ) that things are made of
quality ( ποιόν )
The way matter is organized to form an individual object ; in Stoic physics , a physical ingredient ( pneuma : air or breath ) , which informs the matter
somehow disposed ( πως ἔχον )
Particular characteristics
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as Rhys 's voice is augmented by falsetto harmony backing vocals . The chords for the chorus remain the same as those used in the verse , namely A and G. The song then breaks down to a lead guitar melody line at 1 minute and 8 seconds before another verse with Rhys this time singing his lyrics . Another chorus , verse and chorus follow in this fashion until " Lazer Beam " breaks down completely at 2 : 55 to keyboard swells with Debi McLean providing a " space vocal " , speaking the lines " we will conquer utopia in space chariots " . The song builds back up to a double chorus before the outro . The string section returns once Rhys has sung a final verse using a vocoder . " Lazer Beam " then breaks down for the last time to handclaps and keyboard swells and ends with a few seconds of isolated keyboard noise .
= = = Radio edit = = =
A radio edit of " Lazer Beam " was included on promotional cds sent to radio stations and was also used in both music videos . This version of the track is 3 minutes and 36 seconds long and omits both the 24 second introduction , first , spoken word verse and the first chorus , starting instead with the guitar melody line that occurs in the album version at 1 minute and 8 seconds . The rest of song is identical to the album version although it does not include the brief keyboard noises at the very end .
= = Critical response = =
Reaction to the track was generally positive with several critics hailing " Lazer Beam " as a " return to form " including BBC Wales who claimed the track was " SFA 's best single release since 2001 's " Juxtapozed with U " " . musicOMH thought " Lazer Beam " to be an " absolute powerhouse of a song " and the Sunday Herald saw the track as one of the few " great moments on Love Kraft " .
However , Cokemachineglow described the song as " one of [ the band 's ] weakest singles to date " :
Two years after the song 's release the NME described " Lazer Beam " as " the worst Furries song ever " in their review of the band 's eighth album Hey Venus ! .
The " psychedelic " nature of the track was commented on by several reviewers with Mojo describing it as " acid @-@ carnivalesque " , The Times stating that it is a " kids TV theme heard through an acid @-@ pop filter " , The Observer claiming it sounded like " a Jesus Christ Superstar outtake gone delightfully right " , and BBC Wales calling it " cosmic funk " .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were produced to accompany the release of " Lazer Beam " as a single . Both feature the radio edit of the track .
= = = Palumbo & Coch video = = =
The " Tron @-@ inspired " Palumbo & Coch directed video starts with the camera rushing across a fluorescent blue sea , then a road towards " a cityscape which looks like something between downtown Tokyo and a graphic equalizer " . Gruff Rhys appears on a floating electronic billboard singing the first verse and is joined by other members of the band playing along with the track .
At 33 seconds a neon monster , with the ' SFA ' logo on his chest , appears amongst the translucent buildings . More shots of the band and the computer generated city follow before the monster reappears during the second chorus , this time with electric bolts shooting from his body . As the track reaches its middle 8 a multicoloured neon spacecraft appears .
More shots of the band , cityscape and ' SFA ' monster follow until the final verse , when the view returns to the road from the beginning of the video . The camera then flies up inside a skyscraper made entirely of small images of a mouth singing the along with the track . As the song finishes the view again returns to the road . Small spaceships ( similar to the one from the middle 8 ) gather at either side as the city is left behind and the road gradually disappears .
= = = Aurelien and Florian Marrel video = = =
The Aurelien and Florian Marrel directed video begins with a shot of the band reflected in a television screen then cuts to the start screen of a fictional video game called ' Lazer Beam ' which claims to have been made by the Kocakatpiece Corporation in 2005 . ' Arcade mode ' is selected then two characters are chosen from a menu featuring four Super Furry Animals band member lookalikes before a brief ' How to play ' screen is shown .
An introduction screen is then shown featuring a villain with folded arms towering over several skyscrapers with the legend " Evil is reigning over this city " before panning down to see the four men from the character selection screen with the subtitle " A band is here to change things " . Next a " Final Fight style overlay map " appears with the ' City ' ( ' Stage 01 ' ) section flashing .
On 33 seconds the ' game ' itself begins with the two player characters walking from left to right down a deserted street . As the first chorus begins several zombies enter from the right and are shot by the player characters . After 53 seconds the villain from the introduction appears and laughs before disappearing as the playing area is filled with zombies . The view changes to a cut scene showing close @-@ ups of the two players sunglasses then pans out to show a spaceship illuminating the area with yellow light .
The video then cuts to a shot of the band playing the game before returning to the map screen as ' Docks ' or ' Stage 02 ' flashes . The second level begins in much the same way as the first with the two characters shooting zombies who appear from the right . The villain again stands in front of the players , laughing before disappearing . A boat / submarine then enters from the right and begins firing bombs at the players who destroy it with laser beams . Another cut scene follows in which the crippled boat returns to a hangar in the sea with ' Evil ' written above the entrance . The hangar explodes and disappears before flying out of the water , now with mechanical claws attached , and the video returns again to live action footage of the Super Furries playing the game .
The map is shown for the last time showing the third level , ' ? ? ? ' , flashing . The villain attacks the characters from above with his flying vehicle and is hit several times by lasers as he tries to hit the players with the machine 's claws . A further cut scene then begins as one of the characters is seen activating a handset which calls the spaceship seen at the end of ' Stage 01 ' . The spaceship fires at the villain who flees his exploding vehicle stating " I 'll be back " as he flies away .
The ' zombies ' from levels 1 and 2 , now looking perfectly fine , are shown lining the banks of a river , singing along to the tracks final verse . Balloons and rainbows are shown behind them and a whale jumps out of the water before the screen goes black and the words ' Game over ' appear . More live action footage of the band follows with Huw Bunford raising his hands in triumph at completing the game and Guto Pryce being zapped by a laser . The final screen features the legend " F.B.I. winners don 't use drugs ! "
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 6760111 )
" Lazer Beam " – 4 : 55
" Sunny Seville " – 3 : 25
" Colonise the Moon " – 4 : 33
7 " ( 6760117 )
" Lazer Beam " – 4 : 55
" Sunny Seville " – 3 : 25
Promo CD ( SFALOVE2 )
" Lazer Beam ( Album version ) " – 4 : 55
" Lazer Beam ( Radio edit ) " – 3 : 36
Promo 12 " ( SFALOVE3 )
" Lazer Beam ( Album version ) " – 4 : 55
" Lazer Beam ( DJ Marlboro mix ) " – 3 : 52
" Lazer Beam ( LFO mix ) " – 5 : 10
A Danger Mouse remix of the track was also made available as a free download from the Love Kraft album website .
Free download
" Lazer Beam ( Danger Mouse remix ) " – 3 : 55
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – Vocals
Huw Bunford – Guitar
Guto Pryce – Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – Drums
Debi McClean – Space vocal
Clare Raybould - Violin
Brian Wright – Violin
Elspeth Cowey – Violin
Ellen Blair – Violin
Amanda Britton – Violin
Sally Herbert – Violin
Laura Melhuish – Violin
Gill Morley – Violin
Jacqueline Norrie – Violin
Jordi & Jordi – Handclaps
= = Chart positions = =
= Cheers ( Drink to That ) =
" Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The song impacted US mainstream and rhythmic radio on August 2 , 2011 , as the seventh and final single released from Loud . The song was written by Andrew Harr , Jermaine Jackson , Stacy Barthe , LP , Corey Gibson , Chris Ivery , Lauren Christy , Graham Edwards , Avril Lavigne and Scott Spock , while production of the song was completed by Harr and Jackson under their stage name , The Runners . The song also contains samples from Lavigne 's song " I 'm with You " , which is featured on her debut album Let Go ( 2002 ) . Lyrically , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a party @-@ drinking song , with multiple references to drinking alcohol , including Jameson Irish Whiskey .
The song has received positive reviews from music critics , who praised the interpolation of Lavigne 's " I 'm with You " and also commented that it would be a successful club song due to its lyrical content . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " peaked inside the top ten in New Zealand and Australia , and charted at numbers 5 and 6 , respectively . The song also peaked at number 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming the singer 's nineteenth top ten song on the chart . The music video for the song , directed by Evan Rogers and Ciara Pardo , shows footage of Rihanna on tour and different activities during her homecoming trip to Barbados . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " was included on the set list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
Rihanna first announced that " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " would be the next single to be released from Loud via her official Twitter account , when she tweeted to celebrity internet blogger Perez Hilton that his " favourite song " from the album would become the next single . The song was sent to mainstream and rhythmic radio in the United States on August 2 , 2011 . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " was written by hip hop production duo Andrew Harr and Jermaine Jackson , Stacey Barthe , Laura Pergolizzi , Corey Gibson , Chris Ivery , Lauren Christy , Graham Edwards , Avril Lavigne and Scott Spock , and the main vocal track ( s ) were produced by Makeba Riddick , while it 's instrumental & backing vocal track ( s ) was produced by Harr and Jackson under their stage name , The Runners .
In an interview with MTV News in late 2010 , Rihanna spoke of how " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " was one of her favorite songs on the album , saying " I love that song [ ' Cheers ' ] . That is one of my favorite songs on the album . It makes you feel like celebrating ... It gives you a great feeling inside , like you want to go out and have a drink ... People can 't wait for the weekend . " Also in an interview with MTV News in late 2010 , Avril Lavigne spoke about being included on the song , saying , " It was really exciting because ' I 'm With You ' is one of my favorite songs that I 've done , I always love performing it . "
" Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a pop rock , reggaetón and R & B song . It contains samples of Lavigne 's song " I 'm with You " , which is featured on her album Let Go ( 2002 ) . According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com , the song is written in the key of E major and is set in simple time with a moderated hip @-@ hop groove . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of B4 . Lyrically , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is a party @-@ drinking song , which is exemplified by the verse " Life 's too short to be sittin ' around miserable / People are gonna talk whether you 're doin ' bad or good / Don 't let the bastards get you down / Turn it around with another round " . According to Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork , the lyrics sum up the general sentiment of Loud and there 's no tabloid back story , as it was in most cases on her previous release Rated R ( 2009 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release as a single , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " received positive reviews from music critics . Mark Savage of BBC Music described the song as " a funky , loping guitar groove for to a night out on the town , " which Rihanna dedicated to " all the semi @-@ alcoholics in the world " . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy praised the use of the interpolation of Lavigne 's song , calling it " unbelievably catchy " , as well as commenting that it will be a success in bars and clubs , due to the references of alcohol and going out of a weekend in the lyrics . Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is written for " barroom singalongs " . According to Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly , " the Jameson @-@ swilling , TGIF @-@ toasting ' Cheers ( Drink to That ) ' , folds a left @-@ field Avril Lavigne sample into a crunked party anthem " .
Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush also commended " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " and its musical style , saying " The song is infused with the tropical , island groove that she has explored on ' Loud ' and which harks back to her upbringing in Barbados . " Sciarretto also noted that " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " would be very popular in bars and clubs because of the lyrical content . Andy Gill of The Independent called the song an anthem with which the weekend can start . Thomas Conner of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said that " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " is the best song on the album , saying " [ the song is ] a wise , world @-@ weary paean from a gal at the bar who 's seen some stuff , has moved on and wants to buy everybody a round of fruity shots " . However , Chris Richards of The Washington Post stated that " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " did not meet his expectations and commented that the song is a lowlight in Rihanna 's career , stating " ' Turn it around with another round ' , Rihanna bellows over the mid slog , as if setting ad copy to music " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the issue dated August 3 , 2011 , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 91 , and leaped to a new peak of 50 on August 10 , 2011 . The following week , the song rose to number 25 and by its fourth week , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " rose again to number 17 , giving Rihanna her twenty @-@ second top @-@ twenty single on the chart . In its fifth week , the song rose to number 11 , where it remained in its sixth week . On its seven @-@ week , the song charted at number 10 , its current peak . " Cheers " ( Drink To That ) also debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number 35 in the issue dated August 3 , 2011 . The following week , the song climbed ten positions to a new peak of 25 , and became that week 's " Greatest Gainer " on the chart and Rihanna 's 26th song to reach the top 40 . In its third week , the song reached a new peak of 16 , and rose to number 11 the following week , where it remained for another week . The song has peaked at number seven , making " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " the singers fourth top ten Hot 100 hit from Loud and nineteenth overall top ten song in the US . On December 13 , 2011 , " S & M " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over two million copies . " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " ranked at number 77 on Billboard magazine 's Hot 100 songs of 2011 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 89 on August 17 , 2011 , and advanced to 37 the following week , ultimately peaking at number 6 in its third week on the charts .
In Australia , the song debuted at number 46 on the Australian Singles Chart on August 14 , 2011 , and peaked at number eighteen the following week . In its seventh week on the chart , the song reached a new peak of number 6 . The song has been certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number fourteen on the New Zealand Singles Chart on August 8 , 2011 and reached
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San Diego , California on July 25 , 2009 , by future showrunner Mark Hentemann , the episode was directed by Brian Iles , written by Hentemann , and based on a short story by Richard Matheson before the conclusion of the eighth production season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum acted as supervising directors of the episode , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter working as staff writers for the episode . The episode saw the fourth re @-@ appearance , the first being an equally brief appearance in " Spies Reminiscent of Us " , the second in " Road to the Multiverse " and the third being " Go Stewie Go " , by former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spinoff , entitled The Cleveland Show . This episode is also the first crossover with The Cleveland Show , which was created by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , voice actor Mike Henry , and former animated comedy writer Richard Appel .
" The Splendid Source " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Marc Alaimo , actor Gary Cole , actor Ioan Gruffudd , actress Sanaa Lathan , film director David Lynch , voice actor Kevin Michael Richardson and voice actor Wally Wingert guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , writer Patrick Meighan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
The dirty joke told through the episode by Glenn Quagmire is taken from a joke the character Marty Funkhauser told in an episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm . In one of Quagmire 's plots to have Peter soil himself , Quagmire falls asleep and encounters Freddy Krueger , the principal character from the Nightmare on Elm Street series , in a dream and hires him to go into Peter 's dream , and tell the joke to him . The chain of the joke leads to the band REO Speedwagon , and the line " heard it from a friend who ... " from " Take It on the Run " is played , though the scene where the lead singer appears was not voiced by any of their actual members .
While tracking down the person who first told the joke , Peter and the gang find Bender , from the Fox / Comedy Central series Futurama , who is shown telling the joke . When Peter , Joe and Quagmire get to Virginia they meet up with Cleveland and his new family from The Cleveland Show . There is a scene where Cleveland chases after the other three guys in the car , which alludes to the opening from What 's Happening ! ! , and uses the music from the show 's opening as well . When the group gets to Washington D.C. , Peter , Joe , Cleveland and Quagmire see the Washington Monument , and next to it appears the Barack Obama Monument , which resembles the Washington monument , but is bigger and is colored black .
With the plane , they land on an island which has the source for every dirty joke ever made , the base looks similar to a temple @-@ compound from the 1979 film Apocalypse Now . The base is inhabited with many great minds including Warren Buffett ( who was in a deleted scene on the DVD ) , Bill Gates , and Stephen Hawking where they pass their time writing the world 's dirty jokes . It is shown that the first dead baby joke was written in the era of Ancient Egypt .
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous episode , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 59 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the season finale of Desperate Housewives on ABC , the season finale of Survivor on CBS and Celebrity Apprentice on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , in addition to edging out all three shows in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mostly favorable , calling it " the only show with any sense of mystery . " John Teti of The A.V. Club found the episode to have a " fantastic premise for a Peter Griffin adventure " but went on to state that he gives the episode " points for a strong first half , but I wish that the writers had pushed themselves a little harder to make this one go the distance . " Ramsey Isler of IGN reiterated his own enjoyment of the premise of the episode , but went on to state , " While I can appreciate the point that good comedy does take a certain degree of wit and cleverness , this just wasn 't a very satisfying end to an idea that had so much potential . " In a much more positive review , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the underuse of cutaways , going on to note , " Reducing the reliance on cutaways seems to be the continuing trend for the series , and I think it 's a good move [ ... ] It forces smarter writing , and creates a better narrative structure . "
= Esham =
Esham Attica Smith ( born September 20 , 1973 ) is an American rapper from Detroit , Michigan known for his hallucinogenic style of hip hop which he refers to as " acid rap " . That style of music fuses rock @-@ based beats and lyrics involving subjects such as death , drug use , evil , paranoia and sex .
Esham and his brother James Smith ran the biggest @-@ selling independent hip hop label in Detroit , Michigan throughout the 1990s . Their influence spawned an entire subgenre within hip hop that eventually fueled the careers of Kid Rock , Eminem , D12 , Royce Da 5 ' 9' ' , Tech N9ne , ICP and many more .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born Esham Attica Smith – in Long Island , New York , Esham grew up splitting time between the Seven Mile neighborhood on the East side of Detroit , where he lived with his mother , attending Osborn High School , and lived with his grandmother in New York during summers . He studied piano , guitar , and trombone in high school , and listened to artists such as Sugar Hill Gang , Run @-@ DMC , Ozzy Osbourne and Kiss . Esham began to write original lyrics , and was encouraged by his older brother , James H. Smith , to seriously pursue a career in hip hop . According to Esham , " He felt like I had a dope flow , and he thought I could bring something new to the game , just coming from the city of Detroit . Back then , it wasn 't really a [ rap ] music scene in Detroit . Everybody was just imitating what everybody else was doing . " In the second grade , Esham met Champtown , who was also an aspiring rapper . The two performed together at open mic events Seafood Bay . In one occurrence , Champtown and Esham were forced to rap for a drug dealer at gunpoint .
At the age of 16 , Smith released his debut album , Boomin ' Words from Hell , in 1989 . Of the album , Smith stated , " It was the crack era , [ ... ] and that 's where all that really came from . It was all an expression about [ ' 70s- ' 80s drug cartel ] Young Boys Incorporated , Mayor Coleman Young , the city we lived in and just the turmoil that our city was going through at the time . We referred to the streets of Detroit as ' Hell ' on that record . So that 's where my ideas came from . " In 1990 , Esham and James H. Smith founded the independent record label Reel Life Productions , which reissued his debut album with an alternate track listing and artwork . Esham found it difficult to develop a fanbase , because many wrote off the dark content of his lyrics and imagery as shock value , while hip hop fans did not connect to Esham 's albums because of his heavy metal influences .
In 1991 , Esham met Joseph Bruce , a member of the group Inner City Posse , who praised Esham and Reel Life Productions , and gave Esham a copy of the group 's EP Dog Beats , beginning the two rappers ' friendship and professional relationship .
After releasing two EPs , Erotic Poetry and Homey Don 't Play , Esham completed the double album Judgement Day , and its two volumes , Day and Night were released separately on April 9 , 1992 . In All Music Guide to Hip @-@ Hop , Jason Birchmeier wrote that Judgement Day , Vol . 1 " may not be his most well @-@ crafted work , but it certainly stands as his most inspired work of the ' 90s " , while Vol . 2 " isn 't quite as strong as the first volume , suffering mostly from a number of weak tracks [ ... ] the first volume doesn 't rely quite so much on cheap shock , instead focusing on evocative horror motifs , making Judgement Day , Vol . 2 the less important of the two . "
= = = KKKill the Fetus , Closed Casket and Dead Flowerz = = =
As a student at Osborn High School , Esham met Mastamind , who gave him a three @-@ song demo tape of his music , leading the two to form the group Natas with Esham 's longtime friend , TNT . In 1992 , Esham appeared on Carnival of Carnage , the debut album of Insane Clown Posse , released on October 18 . He produced three tracks and rapped on the album 's final track . In November , Natas released their debut album , Life After Death . Following the release of this album , Esham , Natas and Reel Life Productions were the subject of much controversy when a 17 @-@ year @-@ old fan killed himself while smoking cannabis and playing Russian roulette while listening to Life After Death . In 1993 , Esham released his third solo album , KKKill the Fetus . Jason Birchmeier wrote that " At this point in his career , his rapping has already reached near @-@ peak levels , and his production shows a continued path towards an inventiveness . [ ... ] Never again would Esham be so gritty . "
On November 22 , 1994 , Esham released his fourth studio album , Closed Casket . Jason Birchmeier wrote that " most fans taking a chronological approach to his catalog should be fairly numb to Esham 's exploitative shock attempts . Yet if this is one of your first experiences with Esham the Unholy , this album should pack a punch with its dark nature . " In May 1996 , Esham released his fifth studio album , Dead Flowerz . It peaked at # 38 on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart .
= = = Gothom Records ( 1997 – 2001 ) = = =
In June 1997 , Esham rebranded Reel Life Productions as Gothom Records , and released the album Bruce Wayne : Gothom City 1987 , which charted at # 57 on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . Esham later signed a distribution deal with Overcore , a subsidiary of Overture Music , which later became distributed by TVT Records . In June 2001 , Gothom released Kool Keith 's Spankmaster album , which featured several contributions by Esham , as well as Smith 's eighth album , Tongues , which peaked at # 7 on the Top Independent Albums chart , # 46 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and # 195 on the Billboard 200 . In August 2001 , Esham and D12 were kicked off the Warped Tour after members of the group allegedly physically attacked Smith over the lyrics of his song " Chemical Imbalance , " which contained a reference to the daughter of D12 member Eminem , who was not present during the tour .
= = = Psychopathic Records ( 2002 – 2005 ) = = =
In 2002 , Esham signed to Psychopathic Records , releasing the compilation Acid Rain . It was announced that Esham would be moving away from the horror themes of his previous efforts . On November 18 , 2003 , Esham released his ninth studio album , Repentance . It peaked at # 9 on the Top Heatseekers chart , # 10 on the Top Independent Albums chart , and # 71 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Jason Birchmeier wrote that " Repentance is a small step forward for Esham . He seems very confident here , comfortable with himself as an artist [ ... ] when he pulls everything together [ ... ] he makes some of the best music of his long , fruitful , yet largely unacknowledged career . "
In 2005 Esham joined forces with Insane Clown Posse and Lavel to release the Soopa Villainz album , Furious .
His follow @-@ up album on Psychopathic A @-@ 1 Yola , saw Esham achieving his highest consecutive level of charting success , as it peaked at 176 on the Billboard 200 , his highest selling album on that chart to date , as well as peaking at # 6 on Top Heatseekers , # 12 on the Independent Albums chart , # 23 on the Top Rap Albums chart , and # 48 on the Top R & B chart . Allrovi wrote , " During the course of A @-@ 1 YOLA , Esham takes the form of street hustler , kingpin , vampire , and all sorts of underworld characters , injecting his undiluted personality into each three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ minute sketch . His sonic backdrop remains raw but fresh , drawing an impressive amount of energy out of sparse beats . "
Following this release , Esham left Psychopathic in 2005 to relaunch Reel Life / Gothom .
Smith released his twelfth studio album , Suspended Animation on August 3 , 2010 , followed by the album DMT Sessions , and a documentary directed by Smith , Death of an Indie Label in 2011 , which was originally announced as a bonus feature on a deluxe edition of DMT Sessions , but was instead uploaded onto Gothom Inc . ' s YouTube channel . The Documentary was released with a soundtrack entitled the same , the LP would feature Seven the General as well as Poe Whosaine . Smith was interviewed for the documentary The Untold Story of Detroit Hip @-@ Hop , which is being produced by Detroit rapper Champtown . In 2015 Esham and Insane Clown Posse reconciled their differences and Esham performed at the 2016 Juggalo Day " Ringmaster " Show . With a well reception from the fans Esham was then announced and scheduled to perform at the 2016 GOTJ . On July 24 , 2016 Esham announced via social media that he will not perform at any more Gathering of the Juggalos .
= = Style = =
Esham 's lyrical style , which author Sara Cohen says " utilize [ s ] shocking ( and blatantly over the top ) narratives to give an over @-@ exaggerated , almost cartoon @-@ like version of urban deprivation in Detroit " , was derived from the style of the Geto Boys . Smith 's lyrics have focused on themes such as death , drug use , evil , paranoia and sex , and have included references to Satan . Smith refers to his performance style as " acid rap , " comparing the lyrics to hallucinations induced by LSD . Esham 's style has also been described as horrorcore hip hop .
" People were literally scared of my records . There have been so many rumors about me and my records . People got the first album , and they would just make up stories . They 'd get into an accident and be like , ' I got into an accident because I was playing that tape . ' It wasn 't like we helped ourselves when we described what was in people 's heads . It wasn 't to shock people , though , but to get people involved in what we were doing . We had to get peoples ' attention . [ ... ] We said a lot of things that people wanted to say but didn 't say . We talked about a lot of political and social [ issues ] that people didn 't want to talk about . "
Following accusations of Satanism , Smith decided that Closed Casket would be the last album to feature such themes , and that he would no longer rap about the Devil . According to Smith , " I 've been able to entertain people for 20 years . I just try to uplift people now . The latest things I do , I 'm trying to get a message out to people , while I 'm entertaining them at the same time . "
Esham 's music style has been described as a fusion of hip hop beats and death metal lyrics . Esham defined his style as analogous to " modern day blues [ or ] heavy metal " . Rappers influenced by Esham include Insane Clown Posse , Eminem and Kid Rock .
= = Discography = =
Boomin ' Words from Hell ( 1989 )
Judgement Day ( 1992 )
KKKill The Fetus ( 1993 )
Closed Casket ( 1994 )
Dead Flowerz ( 1996 )
Bruce Wayne : Gothom City 1987 ( 1997 )
Mail Dominance ( 1999 )
Tongues ( 2001 )
Repentance ( 2003 )
A @-@ 1 Yola ( 2005 )
Sacrificial Lambz ( 2008 )
Suspended Animation ( 2010 )
DMT Sessions ( 2011 )
Venus Fly Trap LP ( 2012 )
Dichotomy ( 2015 )
= Ohio State Route 370 =
State Route 370 ( SR 370 ) is 1 @.@ 21 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 95 km ) long north – south state highway in the western part of the U.S. state of Ohio . The highway runs from its southern terminus at the main entrance to John Bryan State Park nearly two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of Yellow Springs to its northern terminus at SR 343 about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) east of Yellow Springs .
SR 370 was established in the middle of the 1930s . A spur route , it connects John Bryan State Park to the state highway system . This two @-@ lane highway is located in the northern portion of Greene County .
= = Route description = =
The entire 1 @.@ 21 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 95 km ) length of SR 370 exists within the boundaries of Miami Township in northern Greene County . The highway begins at the main entrance to John Bryan State Park nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of Yellow Springs . As it travels to the north , SR 370 passes amidst a blend of open fields and woods , with a number of houses appearing alongside the highway . It arrives at its northern terminus where it intersects SR 343 .
According to a 2008 survey by the Ohio Department of Transportation , an average of 250 passenger vehicles and 10 commercial vehicles travel the length of SR 370 on a daily basis . This route is not included as a part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
SR 370 was established in 1934 . Throughout its history , SR 370 has served as a spur route off of SR 343 that provides access to John Bryan State Park . When it was first designated , the entirety of the route was a gravel roadway . The highway was paved by 1941 . Since that time , the route has not experienced any changes of major significance .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Miami Township , Greene County .
= E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial =
E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial is a 1982 American science fiction fantasy film co @-@ produced and directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Melissa Mathison , featuring special effects by Carlo Rambaldi and Dennis Muren , and starring Henry Thomas , Dee Wallace , Robert MacNaughton , Drew Barrymore , Peter Coyote and Pat Welsh as the voice of the title character . It tells the story of Elliott ( Thomas ) , a lonely boy who befriends an extraterrestrial , dubbed " E.T. " ( Welsh ) , who is stranded on Earth . He and his siblings help it return home while attempting to keep it hidden from their mother and the government .
The concept for the film was based on an imaginary friend Spielberg created after his parents ' divorce in 1960 . In 1980 , Spielberg met Mathison and developed a new story from the stalled science fiction / horror film project Night Skies . It was shot from September to December 1981 in California on a budget of US $ 10 @.@ 5 million . Unlike most motion pictures , it was shot in rough chronological order , to facilitate convincing emotional performances from the young cast .
Released on June 11 , 1982 by Universal Pictures , E.T was a blockbuster , surpassing Star Wars to become the highest @-@ grossing film of all time — a record it held for eleven years until Jurassic Park , another Spielberg @-@ directed film , surpassed it in 1993 . It is the highest @-@ grossing film of the 1980s . Widely regarded as one of the greatest films of all time , critics acclaimed it as a timeless story of friendship , and it ranks as the greatest science fiction film ever made in a Rotten Tomatoes survey . In 1994 , it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . It was re @-@ released in 1985 , and then again in 2002 to celebrate its 20th anniversary , with altered shots and additional scenes .
= = Plot = =
In a Californian forest , a group of alien botanists land in a spacecraft , collecting flora samples . When government agents appear on the scene , they flee in their spaceship , leaving one of their own behind in their haste . At a suburban home , a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy named Elliott is trying to spend time with his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old brother , Michael , and his friends . As he returns from picking up a pizza , he discovers that something is hiding in their tool shed . The creature promptly flees upon being discovered . Despite his family 's disbelief , Elliott leaves Reese 's Pieces candy to lure the creature to his bedroom . Before he goes to sleep , he realizes it is imitating his movements . He feigns illness the next morning to stay home from school and play with it . Later that day , Michael and their five @-@ year @-@ old sister , Gertie , meet it . They decide to keep it hidden from their mother , Mary . When they ask it about its origin , it levitates several balls to represent its solar system and then demonstrates its powers by reviving a dead chrysanthemum .
At school the next day , Elliott begins to experience a psychic connection with the alien , including exhibiting signs of intoxication ( because it is at his home , drinking beer ) , and he begins freeing all the frogs in his biology class . As the alien watches John Wayne kiss Maureen O 'Hara in The Quiet Man on TV , Elliott kisses a girl he likes . He is then sent to the principal 's office .
The alien learns to speak English by repeating what Gertie says as she watches Sesame Street and , at Elliott 's urging , dubs itself " E.T. " He reads a comic strip where Buck Rogers , stranded , calls for help by building a makeshift communication device and is inspired to try it himself . E.T. receives Elliott 's help in building a device to " phone home " by using a Speak & Spell toy . Michael notices that his health is declining and that Elliott is referring to himself as " we . "
On Halloween , Michael and Elliott dress E.T. as a ghost so they can sneak him out of the house . Elliott and E.T. ride the former 's bike to the forest , where E.T. makes a successful call home . The next morning , Elliott wakes up in the field , only to find E.T. gone , so he returns home to his distressed family . Michael searches for and finds E.T. dying next to a culvert , being investigated by a raccoon . Michael takes him home to Elliott , who is also dying . Mary becomes frightened when she discovers her son 's illness and the dying E.T. , just as government agents invade the house . Scientists set up a medical facility there , quarantining Elliott and E.T. Their link disappears and E.T. then appears to die while Elliott recovers . A grief @-@ stricken Elliott is left alone with the motionless E.T. when he notices a dead chrysanthemum , the plant E.T. had previously revived , coming back to life . E.T. reanimates and reveals that his people are returning . Elliott and Michael steal a van that E.T. had been loaded into and a chase ensues , with Michael 's friends joining them as they attempt to evade the authorities by bike . Suddenly facing a police roadblock , they escape as E.T. uses telekinesis to lift them into the air and toward the forest .
Standing near the spaceship , E.T. ' s heart glows as he prepares to return home . Mary , Gertie , and " Keys , " a government agent , show up . E.T. says goodbye to Michael and Gertie , as she presents him with the chrysanthemum that he had revived . Before boarding the spaceship , he tells Elliott " I 'll be right here , " pointing his glowing finger to his forehead . He then picks up the chrysanthemum , boards the spaceship , and it takes off , leaving a rainbow in the sky as everyone watches it leave .
= = Cast = =
Henry Thomas as Elliott , a lonely 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy who longs for a good friend , which he finds in E.T. , who was left behind on Earth . He adopts him and they form a mental , physical , and emotional bond .
Robert MacNaughton as Michael , Elliott 's football playing 15 @-@ year @-@ old brother who often makes fun of him . He saves E.T. ' s life .
Drew Barrymore as Gertie , Elliott 's mischievous 5 @-@ year @-@ old sister who is sarcastic and initially terrified of E.T. but grows to love him .
Dee Wallace as Mary , the children 's mother , recently separated from her husband . She is mostly oblivious to E.T. ' s presence in her house .
Peter Coyote as " Keys " , a government agent . His face is not shown until the film 's second half , his name is never mentioned , and he is identified by the key rings that prominently hang from his belt . He tells Elliott that he has waited to see an alien since he was 10 .
Pat Welsh as the voice of E.T. ( Short for Extra @-@ Terrestrial ) , the friendly , cute , charming , sweet , lovable alien that Elliot adopted and helped to bring him to his home planet .
K. C. Martel , Sean Frye and C. Thomas Howell as Michael 's friends Greg , Steve , and Tyler . They help Elliott and E.T. evade the authorities during the film 's climax .
Erika Eleniak as the young girl Elliott kisses in class .
David O 'Dell as Schoolboy
Richard Swingler as Science Teacher
Frank Toth as Policeman
Robert Barton as Ultra Sound Man
Michael Darrell as Van Man
Having worked with Cary Guffey on Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Spielberg felt confident in working with a cast composed mostly of child actors . For the role of Elliott , he auditioned hundreds of boys before Jack Fisk suggested Henry Thomas for the role because Henry had played the part of Harry in the movie Raggedy Man which Jack Fisk had directed . Thomas , who auditioned in an Indiana Jones costume , did not perform well in the formal testing , but got the filmmakers ' attention in an improvised scene . Thoughts of his dead dog inspired his convincing tears . Robert MacNaughton auditioned eight times to play Michael , sometimes with boys auditioning for Elliott . Spielberg felt Drew Barrymore had the right imagination for mischievous Gertie after she impressed him with a story that she led a punk rock band . He enjoyed working with the children , and he later said that the experience made him feel ready to be a father .
The major voice work of E.T. for the film was performed by Pat Welsh , a woman who lived in Marin County , California . She smoked two packets of cigarettes a day , which gave her voice a quality that sound effects creator Ben Burtt liked . She spent nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours recording her part , and was paid $ 380 by Burtt for her services . He also recorded 16 other people and various animals to create E.T. ' s " voice " . These included Spielberg , Debra Winger , his sleeping wife , who had a cold , a burp from his USC film professor , raccoons , otters , and horses .
Doctors working at the USC Medical Center were recruited to play the ones who try to save E.T. after government agents take over Elliott 's house . Spielberg felt that actors in the roles , performing lines of technical medical dialogue , would come across as unnatural . During post @-@ production , he decided to cut a scene featuring Harrison Ford as the principal at Elliott 's school . It featured his character reprimanding Elliott for his behavior in biology class and warning of the dangers of underage drinking . He is then taken aback as Elliott 's chair rises from the floor , while E.T. is levitating his " phone " equipment up the stairs with Gertie .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After his parents ' divorce in 1960 , Spielberg filled the void with an imaginary alien companion . He said that the imaginary alien was " a friend who could be the brother I never had and a father that I didn 't feel I had anymore . " During 1978 , he announced he would shoot a film entitled Growing Up , which he would film in 28 days . The project was set aside because
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. The army that faced the Romans at the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC included Samnites , Gauls , Etruscans and Umbrians . When the Roman army won a convincing victory over these combined forces it must have become clear that little could prevent Roman dominance of Italy and in the Battle of Populonia ( 282 BC ) Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region .
= = = = Pyrrhic War ( 280 – 275 BC ) = = = =
By the beginning of the 3rd century , Rome had established itself in 282 BC as a major power on the Italian Peninsula , but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time : Carthage and the Greek kingdoms . Rome had all but completely defeated the Samnites , mastered its fellow Latin towns , and greatly reduced Etruscan power in the region . However , the south of Italy was controlled by the Greek colonies of Magna Grecia who had been allied to the Samnites , and continued Roman expansion brought the two into inevitable conflict .
In the naval Battle of Thurii , Tarentum appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus , ruler of Epirus . Motivated by his diplomatic obligations to Tarentum , and a personal desire for military accomplishment , Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25 @,@ 000 men and a contingent of war elephants on Italian soil in 280 BC , where his forces were joined by some Greek colonists and a portion of the Samnites who revolted against Roman control , taking up arms against Rome for the fourth time in seventy years .
The Roman army had not yet seen elephants in battle , and their inexperience turned the tide in Pyrrhus ' favour at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC , and again at the Battle of Ausculum in 279 BC . Despite these victories , Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable . Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy . Furthermore , Rome entered into a treaty of support with Carthage , and Pyrrhus found that despite his expectations , none of the other Italic peoples would defect to the Greek and Samnite cause . Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army , and failing to find further allies in Italy , Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula and campaigned in Sicily against Carthage , abandoning his allies to deal with the Romans .
When his Sicilian campaign was also ultimately a failure , and at the request of his Italian allies , Pyrrhus returned to Italy to face Rome once more . In 275 BC , Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum . This time the Romans had devised methods to deal with the war elephants , including the use of javelins , fire and , one source claims , simply hitting the elephants heavily on the head . While Beneventum was indecisive , Pyrrhus realised that his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns , and seeing little hope for further gains , he withdrew completely from Italy .
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome . It had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean , and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad . Rome quickly moved into southern Italia , subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia . Effectively dominating the Italian peninsula , and with a proven international military reputation , Rome now began to look to expand from the Italian mainland . Since the Alps formed a natural barrier to the north , and Rome was none too keen to meet the fierce Gauls in battle once more , the city 's gaze turned to Sicily and the islands of the Mediterranean , a policy that would bring it into direct conflict with its former ally Carthage .
= = = Middle ( 274 – 148 BC ) = = =
Rome first began to make war outside the Italian peninsula during the Punic wars against Carthage , a former Phoenician colony that had established on the north coast of Africa and developed into a powerful state . These wars , starting in 264 BC were probably the largest conflicts of the ancient world yet and saw Rome become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean , with territory in Sicily , North Africa , Iberia , and with the end of the Macedonian wars ( which ran concurrently with the Punic wars ) Greece as well . After the defeat of the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus III the Great in the Roman @-@ Syrian War ( Treaty of Apamea , 188 BC ) in the eastern sea , Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world .
= = = = Punic Wars ( 264 – 146 BC ) = = = =
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay – Rome and Carthage – in order to solve internal conflicts . The willingness of both Rome and Carthage to become embroiled on the soil of a third party may indicate a willingness to test each other 's power without wishing to enter a full war of annihilation ; certainly there was considerable disagreement within Rome about whether to prosecute the war at all . The war saw land battles in Sicily early on , such as the Battle of Agrigentum , but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa . For the Romans , naval warfare was a relatively unexplored concept . Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of , as all previous Roman wars had been fought on land in Italy . The new war in Sicily against Carthage , a great naval power , forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors .
Rome took to naval warfare " like a brick to water " and the first few naval battles of the First Punic War such as the Battle of the Lipari Islands were catastrophic disasters for Rome , as might fairly be expected from a city that had no real prior experience of naval warfare . However , after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine known as a Corvus , a Roman naval force under C. Duillius was able to roundly defeat a Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Mylae . In just four years , a state without any real naval experience had managed to better a major regional maritime power in battle . Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and the Battle of Cape Ecnomus .
After having won control of the seas , a Roman force landed on the African coast under Marcus Regulus , who was at first victorious , winning the Battle of Adys and forcing Carthage to sue for peace . However , the terms of peace that Rome proposed were so heavy that negotiations failed , and in response , the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus of Carthage , a mercenary from the martial Greek city @-@ state of Sparta , to reorganise and lead their army . Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re @-@ establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy and then defeated and captured Regulus at the Battle of Tunis .
Despite being defeated on African soil , the Romans with their newfound naval abilities , roundly beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again – largely through the tactical innovations of the Roman fleet – at the Battle of the Aegates Islands . Carthage was left without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise a new one . For a maritime power , the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically , and the Carthaginians again sued for peace , during which negotiations , Rome battled the Ligures tribe in the Ligurian War and the Insubres in the Gallic War .
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca , a member of the Barcid family of Carthaginian nobility , attacked Saguntum , a city with diplomatic ties to Rome . Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia and famously crossed the Italian Alps with elephants to invade Italy . In the first battle on Italian soil at Ticinus in 218 BC Hannibal defeated the Romans under Scipio the Elder in a small cavalry fight . Hannibal 's success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia , the Battle of Lake Trasimene , where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army , and the Battle of Cannae , in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of tactical art , and for a while " Hannibal seemed invincible " , able to beat Roman armies at will .
In the three battles of Nola , Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies at the First Battle of Capua , the Battle of the Silarus , the Second Battle of Herdonia , the Battle of Numistro and the Battle of Asculum . By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army . Despite being defeated in Iberia in the Battle of Baecula , Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator on the Metaurus River .
Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil , and with Hannibal savaging the Italian countryside but unwilling or unable to destroy Rome itself , the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital . In 203 BC at the Battle of Bagbrades the invading Roman army under Scipio Africanus Major defeated the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax and Hannibal was recalled to Africa . At the famous Battle of Zama Scipio decisively defeated – perhaps even " annihilated " – Hannibal 's army in North Africa , ending the Second Punic War .
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground . Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender , conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands . The Romans refused the surrender , demanding as their further terms of surrender the complete destruction of the city and , seeing little to lose , the Carthaginians prepared to fight . In the Battle of Carthage the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed , its culture " almost totally extinguished " .
= = = = Conquest of the Iberian peninsula ( 219 – 18 BC ) = = = =
Rome 's conflict with the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars led them into expansion in the Iberian peninsula of modern @-@ day Spain and Portugal . The Punic empire of the Carthaginian Barcid family consisted of territories in Iberia , many of which Rome gained control of during the Punic Wars . Italy remained the main theatre of war for much of the Second Punic War , but the Romans also aimed to destroy the Barcid Empire in Iberia and prevent major Punic allies from linking up with forces in Italy .
Over the years , Rome had expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum . Following two major military expeditions to Iberia , the Romans finally crushed Carthaginian control of the peninsula in 206 BC , at the Battle of Ilipa , and the peninsula became a Roman province known as Hispania . From 206 BC onwards the only opposition to Roman control of the peninsula came from within the native Celtiberian tribes themselves , whose disunity prevented their security from Roman expansion .
Following two small @-@ scale rebellions in 197 BC , in 195 – 194 BC war broke out between the Romans and the Lusitani people in the Lusitanian War , in modern @-@ day Portugal . By 179 BC , the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and bringing it under their control .
About 154 BC , a major revolt was re @-@ ignited in Numantia , which is known as the First Numantine War , and a long war of resistance was fought between the advancing forces of the Roman Republic and the Lusitani tribes of Hispania . The praetor Servius Sulpicius Galba and the proconsul Lucius Licinius Lucullus arrived in 151 BC and began the process of subduing the local population . In 150 BC , Galba betrayed the Lusitani leaders he had invited to peace talks and had them killed , ingloriously ending the first phase of the war .
The Lusitani revolted again in 146 BC under a new leader called Viriathus , invading Turdetania ( southern Iberia ) in a guerrilla war . The Lusitanians were initially successful , defeating a Roman army at the Battle of Tribola and going on to sack nearby Carpetania , and then besting a second Roman army at the First Battle of Mount Venus in 146 BC , again going on to sack another nearby city . In 144 BC , the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus campaigned successfully against the Lusitani , but failed in his attempts to arrest Viriathus .
In 144 BC , Viriathus formed a league against Rome with several Celtiberian tribes and persuaded them to rise against Rome too , in the Second Numantine War . Viriathus ' new coalition bested Roman armies at the Second Battle of Mount Venus in 144 BC and again at the failed Siege of Erisone . In 139 BC , Viriathus was finally killed in his sleep by three of his companions who had been promised gifts by Rome . In 136 and 135 BC , more attempts were made to gain complete control of the region of Numantia , but they failed . In 134 BC , the Consul Scipio Aemilianus finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion following the successful Siege of Numantia .
Since the Roman invasion of the Iberian peninsula had begun in the south in the territories around the Mediterranean controlled by the Barcids , the last region of the peninsula to be subdued lay in the far north . The Cantabrian Wars or Astur @-@ Cantabrian Wars , from 29 BC to 19 BC , occurred during the Roman conquest of these northern provinces of Cantabria and Asturias . Iberia was fully occupied by 25 BC and the last revolt put down by 19 BC
= = = = Macedon , the Greek poleis , and Illyria ( 215 – 148 BC ) = = = =
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece to attempt to extend his power westward . Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy , to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome . However , Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries , along with emissaries from Hannibal , were captured by a Roman fleet . Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere , Rome sought out land allies in Greece to fight a proxy war against Macedon on its behalf and found partners in the Aetolian League of Greek city @-@ states , the Illyrians to the north of Macedon and the kingdom of Pergamon and the city @-@ state of Rhodes , which lay across the Aegean from Macedon .
The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations . When the Aetolians sued for peace with Philip , Rome 's small expeditionary force , with no more allies in Greece , was ready to make peace . Rome had achieved its objective of pre @-@ occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal . A treaty was drawn up between Rome and Macedon at Phoenice in 205 BC which promised Rome a small indemnity , formally ending the First Macedonian War .
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome . Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province . Philip , unsurprisingly , refused and , after initial internal reluctance for further hostilities , Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War . In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians , and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC , in the Battle of Cynoscephalae , Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively . Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea , in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia , and had to pay a war indemnity to Rome .
Between the second and third Macedonian wars Rome faced further conflict in the region due to a tapestry of shifting rivalries , alliances and leagues all seeking to gain greater influence . After the Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC , the Greek city @-@ state of Sparta stepped into the partial power vacuum in Greece . Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the region , the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman @-@ Spartan War , defeating a Spartan army at the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC . They also fought their former allies the Aetolian League in the Aetolian War , against the Istrians in the Istrian War , against the Illyrians in the Illyrian War , and against Achaia in the Achaean War .
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire to the east . After campaigns as far abroad as Bactria , India , Persia and Judea , Antiochus moved to Asia Minor and Thrace to secure several coastal towns , a move that brought him into conflict with Roman interests . A Roman force under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae and forced him to evacuate Greece : the Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece , beating them again in naval battles at the Battle of the Eurymedon and Battle of Myonessus , and finally in a decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia .
In 179 BC Philip died and his talented and ambitious son , Perseus of Macedon , took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece . He also allied himself with the warlike Bastarnae , and both this and his actions in Greece possibly violated the treaty signed with the Romans by his father or , if not , certainly was not " behaving as [ Rome considered ] a subordinate ally should " . Rome declared war on Macedonia again , starting the Third Macedonian War . Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father , winning the Battle of Callicinus against a Roman consular army . However , as with all such ventures in this period , Rome responded by simply sending another army . The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians , lacking the reserve of the Romans and with King Perseus captured , duly capitulated , ending the Third Macedonian War .
The Fourth Macedonian War , fought from 150 BC to 148 BC , was the final war between Rome and Macedon and began when Andriscus usurped the Macedonian throne . The Romans raised a consular army under Quintus Caecilius Metellus , who swiftly defeated Andriscus at the Second battle of Pydna .
Under Lucius Mummius , Corinth was destroyed following a siege in 146 BC , leading to the surrender and thus conquest of the Achaean League ( see Battle of Corinth ) .
= = = Late ( 147 – 30 BC ) = = =
= = = = Jugurthine War ( 112 – 105 BC ) = = = =
Rome had , in the earlier Punic Wars , gained large tracts of territory in Africa , which they consolidated in the following centuries . Much of that land had been granted to the kingdom of Numidia , a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria , in return for its past military assistance . The Jugurthine War of 111 – 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa , after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain . In response to Jugurtha 's usurpation of the Numidian throne , a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars , Rome intervened . Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation and was granted half the kingdom . Following further aggression and further bribery attempts , the Romans sent an army to depose him . The Romans were defeated at the Battle of Suthul but fared better at the Battle of the Muthul and finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala , the Battle of Mulucha , and the Battle of Cirta ( 104 BC ) . Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery , ending the war .
= = = = Resurgence of the Celtic threat ( 121 BC ) = = = =
Memories of the sack of Rome in 390 / 387 BC by Celtic tribes from Gaul , having been made into a legendary account that was taught to each generation of Roman youth , were still prominent despite their historical distance . In 121 BC , Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni , both of which they defeated with apparent ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon , the same year .
= = = = New Germanic threat ( 113 – 101 BC ) = = = =
The Cimbrian War ( 113 – 101 BC ) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC . The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons or Teutones migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories , where they clashed with Rome and her allies . The Cimbrian War was the first time since the Second Punic War that Italia and Rome itself had been seriously threatened , and caused great fear in Rome . The opening action of the Cimbrian War , the Battle of Noreia in 112 BC , ended in defeat and near disaster for the Romans . In 105 BC the Romans were defeated at the Battle of Arausio and was the costliest Rome had suffered since the Battle of Cannae . After the Cimbri inadvertently granted the Romans a reprieve by diverting to plunder Iberia , Rome was given the opportunity to carefully prepare for and successfully meet the Cimbri and Teutons in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae ( 102 BC ) and the Battle of Vercellae ( 101 BC ) where both tribes were virtually annihilated , ending the threat .
= = = = Internal unrest ( 135 – 71 BC ) = = = =
The extensive campaigning abroad by Rome , and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder from these campaigns , led to a trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their commanders rather than to the state , and a willingness to follow their generals in battle against the state . Rome was plagued by several slave uprisings during this period , in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given to veterans who farmed by use of slaves and who came to greatly outnumbered their Roman masters . In the last century BC , at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred . This pattern did not break until Octavian ( later Caesar Augustus ) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate 's authority , and was made princeps ( emperor ) .
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three Servile Wars against the Roman state ; the third , and most serious , may have involved the revolution of 120 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 slaves . Additionally , in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy , collectively known as the Socii , over the grievance that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns , but not its rewards . Despite defeats such as the Battle of Fucine Lake , Roman troops defeated the Italian militias in decisive engagements , notably the Battle of Asculum . Although they lost militarily , the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria , which granted citizenship to more than 500 @,@ 000 Italians .
The internal unrest reached its most serious stage in the two civil wars or marches upon Rome by the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC . In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome , a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate and its Samnite allies . Whatever the merits of his grievances against those in power of the state , his actions marked a watershed of the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars of the triumvirate , the overthrowing of the Senate as the de facto head of the Roman state , and the eventual endemic usurpation of power by contenders for the emperor @-@ ship in the later Empire .
= = = = Conflicts with Mithridates ( 89 – 63 BC ) = = = =
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus , a large kingdom in Asia Minor , from 120 to 63 BC . He is remembered as one of Rome 's most formidable and successful enemies who engaged three of the most prominent generals of the late Roman Republic : Sulla , Lucullus , and Pompey the Great . In a pattern familiar from the Punic Wars , the Romans came into conflict with him after the two states ' spheres of influence began to overlap . Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom , and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring . After conquering western Anatolia ( modern Turkey ) in 88 BC , Roman sources claim that Mithridates ordered the killing of the majority of the 80 @,@ 000 Romans living there . In the subsequent First Mithridatic War , the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper after the Battle of Chaeronea and later Battle of Orchomenus but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival Marius ; consequently , Mithridates VI was defeated but not destroyed . A peace was made between Rome and Pontus , but this proved only a temporary lull .
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex Bithynia as a province . In the Third Mithridatic War , first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates . Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night @-@ time Battle of the Lycus . After defeating Mithridates , Pompey invaded Caucacus , subjugated the Kingdom of Iberia and established Roman control over Colchis .
= = = = Campaign against the Cilician pirates ( 67 BC ) = = = =
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates , largely from Cilicia . Rome had destroyed many of the states that had previously policed the Mediterranean with fleets , but had failed to step into the gap created . The pirates had seized the opportunity of a relative power vacuum and had not only strangled shipping lanes but had plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia , and had even made descents upon Italy itself . After the Roman admiral Marcus Antonius Creticus ( father of the triumvir Marcus Antonius ) failed to clear the pirates to the satisfaction of the Roman authorities , Pompey was nominated his successor as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against them . It supposedly took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the western Mediterranean of pirates , and restore communication between Iberia , Africa , and Italy . Plutarch describes how Pompey first swept their craft from the Mediterranean in a series of small actions and through the promise of honouring the surrender of cities and craft . He then followed the main body of the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of Cilicia , and destroyed them there in the naval Battle of Korakesion .
= = = = Caesar 's early campaigns ( 59 – 50 BC ) = = = =
During a term as praetor in Iberia , Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar of the Roman Julii clan defeated the Calaici and Lusitani in battle . Following a consular term , he was then appointed to a five @-@ year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul ( current southern France ) and Illyria ( the coast of Dalmatia ) . Not content with an idle governorship , Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul , which would give him the dramatic military success he sought . To this end he stirred up popular nightmares of the first sack of Rome by the Gauls and the more recent spectre of the Cimbri and Teutones . When the Helvetii and Tigurini tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near ( not into ) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul , Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars , fought between 58 BC and 49 BC . After slaughtering the Helvetii tribe , Caesar prosecuted a " long , bitter and costly " campaign against other tribes across the breadth of Gaul , many of whom had fought alongside Rome against their common enemy the Helvetii , and annexed their territory to that of Rome . Plutarch claims that the campaign cost a million Gallic lives . Although " fierce and able " the Gauls were handicapped by internal disunity and fell in a series of battles over the course of a decade .
Caesar defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC at the Battle of the Arar and Battle of Bibracte , the Belgic confederacy known as the Belgae at the Battle of the Axona , the Nervii in 57 BC at the Battle of the Sabis , the Aquitani , Treviri , Tencteri , Aedui and Eburones in unknown battles , and the Veneti in 56 BC . In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain . In 52 BC , following the Siege of Avaricum and a string of inconclusive battles , Caesar defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia , completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul . By 50 BC , the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands . Caesar recorded his own accounts of these campaigns in Commentarii de Bello Gallico ( " Commentaries on the Gallic War " ) .
Gaul never regained its Celtic identity , never attempted another nationalist rebellion , and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the Western Empire in 476 AD . However , although Gaul itself was to thereafter remain loyal , cracks were appearing in the political unity of Rome 's governing figures – partly over concerns over the loyalty of Caesar 's Gallic troops to his person rather than the state – that were soon to drive Rome into a lengthy series of civil wars .
= = = = Trium
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Patton . The family moved often because Ward Patton , a teacher , was assigned to a different school every year . When he was hired by a railroad in Pike County , he and his wife agreed that she would remain in Fallsburg with the children until they finished school . Patton attended Fallsburg Elementary School , a four @-@ room schoolhouse in his hometown . He was active in the 4 @-@ H club , where he began to develop his public speaking ability . In 1951 , he enrolled at Louisa High School in Louisa , Kentucky . He was an honor student , a member of the drama club , a football and baseball player , and class president during his senior year . In 1955 , he graduated with the third @-@ highest grade point average in his class of 73 .
After high school , Patton matriculated to the University of Kentucky and unsuccessfully sought a seat in its Student Government Association in 1956 . Following his sophomore year , he married Carol Cooley , daughter of a Floyd County , Kentucky , coal mine operator . They had two children together – Nikki and Christopher . Patton borrowed money from his father @-@ in @-@ law to finish his education , and in 1959 earned a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering . He was later awarded an honorary Doctor of Public Service degree from the University of Louisville .
= = Coal industry career = =
After graduation , Patton worked as a day laborer for his father @-@ in @-@ law . In 1961 , he moved to Virgie and founded a coal company with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . In 1972 , he purchased Chapperal Coal Company and became extremely wealthy during the coal boom that resulted from the 1973 oil crisis . He became a leader in the coal industry , serving on the board of directors of the Kentucky Coal Association , chairing the Board of the National Independent Coal Operators Association , and becoming a member of the Kentucky Deep Mine Safety Commission . He denounced the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 as " right in its diagnosis of the problem , but wrong in prescription for the cure " . By 1976 , he had become president of the National Independent Coal Operators Association . He railed against a federal regulation that would prohibit strip mining on slopes of greater than 20 degrees , which would have effectively ended that method of mining in the Eastern Mountain Coal Fields , and lamented the economic disadvantage imposed on Kentucky coal miners by the state 's coal severance tax .
Patton was regarded as more moderate than most coal operators in his relationship to labor unions . Most of his mine workers were not unionized , and those who were generally belonged to the Southern Labor Union rather than the more confrontational United Mine Workers of America ( UMWA ) . Members of the UMWA local at Shelby Gap maintained that Patton was arrested for clipping a striking miner on a picket line with his pickup truck in the late 1970s . Local law enforcement officials claim no recollection of the incident , and there is no record of an arrest warrant against Patton or an actual arrest .
On October 18 , 1976 , Patton filed for divorce from Carol Cooley , saying only that their marriage was irretrievably broken . The divorce was final on February 25 , 1977 . Later that year , Patton married Judi Jane Conway of Pikeville , a secretary at his Kentucky Elkhorn mine . In 1973 , Conway had divorced her first husband , Bill Harvey Johnson , with whom she had two children .
= = Political career = =
Patton was introduced to politics by State Senator Kelsey Friend , who arranged for Patton to be a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention . Friend also convinced Patton to help raise money for Walter " Dee " Huddleston 's congressional campaign .
As the coal boom began to wane , Patton sold most of his coal interests in 1978 . After a meeting with allies of his friend , First District Congressman Carroll Hubbard , in Madisonville on September 20 , 1978 , Patton considered running for governor in 1979 . However , he subsequently decided that he lacked the time to organize a campaign before the May primary election ; a letter leaked to the Paducah Sun showed that he believed he was losing Hubbard 's support . He joined Terry McBrayer 's campaign during the primary , and after McBrayer lost , he worked to elect John Y. Brown , Jr . , the Democratic nominee . Brown won the election , and Patton was appointed deputy secretary of transportation . He served only three months before resigning to protest Brown 's proposal for a coal severance tax .
In late 1981 , Brown asked Patton to become vice @-@ chair of the Kentucky Democratic Party . He would serve under Dale Sights of Henderson . Brown then informed Patton that there had been a change of plans : he had decided to appoint his father , former U.S. Representative John Y. Brown , Sr. to the chair , instead of Sights . Brown 's advisers convinced him that this would be politically damaging ; finally , Brown appointed Patton chair , with June Taylor , daughter of former governor Ruby Laffoon , as vice @-@ chair . The announcement was a surprise to most political observers , as Sights had been the odds @-@ on favorite for the chairmanship . Patton served as chairman until 1983 . During his tenure , he learned much about politics from Taylor and was introduced to Andrew " Skipper " Martin of Louisville , who would later become an important adviser and ally .
= = = Pike County judge / executive = = =
In 1981 , Patton ran for county judge / executive of Pike County , Kentucky . On the way to a victory in the Democratic primary , he outspent incumbent Wayne Rutherford $ 191 @,@ 252 to $ 49 @,@ 000 . In the general election , he garnered more than 75 percent of the vote against Republican challenger Jim Polley .
Within six months of his election , Patton instituted the state 's first mandatory , county @-@ wide garbage collection program , to combat illegal garbage dumping , which was rampant in the county . The program won Patton statewide acclaim . When Patton sought re @-@ election in 1985 , he again faced Rutherford in the Democratic primary . Rutherford campaigned against the garbage @-@ collection program , promising to repeal it if elected . This stance may have hurt him , because although some county residents resented the mandatory fee for garbage pick @-@ up , many more recognized the benefits , as illegal dump sites became less common . Patton won the primary again , and went on to re @-@ election . However , he won both races by much smaller margins than in 1981 ( 2 @,@ 524 votes in the primary and 3 @,@ 916 votes in the general election ) .
In his second term , Patton initiated an oil recycling program and established a work program for welfare mothers in day care centers . He oversaw construction of a new jail and a $ 5 million renovation to the county courthouse . He brought the county its first manufacturing company and stopped the practice of giving away gravel , drains , and bridge lumber from district warehouses to private citizens . Among his other priorities as judge / executive were the construction of rural roads and recreation facilities .
In 1987 , Patton ran for Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky . In a crowded primary , his 130 @,@ 713 votes placed him third behind Brereton Jones ( 189 @,@ 058 votes ) and Attorney General David L. Armstrong ( 147 @,@ 718 votes ) , but ahead of state senator David Boswell and Superintendent of Public Instruction Alice McDonald . In the most expensive primary in Kentucky history to that point , Patton spent more than $ 2 million of his personal fortune , but was outspent by Jones , who committed more than $ 3 million to the campaign . By comparison , Martha Layne Collins had spent $ 140 @,@ 000 to win the office in 1979 and Steve Beshear $ 250 @,@ 000 to win it in 1983 .
Following his defeat , Patton returned to Pike County . In 1989 he was re @-@ elected for a third term as judge / executive , receiving over 70 percent of the vote in a three @-@ way Democratic primary and subsequently winning the general election by nearly a three @-@ to @-@ one margin . He immediately began preparing for another run for lieutenant governor in 1991 . In the earlier campaign , the UMWA had been vociferously opposed to Patton because employees in his coal mines had been affiliated with the Southern Labor Union . Skipper Martin introduced him to Teamsters leaders , and Patton worked with them to unionize Pike County employees . He also worked with Kelsey Friend to pass the Kentucky Rural Economic Development Act , a measure giving financial incentives to companies that located in economically depressed rural counties .
= = = Lieutenant governor = = =
Patton sought the office of lieutenant governor again in 1991 . In a crowded seven @-@ candidate field in the Democratic primary , the front runner was Attorney General Fred Cowan of Louisville . Other candidates included Steve Collins , son of former governor Martha Layne Collins , and former Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives Bobby H. Richardson . Just days before the primary , it was reported that Cowan 's campaign had sought funds from a company that his office was investigating for criminal conduct . Patton beat Cowan by a margin of 146 @,@ 102 votes to 104 @,@ 337 .
In the general election , Patton faced Republican Eugene Goss . Goss criticized Patton for announcing that , if elected , he would seek the governor 's office at the expiration of his term . Goss insisted that he would not seek the governorship if elected , and maintained that using the lieutenant governor 's post as a stepping stone to the governor 's office was a betrayal of the office and its authority . Goss ran an unorthodox campaign , limiting individual contributions to his campaign to $ 300 and refusing to run television commercials . Patton went on to a lopsided victory in the general election , winning 514 @,@ 023 votes to Goss 's 250 @,@ 857 .
Upon his election as lieutenant governor , Patton resigned his office as Pike County judge @-@ executive . While presiding over the Senate in the 1991 legislative session , Patton voted against a mandatory seat belt law , breaking a 19 – 19 tie . He was the last Kentucky lieutenant governor to preside over the Kentucky Senate ; a 1992 amendment to the state constitution created a new position , President of the Kentucky Senate , and relieved the lieutenant governor of his duties in that body .
In November 1991 , Governor Brereton Jones appointed Patton as secretary of economic development , making Patton the first lieutenant governor to serve as an appointed cabinet secretary . In this capacity , he encouraged the use of tax incentives to bring new industry to the state . Bill Bishop , a journalist for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , criticized these incentives , saying that Patton too often used them to attract low @-@ wage jobs . In response , Patton wrote a series of essays ; while he never published them in the newspaper , he later compiled them into a book entitled Kentucky 's Approach to Economic Development . He also reorganized Kentucky economic development efforts , securing the adoption of four new development incentive programs and establishing the Kentucky Economic Development Partnership .
= = = Gubernatorial election in 1995 = = =
At the expiration of his term as lieutenant governor in 1995 , Patton announced his candidacy for governor . The 1995 gubernatorial election was novel in several ways , following a 1992 constitutional amendment . It was the first election in Kentucky history in which the governor and lieutenant governor were elected as a ticket . Another new provision stated that if no candidate received at least 40 percent of the vote in his or her party 's primary , a runoff election would occur between the top two candidates . Most significantly , for the first time in Kentucky history the winners of each race would be allowed to succeed themselves in office and serve another term . Also , as a result of campaign finance reform passed under Governor Jones , candidates would receive public campaign financing and would have their campaign spending capped , negating the advantage of wealthy candidates .
Patton chose Steve Henry , a surgeon and county commissioner from Louisville , as his running mate . His major opposition in the Democratic primary came from secretary of state Bob Babbage and President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate John " Eck " Rose . Although sitting governor Brereton Jones did not officially endorse Patton , Rose referred to Jones as Patton 's " mentor " . Rose charged that , like Jones , Patton would not take a hard stand on the issues ; referring to a nickname given to Jones in the 1991 campaign , Rose remarked " If you have liked Jell @-@ O Jones , then you are going to be in a position to love Puddin ' Paul Patton . " Particularly odious to Rose was that Patton had publicly supported collective wage bargaining for public employees , but had declared that he would not fight for it in the upcoming 1996 legislative session . Though Babbage and Rose were political veterans and solid campaigners , Patton won 152 @,@ 203 votes in the primary , well over the 40 percent needed to avoid a runoff . Babbage ran second with 81 @,@ 352 votes and Rose was third with 71 @,@ 740 votes . Two other candidates split the remaining 33 @,@ 344 votes .
Patton entered the general election as a perceived underdog . The previous year , Republicans had taken over both the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives , and for the first time in decades a majority of Kentucky 's congressional delegation was Republican . State Democrats were also tainted by the Operation Boptrot investigation that sent many of their legislators , including House Speaker Don Blandford , to prison for political corruption . With Democrats in charge of state government for the previous 24 years , Patton feared that the " time for a change " argument would resonate with voters .
Patton 's opponent , Republican Larry Forgy , hurt his campaign by aligning himself with the Christian right , alienating moderates in both parties , particularly in Louisville . He also openly opposed the Kentucky Education Reform Act ( KERA ) , passed in 1990 during the administration of Wallace G. Wilkinson . Republican supporters of education reform deserted his campaign and helped form a bi @-@ partisan coalition supporting KERA . Traditional Democratic voting blocs such as organized labor and African @-@ Americans turned out in force for Patton . To further undermine Forgy , Patton reminded voters of the budget cuts by Congressional Republicans to programs affecting the elderly . These issues ultimately delivered a Patton victory of 500 @,@ 787 votes to 479 @,@ 227 . It was the closest Kentucky gubernatorial election in 32 years , and marked the first time an eastern Kentuckian had won the governorship since Bert T. Combs in 1959 .
= = = First term as governor ( 1995 – 1999 ) = = =
Though Patton had ambitions to enact education reform early in his administration , his financial adviser , James R. Ramsey , convinced him to propose a conservative budget in the first legislative session . The two developed a plan to modernize the state government , making it more efficient . State employees were leery of increased efficiency , believing it was a code word for cutting state jobs . Patton dispelled this notion by promising no involuntary layoffs . Patton also anticipated difficulty persuading legislators to invest an estimated $ 100 million in equipment and processes to realize improved efficiency . However , when economists projected a budget surplus for 1996 , Patton agreed to invest half of it in capital projects in exchange for using the other half for measures to improve government efficiency . Patton formed an Office for Technology and made improvements in the compatibility and interoperability of the state 's computer systems that were recommended by his son , Chris . Investments of $ 23 @.@ 3 million yielded a return of $ 300 million in state revenue . By the time Patton 's efficiency program was fully implemented , the state was realizing an annual return of 75 cents for every dollar initially invested .
In December 1996 , Patton called a special legislative session to consider the issue of worker 's compensation reform . Both Patton and the state 's legislators believed that the generous benefits provided under Kentucky state law created an unfavorable business climate in the state . The reform measures adopted in the special session included a substantial reduction in benefits , including those to coal miners who developed black lung disease . Patton 's support of this measure alienated labor leaders , especially in eastern Kentucky 's coal mining communities – which had previously been among his strongest supporters . As the law began to take effect , Patton himself agreed that it had gone too far , and his Secretary of Labor worked with representatives from organized labor to draft changes in the law . Those changes were eventually made in the 2002 legislative session .
= = = = Education reform = = = =
In the 1997 legislature , Patton began his mission of reforming the state 's system of higher education . Noting that the state 's community colleges , under the control of the University of Kentucky , and technical schools , under the control of the state government , were too often competing with each other in the same community , he proposed removing the community colleges from the university 's control . Part of the plan was upgrading the technical schools to colleges , allowing them to award associate 's degrees , not just diplomas and certificates . Control of the community and technical colleges would be invested in a new entity , the Kentucky Community and Technical College System . Patton believed that severing the community colleges from the University of Kentucky would allow the university to reallocate resources toward becoming a " Top 20 " research university in the nation . The plan also charged the University of Louisville with becoming a nationally @-@ recognized urban university . The state 's Council on Postsecondary Education ( CPE ) would help eliminate duplication of programs among the colleges and oversee the improvements in the state 's two major universities . In addition , the CPE was to oversee the formation of a " Commonwealth Virtual University " that would serve as a clearinghouse for all the distance learning opportunities offered by the colleges and universities of Kentucky . The new CPE president , Gordon K. Davies , appointed former University of Kentucky engineering faculty and then Databeam Corp. co @-@ founder Lee T. Todd to chair the new Distance Learning Task Force which created the Kentucky Virtual University ( now the Kentucky Virtual Campus ) and the Kentucky Virtual Library , and worked with the Kentucky Department of Education to create the Kentucky Vitual High School ( now the Kentucky Virtual Schools ) . Patton 's plan was outlined in the Kentucky Postsecondary Education Improvement Act of 1997 , nicknamed House Bill 1 .
While supported by the state 's smaller , regional universities , House Bill 1 immediately drew the ire of University of Kentucky president Charles T. Wethington , Jr . Before becoming university president , Wethington had administered the community @-@ college system . Most of the community colleges and the constituencies in their communities also opposed the plan . The university and the community colleges ran advertisements encouraging opposition to the plan ; Patton characterized these ads as " mean " . Patton was disappointed when Greg Stumbo , a leader in the Kentucky House of Representatives and former advocate of an independent community @-@ college system , announced his opposition the plan . Stumbo represented the community of Prestonsburg , an eastern Kentucky coal mining town , and Patton surmised that he was still angry about the worker 's compensation bill . Prestonsburg was also the home of Prestonsburg Community College ( now Big Sandy Community and Technical College ) . In the face of this opposition , Patton negotiated with individual legislators until he was convinced that he had a majority in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly . He then pushed forward and was able to get the legislation passed .
In addition to this victory , Patton also secured passage of other higher education measures . In the 1998 legislative session , he proposed a $ 100 million bond issue to fund the Research Challenge Trust Fund , a fund that the state 's universities could tap to hire researchers for special projects . The program , later nicknamed " Bucks for Brains " , required the universities to match any resources leveraged from the fund dollar @-@ for @-@ dollar . The 1998 legislature also approved funding for the Kentucky Educational Excellence Scholarship ( KEES ) program , which channeled money from the Kentucky Lottery into a special fund for scholarships . To qualify for a KEES scholarship , students have to score at least a 2 @.@ 5 grade point average in high school , and attend a college or university in Kentucky . Awards are made on a sliding scale , with factors such as high school grades , scores on college entrance exams , and continued academic success in college affecting the amount of the award , which is renewable for up to eight college terms .
Patton 's education reforms were not confined to higher education . He also sought to make changes to the Kentucky Education Reform Act that would mollify its critics without gutting the law itself . One of the major complaints regarding KERA was the inability to compare the scores to those from other states to determine progress relative to the rest of the nation . Opponents of KERA in the Senate passed a bill to eliminate the testing until something better could be implemented . In the House , a more moderate measure was advanced , that added a component to the testing system that would allow students to be compared to national norms . Patton supported the House version of the bill , which ultimately emerged from the conference committee and was enacted into law . The administration 's strong support of KERA kept the legislation from being seriously challenged again during Patton 's term . One notable exception occurred in 2000 when legislators tried to repeal the anti @-@ nepotism provision regarding school hiring . The measure passed both houses of the legislature , but Patton vetoed it .
The passage of his higher education reforms led to Patton becoming the chairman of the Southern Regional Education Board from 1997 to 1998 . In 1999 he was chosen chairman of the Education Commission of the States . Other educational organizations then sought Patton 's leadership ; he chaired the National Education Goals Panel and was chosen by the U.S. Secretary of Education to lead a commission to study the high @-@ school senior year .
In the 1998 legislative session , the state enjoyed a $ 200 million budget surplus . Patton was able to distribute this surplus to legislative allies , giving him substantial leverage for his proposals . As one legislative leader opined , " Money buys a lot of silence . " Legislators were also reluctant to oppose the administration for fear that Patton would be re @-@ elected in 1999 . Consequently , Patton was able to gain approval of a very ambitious legislative agenda in 1998 , including tougher criminal laws , improved economic development , reform for Medicaid , and further reform of the higher @-@ education system . Patton also used some of the budget surplus to provide computers for public classrooms ; because of Patton 's commitment to education , Kentucky was the first state in the nation to have every public school classroom wired to the Internet . Once this was accomplished , Patton charged his education secretary , Ed Ford , with developing the Kentucky Virtual High School , a system of distance education that would allow students in smaller high schools in Kentucky to have access to courses in foreign languages and other subjects offered only at larger high schools . The virtual high school was brought online in January 2000 .
The last plank in Patton 's education platform was the improvement of adult education . This issue allowed him to work with a political foe , Republican senator David L. Williams , who had been pushing for additional resources for adult education since 1997 . In 1998 , Patton personally chaired a task force on adult education , and 18 months later , the task force 's recommendations were incorporated into a bill sponsored by Williams . The bill , which increased and equalized funding and tied continuing funds to successful performance by individual adult @-@ education programs , passed both houses of the General Assembly unanimously . By 2003 , the number of adults completing their GED rose by 17 percent , and the number of GED recipients who matriculated to college rose from 13 percent to 18 percent .
= = = = Criminal justice reform = = = =
Also on Patton 's agenda was a reformation of Kentucky 's juvenile justice system . Under Brereton Jones , because of its system of housing and treating juvenile offenders , Kentucky had been one of only two states unable to qualify for federal grants . Among the problems cited by the Department of Justice were abuse of juveniles by state employees , and failure to hold juvenile and adult offenders separately from each other . Governor Jones entered into a consent decree to ameliorate the situation , but his term expired before he could meaningfully address the terms of the decree . Patton went beyond the terms of the decree by implementing mandatory training for state employees who dealt with juvenile offenders , and by setting up a hotline for juveniles to report abuse anonymously . He shifted the responsibility for housing juveniles from local communities to the state , constructing nine new juvenile detention centers . In January 2001 , Attorney General Janet Reno proclaimed Kentucky 's juvenile justice system a model for the nation .
Patton did not stop with the juvenile justice system , however . He encouraged passage of a bill that required that violent offenders serve at least 85 percent of their sentences ( up from the 50 percent previously mandated ) , while requiring that judges consider home incarceration for first @-@ time , non @-@ violent offenders . The bill also allowed judges to sentence criminals to life without parole ; previously , life without parole for 25 years had been the harshest non @-@ capital sentence . The bill passed the legislature in 1999 .
= = = Gubernatorial election , 1999 = = =
Due to the constitutional amendment enacted under previous governor Brereton Jones , Patton became the first governor in more than 200 years eligible to succeed himself in office . James Garrard had served consecutive terms in 1796 and 1800 , but the Kentucky Constitution of 1799 barred any future governor from being elected to consecutive terms . In 1796 , Garrard was chosen as governor by electors , not by popular vote , and thus Patton was the first Kentucky governor to be popularly elected for consecutive terms .
Patton was unopposed in the Democratic primary . Republicans nominated Peppy Martin , who many considered a weak candidate . In fact , Patton 's old Republican foe , David Williams , announced he would vote for Patton over Martin . In the general election Patton garnered 352 @,@ 099 votes , 60 @.@ 6 percent of the total . Martin finished with 128 @,@ 788 votes , with 88 @,@ 930 votes going to third @-@ party candidate Gatewood Galbraith . When asked why the Republicans had chosen such a weak challenger , Patton opined " They mistakenly believed I could not be beaten . They made a mistake . "
= = = Second term as governor ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
After the gubernatorial election in 1999 , Louisville senator Dan Seum announced he would change his party affiliation from Democrat to Republican , citing his conservative voting history , including opposition to the state lottery , KERA , and abortion . This switch , which Patton learned of too late to intervene , equalized the number of Democrats and Republicans in the Senate . Six weeks later , Paducah senator Bob Leeper announced he would also change his party affiliation . Patton traveled to Paducah and met with Leeper , but was unable to convince him to remain a Democrat . Leeper had a history of conflict with Democratic Senate President Larry Saunders , but he insisted his party switch , like Seum 's , was based on political philosophy . Leeper 's switch gave Republicans a majority in the Senate for the first time in the state 's history . David Williams was elected President of the Senate , and held the Republican majority together effectively . Consequently , Patton faced a difficult task in maneuvering his agenda through a divided General Assembly .
The rift between Williams and Patton became permanent during negotiations over the state budget in 1999 . Patton proposed to Williams a 7 @-@ cent @-@ per @-@ gallon gasoline tax , with 1 cent of every 7 dedicated to counties with the most unpaved roads – usually heavily Republican counties ignored by past Democratic governors . Patton claimed Williams told him he had 10 votes in the Senate for the increase . But gas prices spiked before the measure came to a vote in the Senate , and Williams failed to deliver his votes after the House passed the tax . The administration and key Republican senators reached a compromise that saved Patton 's budget with tax changes that were mostly revenue @-@ neutral . Patton believed Williams had deliberately misled him , however , and the two never reconciled .
Another issue confronting both Patton and the legislature was how to spend federal funds from the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement . Kentucky 's share of the settlement totaled $ 3 @.@ 5 billion over 25 years . Because tobacco was a major cash crop in Kentucky , Patton proposed that half of the settlement be used to diversify the state 's farmers ' crops . One @-@ fourth of the money would support health care and anti @-@ smoking efforts . The remaining one @-@ fourth would address early @-@ childhood care and education , a cause important to Patton 's daughter , Nicki , an early @-@ childhood educator .
In November 2000 , Kentucky voters approved a constitutional amendment providing a shorter legislative session in odd @-@ numbered years with longer sessions in even @-@ numbered years . Most of Patton 's proposals failed in the 2000 and 2001 legislative sessions . The economic boom that had provided ample funds for his programs during the first term slowed in 2001 , and by 2002 the state was $ 800 million short of meeting its budget . In 2002 , Republicans in the General Assembly called for an end to public campaign finance , as an economy measure . Calling it " welfare for politicians " , Republicans estimated that abolishing public campaign finance could save the state $ 30 million . Ultimately , the issue derailed the biennial budget during the regular legislative session . In April 2002 , Patton called a special legislative session to approve the budget , but legislators were still unable to agree . For the first time in the state 's history , the fiscal year began without a budget . This left Patton to run the state government for a year without a budget in place .
Besides the budget , another measure that failed to pass in the 2002 session was a bill to eliminate the death penalty for juveniles . The precedent for the juvenile death penalty had been set in the 1989 Supreme Court case of Stanford v. Kentucky , wherein the court ruled that Kevin Stanford could be executed for the 1981 rape , sodomy , and murder of a gas station attendant in Jefferson County , Kentucky , even though Stanford was only 17 at the time of the crime . In 2003 , Patton announced he would commute Stanford 's sentence . Patton did oversee the execution of two adult prisoners in 1997 and 1999 , making him the first Kentucky governor to do so since 1962 .
= = = = Tina Conner sex scandal = = = =
Already plagued by an uncooperative legislature , Patton 's situation was exacerbated in 2002 when it was revealed that , during his first term in office , he had engaged in an extramarital affair with a woman named Tina Conner . According to Connor , the operator of Birchtree Healthcare nursing home in Clinton , Kentucky , the relationship ended in 1999 , but Patton continued to call her until she completely broke off the affair in October 2001 . After initially denying the affair , Patton tearfully admitted to it during a televised press conference at the Kentucky History Center on September 20 , 2002 . The story made Patton the object of state and national ridicule , the subject of jokes by Jay Leno on The Tonight Show . The Louisville Courier @-@ Journal called for Patton 's resignation , stating that he was " too damaged as a moral authority to lead ... [ and ] too powerless as a politician to compel . "
Connor alleged that Patton arranged regulatory favors for the nursing home while the affair was ongoing . Two months after Connor said she ended the affair , Birchtree Healthcare was cited by state regulators for numerous violations of health and safety rules . By July 2002 , the state had pulled all Medicare and Medicaid payments from the facility , which soon went bankrupt . Connor further alleged that the state investigation of Birchtree was retaliation by Patton for her ending of the affair . In a separate incident , Conner claimed that Patton helped a construction company she owned obtain certification as a disadvantaged business , which gave the company special preference when bidding for state contracts .
The affair appeared to take a toll on Patton 's marriage ; his wife Judi was reported to be living in separate quarters in the governor 's mansion and was rarely seen in public with him . Key members of his cabinet also began to resign . Financial adviser James Ramsey left to become the president of the University of Louisville . Attorney General Jack Conway resigned to challenge incumbent congresswoman Anne Northup in the 2002 congressional elections . In January 2003 , Executive Cabinet Secretary Crit Luallen also resigned .
Patton had risen to national prominence , successively chairing the Southern Governors Association , the Democratic Governors Association , and the National Governors Association ( NGA ) . He was serving as NGA chair at the time the Tina Conner scandal broke , and planned to resign his chairmanship in November 2002 . Nevertheless , the other governors rallied around him , convincing him to remain in the position . Together with his Republican vice @-@ chair , Idaho 's Dirk Kempthorne , Patton led the NGA effectively , securing federal funding to shore up state budgets and keeping the caucus from a partisan split in a vote over Medicaid .
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against Patton in September 2002 . By late 2003 , all but one of her charges against Patton had been dismissed ; the remaining charge alleged " outrageous " conduct . In March 2003 , the state 's Executive Branch Ethics Commission investigated Conner 's claims and accused Patton of four ethics violations , charging that he " used or attempted to use his official position " to provide favors for Conner . The favors included contacting the state transportation secretary with regard to Conner 's disadvantaged business application , recommending a promotion for an officer who allegedly helped Conner avoid paying a traffic ticket , appointing Conner to the board of directors for the Kentucky Lottery , and appointing Conner 's then @-@ husband to the Agricultural Development Board . Patton claimed that the favors he requested for Conner were the same kind of favors that he had requested for dozens of influential constituents . He also claimed he had not profited financially from any of the requested favors . He maintained that his attitude toward constituent services was " If you can do so legally and ethically , help them . "
= = = = Other scandals and loss of legislative influence = = = =
Because of the deteriorating national economic situation , Kentucky faced a severe budget shortfall in 2003 . Patton proposed an overhaul of the state tax system , whereby tax revenue would keep pace with the state 's eventual economic recovery . However , such reform would necessarily have meant tax increases , and with the 2003 gubernatorial election looming , legislators from both parties stuck strictly to a pledge not to raise taxes . Consequently , in the 2003 legislative session , members of the General Assembly crafted a budget that completely disregarded any input from Patton . The budget included repealing the campaign finance reform bill passed a decade earlier . Patton conceded " I have lost any ability to influence the legislature . "
During his final months in office , Patton drew criticism for abusing his patronage power . Critics charged that he had appointed several of his family and friends who were in non @-@ merit system jobs to merit system positions , increasing their chances of being retained when a new administration took over . These charges were particularly damaging because , earlier in the year , the General Assembly had ordered Patton to cut 800 non @-@ merit positions to help balance the budget . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader opined that these charges were more serious than those of the Conner affair . Patton maintained that his friends had followed proper personnel protocol in applying for and securing merit positions .
In June 2003 , Patton issued pardons to four men who were under indictment for violating campaign finance laws during the 1995 gubernatorial race . The indictments stemmed from charges by then @-@ candidate Larry Forgy that Patton had skirted campaign finance laws by coordinating expenditures with the Teamsters and the state Democratic Party . A Franklin County grand jury returned the indictments in 1998 , but a circuit court judge dismissed them in 1999 on grounds that the campaign finance law was too vague . An appeals court reversed that decision the following year , and in 2003 , the Kentucky Supreme Court upheld the indictments by a vote of 5 – 1 . The Supreme Court of the United States refused to hear an appeal on June 13 , 2003 . Two days later , Patton issued pardons for all four men . State attorney general Ben Chandler lamented that the pardons would eliminate the possibility of determining whether Patton won the 1995 contest " honestly and openly " .
= = Later life = =
Patton had publicly stated that he was planning a run against Republican U.S. Senator Jim Bunning in 2004 , but the scandals that plagued him near the end of his administration derailed those plans . He retired to Pikeville , Kentucky , after the election of his successor , Republican Ernie Fletcher . He became a member of the First Presbyterian Church of Pikeville , the Big Sandy Regional Economic Development Board and chairman of the Pikeville / Pike County Industrial and Economic Authority . Tina Conner 's final claim against Patton – for " outrage " – was dismissed by a judge in May 2006 . In October 2006 , Conner filed a second lawsuit against Patton alleging misconduct by a public official and government oppression ; a Franklin County judge dismissed the suit , claiming it was an attempt by Conner to re @-@ litigate the claims from her first suit .
Governor Ernie Fletcher renamed a section of U.S. Route 119 in eastern Kentucky as the Paul E. Patton Highway at a ceremony on October 30 , 2008 . On February 1 , 2009 , Patton was chosen chairman of the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education ( CPE ) . On August 12 , 2009 , he was announced as the next president of Pikeville College ( now the University of Pikeville ) . In September 2009 , the Executive Branch Ethics Commission issued an advisory opinion that Patton could serve in both roles without a significant conflict of interest because the CPE wields very little oversight of Kentucky 's private colleges . Patton was advised to allow someone other than himself to be the official liaison between the University of Pikeville and the CPE and to recuse himself from CPE discussions on matters " that directly involve his private institution or that would affect his institution differently than any other similarly situated private postsecondary institution . "
= = = Tenure at University of Pikeville = = =
Patton was formally installed as president of the University of Pikeville on February 16 , 2010 . He also serves as a Distinguished Visiting Lecturer in Public Policy and Leadership . As president , Patton oversaw the construction of the Expo Center , a new facility to house the university 's indoor sports ; in 2011 , the Center 's basketball court was named Paul E. Patton Court .
In late 2011 , Patton announced that he and Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives Greg Stumbo would ask the General Assembly to consider adding the University of Pikeville as the ninth state @-@ supported university in the Kentucky university system . On December 30 , 2011 , he announced his resignation from the Council on Postsecondary Education to avoid any potential accusations of a conflict of interest regarding the proposal in the 2012 General Assembly .
In 2013 , Patton announced he would step down as president of the university and instead serve as chancellor . Because of his longstanding support of the university 's athletics programs , he was inducted into the university 's Athletics Hall of Fame in 2014 . In January 2015 , the university announced it would move its teacher training program out of the College of Arts and Sciences , creating the new Patton College of Education . The College was scheduled to open for the fall 2015 semester .
= Ice Hockey Hair =
Ice Hockey Hair is an EP by the Welsh alternative rock band Super Furry Animals , released in 1998 . The record contains four songs which the band felt did not fit in with either their previous album , 1997 's Radiator , or its follow @-@ up Guerrilla . The title track refers to an alternative name for the mullet hairstyle . The EP 's opening song , " Smokin ' " , was commissioned by British television station Channel 4 for a programme about sloth presented by Howard Marks . " Ice Hockey Hair " was later included on ' greatest hits ' compilation Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 , while " Smokin ' " appeared on 1998 's B @-@ side and rarities compilation Out Spaced .
The EP received mostly positive reviews , being awarded ' single of the week ' by the NME , and appearing at number two in the magazine 's Single of the Year list for 1998 . The record also appeared in the 1998 single of the year lists issued by both the Melody Maker and Select . Promotional music videos were issued for both " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " and are included on the DVD version of Songbook .... The former was directed by Daf Palfrey while the latter was directed by Peter Gray .
= = Recording and themes = =
The first track on the EP , " Smokin ' " , was commissioned by British television station Channel 4 for a programme about sloth presented by Howard Marks as part of a series on the seven deadly sins . The band went into Grassroots , a community recording studio in Cardiff , in June 1997 and looped a sample of the Black Uhuru track " I Love King Selassie " , playing along and writing " Smokin ' " " completely spontaneously " . According to singer Gruff Rhys the song is " really light and up " as a result of being recorded in the summer . The track 's lyrics refer to smoking cannabis , with Rhys stating that it " seems ridiculous that you can 't do what you want with a plant that grows naturally " in reference to the drug 's illegal status in many countries . Rhys has claimed that he does not consider the track to be subversive , however — it is about the band 's own drug use and he doesn 't " expect everyone who buys the record to do the same . They 'd be quite sad if they did " .
Chief lyric writer Rhys has stated that , whereas he might " empty parts of [ his ] emotional state " into some songs , Ice Hockey Hair 's title track was written in the " instant pop music " tradition . The track was originally called " The Naff Song " as the band felt it " had so many naff , cheesy things about it " before being renamed " Ice Hockey Hair " following a conversation with a Swedish football player who said that having ' ice hockey hair ' , an alternative name for the mullet hairstyle , was a really naff thing to do in his home country . Rhys has described the song as a " Badfinger @-@ style power ballad " and claimed that it is about " someone who 's sunk so low they 're asking advice off a woman with ice hockey hair " . The track was recorded at Orinonco Studios , London .
The band felt that " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " were " light relief " and needed to be released so that they could concentrate on their next album , Guerrilla , with Rhys stating that the " EP was a good chance to do something in isolation , because the tracks on it won 't fit in with the new album , and they didn 't fit in with the old one " . The EP is completed by " Let 's Quit Smoking " , a remix of " Smokin ' " , and " Mu @-@ Tron " , a largely instrumental track named after the Mu @-@ Tron guitar effects pedal and written by keyboardist Cian Ciaran .
= = Release and reception = =
Ice Hockey Hair was released on CD , 7 " and cassette on 25 May 1998 and reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . The CD version of the EP has four tracks while the 7 " and cassette feature only " Ice Hockey Hair " and " Smokin ' " . A 12 " vinyl release of Ice Hockey Hair was issued in June 1998 and includes all four songs from the CD version albeit in a different track order . The proverb " Decadence may not be seen as a wholly negative process neither should it be viewed as a terminal state . It 's a stage in the process of regeneration and renewal " was to have been featured on Ice Hockey Hair 's sleeve but the band eventually decided against the idea as they felt the phrase was too long . " Ice Hockey Hair " was included on the band 's ' greatest hits ' compilation Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 , while " Smokin ' " was included on 1998 's B @-@ side and rarities compilation Out Spaced . The Wildhearts recorded a cover of " Ice Hockey Hair " for their 2008 album Stop Us If You 've Heard This One Before , Vol 1 .
The Melody Maker called the Ice Hockey Hair EP " brilliant , predictably freakish weirdness " and described it as a cross between The Beach Boys and techno while guest reviewers Therapy ? claimed to like " Smokin ' " better than " Ice Hockey Hair " which they thought was " full @-@ on smoker music " . Vox stated that Ice Hockey Hair proved the band 's " placid casual grasp of the concept of genius " , describing the title track as a " gooey , melted mix of Queen , ELO , Pavement and [ ... ] Techno Animal " and " Smokin ' " , which they felt was the EP 's stand @-@ out song , as " deranged disco delirium " . The NME felt that the EP showed the Super Furry Animals had fulfilled their early promise and was the result of the band having " ideas like most people have cups of tea " , awarding Ice Hockey Hair ' single of the week ' in their 23 May 1998 issue . The magazine called " Smokin ' " " compact disco " and stated that " Mu @-@ Tron " was an " ugly name for a beautiful song " . " Ice Hockey Hair " was described as a combination of Queen , ELO , Wings , and " mad techno squalling " which sounds like " Elton John 's glitter @-@ coated grand piano " falling from the sky . AllMusic described the Ice Hockey Hair EP as " another fun , cool group of songs from a band that can seemingly do no wrong " which bridges the gap between the " spaced @-@ out rock " of 1997 's Radiator and the " pop / rock electronic experimentation " of 1999 's Guerrilla . The website did take issue with the short length of the record however , suggesting that the Super Furry Animals ' music works best " in large doses of pop / rock gem upon pop / rock gem " .
In their review of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , Drowned in Sound claimed that " Ice Hockey Hair " " could be the most perfect thing you 'll ever set ears upon " while the BBC viewed the " sublime " track as one of the record 's highlights . Also reviewing Songbook ... , Pitchfork Media called the song a " non @-@ album gem " , The Washington Post called it " gorgeous " and AllMusic referred to it as a masterpiece . Reviewing Outspaced , the Melody Maker described the " filthily funky " " Smokin ' " as brilliant and Select called it one of the " joyous pinnacles " of the album , suggesting that the track was inspired by P @-@ Funk . The NME however , called " Smokin ' " " sludgy " and suggested that it was Outspaced 's " fairly naff nadir " .
Stylus Magazine named Ice Hockey Hair in a list of " Ten essential singles / EPs " released by Creation Records in a 2003 article about the label . " Ice Hockey Hair " was included in The Pitchfork 500 , a list of the greatest songs released from 1977 to 2006 , published by Pitchfork Media in 2008 .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Music videos = =
= = = " Ice Hockey Hair " = = =
The promotional music video for " Ice Hockey Hair " was directed by Daf Palfrey and appears on the DVD version of the band 's ' greatest hits ' album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 . The video begins with silent footage of five characters , who appear in a small white rectangle in the centre of the screen against a black background . The text " I am like a film strip ... and like a child ... in a thousand lunar parks ... someone is always ... cranking the handle " appears as the video cuts between shots of each person . " Ice Hockey Hair " begins playing approximately 17 seconds into the video . Each character is again seen in a white rectangle in the centre of the screen followed by a shot of a pair of hands holding a strip of photos of that particular person during which red text is displayed showing the character 's name . A woman with short blonde hair and a red top , seen holding her head in her hands is introduced as " The wife " ; a bald man with blood on his head is " The husband " ; a woman in a white jacket with a blonde mullet hairstyle is " The mistress " ; a man with thick @-@ rimmed glasses , a white jacket , and red polo neck sweater is " The voyeur " ; and a man in a red and black tracksuit top with a large scar running from his left eye to right cheek is " The stalker " . The five characters are all seen singing along to the track individually , again framed in a white rectangle in the centre of the screen . " The wife " is twice shown ripping a photograph of her and " The husband " , while " The mistress " is seen sitting on the lap of " The husband " in two shots . After 1 minute and 6 seconds the Super Furry Animals are shown playing along to the track on a rotating dancefloor surrounded by photo booths and several dancers in dark clothes . During an instrumental break in the song , at 1 minute 38 seconds , two masked men are shown playing table tennis on another rotating dancefloor with two large fluorescent purple circles in the background . The five characters are then seen walking around the band and stepping into the photo booths that surround them . The text " Act 1 : The kiss " is shown , after which footage of the Super Furry Animals playing along to the track is intercut with shots of the characters . " The husband " and " The mistress " kiss while a strip of photos is seen being passed through a pair of hands and " The voyeur " is shown using a video camera . The characters move to different photo booths and the title " Act 2 : The stalking " is displayed . Shots of " The stalker " and " The wife " are then intercut with shots of the band . The characters again change booths and the title " Act 3 : The murder " is shown . After quick jump cuts between shots of the band , the masked men playing table tennis and the five characters , " The voyeur " is shown pointing his video camera at the motionless body of " The mistress " which is laid in a bathtub covered in film stock . More footage of the band follows before " The husband " is shown motionless of the floor , surrounded by a white tape outline . The video ends with more jump cuts between the band , the masked table tennis players and the five named characters .
= = = " Smokin ' " = = =
The music video for " Smokin ' " was directed by Peter Gray and also appears on the DVD version of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 . The video begins with a shot of the Super Furry Animals ' ' SFA ' logo which appears on the cover of the Ice Hockey Hair EP . The logo fades out and the camera pans through a crowd of dark figures wearing berets towards a woman standing behind a long , black table . The woman is wearing a short sleeved black dress and has a blonde bob haircut . Her arms and face are illuminated in the otherwise dark room and she is shown walking backwards down the table , giving coloured cards to each of the figures wearing berets . The woman walks up and down the table observing the crowd as they each use the piece of card they were given to make an origami animal . As each person completes a model animal the woman gives them a new piece of coloured card . Approximately two minutes into the video the woman returns to a central position behind the table and looks down at one of the beret wearers . The camera cuts to show him screwing up a piece of green card into a ball which turns into an origami crane and flies away as he opens his hands . The rest of the figures in berets are shown from behind , bowing their heads before the camera cuts to a close up view of several origami animals on the table . These animals also begin to move , and interact with each other until a large red animal arrives . The camera cuts to a close @-@ up of the red animal 's head with smoke shown coming from its nose . The next shot shows the origami animals stationary on the table as the camera pans up to the beret wearers who are looking straight ahead while smoke moves across from the right . The woman walks up and down the table giving the beret wearers new pieces of card as they complete more and more origami animals . As the video draws to an end she rapidly piles up the origami animals into a heap in the middle of the table . When all the animals have been collected into the pile the beret wearers bow their heads and the woman puts her arms around the pile and smiles at the camera . In the final shot the woman places her hands on the table and stares at the camera as the video fades out to show the same Super Furry Animals ' ' SFA ' logo which appeared at the very beginning .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals unless otherwise stated .
7 " ( CRE 288 ) , MC ( CRECS 288 )
" Ice Hockey Hair " – 6 : 57
" Smokin ' " ( Super Furry Animals / Rose / Simpson ) – 5 : 05
= = Personnel = =
Band
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar , backing vocals
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards , backing vocals
Dafydd Ieuan – drums , backing vocals
Artwork
Pete Fowler – illustration
Simon Corkin – design
= = Singles chart position = =
= 1st Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 1st Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces brigade formed by the British Army during the Second World War . As its name indicates , the unit was the first parachute infantry brigade formation in the British Army .
Formed from three parachute battalions as well as support units and assigned to the 1st Airborne Division , the brigade first saw action in Operation Biting – a raid on a German radar site at Bruneval on the French coast . They were then deployed in the Torch landings in Algeria , and the following Tunisia Campaign , where it fought as an independent unit . In North Africa each of the brigade 's three parachute battalions took part in separate parachute assaults . The brigade then fought in the front line as normal infantry until the end of the campaign , during which they earned the nickname the " Red Devils " . Following the Axis surrender in North Africa , when 1st Airborne Division arrived in Tunisia the brigade once more came under its command . The brigade 's next mission was Operation Fustian , part of the Allied invasion of Sicily . This was also the British Army 's first brigade @-@ sized combat parachute jump . Because of casualties sustained in Sicily , the brigade was held in reserve for the division 's next action , Operation Slapstick , an amphibious landing at Taranto in Italy .
At the end of 1943 , the brigade returned to England , in preparation for the invasion of North @-@ West Europe . Not required during the Normandy landings , the brigade was next in action at the Battle of Arnhem , part of Operation Market Garden . Landing on the first day of the battle , the brigade objective was to seize the crossings over the River Rhine and hold them for forty @-@ eight hours until relieved by the advancing XXX Corps , coming 60 miles ( 97 km ) from the south . In the face of strong resistance elements , the brigade managed to secure the north end of the Arnhem road bridge . After holding out for four days , with their casualties growing and supplies exhausted they were forced to surrender . By this time the remainder of the brigade trying to fight through to the bridge had been almost destroyed and was no longer a viable fighting force .
Reformed after the battle , the brigade took part in operations in Denmark at the end of the war and then in 1946 joined the 6th Airborne Division on internal security duties in Palestine . Post @-@ war downsizing of the British Army reduced their airborne forces to a single brigade and led to the 1948 dissolution of 1st Parachute Brigade .
= = Formation history = =
= = = Background = = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . On 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando was redeployed to parachute duties and on 21 November re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion ( later the 1st Parachute Battalion ) , with both a parachute and glider wing , the men of which took part in the first British airborne operation , Operation Colossus , on 10 February 1941 . The success of the raid prompted the War Office to expand the airborne forces , setting up the Airborne Forces Depot and Battle School in Derbyshire in April 1942 , and creating the Parachute Regiment as well as converting several infantry battalions into airborne battalions in August 1942 . This resulted in the formation of the 1st Airborne Division with the 1st Parachute Brigade and the 1st Airlanding Brigade . Its commander Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague Boy Browning , expressed his opinion that the fledgling force must not be sacrificed in " penny packets " and urged the formation of further brigades .
All parachute forces had to undergo a twelve @-@ day parachute training course at No. 1 Parachute Training School , RAF Ringway . Initial parachute jumps were from a converted barrage balloon and finished with five jumps from an aircraft . Anyone failing to complete a descent was returned to his old unit . Those men who successfully completed the parachute course were presented with their maroon beret and parachute wings .
Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy armed with heavy weapons , including artillery and tanks . Training was as a result designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness . Emphasis was given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training regime consisted of assault courses and route marching while military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the battalions would march back to their barracks . An ability to cover long distances at speed was also expected : airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in twenty @-@ four hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) . This ability was demonstrated in April 1945 . When the 3rd Parachute Brigade advanced 15 miles ( 24 km ) in twenty @-@ four hours , which included eighteen hours of close @-@ quarters fighting . In the same month the 5th Parachute Brigade marched 50 miles ( 80 km ) in seventy @-@ two hours , during which they also carried out two night time assaults .
= = = Formation = = =
Brigadier Richard N. Gale , who would later command the 6th Airborne Division , took command of the 1st Parachute Brigade on its formation in September 1941 . A triangular brigade formation with three battalions , Gale decided that rather than dividing the 11th Special Air Service Battalion among the brigade 's battalions , he would keep the already trained unit together . On 15 September it was renamed the 1st Parachute Battalion , which , together with the newly raised 2nd and 3rd Parachute Battalions , now formed the 1st Parachute Brigade . These battalions were formed from volunteers aged between twenty @-@ two and thirty @-@ two years of age . Only men in infantry units were selected and only ten men from any one unit were allowed to leave . Early in 1942 the brigade was
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joined by the 4th Parachute Battalion , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance , and the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron , Royal Engineers ( RE ) . The 4th Parachute Battalion left the brigade in July to become the first battalion in the 2nd Parachute Brigade .
By 1944 the brigade had increased in size and now comprised the 1st , 2nd , 3rd Parachute battalions , the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance and the 1st ( Parachute ) Squadron Royal Engineers ( RE ) as well as the 3rd ( Airlanding ) Light Battery Royal Artillery ( RA ) with 75 mm howitzers , 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery RA with 6 pounder and 17 pounder guns along with a Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC ) detachment .
After the war the brigade comprised the 1st , 2nd , 17th Parachute Battalions and the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance . The 3rd Parachute Battalion had left to join the 3rd Parachute Brigade , replacing the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , who had returned to Canada at the cessation of hostilities . The 1st Airborne Division was disbanded in November 1945 , and the brigade assigned to the 6th Airborne Division in Palestine . In 1946 the 17th Parachute Battalion amalgamated with the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion retaining the number of the senior unit . The brigade formation changed again in 1948 . Further amalgamations and the general reduction in the post war British Army resulted in the brigade being formed from the 1st Parachute Battalion , the amalgamated 2nd / 3rd Parachute Battalion and the amalgamated 8th / 9th Parachute Battalion . By July 1948 the 6th Airborne Division had been withdrawn to England and disbanded , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade as the only regular British Army parachute formation .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Bruneval = = =
The Bruneval raid or Operation Biting in February 1942 was one of the first missions planned by Combined Operations Headquarters that used all three of the British Armed Forces . An attacking force from ' C ' Company , 2nd Parachute Battalion would be parachuted into France by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and later evacuated by the Royal Navy . Their objective was a German Würzburg radar station on the coast of France , which British scientists wanted to examine .
On 27 February , in ideal tide and weather conditions , the raid was commanded by Major John D. Frost . A group of forty men would attack machine @-@ guns on the cliffs overlooking the evacuation beach and then advance to Bruneval village . Another fifty @-@ five men in an assault group would attack the radar station and forty men would set up a blocking position to prevent German reinforcements reaching the radar site . The parachute drop was mostly successful with half of the first group missing the drop zone ( DZ ) by 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . After capturing the radar and other installations , the assault group dismantled the equipment then withdrew towards the beach . They were intercepted en route by the cliff machine guns which had not yet been cleared and suffered some casualties . When the delayed first group arrived , they managed to neutralize the enemy machine guns and by 02 : 15 the company had mustered on the beach to wait for the navy . Despite some initial problems caused by a lack of experience in combined operations , the troops were successfully evacuated with losses of three men killed and seven wounded .
The success of the Bruneval raid was reported in the British media for several weeks while Winston Churchill , who had taken a personal interest in the raid , assembled the War Cabinet on 3 March to hear from Major Frost and several other officers who had taken part . On 15 May 1942 a special supplement to the London Gazette carried the announcement of nineteen decorations for the mission , including a Military Cross for Frost .
= = = North Africa = = =
In November 1942 , the brigade now commanded by Brigadier Edwin Flavell , was detached from 1st Airborne Division , to take part in Operation Torch , the Allied landings in French North Africa .
On 11 November , the first major British parachute landing was made by the 3rd Parachute Battalion , which without its ' A ' Company , flew from England via Gibraltar in a fleet of American piloted Douglas Dakotas . Their objective , the airfield at Bone , turned out to be deserted and was secured with no opposition . No. 6 Commando and a flight of RAF Spitfires reinforced the battalion later the same day . The following day the rest of the brigade who had travelled by sea arrived at Algiers . During the next airborne mission on 16 November , the 1st Parachute Battalion secured an important road junction near Souk el Arba , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Tunis then the next day ambushed a German convoy and were involved in several small battles . The Commanding Officer ( CO ) Lieutenant Colonel James Hill was wounded attacking an Italian position and replaced by his second @-@ in @-@ command , Alastair Pearson .
On 29 November the 2nd Parachute Battalion , now commanded by John Frost , parachuted onto an airfield at Depienne , 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Tunis . The airfield was deserted so Frost marched the battalion 10 miles ( 16 km ) to a second airfield at Oudna . Due to postponement of their advance , the First Army did not relieve the battalion as planned and instead it became trapped 50 miles ( 80 km ) behind the German lines , where Frost was informed by radio that they had been written off . After ambushing an advancing German formation , the battalion were attacked by a second German unit and surrounded . On 1 December the Germans attacked with infantry , armour and artillery , almost wiping out ' C ' Company and causing heavy casualties in the rest of the battalion . Frost ordered the battalion to disperse into company groups and head for the Allied lines . On 3 December , the surviving 180 men reached safety at Majaz al Bab . With no more opportunities for parachute operations , the brigade fought in the front line as normal infantry . In February they held the right flank of the Allied line at Bou Arada and on the night of 2 / 3 February , the 1st Battalion , along with a French Foreign Legion unit , captured the Jebel Mansour heights and were then subjected to constant shelling and infantry attacks . After three days without relief , their almost ammunition expended , and having suffered 200 casualties , they were forced to withdraw . This was followed by the brigade fighting two fierce engagements at Tamera and checking the German offensive of Operation Ochsenkopf . When the Allied advance began again after the winter rains , the brigade was assigned to the force tasked with capturing Bizerta on 17 March . The remaining Axis forces surrendered on 13 May 1943 bringing the Tunisian campaign to an end with a cost to the 1st Parachute Brigade of 1 @,@ 700 killed , wounded or missing . They had nevertheless proved themselves in combat and been nicknamed the Red Devils by the German forces they had fought against .
= = = Sicily = = =
Immediately before the Axis surrender in April 1943 , the 1st Airborne Division , now commanded by Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , arrived in North Africa , and the 1st Parachute Brigade once again came under their command for further operations in Sicily . The invasion of Sicily was to be carried out by General Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army landing in the east and Lieutenant General George S. Patton 's U.S. Seventh Army coming ashore in the west . These seaborne landings were to be supported by airborne assaults whereby the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would support the Americans and the 1st Airborne Division the British . The British airborne assault was divided into brigade @-@ sized operations : Operation Ladbroke by the 1st Airlanding Brigade took place on the night of 9 / 10 July , and Operation Fustian by the 1st Parachute Brigade on the night of 13 / 14 July . A third operation to drop 2nd Parachute Brigade beside Augusta on the night of 10 / 11 July ( Operation Glutton ) was cancelled .
Now under the command of Brigadier Gerald Lathbury , 1st Parachute Brigade 's objective in Sicily was the Primosole bridge across the Simeto River , south of Catania , the only crossing point that gave the Eighth Army access to the Catania plain . Once they had captured the bridge , the brigade were to hold out until relieved by Major @-@ General Sidney C. Kirkman 's 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , reinforced by the 4th Armoured Brigade advancing from the landing beaches . Paratroops of the brigade would land on four DZs and the gliders at two landing zones ( LZ ) . The 1st Parachute Battalion was divided into two groups that would land at DZs on both sides of the river and thereafter attack the bridge from both sides simultaneously – 3rd Parachute Battalion would land on their own DZ north of the bridge and secure the high ground , while the 2nd Parachute Battalion did the same in the south .
At 19 : 30 on 12 July 1943 the brigade took off from North Africa Consisting of 105 Dakotas , eight of them towing Waco gliders and 11 Albemarles towing Horsa gliders , the gliders amongst other things transported the twelve anti @-@ tank guns of the 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery .
The brigade 's first casualties occurred while they were still en route , when two Dakotas were shot down flying over an Allied convoy with another nine damaged and forced to turn back . When they reached the Sicilian coast , Axis anti @-@ aircraft fire shot down thirty @-@ seven and a further ten were damaged and forced to abort their mission . Of the surviving aircraft , only thirty @-@ nine managed to drop their paratroops within .5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the correct DZ . Only four gliders arrived intact and those not shot down en route were destroyed while attempting to land . Despite these setbacks , the 250 surviving men of the 1st Parachute Battalion captured the bridge intact . The battalion commander , 28 @-@ year old Lieutenant Colonel Pearson , ordered his men to dig in on the north side of the river . Their only support weapons were three anti @-@ tank guns , two 3 inch mortars and a Vickers machine gun . As they dug in , the men removed the demolition charges from the bridge such that even if they were forced off the bridge it could not be immediately destroyed .
Unknown to the brigade , units of the German 1st Parachute Division had parachuted onto Catania airfield to reinforce the Italians guarding the bridge and quickly moved to regain the crossing . The German paratroops attacked at dawn . The defenders at the bridge held out all day against infantry , armour and attacks by aircraft . South of the bridge , the 2nd Parachute Battalion also under attack , were able to call on naval gunfire support from the 6 inch guns of the British cruiser HMS Mauritius , which stopped an assault that was about to overrun their position . The men from the 1st and 3rd Battalions , although initially forced across the river , still held the southern bank until dark when they withdrew to the 2nd Battalion 's position .
To the south , the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , in the face of strong German resistance , had stopped for the night 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the 2nd Battalion . Gunfire was heard just south of the brigade position on the following morning whereupon Brigadier Lathbury sent out a patrol to investigate and they discovered it was from British guns . The leading elements of the 50th Division had finally made contact with the brigade . After two days fighting , the brigade 's 4th Armoured and the 9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry recaptured the bridge . Operations Ladbroke and Fustian had cost the British 1st Airborne Division 454 dead , 240 wounded and 102 missing .
= = = England = = =
The brigade returned to England in late 1943 and trained for operations in North @-@ West Europe under the supervision of I Airborne Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Frederick Browning . Although they were not scheduled to take part in the Normandy landings , Operation Wastage was a contingency plan drawn up whereby all the 1st Airborne Division would be parachuted in to support any of the five invasion beaches if delays were experienced .
In early September the brigade prepared for Operation Comet , during which the 1st Airborne Division 's three brigades were to land in the Netherlands and capture three river crossings . The first of these was the bridge over the River Waal at Nijmegen , the second the bridge over the River Maas at Grave and finally the bridge over the River Rhine at Arnhem . The objective of the British 1st Parachute Brigade would be the bridge at Arnhem . Planning for Comet was well advanced when on 10 September the mission was cancelled . Instead , a new operation was proposed with the same objectives as Comet but to be carried out by three divisions of the First Allied Airborne Army , the British 1st and U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions .
= = = Arnhem = = =
Landings by the 1st Allied Airborne Army 's three divisions began in the Netherlands on 17 September 1944 . Although the allocation of aircraft for each division was roughly similar , the 101st Airborne Division landing at Nijmegen would use only one lift . The 82nd Airborne Division at Grave required two lifts while the 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem would need three lifts . Whereas the two American divisions delivered at least three quarters of their infantry in their first lift , the 1st Airborne 's similar drop used only half its capacity for infantry and the remainder to deliver vehicles and artillery .
The 1st Airborne Division had the required airlift capacity to deliver all three parachute brigades with their glider @-@ borne anti @-@ tank weapons or two of the parachute brigades and the airlanding brigade on day one . Instead however , the vast majority of the division 's vehicles and heavy equipment , plus the 1st Parachute Brigade , most of the 1st Airlanding Brigade and divisional troops were to be on the first lift , with the rest to follow the next day . Following the first lift , the airlanding brigade would remain at the landing grounds to defend them for the following day 's lifts , while the parachute brigade set out alone to capture the bridges and ferry crossing on the River Rhine .
Planes carrying the brigade left England at around 09 : 45 and arrived over DZ ' X ' at 13 : 00 . After an uneventful landing the brigade , once organised , set off for Arnhem . The 2nd Parachute Battalion followed a southern route along the river Rhine , to the north 3rd Parachute Battalion took the Heelsum @-@ Arnhem road through Oosterbeek , while the 1st Parachute Battalion initially remained in reserve at brigade headquarters . The 2nd Battalion , with ' A ' Company leading , came under sporadic fire from pockets of German troops . ' C ' Company were directed to capture the Arnhem railway bridge , but it was blown up just as they arrived . Pushing ahead , ' A ' Company came under fire from German armoured cars and discovered that the central span of the pontoon bridge was missing . Entering Arnhem as night fell , the leading battalion elements reached the main road bridge at 21 : 00 . Having secured the northern end of the bridge , attempts to capture the southern end were repulsed and the battalion started to fortify the houses and dig in . Following behind , other units of the brigade started to arrive , including a troop of guns from 1st ( Airlanding ) Anti @-@ Tank Battery , brigade headquarters without the brigadier , part of the 1st Airborne Reconnaissance Squadron , and detachments of Royal Engineers and Royal Army Service Corps men . In total about 500 men were now at the bridge .
A lucky break allowed 3rd Battalion to ambush the staff car carrying Generalmajor Friedrich Kussin , the German commandant of Arnhem , and kill him and his driver . Nevertheless , most of the battalion had been stopped
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rapid solution of problems . Once , a roommate of his , P. C. Mahalanobis , posed the following problem :
" Imagine that you are on a street with houses marked 1 through n . There is a house in between ( x ) such that the sum of the house numbers to the left of it equals the sum of the house numbers to its right . If n is between 50 and 500 , what are n and x ? " This is a bivariate problem with multiple solutions . Ramanujan thought about it and gave the answer with a twist : He gave a continued fraction . The unusual part was that it was the solution to the whole class of problems . Mahalanobis was astounded and asked how he did it . “ It is simple . The minute I heard the problem , I knew that the answer was a continued fraction . Which continued fraction , I asked myself . Then the answer came to my mind ” , Ramanujan replied .
His intuition also led him to derive some previously unknown identities , such as
<formula>
for all θ , where Γ ( z ) is the gamma function , and related to a special value of the Dedekind eta function . Expanding into series of powers and equating coefficients of θ0 , θ4 , and θ8 gives some deep identities for the hyperbolic secant .
In 1918 Hardy and Ramanujan studied the partition function P ( n ) extensively . They gave a non @-@ convergent asymptotic series that permits exact computation of the number of partitions of an integer . Hans Rademacher , in 1937 , was able to refine their formula to find an exact convergent series solution to this problem . Ramanujan and Hardy 's work in this area gave rise to a powerful new method for finding asymptotic formulae called the circle method .
In the last year of his life , Ramanujan discovered mock theta functions . For many years these functions were a mystery , but they are now known to be the holomorphic parts of harmonic weak Maass forms .
= = = The Ramanujan conjecture = = =
Although there are numerous statements that could have borne the name Ramanujan conjecture , there is one that was very influential on later work . In particular , the connection of this conjecture with conjectures of André Weil in algebraic geometry opened up new areas of research . That Ramanujan conjecture is an assertion on the size of the tau @-@ function , which has as generating function the discriminant modular form Δ ( q ) , a typical cusp form in the theory of modular forms . It was finally proven in 1973 , as a consequence of Pierre Deligne 's proof of the Weil conjectures . The reduction step involved is complicated . Deligne won a Fields Medal in 1978 for that work .
In his paper On certain arithmetical functions , Ramanujan defined the so @-@ called Delta @-@ function whose coefficients are called τ ( n ) ( the Ramanujan tau function ) . He proved many congruences for these numbers such as τ ( p ) ≡ 1 + p11 mod 691 for primes p . This congruence ( and others like it that Ramanujan proved ) inspired Jean @-@ Pierre Serre ( 1954 Fields Medalist ) to conjecture that there is a theory of Galois representations which " explains " these congruences and more generally all modular forms . Delta ( z ) is the first example of a modular form to be studied in this way . Pierre Deligne ( in his Fields Medal winning work ) proved Serre 's conjecture . The proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem proceeds by first reinterpreting elliptic curves and modular forms in terms of these Galois representations . Without this theory there would be no proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem .
= = = Ramanujan 's notebooks = = =
While still in Madras , Ramanujan recorded the bulk of his results in four notebooks of loose @-@ leaf paper . They were mostly written up without any derivations . This is probably the origin of the misperception that Ramanujan was unable to prove his results and simply thought up the final result directly . Mathematician Bruce C. Berndt , in his review of these notebooks and Ramanujan 's work , says that Ramanujan most certainly was able to prove most of his results , but chose not to .
That may have been for several reasons . Since paper was very expensive , Ramanujan would do most of his work and perhaps his proofs on slate , and then transfer just the results to paper . Using a slate was common for mathematics students in the Madras Presidency at the time . He was also quite likely to have been influenced by the style of G. S. Carr 's book , which stated results without proofs . Finally , it is possible that Ramanujan considered his workings to be for his personal interest alone and therefore recorded only the results .
The first notebook has 351 pages with 16 somewhat organised chapters and some unorganised material . The second notebook has 256 pages in 21 chapters and 100 unorganised pages , with the third notebook containing 33 unorganised pages . The results in his notebooks inspired numerous papers by later mathematicians trying to prove what he had found . Hardy himself created papers exploring material from Ramanujan 's work , as did G. N. Watson , B. M. Wilson , and Bruce Berndt . A fourth notebook with 87 unorganised pages , the so @-@ called " lost notebook " , was rediscovered in 1976 by George Andrews .
Notebooks 1 , 2 and 3 were published as a two @-@ volume set in 1957 by the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research ( TIFR ) , Mumbai , India . This was a photocopy edition of the original manuscripts , in his own handwriting .
In December 2011 , as part of the celebrations of the 125th anniversary of Ramanujan 's birth , TIFR republished the notebooks in a coloured two @-@ volume collector 's edition . These were produced from scanned and microfilmed images of the original manuscripts by expert archivists of Raja Muthiah Research Library , Chennai .
= = Hardy – Ramanujan number 1729 = =
The number 1729 is known as the Hardy – Ramanujan number after a famous visit by Hardy to see Ramanujan at a hospital . In Hardy 's words :
I remember once going to see him when he was ill at Putney . I had ridden in taxi cab number 1729 and remarked that the number seemed to me rather a dull one , and that I hoped it was not an unfavorable omen . ' No ' , he replied , ' it is a very interesting number ; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.'
Immediately before this anecdote , Hardy quoted Littlewood as saying , " Every positive integer was one of [ Ramanujan 's ] personal friends . "
The two different ways are
1729
= 13 + 123 =
93 + 103 .
Generalizations of this idea have created the notion of " taxicab numbers " .
= = Other mathematicians ' views of Ramanujan = =
Hardy said : " He combined a power of generalization , a feeling for form , and a capacity for rapid modification of his hypotheses , that were often really startling , and made him , in his own peculiar field , without a rival in his day . The limitations of his knowledge were as startling as its profundity . Here was a man who could work out modular equations and theorems ... to orders unheard of , whose mastery of continued fractions was ... beyond that of any mathematician in the world , who had found for himself the functional equation of the zeta function and the dominant terms of many of the most famous problems in the analytic theory of numbers ; and yet he had never heard of a doubly periodic function or of Cauchy 's theorem , and had indeed but the vaguest idea of what a function of a complex variable was ... " . When asked about the methods Ramanujan employed to arrive at his solutions , Hardy said that they were " arrived at by a process of mingled argument , intuition , and induction , of which he was entirely unable to give any coherent account . " He also stated that he had " never met his equal , and can compare him only with Euler or Jacobi . "
K. Srinivasa Rao has said , " As for his place in the world of Mathematics , we quote Bruce C. Berndt : ' Paul Erdős has passed on to us Hardy 's personal ratings of mathematicians . Suppose that we rate mathematicians on the basis of pure talent on a scale from 0 to 100 , Hardy gave himself a score of 25 , J.E. Littlewood 30 , David Hilbert 80 and Ramanujan 100 . ' "
During a lecture at IIT Madras in May 2011 , Berndt stated that over the last 40 years , as nearly all of Ramanujan 's theorems have been proven right , there had been greater appreciation of Ramanujan 's work and brilliance , and that Ramanujan 's work was now pervading many areas of modern mathematics and physics .
In his book Scientific Edge , the physicist Jayant Narlikar spoke of " Srinivasa Ramanujan , discovered by the Cambridge mathematician Hardy , whose great mathematical findings were beginning to be appreciated from 1915 to 1919 . His achievements were to be fully understood much later , well after his untimely death in 1920 . For example , his work on the highly composite numbers ( numbers with a large number of factors ) started a whole new line of investigations in the theory of such numbers . "
During his lifelong mission in educating and propagating mathematics among the school children in India , Nigeria and elsewhere , P.K. Srinivasan has continually introduced Ramanujan 's mathematical works .
= = Posthumous recognition = =
Ramanujan 's home state of Tamil Nadu celebrates 22 December ( Ramanujan 's birthday ) as ' State IT Day ' . A stamp picturing Ramanujan was released by the Government of India in 1962 – the 75th anniversary of Ramanujan 's birth – commemorating his achievements in the field of number theory , and a new design was issued on 26 December 2011 , by the India Post .
Since Ramanujan 's centennial year , his birthday , 22 December , has been annually celebrated as Ramanujan Day by the Government Arts College , Kumbakonam where he studied and at the IIT Madras in Chennai . A prize for young mathematicians from developing countries has been created in Ramanujan 's name by the International Centre for Theoretical Physics ( ICTP ) in cooperation with the International Mathematical Union , which nominate members of the prize committee . The SASTRA University , based in the state of Tamil Nadu in South India , has instituted the SASTRA Ramanujan Prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 to be given annually to a mathematician not exceeding the age of 32 for outstanding contributions in an area of mathematics influenced by Ramanujan . Vasavi College of Engineering named its Department of Computer Science and Information Technology " Ramanujan Block " .
In 2011 , on the 125th anniversary of his birth , the Indian Government declared that 22 December will be celebrated every year as National Mathematics Day . Then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh also declared that the year 2012 would be celebrated as the National Mathematics Year .
= = In media = =
The thriller novel The Steradian Trail by M N Krish weaves Ramanujan and his accidental discovery into its plot connecting religion , mathematics , finance and economics .
Ramanujan , an Indo @-@ British collaboration film , chronicling the life of Ramanujan , was released in 2014 by the independent film company Camphor Cinema . The cast and crew include director Gnana Rajasekaran , cinematographer Sunny Joseph and editor B. Lenin . Popular Indian and English stars Abhinay Vaddi , Suhasini Maniratnam , Bhama , Kevin McGowan and Michael Lieber star in pivotal roles .
The Man Who Knew Infinity is a film based on the book The Man Who Knew Infinity : A Life of the Genius Ramanujan by Robert Kanigel . In the film , Ramanujan is portrayed by British actor Dev Patel .
A play , First Class Man by Alter Ego Productions , was based on David Freeman 's First Class Man . The play is centred around Ramanujan and his complex and dysfunctional relationship with Hardy . On 16 October 2011 , it was announced that Roger Spottiswoode , best known for his James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies , is working on the film version , starring actor Siddharth . Like the book and play it is also titled The First Class Man .
A Disappearing Number is a recent British stage production by the company Complicite that explores the relationship between Hardy and Ramanujan .
The novel The Indian Clerk by David Leavitt explores in fiction the events following Ramanujan 's letter to Hardy .
Google honoured him on his 125th birth anniversary by replacing its logo with a doodle on its home page .
Ramanujan was mentioned in the 1997 film Good Will Hunting , in a scene where professor Gerald Lambeau ( Stellan Skarsgard ) explains to Sean Maguire ( Robin Williams ) the genius of Will Hunting ( Matt Damon ) by comparing him to Ramanujan .
On 22 March 1988 , the PBS Series Nova aired a documentary about Ramanujan , " The Man Who Loved Numbers " ( Season 15 , Episode 19 ) .
= = Selected publications by Ramanujan = =
= = Selected publications about Ramanujan and his work = =
= = = Media links = = =
Biswas , Soutik ( 16 March 2006 ) . " Film to celebrate mathematics genius " . BBC . Retrieved 24 August 2006 .
Feature Film on Mathematics Genius Ramanujan by Dev Benegal and Stephen Fry
BBC radio programme about Ramanujan – episode 5
A biographical song about Ramanujan 's life
= = = Biographical links = = =
Srinivasa Ramanujan at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
O 'Connor , John J. ; Robertson , Edmund F. , " Srinivasa Ramanujan " , MacTutor History of Mathematics archive , University of St Andrews .
Weisstein , Eric W. , Ramanujan , Srinivasa ( 1887 – 1920 ) from ScienceWorld .
Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan
A short biography of Ramanujan
" Our Devoted Site for Great Mathematical Genius "
= = = Other links = = =
Who Was Ramanujan ?
A Study Group For Mathematics : Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar
The Ramanujan Journal – An international journal devoted to Ramanujan
International Math Union Prizes , including a Ramanujan Prize .
Hindu.com : Norwegian and Indian mathematical geniuses , RAMANUJAN – Essays and Surveys , Ramanujan 's growing influence , Ramanujan 's mentor
Hindu.com : The sponsor of Ramanujan
Bruce C. Berndt ; Robert A. Rankin ( 2000 ) . " The Books Studied by Ramanujan in India " . American Mathematical Monthly ( Mathematical Association of America ) 107 ( 7 ) : 595 – 601 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2589114 . JSTOR 2589114 . MR 1786233 .
" Ramanujan 's mock theta function puzzle solved "
Ramanujan 's papers and notebooks
Sample page from the second notebook
Ramanujan on Fried Eye
Clark , Alex . " 163 and Ramanujan Constant " . Numberphile . Brady Haran .
= 1919 Polish coup d 'état attempt in Lithuania =
The Polish coup d 'état attempt in Lithuania refers to a failed attempt by Polish statesman Józef Piłsudski to overthrow the existing Lithuanian government of Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius , and install a pro @-@ Polish cabinet that would agree to a union with Poland . The Polish intelligence agency , the Polish Military Organization ( PMO ) was to carry out the coup d 'etat , planned to be implemented in August 1919 . The coup was designed to seem to be an initiative by local Lithuanians aiming to free their government of German influence . The PMO hoped to rely on the assistance of sympathetic Lithuanian activists . They were thwarted by the lack of cooperation and the unwillingness of sufficient number of Lithuanians to support the Polish cause .
After the Sejny Uprising , a Polish revolt against the Lithuanian authorities in one of the disputed border regions , Lithuanian intelligence intensified its investigation of the Polish minority and sympathizers in Lithuania , and uncovered the planned coup . The Lithuanians , not knowing the membership of the PMO , arrested numerous Polish activists and destabilized the PMO network enough to prevent the coup attempt . Later the full membership list was obtained and the PMO in Lithuania was dissolved . The coup further strained Polish – Lithuanian relations .
= = Background = =
Poland and Lithuania formed one state , the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , from the Union of Lublin in 1569 to the Third Partition in 1795 . Both Poland and Lithuania regained their independence in the aftermath of World War I , but both soon became engaged in territorial disputes over the Suwałki and Vilnius Regions . During the Polish – Soviet War , Poland launched an offensive against the Soviet Union and captured Vilnius ( Wilno ) during the Vilna offensive in April 1919 . Lithuanians described Vilnius as their historical capital and an integral part of the ethnographic Lithuania , while to the Poles , because of its large Polish population , it was a Polish city . Poland 's Chief of State Józef Piłsudski sought a union with Lithuania in hopes of reviving the old Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ( see Międzymorze federation ) . The Lithuanians believed they would lose their sovereignty under the proposed federation and wanted their own national state . Although Polish – Lithuanian relations were not immediately hostile , they grew worse as each side refused to compromise .
As tensions rose , Lithuania asked the Allied Supreme Council to intervene , and it proposed two demarcation lines to prevent open hostilities , drawn in June and July 1919 ( the second one was known as the Foch Line ) . However , Poland ignored both lines and advanced deeper into the Lithuanian @-@ controlled territory . Faced with pressure from the Entente , Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski , who was significantly involved in planning of the coup , did not want open Polish – Lithuanian hostilities , which could led to much bloodshed and even greater tensions between Poland and Lithuania . Instead , since he thought there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to stage a coup d 'etat , he decided to plan one to topple the Lithuanian government .
= = Preparations = =
The planning began mid @-@ July , 1919 . At the time Poland signed a ceasefire in the Polish – Ukrainian War ; Lithuania was invaded by the Bermontians from the north and the Saxon Volunteers were leaving the Lithuanian Army . Piłsudski was planning to use a network of the Polish Military Organization ( PMO ) , an underground organization he created during World War I for diversionary and intelligence operations @-@ like purposes . On July 31 , Piłsudski and Polish diplomat Leon Wasilewski arrived at Vilnius , then controlled by Poland . Piłsudski 's visit had no clear explanation . He later said that he arrived to negotiate with Lithuanians , led by Augustinas Voldemaras , while Lithuanian historian Vytautas Lesčius suggests he was holding talks with pro @-@ Polish estate owners from the Vilnius Region . On August 3 , Wasilewski arrived at Kaunas , the temporary capital of Lithuania , to negotiate with Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius . The Polish mission declared that Poland had no plans to annex Lithuania and proposed a plebiscite in the contested territories , allowing local inhabitants to determine their future . The Lithuanians replied that the disputed territories were an integral part of Lithuania and rejected the idea of a plebiscite . Negotiations broke down and Wasilewski left Kaunas on August 7 . The negotiations
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is a stone @-@ built quay and a system to maintain constant water levels . Boat timbers discovered there have been dated to the 12th century . Only three rune stones are known from the west coast of Scotland , on Christian memorials found on Barra , Inchmarnock and Iona .
In the Firth of Clyde , Norse burials have been found on Arran , although not Bute and place name evidence suggests a settlement pattern that was much less well @-@ developed than in the Hebrides . On the mainland coast there is cluster of Norse place names around Largs and an ornate silver brooch was found on a hillside near Hunterston that is of likely 7th @-@ century Irish origin but with a 10th @-@ century runic inscription . Five Hogback monuments found in Govan hint at Scandinavian enclaves inland .
The Isle of Man ( which was absorbed into Scotland from 1266 until the 14th century ) was dominated by the Norse @-@ Gaels from an early date and from 1079 onwards by the Crovan dynasty as attested by the Chronicles of Mann and evidenced by the numerous Manx Runestones and Norse place names . The modern @-@ day Diocese of Sodor and Man retains the centuries @-@ old name .
= = Coastland of the Gael = =
South of Sutherland there is considerable place name evidence of Norse settlement along the entire western coast , although unlike on the islands the settlement in the south seems to have been less prolonged and undertaken in tandem with pre @-@ existing settlement rather than replacing it entirely . The distinction between the Innse Gall ( islands of the foreigners ) and the Airer Goidel ( coastland of the Gael ) is further suggestive of a distinction between island and mainland at an early date . In Wester Ross most of the Gaelic names that exist on the coastline today are of likely Medieval rather than pre @-@ Norse origin and a now @-@ lost charter refers to the mainland village of Glenelg opposite Skye as having been in the possession of the king of Man . As in Orkney and Shetland , Pictish seems to have been entirely replaced wherever the Norse encountered it .
In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil ( i.e. " foreign Gaels " ) appear . This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian @-@ Celtic descent and / or culture who became dominant in west and south @-@ west Scotland , parts of northern England and the isles . This alliance between the two cultures , which also took place in Ireland , may have been instrumental in saving the Gaels of Dál Riata from the fate of the Picts in the north and west . Evidence for Norse settlement in mainland Argyll is limited although the Port an Eilean Mhòir ship burial in Ardnamurchan is the first boat burial site to be discovered on the mainland of Britain .
= = South west Scotland = =
By the mid 10th century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled The Rhinns and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel . Magnus Barelegs is said to have " subdued the people of Galloway " in the 11th century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno @-@ Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium . However , the place name , written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse ( as opposed to Norse @-@ Gael ) settlement in the area is not convincing .
The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll and this is just as true of most of the south west apart from land adjacent to the inner Solway Firth . In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic , Norse and Danish influence , the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England . One feature of the area is the number of names with a " kirk " prefix followed by a saint 's name such as Kirkoswald . Interpretation of this is not certain but it is also indicative of a mixed Gaelic / Norse population .
= = Eastern Scotland = =
There is no evidence of permanent Viking settlement on the east coast south of the Moray Firth , or of Norse burials , although raids and even invasions certainly occurred . Dunnottar was taken during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín and the Orkneyinga saga records an attack on the Isle of May , by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson :
They sailed south off Scotland until they came to Máeyar . There was a monastery , the head of which was an abbot , by name , Baldwin . Swein and his men were detained there seven nights by stress of bad weather . They said they had been sent by Earl Rögnvald to the King of Scots . The monks suspected their tale , and thinking they were pirates , sent to the mainland for men . When Swein and his comrades became aware of this , they went hastily aboard their ship , after having plundered much treasure from the monastery .
Place name evidence of Scandinavian settlement is very limited on the east coast and in the south @-@ east Anglian was the predominant influence during this period of history .
= = Internal politics = =
The first phase of Norse expansion was that of war bands seeking plunder and the creation of new settlements . The second phase involved the integration of these settlers into organised political structures of which the most prominent in the early part were the Earls of Orkney in the north and the Uí Ímair in the south .
Even if the commencement of a formal earldom of Orkney is a matter of discussion ( see above ) there is little doubt that the institution experienced continuity thereafter . Until the mid to late 11th century the Earls of Orkney and Kings of the Western Isles were probably independent rulers . The imposition of direct Norwegian rule at the end of this century brought this to a close in the north and unusually , from c . 1100 onwards the Norse jarls of the Northern Isles owed allegiance both to Norway for Orkney and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness . In 1231 the line of Norse earls , unbroken since Rognvald Eysteinsson , ended with Jon Haraldsson 's murder in Thurso . The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus , second son of the Earl of Angus , whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236 . In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family , who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh although Orkney and Shetland remained part of Norway for a century more .
The situation in the Suðreyar was more complex . Different kings may have ruled over very different areas and few of them can be seen as exerting any kind of close control over this " far @-@ flung sea kingdom " . The Uí Ímair were certainly a powerful force from the late 9th to the early 11th century with dynasts such as Amlaíb Cuarán and Gofraid mac Arailt claiming kingship of the Isles . Norse sources also list various rulers such as jarls Gilli , Sigurd the Stout , Håkon Eiriksson and Thorfinn the Mighty as rulers over the Hebrides who were vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark . The dates from the Irish and Norse sources do not significantly overlap , but it is not clear if these are records of competing empires , or reflect Uí Ímar influence in the south and direct Norse rule in the north , or both . Furthermore , two records in the Annals of Innisfallen may suggest that the Western Isles were not " organised into a kingdom or earldom " at this time but rather that they were " ruled by assemblies of freeholders who regularly elected lawmen to preside over their public affairs " . The Annals of the Four Masters entries for 962 and 974 hint at a similar arrangement . Crawford ( 1987 ) suggests that influence from the south rather than the north was " usually predominant " whilst admitting that the islands probably formed " groups of more or less independent communities " .
Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079 and from the early years of the 12th century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as " Kings of Mann and the Isles " for the next half century . The kingdom was than sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides whilst the Manx rulers held on to the " north isles " for another century . The origins of both Godred Crovan and Somerled are obscure — the former may have been an Uí Ímair dynast from Islay , the latter married a Crovan heiress .
Thus it is clear that although there were competing factions in play , the Hebrides and islands of the Clyde were essentially under the control of rulers of Scandinavian origin from " at least the late tenth century " until the emergence of the kingdom of Scotland and its 13th century expansion into the west .
= = Relations with Pictland , Strathclyde and Alba = =
The early Viking threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians continue to debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín in the 840s , who brought to power the House of Alpin who were leaders of a combined Gaelic @-@ Pictish kingdom for almost two centuries .
In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar , " the two kings of the Northmen " , who " returned to Dublin from Britain " the following year with numerous captives . Dumbarton was the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde and this was clearly a major assault which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Ui Imair control . Three years earlier Vikings had seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled . Amlaíb and his brother Auisle " ravaged the whole of Pictland and took their hostages " and later occupied this territory for a protracted period . The 875 Battle of Dollar was another major setback for the Picts / Scots .
In 902 the Norse suffered a serious reverse in Ireland losing control of Dublin and this seems to have intensified attacks on the emerging kingdom of Alba . A year later Dunkeld was attacked and Ímar , the " grandson of Ímar " was killed in battle with the forces of Constantine II in mainland Scotland . In the late tenth century the battle of " Innisibsolian " was won by Alban forces over Vikings . Yet these events were setbacks for the Norse rather than a definitive moment . Of more significance were their defeats at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and at the Battle of Tara in 980 .
In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín , King of Scots , was killed ( according to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba ) fighting the Norse near Cullen , at the Battle of Bauds but the line of the House of Alpin held firm and the threat posed by the Scandinavian presence to the emergent Kingdom of Scotland lessened . Perhaps to counter growing Irish influence in the Western Isles Magnus Barelegs re @-@ established direct Norwegian overlordship there by 1098 . He first took Orkney , the northern Scottish mainland and the Hebrides , where he " dyed his sword red in blood " in the Uists . In that year , Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus which settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in the islands . Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides and Kintyre .
Following the intervention of Somerled and his death at the Battle of Renfrew the Kings of the Isles were weakened relative to the Scottish state , but more than 150 years later Norway intervened again , this time unsuccessfully . Following Haakon Haakonarson 's ill @-@ fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown " had of old therein " were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth .
In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as king of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual .
= = Religion , culture and economy = =
Although there is evidence of varying burial rites practised by Norse settlers in Scotland , such as grave goods found on Colonsay and Westray , there is little that enables a confirmation that the Norse gods were venerated prior to the reintroduction of Christianity . The Odin Stone has been used as evidence of Odinic beliefs and practices but the derivation may well be from " oathing stone " . A few Scandinavian poetic references suggest that Orcadian audiences understood elements of the Norse pantheon , although this is hardly conclusive proof of active beliefs . Nonetheless , it is likely that pagan practices existed in early Scandinavian Scotland .
According to the sagas , the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke , receiving their own bishop , Henry of Lund ( also known as " the Fat " ) , who was appointed sometime prior to 1035 . The greatest source of Scottish influence after the appointment of the Scottish earls in the 13th century was probably through the church , although it is clear that Scots influence on the culture of Orkney and Shetland was fairly limited until the close of the 14th century or later . An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers , fishermen and merchants that called themselves Communitas Orchadensis and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords , be they Norwegian or Scots . This independence of mind may have been fostered by the influence of Norwegian government which was essentially communal and federal by contrast with Scotland . It was not until the mid 16th century that the Norse institutions were replaced by Scottish systems following large @-@ scale immigration from the south and the islanders were probably bi @-@ lingual until the 17th century .
Once again , the situation in the Hebrides is much less clear . There was a Bishop of Iona until the late 10th century and there is then a gap of more than a century , possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney , before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079 . The conversion of Scandinavian Scotland and the resultant end to slavery and integration of Viking society into mainstream European culture was a significant event . It took place at an early date , although the popular image of marauding berserkers and of the Norse as " enemies of social progress " remains despite considerable evidence that in their latter phase the Norse @-@ speaking populations were rather " enlightened practitioners of maritime commercial principles " . Þings were open @-@ air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all free men . At these sessions decisions were made , laws passed and complaints adjudicated . Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland , Dingwall in Easter Ross , and Tynwald on the Isle of Man .
Women enjoyed a relatively high status during the Viking Age , possibly due to the high degree of mobility in society . There is little knowledge of their role in the Scandinavian colonies of Scotland although the indirect evidence of graves during the pagan and Christian periods suggests roles similar to those held elsewhere . Amongst the best known figures are Gormflaith ingen Murchada , Gunnhild Gormsdóttir , Aud the Deep @-@ Minded and Ingibjörg , the daughter of Earl Hakon Paulsson and wife of King Olaf Godredsson .
The Norse legacy of art and architecture is limited . The Christchurch at Brough of Birsay , now reduced , was the early seat of the Bishop 's of Orkney . St. Magnus Cathedral , Kirkwall is peerless as an example of Norse @-@ era construction in Scotland and St. Magnus Church , on Egilsay retains its round tower . The iconic Lewis chessmen are the best known treasure trove and numerous finds of grave goods including brooches and weaponry such as the Scar boat burial are well @-@ documented .
There is growing evidence of the importance of trade and commerce . Data from the Outer Hebrides suggests that pigs were a more important aspect of Viking farming than prior to that time , that red deer numbers may have been controlled rather than the species simply being subject to hunting , that herring fishing became an important commercial consideration and that trade with centres to the south such as Dublin and Bristol may have been important . Coins found at Bornais and Cille Pheadair were produced in Norway , Westphalia , and England , although there were none from Scotland . Ivory from Greenland was also found there .
= = Present day influence = =
Norse and Viking colonisations and settlements have made an impression on peripheral Scotland , the evidence for which can be found in place names , language , genetics and other aspects of cultural heritage .
The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid 11th century during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson , who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man . The Suðreyjar have a total land area of approximately 8 @,@ 374 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 233 sq mi ) . Caithness and Sutherland have a combined area of 7 @,@ 051 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 722 sq mi ) and the permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at minimum between a fifth and a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland .
The Viking invasions may have inadvertently played a role in the creation of modern Scotland . Their destructive raids initially weakened Pictland , Strathclyde and Dal Riata , but these " harassed remnants " eventually became a united front and Norse aggression thus played a significant role in the creation of the kingdom of Alba , the nucleus from which the Scottish kingdom expanded as the Viking influence waned , just as in the south Wessex expanded to become the kingdom of England .
Some Scots take pride in their Scandinavian ancestry . For example , Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod , who according to tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black . Clan MacNeacail of Skye also claim Norse ancestry , and occasional references are made to the idea of Scotland joining " the Nordic circle of nations " in modern political debate . Yet , unlike the Danelaw in England , the Scandinavian occupation of Scotland has no single common name . This may be a reflection of the less well documented nature of the various invasions involved , but it also hints at a relative lack of popular understanding of the history . By comparison to the Roman occupations of Scotland the Norse kingdoms were much longer lived , more recent and had a significantly more dramatic influence on spoken language and by extension culture and lifestyles generally . They were however confined to areas that are relatively remote from the main centres of modern population . Furthermore , regardless of the actual impact of Scandinavian culture , the hereditary leaders of the Scots nation are generally descended from Pictish and Gaelic stock . The Vikings are thus often seen in a negative light and as a foreign invasion rather than as a key part of a multi @-@ cultural polity .
Nonetheless , in the Northern Isles the Scandinavian connection is still celebrated , one of the best @-@ known such events being the Lerwick fire @-@ festival Up Helly Aa . In particular , Shetland 's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring . When Norway became independent again in 1905 the Shetland authorities sent a letter to King Haakon VII in which they stated : " Today no ' foreign ' flag is more familiar or more welcome in our voes and havens than that of Norway , and Shetlanders continue to look upon Norway as their mother @-@ land , and recall with pride and affection the time when their forefathers were under the rule of the Kings of Norway . " At the 2013 Viking Congress held in Shetland the Scottish Government announced plans to strengthen Scotland ’ s historic links with Scandinavia .
= Dragon Quest ( video game ) =
Dragon Quest ( Japanese : ドラゴンクエスト , Hepburn : Doragon Kuesuto ) , also released as Dragon Warrior , is the first role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) in the Dragon Quest media franchise . It was developed by Chunsoft for the Family Computer ( or Famicom for short ) and published by Enix in Japan in 1986 as Dragon Quest and by Nintendo in 1989 in North America for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( or NES ) as Dragon Warrior . Dragon Quest has been ported and remade for several video game platforms , including the MSX , PC @-@ 9801 , X68000 , Super Famicom , Game Boy Color , and mobile phones . In play , players control a hero character who is charged with saving the Kingdom of Alefgard and rescuing its princess from the evil Dragonlord . Dragon Warrior 's story became the second part in a trilogy . Several more anime and manga games , which revolved around this overarching plot were created .
Dragon Quest was created by Yuji Horii , who took inspiration from previous role @-@ playing games such as Wizardry , Ultima , and his own 1983 title The Portopia Serial Murder Case . Horii wanted to create an RPG which would appeal to a wide audience of people who were unfamiliar with the genre of video games in general . He tried to place a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement , as well as simplify the interface and expose the mostly Western computer genre to the Japanese console market . Manga artist and Dragon Ball creator Akira Toriyama produced the game 's artwork and Koichi Sugiyama composed its music . The North American version featured numerous changes , including battery @-@ backed RAM save games ( rather than using a password save system ) , modified character sprites and pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English style dialog .
Dragon Quest was commercially successful in Japan , with more than 2 million copies sold . Its release as Dragon Warrior in North America , and other Western countries , was less favorably received . Later , Western critics noted the game 's shortcomings but acknowledged its importance to the genre . Its original pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English script has been praised in many of these reviews . Fan @-@ made ROM hacks were released with substantial changes to the game . The game 's sound effects have also been orchestrated , and its music has been performed at numerous concerts . As a whole , Dragon Warrior has been credited with establishing the basic template for the Japanese console RPGs that followed .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Warrior is a role @-@ playing video game . Its gameplay mechanics have been described , years after its release , as simplistic and spartan . Players control a young hero who sets out to defeat a being known as the Dragonlord . Before starting the game , players are presented with a menu which allows them to begin a new quest ( a game ) , continue a previous quest , or change the speed in which messages appear on the screen . In the Japanese version , continuing a quest requires players to enter a password ; in the North American Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) English version , the quest is saved onto the game cartridge 's battery @-@ backup ( known in the game as an " Adventure Log " in the " Imperial Scrolls of Honor " ) . The English version also has options to delete or duplicate a saved quest . If players choose to start a new quest , they may give the hero any name they wish in either Japanese kana or English letters depending on the version . The hero 's name has an effect on his initial ability scores and their statistical growth over the course of the game . Each stat falls into one of two categories , one with faster growth than the other , and the game determines which path each stat uses with a formula based on the kana or letters in the character 's name .
Dragon Warrior presents players with a clear objective from the start and uses a series of smaller scenarios to increase the hero 's strength in order to achieve the objective . The game begins in King Lorik 's chamber in Tantegel Castle , where the hero receives information about the Dragonlord , whom he must defeat , and the stolen Balls of Light , which he must retrieve . After receiving some items and gold , the hero sets out on his quest . Much of Dragon Warrior is spent talking to townspeople and gathering information from them that leads to additional places , events , and secrets . Players are advised to take notes of these hints for future reference . Towns contain shops that sell improved weapons and armor ; general stores where the player may buy other goods ; inns that allow the hero to recover his health and magic , and shops that offer keys for purchase . Players may sell items at half price to shops that provide weapons , armor , or general goods . The hero 's status window is shown whenever he stops moving , displaying his current experience level ( LV ) and the amount of hit points ( HP ) , magic points ( MP ) , gold ( G ) , and experience points ( E ) .
To safely progress to the next areas in the game , players need to accumulate experience points and gold by defeating enemies outside of towns – in the overworld and in dungeons . Apart from the Dragonlord 's castle , there are no physical restrictions on where players can roam . Instead , monsters increase in difficulty as players venture further from Tantegel castle . As the hero 's level increases , players can explore further afield with less risk . Enemies appear in random encounters and the hero fights one opponent at a time . The encounter rate is lowest on fields and increases in forests and hills . Battles are turn @-@ based and fought from a first @-@ person perspective while the hero remains off @-@ screen . In combat , players must defeat the enemy by reducing its HP to zero . During combat , players have four commands : " fight " , " run " , " spell " , and " item " . The " fight " command causes the hero to attack the enemy with a weapon , or with his bare fists if no weapon is available , in an attempt to inflict damage . With the " run " command , the hero attempts to escape from a battle , which is recommended if his HP is low . The " spell " command casts magic that can , for example , heal the hero or damage the enemy . The " item " command uses herbs that replenish the hero 's HP .
During combat , the hero loses HP when he takes damage , and the display turns red when his HP is low . If his HP falls to zero , he dies and is taken back to King Lorik to be resurrected , and loses half his gold as punishment . If the hero succeeds in defeating an enemy , he gains experience points and gold ; if he gains enough experience points , his experience level increases , giving him greater strength , agility , speed , and the ability to use magic spells . Every time a spell is used , the hero 's MP decreases , with different spells costing different amounts of MP . Both HP and MP can be restored by resting at an inn . Additionally , a non @-@ player character can replenish the hero 's MP in Tantegel Castle . As the hero earns more gold , he can purchase better weapons , armor , and items . However , players have limited inventory space to hold items , so they must manage their item collection conservatively . The caves which the hero explores are dark and require the use of a torch or the " RADIANT " spell to display a temporary field of vision around the character . In the English version , players can return to King Lorik at any point to save the quest . Because the Japanese version does not have a battery backup , players receive a password to return to a quest at a later time .
The control pad may be used to move the hero in any direction and to move the flashing cursor in menu displays . Additional buttons confirm and cancel commands . In the English version , players use menu commands to talk to people , check their status , search beneath their feet , use items , take treasure chests , open doors , and go up or down stairs . However , in some of the game 's later remakes , certain commands were assigned to buttons , navigating stairs became automatic , and the hero 's speed was increased . In the Japanese version , characters always face forward , so players must choose a command and then a direction in which to perform that action . In the North American version , the hero turns to face the direction he is moving , making direction selection unnecessary .
= = Plot = =
Dragon Warrior 's plot is a simplistic medieval " rescue the princess , slay the dragonking , and get the orb of light " story .
= = = Backstory = = =
Dragon Warrior , its sequel , Dragon Quest II , and its prequel , Dragon Quest III , comprise a trilogy with a shared timeline . The story 's background begins when the kingdom of Alefgard was shrouded in permanent darkness . The brave warrior Erdrick ( known as " Loto " in the Game Boy Color ( GBC ) remake of the game ) defeated an evil creature and restored light to the land . In Erdrick 's possession was the Ball of Light , which he used to drive away enemies who threatened the kingdom . Erdrick handed the Ball of Light to King Lorik , and Alefgard remained peaceful for a long time . The Ball of Light kept winters short in Alefgard and helped maintain peace and prosperity for the region .
However , there is one man who shunned the Ball of Light 's radiance and secluded himself in a mountain cave . One day , while exploring the cave 's extensive network of tunnels , the man encountered a sleeping dragon who awoke upon his entrance . He feared the dragon would incinerate him with its fiery breath , but the dragon instead knelt before him and obeyed his commands . This man , who is later discovered to be a dragon , became known as the Dragonlord . One day , after his soul became corrupted by learning magic , the Dragonlord attacked Tantegel Castle and the nearby town of Breconnary with his fleet of dragons and set the town on fire . Riding a large red dragon , the Dragonlord descended upon Tantegel Castle and stole the Ball of Light . Soon , monsters began to appear throughout the entire land , destroying everything in their paths . Much of the land became poisonous marshes , and at least one destroyed town ( Hauksness , whose name is erroneously transposed with that of Rimuldar in the " Adventurer 's Handbook " walkthrough ) never recovered and remains in ruins even as of the time of gameplay .
The following day , Erdrick arrived at Tantegel Castle to speak with King Lorik and offered his help to defeat the Dragonlord . After searching the land for clues to the Dragonlord 's whereabouts , Erdrick found that the Dragonlord lived on an island that could be accessed only via a magical bridge that only a " Rainbow Drop " could generate . After venturing to the island , Erdrick was never heard from again . Many years later , during King Lorik XVI 's reign , the Dragonlord attacked the kingdom again and captured Princess Gwaelin . Many heroes tried to rescue the princess and recover the Ball of Light from the Dragonlord 's castle , called Charlock , but none succeeded . The prophet Mahetta predicted that " One day , a descendant of the valiant Erdrick shall come forth to defeat the Dragonlord . " However , when the descendant ( the game 's hero ) arrives , many of the people of Alefgard have forgotten the story of Erdrick , and those few who do remember consider it a myth and do not believe in Mahetta 's prophecy . King Lorik starts to mourn the decline of his kingdom .
= = = Main story = = =
The game begins when the player assumes the role of a stranger who arrives at Tantegel Castle . A castle guard tells him that a dragon has captured the princess and is holding her captive in a distant cave . Determined to rescue the princess and defeat the Dragonlord , he discovers an ancient tablet hidden inside a desert cave ; carved on the tablet is a message from Erdrick that outlines what the hero needs to do to follow in Erdrick 's footsteps and defeat the Dragonlord . The hero eventually rescues Princess Gwaelin , but realizes that in order to restore light to Alefgard , he must defeat the Dragonlord at Charlock Castle . After the hero collects a series of relics , he creates a bridge to reach Charlock and fights his way through the castle before finally confronting the Dragonlord . At this point the hero is given a dialogue choice – to side with the Dragonlord or to challenge him . If players choose the former , the game ends , the hero is put to sleep , and the game freezes ( and , in the battery @-@ operated North American NES version , deletes the player 's saved game and possibly one or both others on the cartridge ) ; however , in the GBC remake , the hero instead wakes up from a bad dream . If players choose to fight , a final battle between the hero and the Dragonlord commences .
Once the hero defeats the Dragonlord , he triumphantly returns to Tantegel Castle where King Lorik offers his kingdom as a reward . The hero turns down the offer and instead wishes to find his own kingdom . Accompanied by Princess Gwaelin , the hero then sets off in search of a new land ; this sets the stage for the events in Dragon Warrior II , which take place many years later and tells the story of three of the hero 's descendants .
= = = Characters = = =
In Dragon Warrior the hero and the Dragonlord are the two main characters . Other major supporting characters are King Lorik ( King Lars in the GBC remake ) ; his daughter Princess Gwaelin ( Lady Lora ) , and two sages the hero meets during his journey .
The hero , who comes from a land beyond Alefgard , is a descendant of the legendary Erdrick . When the hero arrives , he does not appear to be a warrior – he arrives without weapons or armor – and is ignorant of the situation . The populace thinks his claim of the ability to defeat the Dragonlord are preposterous ; however , King Lorik sees this ability , which give him hope and he aids the hero on his quest .
The Dragonlord is a dragon who rules from Charlock Castle , which is visible from Tantegel Castle , the game 's starting point . His soul became evil by learning magic . Rumors say that , through a spy network , he knows everything that happens in Alefgard . He seeks " unlimited power and destruction " , which results in a rising tide of evil throughout Alefgard . The Dragonlord wants to enslave the world with his army of monsters that he controls with his will .
= = Development and release = =
Yuji Horii and his team at Chunsoft began developing Dragon Quest in 1985 . It was released in Japan in 1986 for the Famicom , the MSX , and the PC @-@ 9801 . Dragon Quest has been released on multiple platforms since its initial release , including the X68000 in 1992 in Japan , and for mobile phones in 2004 with updated graphics similar to those of Dragon Quest VI .
= = = Historical backdrop = = =
When Eidansha Boshu Service Center was founded in 1975 it published tabloid magazines that advertised real estate . In 1982 , after failing to establish a chain of stores , the company 's founder Yasuhiro Fukushima transformed it into a software company devoted to gaming and renamed it Enix . To find talent for the company , Fukushima held the " Enix Game Hobby Program Contest " . The competition was styled after manga competitions , was advertised in computer and manga magazines , and had a ¥ 1 million prize for the winners . The winners were Kazuro Morita ( 森田和郎 ) , Koichi Nakamura , and manga magazine Shōnen Jump editor Yuji Horii , who was the top winner . Horii designed a tennis game , Love Match Tennis , which became Enix 's first release .
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While he did not believe he would win , he was motivated by his editor , who enjoyed the games and published Horii 's articles on them . Later , when Enix began creating games for the NES , Fukushima held another contest . This time , Nakamura won with his " cartoonish and creative contest entry " Door Door , which became Enix 's first release for the NES .
Horii 's earliest inspiration for Dragon Quest is his own 1983 PC visual novel The Portopia Serial Murder Case – a murder mystery adventure game that bears similarities to games such as Mystery House , Zork , King 's Quest , and particularly Déjà Vu . Horii wanted to advance the game 's storyline by using dialogue . Portopia was originally released for Japan 's NEC PC @-@ 6001 and was later ported to the NES in 1985 . The port is Enix 's second release for the system and the first game which Horii and Nakamura worked on together . Horii redesigned the interface for the port to accommodate the console 's limited controls , and added areas to the game in which the detective battles monsters . While Portopia did not directly result in Dragon Quest 's creation , it was , according to 1UP.com , " a proving ground " for the RPG . The menu @-@ based command system of Portopia would later be used in Dragon Quest .
The original idea for Dragon Quest came during the development of Portopia . Horii and Nakamura came across the RPG Wizardry at a Macworld Conference & Expo . While it had some influence on Portopia 's dungeon crawl segments , Horii liked the game 's depth and visuals . He wanted to create a game similar to Wizardry , to expose the mainly Western @-@ exclusive RPG genre to Japan and to expand the genre past computer enthusiasts . Horii also cited Ultima as an inspiration for Dragon Quest 's gameplay , specifically the first @-@ person random battles in Wizardry and the overhead perspective of Ultima . While the RPG genre was predominantly Western and limited to PCs , Japanese gamers enjoyed home @-@ grown games such as the The Black Onyx and the Dragon Slayer series alongside Western RPG ports . However , while Horii and Nakamura enjoyed the dungeon crawling and statistical nature of Wizardry , they realized most people would not . This had not originally been a concern , but the success of Super Mario Bros. greatly increased the potential audience of any new Famicom / NES game . To create Dragon Quest , the gameplay needed to be simplified . According to Horii : " There was no keyboard , and the system was much simpler , using just a [ game ] controller . But I still thought that it would be really exciting for the player to play as their alter ego in the game . I personally was playing Wizardry and Ultima at the time , and I really enjoyed seeing my own self in the game . "
In order to create an RPG that would appeal to a wide audience unfamiliar with the genre , and video games in general , Horii wanted to create a new kind of RPG that did not rely on previous experience with the Dungeons & Dragons tabletop RPG , did not require hundreds of hours of rote fighting , and could appeal to any kind of gamer . To accomplish this he needed to simplify the system and have players associate themselves with the hero . Thus as the game progressed , the hero would become stronger , in contrast to games like Super Mario Bros. where the character Mario did not become progressively more powerful during the game . He wanted to build on Portopia and place a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement . He developed a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale that audiences could relate to and made use of RPG level @-@ building gameplay as a way to represent this .
= = = Japanese development = = =
Horii believed that the Famicom was the ideal platform for Dragon Quest , because unlike arcade games , players would not worry about spending money if they got a game over , and they could continue playing from where they left off . Whenever the player loses a battle , they would immediately be restored to a previous save point rather than the game ending and returned to the main menu , making the game more accessible . He also wanted to include multiple player characters but was forced to use only one due to memory constraints . Horii knew that RPGs had a steeper learning curve than other video games of the time , and to compensate for this he implemented quick level @-@ ups at the start of the game and gave players a clear final goal that is visible from the world map 's starting point : the Dragonlord 's castle . He also provided a series of smaller scenarios in order to build up the player 's strength to achieve the final objective . He created an open world which is not blocked physically in any way except by monsters that can easily kill unprepared players ; Gamasutra described this as one of the earliest examples of nonlinear gameplay . Horii used bridges to signify changes in difficulty and implemented a level progression with a high starting growth rate that decelerates over time , which contrasted to the random initial stats and constant growth rates of the early editions of Dungeons & Dragons . To make the game appeal to a larger audience , manga artist and creator of Dragon Ball , Akira Toriyama , was hired to produce the artwork . As with Dragon Ball , Toriyama 's artwork features characters " whose strength and cunning transcend generations " , but also includes humorous elements such as a chibi style .
Koichi Sugiyama , the game 's music composer , sought Enix out . Sugiyama sent a PC game 's feedback questionnaire to Enix . He was already a well @-@ known television composer , and , upon seeing Sugiyama 's feedback , Fukushima contacted him to confirm that " he was the Sugiyama from television . " Upon confirmation , Fukushima asked Sugiyama to compose a score for Dragon Quest . The game 's classical score was Sugiyama 's second video game composition after Wingman 2 . Sugiyama said it took him five minutes to compose the original opening theme , and noted the difficulty in adding a personal touch to the short jingles , but that his past experience with creating music for television commercials helped . According to Sugiyama , the composer has between three and five seconds to catch the audience 's attention through music . The theme and his other jingles for Dragon Quest have remained relatively intact in its sequels .
= = = North American localization = = =
Coverage of Dragon Quest 's North American localization first appeared in Nintendo Fun Club News 's winter 1988 issue – where the title changed to Dragon Warrior . The title was changed to avoid infringing on the trademark on wargame publisher Simulations Publications 's pen @-@ and @-@ paper RPG DragonQuest . The article about the game featured images from the game 's Japanese version , Erdrick 's original name ( " Roto " ) , the Dragonlord 's original name ( " Dragon King " ) , and the original name of the game 's starting location ( Radatome Castle ) . It briefly explained the backstory and basic gameplay elements , comparing the game to The Legend of Zelda . The game was later mentioned in Nintendo Power 's " Pak Watch " preview section in March 1989 , mentioning Dragon Quest III 's Japanese release in the magazine 's premiere July 1988 issue . It again mentioned the change of name from Dragon Quest to Dragon Warrior , its inspiration of two Japanese sequels , and that its release was still distant in time .
Dragon Warrior was released in North America by Nintendo of America under the direction of Satoru Iwata with help from Horii in August 1989 – months before the Japanese release of Dragon Quest IV . Because the game was released in North America nearly three years after the original release in Japan , the graphics were improved . Instead of lengthy passwords with kana characters , the North American version features a battery @-@ backed RAM savegame . Akira Toriyama 's artwork in the instruction booklets was also changed to reflect more of a traditional tone as found in popular American based RPGs such as the Ultima series . The game 's character sprites were changed so that they face their direction of travel ; in the Japanese versions , the sprites are smaller and face only forwards , requiring players to choose a direction for actions from a menu . Spells were given self @-@ explanatory one @-@ word titles instead of the made @-@ up words of the Japanese version . Locations were renamed , and dialogue was rewritten from its whimiscal style comparable to Dragon Ball to a style inspired by Elizabethan English , with sentences such as " Thy hit points have decreased by 1 . " Nintendo also removed salacious humor and religious connotations from the English @-@ language version . For example , in the Japanese version , in the town where the hero first buys keys , a woman offers to sell puff @-@ puff – a Japanese onomatopoeia for a girl rubbing her breasts in someone 's face , or juggling her own breasts . In the North American version , the same woman sells tomatoes . The term has been included in the game 's sequels as well as in Toriyama 's Dragon Ball series .
Katsuya Terada created some of the artwork for the early Dragon Warrior articles in Nintendo Power . Neither Terada nor those editing the artwork for the instruction booklet followed Toriyama 's work ; they instead used the settings and character poses to create alternate artwork in an American style . While the Japanese hero was drawn in a super deformed manga style , the English version 's appearance is based on " the West 's template of a medieval hero " .
In June 1989 , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Quartermann " speculated that Dragon Warrior would be Nintendo 's " big release " in North America that Christmas . He based this on the series 's immense popularity in Japan especially after Dragon Quest III 's sales . Nintendo Power provided three feature articles on Dragon Warrior for issues between May and October 1989 and the November – December 1989 issue includes a strategy guide . The March – April 1990 issue of Nintendo Power has a map of the game world , with a poster of Super Contra on the other side , and also features a Dragon Warrior text adventure .
In late 1990 , Nintendo Power gave free copies of Dragon Warrior to subscribers , including a 64 @-@ page " Explorer 's Handbook " that has a full walkthrough of the game and additional backstory not mentioned in the original instruction booklet . Nintendo was reportedly interested in getting rid of unsold copies of the game , so it gave them away to subscribers . At the time , the game cost approximately US $ 50 at retail and the magazine 's subscription fee was only US $ 20 ( $ 95 and $ 38 respectively , adjusted for inflation ) . The giveaway attracted nearly 500 @,@ 000 new magazine subscribers , and many more renewed their subscription just to get the game . This ultimately led to the success of the series in the Western market .
= = = Re @-@ releases and remakes = = =
Enix remade Dragon Quest and Dragon Quest II for a one @-@ cartridge compilation known as Dragon Quest I + II for the Super Famicom on December 18 , 1993 . The remake sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies in Japan . In 1998 , Enix released BS Dragon Quest for the Super Famicom Satellaview extension exclusively in Japan . The latter consisted of four one @-@ hour scenarios which players would download on a weekly schedule . Players were tasked with leveling their character , collecting medals and completing scenario @-@ specific conditions with special events designed to occur under specific conditions in real @-@ time .
Dragon Warrior and Dragon Warrior II were re @-@ released as part of a similar compilation for the GBC , titled Dragon Warrior I & II . It was developed by Tose and released by Enix on September 23 , 1999 in Japan and September 27 , 2000 , in North America . It uses an entirely new translation , discards the pseudo @-@ Elizabethan English style and uses names closer to those in the Japanese version . In this remake , " Dragonlord " is changed to " DracoLord " , and " Erdrick " is changed to " Loto " . Several additional features were added . For example , players can quicksave their game anytime outside a battle ; the quicksave is deleted after it or a standard saved game is loaded . Players can store some of their gold for future use in a bank in case they die . The menu was streamlined and monsters yield more experience and gold to reduce the amount of time needed to increase levels and to make saving up for in @-@ game purchases faster .
In 2004 , the game , along with its sequel , were remade for mobile phones in Japan . This version is graphically based on the Super Famicom remake of Dragon Quest III .
Both the Famicom and Super Famicom versions of the game , together with Dragon Quest II and Dragon Quest III , were re @-@ released on the Dragon Quest 25th Anniversary Collection compilation for the Wii in Japan on September 15 , 2011 . The compilation includes original copies of the games ' strategy guides , original artwork and material on the games ' development . In October 2013 , Square Enix announced that they were re @-@ releasing Dragon Quest I – VIII for both Android and iOS . In November 2013 , the game was released for the iOS & Android mobile platforms in Japan . This release is based on the 2004 mobile remake of the game . The United States and Europe mobile versions were released on September 11 , 2014 .
= = Related media = =
Dragon Warrior has inspired related media in the form of a manga series , which has been adapted to anime , and a symphonic video game soundtrack .
= = = Anime and manga = = =
The manga series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ? , Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto ) , was written by Chiaki Kawamata and Junji Koyanagi , with artwork by Kamui Fujiwara , and was published between 1991 and 1997 by Monthly Shōnen Gangan . Enix compiled the series into 21 volumes , which were later released on compact disc in 1994 . It was released on December 11 , 2009 for the PlayStation Store as part of the initial launch of Sony 's digital comic distribution . In 1996 , an anime movie based on the manga was released on videocassette . Square Enix started publishing a sequel series , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō ~ Monshō o Tsugumono @-@ tachi e ~ ( ドラゴンクエスト列伝 ロトの紋章 ～ 紋章を継ぐ者達へ ～ ? , Dragon Quest Retsuden : Emblem of Roto – To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem ) , in 2005 . Jun Eishima wrote the first four volumes , and Takashi Umemura wrote the last five ; Yuji Horii supervised the manga , while Kamui Fujiwara contributed the artwork .
Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto takes place between Dragon Warrior III and Dragon Warrior . After monsters possessed Carmen 's king for seven years , the kingdom fell to the hordes of evil . The only survivors were Prince Arus and an army General 's daughter , Lunafrea . Meanwhile , in the Kingdom of Loran , a child is born and is named Jagan in accordance with the demon lord Imagine 's orders . Arus and Lunafrea set out to defeat the monsters and restore peace to the world . The sequel , To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem , takes place five years after the events in Dragon Quest Saga : Emblem of Roto . The world is again in chaos and a young boy , Arosu ( アロス ) , sets out to gather companions to help him save the world from evil .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Koichi Sugiyama composed and directed the music for Dragon Warrior . The soundtrack included eight tracks , which RPGFan said was " the foundation for Sugiyama 's career " . The
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pieces were arranged and incorporated into later Dragon Warrior games ' soundtracks . The music has been released in a variety of formats . The first is as a Drama CD , released by Enix on July 19 , 1991 , which incorporated a narrated story . Super Famicom Edition Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I , published by Sony Records on January 12 , 1994 , followed ; the soundtrack featured orchestral versions of the tracks played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra and the original versions of the tunes . The game 's classical score was considered revolutionary for console game music . The soundtrack 's " eight melodies " approach set the template for most RPG soundtracks released since then , hundreds of which have been organized in a similar manner .
The orchestral albums for Dragon Warrior I and II were combined in Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I • II , released by SME Visual Works on August 23 , 2000 , King Records reprinted it on October 7 , 2009 . The orchestral tracks were again released in the Symphonic Suite Dragon Quest I album , including orchestral versions of the game 's sound effects . Numerous live concerts have featured performances of the game 's music ; many performances were later released as albums such as Dragon Quest in Concert and Suite Dragon Quest I • II .
= = Reception and sales = =
= = = NES version = = =
Initial sales of the game were so low , Enix was going to lose money , but several Shonen Jump articles by Horii helped increase its sales substantially . People liked Toriyama 's artwork and Sugiyama 's music , which the book Power @-@ Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life said " was richer and more exciting than any game music had ever sounded " . The game was extremely popular in Japan and became the first in a series that in 2016 includes eleven games with several spin @-@ off series and stand @-@ alone titles . More than 2 million copies were sold of the Japanese version . The Dragon Quest I & II remake for the SNES yielded 1 @.@ 2 million copies sold in Japan . The 1989 " All Soft Catalog " issue of Famicom Tsūshin ( now Famitsu ) included Dragon Quest in its list of the best games of all time , receiving the Best RPG and Best Character Design awards , but losing to Dragon Quest III for the overall Grand Prize for best game of all time .
Several years after its Japanese release , the first English @-@ language version of Dragon Warrior garnered average reviews overall . Nintendo Power ranked it as third out of five upon its original release . It debuted at No. 7 on the magazine 's bimonthly " Top 30 " top NES games list in November 1989 . It climbed to No. 5 in January 1990 and remained there for 4 months ; it then dropped to No. 11 in May , No. 14 in July , and No. 16 in September 1990 before it dropped off the list . In the " Nintendo Power Awards 1989 " , the game was nominated for " Best Theme , Fun " and " Best Overall " ; it failed to win in either category . In response to Japanese youths ' arrests while waiting for Dragon Quest III 's release , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Quartermann said that the game was not " that special at all " , compared it to the NES version of Ultima III : Exodus and recommended that others play that game instead . While the English version has been seen as a commercial failure , according to Chris Kohler , the Nintendo Power subscription was a success and allowed Enix to bring the next three games over . He said Nintendo profited immensely from the Dragon Warrior subscription giveaway because " Nintendo Power was essentially a hundred @-@ page monthly ad for Nintendo products " , and it was now in thousands of households .
The game 's release has been regarded as important in the history of the console RPG . Kohler noted that Toriyama 's and Sugiyama 's contributions to the game " made Dragon Quest as visually and aurally exciting as the game play was unique and sophisticated . " GameSpot named it as one of the fifteen most influential titles in video game history . IGN listed it as the eighth best all @-@ time NES game . In 2005 , it listed it as the 92nd @-@ best all @-@ time video game , and in 2007 it listed the game as the 29th best . Nintendo Power rated Dragon Warrior as the 140th @-@ best game made for the Nintendo System in its Top 200 Games list in 2006 . IGN reviewed the game years later and gave it a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , and RPGamer 's Bill Johnson gave it a 4 out of 5 overall score . The NES ' localization received considerable praise for adding extra characters and depth to the story . The removal of the stylized dialogue in the GBC remake has similarly been lamented .
Seemingly primitive by today 's standards , Dragon Warrior features one @-@ on @-@ one combat , a limited item and equipment array , ten spells , five towns , and five dungeons . While noting its importance to the development of the RPG genre , Allgame reviewer Kyle Knight states that " taken on its own merits , it 's just not an enjoyable game to play . " 1UP.com explained why the series was not immensely popular at first in North America ; American console gamers were not used to the idea of RPGs , and they said that it would take a decade for the genre to be " flashy enough to distract from all of those words they made you read " . GameCritics ' Chi Kong Lui wrote that the game added realism to video games , and added , " If a player perished in Dragon Warrior , he or she had to suffer the dire consequences of losing progress and precious gold . That element of death evoked a sense of instinctive fear and tension for survival . " This , he said , allowed players to identify with the main character on a much larger scale . IGN writer Mark Nix compared the game 's seemingly archaic plot to more modern RPGs ; he said : " Noble blood means nothing when the society is capitalist , aristocratic , or militaristic . Damsels don 't need rescuing – they need a battle axe and some magic tutoring in the field . " While reviewing Dragon Quest VIII : Journey of the Cursed King , GameSpy staff wrote that , for many gamers , Dragon Warrior is their first exposure to the console RPG . Recalling their past , a staff member commented :
It opened my eyes to a fun new type of gameplay . Suddenly strategy ( or at least pressing the " A " button ) was more important than reflex , and the story was slightly ( slightly ! ) more complex than the ' rescue the princess ' stuff I 'd seen up ' till then . After all , Dragon Warrior was only half @-@ over when you rescued its princess .
Bill Johnson compared Dragon Warrior to modern RPGs and noted the game 's complete lack of replay value , which is due as much to the requirement that almost everything in the game must be done to beat it as to its difficulty . Johnson noted the game 's historical importance ; he said : " [ Playing Dragon Warrior is ] a tough road to walk , but reaching its end will instill a new appreciation of what today 's RPG 's are all about . " The 2009 book Vintage Games contrasted Dragon Warrior to the 1986 NES title The Legend of Zelda ; it said , while both titles share common RPG elements , Zelda features a fantasy setting and magic but no level or turn @-@ based combat system , and Dragon Warrior features both . Nintendo Power said the game 's historical significance is its greatest aspect , and noted that " playing Dragon Warrior these days can be a bit of a chore " . GamePro wrote that their favorite aspect of the game was the Elizabethan @-@ English dialogue , and that they were disappointed by its removal in the GBC remake .
= = = Remakes = = =
Famitsu gave the SNES compilation remake Dragon Quest I + II a rating of 35 out of 40 . The Satellaview remake was given a mixed , but overall positive review by Microgroup . The touches such as the real @-@ time event and voicing were appreciated , but their implementation left much to be desired . However , the medal collection is a nice way to compete with friends and the reviewer enjoyed the game . Dragon Warrior 's English remake , as part of the dual GBC cartridge Dragon Warrior I & II , received better reviews than the original , garnering praise . IGN and Nintendo Power gave it an 8 out of 10 . IGN 's Marc Nix noted that while " it 's one of the only interesting RPGs on the Game Boy Color to actually make American shores " , players will feel frustrated ; those who played the original will lament the changes , while new players will feel that the game is too linear and simple . GameSpot gave it a 9 @.@ 6 out of 10 , citing the great improvements to sound quality and the appeal of playing both games in succession , and GameRankings reports an 83 @.@ 46 % overall score . It received RPGamer 's Game Boy Color Award of the Year for 2000 . Comparing it to its NES counterpart , RPGamer 's Derek Cavin awarded it 3 out of 5 , and wrote that the game is above average in all aspects , and particularly praised the visual elements . He criticized the game 's repetitiveness , and said that it is short enough that most players should finish the game before repetition becomes an issue . Combined , both the SNES and GBC remakes saw more than 1 @.@ 94 million copies sold worldwide . With the remakes ' good sales performances , Enix released Dragon Warrior III for the GBC in 2001 , which was based on a previously unreleased SNES update of Dragon Quest III ' English version .
= = = Related media = = =
Square Enix Music Online 's Juan2Darien reviewed the game 's symphonic scores : Dragon Quest Suite ; Dragon Quest I Remix Symphonic Suite ( London Philharmonic Orchestra ) ; Dragon Quest I & II Symphonic Suite ( London Philharmonic Orchestra Remastered ) ; and Dragon Quest I Symphonic Suite ( Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra ) . Comparing each of the suites , he gave all ratings ranging 7 through 9 out of 10 , and found the Tokyo Strings Ensemble recording superior to the aforementioned symphonic suites . While the music is somewhat flat , Juan2Darien acknowledged this is due to the source material and praised Koichi Sugiyama 's and the orchestras ' efforts to compose an above @-@ average piece despite the limitation . Gamasutra 's Kurt Kalata also praised the symphonies ' melody , commenting that " the overworld theme ... is pretty simplistic and grating , but actually sounds pretty beautiful when played by a live orchestra " .
Dragon Quest Retsuden : Roto no Monshō – To the Children Who Inherit the Emblem sold well in Japan . For the week of August 26 to September 1 , 2008 , volume 7 was ranked 9th in Japan , selling 59 @,@ 540 copies . For the week of February 24 to March 2 , 2009 , volume 8 was ranked 19th in Japan , selling 76 @,@ 801 copies . For the week of October 26 to November 1 , 2009 , volume 9 was ranked 16th in Japan , selling 40 @,@ 492 copies for a total of 60 @,@ 467 .
= = Legacy = =
Dragon Warrior 's release has been noted as a notable turning point in video game history . The game has been listed as a genre builder for RPGs . Its popularity in Japan is synonymous with RPGs . While the game 's elements had been present in previous RPG titles , Dragon Warrior set the template for others ; almost all of its elements became the foundation for nearly every later game of the genre , from gameplay to narrative , replacing D & D as the model to follow . According to Shigeru Miyamoto , the success of Dragon Warrior changed the nature of video game development by making scenario writers far more important .
When Dragon Warrior was released , many of the development techniques used were intended to compensate for hardware limitations , but contemporary RPG developers continue to use these techniques despite technological advances that made them unnecessary . Dragon Warrior introduced the damsel @-@ in @-@ distress storyline that many RPGs follow , and a fresh plot twist to the " saving the princess " formula , where the game 's true objective is not revealed until the princess is rescued . The game also introduced an element of romance , where the player character is given a dialogue choice to respond to the princess 's question of whether he loves her ; romance has since become a commonplace feature the genre . The game 's 2D graphic style was used by most RPGs until the advent of 3D graphics . Dragon Warrior 's top @-@ down perspective has become " a dead giveaway to an RPG " . The game featured elements still found in most RPGs , such as the ability to obtain better equipment , major quests that intertwine with minor subquests , an incremental spell system , use of hit points and experience points , and a medieval theme . Reviewers said that , while Final Fantasy has been considered more important due to its popularity and attention in North America , Dragon Warrior laid the fundamentals on which Final Fantasy was based . Dragon Quest is also credited with affecting Dungeons & Dragons ' leveling system to even out its randomness by giving more bonuses early on and giving players maximum hit points on the first level .
In the Nintendo Power 's November 2010 issue , in celebration of the NES ' 25th anniversary in North America , Horii recalled the making of Dragon Warrior . Horiii was a fan of basic RPG mechanics , and wanted to simplify the interfaces ; he said that many other RPGs ' interfaces at the time " were so complicated that they intimidated new users " . He said that Dragon Warrior 's simplified gameplay made the game appealing to people and made the franchise successful. he had been told that the NES lacked sufficient capacity for RPGs , which further motivated him to make one .
Dragon Quest became a national phenomenon in Japan , inspiring spinoff media and figurines . The video game industry has called it as Japan 's national game . Horii , who was linked through his Shonen Jump articles , increased in celebrity status , and become a household name in Japan , as well known in Japan as Steven Spielberg is in the US ; in contrast Miyamoto , creator of Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda , is not nearly as well @-@ known . In a Famitsu poll , the Japanese public voted Dragon Quest as the seventh favorite game for the NES . Several clones such as Glory of Heracles , Legend of the Ghost Lion and Mother were inspired by the Japanese version 's success . For Mother , Shigesato Itoi , a fan of Dragon Warrior , and Miyamoto , a detractor of RPGs , created an RPG that would subvert the Dragon Warrior RPG template by changing the setting and themes from the Middle Ages to the US . Dragon Warrior , along with other NES titles , has spawned many ROM hacks in recent years . One notable hack includes Super Mario Remix II , which features a new plot and revised character sprites to reflect the Mario series , while the gameplay and layout remain the same . Dragon Warrior became so popular in Japan that , if asked to draw ' slime ' , a Japanese person is likely to draw a shape similar to that of the game 's interpretation of slime .
Many aspects of pop culture still reference Dragon Warrior . The video game music band Descendants of Erdrick , based in Austin , Texas , is named after the game 's main character . On April Fools Day 2012 , Google added a Dragon Warrior @-@ inspired 8 @-@ bit option to Google Maps .
= The Holocaust in Lithuania =
The Holocaust in Nazi @-@ occupied Lithuania resulted in the near total destruction of Lithuanian Jews living in the Nazi @-@ controlled Lithuanian and Polish territories ( Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland ) . Out of approximately 208 @,@ 000 @-@ 210 @,@ 000 Jews , an estimated 190 @,@ 000 – 195 @,@ 000 were murdered before the end of World War II ( wider estimates are sometimes published ) , most between June and December 1941 . More than 95 % of Lithuania 's Jewish population was massacred over the three @-@ year German occupation — a more complete destruction than befell any other country affected by the Holocaust . Historians attribute this to the massive collaboration in the genocide by the Christian locals , though the reasons for this collaboration are still debated . The Holocaust resulted in the largest @-@ ever loss of life in so short a period of time in the history of Lithuania .
The events that took place in the western regions of the USSR occupied by Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German invasion , including Lithuania , marked the sharp intensification of the Holocaust .
An important component to the Holocaust in Lithuania was that the occupying Nazi German administration fanned antisemitism by blaming the Soviet regime 's recent annexation of Lithuania , a year earlier , on the Jewish community . Another significant factor was the large extent to which the Nazis ' design drew upon the physical organization , preparation and execution of their orders by local Lithuanian auxiliaries of the Nazi occupation regime .
= = Background = =
The Soviet Union invaded and occupied and subsequently annexed Lithuania in 1940 . The German invasion of the Soviet Union , on 22 June 1941 , came after a year of Soviet occupation which had culminated in mass deportations across the Baltics only a week before the invasion . The Germans were welcomed as liberators and received support from Lithuania 's irregular militia against retreating Soviet forces . Many Lithuanians believed Germany would allow the re @-@ establishment of the country 's independence . In order to appease the Germans , some people expressed significant antisemitic sentiments . Nazi Germany , which had seized the Lithuanian territories in the first week of the offensive , used this situation to its advantage and indeed in the first days permitted a Lithuanian Provisional Government of the Lithuanian Activist Front to be established . For a brief period it appeared that the Germans were about to grant Lithuania significant autonomy , comparable with that given to Slovak Republic . However , after about a month , the more independently minded Lithuanian organizations were disbanded around August and September 1941 , as the Germans seized more control .
= = The destruction of Lithuanian Jewry = =
= = = Estimated number of victims = = =
Prior to the German invasion , the population of Jews was estimated to be about 210 @,@ 000 , although according to data from the Lithuanian statistics department , as of 1 January 1941 there were 208 @,@ 000 Jews . This estimate , based on the officially accounted for prewar emigration within the USSR ( approx . 8 @,@ 500 ) , the number of escapees from Kaunas and Vilnius Ghettos , ( 1 @,@ 500 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 ) , as well as the number of the survivors in the concentration camps when they were liberated by the Red Army , ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 ) , puts the number of Lithuanian Jews murdered in the Holocaust at 195 @,@ 000 to 196 @,@ 000 . It is difficult to estimate the exact number of casualties of the Holocaust and the latter number cannot be final or indisputable . The numbers given by historians differ significantly ranging from 165 @,@ 000 to 254 @,@ 000 , the higher number probably including non @-@ Lithuanian Jews among other Reich ( empirical ) dissenters labeled as Jewish killed in Lithuania .
= = = The Holocaust events = = =
Chronologically , the genocide in Lithuania can be divided into three phases : phase 1 ) summer to the end of 1941 ; phase 2 ) December 1941 – March 1943 ; phase 3 ) April 1943 – mid @-@ July 1944 .
The Lithuanian port city of Klaipėda ( Memel in German ) had historically been a member of the German Hanseatic League , and had belonged to Germany and East Prussia prior to 1918 . The city was semi @-@ autonomous during the period of Lithuanian independence , and under League of Nations supervision . Approximately 8 @,@ 000 Jews lived in Memel when it was absorbed into the Reich on March 15 , 1939 . Its Jewish residents were expelled , and most fled into Lithuania proper . In 1941 , German killing squads , the Einsatzgruppen , followed the advance of the German army units and immediately began organizing the murder of Jews . Most Lithuanian Jews perished in the first phase during the first months of the occupation and before the end of 1941 . The first recorded action of the Einsatzgruppen ( Einsatzgruppe A ) took place on June 22 , 1941 , in the border town of Gargzdai ( called Gorzdt in Yiddish and Garsden in German ) , which was one of the oldest Jewish settlements in the country and only eleven miles from German @-@ annexed Memel . Approximately 800 Jews were shot that day in what is known as the Garsden Massacre . Approximately 100 non @-@ Jewish Lithuanians were also executed , many for trying to aid their Jewish neighbors . About 80 @,@ 000 Jews were killed by October and about 175 @,@ 000 by the end of the year . The majority of Jews in Lithuania were not required to live in ghettos nor sent to the Nazi concentration camps which at that time were just in the preliminary stages of operation . Instead they were shot in pits near their places of residence with the most infamous mass murders taking place in the Ninth Fort near Kaunas and the Ponary Forest near Vilnius . By 1942 about 45 @,@ 000 Jews survived , largely those who had been sent to ghettos and camps . In the second phase , the Holocaust slowed , as Germans decided to use the Jews as forced labor to fuel the German war economy . In the third phase , the destruction of Jews was again given a high priority ; it was in that phase that the remaining ghettos and camps were liquidated .
Two factors contributed to the rapid destruction of Lithuanian Jewry . The first was the significant support for the " de @-@ Jewification " of Lithuania coming from the Lithuanian populace . The second was the German plan for early colonization of Lithuania – which shared a border with German East Prussia – in accordance with their Generalplan Ost ; hence the high priority given to the extermination of the relatively small Lithuanian Jewish community .
= = = Participation of local collaborators = = =
The Nazi German administration directed and supported the organized killing of Lithuanian Jews . Local Lithuanian auxiliaries of the Nazi occupation regime carried out logistics for the preparation and execution of the murders under Nazi direction . Nazi SS Brigadeführer Franz Walter Stahlecker arrived in Kaunas on 25 June 1941 and gave agitation speeches in the city to instigate the murder of Jews . Initially this was in the former State Security Department building , but officials there refused to take any action . Later , he gave speeches in the city . In a report of October 15 , Stahlecker wrote that they had succeeded in covering up their vanguard unit ( Vorkommando ) actions , and it was made to look like it was the initiative of the local population . Groups of partisans , civil units of nationalist @-@ rightist anti @-@ Soviet affiliation , initiated contact with the Germans as soon as they entered the Lithuanian territories . A rogue unit of insurgents headed by Algirdas Klimaitis and encouraged by Germans from the Sicherheitspolizei and Sicherheitsdienst , started anti @-@ Jewish pogroms in Kaunas ( Kovno ) on the night of 25 – 26 June 1941 . Over a thousand Jews perished over the next few days in what was the first pogrom in Nazi @-@ occupied Lithuania . Different sources give different figures , one being 1 @,@ 500 and another 3 @,@ 800 , with additional victims in other towns of the region .
On 24 June 1941 , the Lithuanian Security Police ( Lietuvos saugumo policija ) , subordinate to Nazi Germany 's Security Police and Nazi Germany 's Criminal Police , was created . It would be involved in various actions against the Jews and other enemies of the Nazi regime . Nazi commanders filed reports purporting the " zeal " of the Lithuanian police battalions surpassed their own . The most notorious Lithuanian unit participating in the Holocaust was the Lithuanian Sonderkommando Squad ( Ypatingasis būrys ) from the Vilnius ( Vilna , Wilno ) area which killed tens of thousands of Jews , Poles and others in the Ponary massacre . Another Lithuanian organization involved in the Holocaust was the Lithuanian Labor Guard . Many Lithuanian supporters of the Nazi policies came from the fascist Iron Wolf organization . Overall , the nationalistic Lithuanian administration was interested in the liquidation of the Jews as a perceived enemy and potential rivals of ethnic Lithuanians and thus not only did not oppose Nazi Holocaust policy but in effect adopted it as their own .
A combination of factors serves as an explanation for participation of some Lithuanians in genocide against Jews . Those factors include national traditions and values , including antisemitism , common throughout contemporary Central Europe , and a more Lithuanian @-@ specific desire for a " pure " Lithuanian nation @-@ state with which the Jewish population was believed to be incompatible . There were a number of additional factors , such as severe economic problems which led to the killing of Jews over personal property . Finally the Jews were seen as having supported the Soviet regime in Lithuania during 1940 – 1941 . During the period leading up to the German invasion , the Jews were blamed by some for virtually every misfortune that had befallen Lithuania .
The involvement of the local population and institutions , in relatively high numbers , in the destruction of Lithuanian Jewry became a defining factor of the Holocaust in Lithuania .
Not all of the Lithuanian populace supported the killings . Out of a population of close to 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 (
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80 % of it ethnic Lithuanians ) , a few thousands took an active part in the killings while many hundreds risked their lives sheltering the Jews . Israel has recognized 723 Lithuanians as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust . In addition , many members of the Polish minority in Lithuania also helped to shelter the Jews . Lithuanians and Poles who risked their lives saving Jews were persecuted and often executed by the Nazis .
= = Comprehension and remembrance = =
The genocide in Lithuania is seen by some historians as one of the earliest large @-@ scale implementations of the Final Solution , leading some scholars to express an opinion that the Holocaust began in Lithuania in the summer of 1941 . ^ Other scholars say the Holocaust started in September 1939 with the onset of the Second World War , or even earlier , on Kristallnacht in 1938 , or , according to the Jewish Virtual Library , when Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933 .
The Soviet government , for political reasons , tried to minimize the unique suffering of the Jews . In Lithuania and throughout the Soviet Union , memorials did not mention Jews in particular ; instead they were built to commemorate the suffering of " local inhabitants " . People guilty of Nazi collaboration and crimes against Jews were not punished severely .
Since Lithuania regained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 , the debate over Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust has been fraught with difficulty . Modern Lithuanian nationalists stress anti @-@ Soviet resistance , but some Lithuanian partisans , seen in Lithuania as heroes in the struggle against Soviet occupation , were also Nazi collaborators who had cooperated in the murder of Lithuanian Jewry . The post @-@ Soviet Lithuanian government has on a number of occasions stated a commitment to commemorating the Holocaust , combating antisemitism , and bringing Nazi @-@ era war criminals to justice . The National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry have said " Lithuania has made slow but significant progress in the prosecution of suspected Lithuanian collaborators in the Nazi genocide " . Lithuania was the first of the newly independent post @-@ Soviet states to legislate for the protection and marking of Holocaust @-@ related sites . In 1995 , president of Lithuania Algirdas Brazauskas speaking before the Israeli Knesset , offered a public apology to the Jewish people for the Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust . On 20 September 2001 , to mark the 60th anniversary of the Holocaust in Lithuania , the Seimas ( Lithuanian parliament ) held a session during which Alfonsas Eidintas , the historian nominated as the Republic 's next ambassador to Israel , delivered an address accounting for the annihilation of Lithuania 's Jews .
There has been criticism that Lithuania is dragging its feet on the issue ; in 2001 Dr. Efraim Zuroff , Director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center , criticized the Lithuanian government for its unwillingness to prosecute Lithuanians involved in the Holocaust . In 2002 the Simon Wiesenthal Center declared its dissatisfaction with the Lithuanian government ’ s efforts and launched a controversial " Operation Last Chance " offering monetary rewards for evidence that leads to the prosecution of war criminals ; this campaign has encountered much resistance in Lithuania and the other former Soviet bloc countries . More recently , in 2008 , the Simon Weisenthal Center which had initially ranked Lithuania high during on @-@ going trials to bring Lithuanian war criminals to justice , noted , in its annual report , no progress and the lack of any real punishment by Lithuanian justice organs for Holocaust perpetrators .
There has been limited debate on the place of the Holocaust in Lithuanian national memory ; historically Lithuanians have denied national participation in the Holocaust or labeled the Lithuanian participants in genocide as fringe extreme elements . The memories of that time and the discussion of those events in Jewish and Lithuanian historiographies are quite different , although Lithuanian historiography in the past two decades has improved , compared to the Soviet historiography , with the works of scholars such as Alfonsas Eidintas , Valentinas Brandišauskas and Arūnas Bubnys , among others , being positively reviewed by the Western and Jewish historians . The issue remains controversial to this day . According to Lithuanian historians , the contentious issues involve the role of the Lithuanian Activist Front , the Lithuanian Provisional Government and participation of Lithuanian civilians and volunteers in the Holocaust .
= Christopher Greenup =
Christopher Greenup ( c . 1750 – April 27 , 1818 ) was an American politician who served as a U.S. Representative and the third Governor of Kentucky . Little is known about his early life ; the first reliable records about him are documents recording his service in the Revolutionary War where he served as a lieutenant in the Continental Army and a colonel in the Virginia militia .
After his service in the war , Greenup helped settle the trans @-@ Appalachian regions of Virginia . He became involved in politics , and played an active role in three of the ten statehood conventions that secured the separation of Kentucky from Virginia in 1792 . He became one of the state 's first representatives , and served in the Kentucky General Assembly before being elected governor in a race where , due to his immense popularity , he ran unopposed .
Greenup 's term in office was marred by accusations that he had participated in the Burr Conspiracy to align Kentucky with Spain prior to the former 's separation from Virginia , but he vigorously and successfully rebutted these charges . Following his term as governor , he became less active in the political arena . He died on April 27 , 1818 . Greenup County , Kentucky and its county seat were both named in his honor .
= = Early life in Virginia = =
Christopher Greenup was most likely born in Fairfax County , Virginia around 1750 . [ a ] His parents were John and Elizabeth ( Witten ) Greenup . His early education was attained at the local schools of the area . He learned surveying and studied law under Colonel Charles Binns at Charles City County , Virginia . During the Revolutionary War , he first served as a lieutenant on the Continental Line and later attained the rank of colonel in the Virginia militia .
In 1781 , Greenup helped settle the area now known as Lincoln County , Kentucky where he spent time as a surveyor and a land speculator . He was admitted to practice law in the county court in 1782 . Following Virginia 's creation of Kentucky County in 1783 , he was admitted to the bar of the district court of Harrodsburg and served as clerk from 1785 to 1792 . In 1783 , he became one of the original trustees of Transylvania Seminary ( later to become Transylvania University . ) He purchased two lots of land in Lexington and served as the clerk of the town 's trustees .
In 1785 , Greenup was elected to represent Fayette County for a single term in the Virginia House of Delegates . During his service , he was appointed to a committee with Benjamin Logan and James Garrard to make recommendations on ways to further divide the area that would become Kentucky . The committee was also responsible for revising acts and surveys related to land and water surveys in the area . The committee ultimately recommended the creation of three new counties – Bourbon , Madison , and Mercer . When Mercer County was created later that year , Greenup was appointed a justice there .
During this time , Greenup continued to practice law in Fayette County and pursued various other interests . He was a founding member of the Danville Political Club and in 1787 , he joined the Kentucky Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge . Future Kentucky Governors Isaac Shelby and James Garrard , as well as future Supreme Court justice Thomas Todd were also members of the Society . In 1789 , he helped organize the Kentucky Manufacturing Society . Later , he was appointed to the Kentucky River Company , a group dedicated to improving infrastructure on the Kentucky River .
On July 9 , 1787 , during a brief return to Virginia , Greenup married Mary Catherine ( " Cathy " ) Pope of Hanover County , Virginia ; the couple had two children – Nancy and William . [ b ]
= = Political career in Kentucky = =
Greenup served as clerk of the first Kentucky statehood convention in Danville in 1784 . He was elected as a delegate to the second and sixth statehood conventions in 1785 and 1788 , respectively , and was a trustee of the city of Danville in 1787 . H.E. Everman , biographer of fellow delegate James Garrard , noted that despite Greenup 's excellent legal background and legislative experience , his lack of oratorical skills prevented him from taking more of a leadership role in the conventions .
When Kentucky was admitted to the Union in 1792 , Greenup moved to Frankfort where he was rewarded for his efforts on behalf of the state by being chosen as an elector for the state 's senators and governor . He also served in the first Kentucky Senate . Following this , he was appointed to the court of oyer and terminer , but resigned immediately to accept a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives . He was one of Kentucky 's first two representatives in the House , and was elected to three successive terms , serving from November 9 , 1792 to March 3 , 1797 . In 1798 , he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , representing Mercer County . He also served as clerk of the state senate from 1799 to 1802 .
Greenup was a candidate for governor of Kentucky in 1800 , but was runner @-@ up to James Garrard in a four @-@ man race that also included Benjamin Logan and Thomas Todd . Greenup garnered a majority of the vote in fifteen counties , just one fewer than Garrard , but Garrard enjoyed strong support in the populous central Kentucky counties and received 8 @,@ 390 votes , compared with 6 @,@ 746 for Greenup , 3 @,@ 996 for Logan , and 2 @,@ 166 for Todd . Garrard appointed Greenup judge of the circuit court in 1802 . After the Kentucky Senate refused to confirm Garrard 's Secretary of State , Harry Toulmin , as registrar of the land office , Garrard nominated Greenup . Greenup , however , intended to make another run at the governorship , and at his request , Garrard withdrew the nomination days later .
Greenup resigned his circuit judgeship on June 5 , 1804 , to make another run for governor . Immensely popular , he ran unopposed , and served as governor from September 4 , 1804 to September 1 , 1808 . During Greenup 's administration , the state chartered the Bank of Kentucky and the Ohio Canal Company ; Greenup became a director of the former in 1807 . Despite his popularity , however , he was unable to pass much of his proposed agenda , which included provision of public education and reforms to the militia , courts , revenue system , and penal system .
A partisan Frankfort newspaper implicated Greenup in the Burr conspiracy , but he successfully defended himself and preserved his reputation . He deployed the Kentucky militia along the Ohio River to defend the state from any threat that might result from the Burr conspiracy , but that threat had largely dissipated by 1807 .
On October 22 , 1807 , Greenup 's wife Mary died in the Governor 's Mansion . According to legend , her ghostly image has appeared in clock faces and mirrors inside the mansion .
Following his term as governor , Greenup was chosen as a presidential elector for the ticket of James Madison and George Clinton . In 1812 , he became a justice of the peace in Franklin County . In August 1812 , Kentucky Secretary of State Martin D. Hardin recommended to Governor Isaac Shelby that Greenup be appointed Assistant Secretary of State . Shelby made the appointment , and when Hardin , resigned December 15 , 1812 , Shelby nominated Greenup as his replacement . The Kentucky Senate approved the nomination on February 3 , 1813 , and Greenup served until his resignation on March 13 , 1813 .
Greenup died April 27 , 1818 , at Blue Lick Springs Resort , where he had traveled seeking relief from his rheumatism . He is buried in the Frankfort Cemetery . Greenup County , Kentucky was named in his honor , as was its county seat of Greenup , Kentucky .
= The Pasha 's Daughter =
The Pasha 's Daughter is a 1911 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on an American named Jack who is traveling in Turkey . He befriends an aged Turk and is arrested as a conspirator against the government . His first attempt to flee the jail failed , but the second succeeds . Jack flees into the courtyard of the Pasha and is hidden from the guards by the Pasha 's daughter . Disguised as a woman , Jack makes his escape with her aid , but she refuses his offer to flee with him . A year later , the Pasha 's daughter is ushered in and announces that she wants to be his bride .
The only known cast credits are for William Garwood and William Russell and the production credits are unknown . The film was released on January 3 , 1911 and was met with positive reviews . The film survives in The Museum of Modern Art and it has been released on DVD as part of the Thanhouser Collection .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with Jack Sparks , a young American , who is traveling in Turkey . He befriends an aged Turk during a carriage ride and the Turk invites Jack into his home . The man smokes from a hookah and several of other men arrive and speak with the Turk whilst Jack wanders about the house . Soon afterwards , the men are all arrested for conspiracy against the government and Jack is imprisoned as one of the conspirators . In jail , Jack tries to make his escape and throws the guard to the ground , no sooner has he left the cell is he forced back by two more guards . He struggles in vain , but is once again locked in his cell . Jack gets an idea to escape when he sees the bed sheet and the cell window . Using his pocket knife , he digs out the bar of the cell window and drops to freedom . He struggles and overpowers a guard before climbing over the wall and into the courtyard of the Pasha 's palace .
The Pasha 'a daughter , Murana , finds him hiding and orders her servant to assist in Jack 's escape . Guards appear and announce that they are looking for the escaped prisoner , but they are turned away . Dressed up as a woman , Jack tries to have Murana flee with him . She says that one day she cannot marry him now , but she may come to his country one day . Jack trades a flower for his business card and departs . A year later , Jack and his mother have a visitor ushered and they stand in confusion at the beautiful young woman . Jack does not recognize her until she covers her face with her veil and she announces her intention to be his bride .
= = Cast = =
William Garwood as Jack Sparks
William Russell
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The other cast credits are unknown , but many Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on January 3 , 1911 . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters include those in Indiana , Kansas , Utah , Wisconsin , North Carolina , South Dakota , Pennsylvania , New Hampshire , Illinois , Missouri , and Ohio . The Billboard reviewed the film and offered praise for the production , " This picture presents a story that is decidedly original and away from beaten paths . The settings in Turkey are elaborate and faithful to Turkish customs . All the players portray their respective parts in an excellent manner . The photography is very good . " The New York Dramatic Mirror provided a summary of the film and concluded that the film " was well enacted and the sets were fully adequate , creating a fair illusion of the Oriental land depicted . " The Moving Picture World was also provided a positive review , stating " The scenic effects are interesting and the story is lively enough to keep the audience wondering what the end will be . " One advertisement for the film erroneously claimed that the film was shot in the Orient , unaware that the film was shot in Thanhouser 's studio .
A print of the film survives in the archives of the Museum of Modern Art . The complete film as intended for its release is 13 minutes and 39 seconds long . As the original film did not have official musical accompaniment , a new original music score was composed and performed by Ben Model . The film was exhibited by The Museum of Modern Art on October 29 , 2009 , it was organized by Charles Silver and film historians Ben Model and Steve Massa . The film was released in Volume 10 of the Thanhouser Collection .
= Arrested Development ( TV series ) =
Arrested Development is an American television sitcom created by Mitchell Hurwitz , which originally aired on Fox for three seasons from November 2 , 2003 to February 10 , 2006 . A fourth season of 15 episodes was released on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 . The show follows the fictitious Bluth family , a formerly wealthy and habitually dysfunctional family . It is presented in a continuous format , incorporating handheld camera work and voice @-@ over narration , as well as the use of occasional archival photos and historical footage . The show also utilizes several long @-@ running " easter egg " jokes throughout each season . Ron Howard serves as both an executive producer and the series ' uncredited narrator . Set in Newport Beach , California , Arrested Development was filmed primarily in Culver City and Marina del Rey .
After its debut in 2003 , the series received widespread critical acclaim , six Primetime Emmy Awards , and one Golden Globe Award , and has attracted a cult following , including several fan @-@ based websites . In 2007 , Time listed the show among its " All @-@ TIME 100 TV Shows " ; in 2008 , it was ranked 16th on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list . In 2011 , IGN named Arrested Development the " funniest show of all time " . Its humor has been cited as a key influence on later single @-@ camera sitcoms such as 30 Rock and Community .
Despite critical acclaim , Arrested Development received low ratings and viewership on Fox , which canceled the series in 2006 . Rumors of an additional season and a feature film persisted until 2011 , when Netflix agreed to license new episodes and distribute them exclusively on its video streaming service . These episodes were later released in 2013 . Netflix has also commissioned a fifth season of Arrested Development , which is expected to premiere in 2016 . A script for an Arrested Development film has also been in development , with the main cast reported to reprise their original roles in both the fifth season and the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Discussion that led to the creation of the series began in the summer of 2002 . Ron Howard had the original idea to create a comedy series in the style of handheld cameras and reality television , but with an elaborate , highly comical script resulting from repeated rewritings and rehearsals . Howard met with David Nevins , the President of Imagine Television , Katie O 'Connell , a senior vice president , and two writers , including Mitchell Hurwitz . In light of recent corporate accounting scandals , such as Enron and Adelphia , Hurwitz suggested a story about a " riches to rags " family . Howard and Imagine were immediately interested in using this idea , and signed Hurwitz to write the show . The idea was pitched and sold in the fall of 2002 . There was a bidding war for the show between Fox and NBC , with the show ultimately selling to Fox as a put pilot with a six @-@ figure penalty .
Over the next few months , Hurwitz developed the characters and plot for the series . The script of the pilot episode was submitted in January 2003 and filmed in March 2003 . It was submitted in late April to Fox and was added to the network 's fall schedule that May .
= = = Casting = = =
Alia Shawkat was the first cast in the series . Michael Cera , Tony Hale , and Jessica Walter were cast from video tapes and flown in to audition for Fox . Jason Bateman and Portia de Rossi both read and auditioned for the network and were immediately chosen . The character of Gob was apparently the most challenging to cast . When Will Arnett auditioned , he played the character " like a guy who thought of himself as the chosen son , even though it was obvious to everyone else that he was the least favorite " ; he was chosen immediately for his unique portrayal . The characters of Tobias and George Sr. were originally going to have minor roles , but David Cross and Jeffrey Tambor 's portrayals mixed well with the rest of the characters , and they were given more significant parts . Howard provided the narration for the initial pilot , and his narrating meshed so well with the tone of the program that the decision was made to keep his voice . Howard also aided in the casting of " Lucille 2 " ; the producers told him that their dream actress for the role was Liza Minnelli but assumed no one of her stature would take the part . She agreed when Ron Howard asked her himself , because they were old friends ; she had been his babysitter when he was a teenager .
= = = Production design = = =
Arrested Development uses several elements rare for American live @-@ action sitcoms . It was shot on location and on videotape with multiple cameras , parodying tactics often employed in documentary film and reality television , straying from the " fixed @-@ set , studio audience , laugh track " style long dominant in comedy production . The show also makes heavy use of cutaway gags , supplementing the narrative with visual punchlines like security camera footage , Bluth family photos , website screenshots , archive films , and flashbacks . An omniscient third @-@ person narrator ( producer Ron Howard ) ties together the multiple plot threads running through each episode , while humorously undercutting and commenting on the characters . Arrested Development also developed a unique self @-@ referentiality through use of in @-@ jokes that evolved over multiple episodes , which rewarded longtime viewership ( and in turn may have discouraged new viewers and contributed to the show 's ratings issues ) .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
In November 2003 , the producers of the show were sued by the hip hop group Arrested Development over the alleged use of their name . Rapper " Speech " from the group said " The use of our name by Fox is not only confusing to the public , but also has the potential to significantly dilute what the ' Arrested Development ' name means to our fans " . The lawsuit was quietly settled for an undisclosed sum .
This incident was referenced in the episode " Motherboy XXX " . The narration refers to a band called " Motherboy " , which the narration claims the show is " legally required to make a distinction " from , with respect to the " Motherboy " event happening in the episode .
= = = Cancellation and revival = = =
During the series ' third season in 2006 , despite months @-@ long rumors of Arrested Development having been picked up by the cable television network Showtime , creator Hurwitz declined to move the show to another network . As Hurwitz explained , " I had taken it as far as I felt I could as a series . I told the story I wanted to tell , and we were getting to a point where I think a lot of the actors were ready to move on . " He said that he was " more worried about letting down the fans in terms of the quality of the show dropping " than he was about disappointing fans by not giving them more episodes . He also said , " If there 's a way to continue this in a form that 's not weekly episodic series television , I 'd be up for it " .
On October 2 , 2011 , the entire cast of Arrested Development reunited for a panel at The New Yorker Festival in New York . At the panel , Hurwitz declared his intention of producing a truncated fourth season as a lead @-@ in to a film adaptation .
Six years after the series had been canceled by Fox , filming for a revived fourth season began on August 7 , 2012 . Fifteen episodes of the show 's revival season were released simultaneously on Netflix on May 26 , 2013 .
= = = = Future = = = =
Rumors of a possible full @-@ length Arrested Development film circulated after the possibility was referenced in season 3 's final episode , " Development Arrested " . In 2008 , Howard was slated to direct the film , though it is not clear if he still is . Reportedly , all original members of the main cast are expected to reprise their original roles . As of July 11 , 2013 , Netflix was in discussions for a fifth season . In August 2013 , Hurwitz commented " I 'm working on the movie right now " and his plan is to do another season after the movie is completed . In August 2014 , Netflix chief content officer Ted Sarandos stated in an interview with USA Today that there is a strong possibility of a fifth season . " It 's just a matter of when . " In April 2015 , executive producer Brian Grazer confirmed that a fifth season is in development and will consist of 17 episodes . However , in February 2016 , Jason Bateman said regarding a fifth season , " There is no plan . I haven 't heard of anything solid going forward . " On June 9 , 2016 , Tony Hale posted a photo on his Instagram account of him and Alia Shawkat , saying , " Arrested Season 5 . Been a few changes . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
The plot of Arrested Development revolves around the members of the Bluth family , who lead extravagant lifestyles , and are also often drawn into interactions with incestuous undertones . At the center of the show is Michael Bluth ( Jason Bateman ) , the show 's straight man , who strives to do the right thing and keep his family together , despite their materialism , selfishness , and manipulative natures . Michael is a widowed single father . His teenage son , George Michael ( Michael Cera ) , has the same qualities of decency but feels a constant pressure to live up to his father 's expectations and is often reluctant to follow his father 's plans .
Michael 's father , George Bluth Sr. ( Jeffrey Tambor ) , is the patriarch of the family , who often goes to considerable lengths to manipulate and control his family . His wife , and Michael 's mother , Lucille ( Jessica Walter ) , is equally manipulative , materialistic , and hypercritical of every member of her family , as well as being a perpetual drunk . In particular , she has a tight grip on her youngest son , Byron " Buster " Bluth ( Tony Hale ) , who , as a result of her over @
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moderate rainfall in eastern Florida , primarily during 2 to 3 hour periods . The highest official rainfall total peaked at 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) at Orlando Executive Airport , though unofficial totals reached as high as 4 @.@ 8 inches ( 122 mm ) in Rockledge . Rainfall was higher in western Florida , peaking at 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) in DeSoto County with an area near Tampa reporting over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) .
Moderate rainfall resulted in river flooding along the St. Johns River , resulting in flooding along roads in Seminole County . Roadway , urban , and lowland flooding was also reported in Brevard and Orange counties . Roadway flooding was extensive in some areas , resulting in road closures in Oviedo , Cocoa Beach , and Cape Canaveral . Heavy rainfall in Pinellas Park caused heavy street flooding along an intersection on U.S. Highway 19 . No casualties were reported , and damage was minor .
= Major urinary proteins =
Major urinary proteins ( Mups ) , also known as α2u @-@ globulins , are a subfamily of proteins found in abundance in the urine and other secretions of many animals . Mups provide a small range of identifying information about the donor animal , when detected by the vomeronasal organ of the receiving animal . They belong to a larger family of proteins known as lipocalins . Mups are encoded by a cluster of genes , located adjacent to each other on a single stretch of DNA , that varies greatly in number between species : from at least 21 functional genes in mice to none in humans . Mup proteins form a characteristic glove shape , encompassing a ligand @-@ binding pocket that accommodates specific small , organic chemicals .
Urinary proteins were first reported in rodents in 1932 , during studies by Thomas Addis into the cause of proteinuria . They are potent human allergens , and are largely responsible for a number of animal allergies , including to cats , horses and rodents . Their endogenous function within an animal is unknown , but may involve regulating energy expenditure . However , as secreted proteins they play multiple roles in chemical communication between animals , functioning as pheromone transporters and stabilizers in rodents and pigs . Mups can also act as protein pheromones themselves . They have been demonstrated to promote aggression in male mice , and one specific Mup protein found in male mouse urine is sexually attractive to female mice . Mups can also function as signals between different species : mice display an instinctive fear response on the detection of Mups derived from predators such as cats and rats .
= = Discovery = =
Humans in good health excrete urine that is largely free of protein . Therefore , since 1827 physicians and scientists have been interested in proteinuria , the excess of protein in human urine , as an indicator of kidney disease . To better understand the etiology of proteinuria , some scientists attempted to study the phenomenon in laboratory animals . Between 1932 and 1933 a number of scientists , including Thomas Addis , independently reported the surprising finding that some healthy rodents have protein in their urine . However , it was not until the 1960s that the major urinary proteins of mice and rats were first described in detail . It was found that the proteins are primarily made in the liver of males and secreted through the kidneys into the urine in large quantities ( milligrams per day ) .
Since they were named , the proteins have been found to be differentially expressed in other glands that secrete products directly into the external environment . These include lacrimal , parotid , submaxillary , sublingual , preputial and mammary glands . In some species , such as cats and pigs , Mups appear not to be expressed in urine at all and are mainly found in saliva . Sometimes the term urinary Mups ( uMups ) is used to distinguish those Mups expressed in urine from those in other tissues .
= = Mup genes = =
Between 1979 and 1981 , it was estimated that Mups are encoded by a gene family of between 15 and 35 genes and pseudogenes in the mouse and by an estimated 20 genes in the rat . In 2008 a more precise number of Mup genes in a range of species was determined by analyzing the DNA sequence of whole genomes .
= = = Rodents = = =
The mouse reference genome has at least 21 distinct Mup genes ( with open reading frames ) , and a further 21 Mup pseudogenes ( with reading frames disrupted by a nonsense mutation or an incomplete gene duplication ) . They are all clustered together , arrayed side by side across 1 @.@ 92 megabases of DNA on chromosome 4 . The 21 functional genes have been divided into two sub @-@ classes based on position and sequence similarity : 6 peripheral Class A Mups , and 15 central Class B Mups . The central Class B Mup gene cluster formed through a number of sequential duplications from one of the Class A Mups . As all the Class B genes are almost identical to each other , researchers have concluded that these duplications occurred very recently in mouse evolution . Indeed , the repetitive structure of these central Mup genes means they are likely to be unstable and may vary in number among wild mice . The Class A Mups are more different from each other and are therefore likely to be more stable , older genes but what , if any , functional differences the classes have are unknown . The similarity between the genes makes the region difficult to study using current DNA sequencing technology . Consequently , the Mup gene cluster is one of the few parts of the mouse whole genome sequence with gaps remaining , and further genes may remain undiscovered .
Rat urine also contains homologous urinary proteins ; although they were originally given a different name , α2u @-@ globulins , they have since become known as rat Mups . Rats have 9 distinct Mup genes and a further 13 pseudogenes clustered together across 1 @.@ 1 megabases of DNA on chromosome 5 . Like in mice , the cluster formed by multiple duplications . However , this occurred independently of the duplications in mice , meaning that both rodent species expanded their Mup gene families separately , but in parallel .
= = = Nonrodents = = =
Most other mammals studied , including the pig , cow , cat , dog , bushbaby , macaque , chimpanzee and orangutan , have a single Mup gene . Some , however , have an expanded number : horses have three Mup genes and gray mouse lemurs have at least two . Insects , fish , amphibia , birds and marsupials appear to have disrupted synteny at the chromosomal position of the Mup gene cluster , suggesting the gene family may be specific to placental mammals . Humans are the only placental mammals found not to have any active Mup genes ; instead they have a single Mup pseudogene containing a mutation that causes missplicing , rendering it dysfunctional .
= = Function = =
= = = Transport proteins = = =
Mups are members of a large family of low @-@ molecular weight ( ~ 19 kDa ) proteins known as lipocalins . They have a characteristic structure of eight beta sheets arranged in an anti @-@ parallel beta barrel open on one face , with alpha helices at both ends . Consequently , they form a characteristic glove shape , encompassing a cup @-@ like pocket that binds small organic chemicals with high affinity . A number of these ligands bind to mouse Mups , including 2 @-@ sec @-@ butyl @-@ 4 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydrothiazole ( abbreviated as SBT or DHT ) , 6 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 6 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ heptanone ( HMH ) and 2 @,@ 3 dihydro @-@ exo @-@ brevicomin ( DHB ) . These are all urine @-@ specific chemicals that have been shown to act as pheromones — molecular signals excreted by one individual that trigger an innate behavioural response in another member of the same species . Mouse Mups have also been shown to function as pheromone stabilizers , providing a slow release mechanism that extends the potency of volatile pheromones in male urine scent marks . Given the diversity of Mups in rodents , it was originally thought that different Mups may have differently shaped binding pockets and therefore bind different pheromones . However , detailed studies found that most variable sites are located on the surface of the proteins , and appear to have little effect on ligand binding .
Rat Mups bind different small chemicals . 1 @-@ Chlorodecane is the most common ligand , with 2 @-@ methyl @-@ N @-@ phenyl @-@ 2 @-@ propenamide , hexadecane and 2 @,@ 6 @,@ 11 @-@ trimethyl decane found to be less prominent . Rat Mups also bind limonene @-@ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ epoxide , resulting in a disease of the host 's kidney , hyaline @-@ droplet nephropathy , that progresses to cancer . Other species do not develop this disorder because their Mups do not bind that particular chemical . Accordingly , when transgenic mice were engineered to express the rat Mup their kidneys developed the disease . The Mup found in pigs , named salivary lipocalin ( SAL ) , is expressed in the salivary gland of males where it tightly binds androstenone and androstenol , both pheromones that cause female pigs to assume a mating stance .
Isothermal titration calorimetry studies performed with Mups and associated ligands ( pyrazines , alcohols , thiazolines , 6 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 6 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ heptanone , and N @-@ phenylnapthylamine , ) revealed an unusual binding phenomena . The active site has been found to be suboptimally hydrated , resulting in ligand binding being driven by enthalpic dispersion forces . This is contrary to most other proteins , which exhibit entropy @-@ driven binding forces from the reorganisation of water molecules . This unusual process has been termed the " nonclassical hydrophobic effect . "
= = = Pheromones = = =
Studies have sought to find the precise function of Mups in pheromone communication . Mup proteins have been shown to promote puberty and accelerate the estrus cycle in female mice , inducing the Vandenbergh and Whitten effects . However , in both cases the Mups had to be presented to the female dissolved in male urine , indicating that the protein requires some urinary context to function . In 2007 Mups normally found in male mouse urine were made in transgenic bacteria , and therefore created devoid of the chemicals they normally bind . These Mups were shown to be sufficient to promote aggressive behaviour in males , even in the absence of urine . In addition , Mups made in bacteria were found to activate olfactory sensory neurons in the vom
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, the hurricane demolished 390 mobile homes and damaged another 2 @,@ 290 . The overall cost of damage in Mississippi alone approached $ 1 billion .
= = = Louisiana = = =
After moving inland , the storm 's northwestward track brought it over the Louisiana border on two separate occasions , first reaching Washington Parish as a minimal hurricane . Winds there were strong enough to bring down hundreds of trees , damaging houses and knocking out power to over 15 @,@ 000 customers in the process . The hurricane also overturned mobile homes and strewn debris throughout communities such as Bogalusa and Franklinton in Washington Parish , the hardest @-@ hit area in the state . Downed trees caused damage to 200 homes and another 200 businesses , chiefly near Bogalusa .
Winds across the rest of the state were moderate , gusting to around 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Slidell on the northeastern shore of Lake Pontchartrain , so damage outside of Washington Parish was sporadic . Throughout the state , at least 40 @,@ 000 electric customers lost power . Located southwest of the storm 's core , New Orleans escaped with little damage and relatively benign weather conditions ; still , the hurricane triggered minor flooding and brought down tree limbs around the city . Levees along the shores of Lake Pontchartrain were able to contain the lake 's large waves , despite initial fears to the contrary . Still , the adverse conditions forced the temporary closure of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway . The storm led to the deaths of two individuals in the state : one due to a drowning in St. Tammany Parish and another in a traffic accident attributed to the weather . Insured and uninsured damages were worth near $ 17 million combined , with an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 in agricultural losses .
Elena subjected the Chandeleur Islands to a 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) or greater storm surge . The island chain is an important buffer to parts of mainland Louisiana against storms , but is frequently reshaped or shrunken by intense hurricanes . Hurricane Danny and Hurricane Juan also impacted the islands in 1985 . Elena eroded away at least 20 % and possibly up to 40 % of the Chandeleur Islands ' total land mass and cut 30 significant channels into the island chain . Parts of the islands left intact suffered extensive loss of vegetation . The hurricane , along with Danny and Juan , also impacted several other barrier islands , and Elena itself removed as much as 112 ft ( 34 m ) of beach along the island of Grand Isle .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Precipitation from Hurricane Elena reached into southern Georgia and parts of South Carolina , with little impact aside from meager drought relief . For several days after landfall , the weakening tropical cyclone produced moderate to heavy rainfall across portions of central and northern Arkansas . Rainfall totals were generally 2 to 4 in ( 51 to 102 mm ) , with locally higher amounts ; Mountain Home , Arkansas received 8 @.@ 95 in ( 227 mm ) of rain , including 6 @.@ 6 in ( 170 mm ) in just three hours on September 4 . Clinton to the south recorded 8 @.@ 6 in ( 220 mm ) . At the state capital of Little Rock , under 3 in ( 76 mm ) of liquid fell . Listed by the National Weather Service among " some of the most significant tropical cyclones to affect Arkansas " , the remnants of Elena triggered flash flooding in parts of four counties ; 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of standing water submerged streets in downtown Hot Springs . In Mountain Home , floodwaters forced 10 families to evacuate their homes , and one person died after a swollen creek swept her car off a bridge spanning it .
Significant rainfall also occurred over parts of western Kentucky , with lighter precipitation in several adjacent states . Over 8 in ( 200 mm ) fell at Paducah , where urban streets and low @-@ lying terrain experienced freshwater flooding Floodwaters 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep submerged cars to their windows and infiltrated 40 homes , several businesses , a hotel , and a high school . Localized evacuations and road closures were required , and a person wading in an active creek had to be rescued after the creek swept him downstream . Around 10 @,@ 000 customers lost electric service for a short period due to the storm . Shelters were opened to those displaced by the flooding , but scarcely used .
Early in its formative stages , Elena triggered rainshowers and thunderstorms over parts of Cuba , The Bahamas , and Hispaniola . Later , the mature hurricane generated strong rip currents as far away as South Padre Island , Texas , where two swimmers drowned in separate incidents over the Labor Day weekend . Both victims were male Texas residents .
= = Aftermath = =
Hurricane Elena has a multifaceted legacy ; it is remembered not only for its severe impacts , but also for its unpredictability and the wide extent of pre @-@ storm preparations . Due to its notoriety , the name Elena was retired from the cyclical list of Atlantic hurricane names in the spring of 1986 . Consequently , it will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced by Erika , which was first used during the 1991 season .
= = = Florida = = =
The state of Florida received a federal Major Disaster Declaration on September 12 . Franklin , Levy , Manatee , and Pinellas counties — where the storm left 5 @,@ 000 individuals without work — became eligible for federal aid after President Ronald Reagan visited the state and determined that residents in those areas would benefit from assistance such as temporary housing , low @-@ interest loans for rebuilding efforts , and monetary grants . Disaster centers were opened in those four counties as centralized locations for federal , state , and volunteer agencies to operate relief programs . President Reagan later included Hillsborough , Wakulla , and Dixie counties , bringing the total number of Florida counties eligible for federal aid to seven . The deadline for residents of all seven counties to apply for either state or federal assistance was set for November 12 . Several major corporations — including Texaco , Exxon , and J.C. Penney — contacted customers in the affected areas and offered to make special arrangements for their monthly payments if they had been financially impacted by the storm . While only a small number of customers took advantage of the assistance , the companies ' actions were met with highly positive feedback .
In the days following the storm , residents of Cedar Key were forbidden from returning to their homes and businesses while washed @-@ out roadways underwent repairs and debris was cleared . Portable toilets were delivered and clean water trucked in for use while the city 's infrastructure was being stabilized . After the city of Cedar Key dropped its participation in the National Flood Insurance Program in early 1984 , leaving residents unable to purchase flood insurance for their property , the city council voted unanimously to return to the program after Hurricane Elena . Tourism decreased significantly in some areas due to prospective travelers ' concerns about the extent of the damage . The hurricane created a 13 % drop in visitors between October 1984 and October 1985 in Pinellas County , marking an early end to the annual " tourist season " , which generally ends after Labor Day weekend ; tourist spending fell accordingly .
After the storm , residents were allowed to return to their neighborhoods on a by @-@ town basis . Once authorized to enter their communities , many individuals inadvertently gained access to other municipalities in the area that were not ready for the return of civilians . In turn , dangerous situations arose amid preliminary cleanup operations . In Pinellas County , laws were proposed to unify the municipal decisions to accept residents after future disasters . As part of the proposed laws , the county sheriff , as opposed to local officials , would become responsible for allowing cities to reopen . Despite extensive resistance , county commissioners approved the change , giving the sitting sheriff power to override municipal evacuation orders . An additional ordinance was proposed to allow banning of alcohol sales during emergencies . During Hurricane Elena , intoxicated individuals created disorder at shelters and impeded evacuations by refusing to leave hurricane parties .
To help the Apalachicola Bay shellfish industry recover , special regulations were put in place to monitor harvests , and $ 2 million was designated toward rehabilitation efforts . Using a portion of the funds , out @-@ of @-@ work oyster catchers were employed to repopulate crucial reefs . The state of Florida also issued a grant to help individuals in the crippled seafood industry make necessary payments . Efforts to help newly unemployed individuals in the shellfish industry continued in the months following the storm ; local Tallahassee musicians organized a benefit concert in January 1986 to raise money for families of oystermen in Franklin County .
On September 1 and 2 , Florida Power Company received help from Gulf Coast companies to return power to 170 @,@ 000 customers before the assisting companies ' home areas were struck by the hurricane . Power was restored to most areas by September 4 , with an exception being St. George 's Island ; service was expected to be restored after several additional days . More broadly , owners of heavily damaged homes in the state faced new regulations on coastal construction in the state , which went into effect less than a month after the storm . The new rules entailed more rigorous study of factors such as a property 's prior history and surrounding buildings before approval to rebuild a demolished structure would be granted . Governor Graham preliminarily advised that houses more than halfway destroyed not be rebuilt . Recovery efforts after Hurricane Elena continued to a small degree for years after its passage ; for example , beach replenishment at Indian Rocks Beach in Pinellas County began in the summer of 1990 .
= = = Central Gulf Coast = = =
Power companies from several states sent workers to help restore service to the hardest @-@ hit areas of the Gulf Coast . Most of Alabama Power 's affected customers had power within 24 hours of the storm , though restoration of service to Dauphin Island took significantly longer . Power was fully restored to Central Louisiana Electric customers by September 4 . Alabama 's two coastal counties were declared federal disaster areas on September 7 . Special loan assistance was made available by the Small Business Administration and the Farmers Home Administration , the latter of which sought to help commercial growers who lost their crops to the storm .
Mississippi Governor William Allain sent 500 members of the National Guard to partner with 200 law enforcement officers along Mississippi 's coast in minimizing crime , and nighttime curfews were established in several cities . On September 4 , President Reagan declared Mississippi 's coastal counties a Major Disaster area . The Federal Emergency Management Agency estimated that as many as 3 @,@ 000 homes in the state were uninhabitable , their occupants forced to find temporary living arrangements . The Small Business Administration approved special loans up to $ 500 @,@ 000 for owners of damaged businesses . Mississippi Power Company 's system was the hardest @-@ hit , and restoration of service was slow ; 50 @,@ 000 of 80 @,@ 000 customers were still without electricity by September 5 .
By September 5 , the Salvation Army , Red Cross , and other organizations had served 100 @,@ 000 meals to those displaced by the hurricane in Mississippi , and federal food stocks became available for the state to distribute to storm victims . Still , resources such as food and ice started to run short in the hardest @-@ hit locations , and long lines formed at the first few stores and gas stations to reopen . With dwindling supplies , the Salvation Army had to procure food from other parts of the region to serve to victims . In the days after the hurricane , an increase in heart attack deaths in the Harrison County area was noted .
= Together Again ( Janet Jackson song ) =
" Together Again " is a song by American recording artist Janet Jackson from her sixth studio album , The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) . It was written and produced by Jackson , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , with additional writing by
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reserved for occupation by a new sovereign immediately following coronation . This same Masoandro or a restored version of it was still standing on the Rova grounds and occupied by one of Andrianampoinimerina 's wives two hundred years later . However , historic sources offer seemingly contradictory or incomplete accounts of the fate of this historic building . A Masoandro was said to have been relocated from the Rova to Ambohimanga by Ranavalona I. Another source states that Masoandro was demolished at the Rova by Ranavalona II and replaced by a house in brick , only to be demolished again by Ranavalona III . This last sovereign of Madagascar sought to build a new brick palace , also called Masoandro , with four square corner towers and a higher central tower modelled on the French Residence of Antananarivo . Work began in 1893 but was interrupted by war with France in 1895 . The brick foundations of this unfinished Masoandro are still visible today . Still another source states that Masoandro was one of three traditional wooden houses still standing at the Rova when Madagascar was colonised by the French , with the implication that the name was applied to distinct buildings at various times .
Near the foundations of the brick Masoandro formerly stood Kelisoa , a traditional wooden structure which housed sacred animals and concubines at different points during the reign of Radama I and was later used by Ranavalona III to hold receptions . Also formerly standing here was Tsarahafatra ( " Good Message " ) , a small palace built for Ranavalona I , rebuilt after 1862 , occupied as a primary residence by Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III , and ultimately destroyed by French artillery in September 1895 .
By the 1960s , Besakana , Mahitsy and one other wooden house ( presumably the last wooden Masoandro ) were the only remaining examples of an estimated twenty ancient aristocratic houses that had occupied the Rova site during the reign of Andrianampoinimerina . By 1975 , this unidentified third house — said to be the oldest original structure on the grounds — was no longer standing .
= = = Royal tombs = = =
Nine royal tombs were located in the north @-@ eastern quadrant of the Rova grounds . These included the two large tombs of King Radama I ( d.1828 ) and Queen Rasoherina ( d.1868 ) , as well as seven ancient wooden tombs known collectively as the Fitomiandalana . These older tombs , the first of which was built in 1630 for King Andrianjaka , were a series of seven tomb pits topped with individual wooden trano masina ( tomb houses ) built close together in a row with their gable peaks aligned , followed by one tomb pit without a tomb house . Tomb houses are particular to highland tombs and are intended to indicate the noble rank of the deceased and house his or her spirit after death .
Each tomb of the Fitomiandalana contained the bodies of early Kings of Imerina and their relatives , and was assigned a name after the principal occupant of the underlying grave . These were , in order : Andrianavalonibemihisatra ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo , five bodies ) , Andriamponimerina ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo at the time of future king Andrianampoinimerina 's birth , three bodies ) , Andrianjakanavalomandimby ( oldest son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo , two bodies ) , Andriamasinavalona ( great @-@ grandson of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , three bodies ) , Andriantsimitoviaminandriandehibe ( grandson of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , two bodies ) , Andrianjaka ( founder of Antananarivo and King of Imerina , 12 bodies ) and Andriantsitakatrandriana ( son of Andrianjaka and King of Imerina , two bodies ) . The final tomb without a tomb house was for Andriantomponimerina ( son of Andriamasinavalona and King of Antananarivo ) and housed eight bodies .
After the dissolution of the Kingdom of Madagascar , the French colonial authorities shifted the location of these tombs thereby disrupting the original cosmological symbolism of their arrangement . When the original tombs were excavated for relocation , the French found the mortal remains of the nobles within had each been wrapped in numerous traditional lambas ( woven silk cloths ) then set within wooden coffins packed with charcoal . Bodies buried at Ambohimanga were found to have been entombed in the same way .
Two more distinctive stone tombs were built beside the Fitomiandalana , to the north of Tranovola , the first of which was completed in 1828 by Louis Gros for Radama I. Further north , the second tomb was originally built for Queen Rasoherina by James Cameron in 1868 . Both of these stone tombs were topped with a tomb house . Radama 's tomb bears features popularised during the reign of his father , Andrianampoinimerina : three superimposed levels ( excluding the tomb house ) with upright sheets of stone at the base level , one of which could be removed to provide access to the subterranean chamber where the sovereign 's body was laid upon a massive stone slab . Radama 's tomb house broke with tradition by replacing the usual miniaturised version of the aristocratic wooden house ( typified by Besakana and other ancient houses in the Rova grounds ) with a house featuring a veranda , an architectural novelty introduced during his reign . The roof of this tomb house was originally thatch made from rushes but was replaced in the 1850s with wooden shingles , an innovation introduced from nearby Reunion Island or Mauritius . By contrast , the tomb of Rasoherina , erected forty years later , featured a two @-@ level base ( excluding the tomb house ) made of chiselled stone blocks held together with cement .
General Joseph Gallieni ordered the disinterment of the Merina sovereigns buried 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) away at Ambohimanga and had them reburied at the Rova . The bodies of Radama II and Andrianampoinimerina were added to the tomb of Radama I , while those of Ranavalona I and Ranavalona II went into the tomb of Rasoherina . Several decades later in 1938 , the body of Ranavalona III , who died in 1917 at her place of exile in Algiers ( Algeria ) , was added to those of the other queens of Madagascar at the Rova . During the 1995 fire , heat from the burning wooden structures within the Rova compound caused the stone tombs to explode , leaving the mortal remains of generations of Merina sovereigns to be consumed by the flames .
= = = Fiangonana = = =
Built by William Pool for Ranavalona II , Fiangonana ( " Chapel " ) required eleven years to complete . The structure 's foundation stone was laid on 20 July 1869 , and its subsequent construction used over 35 @,@ 000 hand @-@ chiselled stones . Inaugurated on 8 April 1880 , the central worship space measured 12 @.@ 9 metres ( 42 ft ) wide and 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) in length with an estimated capacity of 450 persons . The building was designed with a private pew for the royal family , elevated on a platform approximately 0 @.@ 91 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high and accessed by a short staircase . A private entrance available to the royal family was accessible by a decorative exterior bridge linking the chapel to the raised embankment upon which Manampisoa stood .
The chapel boasts a number of distinctive features . At the time of its completion , its 34 @-@ metre ( 112 ft ) tower was the only structure in Madagascar to be roofed in locally sourced slate . The windows were decorated with stained glass , and a pipe organ was installed to provide music at services . The organ and stained glass were imported from England , while the pews , altar panels and queen 's private pew were all ornately crafted from indigenous precious woods by local artisans . During the colonial period , the chapel was used briefly as an exhibition space for European paintings before being closed to the public .
= = Destruction = =
On the night of 6 November 1995 , a fire broke out in the Rova compound , destroying or severely damaging all of its buildings . Once the flames had been extinguished , all that remained of the original structures were the stone shells of the royal chapel and Manjakamiadana . Fire @-@ fighters arrived late at the scene . Their capacity to douse the fire was hampered by the discovery that their fire hoses did not properly fit onto the nearby hydrants . In addition , the water pressure at the hydrants was significantly reduced due to Analamanga hilltop 's high elevation . As the fire @-@ fighters battled the flames , numerous bystanders ran into Rova compound buildings to retrieve artefacts of historic and cultural significance . Approximately 1 @,@ 675 objects were saved out of an estimated total of 6 @,@ 700 . Some pillaging is believed to have occurred . On the night of the fire , the body of one of the queens was found in the public square in the centre of the city . A funeral vigil was held the following day for these royal remains . The remains were later identified as belonging to Ranavalona III , and have since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .
The destruction of the Rova of Antananarivo occurred at a time when the complex was in the final stages of the process to become classified as Madagascar 's first cultural UNESCO World Heritage Site . Six people were initially charged in connection with the Rova 's destruction in an Antananarivo court of law , but the official investigation concluded that the fire was an accident . Public accusations of a cover @-@ up placed the blame for the fire on government officials , various ethnic groups , foreign powers and other parties . Over fifteen years after the fire , the widespread belief persists within and outside Madagascar that a deliberate arson was the cause . Rumoured justifications for arson at the Rova were numerous and remain unproven . The revelation that important financial archives had been destroyed early on the morning of the fire sparked rumours that corrupt government officials had lit the blaze to create a public distraction from their illicit activities . Other explanations have included popular dissatisfaction with the election of divisive mayor Guy Willy Razanamasy or a flare @-@ up of long @-@ standing tensions among coastal peoples resentful of Merina socio @-@ political domination . Accusations were also made against both then @-@ president Albert Zafy and his predecessor , Didier Ratsiraka . The debate over why and how the Rova burned remains an unresolved and highly contentious subject almost two decades later .
= = Reconstruction = =
Shortly after the fire , the government of Madagascar established the Direction nationale des opérations Rova ( DNOR , or National Office of Rova Operations ) , a body directed by four national experts within Madagascar 's Ministry of Culture who were tasked with developing and overseeing plans for the reconstruction of the Rova . Two years after the fire , several key milestones in the process had been achieved , with objects recovered from the fire inventoried , site excavations completed , preliminary restoration plans for Manjakamiadana developed , and work on the royal chapel initiated . A ramp was also built to enable site access for the necessary heavy construction vehicles . Prior to work commencing , a traditional ceremony was performed to restore the sanctity of the site , which had served a dual role as both a physical tomb and spiritual link to venerated ancestors .
Estimated initial reconstruction costs were put at 20 million U.S. dollars by experts from UNESCO , which was the principal contributor of funds as well as expertise due to the Rova 's then status as a soon @-@ to @-@ be officially recognised World Heritage Site . The French Development Agency also pledged tens of thousands of dollars to the project while additional monies in the form of private donations from residents of Antananarivo helped to fund the reconstruction of the tombs on the complex . However , according to a UNESCO report released in June 2000 , the majority of funds raised by UNESCO between 1997 and 2000 for the Ratsiraka administration 's Rova reconstruction initiative — an estimated 700 billion Malagasy Francs — were allegedly embezzled by the DNOR Administrator , stalling reconstruction at the end of the planning stage .
Significant progress toward reconstruction was seen under the administration of President Marc Ravalomanana ( 2001 – 2009 ) who created the Comité national du patrimoine ( CMP , or National Heritage Committee ) responsible for overseeing the effort . The less time @-@ intensive restoration projects were the first to be undertaken and completed . Efforts to restore the chapel , the monument least affected by the fire due to its stone structure , focused particularly on restoring its roof , steeple and wooden pews along with altar panels that had burned in the fire . Work on the chapel was completed in 2003 . Reconstruction work on Mahitsy began in 2001 and was completed in January 2003 , while planning for the reconstruction of Besakana began in December 2003 but stalled in 2009 . The restoration of the nine royal tombs in the Rova complex was completed in October 2003 . In early January 2006 , Phase 1 of the Manjakamiadana reconstruction commenced . This phase was scheduled for completion in May 2008 . The reconstruction of the larger wooden palaces , such as Tranovola and Manampisoa , has not been planned .
The original exterior of Manjakamiadana comprised over 70 @,@ 000 granite stones , of which approximately 20 @,@ 000 had become cracked during the fire and needed replacement . The western wall of the palace partially collapsed in January 2004 and required complete rebuilding . Every stone was removed and numbered to facilitate the reinsertion of each one in its original place with two French stone @-@ masonry companies engaged to supervise the work . The foundation was modernised , first using laser technology to assess the topography of the site , then by driving 22 cement piles into the ground beneath the foundation base to a depth of 23 metres ( 75 ft ) . Phase 2 consisted of replacing each of the numbered exterior wall stones in its original place , bolstered where needed by new stones to replace those damaged in the fire . Although the palace interior was originally made of wood , the reconstructed building was designed using reinforced concrete interior supporting beams for the walls , ceiling and roof due to concerns over the availability and durability of hardwood . Finally , the roof was re @-@ tiled in blue @-@ gray slate imported from quarries near the French city of Angers .
Phases 1 and 2 of the reconstruction process were declared complete in December 2009 at a total cost of 6 @.@ 5 million euros . The work employed 230 people at three sites : a granite quarry on National Route 1 ( RN1 ) , a separate site where the stones were chiselled into shape , and the site of the Rova itself . Phase 3 will consist of the design and rebuilding of the interior of the palace , while Phase 4 will involve planning and subsequent development of the display and management of the museum collection to be housed on the ground floor . In late 2010 , work on these final two phases of reconstruction was scheduled to begin in 2011 with completion expected within 24 months at a cost of approximately 3 @,@ 765 @,@ 000 euros . Following the completion of the first two phases , the Minister of Culture and Heritage fast @-@ tracked the enclosure of windows and doors to protect the building 's interior and began establishing a new inventory of historic objects saved from the fire . These artefacts are currently housed in the Andafiavaratra Palace , former home of late 19th @-@ century Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , and will be transferred to a museum within Manjakamiadana upon its completion .
In March 2009 the Ravalomanana administration was ousted following several months of opposition protests led by then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina . The transfer of power to Rajoelina , who adopted the title of President of the High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) , was widely viewed as a coup d 'état by members of the international community , leading many bilateral and intergovernmental donors to suspend non @-@ humanitarian support to the regime . The HAT declared its intention to continue the Manjakamiadana reconstruction project using a combination of state funds and donations from private Malagasy citizens . Six banking agencies in Madagascar were selected to serve as collection points for private donations . On 7 March 2011 the HAT relieved the original members of the National Heritage Committee of their posts and mandated the appointment of new members selected from among the regime 's ministerial staff . Despite the introduction of these diverse strategies , the HAT struggled to obtain adequate funds to continue the pace of Rova reconstruction seen in the latter half of the Ravalomanana presidency . Progress toward completion advanced sporadically at a gradual rate throughout the Rajoelina administration . Since assuming power in January 2014 , the Rajaonarimampianina administration has been engaged in discussions with the French Secretary of State for the Francophonie and International Development to agree upon French financial support to assist in completing the restoration work . In June 2014 , the administration declared that the cost of completing the final two phases had risen to 6 @-@ 7 million from the 3 @.@ 7 million originally estimated in 2010 .
= Siege of Port Royal ( 1710 ) =
The Siege of Port Royal ( 5 – 13 October 1710 ) , also known as the Conquest of Acadia , was conducted by British regular and provincial forces under the command of Francis Nicholson against a French Acadian garrison and the Wabanaki Confederacy under the command of Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , at the Acadian capital , Port Royal . The successful British siege marked the beginning of permanent British control over the peninsular portion of Acadia , which they renamed Nova Scotia , and it was the first time the British took and held a French colonial possession . After the French surrender , the British occupied the fort in the capital with all the pomp and ceremony of having captured one of the great fortresses of Europe , and renamed it Annapolis Royal .
The siege was the third British attempt during Queen Anne 's War to capture the Acadian capital , and it had profound consequences over the next 50 years . The conquest was a key element in the framing of the North American issues in French @-@ British treaty negotiations of 1711 – 1713 . It resulted in the creation of a new colony — Nova Scotia — and introduced significant questions concerning the fate of both the Acadians and the Mi 'kmaq who continued to occupy Acadia .
The Conquest of Acadia was a foundational moment in the history of the Canadian state — it was a precursor to the British conquests of Louisbourg and Quebec , and it portended the end of French power in North America more generally .
= = Background = =
Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604 . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France by the Treaty of Ryswick .
= = = Early expeditions = = =
With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702 , colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict . Acadia 's governor , Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , had , in anticipation of war , already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701 , which was largely completed by 1704 . Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704 , the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May . Led by Benjamin Church , they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities . English and French accounts differ on whether Church 's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal . Church 's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack , but ultimately decided against the idea ; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made .
When Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706 , he went on the offensive , encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England . He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping . The privateers were highly effective ; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707 , and some English coastal communities were raided .
English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal , and some of this activity had continued illegally after the war began . However , the business was being hurt by the war , and some merchants began making vocal calls for action , and public outrage rose over the failure of the Massachusetts defenses to stop the French and Indian raids . Massachusetts Bay Governor Joseph Dudley had made repeated requests to London for support without any success , and finally decided to act independently to fend off accusations of complicity in the illegal trade . In spring
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Island ) and Île Royale , ( present day Cape Breton Island ) , which provided access to the important Atlantic fisheries .
Acadia 's people were placed in a difficult position by the conquest . The British on numerous occasions demanded they take oaths to the British Crown , but many refused to take oaths requiring them to take arms against the French , preferring to proclaim their neutrality . For this and other reasons , hundreds of Acadians left peninsular Nova Scotia over the next decade . Most of them avoided the principal French colonial settlements and went to French @-@ occupied Isle Saint @-@ Jean .
Acadia 's border was not formally demarcated by the Treaty of Utrecht , which became a cause of ongoing friction between the British and French , especially on the Isthmus of Chignecto , which both sides eventually fortified . The French interpreted the phrase ancient boundaries to imply only the peninsula of present @-@ day Nova Scotia , thereby excluding the mainland between New England and the St. Lawrence , ÎLe St. Jean , and Cape Breton . This helped the Amerindians of Abenaquis , Malecites , and MicMacs to retain their sovereignty over their old hunting grounds .
In 1746 , the grand expedition was organized in France under the command of the Duc d 'Anville . The expedition was composed of 20 warships , 21 frigates , and 32 transport ships , containing 800 cannons , 3 @,@ 000 soldiers , and 10 @,@ 000 marines . The expedition was to retake Louisbourg and then Annapolis Royal . However , after a three months crossing , and the dispersal of the fleet between Sable Island and the mainland , the expedition turned out to be a disaster for the French , and they would not try to recapture Port Royal again .
The territorial dispute would not be fully resolved until the British conquest of New France in 1760 , and the informal boundary between the British and French in the dispute ( the Missaguash River ) now forms the border between the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick .
= = Historic fiction = =
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= Delaware Route 273 =
Delaware Route 273 ( DE 273 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from Maryland Route 273 ( MD 273 ) at the Maryland border near Newark east to DE 9 and DE 141 in New Castle . The route runs through suburban areas between Newark and New Castle as a four @-@ lane divided highway , passing through Ogletown and Christiana . DE 273 intersects DE 896 in downtown Newark , DE 2 / DE 72 on the eastern edge of Newark , DE 4 in Ogletown , Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) , DE 7 , and DE 1 in Christiana , DE 37 in Pleasantville , and DE 58 and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) / US 40 in Hares Corner .
What is now DE 273 was originally built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s , with the portion east of Hares Corner becoming a part of US 40 , which had crossed the Delaware River on a ferry between New Castle and Pennsville , New Jersey . DE 273 was designated by 1936 to connect the Maryland border near Newark to Hares Corner . In the 1950s , the route was extended to New Castle when US 40 was realigned to the Delaware Memorial Bridge . DE 273 was moved onto new alignments around Christiana in the 1980s and through Ogletown in the 1990s .
= = Route description = =
DE 273 begins at the Maryland border west of Newark , where it continues west into that state as MD 273 . From the state line , the route heads southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Nottingham Road , passing through wooded suburban neighborhoods as it enters Newark . DE 273 becomes West Main Street as it approaches the downtown area , intersecting the southbound direction of DE 896 , at which point DE 273 forms a concurrency with southbound DE 896 . The road crosses CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and comes to an intersection with New London Road , which runs northwest as northbound DE 896 , and South Main Street , which heads southwest as DE 896 .
At this point , DE 273 splits into the one @-@ way pair of West Delaware Avenue eastbound and West Main Street westbound , with eastbound DE 273 briefly following one @-@ way South Main Street southwest to get from West Main Street to West Delaware Avenue . The one @-@ way pair , which carries two lanes in each direction , becomes concurrent with DE 896 in both directions until the South College Avenue intersection . DE 273 runs through the University of Delaware campus and continues through the downtown as East Delaware Avenue eastbound and East Main Street westbound . Farther east , East Delaware Avenue shifts farther to the south of East Main Street , with the one @-@ way streets passing between a residential neighborhood and East Delaware Avenue passing to the north of Newark High School . Past here , the route comes to an intersection with DE 2 / DE 72 . At this point , eastbound DE 273 turns north to join DE 72 on four @-@ lane divided Library Avenue to rejoin westbound DE 273 .
Past DE 2 / DE 72 , DE 273 leaves Newark and heads east on Ogletown Road , a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that passes through commercial areas , soon becoming a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road continues east and comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor . The route turns southeast and reaches an interchange with DE 4 in Ogletown . Past this interchange , DE 273 becomes Christiana Road and heads east through suburban residential neighborhoods with some businesses . The road bends southeast again as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) . Following this , the route heads into more commercial areas and becomes Christiana Road , bypassing the community of Christiana to the southwest . DE 273 runs south through wooded areas and crosses Old Baltimore Pike before curving east and coming to an intersection with DE 7 . A short distance later , the road reaches an interchange with the DE 1 freeway .
Following this interchange , DE 273 heads through woods before entering areas of suburban homes and businesses , coming to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 37 in Pleasantville . The route continues east and intersects the eastern terminus of DE 58 near the Wilmington Airport . A short distance later , the road comes to an intersection with US 13 / US 40 in Hares Corner .
Past this intersection , DE 273 becomes concurrent with DE 9 Truck and turns into two @-@ lane undivided Frenchtown Road , heading east between business parks to the south and farm fields to the north . DE 273 comes to an intersection with DE 9 and DE 141 to the west of New Castle , where the route , along with DE 9 Truck , officially ends . Despite this , DE 273 signage continues east along DE 9 toward New Castle on Delaware Street . Along this stretch , the road crosses the New Castle Industrial Track Trail . Before reaching the New Castle Historic District after a crossing of Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary , DE 9 / DE 273 makes a left turn onto Ferry Cut Off Street . DE 273 's signed eastern terminus is at Sixth Street near the Delaware River , where DE 9 turns northeast on Sixth Street to head toward Wilmington .
DE 273 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 49 @,@ 566 vehicles at the I @-@ 95 interchange to a low of 8 @,@ 760 vehicles at the western edge of Newark . The portion of DE 273 east of DE 896 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 273 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . Four years later , the portion of road through Newark was upgraded to a state highway while the road was paved between Hares Corner and New Castle . A year later , the section between Ogletown and Christiana was planned as a state highway while the section east of Basin Road was upgraded to a state highway . In 1930 , the road between the Maryland border and Newark was built as a state highway , providing a shorter route to the Conowingo Dam in Maryland . The following year , US 40 was designated to run on the portion of road between Hares Corner and New Castle , where it connected to a ferry across the Delaware River to Pennsville , New Jersey . Also by this time , all of present @-@ day DE 273 was upgraded to a state highway except the portion of US 40 between Hares Corner and Basin Road . In 1934 , recommendations were made to upgrade US 40 to a state highway between Hares Corner and New Castle . The portion of US 40 between Hares Corner and New Castle was taken over by the state on July 1 , 1935 . Construction on upgrading this section began in 1936 . This project was completed later that year . The same year , a bridge was constructed over a Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now the New Castle Industrial Track Trail ) in New Castle .
DE 273 was designated to run from the Maryland border west of Newark east to US 13 and US 40 in Hares Corner by 1936 , roughly following its current alignment . In Newark , the route ran concurrent with DE 2 . By 1952 , US 40 was realigned to use the Delaware Memorial Bridge to cross the Delaware River , and DE 273 was extended east along the former alignment of US 40 to end at present @-@ day DE 9 in New Castle . In 1956 , DE 2 and DE 273 were routed onto the one @-@ way pair of Delaware Avenue eastbound and Main Street westbound in downtown Newark following an eastward extension of Delaware Avenue to the intersection between DE 2 and DE 273 east of the city .
By 1984 , DE 9 was realigned to follow DE 273 east of the DE 141 intersection . DE 273 was realigned to bypass Christiana a year later . DE 2 was routed to bypass Newark and DE 2 Bus. became concurrent with DE 273 through Newark by 1990 . By 1997 , DE 273 was moved to its current alignment in the Ogletown area , eliminating a short concurrency with DE 4 and involving the construction of an interchange with that route . The concurrent DE 2 Bus. designation was eliminated in 2013 as part of simplifying the route numbers in Newark .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Jimmy Chamberlin =
James Joseph " Jimmy " Chamberlin ( born June 10 , 1964 ) is an American drummer and record producer . He is best known as the drummer for the alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins . Following the 2000 breakup of the band , Chamberlin joined Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan in the supergroup Zwan and also formed his own group , the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex . In 2005 , Chamberlin joined Corgan in reforming The Smashing Pumpkins ; he eventually left the group in March 2009 , though he would return again in 2015 for a summer tour . He performed in the group Skysaw until 2012 . He is currently active under the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex name . In addition to his current work as CEO , Chamberlin has joined Chicago jazz saxophonist Frank Catalano for a string of 2013 – 15 performances in the Chicago area . An EP by Catalano and Chamberlin Love Supreme Collective - EP was released on the 29th of July 2014 .
Chamberlin , who originally trained as a jazz drummer , cites jazz musicians Benny Goodman , Duke Ellington , Gene Krupa , and Buddy Rich , as well as rock drummers Keith Moon , Ian Paice , and John Bonham as major influences on his technique . While he is known as " one of the most powerful drummers in rock , " he primarily strives for emotionally communicative playing . In 2008 , Gigwise named Chamberlin the 5th best drummer of all time .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Chamberlin was born in Joliet , Illinois , one of six children . His father and his older brother Paul were both active in jazz bands , playing clarinet and drums respectively , and his brother Paul is still an active rock drummer , with a local cover band , Chasing Amy .
Chamberlin began drumming at age 9 . His early instruction included Latin , Brazilian , and big band techniques , but focused on jazz , under the tutelage of future Yanni drummer , Charlie Adams .
Chamberlin left home at age 15 and joined a series of local bands . Although his early music career proved profitable , Chamberlin 's father pressured him into going to college . In 1994 , Chamberlin revealed that he had been estranged from his father for seven years . After three years with the show band JP and the Cats , Chamberlin , wearied by the touring schedule , quit and got a job building custom homes with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Before long , he joined the Smashing Pumpkins .
= = = The Smashing Pumpkins = = =
The Smashing Pumpkins were looking for a live drummer to open a show at the Metro , a Chicago club . Chamberlin and Billy Corgan met through a mutual friend , and Chamberlin expressed cautious interest , later recalling :
So I went out and saw the band – Billy , James , and D 'arcy – playing at Avalon with a drum machine . Man , did they sound horrible ! They were atrocious . But the thing I noticed was that not only were the song structures good , but Billy 's voice had a lot of drive to it , like he was dying to succeed . So I ended up driving from work every Wednesday to rehearse with them .
Corgan had his own concerns :
He was wearing a pink t @-@ shirt , stonewashed jeans , he had a mullet haircut , and he was driving a 280Z , and had yellow drums . We were sort of looking each other in the eye thinking , ' This ain 't gonna happen , this is not the guy . ' [ But ] he 'd learned all our songs , as only Jimmy can , off the top of his head , and , within one practice , we were ready to play . It was amazing . We just knew right away . He 's that good .
Chamberlin made " tons of cash " as a carpenter , before giving up the job to move to Chicago and devote himself to the band . Chamberlin 's entry quickly pushed the band toward a more powerful , intense sound . The first two Smashing Pumpkins albums , Gish and Siamese Dream , were performed almost entirely by Corgan and Chamberlin alone .
During this period Chamberlin struggled with substance abuse . During the recording of 1993 's Siamese Dream in Marietta , Georgia , Chamberlin often disappeared for days at a time into the drug underworld of Atlanta , while the rest of the band feared for his life . He later said of his drug addiction that " It 's pretty textbook [ ... ] Guy makes it in rock band , gets very full of himself , starts thinking he 's indestructible , and all of a sudden he destroys himself . "
In the midst of the lengthy world tour supporting 1995 's multi @-@ platinum Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness , Chamberlin 's father died , and his substance abuse hit a fever pitch . Of this period , Chamberlin later said , " I learned that escapism was better than emotion , and that 's where I hid ... It got to the point that I really didn 't care . Life was scary for me . " Prior to shows scheduled July ' 96 at Madison Square Garden in New York City , Chamberlin and touring keyboardist Jonathan Melvoin overdosed on heroin ; Melvoin subsequently died , and Chamberlin was kicked out of the band , ostensibly to protect his health .
In October 1998 , Corgan convened a band meeting in which Chamberlin was reinstated as the group 's drummer , and the band decided to break up after one more album and tour . The band yielded two albums in 2000 , Machina / The Machines of God and the freely distributed Machina II / The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music , before performing a farewell show in Chicago on December 2 , 2000 .
= = = Other projects , 2001 – 2016 = = =
Chamberlin went on to form Zwan in 2001 with Corgan . Although Chamberlin predicted that " the band 's going to be huge , " Zwan produced only one album , Mary Star of the Sea , before disbanding in 2003 . Chamberlin formed his next project , Jimmy Chamberlin Complex , in 2004 , and released its first studio album , Life Begins Again , in 2005 . Chamberlin stated that , with the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex , " I just wanted to make music and not really be constrained to making a Zwan or a Pumpkins record . " . On the 29th of April 2016 , the Jimmy Chamberlin Complex released a new song " Paranoid " via Jimmy Chamberlin 's Official Twitter account
= = = Skysaw = = =
While giving drum clinics in late 2009 , Chamberlin announced his next project , a band called This . Describing the music as ' progressive , symphonic pop ' he reported that the band , also including multi @-@ instrumentalists Mike Reina and guitarist Anthony Pirog , would record with Roy Thomas Baker in Washington , D.C. in early 2010 .
This released their first album , a six @-@ track release titled Great Civilizations , on November 1 , 2010 as a digital download only , on both Amazon and iTunes . No official release announcement was made even on the band 's official website . Downloads from iTunes and Amazon were removed after there was confusion over the band 's name . The new band name , Skysaw , was officially announced in December 2010 .
In March 2011 it was announced that the Skysaw full @-@ length LP would be released on Dangerbird Records . On June 21 , 2011 , the new , extended 10 song LP Great Civilizations was released . The band subsequently toured with label mates Minus The Bear , performed hometown shows at Chicago 's Metro and the Black Cat in Washington , DC , and performed on the JBTV Television Show in Chicago , IL . Touring members included Boris Skalsky and Paul Wood of New York band Dead Heart Bloom .
On August 23 , 2012 Jimmy announced at a drum clinic that he had left Skysaw .
= = = Corporate ventures = = =
In 2011 , after introductions by then 1871 CEO Kevin Willer , Chamberlin began working with the burgeoning Chicago tech scene as an investor and advisor . Chamberlin 's increased involvement with startups led him to an introduction to LiveOne Inc . – a leader in digital and streaming entertainment . Founders Tim and John Ganschow ( of Chicago ) were presenting their new social platform , CrowdSurfing to an investment group that included Chamberlin . Chamberlin was impressed with the fledgling company and the CrowdSurfing technology and subsequently came on board to support the company both financially and as an advisor . In 2013 Chamberlin became Chief Executive Officer of LiveOne Inc . LiveOne Inc. has since partnered with Yahoo , YouTube , Live Nation , AEG , Vans , Phish , C3 , Budweiser 's Made In America Festival , Umphrey 's McGee , among others .
In November 2014 Chamberlin attended Web Summit , Ireland 's top tech conference . While there , he spoke of his time with the Smashing Pumpkins as well as on the future of Digital Music at the Web Summit Centre Stage with Adrian Grenier , Chris Kaskie , and Brian Morrissey . He pointed to digital as the medium for artists to truly express themselves and create art that connects with their fans : " Artists are looking for a destination ... [ and ] digital gives them the opportunity to realize some of those destinations and package them in a way that allows them to be creative " .
While there , he also name checked U2 and said their recent iTunes @-@ wide album release " moved the ball forward for everybody . "
= = = Frank Catalano = = =
Chamberlin joined Chicago jazz saxophonist Frank Catalano in 2013 for a number of live performances in the Chicago area . Since then they have continued to play live shows and have released a series of albums together . On July 29 , 2014 , Love Supreme Collective - EP featuring Jimmy Chamberlin , Percy Jones , Chris Poland , and Adam Benjamin was released and quickly became the # 1 selling jazz album on iTunes USA . The follow up album , released April 07th , 2015 called " God 's Gonna Cut You Down " debuted at # 2 on the iTunes Jazz sales chart and was the # 1 charting Instrumental album upon its release in April 2015 . It reached number 4 on the Billboard Jazz charts . On the 27th of May 2016 , a 3rd collaboration between Catalano and Chamberlin was released called " Bye Bye Blackbird " . This record features David Sanborn .
= = = Revival of The Smashing Pumpkins = = =
Billy Corgan announced at an April 2004 solo performance that he and Chamberlin intended to work together again in the future . After appearing on Life Begins Again , Corgan announced plans to " renew and revive " the Pumpkins through a full @-@ page advertisement in his hometown 's newspaper , the Chicago Tribune , on June 21 , 2005 . Chamberlin contacted Corgan to accept , and on February 2 , 2006 , MTV.com reported that he and Corgan had signed a new management deal with the Front Line Management , with a spokesperson confirming they had signed under the name " Smashing Pumpkins " .
Chamberlin and Corgan , without the other original members , decided to record an album alone . They played their first show in Paris on May 22 , 2007 , with three new band members . On July 10 , the new album , Zeitgeist , was released . Over the next year and a half , the band released more recordings and toured extensively .
On March 20 , 2009 the Pumpkins ' website announced that Chamberlin was leaving the band . Chamberlin released a blog stating that he left as he felt that the band would not further his commitment to music .
Chamberlin again joined the band for the 2015 End Times Tour .
Chamberlin remained in the line @-@ up for the subsequent " In Plainsong " Tour in 2016
= = Musical style and influences = =
Chamberlin comes from a jazz background , and he notes jazz musicians Benny Goodman , Duke Ellington , Gene Krupa , and Buddy Rich as influences . He has also been compared to jazz drummer Dennis Chambers for his " quick hands , furious snare rolls , and crackling rimshots . " In general , he is one of the few hard rock drummers to combine a driving backbeat with jazz @-@ like flourishes . When asked about his influences in 2007 , he responded :
Aside from the obvious – Keith Moon , John Bonham , Ian Paice – I would have to say Tony Williams , Elvin Jones , any of the jazz greats – Gene Krupa , those people . I think , more and more , as I get older , I 've developed my own rock style and I tend to pull more stuff from Elvin Jones and Tony now that I can incorporate it into a rock arena and kind of modernize it .
Other drummers that influenced Chamberlin around the recording of Zeitgeist included Bobby Caldwell of Captain Beyond , Lalo Schifrin 's Dirty Harry soundtrack , Weather Report , and Return to Forever 's Lenny White .
Chamberlin prefers not to use Pro Tools or click tracks ; He uses the slide technique for double strokes on the bass drum .
Bandmate Billy Corgan has said of Chamberlin , " he 's up there with Bonham , you know , that level of drummer , who has been able to play a variety of music and have his style impact the way people play drums . That 's the hallmark of a great drummer . And , right now , I think , pound for pound , he 's the best drummer in the world . "
= = Equipment = =
On the Smashing Pumpkins album Zeitgeist and subsequent tour , Chamberlin used a Yamaha Maple Custom Absolute kit with 60 ( instead of standard 45 ) degree bearing edges . His kit consisted of two snares ( 5x12 and the main snare , his 5.5x14 " Signature " model – Yamaha SD @-@ 2455JC ) , six toms ( 12x14 , 8x10 , 9x13 , and an 8x8 above his floor toms which are 16x16 and 16x18 ) , a 16x22 bass drum , four crash cymbals ( a 15 " thin and three Zildjian A customs – 15 " , 18 " , and 19 " ) , an 8 " splash cymbal , 15 " New Beat hi @-@ hats , a 20 " China High , a 22 " K Constantinople medium ride , and a 22 " riveted swish knocker . He occasionally used a triangle on his kit , mounted above the hi hats . Chamberlin 's drumheads are Remo coated Ambassador on snare @-@ side , clear Emperors on tom batters with clear Ambassadors underneath , with a Powerstoke 3 on the bass drum batter . He uses Zildjian cymbals and Vic Firth 5B sticks . His signature snare drum is popular with other drummers – Chad Smith has been known to use it as a second snare drum .
On the 6th of April , 2011 , Chamberlin announced that he had switched from long @-@ term drum manufacturer Yamaha to Drum Workshop . He has ordered a custom " prototype " Copper Lacquer Specialty with Chrome Hardware . The Shells are a ply combination of VLT Maple and Mahogany with no reinforcement hoops . The kick drum hoops are Solid Black Lacquer . The sizes are 5x8 , 7x10 , 8x13 , 10x14 rack toms . 14x14 , 16x16 floor toms . 16x22 kick and with a matching 5.5x14 snare and a stainless steel 6.5x14 snare .
As of 2015 , Chamberlin is endorsing Sakae drums . His current set up consists of a 22x16 " bass drum , 13x9 " rack tom , 8x7 " rack tom , 10x8 " rack tom , 14x14 " floor tom and a 16x16 floor tom . His snare is a Sakae maple 14x6 .
= = Discography = =
= Derivative =
The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of a quantity ( a function value or dependent variable ) which is determined by another quantity ( the independent variable ) . Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus . For example , the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object 's velocity : this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time is advanced .
The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value , when it exists , is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point . The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value . For this reason , the derivative is often described as the " instantaneous rate of change " , the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable .
Derivatives may be generalized to functions of several real variables . In this generalization , the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is ( after an appropriate translation ) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function . The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables . It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables . For a real @-@ valued function of several variables , the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector .
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation . The reverse process is called antidifferentiation . The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same as integration . Differentiation and integration constitute the two fundamental operations in single @-@ variable calculus .
= = Differentiation and derivative = =
Differentiation is the action of computing a derivative . The derivative of a function y
= f ( x ) of a variable x is a measure of the rate at which the value y of the function changes with respect to the change of the variable x . It is called the derivative of f with respect to x . If x and y are real numbers , and if the graph of f is plotted against x , the derivative is the slope of this graph at each point .
The simplest case , apart from the trivial case of a constant function , is when y is a linear function of x , meaning that the graph of y divided by x is a line . In this case , y =
f ( x ) = m x + b , for real numbers m and b , and the slope m is given by
<formula>
where the symbol Δ ( Delta ) is an abbreviation for " change in . " This formula is true because
<formula>
Thus , since
<formula>
it follows that
<formula>
This gives an exact value for the slope of a line . If the function f is not linear ( i.e. its graph is not a straight line ) , however , then the change in y divided by the change in x varies : differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of change at any given value of x .
The idea , illustrated by Figures 1 to 3 , is to compute the rate of change as the limit value of the ratio of the differences Δy / Δx as Δx becomes infinitely small .
= = = Notation = = =
Two distinct notations are commonly used for the derivative , one deriving from Leibniz and the other from Joseph Louis Lagrange .
In Leibniz 's notation , an infinitesimal change in x is denoted by dx , and the derivative of y with respect to x is written
<formula>
suggesting the ratio of two infinitesimal quantities . ( The above expression is read as " the derivative of y with respect to x " , " d y by d x " , or " d y over d x " . The oral form " d y d x " is often used conversationally , although it may lead to confusion . )
In Lagrange 's notation , the derivative with respect to x of a function f ( x ) is denoted f ' ( x ) ( read as " f prime of x " ) or fx ' ( x ) ( read as " f prime x of x " ) , in case of ambiguity of the variable implied by the derivation . Lagrange 's notation is sometimes incorrectly attributed to Newton .
= = = Rigorous definition = = =
The most common approach to turn this intuitive idea into a precise definition is to define the derivative as a limit of difference quotients of real numbers . This is the approach described below .
Let f be a real valued function defined in an open neighborhood of a real number a . In classical geometry , the tangent line to the graph of the function f at a was the unique line through the point ( a , f ( a ) ) that did not meet the graph of f transversally , meaning that the line did not pass straight through the graph . The derivative of y with respect to x at a is , geometrically , the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at ( a , f ( a ) ) . The slope of the tangent line is very close to the slope of the line through ( a , f ( a ) ) and a nearby point on the graph , for example ( a + h , f ( a + h ) ) . These lines are called secant lines . A value of h close to zero gives a good approximation to the slope of the tangent line , and smaller values ( in absolute value ) of h will , in general , give better approximations . The slope m of the secant line is the difference between the y values of these points divided by the difference between the x values , that is ,
<formula>
This expression is Newton 's difference quotient . Passing from an approximation to an exact answer is done using a limit . Geometrically , the limit of the secant lines is the tangent line . Therefore , the limit of the difference quotient as h approaches zero , if it exists , should represent
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the slope of the tangent line to ( a , f ( a ) ) . This limit is defined to be the derivative of the function f at a :
<formula>
When the limit exists , f is said to be differentiable at a . Here f ′ ( a ) is one of several common notations for the derivative ( see below ) .
Equivalently , the derivative satisfies the property that
<formula>
which has the intuitive interpretation ( see Figure 1 ) that the tangent line to f at a gives the best linear approximation
<formula>
to f near a ( i.e. , for small h ) . This interpretation is the easiest to generalize to other settings ( see below ) .
Substituting 0 for h in the difference quotient causes division by zero , so the slope of the tangent line cannot be found directly using this method . Instead , define Q ( h ) to be the difference quotient as a function of h :
<formula>
Q ( h ) is the slope of the secant line between ( a , f ( a ) ) and ( a + h , f ( a + h ) ) . If f is a continuous function , meaning that its graph is an unbroken curve with no gaps , then Q is a continuous function away from h
= 0 . If the limit limh → 0Q ( h ) exists , meaning that there is a way of choosing a value for Q ( 0 ) that makes Q a continuous function , then the function f is differentiable at a , and its derivative at a equals Q ( 0 ) .
In practice , the existence of a continuous extension of the difference quotient Q ( h ) to h =
0 is shown by modifying the numerator to cancel h in the denominator . Such manipulations can make the limit value of Q for small h clear even though Q is still not defined at h = 0 . This process can be long and tedious for complicated functions , and many shortcuts are commonly used to simplify the process .
= = = Definition over the hyperreals = = =
Relative to a hyperreal extension R ⊂ R * of the real numbers , the derivative of a real function y
= f ( x ) at a real point x can be defined as the shadow of the quotient ∆ y / ∆ x for infinitesimal ∆ x , where ∆ y =
f ( x + ∆ x ) - f ( x ) . Here the natural extension of f to the hyperreals is still denoted f . Here the derivative is said to exist if the shadow is independent of the infinitesimal chosen .
= = = Example = = =
The squaring function f ( x )
= x2 is differentiable at x =
3 , and its derivative there is 6 . This result is established by calculating the limit as h approaches zero of the difference quotient of f ( 3 ) :
<formula>
The last expression shows that the difference quotient equals 6 + h when h ≠ 0 and is undefined when h
= 0 , because of the definition of the difference quotient . However , the definition of the limit says the difference quotient does not need to be defined when h =
0 . The limit is the result of letting h go to zero , meaning it is the value that 6 + h tends to as h becomes very small :
<formula>
Hence the slope of the graph of the squaring function at the point ( 3 , 9 ) is 6 , and so its derivative at x
= 3 is f ′ ( 3 ) =
6 .
More generally , a similar computation shows that the derivative of the squaring function at x
= a is f ′ ( a ) =
2a .
= = = Continuity and differentiability = = =
If y
= f ( x ) is differentiable at a , then f must also be continuous at a . As an example , choose a point a and let f be the step function that returns a value , say 1 , for all x less than a , and returns a different value , say 10 , for all x greater than or equal to a. f cannot have a derivative at a . If h is negative , then a + h is on the low part of the step , so the secant line from a to a + h is very steep , and as h tends to zero the slope tends to infinity . If h is positive , then a + h is on the high part of the step , so the secant line from a to a + h has slope zero . Consequently , the secant lines do not approach any single slope , so the limit of the difference quotient does not exist .
However , even if a function is continuous at a point , it may not be differentiable there . For example , the absolute value function y =
| x | is continuous at x
= 0 , but it is not differentiable there . If h is positive , then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one , whereas if h is negative , then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is negative one . This can be seen graphically as a " kink " or a " cusp " in the graph at x =
0 . Even a function with a smooth graph is not differentiable at a point where its tangent is vertical : For instance , the function y
= x1 / 3 is not differentiable at x =
0 .
In summary : for a function f to have a derivative it is necessary for the function f to be continuous , but continuity alone is not sufficient .
Most functions that occur in practice have derivatives at all points or at almost every point . Early in the history of calculus , many mathematicians assumed that a continuous function was differentiable at most points . Under mild conditions , for example if the function is a monotone function or a Lipschitz function , this is true . However , in 1872 Weierstrass found the first example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere . This example is now known as the Weierstrass function . In 1931 , Stefan Banach proved that the set of functions that have a derivative at some point is a meager set in the space of all continuous functions . Informally , this means that hardly any continuous functions have a derivative at even one point .
= = = The derivative as a function = = =
Let f be a function that has a derivative at every point a in the domain of f . Because every point a has a derivative , there is a function that sends the point a to the derivative of f at a . This function is written f ′ ( x ) and is called the derivative function or the derivative of f . The derivative of f collects all the derivatives of f at all the points in the domain of f .
Sometimes f has a derivative at most , but not all , points of its domain . The function whose value at a equals f ′ ( a ) whenever f ′ ( a ) is defined and elsewhere is undefined is also called the derivative of f . It is still a function , but its domain is strictly smaller than the domain of f .
Using this idea , differentiation becomes a function of functions : The derivative is an operator whose domain is the set of all functions that have derivatives at every point of their domain and whose range is a set of functions . If we denote this operator by D , then D ( f ) is the function f ′ ( x ) . Since D ( f ) is a function , it can be evaluated at a point a . By the definition of the derivative function , D ( f ) ( a )
= f ′ ( a ) .
For comparison , consider the doubling function f ( x ) =
2x ; f is a real @-@ valued function of a real number , meaning that it takes numbers as inputs and has numbers as outputs :
<formula>
The operator D , however , is not defined on individual numbers . It is only defined on functions :
<formula>
Because the output of D is a function , the output of D can be evaluated at a point . For instance , when D is applied to the squaring function , x ↦ x2 , D outputs the doubling function x ↦ 2x , which we named f ( x ) . This output function can then be evaluated to get f ( 1 )
= 2 , f ( 2 ) =
4 , and so on .
= = = Higher derivatives = = =
Let f be a differentiable function , and let f ′ ( x ) be its derivative . The derivative of f ′ ( x ) ( if it has one ) is written f ′ ′ ( x ) and is called the second derivative of f . Similarly , the derivative of a second derivative , if it exists , is written f ′ ′ ′ ( x ) and is called the third derivative of f . Continuing this process , one can define , if it exists , the nth derivative as the derivative of the ( n @-@ 1 ) th derivative . These repeated derivatives are called higher @-@ order derivatives . The nth derivative is also called the derivative of order n .
If x ( t ) represents the position of an object at time t , then the higher @-@ order derivatives of x have physical interpretations . The second derivative of x is the derivative of x ′ ( t ) , the velocity , and by definition this is the object 's acceleration . The third derivative of x is defined to be the jerk , and the fourth derivative is defined to be the jounce .
A function f need not have a derivative , for example , if it is not continuous . Similarly , even if f does have a derivative , it may not have a second derivative . For example , let
<formula>
Calculation shows that f is a differentiable function whose derivative is
<formula>
f ′ ( x ) is twice the absolute value function , and it does not have a derivative at zero . Similar examples show that a function can have k derivatives for any non @-@ negative integer k but no ( k + 1 ) th @-@ order derivative . A function that has k successive derivatives is called k times differentiable . If in addition the kth derivative is continuous , then the function is said to be of differentiability class Ck . ( This is a stronger condition than having k derivatives . For an example , see differentiability class . ) A function that has infinitely many derivatives is called infinitely differentiable or smooth .
On the real line , every polynomial function is infinitely differentiable . By standard differentiation rules , if a polynomial of degree n is differentiated n times , then it becomes a constant function . All of its subsequent derivatives are identically zero . In particular , they exist , so polynomials are smooth functions .
The derivatives of a function f at a point x provide polynomial approximations to that function near x . For example , if f is twice differentiable , then
<formula>
in the sense that
<formula>
If f is infinitely differentiable , then this is the beginning of the Taylor series for f evaluated at x + h around x .
= = = Inflection point = = =
A point where the second derivative of a function changes sign is called an inflection point . At an inflection point , the second derivative may be zero , as in the case of the inflection point x
= 0 of the function y =
x3 , or it may fail to exist , as in the case of the inflection point x
= 0 of the function y =
x1 / 3 . At an inflection point , a function switches from being a convex function to being a concave function or vice versa .
= = Notation ( details ) = =
= = = Leibniz 's notation = = =
The notation for derivatives introduced by Gottfried Leibniz is one of the earliest . It is still commonly used when the equation y
= f ( x ) is viewed as a functional relationship between dependent and independent variables . Then the first derivative is denoted by
<formula>
and was once thought of as an infinitesimal quotient . Higher derivatives are expressed using the notation
<formula>
for the nth derivative of y =
f ( x ) ( with respect to x ) . These are abbreviations for multiple applications of the derivative operator . For example ,
<formula>
With Leibniz 's notation , we can write the derivative of y at the point x = a in two different ways :
<formula>
Leibniz 's notation allows one to specify the variable for differentiation ( in the denominator ) . This is especially relevant for partial differentiation . It also makes the chain rule easy to remember :
<formula>
= = = Lagrange 's notation = = =
Sometimes referred to as prime notation , one of the most common modern notation for differentiation is due to Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange and uses the prime mark , so that the derivative of a function f ( x ) is denoted f ′ ( x ) or simply f ′ . Similarly , the second and third derivatives are denoted
<formula> and <formula>
To denote the number of derivatives beyond this point , some authors use Roman numerals in superscript , whereas others place the number in parentheses :
<formula> or <formula>
The latter notation generalizes to yield the notation f ( n ) for the nth derivative of f – this notation is most useful when we wish to talk about the derivative as being a function itself , as in this case the Leibniz notation can become cumbersome .
= = = Newton 's notation = = =
Newton 's notation for differentiation , also called the dot notation , places a dot over the function name to represent a time derivative . If y = f ( t ) , then
<formula> and <formula>
denote , respectively , the first and second derivatives of y with respect to t . This notation is used exclusively for derivatives with respect to time or arc length . It is very common in physics , differential equations , and differential geometry . While the notation becomes unmanageable for high @-@ order derivatives , in practice only few derivatives are needed .
= = = Euler 's notation = = =
Euler 's notation uses a differential operator D , which is applied to a function f to give the first derivative Df . The second derivative is denoted D2f , and the nth derivative is denoted Dnf .
If y = f ( x ) is a dependent variable , then often the subscript x is attached to the D to clarify the independent variable x . Euler 's notation is then written
<formula> or <formula> ,
although this subscript is often omitted when the variable x is understood , for instance when this is the only variable present in the expression .
Euler 's notation is useful for stating and solving linear differential equations .
= = Rules of computation = =
The derivative of a function can , in principle , be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient , and computing its limit . In practice , once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known , the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using rules for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones .
= = = Rules for basic functions = = =
Most derivative computations eventually require taking the derivative of some common functions . The following incomplete list gives some of the most frequently used functions of a single real variable and their derivatives .
Derivatives of powers : if
<formula>
where r is any real number , then
<formula>
wherever this function is defined . For example , if <formula> , then
<formula>
and the derivative function is defined only for positive x , not for x
= 0 . When r =
0 , this rule implies that f ′ ( x ) is zero for x ≠ 0 , which is almost the constant rule ( stated below ) .
Exponential and logarithmic functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Trigonometric functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Inverse trigonometric functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = = Rules for combined functions = = =
In many cases , complicated limit calculations by direct application of Newton 's difference quotient can be avoided using differentiation rules . Some of the most basic rules are the following .
Constant rule : if f ( x ) is constant , then
<formula>
Sum rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g and all real numbers <formula> and <formula> .
Product rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g . As a special case , this rule includes the fact <formula> whenever <formula> is a constant , because <formula> by the constant rule .
Quotient rule :
<formula> for all functions f and g at all inputs where g ≠ 0 .
Chain rule : If <formula> , then
<formula>
= = = Computation example = = =
The derivative of
<formula>
is
<formula>
Here the second term was computed using the chain rule and third using the product rule . The known derivatives of the elementary functions x2 , x4 , sin ( x ) , ln ( x ) and exp ( x ) = ex , as well as the constant 7 , were also used .
= = Derivatives in higher dimensions = =
= = = Derivatives of vector valued functions = = =
A vector @-@ valued function y ( t ) of a real variable sends real numbers to vectors in some vector space Rn . A vector @-@ valued function can be split up into its coordinate functions y1 ( t ) , y2 ( t ) , … , yn ( t ) , meaning that y ( t ) = ( y1 ( t ) , ... , yn ( t ) ) . This includes , for example , parametric curves in R2 or R3 . The coordinate functions are real valued functions , so the above definition of derivative applies to them . The derivative of y ( t ) is defined to be the vector , called the tangent vector , whose coordinates are the derivatives of the coordinate functions . That is ,
<formula>
Equivalently ,
<formula>
if the limit exists . The subtraction in the numerator is subtraction of vectors , not scalars . If the derivative of y exists for every value of t , then y ′ is another vector valued function .
If e1 , … , en is the standard basis for Rn , then y ( t ) can also be written as y1 ( t ) e1 + … + yn ( t ) en . If we assume that the derivative of a vector @-@ valued function retains the linearity property , then the derivative of y ( t ) must be
<formula>
because each of the basis vectors is a constant .
This generalization is useful , for example , if y ( t ) is the position vector of a particle at time t ; then the derivative y ′ ( t ) is the velocity vector of the particle at time t .
= = = Partial derivatives = = =
Suppose that f is a function that depends on more than one variable — for instance ,
<formula>
f can be reinterpreted as a family of functions of one variable indexed by the other variables :
<formula>
In other words , every value of x chooses a function , denoted fx , which is a function of one real number . That is ,
<formula>
<formula>
Once a value of x is chosen , say a , then f ( x , y ) determines a function fa that sends y to a2 + ay + y2 :
<formula>
In this expression , a is a constant , not a variable , so fa is a function of only one real variable . Consequently , the definition of the derivative for a function of one variable applies :
<formula>
The above procedure can be performed for any choice of a . Assembling the derivatives together into a function gives a function that describes the variation of f in the y direction :
<formula>
This is the partial derivative of f with respect to y . Here ∂ is a rounded d called the partial derivative symbol . To distinguish it from the letter d , ∂ is sometimes pronounced " der " , " del " , or " partial " instead of " dee " .
In general , the partial derivative of a function f ( x1 , … , xn ) in the direction xi at the point ( a1 … , an ) is defined to be :
<formula>
In the above difference quotient , all the variables except xi are held fixed . That choice of fixed values determines a function of one variable
<formula>
and , by definition ,
<formula>
In other words , the different choices of a index a family of one @-@ variable functions just as in the example above . This expression also shows that the computation of partial derivatives reduces to the computation of one @-@ variable derivatives .
An important example of a function of several variables is the case of a scalar @-@ valued function f ( x1 , ... , xn ) on a domain in Euclidean space Rn ( e.g. , on R2 or R3 ) . In this case f has a partial derivative ∂ f / ∂ xj with respect to each variable xj . At the point a , these partial derivatives define the vector
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, he answers " Yeah , and I 'm gonna win . " From that point on the story develops in dual storylines , one following immediately upon the press conference , the other taking place four weeks later , as the staff is preparing for the official campaign announcement in Manchester , New Hampshire .
Leo decides to bring in Bruno Gianelli ( Silver ) , a highly accomplished political consultant , to help with the re @-@ election campaign , but conflict soon arises between Gianelli 's and Bartlet 's respective staffs . The conflict is particularly intense between the idealistic Communications Director Toby and the more pragmatic Doug Wegland ( Handler ) . A problem appears when it becomes clear that RU @-@ 486 – an emergency contraception – will receive government approval on the same day as the announcement ceremony . This will not only take attention away from the event , but also give political ammunition to the Right , and raise questions about the professionalism of the campaign . Josh strongly wants to " wave off the FDA " on the release , and it later appears that his underlying motive for this is to rectify a previous mistake . In the early part of the story , he applied pressure to pass a bill on anti @-@ tobacco measures , but Gianelli points out the error in passing a bill that could have given them political leverage against the Republicans in the upcoming election .
In the ongoing conflict in Haiti , a rescue mission is staged to save American citizens . Bartlet decides to send in peacekeeping troops , in spite of political consequences . CJ then , when announcing the decision to the press , makes a grave mistake by saying that she thinks " the president 's relieved to be focusing on something that matters " , implying both that the MS incident was unimportant and that the President was happy to use an incident in which American lives are at risk to deflect attention away from his illness . Leo responds by sitting her out for the next press briefing , and she reacts by offering her resignation . Yet she is eventually persuaded to stay by the president 's heartfelt assurance that he considers her a vital member of the administration .
Bartlet 's wife Abbey is not pleased with the president making his bid for re @-@ election without consulting her . Later on she still decides to join him in Manchester . She tells him that he needs to reach out to his staff , some of whom believe that he should make a public apology for concealing his MS. In the end he makes the apology , not publicly , but privately to his nearest advisors . He assures them that , even though Gianelli 's help is much needed , they will still run a campaign that does not shrink from handling controversial issues . In a final speech he tells them that " We 're gonna write a new book . Right here . Right now . "
= = Production and cultural references = =
The scenes purporting to be in Manchester were not shot in New Hampshire , in spite of lobbying from local residents . John Spencer , who played Leo McGarry on the show , said : " I certainly understand where the people from New Hampshire are coming from . But I think it 's logistics . New Hampshire is not close enough " . For financial reasons the producers decided to film the outside parts of the episodes in Bluemont , Virginia instead . The town was said to have the " quiet streets , a mix of mostly older architectural styles , fieldstone fences , and breathtaking views of rolling countryside " that the show was looking for . The house chosen – out of 55 contenders – to pass as the president 's farmhouse , was the home of Purcellville mayor John Marsh . Marsh 's friends and neighbours also appear as extras in the crowd scenes .
For the sub @-@ plot about the morning @-@ after pill , former Clinton economic advisor Gene Sperling was brought in for consultation . Such a drug , called Mifepristone , was in fact approved in the United States in September 2000 ; one of the last months of the Clinton presidency . Also the political issues related to Haiti have close parallels to an episode in the Clinton presidency : the return of President Jean @-@ Bertrand Aristide to power by the United States in 1994 .
= = Reception = =
The second episode was an Emmy nominee for Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ Camera Series . It also earned a Golden Reel Award nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Series . The two episodes were also nominated for Series Storyline at the 2002 SHINE Awards , a prize awarded for " accurate and honest portrayals of sexuality " .
Jenny Halper , writing for UGO , was less than impressed with the pre @-@ season special episode , and wrote that " the season really kicks off " with the " flashback intensive " " Manchester " -episodes . Britt Gillette , of The DVD Report , counted " Manchester Part I " among the more dramatic episodes on the show , with special reference to C.J. ' s blunder , and the debate over the president 's apology . Deborah of Television Without Pity gave both episodes the grade " A " . The A.V. Club 's Steve Heisler gave the two episodes a B + . He believed these two episodes were " meant to center the characters and the audience " after the previous season , ending in the season finale " Two Cathedrals " . " And like most things on The West Wing , " he continued , " it ’ s a long , messy , spectacular road to a perfect ( likely quippy ) end . "
= Telopea oreades =
Telopea oreades , commonly known as the Gippsland- , mountain- or Victorian waratah , is a large shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae . Native to southeastern Australia , it is found in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest on rich acidic soils high in organic matter . No subspecies are recognised , though a northern isolated population hybridises extensively with the Braidwood waratah ( T. mongaensis ) . Reaching a height of up to 19 metres ( 62 feet ) , T. oreades grows with a single trunk and erect habit . It has dark green leaves with prominent veins that are 11 – 28 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 11 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The red flower heads , known as inflorescences , appear in late spring . Each is composed of up to 60 individual flowers .
In the garden , T. oreades grows in soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part @-@ shaded or sunny positions . Several commercially available cultivars that are hybrid forms with T. speciosissima have been developed , such as the ' Shady Lady ' series . The timber is hard and has been used for making furniture and tool handles .
= = Description = =
Telopea oreades grows as a large shrub or narrow tree 9 – 19 m ( 30 – 62 ft ) high with a trunk reaching 45 to 60 cm ( 18 to 24 in ) in diameter . Greyish brown , the trunk is thin in relation to the tree 's height and not buttressed . Its surface is smooth with horizontal lenticels and warty protuberances . Smaller branches are more brown and smooth . Young plants have a much more erect habit than other members of the genus Telopea and their stems have a distinct reddish tinge . The shiny dark green leaves are arranged alternately along the stems . The leaves are narrow @-@ obovate to spathulate , and measure 11 – 28 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 – 11 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 2 @.@ 36 in ) wide . They have a sunken midrib on the upperside ( and corresponding ridge on the underside ) with four to six pairs of lateral veins visible at a 45 degree angle to the midline . They veer and converge to form an easily seen vein that runs around 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) inside the leaf margin . The undersurface is paler and greyer . When dried , the leaves appear to have a granular texture .
Flowering occurs between October and December in its native range , with plants at higher elevations flowering later than ones at lower altitude . The crimson flowerheads , known as inflorescences , are about 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . They are composed of 36 to 60 individual flowers with green to pink bracts , which may be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . Each flower is encased in a 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) long perianth , which is a much brighter red on the surface facing the centre of the flower than the surface facing outwards . Anthesis , or the opening of the flowers , begins with those at the centre of the flowerhead and moves to the edges or base . The individual flower bears a sessile anther ( that is , it lacks a filament ) , which lies next to the stigma at the end of the style . The ovary lies at the base of the style and atop a stalk known as the gynophore , and it is from here that the seed pods then develop . Meanwhile , a crescent @-@ shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore .
After flowering , the curved leathery to woody follicles develop ; these are 5 to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 0 in ) long , which somewhat resemble a boat in shape . These ripen the following May to September , and split open to reveal ( and spill ) 10 – 16 seeds . Arranged in two columns , the winged , flat brown seeds are around 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long with a roughly rectangular wing 3 @.@ 5 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . New shoots often grow through flowerheads .
It can be difficult to distinguish T. oreades from T. mongaensis though the leaves of the latter species are more prominently veined , and mostly ( but not always ) narrower than 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide . Telopea oreades flowers around a month earlier than T. mongaensis in areas where both are present .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Gippsland waratah was first formally described by the Victorian Government Botanist Ferdinand von Mueller in 1861 in Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae . The type material was collected in rugged mountainous country around Nungatta Creek , a tributary of the Genoa River in south @-@ eastern New South Wales . Mueller had been surveying the mountainous eastern part of the state since the 1850s . The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek oreos " mountain " and hence means " of or relating to a mountain " . The only alternative scientific name proposed was in 1891 , when Otto Kuntze named it as Hylogyne oreades , but it was rejected as an illegitimate name . Common names applies to the species include Gippsland- , Victorian- , mountain- , and tree waratah .
Telopea oreades is one of five species from southeastern Australia that make up the genus Telopea . No subspecies are recognised . It has been difficult to distinguish from the similar T. mongaensis , but microscopic analysis has revealed that T. oreades has features termed sclereids while T. mongaensis does not . The two are sister species , and their next closest relative is the Tasmanian waratah ( T. truncata ) .
A disjunct northern population of T. oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern Monga Valley in southern New South Wales , with some hybrids reported . Crisp and Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not hybridise there . However , a genetic study using microsatellites found there was extensive hybridisation , with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis . The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the Pleistocene , finally stranding a population of T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia .
The genus lies in the subtribe Embothriinae , along with the tree waratahs ( Alloxylon ) from eastern Australia and New Caledonia , and Oreocallis and Chilean firetree ( Embothrium coccineum ) from South America . Almost all these species have red terminal flowers , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance must predate the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Telopea oreades occurs in moist forests and temperate rainforests of coastal ranges and tableland escarpments in two disjunct areas of southeastern Australia . The first is centred on East Gippsland in Victoria , from Orbost to the vicinity of Eden across the border in far southeastern New South Wales . There is a more northerly population around the Monga Valley near Braidwood , New South Wales extending to Moss Vale . There are unconfirmed reports of the species in the vicinity of Brown Mountain and Glenbog State Forest in southern New South Wales , which lie between the two areas . Plants in Victoria are found at altitudes ranging from 200 metres ( 660 ft ) in Lind National Park to 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) on Mount Ellery . Wetter eastern and southern slopes are favoured habitats , and the annual rainfall ranges from 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 to 79 in ) .
T. oreades grows in acidic soil that is high in nutrients and organic matter . Associated tree species in Victoria include shining gum ( Eucalyptus nitens ) , messmate ( E. obliqua ) , mountain grey gum ( E. cypellocarpa ) , cut @-@ tail ( E. fastigata ) , silvertop ash ( E. sieberi ) , southern sassafras ( Atherosperma moschatum ) , black oliveberry ( Elaeocarpus holopetalus ) , blanket leaf ( Bedfordia arborescens ) , Australian blackwood ( Acacia melanoxylon ) , privet mock ‐ olive ( Notelaea ligustrina ) , banyalla ( Pittosporum bicolor ) , Errinundra plum pine ( Podocarpus sp . Goonmirk Rocks ) , Errinundra pepper ( Tasmannia xerophila subsp. robusta ) and soft tree fern ( Dicksonia antarctica ) .
= = = Conservation = = =
Telopea oreades is not listed under Commonwealth environmental legislation and is not considered by respective state authorities to be rare or threatened in Victoria or New South Wales . The species does occur in the threatened Cool Temperate Rainforest Community in Victoria that is protected under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act , and it is a component of the threatened Southern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests of far southern New South Wales . Furthermore , planted specimens are frequently stolen from bush regeneration sites as they are desirable garden plants . Conversely in New Zealand , there is a report of T. oreades escaping into kanuka scrub from the trout hatchery gardens on the Tongariro River south of Lake Taupo .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent position and striking colour of Telopea oreades and many of its relatives within the subtribe Embothriinae — both in Australia and South America — strongly suggest it is adapted to pollination by birds , and has been for over 60 million years . Birds recorded visiting the flowers for their nectar include red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ) , crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus ) , yellow @-@ faced honeyeater ( Lichenostomus chrysops ) , brown @-@ headed honeyeater ( Melithreptus brevirostris ) , white @-@ naped honeyeater ( Melithreptus lunatus ) and silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) .
T. oreades has a central taproot and few lateral roots . Like most Proteaceae , it has fine proteoid roots that arise from larger roots . These are roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . They are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , including the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia .
T. oreades has a swollen woody base largely under the soil known as a lignotuber , which stores energy and nutrients as a resource for rapid growth after a bushfire . The wet forests in which it grows seldom catch fire . When they do , the plant community becomes a more open sclerophyll woodland until slow @-@ growing plants with larger leaves take over . New shoots grow from the lignotuber , which survives bushfire as the rest of the plant above ground is burnt . The seed also germinates and grows in post @-@ bushfire soil , which is higher in nutrients and more open with fewer competing plant species . Waratah seeds are often eaten — and destroyed — by animals and do not travel far ( several metres ) from the parent plants .
= = Cultivation and uses = =
Telopea oreades needs a well @-@ drained location as well as reliable moisture to thrive . Soil with some clay content is beneficial . It is more shade @-@ tolerant than the more popular New South Wales waratah , preferring part @-@ shade but tolerating sunny aspects . It tolerates moderate frosts . Plants can be hard @-@ pruned — lopping old stems and branches can rejuvenate mature plants . Plants can benefit from low @-@ phosphorus fertilizer applied in spring and autumn . Propagation is by seed , the germination rates of which fall significantly after several months ' storage unless refrigerated , or by cuttings of new growth that has just hardened . Cultivars must be propagated by cutting to make daughter plants identical to the parent .
T. oreades has been grown successfully in England . The plant was first cultivated there by Canon Arthur Townsend Boscawen at Ludgvan in Cornwall from seed that he obtained in 1910 . He had succeeded in bringing the plant into flower by 1915 , providing material for illustration in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine in 1916 . A plant in Cornwall reached 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) in height , while another at Wakehurst Place reached 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in the late 1980s . Although thriving at Wakehurst , the species can be very sensitive to English soils . The Royal Horticultural Society awarded the species an Award of Merit in 1916 .
A selected white @-@ flowered form from the Errinundra Plateau , which was originally known as ' Plateau View Alba ' or ' Plateau View White ' , was registered by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority in 1990 as ' Errindundra White ' . Plantsmen have also developed several hybrids with T. speciosissima , looking to combine the hardiness of T. oreades with the showier flowerheads of the latter . Red- , pink- and even white @-@ flowered cultivars are available .
Telopea ' Champagne ' is a cultivar registered under plant breeders ' rights ( PBR ) in 2006 . Its creamy yellow flowerheads appear from October to December . It is a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata .
Telopea ' Golden Globe ' is a cultivar registered under PBR in 2005 . Larger than ' Champagne ' , it is also a three @-@ way hybrid between T. speciosissima , T. oreades and the yellow @-@ flowered form of T. truncata . It has been propagated and sold as ' Shady Lady Yellow ' . It was originally bred in the Dandenong Ranges east of Melbourne .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Red ' is a larger shrub that may reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) high and 2 or 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 or 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide . A hybrid of T. speciosissima and T. oreades , it arose by chance in a Melbourne garden . The first of the ' Shady Lady ' series of cultivars , it became commercially available in the mid @-@ 1980s . The flowerheads are smaller and lack the bracts of the speciosissima parent . As its name suggests , it tolerates more shade . It is vigorous and more reliable in temperate and subtropical areas , and grows in semi @-@ shade or sun .
Telopea ' Shady Lady White ' is a white @-@ flowered hybrid between T. speciosissima and T. oreades .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Pink ' is the result of a cross between ' Shady Lady Red ' and ' Shady Lady White ' .
Telopea ' Shady Lady Crimson ' is a selected colour form developed from ' Shady Lady Red ' . It became commercially available in Australia in 2010 .
The timber is fairly hard and resembles silky oak ( Grevillea robusta ) . It is durable and can be readily polished and worked with , making it amenable for use in furniture , picture frames and tool handles .
= SMS Kaiser Max ( 1862 ) =
SMS Kaiser Max was the lead ship of the Kaiser Max class of armored frigates built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . Her keel was laid in October 1861 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard ; she was launched in March 1862 , and was completed in 1863 . She carried her main battery — composed of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounders — in a traditional broadside arrangement , protected by an armored belt that was 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick .
Kaiser Max saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 . She engaged the Italian coastal defense ship Palestro , which later exploded and sank after sustaining heavy Austrian fire . Kaiser Max emerged from the battle largely unscathed , save for minor damage to her funnel and rigging inflicted by the armored frigate Re d 'Italia . After the war , Kaiser Max was modernized slightly in 1867 to correct her poor seakeeping and improve her armament , but she was nevertheless rapidly outpaced by naval developments in the 1860s and 1870s . Obsolescent by 1873 , Kaiser Max was officially " rebuilt " , though in actuality she was broken up for scrap , with only her armor plate , parts of her machinery , and other miscellaneous parts being reused in the new Kaiser Max .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Max was 70 @.@ 78 meters ( 232 @.@ 2 ft ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 10 m ( 33 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 588 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 531 long tons ; 3 @,@ 955 short tons ) . She had a crew of 386 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 11 @.@ 4 knots ( 21 @.@ 1 km / h ; 13 @.@ 1 mph ) from 1 @,@ 926 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 436 kW ) . She could steam for about 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Kaiser Max was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns and fifteen 24 @-@ pounder 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried a single 12 @-@ pounder gun and a six @-@ pounder The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 110 mm ( 4 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Kaiser Max was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) shipyard ; her keel was laid down in October 1861 , and her completed hull was launched on 14 March 1862 . Fitting @-@ out work was completed the following year , when she was commissioned into the Austrian fleet . She proved to be very wet forward owing to her open bow , and as a result , tended to handle poorly . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the commander of the Austrian Fleet , immediately began to mobilize his fleet . As the ships became fully manned , they began to conduct training exercises in Fasana . Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 27 June , in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff . Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July , but again could not bring the Italian fleet to battle .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between the 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main base at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a
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-@ speaking countries for the euphemism and lyrical content , along with the fact that if pronounced in certain dialect , " If U Seek Amy " could be thought of as a double entendre that is interpreted as " F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K Me " which caused the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) threatening to file indecency complaints against any radio station that played the song during daytime . An edited version of the song titled " If U See Amy " was released in some regions , including in stations owned by Clear Channel Radio and Austereo Radio Network . " If U Seek Amy " was a moderate success , reaching the top twenty in Australia , the United States , Canada , Ireland , the United Kingdom and many other countries worldwide . It was also her third single from Circus to reach the top twenty in the United States .
The music video for " If U Seek Amy " begins with a parody of an America 's Newsroom report by Megyn Kelly and portrays Spears at a sex party that takes place at her house . Towards the end , she changes into conservative housewife clothes and opens the front door with her family while paparazzi take pictures of them . It references some of her previous music videos such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Piece of Me " . Critics noted the similarities with her past work and also compared it to the film Eyes Wide Shut . " If U Seek Amy " was performed at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . It is currently performed as part of the revamped set list of Spears ' Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 – 17 ) .
= = Background = =
The song was co @-@ written and produced by Max Martin , who wrote hits for Spears ' first albums , including " ... Baby One More Time " ( 1998 ) and " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " ( 2000 ) . This marked the first time they worked together since her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . Recording sessions took place at Conway Recording Studios and Sunset Studios in Hollywood , California . Background vocals by Kinnda and Martin were recorded at Maratone Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . The recordings were mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia . On December 5 , 2008 , a poll was added to Spears ' official website to choose the third single , involving ten other songs from Circus . On January 7 , 2009 , it was announced that " If U Seek Amy " had won , receiving 26 % of the total votes .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" If U Seek Amy " runs through a dance @-@ oriented beat and features many instruments , including keyboards , snare , bass drums , electric guitars and timpani . According to the sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , the song has a beat of 130 beats per minute and is written in the key of A minor . Spears 's vocal range spans from G3 @-@ C5 . In the song , Spears seems to be looking for a woman named Amy in a club . It has been suggested that Amy is either Amy Winehouse or an alter ego of Spears herself . The verses end with the hookline " Hahahehehahaho " , which , according to Poppy Cossins of The Sun , is fitting to " the album 's carnivalesque overtone " . The chorus begins with the lines " Love me , hate me / Say what you want about me " , a reference to the public 's perception and fascination with Spears ' life . This presents Spears both as " an object of desire and a punching bag " . According to Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph , this line also hints at the public image of British singer Amy Winehouse .
The title , " If U Seek Amy " , is a mondegreen , meaning to sound like " F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K me " when heard in the chorus , " All of the boys and all of the girls are begging to , if you seek Amy . " This euphemism was compared to the title of Van Halen 's 1991 album , For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge , as well as a portion of James Joyce 's Ulysses .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Chris Williams of Billboard said the song is " Max Martin and Spears at their best : a stomping dance floor beat with building synths prodding the song along and the singer sounding like she 's having a blast being the bad girl " . Rolling Stone writer Caryn Ganz called the song one of the standout tracks of the album . Alexis Pretridis of The Guardian commented that her stronger and confident delivery in the chorus was noticeably lacking in the rest of the album . Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle also said that the " more aggressive , pointed persona " Spears adopts in the song is one of the high points of the album . The Emory Wheel 's writer Julia Cox called it " the album 's strongest and most unorthodox song " . Ricardo Baca of The Denver Post named the song the most fascinating track of the album and commented on the euphemism , saying " It 's trashy and clever , and it 's also quite fun . And fun is exactly what Spears should be aiming for " . However , there were also some negative reviews . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song is " a Katy Perry @-@ styled exercise in crass commercial carnality that is at once the best and worst song here " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it " puerile " and added that " it 'll be a middle @-@ school sensation " . NME named it one of the filthiest songs of all time .
= = Public reception = =
Controversy was first reported by Australian music site Undercover.com.au on December 5 , 2008 , after the release of the album . Leonie Barsenbach , a housewife from Sydney , said , " I was astonished and totally taken aback when I heard my 5 and 7 year old kids walking around the house singing ' F @-@ U @-@ C @-@ K ' ... When I asked them what it was , they told me it was Britney Spears . I was horrified . I got them the Circus album but there was no warning on it ... It is extremely offensive . I feel deceived . " Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps defended Spears , arguing that parents should have been aware of the singer 's musical themes . After the song was announced as the third single from the album , American radio stations were unsure about playing the track due to its double entendre in the chorus . Program directors of Z100 and KIIS @-@ FM compared the issues to be faced by their radio stations to the release of the 2005 The Black Eyed Peas single , " Don 't Phunk with My Heart " , saying that " listeners thought it was the other word , and so we had to change it to ' mess ' " . Program director Patti Marshall of Q102 said " It 's ok to put in on an album , have fun with it , but we 're publicly owned , you know ? [ ... ] It 's not about us . It 's about the mom in the minivan with her 8 @-@ year @-@ old . " WFLZ 's Tommy Chuck said his station produced their own edit of the song that replaced " seek " with " see " , with the station 's disc jockeys referring to it as " If U See Amy " .
Shortly after , the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) threatened to file indecency complaints with the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) against any station that played the song between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. PTC President Tim Winter said " there is no misinterpreting the lyrics to this song , and it 's certainly not about a girl named Amy . It 's one thing for a song with these lyrics to be included on a CD so that fans who wish to hear it can do so , but it 's an entirely different matter when this song is played over the publicly owned airwaves , especially at a time when children are likely to be in the listening audience . " RBR.com reported that " interestingly , Circus was reviewed by Common Sense Media , another organization whose mission is to help parents manage their children 's media consumption . It rated it appropriate for age 13 and up , but made no specific mention of ' If U Seek Amy ' . Even more interestingly , reputed incoming FCC Chair Julius Genachowski is a founding board member of Common Sense . " The threats of the PTC were later extended to cable music channels that played the music video ; however , the FCC does not have control over cable .
On January 23 , 2009 , Tom Poleman , senior vice president of programming for Clear Channel Radio , announced they planned to play an edited version . Sharon Dastur of Z100 added that Spears had recorded a new version of the song and the new edit would be provided by Jive Records . David Hinckley of the Daily News commented that " Clear Channel , which laid off 9 % of its workforce this week , is hardly in the mood to finance an FCC fight right now " . Finally , a radio edit titled " If U See Amy " was released to American radio stations , which changes the " seek " to " see " . The amended version was released in the UK in May . While the song has not officially been renamed or released in Australia , some radio stations , such as those belonging to the Austereo Radio Network , play the censored version , while others continue to play the uncensored . Both the music video and the international radio single remain " If U Seek Amy " .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , " If U Seek Amy " sold over 107 @,@ 000 digital copies in the United States within two weeks of the album 's release . On April 11 , 2009 , the song peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs . On May 9 , 2009 , the song peaked at number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Circus the first Spears album to have three top twenty hits since her 1999 debut , ... Baby One More Time . As of March 2015 , " If U Seek Amy " has sold 1 @.@ 3 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . It is her tenth best @-@ selling digital single in the country . In Canada the song debuted at eighty @-@ eight on December 20 , 2008 . It returned on February 14 , 2009 at eighty @-@ six before reaching the thirteenth position , where it finally peaked on April 4 , 2009 .
" If U Seek Amy " debuted at number forty @-@ nine on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 16 , 2009 , and moved to a peak position of eleven on March 30 , 2009 , also becoming the chart 's " greatest gainer " . It has since been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 35 @,@ 000 copies . " If U Seek Amy " entered the UK Singles Chart at number forty @-@ five on April 6 , 2009 due to its rising digital sales . After its physical release , it peaked at number twenty on May 10 , 2009 . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 105 @,@ 000 copies there . " If U Seek Amy " also achieved success worldwide , reaching the top ten in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France and Turkey , and the top twenty in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Ireland , New Zealand and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " If U Seek Amy " was filmed on February 7 , 2009 , at Pacific Palisades , California and was directed by Jake Nava , who previously worked with Spears for her " My Prerogative " music video . Spears was styled by David Thomas for the video . During the scenes at the party , she wears American Apparel wet @-@ looking leggings and a black corset from London lingerie designer Bordelle with diamond @-@ shaped holes . She also wears a pair of red high @-@ heeled Louboutins with rouced petals , that were not available for sale until a month after the video was released . When she is dressed as a housewife , Spears has a blonde wig , wears a pale pink sweater , a white skirt from Derek Lam and a Lacoste polo shirt . The music video premiered on March 12 , 2009 , on both Virgin Mobile 's official website and Spears 's official websites .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with a news anchor ( played by Kristina Mitchell ) saying the title of the song above a news banner that reads " Britney Spears song lyrics spell out obscenity in disguise " . This is actually a parody of an America 's Newsroom report by Megyn Kelly . It then skips to a house , in which a sex party is coming to an end . Spears starts singing while sitting on the edge of a bed while the people that surround her are getting dressed . She gets up and looks out the window . As the first verse ends , she picks up a pair of panties from the floor , recalling her personal struggles and the " Piece of Me " video . She dances with four male dancers in the first chorus . During the second chorus , she dances with four other female dancers dressed in cheerleading outfits , while many men are watching them dance . The screen fades to white and Spears begins to change into a conservative ' 50s @-@ inspired housewife outfit . As the chorus begins again , she comes out of her bedroom . She walks down the stairs , with dancers surrounding her and a woman gives her a potholder , which she uses to pick up a pie . After this , she walks out the front door of the house and is joined by her seemingly conservative @-@ looking husband and children , one of them dressed with the schoolgirl outfit Spears wore in the " ... Baby One More Time " video . As they go down the walkway , they are surrounded by paparazzi , who have no idea what goes on behind closed doors . While the kids and husband wave , Spears smiles for the camera and blows a kiss . The video then ends with the news anchor saying , " Doesn 't make any sense , does it ? " .
= = = Reception = = =
James Montgomery of MTV stated that the video manages to combine elements from her previous music videos , such as the style of " Everytime " and the attitude of " Stronger " . He also referred to it as " a pretty amazing amalgamation of all things Brit , and a nice primer of her entire career up to this point " . Rolling Stone writer Daniel Kreps compared the party on the video to the 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut and added that " this may be the first Spears video ever crafted strictly with the morally @-@ lax Internet in mind , a brazen clip that doesn 't have to tone down its explicit nature lyrically and visually in order to get airplay " . Chris Johnson of the Daily Mail compared Spears ' housewife style to one of her looks in a 2001 Pepsi commercial . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said , " it 's kind of difficult to believe the song 's real meaning will get past even the thickest listener , the video itself is pretty tame ... almost disappointingly so " . The reviewer also compared the hairstyle of Spears during the housewife scenes to Marilyn Monroe .
= = Live performances = =
Spears performed the song during 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears . After a performance of " Boys " from Britney , Spears performed a military drill with her male dancers , which ended with her putting on a faux fur vest to perform " If U Seek Amy " . At the end , Spears pulled a giant pink hammer and proceeded to knock her dancers off the stage , in a similar way to Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole . Jerry Shriver of USA Today said in the opening night of the tour , " [ the ] single ' If U Seek Amy ' draws a huge roar and sing @-@ along from the crowd as Spears shakes her long blond mane " . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter commented , " The artist that raised the ire of parents from the beginning in her scandalous schoolgirl outfit also continues to use shock @-@ and @-@ awe tactics . Her latest , ' If U Seek Amy ' [ ... ] was included in the set , much to the delight of her young fans " .
" If U Seek Amy " was also performed by Spears at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . Spears reappeared onstage after " Lace and Leather " to perform a jazz @-@ inspired version of the song , wearing a white skirt and standing over a fan , recalling Marilyn Monroe 's iconic scene in The Seven Year Itch ( 1955 ) . The backdrops behind her showed 1940s crime film @-@ inspired black @-@ and @-@ white footage while photographers in colorful outfits took pictures of her . Rick Florino of Artistdirect said , " Marrying old school detective fare and stadium @-@ size anthems is something no other pop star has done , and once again Britney 's the first . " Nicki Escudero of the Phoenix New Times stated that it was " nice " to hear remixed versions of older hits , " such as the jazzy ' If You Seek Amy , ' [ sic ] the sultry and Middle Eastern @-@ inspired ' Boys ' and the sped @-@ up ' Toxic ' . "
Spears currently performs the song at her revamped Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me , at The AXIS theater at Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino . The performance , which pays homage to Spears ' ' Circus ' era , immediately follows the song " Circus " ( 2008 ) on the set list .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Vocals : Britney Spears
Writers : Max Martin , Shellback , Savan Kotecha and Alexander Kronlund
Producer : Max Martin
Mixing : Serban Ghenea
Protools editing : John Hanes
Programming : Shellback and Max Martin
Background vocals : Britney Spears , Kinnda and Max Martin
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= History of Milton Keynes =
This history of Milton Keynes details its development from the earliest human settlements , through the plans for a ' new city ' for 250 @,@ 000 people in south central England , its subsequent urban design and development , to the present day . ( Milton Keynes is a large town in South East England , founded in 1967 ) .
= = Overview = =
On 23 January 1967 when the formal new town designation order was made , the 21 @,@ 870 acres ( 8 @,@ 850 ha ) , area to be developed was largely farmland and undeveloped villages . Before construction began , every area was subject to detailed archaeological investigation : doing so has exposed a rich history of human settlement since Neolithic times and has provided a unique insight into the history of a large sample of the landscape of north Buckinghamshire .
From its establishment in 1967 to its abolition in 1992 , the Milton Keynes Development Corporation created by far the largest and most ambitious of the British new towns : indeed its objective was to build a new city of 250 @,@ 000 people . Many of Britain 's most acclaimed building and landscape architects contributed to what was to be a show @-@ piece of British design . Unlike previous new towns , Milton Keynes has a preponderance of privately funded development but these developments were subject to an exacting design brief in line with the design principles laid out in The Plan for Milton Keynes .
= = Pre @-@ history and early human settlement = =
Long before England existed , this area was at the bottom of a primeval sea . The most notable of the fossils uncovered is that of an ichthyosaur from Caldecotte , now on display in the central library .
Human settlement began in this area around 2000 BCE , mainly in the valleys of the rivers Ouse and Ouzel and their tributaries ( Bradwell Brook , Shenley Brook ) . Archaeological excavations revealed several burial sites dating from 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE . Evidence for the earliest habitation was found at Blue Bridge – production of flint tools from the Middle Stone Age . In the same area , an unusually large ( 18 @-@ metre or 59 @-@ foot diameter ) round house was excavated and dated to the Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age , about 700 BCE . Other excavations in this Blue Bridge / Bancroft hill @-@ side uncovered a further seven substantial settlement sites , dating from then until 100 BCE .
= = = Milton Keynes Hoard = = =
The area that was to become Milton Keynes was relatively rich : the Milton Keynes Hoard is possibly the largest ( by weight , 2 @.@ 2 kilograms or 4 @.@ 9 pounds ) hoard of Bronze Age jewellery ever found in Britain . It was discovered in September 2000 at Monkston ( near Milton Keynes village ) and consists of two Bronze Age gold torcs and three gold bracelets in a datable clay pot .
= = Roman Britain = =
Before the Roman conquest of Britain of 43 CE , the Catuvellauni ( a British Iron Age tribe ) controlled this area from their hill fort at Danesborough , near Woburn Sands ( map ) . Under Roman occupation , the area thrived . The obvious reason for this is the major Roman road , Iter II ( later known as Watling Street ) , that runs through the area and that gave rise to an associated Roman town at Magiovinium ( Fenny Stratford ) . Possibly the oldest known gold coin in Britain was found here , a gold stater of the mid @-@ 2nd century BCE .
The foundations of a large Romano @-@ British villa were excavated at Bancroft Park , complete with under @-@ floor heating and mosaic floor . Further excavations revealed that this area ( map ) , overlooking the fertile valley of the Bradwell Brook , was in continuous occupation for 2 @,@ 000 years , from the Late Bronze Age to the early Saxon period . Cremation grave goods from the Iron Age found on the site included jewellery and fine pottery . Other Romano @-@ British settlements were found at Stantonbury , Woughton and Wymbush . Industrial activity of the period included bronze working and pottery making at Caldecotte , pottery also at Wavendon Gate , and many iron @-@ working sites ..
= = Anglo @-@ Saxon period = =
It seems that most of the Romano @-@ British sites were abandoned by the 5th century and the arable land reverted to scrub and woodland . Arriving in the 6th century , the Anglo @-@ Saxons began to clear the land again . Bletchley ( " Blaeca 's clearing " ) and Shenley ( " Bright clearing " ) date from this period . Large settlements have been excavated at Pennyland and near Milton Keynes Village . Their cemeteries have been found at Newport Pagnell , Shenley and Tattenhoe .
= = Norman conquest and the medieval period = =
Excavations in and around the modern villages have failed to find any evidence of occupation before the 10th or 11th centuries , except in Bradwell where Bradwell Bury is traced to the 9th century . The Domesday Book of 1086 provides the first documentary evidence for many settlements , listing Bertone ( Broughton ) , Calvretone ( Calverton ) , Linforde ( Great Linford ) , Lochintone ( Loughton , Milton Keynes ) , Neuport ( Newport Pagnell ) , Nevtone ( Newton Longville ) , Senelai ( Shenley ) , Siwinestone ( Simpson ) , Ulchetone ( Woughton ) , Waletone ( Walton ) , Wluerintone ( Wolverton ) and Wlsiestone ( Woolstone ) .
Administration of the area that was later to become the Borough of Milton Keynes was in ' Hundreds ' – initially ( 11C ) Sigelai ( or Secklow ) Hundred , Bunstou ( or Bunsty ) Hundred and Moulsoe Hundred , amalgamated as the ' three hundreds of Newport ' in the middle of the 13th Century . Bletchley , Bradwell , Calverton , Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Loughton , Newport Pagnell , Newton Longville , Shenley ( part of ) , Simpson , Stantonbury , Stoke Hammond , Stony Stratford , Water Eaton , Willen , Great and Little Woolstone , Wolverton , and Woughton on the Green were in Sigelai Hundred ; Cold Brayfield , Castlethorpe , Gayhurst , Hanslope , Haversham , Lathbury , Lavendon , Little Linford , Olney , Ravenstone , Stoke Goldington , Tyringham with Filgrave , and Weston Underwood were in ( Bunstou Hundred ; and Bow Brickhill , Great Brickhill , Little Brickhill , Broughton , Chicheley , Clifton Reynes , North Crawley , Emberton , Hardmead , Lathbury , Lavendon , Milton Keynes ( village ) , Moulsoe , Newton Blossomville , Olney with Warrington , Ravenstone , Sherington , Stoke Goldington , Tyringham with Filgrave , Walton , Wavendon , Weston Underwood , and Willen were in Moulsoe Hundred . The modern Borough of Milton Keynes covers almost exactly the same area as Newport Hundred ( plus a little of the former Winslow Hundred which was one of 18 ancient hundreds amalgamated under the administrative control of Cottesloe Hundred ) .
The moot mound of Secklow Hundred has been found , excavated and reconstructed – it is on the highest point in the central area and is just behind the Library in modern Central Milton Keynes . Only one medieval manor house survives : the 15th century Manor Farmhouse in Loughton . There are sites of other manor houses in Great Woolstone , Milton Keynes village and Woughton on the Green . The oldest surviving domestic building is Number 22 , Milton Keynes ( village ) , the house of the bailiff of the manor of Bradwell .
Newport Pagnell , established early in the 10th century , was the principal market town for the area . Stony Stratford and Fenny Stratford were founded as market towns on Watling Street in the late 12th or early 13th centuries .
By the early 13th century , North Buckinghamshire had several religious houses : Bradwell Abbey ( 1154 ) is within modern Milton Keynes and Snelshall Priory ( 1218 ) is just outside it . Both were Benedictine priories . Many of the medieval trackways to these sites still survive and have become cycleways and footpaths of the Redway network .
Britain 's earliest ( excavated ) windmill is in Great Linford . The large oak beams forming the base supports still survived in the mill mound and were shown by radio carbon dating to originate in the first half of the 13th century . ( The present stone tower mill at Bradwell was built in 1815 , on a site convenient to the new Grand Junction Canal ) .
= = Early modern Britain = =
Enclosures
Most of the eighteen medieval villages in Milton Keynes are still extant and are at the heart of their respective districts . But some , such as Old Wolverton , remain only as field patterns marking a deserted village . The desertion of Old Wolverton was due to enclosure of the large strip cultivation fields into small " closes " by the local landlords , the Longville family , who turned arable land over to pasture . By 1654 , the family had completely enclosed the parish . With the end of the feudal system , the peasants had lost their land and tillage / grazing rights and were forced to find other work or starve . Thus Old Wolverton was reduced from about thirty peasant families in the mid 16th century to almost none , within the space of a century . There are also deserted village sites in Tattenhoe and Westbury ( Shenley Wood ) .
Turnpike roads
Some important roads cross the site of the new city . Most important of these is Watling Street from London to Chester . Originally , the Northampton to London road joined the Watling Street at Fenny Stratford , via Broughton and Simpson . The Oxford to Cambridge route came through Stony Stratford , Wolverton and Newport Pagnell . Unfortunately , the heavy clay soils , poor drainage and many streams made these routes frequently impassable in winter . The Hockliffe to Dunchurch stretch of Watling Street became a ( paved ) Turnpike in 1706 ( the first turnpike to be approved by parliament ) . Simpson remained a quagmire and in 1870 the new Northampton / London turnpike diverted away at Broughton to take the higher route through Wavendon and Woburn Sands to join Watling Street near Hockliffe . On the east / west route , the Stony Stratford to Newport Pagnell turnpike of 1814 extended the Woodstock , Oxfordshire / Bicester / Stony Stratford turnpike of 1768 . Turnpikes provided a major boost to the economy of Fenny Stratford and particularly Stony Stratford . In the stage coach era , Stony Stratford was a major resting place and exchange point with the east / west route . In the early 19th century , over 30 coaches a day stopped here . That traffic came to an abrupt end in 1838 when the London – Birmingham Railway ( now the West Coast Main Line ) opened at nearby Wolverton .
Grand Junction Canal
The Grand Junction Canal came through the area between 1793 and 1800 , with canal @-@ side wharfs in Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Bradwell and Wolverton . The route bypassed Newport Pagnell but , in 1817 , an arm was dug to it from Great Linford . Trade along the canal stimulated the local economy . A large brickworks was established near the canal in Great Linford : two bottle kilns and the clay pits can still be seen on the site . Pottery from the Midlands begins to appear in excavations of dwellings from that period .
London and Birmingham Railway , Wolverton and New Bradwell new towns
The London and Birmingham Railway brought even more profound changes to the area . The coach trade on the turnpike through Stony Stratford collapsed , taking many businesses with it . Fortunately , Wolverton was the half way point on the rail route , where engines were changed and passengers alighted for refreshments . Wolverton railway works was established here , creating work for thousands of people in the surrounding area . In the period 1840 to 1880 , new towns were built in New Bradwell and Wolverton ( about 2 km or 1 @.@ 2 mi east of the original deserted village ) to house them . A narrow gauge railway , the Wolverton to Newport Pagnell Line , was built to Newport Pagnell in 1866 , much of it by closing and reusing the Newport Arm of the canal . The Wolverton and Stony Stratford Tramway ran to Stony Stratford from 1888 ( to 1926 ) and , in 1889 , was extended to Deanshanger in Northamptonshire .
Bletchley , on the 1846 junction of the London and Birmingham railway with the Bedford branch , was to become an important railway town too . In 1850 , another branch from Bletchley to Oxford was built , later to become the ( Cambridge / Oxford ) Varsity Line . Bletchley , originally a small village in the parish of Fenny Stratford , grew to reach and absorb its parent . In Stony Stratford , expertise learned in the works was applied to the construction of traction engines for agricultural use and the site of the present Cofferidge Close was engaged in their manufacture .
= = Bletchley Park = =
Bletchley Park is a former private estate located in Old Bletchley and modern Museum of Cryptography . Conveniently located at the junction of the Varsity Line with the West Coast Main Line , Bletchley Park , code @-@ named Station X , was the location of the Allied main code @-@ breaking establishment during World War II . Codes and ciphers of several Axis powers were deciphered there , most famously the German Enigma . Colossus , the world 's first programmable electronic digital computer was put to work here as part of the codebreaking effort . The high @-@ level intelligence produced by Bletchley Park , codenamed Ultra , is frequently credited with aiding the Allied war effort and shortening the war , although Ultra 's effect on the actual outcome of World War II is debated .
= = " Bigger , Better , Brighter " – Bletchley in the 20th century = =
Almost forty years after the construction of Bletchley railway station , the 1884 / 5 Ordnance Survey shows Bletchley as still just a small village around the C of E church at Bletchley Park , and a hamlet near the Methodist chapel and Shoulder of Mutton public house at the junction of Shenley Road / Newton Road with Buckingham Road . ( These districts are known today as Old Bletchley and Far Bletchley ) . The major settlement of the time is Fenny Stratford .
By 1911 , the population of the combined parishes was 5 @,@ 166 but the balance between them had changed : in that year , the name of the local council ( Urban District ) changed from Fenny Stratford UD to Bletchley UD . The 1926 Ordnance Survey shows the settlements beginning to merge , with large private houses along the Bletchley Road between them . In 1933 , the newly founded Bletchley Gazette began a campaign for a " Bigger , Better , Brighter , Bletchley " . As the nation emerged from World War II , Bletchley Council renewed its desire to expand from its 1951 population of 10 @,@ 919 . By mid @-@ 1952 , the Council was able to agree terms with five London Boroughs to accept people and businesses from bombed @-@ out sites in London . This trend continued through the 1950s and 1960s , culminating in the GLC @-@ funded Lakes Estate in Water Eaton parish , even as Milton Keynes was being founded . Industrial development kept pace , with former London businesses relocating to new industrial estates in Mount Farm and Denbigh – Marshall Amplification being the most notable . With compulsory purchase , Bletchley Road ( now renamed Queensway after a royal visit in 1966 ) became the new high street with wide pavements where front gardens once lay . Houses near the railway end were replaced by shops but those nearer Fenny Stratford became banks and professional premises . At the 1971 Census , the population of the Bletchley Urban District was 30 @,@ 642 .
Bletchley had fought to be the centre of the proposed new city , but it was not to be . The 1971 Plan for Milton Keynes placed Central Milton Keynes on a completely new hill @-@ top site four miles further north , half way to Wolverton . Bletchley was relegated to the status of suburb .
= = 1960s Plans for a new city in North Buckinghamshire , 1967 designation of Milton Keynes = =
In the 1960s , the Government decided that a further generation of new towns in South East England was needed to take the projected population increase of London , after the initial 1940s / 1950s wave . Bletchley had already been considered as a new town in this first wave , and had subsequently in the 1950s the London County
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Council constructed overspill housing for several London boroughs there .
Buckinghamshire County Council 's architect , Fred Pooley , had spent considerable time in the early sixties developing ideas for a new town in the Bletchley and Wolverton area . He developed a futuristic proposal based on a monorail linking a series of individual townships to a major town centre . The county council published the proposals in 1966 , but it was too late to influence the government .
In 1964 , a Ministry of Housing and Local Government study recommended " a new city " near Bletchley . A further MoH & LG study in 1965 proposed that the proposed new city would encompass the existing towns of Bletchley , Stony Stratford and Wolverton . It was to be the biggest new town yet , with a target population of 250 @,@ 000 . A Draft Order was made in April 1966 . The Housing Minister , Anthony Greenwood , made his formal announcement on 23 January 1967 . The designated area was 21 @,@ 870 acres ( 8 @,@ 850 ha ) , somewhat smaller than the 27 @,@ 000 acres ( 11 @,@ 000 ha ) in the Draft Order ( due to the exclusion of the Calverton Wealds ) . The name " Milton Keynes " was also unveiled at this time , taken from the existing village of Milton Keynes on the site . The site was deliberately located ( roughly ) equidistant from London , Birmingham , Leicester , Oxford and Cambridge . With its large target population , Milton Keynes was eventually intended to become a city . All subsequent planning documents and popular local usage make use of the term " city " or " new city " , even though formal city status has not been awarded .
When the boundary of Milton Keynes was defined , some 40 @,@ 000 people lived in the " designated area " of 88 @.@ 51 km ² ( 21 @,@ 833 acres ) . The area was split between five existing local authorities : Bletchley , Newport Pagnell and Wolverton Urban Districts together with the Newport Pagnell Rural District and the Winslow Rural District . Planning control was taken from elected local authorities and delegated to the Milton Keynes Development Corporation ( MKDC ) .
= = = Existing settlements and oral history = = =
The designated area outside the four main towns ( Bletchley , Newport Pagnell , Stony Stratford , Wolverton ) was largely rural farmland but included many picturesque North Buckinghamshire villages and hamlets : Bradwell village and Abbey , Broughton , Caldecotte , Fenny Stratford , Great Linford , Loughton , Milton Keynes Village , New Bradwell , Shenley Brook End , Shenley Church End , Simpson , Stantonbury , Tattenhoe , Tongwell , Walton , Water Eaton , Wavendon , Willen , Great and Little Woolstone , Woughton on the Green . All of these had a rich oral history , which has been recorded .
= = Milton Keynes Development Corporation : designing a city for 250 @,@ 000 people = =
Following publication of the Draft Master Plan for Milton Keynes , the government appointed Lord Campbell ( " Jock " Campbell ) to lead the Milton Keynes Development Corporation . He and his chief executive , Walter Ismay , appointed Llewellyn Davies as principal planning consultants – the team included Richard Llewellyn @-@ Davies , Walter Bor and John de Monchaux . Execution of the plan was led by Fred Roche . The goals declared in the master plan were these :
opportunity and freedom of choice
easy movement and access
good communications
balance and variety
an attractive city
public awareness and participation
efficient and imaginative use of resources
The Corporation was determined to learn from the mistakes made in the earlier new towns and revisit the Garden City ideals . They set in place the characteristic grid roads that run between districts , the Redway system of independent cycle / pedestrian paths , and the intensive planting , lakes and parkland that are so appreciated today . Central Milton Keynes was not intended to be a traditional town centre but a business and shopping district that supplemented the Local Centres in most of the Grid Squares . This non @-@ hierarchical devolved city plan was a departure from the English New Towns tradition and envisaged a wide range of industry and diversity of housing styles and tenures across the city . The radical grid plan was inspired by the work of Californian urban theorist Melvin M Webber ( 1921 – 2006 ) , described by the founding architect of Milton Keynes , Derek Walker , as the city 's " father " . Webber thought that telecommunications meant that the old idea of a city as a concentric cluster was out of date and that cities that enabled people to travel around them readily would be the thing of the future , achieving " community without propinquity " for residents .
Urban design
Since the radical plan form and large scale of the New City attracted international attention , early phases of the city include work by celebrated architects , including Sir Richard MacCormac , Lord Norman Foster , Henning Larsen , Ralph Erskine , John Winter , and Martin Richardson . The Corporation itself attracted talented young architects led by the young and charismatic Derek Walker . Its strongly modernist designs featured regularly in the magazines Architectural Design and the Architects ' Journal . Though strongly committed to sleek " Miesian " minimalism inspired by the German / American architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , they also developed a strand of contextualism in advance of the wider adoption of commercial Post @-@ Modernism as an architectural style in the 1980s . In the Miesian tradition were the Pineham Sewage Works , which Derek Walker regarded as his finest achievement , and the Shopping Building designed by Stuart Mosscrop and Christopher Woodward . The contextual tradition that ran alongside it is exemplified by the Coproration 's infill scheme at Cofferidge Close , Stony Stratford , designed by Wayland Tunley , which inserts into a historic stretch of High Street a modern retail facility , offices and car park .
" City in the forest "
The original Development Corporation design concept aimed for a " forest city " and its foresters planted millions of trees from its own nursery in Newlands in the following years . As of 2006 , the urban area has 20 million trees . Following the winding up of the Development Corporation , the lavish landscapes of the Grid Roads and of the major parks were transferred to the MK Parks Trust , an independent non @-@ profit charity which is quite separate from the municipal authority and which was intended to resist pressures to build on the parks over time . The Parks Trust is endowed with a portfolio of commercial properties , the income from which pays for the upkeep of the green spaces , a city @-@ wide maintenance model which has attracted international attention .
Public art
The Development Corporation had an ambitious public art programme and over 50 works were commissioned , mostly still extant . This programme also had two strands : a populist one which involved the local community in the works , the most famous of which is Liz Leyh 's Concrete Cows , a group of concrete Friesian cows which have become the unofficial logo of the city ; and a tradition of abstract geometrical art , such as Lilliane Lijn 's " Circle of Light " hanging in the Midsummer Arcade of the Central Milton Keynes Shopping Centre .
Demographics
Unusually for a new town , Milton Keynes has arrived at a bias in favour of private sector investment , with about 80 % of owner @-@ occupied homes . The political climate determined this : previous new towns were mainly controlled by Labour Governments but Milton Keynes was mainly built during the Conservative years .
= = Further development plans = =
In January 2004 , Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott announced the United Kingdom government 's Expansion plans for Milton Keynes
He proposed that the population of Milton Keynes should double in the next 20 years . He appointed English Partnerships to do so , taking planning controls away from Milton Keynes Borough Council and making EP the statutory planning authority . In turn , EP established a subsidiary Milton Keynes Partnership to manage the programme locally . Their proposal for the next phase of expansion moves away from grid squares to large scale , mixed use , higher density developments which are more based on assumptions about public transport than private car usage .
= = Milestones since 1967 = =
1960s
1961 Census : Population of districts to become the Borough of Milton Keynes
= 52 @,@ 931
1967 Designation
1969 The Open University moves to its new headquarters in Walton Hall .
1970s
1970 First section of new city grid road system ( H2 from V4 Watling Street ) . The Stables presents its first concert .
1971 First major housing scheme ( Galley Hill , Stony Stratford ) .
1971 Census : Population of future Borough of Milton Keynes =
66 @,@ 949 ;
population of designated area
= 46 @,@ 500
1974 Stantonbury Campus opens ; first major grid road ( V8 Marlborough Street connects Bletchley to Stantonbury ( for New Bradwell and Wolverton ) ; work begins on the Shopping Building ( now The Centre : MK ) ; the first balancing lake ( Willen Lake ) is finished . Borough of Milton Keynes created ( as a district of Buckinghamshire until 1997 )
1975 The first office building in Central Milton Keynes ( Lloyds Court ) opens .
1979 First concert at Milton Keynes Bowl ( Desmond Dekker / Geno Washington ) ; Margaret Thatcher opens the Shopping Building .
1980s
1980 A5D opens , bypassing Watling Street ; Peace Pagoda dedicated at Willen .
1981 Homeworld , Central Library , Willen Hospice
1981 Census : Population of the Borough of Milton Keynes =
123 @,@ 289 ;
population of designated area 95 @,@ 800
1982 Central Milton Keynes railway station officially open .
1983 Caldecotte balancing lake ready .
1984 A421 road connects to M1 motorway at Junction 13 ; Milton Keynes General Hospital opens ( renamed Milton Keynes University Hospital in 2015 ) .
1985 Britain 's first multiplex cinema , The Point , opens .
1986 Energy World ; new County Court ; Forte Crest Hotel ( now Holiday Inn ) ; Gyosei school ( closes 2002 ) .
1987 Woughton Marina opens .
1989 Furzton balancing lake , Bradwell aqueduct ( first aqueduct on Grand Union in over 100 years ) .
1990s
1991 Census : Population of the Borough of Milton Keynes
= 179 @,@ 252 ;
population of designated area =
144 @,@ 700 .
1991 Church of Christ the Cornerstone was completed ; De Montfort University opens Milton Keynes campus . ( Closes 2003 ) .
1992 Milton Keynes Development Corporation wound up , replaced by Commission for New Towns ; Kingston District Centre ; Woodhill ( HM Prison ) .
1994 Westcroft district centre .
1996 National Hockey Stadium opens .
1997 Borough of Milton Keynes unitary authority
1999 Milton Keynes Theatre , Art Gallery and new Visitor Centre .
2000s
2000 Xscape opens .
2001 Census : Population of Borough of Milton Keynes
= 207 @,@ 063 ;
population of designated area =
177 @,@ 500 .
2003 Wimbledon F.C. moves to the former England National Hockey Stadium .
2004 ( " MMIV " ) Wimbledon F.C. renamed and relaunched as Milton Keynes Dons F.C ..
2007 Stadium : mk opens and Milton Keynes Dons move in .
2007 The Hub & Vizion developments are completed at the western end of the town centre
2008 University Centre Milton Keynes opens .
2010s
2010 former England National Hockey Stadium is demolished , construction begins on Network Rail National Centre . Milton Keynes Shopping Centre is grade II listed . IF : Milton Keynes International Festival is launched .
2011 Census : Population of Borough of Milton Keynes = 248 @,@ 800
2012 Network Rail National Centre ( Quadrant : MK ) officially opens .
= Kenya Airways =
Kenya Airways Ltd . , more commonly known as Kenya Airways , is the flag carrier of Kenya . The company was founded in 1977 , after the dissolution of East African Airways . The carrier 's head office is located in Embakasi , Nairobi , with its hub at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport .
The airline was wholly owned by the Government of Kenya until April 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 04 ) , and it was privatised in 1996 , becoming the first African flag carrier to successfully do so . Kenya Airways is currently a public @-@ private partnership . The largest shareholder is the Government of Kenya ( 29 @.@ 8 . % ) , followed by KLM , which has a 26 @.@ 73 % stake in the company . The rest of the shares are held by private owners ; shares are traded on the Nairobi Stock Exchange , the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange , and the Uganda Securities Exchange .
Kenya Airways is widely considered as one of the leading Sub @-@ Saharan operators ; as of January 2013 , the carrier was ranked fourth among the top ten ones that operate in Africa by seat capacity , behind South African Airways , Ethiopian Airlines and EgyptAir . The airline became a full member of SkyTeam in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) , and is also a member of the African Airlines Association since 1977 . As of March 2015 , the company had 3 @,@ 986 employees .
= = History = =
Kenya Airways was established by the Kenyan government on 22 January 1977 ( 1977 @-@ 01 @-@ 22 ) , following the break @-@ up of the East African Community and the consequent demise of East African Airways ( EAA ) . On 4 February 1977 ( 1977 @-@ 02 @-@ 04 ) , two Boeing 707 – 321s leased from British Midland Airways inaugurated operations , serving the Nairobi – Frankfurt – London route . On internal and regional flights , the carrier deployed aircraft formerly operated by the EAA consortium , such as one Douglas DC @-@ 9 @-@ 52 and three Fokker F @-@ 27 @-@ 200s . In late 1977 , three Boeing 707s were acquired from Northwest Orient . The following year , the company formed a charter subsidiary named Kenya Flamingo Airlines , which leased aircraft from the parent airline in order to operate international passenger and cargo services . Aer Lingus provided the company with technical and management support in the early years .
In July 1980 ( 1980 @-@ 07 ) the airline had 2 @,@ 100 employees and a fleet of three Boeing 707 @-@ 320Bs , one Boeing 720B , one DC @-@ 9 @-@ 30 and three Fokker F @-@ 27 @-@ 200s . At this time , Addis Ababa , Athens , Bombay , Cairo , Copenhagen , Frankfurt , Jeddah , Kampala , Karachi , Khartoum , London , Lusaka , Mauritius , Mogadishu , Rome , Salisbury , Seychelles and Zurich were part of the airline 's list of international destinations , whereas domestic services radiating from Nairobi to Kisumu , Malindi , Mombasa and Mumias were also operated . A Nairobi – Bombay nonstop route was launched in 1982 using Boeing 707 @-@ 320B equipment . A year later , the company commenced serving Tanzania . Flights to Burundi , Malawi and Rwanda were launched in 1984 . Capacity on the European routes was boosted in November 1985 ( 1985 @-@ 11 ) with the incorporation of an Airbus A310 @-@ 200 leased from Condor . Kilimanjaro was first served in March 1986 ( 1986 @-@ 03 ) . That year , the airline ordered two Airbus A310 @-@ 300s . Kenya Airways became the first African carrier in acquiring the type , and they were the first wide @-@ bodies ordered by the company . Funded with a US $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 43 @,@ 175 @,@ 471 in 2015 ) loan , the delivery of these two aircraft took place in May and September 1986 ( 1986 @-@ 09 ) . They were put on service on the Kenya – Europe corridor , and permitted Kenya Airways to return the A310 @-@ 200 to the lessor . In early 1988 , the carrier ordered two Fokker 50s ; aimed at operating domestic routes , the airline received the first of these aircraft at the end of the year . Also in 1988 , the lease of a third A310 @-@ 300 was arranged with the International Lease Finance for a ten @-@ year period ; the aircraft joined the fleet in November 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 ) . Leased from Ansett Worldwide , the first Boeing 757 @-@ 200 was handed over to the company in January 1990 ( 1990 @-@ 01 ) , whereas a third Fokker 50 was incorporated in October the same year . By late 1991 , two Boeing 737 @-@ 200s had been leased from Guiness Peat Aviation .
In 1986 , Sessional Paper Number 1 was published by the Government of Kenya , outlining the country 's need for economic development and growth . The document stressed the government opinion that the airline would be better off if owned by private interests , thus resulting in the first attempt to privatise the airline . The government named Philip Ndegwa as Chairman of the Board in 1991 , with specific orders to make the airline a privately owned company . In 1992 , the Public Enterprise Reform paper was published , giving Kenya Airways priority among national companies in Kenya to be privatised . Ndegwa was succeeded by Isaac Omolo Okero . In September 1992 ( 1992 @-@ 09 ) , Brian Davies , was appointed as the new managing director of the company . Davies had been previously hired to carry out a study of viability on privatisation , working for British Airways ' Speedwing consulting arm . Swissair was the first company that provided Kenya Airways with privatisation advice . In the fiscal year 1993 to 1994 , the airline produced its first profit since the start of commercialisation . In 1994 , the International Finance Corporation was appointed to provide assistance in the privatisation process , which effectively began in 1995 . A large aviation industry partner was sought to acquire 40 % of the shares , with another 40 % reserved for private investors and the government keeping the remaining stake . The government would absorb almost US $ 90 million in debts and would convert another US $ 31 million it provided in loans into equity ; after reorganisation , the company would have a debt of approximate US $ 78 million . British Airways , KLM , Lufthansa and South African Airways were among the airlines that expressed interest in taking a stake in Kenya Airways .
KLM was eventually awarded the privatisation of the company , which restructured its debts and made a master corporation agreement with the Dutch airline that bought 26 % of the shares , becoming the largest single shareholder since then . Shares were floated to the public in March 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 03 ) , and the airline started trading on the Nairobi Stock Exchange . The Government of Kenya kept a 23 % stake in the company , and offered the remaining 51 % to the public ; however , non @-@ Kenyan shareholders could at most had a participation of 49 % in the airline . Despite 40 % of the shares being kept by foreign investors following privatisation ( including KLM 's 26 % stake ) , top management positions were held by Kenyans . Following the takeover , the government of Kenya capitalised US $ 70 million , while the airline was awarded a US $ 15 million loan from the International Finance Corporation to modernise its fleet . In a deal worth US $ 82 million , two Boeing 737 @-@ 300s were ordered in July 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 07 ) .
In January 2000 ( 2000 @-@ 01 ) , the airline experienced its first fatal accident when an Airbus A310 that had been bought new in 1986 crashed off Ivory Coast , shortly after taking off from Abidjan . By April the same year , the aircraft park consisted of four Airbus A310 @-@ 300s , two Boeing 737 @-@ 200 Advanced and four Boeing 737 @-@ 300s . At this time the company had a staff of 2 @,@ 780 , including 400 engineers , 146 flight crew and 365 cabin crew . From its main hub at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport , scheduled services were operated to Abidjan , Addis Ababa , Amsterdam , Bujumbura , Cairo , Copenhagen , Dar es Salaam , Douala , Dubai , Eldoret , Entebbe / Kampala , Harare , Johannesburg , Karachi , Khartoum , Kigali , Kinshasa , Lagos , Lilongwe , Lokichoggio , London , Lusaka , Mahe Island , Malindi , Mombasa , Mumbai , and Zanzibar . In 2002 , an order for three Boeing 777 @-@ 200ERs was placed with Boeing ; an additional aircraft of the type was acquired in November 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 11 ) . In March 2006 ( 2006 @-@ 03 ) , six Boeing 787 @-@ 8s were ordered ; the first two examples would be delivered in 2010 and the rest in 2011 . The original Boeing 787 order was amended nine months later to include three more aircraft of the type .
In June 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 06 ) the company announced the issuance of rights worth KSh20 billion , aimed at increasing capital to support expansion plans . Following the allocation of shares , KLM increased their stake in the company from 26 % to 26 @.@ 73 % , while the Kenyan government boosted their participation into the company from 23 % to 29 @.@ 8 % , becoming the new major shareholder of the carrier .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Key people = = =
As of February 2016 , Kenya Airways ' Managing Director and chief executive officer ( CEO ) positions were held by Mbuvi Ngunze . Ngunze , who had been appointed CEO in June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 ) , was the company 's former chief operating officer . Dennis Awori was the airline 's chairman , as of July 2016 .
= = = Subsidiaries and associates = = =
The cargo handling company African Cargo Handling Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Kenya Airways ; partly owned companies are Kenya Airfreight Handling Limited , dedicated to the cargo handling of perishable goods ( 51 % -owned ) and Tanzanian carrier Precision Air ( 41 @.@ 23 % -owned ) . A new low @-@ cost subsidiary named Jambojet was created in 2013 .
= = = Business trends = = =
The key trends for the Kenya Airways group over recent years are shown below ( as at year ending 31 March ) :
= = Destinations = =
= = = Alliances = = =
KLM sponsored the process of the company joining SkyTeam in mid @-@ 2005 . In September 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 09 ) , the alliance welcomed Kenya Airways as one of the first official SkyTeam Associate Airlines . SkyTeam upgraded the status of the company to a full membership in June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 ) . The alliance provides Kenya Airways ' passengers with access to the member airlines ' worldwide network and passenger facilities .
= = = Codeshare agreements = = =
As of January 2015 , the carrier has codeshare agreements with the following companies , which are the actual operators on the routes specified in parenthesis :
= = = Future plans = = =
In April 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 04 ) , the airline launched a plan named Project Mawingu ( the Swahili word meaning Clouds ) to add 24 destinations by 2021 , including the start of services to Australia , and North and South America , and expanding its presence in Asia as well . The carrier intends to add new flights to São Paulo ( FY2014 / 15 ) , Toronto ( FY2015 / 16 ) , and Perth ( FY 2016 / 17 ) , and to build up a network in Mainland China consisting of eight cities by 2021 , adding seven new destinations ( Beijing , Chengdu , Chongqing , Kunming , Shanghai , Ürümqi , and Xiamen ) to Guangzhou , the only city served in the region , as of April 2012 . In June 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 06 ) , the carrier announced the suspension of services to Rome and Muscat as part of cost @-@ cutting measures , following a 50 % fall in profit for FY2011 / 12 .
In October 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 10 ) , the airline reaffirmed its intention of expanding its route network with the addition of six new destinations every year , following the delivery of Boeing 777s and 787s the carrier has on order . Beijing and Shanghai are expected to be included in the airline 's route network by the end 2014 .
= = Fleet = =
= = = Recent developments and future plans = = =
The first of five Embraer 190s ordered in 2010 was incorporated into the fleet in December 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 12 ) . An additional order for ten aircraft of the same type was placed in August 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 08 ) ; the carrier took delivery of the first and second of these fully owned aircraft in September 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 09 ) . In October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) , the airline took possession of the 900th E @-@ Jet manufactured by Embraer .
The company announced in late February 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 02 ) its intention of acquiring a freighter aircraft to boost cargo capacity on African operations . Until February 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 ) , when a joint freighter service with KLM was launched , the carrier 's cargo division has been using belly capacity on its operations ; there are plans to buy and lease more freighter aircraft in order to boost capacity in the growing cargo market between Africa and Asia . Furthermore , the airline announced in October 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 10 ) the conversion of some Boeing 737 @-@ 300s into freighter aircraft to complement the Boeing 747 @-@ 400F service , jointly operated with KLM and Martinair Cargo . The first of four converted Boeing 737 @-@ 300s was delivered to the company in April 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 04 ) ; Kenya Airways will fly this aircraft on routes to eastern , central and southern Africa that are served by the Embraer 190s , in order to boost cargo capacity . The company took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , on lease from GECAS , in October 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 10 ) . It had been previously announced that this aircraft would be deployed on a new route to Guangzhou in November .
Kenya Airways had nine Boeing 787 Dreamliners on order , as of April 2011 , although the company considered cancelling the order after systematic delays with the delivery
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( 15 ft 4 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 010 PS ; 750 kW ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 3 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 63 nautical miles ( 117 km ; 72 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 13 @,@ 850 nautical miles ( 25 @,@ 650 km ; 15 @,@ 940 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 853 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 853 was built by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen . Ordered on 5 June 1941 , her keel was laid on 21 August 1942 and she was commissioned on 25 June 1943 .
The Germans nicknamed the U @-@ boat der Seiltänzer ( " the Tightrope Walker " ) , and her crew painted an emblem of a yellow shield with a red horse on her sail .
= = First patrol = =
On her first patrol from May to June 1944 , U @-@ 853 was assigned to weather @-@ watching duty under the command of Kapitänleutnant Helmut Sommer . This was its first war patrol . German intelligence believed that weather conditions in the Atlantic could be used to help predict the timing of an Allied invasion of Europe . On 25 May 1944 U @-@ 853 spotted RMS Queen Mary , loaded with American troops and supplies . The U @-@ boat submerged to attack , but was outrun by the much larger and faster ship . As she surfaced in Queen Mary 's wake U @-@ 853 was attacked by Fairey Swordfish aircraft from British merchant aircraft carriers MV Ancylus and MV Empire MacKendrick . The U @-@ boat took no significant damage and returned fire , hitting all three aircraft . The planes were able to return to their carrier , but after recovery one was deemed a total loss and jettisoned .
The escort carrier USS Croatan ( CVE @-@ 14 ) had been hunting weather boats for nearly a month and had already sunk U @-@ 488 and U @-@ 490 . Intercepted radio transmissions led Croatan and six destroyers to search for U @-@ 853 . The U @-@ 853 proved so elusive that Croatan 's crew nicknamed their prey " Moby Dick . " After ten days of hunting , on 17 June Huff @-@ Duff ( HF / DF , high frequency direction finding ) picked up a weather report from U @-@ 853 only 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) away . Within minutes two FM @-@ 1 Wildcat fighters strafed the submarine , killing 2 men and wounding 12 others . Sommer suffered 28 shrapnel and bullet wounds yet still managed to give the order to submerge . In all likelihood Sommer saved his submarine from being destroyed by allied bombers .
Three weeks of pursuit from 25 May until 17 June placed an enormous strain on U @-@ 853 's crew . Twenty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old Oberleutnant zur See Helmut Frömsdorf took command of the boat on 18 June ( his first command ) and returned to Lorient . Sommer and a large number of the crew was declared unfit for duty . On 10 July Sommer was formally relieved by Oberleutnant zur See Otto Wermuth .
= = Second patrol = =
The boat remained in port until 27 August . Decorated veteran Korvettenkapitän Günter Kuhnke , Commander of the 10th U @-@ boat Flotilla , took command for her second patrol . U @-@ 853 operated this time in the Western Approaches off the British Isles , but in a period of seven weeks scored no successes . On completion she did not return to Lorient , but continued to Flensburg , arriving 14 October . Kuhnke assumed command of the 33rd U @-@ boat Flotilla upon arriving at Flensburg . He relinquished command of U @-@ 853 back to Frömsdorf , who took the U @-@ boat on her third and final patrol . Before departure U @-@ 853 was fitted with a Schnorchel , a retractable air intake and exhaust that allowed the ship to remain submerged while running her diesel engines . The Schnorchel reduced the need to spend dangerous periods on the surface recharging batteries .
= = Last patrol = =
On 23 February 1945 Germany sent U @-@ 853 on her third war patrol to harass US coastal shipping . Under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Helmut Frömsdorf , U @-@ 853 did not sink any targets during the first weeks of her patrol . Her crossing of the Atlantic was slow because she used her Schnorchel to remain submerged to avoid being spotted by Allied aircraft . On 1 April 1945 U @-@ 853 was ordered to the Gulf of Maine . On 23 April she fatally torpedoed USS Eagle Boat 56 near Portland , Maine . The next day USS Muskegon made sonar contact and attacked U @-@ 853 , but failed to destroy her .
Eagle Boat 56 , a World War I @-@ era patrol boat , was towing targets for a United States Navy dive @-@ bomber training exercise 3 nautical miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ; 3 @.@ 5 mi ) off Cape Elizabeth when she exploded amidships and sank . Only 13 of the 67 crew survived . Although several survivors claimed to have seen a submarine sail with yellow and red insignia , a Navy inquiry attributed the sinking to a boiler explosion . The Navy reversed its findings in 2001 to acknowledge that the sinking was due to hostile fire and awarded Purple Hearts to the survivors and next @-@ of @-@ kin of the deceased .
= = Battle of Point Judith = =
On 5 May 1945 , President ( Reichspräsident ) of Nazi Germany Karl Dönitz ordered all U @-@ boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases . U @-@ 853 was lying in wait off Point Judith , Rhode Island at the time . According to the US Coast Guard , U @-@ 853 did not receive that order , or less likely , ignored it . Soon after , her torpedo blew off the stern of SS Black Point , a 368 @-@ foot ( 112 m ) collier underway from New York to Boston . Within 15 minutes Black Point had sunk in 100 feet ( 30 m ) of water less than 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) south of Point Judith . She was the last US @-@ flagged merchant ship lost in World War II . Twelve men died , while 34 crew members were rescued . One of the rescuing ships , Yugoslav freighter SS Kamen , sent a report of the torpedoing to authorities . The US Navy organized a " hunter @-@ killer " group that included four American warships : Ericsson ( DD @-@ 440 ) , Amick ( DE @-@ 168 ) , Atherton ( DE @-@ 169 ) , and Moberly ( PF @-@ 63 ) .
The group discovered U @-@ 853 bottomed in 18 fathoms ( 108 ft ; 33 m ) , and dropped depth charges and hedgehogs during a 16 @-@ hour attack . At first the U @-@ boat attempted to flee , and then tried to hide by lying still . Both times it was found by sonar . The morning of 6 May 1945 two K @-@ Class blimps from Lakehurst , New Jersey , K @-@ 16 and K @-@ 58 , joined the attack , locating oil slicks and marking suspected locations with smoke and dye markers . K @-@ 16 also attacked with 7 @.@ 2 @-@ inch rocket bombs . Numerous depth charge and hedgehog attacks from Atherton and Moberly resulted in planking , life rafts , a chart tabletop , clothing , and an officer 's cap floating to the surface . With the loss of all 55 officers and men , U @-@ 853 was one of the last U @-@ boats sunk during World War II. and , with U @-@ 881 , the last to be sunk in US waters . Atherton and Moberly received credit for the kill .
= = Legacy = =
The body of one of U @-@ 853 's crewmembers was recovered in 1960 and was interred in the Island Cemetery Annex on Van Zandt Avenue in Newport , Rhode Island . The submarine 's two propellers were on display for many years at the Inn at Castle Hill in Newport and are now in the custody of the United States Naval War College Museum at the Newport Naval Station .
The USS Atherton was transferred to Japan and served as part of the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force until 1975 when she was returned to the United States . She was given to the Philippines in 1978 and served with the Philippine Navy as recently as 2011 . Interest has been expressed in returning Atherton to the United States so she can be restored to her World War II appearance and be opened to the public .
= = Wreck = =
U @-@ 853 lies 7 nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Block Island in 130 feet ( 40 m ) of water . The US Coast Guard pinpoints the location of the wreck at 41 ° 13 ′ N 71 ° 27 ′ W. U @-@ 853 sits upright with her periscope rising to a depth of 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Most of the 55 crew member bodies remain within the hull , which is a war grave . It is one of the more popular dive sites in Southern New England . The hull has depth charge blast holes : one forward of the conning tower at the radio room and another in the starboard side of the engine room . Entering the wreck is dangerous due to debris , sharp metal edges , and confined spaces .
On 6 and 7 May 1945 , Navy divers attempted to enter the wreck to recover the captain 's safe and the papers within , but failed . Recreational divers first visited the site in 1953 . In 1960 a recreational diver brought up a body from the wreck . This provoked former navy admirals and clergy to petition the US government for restrictions on disturbing the dead . The German crewman was buried with full military honors in Newport , Rhode Island . At least two recreational divers have died from exploring the wreckage . Renowned deep sea diver Stephen Hardick perished in 2005 while filming the U @-@ boat . He surfaced unconscious and could not be revived . Hardick , age 60 , died as the result of saltwater drowning associated with poor health according to the Rhode Island Medical Examiner 's office .
An AP report on the Boston Globe news site cites diver Bill Palmer having retrieved numerous items from the wreck , as well as including accounts 853 from USS Atherton personnel Kenneth Homberger and the ship commander Lewis Iselin of the US naval action that led to sinking of U @-@ 853 from USS Atherton personnel Kenneth Homberger and the ship commander Lewis Iselin .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= = Armament = =
= = = FLAK weaponry = = =
U @-@ 853 was mounted with a single 3 @.@ 7 cm Flakzwilling M43U gun on the LM 42U mount . The LM 42U mount was the most common mount used with the 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak M42U . The 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak M42U was the marine version of the 3 @.@ 7 cm Flak used by the Kriegsmarine on Type VII and Type IX U @-@ boats . U @-@ 853 was mounted with two 2cm Flak C38 in a M 43U Zwilling mount with short folding shield on the upper Wintergarten . The M 43U mount was used on a number of U @-@ boats ( U @-@ 190 , U @-@ 249 , U @-@ 250 , U @-@ 278 , U @-@ 337 , U @-@ 475 , U @-@ 1058 , U @-@ 1109 , U @-@ 1023 , U @-@ 1105 , U @-@ 1165 and U @-@ 1306 ) .
= Abu Ali Iyad =
Walid Ahmad Nimer al @-@ Naser ( Arabic : وليد أحمد نمر النصر ) ( 1934 – July 23 , 1971 ) better known by his nom de guerre Abu Ali Iyad ( Arabic : أبو علي إياد ) was a senior Palestinian field commander based in Syria and Jordan during the 1960s and early 1970s .
After a career of teaching in the West Bank , Iraq , Saudi Arabia and Algeria , Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the paramilitary group , Fatah , by Khalil al @-@ Wazir in 1964 after graduating from an Algerian military training course . A year later , he became one of Fatah 's first leaders in Syria along with al @-@ Wazir and Yasser Arafat . During his time there , Abu Ali Iyad gained a position on the group 's top political body , supervised its main guerrilla training camp in Daraa and set up a military intelligence headquarters .
As a Fatah field commander , he fought Israeli forces at the Battle of Karameh , gaining a reputation as an unyielding commander . Abu Ali Iyad was also a leading organizer and participant in guerrilla raids against Israeli localities . He was one of the last Palestinian commanders to fight the Jordanian Army in the aftermath of the Black September conflict . He was killed in the countryside around Ajlun and Jerash by Jordanian forces in July 1971 . His partisans claimed that he was executed , and as retaliation , they assassinated Jordanian prime minister Wasfi al @-@ Tal four months after Abu Ali Iyad 's death .
= = Early life = =
In 1934 , Abu Ali Iyad was born in Qalqilyah in the modern @-@ day West Bank when Palestine was under the British Mandate . He was educated there , graduating from high school in 1953 and taught at schools in the city and nearby Azzun . A year later , he moved to Baquba , Iraq where he enrolled in a teacher training program . He left Iraq the same year , moving to Saudi Arabia to teach there afterward . In 1962 , he had a job as a teacher in Algeria . However , he soon sought and received training by the Algerian Army , graduating from its training course in the summer of 1964 .
= = Fatah command = =
While in Algeria , Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the Palestinian nationalist paramilitary organization Fatah by the leader of its armed wing Khalil al @-@ Wazir . He adopted his nom de guerre after joining . Fatah at the time was divided politically with the more non @-@ violent leadership based in Kuwait and those supporting attacks against Israel based in Syria . Abu Ali Iyad , along with al @-@ Wazir , Yasser Arafat , and three others in the Syrian camp , formed the organization 's " emergency " field command in Damascus in 1965 .
A year later al @-@ Wazir , Arafat , and much of the Fatah military leadership were arrested by Syrian authorities loyal to Hafez al @-@ Assad ( who was Defense Minister at the time ) as suspects in the murder of a pro @-@ Assad paramilitary leader , Yusef Urabi . As a result , Abu Ali Iyad , al @-@ Wazir 's wife Intissar al @-@ Wazir and fellow Fatah commander Ahmad Attrush were put in charge of Fatah 's leadership in Syria . They formed a secret committee whose purpose was maintaining the military operations of Fatah 's armed wing , al @-@ Assifa , against Israel , launching attacks from Lebanon and Jordan and thus co @-@ opting al @-@ Assad 's efforts to circumvent their activity . Abu Ali Iyad himself was arrested later by the Syrian authorities . He was released along with Arafat and two other Fatah leaders in August . Abu Ali Iyad then met al @-@ Assad in person to sign an agreement on the terms of Fatah 's presence and activities in Syria .
Following the release of the rest of Fatah 's leadership , the Central Committee of Fatah — the organization 's highest decision @-@ making body , was reformed . Two of Arafat 's rivals lost their positions in the new central committee and were replaced by his allies , Abu Ali Iyad and Salah Khalaf , tilting the balance of power within Fatah towards Syria instead of Kuwait . Abu Ali Iyad 's position gave him responsibility for al @-@ Assifa 's operations against Israel from Syria and Lebanon . By the end of the year , he had personally led raids against a number of villages in northeastern Israel , including Kfar Giladi , Manara , Margaliot , and Beit Yosef . In the latter village , his unit was responsible for wounding two civilians and destroying three houses by explosives .
Also after his release , in 1966 , Abu Ali Iyad became the chief military instructor of a training camp for Fatah recruits in the city of Hama in central Syria . He modeled it based on the Algerian training camp he graduated from . Most of his pupils were university students who would soon form Fatah 's new guerrilla force . Abu Ali Iyad 's course was the only one of its kind run by Fatah itself ( often commanders would train in Algeria ) and it provided the bulk of commanders for the group 's guerrilla units for the next decade . These mostly young recruits became known as " Tiger Cubs . " Among their ranks , Abu Ali Iyad gained a reputation for enforcing strict discipline . According to British Middle East expert , Patrick Seale , he also had a " fierce appearance " that left his soldiers in " awe " ; after a malfunction while he was experimenting with explosives , he lost an eye and damaged one of his legs . In 1968 , Abu Ali Iyad set up a Fatah headquarters for military intelligence in Dera 'a , southern Syria . Its principal task was to penetrate the Jordanian Army and security agencies .
= = = Commander in Jordan = = =
He moved to Jordan in 1968 where he trained Fatah forces in Ajlun . Palestinian fedayeen activity persisted following the collective Arab defeat in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War and Israel sought to end guerrilla attacks on its territory by launching an offensive against the Palestinian Liberation Organization 's ( PLO ) bases in Jordan . A major confrontation ensued between the Israeli Army and Fatah which came to be known as the Battle of Karameh . Abu Ali Iyad was a senior commander during the battle , gaining prominence and respect among the Palestinians for his performance as an unyielding military officer . Although Fatah took heavy losses , Israel eventually withdrew after the Jordanian Army entered the fray on Fatah 's side . He continued to organize raids against Israeli army camps and towns in Israel and the West Bank while he was based in Jordan .
Relations between the PLO and King Hussein of Jordan began to deteriorate after Karameh , climaxing in September 1970 when armed conflict ensued between Palestinian and Jordanian forces . Prior to Jordanian military action , Abu Ali Iyad lobbied his colleagues in Fatah , who supported the forced ousting of the king , to withdraw from Amman and return to the countryside closer to the border with Israel . Palestinian factions did not heed his calls and their military bases in Amman were shelled by Jordanian forces . On September 17 , an emergency meeting of PLO factions was held with the majority of those attending favoring confrontation with King Hussein 's troops . Supporting al @-@ Wazir , who was one of the few delegates to have reservations , Abu Ali Iyad argued against confrontation and warned that expectations of Syrian intervention on the side of the Palestinians was improbable . The Jordanians succeeded in defeating PLO forces in Amman and about 2 @,@ 000 Palestinian guerrillas under al @-@ Wazir 's leadership evacuated the city northward to Ajlun .
Abu Ali Iyad was part of the field command there along with al @-@ Wazir . They headed a force of roughly 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas in the hilly terrain around Ajlun and Jerash . Their position was vulnerable due to the ineffectiveness of Palestinian guerrilla warfare against Jordanian armor in open areas versus urban warfare in the cities and Palestinian refugee camps . Most of the PLO leadership , including Arafat and al @-@ Wazir , and hundreds of guerrillas escaped Jordan in April 1971 following pressure from Arab states , confiscation of weapons by the Jordanian Army and the closing of PLO offices in Amman . Abu Ali Iyad refused to do so , however , and he and his Tiger Cubs stayed put in their Ajlun base where they continued to fight the Jordanian Army .
On July 12 , King Hussein ordered the evacuation of all guerrilla forces from the strategic mountain in the center of their stronghold in Ajlun . Hussein personally offered to allow Abu Ali Iyad to depart unharmed if he abandoned his fighters . He refused and Hussein ordered his troops to track down and kill him within the framework of routing out remaining PLO forces in northern Jordan . A Jordanian infantry division and armored brigade backed by 10 @,@ 000 Bedouin foot soldiers immediately launched an offensive afterward . By July 16 , Palestinian positions had been secured by the Jordanian Army . During the Jordanian offensive , 200 @-@ 250 guerrillas had been killed and 70 @-@ 100 of Abu Ali 's troops fled , crossing the Jordan River to the Israeli @-@ occupied West Bank .
= = Death and aftermath = =
In early July , prior to the offensive , Abu Ali sent letters to Fatah leaders chastising them for surrendering to King Hussein 's forces , stating in defiance " We will die on our feet rather than kneel . " On July 23 , he was reported killed by the Jordanian Army . According to Yezid Sayigh who documented the history of Palestinian guerrilla warfare , Abu Ali was " executed " during mop @-@ up operations by the Jordanian Army sometime on July 17 – 18 . Jordanian Bedouin troops tied his corpse to a tank and dragged it through several northern villages that had large Palestinian populations . The PLO claimed he was captured and tortured to death by Jordanian forces prior . Another version of events by Abu Ali 's partisans was that the Jordanian prime minister at the time , Wasfi al @-@ Tal , was personally responsible for his torture .
His partisans sought vengeance for his killing and a splinter group developed within Fatah consisting of men from the Tiger Cubs and other Fatah dissidents . It came to be known as the Black September Organization ( BSO ) and Abu Ali 's men provided its initial membership . On November 28 , one of his former Tiger Cubs , Munshir al @-@ Khalifa , assassinated al @-@ Tal in Cairo . According to Seale , this was the first attack carried out by the BSO .
Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish dedicated the poem " Returning to Jaffa " to Abu Ali Iyad .
= Pilot ( Community ) =
The pilot episode of the NBC sitcom Community aired on Thursday , September 17 , 2009 . Written by Dan Harmon , the show 's creator , the episode was directed by Anthony Russo and Joe Russo . The episode introduces Jeff Winger ( Joel McHale ) , a debarred lawyer who is forced to attend community college to get his license back . He tries to exploit his friendship with one of the faculty members for easy credits , but fails , and is forced to join a Spanish study group . The members of this study group make up the main cast of the series , which includes Chevy Chase as retired entrepreneur Pierce Hawthorne .
The show takes place at the fictional Greendale Community College in Greendale , Colorado . Harmon based the show on his own experiences in community college , and partly modeled the character of Jeff Winger on himself . He emphasized the cast 's importance to the show , and also credited some of the actors for their improvisational skills . The episode attracted generally favorable reviews from critics , who praised both the actors and the comedy writing . The show received good viewership , and stood out in NBC 's Thursday lineup , where the network 's other shows suffered declines in ratings .
= = Plot = =
Jeff Winger , a disbarred lawyer , has enrolled at Greendale Community College as a condition for getting his license back . His plan is to use his friendship with Dr. Ian Duncan to obtain test answers . In the cafeteria Jeff meets the attractive Britta , and ( in an attempt to get closer to her ) convinces her to join his non @-@ existent Spanish study group . As the study group convenes , Jeff pretends the other members simply did not show up . Britta , however , has invited Abed to join them . Jeff unsuccessfully tries to make him leave , and then gets called to the football field by Dr. Duncan . The professor makes a futile attempt to appeal to Jeff 's conscience , and eventually agrees to provide the answers . Jeff returns to the study group , discovering that Abed has also invited Troy , Shirley , Pierce and Annie . Finding Britta smoking outside , he suggests the two study alone , but she persuades him to return .
Jeff , eager to get away , deliberately stirs a fight among the group , then leaves once more to get the test answers . Dr. Duncan hands him a sealed envelope , but only in return for Jeff 's Lexus . When Jeff returns , the group is in turmoil , and Britta promises to go out with him if he can restore order . He does this through an inspirational speech , but Britta sees through his vacuous rhetoric and asks him to leave . Jeff then comes clean about everything , adding that since he now has the test answers he does not need the study group . As the group turns against him he takes off .
Leaving the building , Jeff finds all the pages in the envelope to be blank . He returns to the office of Dr. Duncan who tells him that he wanted to teach him a lesson although Jeff gets his car keys back . As he is about to leave campus , Jeff runs into Pierce and Troy , and shows his ability to make people feel better about themselves through advice and encouragement . The others join , and Jeff admits to being a fraud . He says that he does not have the test answers , and that he will probably flunk next day 's test . The group has now taken a liking to him , and they invite him back in . The episode ends with a dedication to the recently deceased John Hughes , whose film The Breakfast Club has been repeatedly referenced throughout the episode .
= = Cast and characters = =
The pilot emphasizes character introduction , and a great deal of biographical information about the various main characters is revealed in the episode .
Joel McHale as Jeff Winger – Jeff is a smooth talking lawyer who was debarred once it was revealed that his college degree was " less than legitimate " . The condition of his reinstatement is that he finishes a college degree .
Chevy Chase as Pierce Hawthorne – Pierce is implicitly described by the college dean as one of the school 's " old people keeping their minds active as they circle the drains of eternity " . He is a retired entrepreneur who made a fortune on moist towelettes . He has been married seven times , and has now decided to go back to college .
Gillian Jacobs as Britta Perry – Britta dropped out of high school because she thought it would impress Radiohead . She then joined a group of anarchists who vandalized billboards . She has been in the Peace Corps , and done foot modeling before she enrolled at Greendale . She is strongly concerned with honesty , and does not take lightly to anyone lying to her .
Danny Pudi as Abed Nadir – Abed is a Palestinian / Polish boy who – according to Jeff – has Asperger syndrome . He proves helpful to Jeff with his ability to obtain quick and detailed knowledge of everyone he meets .
Yvette Nicole Brown as Shirley Bennett – Shirley is a " middle @-@ aged divorcee " who " has made some bad life choices " .
Alison Brie as Annie Edison – Annie got addicted to pills and had to drop out of high school .
Donald Glover as Troy Barnes – Troy was a high school football star who got injured and failed to get a scholarship .
John Oliver as Professor Ian Duncan , psychology teacher at Greendale . – Professor Duncan once faced a DUI charge , but was acquitted thanks to Jeff 's help .
Jim Rash as Dean Pelton – Dean Pelton is first introduced while giving his introductory speech to the new students , a speech that ends up being unintentionally offensive .
= = Casting = =
Harmon has emphasized the importance of the cast to making the premise of the comedy work . " Casting was 95 percent of putting the show together , " he said in an interview . He had worked with several of the cast members earlier ; Joel McHale , John Oliver and Chevy Chase all had cameo roles in episode 9 of Water and Power , the short film series produced by Harmon for Channel 101 . Actor Chevy Chase had long been a favorite of Harmon . Though principally not very partial to sitcoms , Chase was persuaded to take the job by the quality of the show 's writing . Harmon saw similarities between Chase and the character he plays on the show . Though Chase has often been ridiculed for his career choices , Harmon believed this role could be redeeming : " What makes Chevy and Pierce heroic is this refusal to stop . " Harmon had to warn Chase against playing a " wise @-@ ass " the way he often does in his roles , since the character of Pierce is a rather pathetic figure who is normally the butt of the joke himself .
McHale – known from the E ! comedy The Soup – was also , like Chase , impressed by Harmon 's writing . He commented that " after reading Dan 's script it was so head and shoulders above everything else that I was reading . " McHale appealed to Harmon because of his likable quality , which allowed the character to possess certain unsympathetic traits without turning the viewer against him . For the role of Annie , Harmon wanted someone who would resemble Tracy Flick , Reese Witherspoon 's character from the 1999 movie Election . Originally the producers were looking for a Latina or Asian Tracy Flick , for greater diversity , but could not find any . Instead they ended up casting Alison Brie , known from her role as Trudy Campbell on Mad Men .
= = Production = =
The premise of Community was based on Harmon 's real @-@ life experiences . In an attempt to save his relationship with his then @-@ girlfriend , he once enrolled in Glendale Community College , north of Los Angeles , where they would take Spanish together . Harmon got involved in a study group and – somewhat against his own instincts – became closely connected to the group of people with whom he had very little in common . " ... I was in this group with these knuckleheads and I started really liking them , " he explained , " even though they had nothing to do with the film industry and I had nothing to gain from them and nothing to offer them . " With this as the background , Harmon wrote the show with a main character largely based on himself . He had , like Jeff , been self @-@ centered and independent to the extreme before he realised the value of connecting with other people .
About the creative process behind the writing , Harmon says that he had to write the show as if it were a movie , not a sitcom . Essentially , he says , the process was no different from the earlier work he had done , except for the length and the target demographic . Filming the show involved a lot of improvisation , particularly from Chevy Chase . Harmon said about Chase that he " tends to come up with lines that you can actually end scenes with sometimes . " He also mentioned Joel McHale and Donald Glover , the actor who portrays Troy , as adept improvisers .
= = Reception = =
Premiering in the 9 : 30 pm time slot on September 17 , 2009 , the pilot episode had a viewership of 7 @.@ 680 million . In the 18 – 49 audience , it had a rating of 3 @.@ 7 . As such , it held 93 % of this audience from The Office , which had been in the previous time slot . The show was called the " bright spot for the night " for NBC , considering that The Office was down
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18 % from the previous year 's premiere , while Parks and Recreation , in the preceding time slot , was down 30 % .
The pilot episode of Community received generally favorable reviews from critics . The aggregate review website Metacritic gives the show a score of 69 out of 100 , based on 23 reviews . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker called it " One of the new season 's best sitcoms " , and gave it a grade B + . Heather Havrilesky , writing for Salon.com , agreed with this assessment , and commended the " alarmingly smart writing " . Alan Sepinwall at The Star @-@ Ledger similarly called it " the best , and funniest , new show of the season " , and said he laughed just as much after seeing the pilot four times . Others were less impressed ; Variety 's Brian Lowry found the satire wanting , and did not much appreciate McHale 's performance . The Miami Herald 's Glenn Garvin found that , though particularly McHale was capable of generating " sporadic laughter " , the show was just not very amusing .
= Hurst Castle =
Not to be confused with Hearst Castle , a resort built in the US by wealthy newspaper magnate , William Randolph Hearst .
Hurst Castle is an artillery fort established by Henry VIII on the Hurst Spit in Hampshire , between 1541 and 1544 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the western entrance to the Solent waterway . The early castle had a central keep and three bastions , and in 1547 was equipped with 26 guns . It was expensive to operate due to its size , but it formed one of the most powerful forts along the coast . During the English Civil War of the 1640s , Hurst was held by Parliament and was used briefly to detain King Charles I before his execution in 1648 . It continued in use during the 18th century but fell into disrepair , the spit being frequented by smugglers .
Repairs were made during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with France , and the castle was modernised to enable it hold 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 8 kg ) guns . Fresh fears of invasion followed in the 1850s , leading to heavier , 32 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) armament being installed and new gun batteries being laid out on both sides of the castle . Technological developments rapidly made these defences obsolete , however , and a fresh phase of work between 1861 and 1874 created sixty @-@ one gun positions in two long , granite @-@ faced batteries alongside the older castle . These held very heavy weapons , including massive 12 @.@ 5 inch , 38 ton ( 317 mm , 39 @,@ 000 kg ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . As the century progressed , these too became outdated and lighter , quick @-@ firing guns were installed at the castle to replace them .
The castle formed part of a network of defences around the entrance to the Solent during the First World War , and was re @-@ armed again during the Second World War . The military decommissioned the fort in 1956 and it passed into the control of the Ministry of Works . In the 21st century , it is run jointly by English Heritage and the Friends of Hurst Castle as a tourist attraction , receiving around 40 @,@ 000 visitors during 2015 . Coastal erosion has become a growing problem despite government intervention to protecting the spit . Four lighthouses have been built at Hurst from the 18th century onwards , one of which , a high lighthouse first opened in 1867 , remains in active service .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Hurst Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences based around simple blockhouses and towers existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were limited in scale . Worsley 's Tower , for example , built opposite the future site of Hurst Castle in the 1520s , was too small to hold powerful artillery and considered by surveyors in 1539 to be " one of the worst devised things " they had seen .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III over the annulment of his long @-@ standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , who took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Hurst Castle was designed to protect the western entrance to the Solent , a body of water that led from the English Channel to the naval base at Portsmouth and , through Southampton Water , to the important port of Southampton . The castle was one of four fortifications that William Fitzwilliam , the Lord Admiral , and William Paulet recommended building to strengthen the defences along the Solent ; the others were at East and West Cowes , and Calshot . It was positioned on the Hurst Spit , a strip of shingle sheltering saltmarsh and mud flats , only 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) across the water from the Isle of Wight . Temporary earthwork fortifications were erected on the site and , after the other three castles had been completed , work then began on Hurst in 1541 under the direction of John Mille , the financial controller , and probably Thomas Bertie , a master mason . Bertie was appointed as the castle 's captain in 1542 and the work was completed by January 1544 , at a cost of over £ 3 @,@ 200 .
The result was a stone artillery fort with a central keep and three bastions , surrounded by a moat , capable of holding up to 71 guns . In 1547 , however , Hurst was equipped with 26 artillery pieces – four made of brass and the remainder iron – comprising a two sakers , a culverin , a demi @-@ cannon , a curtall cannon , two demi @-@ culverins , six portpieces , four slings , two quarter @-@ slings , and seven bases , three of them inoperable . A 1559 survey commented that Hurst Castle was essential for sending reinforcements from the mainland to the island , and noted that it was equipped with eleven brass and iron guns , with nine further broken guns , along with handguns , bows and arrows , pikes and bills . The survey observed that the castle was vulnerable to attack because it lacked flanking protection and had rounded walls , and that it was expensive to garrison because of its size , requiring a captain , his deputy , twelve gunners , nine soldiers and a porter . The historian John Kenyon notes , however , that its considerable armament made it one of the most powerful forts in the south , even if it was equipped with lighter guns than would have been ideal for its " ship @-@ killing " role .
Meanwhile , the invasion threat from France had passed and a lasting peace was made in 1558 ; government concerns shifted away from the south coast towards the Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England . By 1569 , when Thomas Carew was serving as Hurst 's captain , there were less than ten guns but the same size of garrison to that seven years before . His son , Sir Thomas Gorges , became captain in turn , and in 1593 he reported that the castle 's gun platforms were in serious need of repair .
= = = 17th century = = =
In the early 1600s , England was at peace with France and Spain , and the country 's coastal defences received little attention . The Gorges family continued as captains at Hurst , with Sir Edward Gorges taking up the post in 1610 , but the castle was neglected . In 1628 , the castle was unable to prevent Flemish ships from passing along the Solent , as only four or five of the castle 's twenty @-@ seven guns were functional , and the fort had no ammunition or powder for them . The government replaced all the brass ordnance in the castle , which were preferred , particularly on ships , as they could fire faster and more safely , with iron guns in 1635 .
At the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642 between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , the castle was occupied by Captain Richard Swanley , a supporter of Parliament . In December 1648 it was briefly used to detain the King before his trial and execution . During the interregum , it remained in use under the command of Colonel Thomas Eyre and was reinforced in 1650 to deal with the threat of a Royalist invasion .
After Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 , Eyre was dismissed and replaced by Edward Strange . The future of the castle was uncertain ; Charles gave orders to demobilise the garrison and briefly considered having the fortress demolished altogether . Instead of maintaining a regular garrison , in 1666 it was decided to staff the castle using soldiers deployed from the Isle of Wight instead , from a unit belonging to Sir Robert Holmes , the island 's governor . Hurst had meanwhile fallen into disrepair , delaying the plans to deploy Holmes ' men until 1671 . Repairs were carried out and , by 1675 , a conventional garrison and almost thirty guns were stationed at Hurst .
= = = 18th century = = =
Hurst Castle continued to be used as a military base in the 18th century , but was also used to hold a Franciscan confessor , Father Paul Atkinson . Amid concerns over the moral condition of England and a perceived threat to the established Church , an act for " further preventing the growth of popery " was passed in 1700 ; Hurst was chosen by the Privy Council to house any priests convicted under this law . Atkinson was probably the only person detained in this way , and he was held for 29 years from 1700 onwards , before finally dying at the castle .
There had been reported problems with smuggling around Hurst Castle since the 1670s , and these continued into the 18th century . In 1729 , the Revenue service hired the Hurst , a wide , heavy yacht , to assist in anti @-@ smuggling operations out of Southampton , arming its crew with muskets , pistols and swords . The problems persisted and , later in the century , the site was used as a rendezvous for smugglers led by a notorious criminal called John Streeter .
The castle fell into neglect , and reports from the 1770s through into the early 1790s noted extensive problems , complaining that the fort 's guns could no longer be mounted on the dilapidated bastions and that water was seeping through the decaying walls . By 1793 , the castle was considered to be " in the worst condition " of all the forts along the coast , and all its guns were unusable . Repairs were authorised , but little was actually done . The spit around the castle began to be used by civilians , including fishermen and gardeners ; a lighthouse , called the Hurst Tower , was built there in 1786 , and the Shipwright 's Arms inn was established alongside the castle .
The Revolutionary War with France broke out in 1793 , leading to the extensive modernisation of the castle . Repairs were carried out in 1794 at a cost of £ 647 , followed by a review of the defences the next year by the Master @-@ General of the Ordnance . The 16th @-@ century castle was still strongly fortified by the standards of the time , but it could not support the heavier guns or batteries of artillery required to tackle enemy warships . Instead , two new gun batteries , each armed with five 36 @-@ pounder ( 16 @.@ 3 kg ) guns , were built alongside the castle in 1795 , with a further eighteen 9 @-@ pounder ( 4 kg ) guns mounted in the old fort ; the guns concerned had all been captured from the French .
= = = 19th century = = =
= = = = 1800 – 58 = = = =
In 1803 , war with France appeared imminent once again . After some discussions , it was agreed to adapt the 16th @-@ century keep to enable it to hold six 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 8 kg ) guns ; the roof was vaulted and a central stone pillar was installed to run up through the building , work estimated at the time to be likely to cost cost £ 4 @,@ 122 . The historian Andrew Saunders likens the resulting building to the various Martello towers being constructed along the south coast at this time . It was proposed to build two temporary gun batteries to replace the 1795 emplacements , which had suffered from the salt air and decayed , but the plan was turned down in order to focus attention on the redevelopment of the keep . The work was carried out by a mixture of soldiers and civilian contractors and was completed by the end of 1806 .
The remodelled castle did not play an active part in the Napoleonic Wars , although it was used in 1809 as a hospital for injured soldiers returning from the Peninsula Campaign in Spain . A second lighthouse , known as the High Lighthouse , was constructed alongside the castle in 1812 .
Official interest in Hurst Castle increased again in the 1840s , as the introduction of shell guns and steam ships created a new risk that the French might successfully attack along the south coast . Previously , sailing ships had been only able to pass the castle slowly when moving against the tide , making them vulnerable to its guns ; steam ships threatened to cruise past at speed . Military estimates and surveys in 1850 and 1851 suggested that the armament should therefore be significantly increased , to include more and much heavier guns .
Improvements were carried out between 1852 and 1856 at a cost of over £ 6 @,@ 725 . The keep was adapted to support 32 @-@ pounder ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) guns , the seaward @-@ facing bastions and curtain walls were reinforced with brick casemates and new gun positions , and the moat was deepened to protect against any surprise attack . Two batteries were built to the west and east of the castle , protected by shingle and earth and linked to the old castle by covered passageways called caponiers ; a defensible barrack block was built beside the western battery , to provide further protection against any attack from the land . The result was that Hurst was re @-@ established as a powerful fortification , equipped with fourteen 32 @-@ pounder guns , fifteen 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) shell guns and two 32 @-@ pounder carronades ; in wartime , these required a team of 440 men , with a peacetime garrison of 105 soldiers . Fort Albert was built across the water on the Isle of Wight to provide supporting fire . The old inn was first reused as the garrison canteen and then demolished .
The 1852 , the Isle of Wight Electric Company laid a specially @-@ armoured telegraph cable to link the castle with Keyhaven on the mainland and Sconce Point on the island ; two years later , the Electric Telegraph Company linked the castle to Southampton . Hurst used flags to pass on telegraphic messages to and from shipping entering the Solent .
= = = = 1859 – 99 = = = =
Rapid advances in military technology made the new defences became obsolete before the end of the decade . The introduction of rifled breech @-@ loading guns , capable of firing explosive shells , and the construction of armour @-@ plated warships left Hurst 's guns and fortifications inadequate . Fears grew in 1859 that France might invade England , potentially in a surprise attack . A 1859 Royal Commission recommended that Hurst , as one of the key forts protecting Portsmouth , should be upgraded as a matter of priority .
Hurst was equipped with new heavy , RML guns in heavily protected casemated positions . These weapons were slow to reload , so to ensure that the castle would have a good chance of hitting enemy ships passing at speed , two long batteries of weapons were built onto either side of the old castle , a west wing with 37 gun positions and an east wing with 24 positions . These were built on top of the two gun batteries constructed there a few years before and also required the castle 's moat to be filled in . As work progressed , the decision was taken to reinforce the batteries with additional iron shields .
The work eventually cost £ 211 @,@ 000 ; it began in 1861 , with the majority of the work being completed by 1870 and the additional iron shielding by 1874 . In peacetime , the castle held around 131 officers and men but it would have needed to be substantially reinforced during wartime if all the weapons were to be manned . Although the fort never received its full complement of guns , by 1881 it had ten 12 @.@ 5 inch , 38 ton ( 317 mm , 39 @,@ 000 kg ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns , fifteen 10 inch , 18 ton ( 254 mm , 18 @,@ 000 kg ) RML guns , five 9 inch , 12 ton ( 228 mm , 12 @,@ 000 kg ) RML guns , and 3 64 @-@ pounders ( 29 kg ) , together forming a powerful arsenal .
Two new lighthouses were constructed in the 1860s . The first was the " Low Light " built into the rear wall of the west wing of the castle . The second lighthouse was the " High Light " – the free standing Hurst Point Lighthouse built on the end of Hurst Spit between 1865 and 1867 . A new public house , the Castle Inn , was established on the north end of the spit . A narrow @-@ gauge railway was constructed in the 1880s to move supplies into the castle .
By the 1880s and 1890
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6 @-@ pounder quick @-@ firing gun emplacements from 1893 , which were fed ammunition from the wing through a hole in the outer wall .
= Kepler @-@ 11c =
Kepler @-@ 11c is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sun @-@ like star Kepler @-@ 11 by the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA telescope aiming to discover Earth @-@ like planets . It is the second planet from its star , and is most likely a water planet with a thin hydrogen – helium atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11c orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 10 days , and has an estimated density twice that of pure water . It is estimated to have a mass thirteen times that of Earth and a radius three times that of Earth . Kepler @-@ 11c and its five sister planets form the first discovered system with more than three transiting planets . The Kepler @-@ 11 system also holds the record of being the most compact and the flattest system discovered . Kepler @-@ 11c and the other Kepler @-@ 11 planets were announced to the public on February 2 , 2011 , and was published in Nature a day later .
= = Name and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 11c 's name is divided into two parts : it is named for Kepler @-@ 11 , the star around which it orbits . As planets with discoveries that are announced at the same time are sorted by distance , Kepler @-@ 11c 's " c " is because it was the second closest planet from its host star at the time of discovery ( Kepler @-@ 11b is the closest ) . Kepler @-@ 11 , the host star , was named for the Kepler satellite , a NASA telescope that searches for terrestrial planets by measuring small fluctuations in the light of stars that occurs when celestial bodies transit , or cross in front of , the star with respect to Earth . Kepler @-@ 11 was flagged as home to a potential transit event by the satellite , and was given the designation KOI @-@ 157 . After further observations , Kepler @-@ 11c 's existence was confirmed by the observation of an orbital resonance effect between Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c . Along with the other five planets in orbit around Kepler @-@ 11 , Kepler @-@ 11c was announced on February 2 , 2011 at a press conference . Its findings were published on February 3 in the journal Nature . The Kepler @-@ 11 system is the first known to host more than three transiting planets .
Follow @-@ up observations were conducted by the Hale and the C. Donald Shane telescopes in California ; MMT , WIYN , and Tillinghast telescopes in Arizona ; the Keck I telescope in Hawaii ; the Hobby @-@ Eberly and Smith telescopes in Texas ; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11c 's host star , Kepler @-@ 11 , is a G @-@ type star 2 @,@ 000 light years away in the Cygnus constellation . With a mass of .95 Msun , a radius of 1 @.@ 1 Rsun , a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 , and an effective temperature of 5680 ( ± 100 ) K , Kepler @-@ 11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius , mass , and temperature . However , Kepler @-@ 11 is much older than the Sun , with an estimated age of 8 ( ± 2 ) billion years ( the Sun is approximately 4 @.@ 6 billion years old ) . Along with Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11 is host to the planets Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . The inner five planets ' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury , while Kepler @-@ 11g orbits Kepler @-@ 11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components .
With an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 , Kepler @-@ 11 cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11c has a mass of 13 @.@ 5 ME and a radius of 3 @.@ 15 RE , making it over 13 @.@ 5 times the mass of earth , but approximately 3 @.@ 15 times its radius . Neptune , in comparison , has a radius approximately 3 @.@ 9 times that of Earth . With a density of 2 @.@ 3 grams / cm3 , Kepler @-@ 11c has a mass over double of that of pure water at 0 ° C ; it is also denser than all the Sun 's gas giants , but less dense than any of its rocky planets . Its density is closest to the dwarf planet Pluto . Due in part to its proximity to its star , the planet 's equilibrium temperature is 833 K , about three times hotter than Earth 's average temperature . It orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 13 @.@ 02502 days at a distance of .106 AU ; it is Kepler @-@ 11 's second closest planet . Mercury , in comparison , orbits every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of .387 AU . The orbit 's inclination of Kepler @-@ 11c is 89 ° , and is thus almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth .
The Kepler team has said that Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c are probably composed mostly of water with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere . In comparison to the outer planets of the system , which probably have large hydrogen and helium atmospheres , Kepler @-@ 11c 's proximity to its star has blown off most of its atmosphere . Kepler @-@ 11 and its six @-@ planet system form what NASA considers to be the most compact and flattest planetary system yet discovered . Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c orbit Kepler @-@ 11 with a phenomenon called orbital resonance , a gravitational tugging that keeps their orbit stable at a 5 @.@ 4 ratio .
= Neutopia =
Neutopia ( ニュートピア , Nyūtopia ) is an overhead action @-@ adventure video game developed by Hudson Soft . It was released by Hudson for the PC Engine in Japan on November 17 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 ) . It was then released by NEC for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 in North America in 1990 . It was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service worldwide for the Wii in 2007 and in Japan for the Wii U on April 16 , 2014 ; it was re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in Japan in 2010 and in North America in 2011 . The game takes place in the land of Neutopia , where the evil demon Dirth has captured Princess Aurora and has stolen the eight ancient medallions which contain the wisdom and power necessary to maintain peace and prosperity throughout the land . It is up to the protagonist Jazeta to retrieve the eight medallions , defeat Dirth , rescue Princess Aurora , and save the land and its people .
Neutopia is widely regarded as a clone of the popular Nintendo game The Legend of Zelda in nearly every aspect . Many reviewers have praised the game for making noticeable improvements over Zelda , but various shortcomings – which include long passwords , repetitive gameplay , and poor collision detection – prevent the game from being superior over the 1987 Nintendo title . But overall , reviewers have called Neutopia one of the better video games of its type and one of the better titles in the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 library .
= = Plot = =
Neutopia takes place in the distant past in the land of Neutopia – a prosperous and peaceful land in which the people worshipped at a Sacred Shrine and were watched over by Princess Aurora . The land was divided into four contiguous areas called spheres : land , subterrain , sea , and sky . The people lived in prosperity and happiness with the help of eight spiritual medallions which were controlled by the Princess and were used for good ; a " Climactic Castle " was built as a symbolization of their prosperity . Each of the medallions represented powers of an ancestor whom Neutopia 's nemesis , the evil demon Dirth , turned to stone but whose spirit remains .
Then , one night , Dirth appears and invades the land . He sends his army of demons to ravage the land , and he captures Princess Aurora and holds her captive in the Climactic Castle , where he would rule over the invading demons . He also steals the eight medallions , which he now controls for evil purposes ; he scatters the eight medallions across the four spheres and places them in crypts . A young warrior named Jazeta arrives at the Sacred Shine , where he is given a " charmed compass " which " has the force of the medallions " and can guide him to them . He is also told that he would inherit the wisdom of his ancestors and win the Princess ' love if victorious . Jazeta then ventures out to defeat Dirth and rescue Princess Aurora , so that she can free Dirth 's spell over the ancient ancestors ' spirits and use the medallions to restore peace to Neutopia .
= = Gameplay = =
Neutopia is an action adventure game which features a top @-@ down perspective and labyrinthine exploration similar to that of The Legend of Zelda . The player controls Jazeta as he sets out to rescue Princess Aurora from Dirth . The game has four levels called spheres which Jazeta must explore and recover the two medallions from each . The medallions are hidden in crypts , where each medallion is guarded by a boss . After collecting all eight of them , Jazeta gains access to the North Pole , where Dirth resides . The player controls Jazeta by moving in any direction with the control pad . Jazeta can also attack with his weapons or use items , scroll through messages , or access the " status screen " with the controller . Jazeta 's life meter , the weapons he is currently holding , and the amount of gold and bombs remaining are displayed during gameplay on the top of the screen . On the status screen , players can choose an item to use , see which direction they must travel as indicated by the charmed compass ( which also sounds an alarm when Jazeta is near a crypt or a medallion ) , and view the map of the crypt Jazeta is in , provided they have collected the Crystal Ball inside .
Throughout the game , players can collect information from other non @-@ player characters , many of whom are located in caves throughout the overworld , in which some can be uncovered only by burning objects with fire , blowing up walls with bombs , or by pushing certain rocks . While Jazeta 's main weapon is a sword , he can also use other items scattered throughout the game . The " fire rod " unleashes fireballs whose strength and range depend on Jazeta 's health level ; Other items include the " moonbeam moss " which can illuminate dark rooms ; the " rainbow drop " which allows Jazeta to cross small gaps ; " falcon shoes " which give him extra speed ; medicine which refills his life meter ; magic rings which can transform tough enemies into weaker ones ; hourglasses which temporarily stop enemies ; and wings which can warp him back to the place where he last received a password . Jazeta can also obtain sword , shield , and armor upgrades throughout the game which can increase attack power , increase defense against projectiles , and decrease enemy damage , respectively ; each type of sword , shield , and armor ranges from bronze to silver to " strongest " . Enemies in the game include spear @-@ throwing goblins , fireball @-@ throwing fish , fake rocks , ghosts , and charging knights .
Jazeta has a life meter , which increases by one unit every time the player collects a medallion or finds a monk throughout the spheres ; it decreases whenever he gets hit , and the game ends when it runs out . However , provided players have collected the " Book of Revival " , they can continue and restart the game wherever they have last obtained a password , even after the console has been shut off ; passwords also allow players to resume play at a later time . In addition , for users with a TurboGrafx @-@ CD or a TurboBooster @-@ Plus , they can save their progress in the systems ' RAM via a " File Cabinet " feature ; in the same places where passwords are distributed , players have the option to save the game in one of four available file slots , each of which can be overwritten at any time with a new file .
= = Development = =
Neutopia was developed by Hudson Soft and was released on November 17 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 ) in Japan for the PC Engine and in 1990 in North America for NEC 's TurboGrafx @-@ 16 console . It received preview coverage in video game magazines Electronic Gaming Monthly and GamePro , which it was described in the latter as " a magic and monsters type role play " . The game received a brief description in GamePro 's May 1990 issue and a full walkthrough in the premiere issue of TurboPlay in June that year . It would later be released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service in Japan on May 1 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 01 ) , in North America on August 20 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 20 ) , and in Europe on August 24 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 24 ) ; it was released alongside Super Metroid and Shinobi III : Return of the Ninja Master . It was released for the PlayStation Network along with a series of other TurboGrafx @-@ 16 titles that were published by Hudson Soft ; it was released in Japan on June 16 , 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 16 ) , and in North America on April 19 , 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 04 @-@ 19 ) .
= = Reception = =
Since its release , people have widely regarded Neutopia as a clone of Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda . The PC Engine version of the game was reviewed in the February 1990 issue of German magazine Power Play , where reviewer Martin Gaksch called the game " Zelda on the PC @-@ Engine " and said that the " differences between Zelda and Neutopia must be
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easily be adapted to meet the new legislation . As the " electrically assisted pedal cycle " category was so new , there were no existing vehicles on the market that would meet the standards prescribed by the new legislation . However , it imposed a number of restrictions that limited the performance of any vehicle that would qualify under the new standards . The maximum legal speed of the vehicle would be limited to only 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) ; it could not weigh any more than 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) , including the battery ; and its motor could not be rated at any more than 250 watts .
Despite these limitations , the vehicle was seen as only the first step in a series of increasingly ambitious electrical cars . Sinclair intended it to prove the viability of electric personal transport ; the hope was that , just as Sinclair had found with home computers like the hugely successful ZX81 and ZX Spectrum , an affordable electric vehicle could unleash pent @-@ up demand for a market that did not previously exist . However , Sinclair performed no market research to ascertain whether there was actually a market for his electric vehicle ; as the director of the Primary Contact advertising agency commented in January 1985 , the project continued all the way to the prototype stage " purely on the convictions of Sir Clive . "
= = = Development and design of the C5 = = =
With Sinclair 's new specifications in hand , Ogle worked on a three @-@ wheeled design dubbed the C5 , which bore similarities with the earlier three @-@ wheeled Bond Bug – another Ogle design . The vehicle 's handlebar steering was the brainchild of Wood Rogers , who decided at the outset that a steering wheel would not be practicable as it would make it impossible for a driver to get in and out easily – a serious safety disadvantage . He comments that " putting the bars at the driver 's sides made it easy to steer and felt very natural . " A prototype was presented to 63 families in the A , B , C1 and C2 demographic groups in suburban and town environments to determine that the controls were correctly positioned ; this was the only external research carried out on the C5 . In the autumn of 1983 , Wills brought in Lotus Cars to finish the vehicle 's detailing , build prototypes and test rigs , carry out testing and take forward the programme to production . The development of the C5 took place over 19 months in conditions of great secrecy , with testing carried out at the Motor Industry Research Association 's proving ground in Leicestershire .
Further aerodynamic refinements were carried out in Exeter with the development of new body shells which produced further reductions in the vehicle 's drag . However , it was felt that something was lacking in the design and a 23 @-@ year @-@ old industrial designer , Gus Desbarats , was brought in to refine the shell 's appearance . He had won a Sinclair @-@ sponsored electric vehicle design competition at the Royal College of Art and was hired on his graduation to set up an in @-@ house car design studio at Sinclair 's Metalab in Cambridge , of which he became the first employee . It was not only Desbarats ' first project but , as he later said , " day one of my working life " , when he turned up at Sinclair 's premises . He was taken aback when he saw the C5 for the first time , as he had been expecting a " proper " electric car . He said later that he thought " the concept looked futuristic but was short on practicality . There were no instruments , nowhere to put anything and no security features . " Desbarats told Sinclair that the design would have to be redone from scratch , " asking what we were doing about visibility , rear view mirrors , range indications ... " . It was far too late for this , however ; all the key design decisions had already been made . Desbarats told Sinclair that he would need four months to revisit the design and was given eight weeks instead . He created the styling that was used for the final production model of the C5 , with wheel trims and a small luggage compartment being added subsequently . Desbarats was also responsible for the creation of the High @-@ Vis Mast accessory , as he felt uncomfortable being so close to the ground with other drivers potentially not being able to see him . He later described his contribution as " convert [ ing ] an ugly pointless device into a prettier , safer , and more usable pointless device . "
The chassis of the C5 consists of two identical metal pressings which are joined at top and bottom with a closing plate at the rear . It lacks a separate suspension system , instead relying on the chassis structure having enough torsional flex . Its motor was produced in Italy by Polymotor , a subsidiary of the Dutch company Philips . Although it was later famously said that the C5 was powered by a washing machine motor , the motor was in fact developed from a design produced to drive a truck cooling fan . Lotus provided the gearbox and a rear axle based on a design for car steering columns . The C5 's electronics were produced by MetaLab , a Sinclair spin @-@ off . The wheels were assembled from tyres made in Taiwan and wheels from Italy . Oldham Batteries provided a lead @-@ acid battery developed for Sinclair that could manage more than the 300 charge @-@ discharge cycles that had originally been specified .
The bodywork was made from two injection @-@ moulded polypropylene shells supplied by three manufacturers ; J.J. Harvey of Manchester made the moulds , Linpac provided the shells , and ICI supplied the raw material . According to Rodney Dale , the upper shell mould was " one of the largest – if not the largest – injection mouldings of its type in the UK : possibly even in the world . " The manufacturing process reflected Sinclair 's ambition for the C5 production line . A single mould set was capable of producing up to 4 @,@ 000 parts every week . The two parts of the shell were joined together by wrapping a tape around the joint , aligning them on a jig , pressing them together and passing an electric current through the tape to heat and melt it . The same process was used to make the front and rear bumper assemblies of the Austin Maestro and only took about 70 seconds to complete . Although Sinclair had considered producing the C5 at the DeLorean plant at Dunmurry in Northern Ireland , which had one of Europe 's most advanced automated plastic body manufacturing facilities , this was not to be , as the DeLorean Motor Company failed in a controversial bankruptcy which resulted in the plant 's closure .
Instead , the work of assembling the C5 was given to The Hoover Company in the spring of 1983 . The Welsh Development Agency ( WDA ) approached Hoover to ask them if they would be interested becoming the principal subcontractor for Sinclair , " who are working on an electric car , and as a by @-@ product of the research have designed an electrically assisted bicycle . They are looking for a subcontractor to whom they can entrust the assembly . " The proposal suited all sides . The WDA was keen to support the Hoover washing machine factory at Merthyr Tydfil , situated in the economically depressed South Wales Valleys . Hoover was enticed by Sinclair 's projections of sales of 200 @,@ 000 units a year , increasing to 500 @,@ 000 . Sinclair saw Hoover 's plant and expertise as a good match for their fabrication techniques . A contract was signed within a few months .
= = = Production , distribution and support = = =
The C5 was produced in great secrecy in a separate part of the Hoover factory with its own duplicate facilities . At first the work was carried out by a small team of people in a sealed room , but as production ramped up Hoover installed two production lines in building MP7 , connected to the main factory by an underground tunnel . A rolling testing stand was located at the end of the production line to test each completed C5 for faults . A mechanical arm simulated the weight of a person weighing 12 stone ( 170 lb ; 76 kg ) and the vehicle 's brakes were tested under load . At the end of the process the C5s which had passed testing were rolled into cardboard boxes and loaded straight onto distribution lorries in stacks . Around £ 100 @,@ 000 was spent to set up the factory .
Distribution centres were set up in Hayes in Middlesex , Preston in Lancashire and Oxford to handle the C5s . Hoover arranged for 19 of its service offices around the UK – responsible for maintaining customers ' vacuum cleaners and washing machines – to also maintain C5s and provide spare parts . The C5 's major consumable item , the battery , was to be supported by 300 branches of Comet and Woolworths .
Hoover trained its engineers to produce C5s and tested its manufacturing processes by assembling , dismantling and re @-@ assembling 100 C5s . Full production began in November 1984 and by early January 1985 over 2 @,@ 500 C5s had been manufactured . Each production line could produce 50 vehicles an hour and Hoover had the capability of producing up to 8 @,@ 000 C5s per week .
= = = Launch = = =
The news of Sinclair 's C5 project came as a surprise when it became public and attracted considerable interest , as well as scepticism . The Economist reported in June 1983 that carmakers were " startled " but cautious about Sinclair 's prospects ; as one competitor put it , " If it were anyone but Sinclair , we 'd say he was bonkers " . The Economist asked , " Can a man who has made a fortune out of calculators and computers , and could double it on flatscreen televisions , be that crazy ? " and wondered whether he was " making a ghastly mistake " , a prediction that industry insiders thought was likely .
The C5 was launched on 10 January 1985 at Alexandra Palace in North London . The event was staged in Sinclair 's usual glitzy style , with girls handing out press packs and a variety of promotional giveaways : magazines , hats , pullovers , T @-@ shirts , key rings , sun visors , badges , mugs , bags , and even a C5 video game . The vehicle was given a dramatic unveiling ; six C5s driven by girls dressed in grey and yellow burst out of six cardboard boxes , drove around the arena , and lined up side by side . Sinclair announced the launch of a £ 3 million , three @-@ month @-@ long advertising print and television advertising campaign . The C5 would be available initially by mail order at a cost of £ 399 and would subsequently be sold via high street stores .
Sinclair issued a glossy sales brochure which characterised the vehicle as a part of an ongoing exercise in " cutting giants down to size , turning impersonal tyrants into personal servants . " The brochure highlighted Sinclair 's achievements in producing affordable pocket calculators , home computers , and pocket televisions and declared , " with the C5 , Sinclair Vehicles puts personal , private transport back where it belongs – in the hands of the individual . " The photographs accompanying the text showed housewives and teenagers driving the C5 to shops , railway stations , and sports fields – in the words of technology writers Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy , " a blue @-@ sky suburbia exclusively populated by electric trikes and their drivers . "
The press was given an opportunity to try out the C5 but this proved to be , as Adamson and Kennedy put it , " an unqualified disaster " . A large number of the demonstration machines did not work , as the assembled journalists soon discovered . The Sunday Times called the C5 a " Formula One bath @-@ chair " ; its reporter " had travelled five yards outdoors when everything when phut and this motorised , plastic , lozenge rolled to a halt with all the stationary decisiveness of a mule . " The Guardian 's reporter had a flat battery after only seven minutes , while Your Computer found that the C5 could not cope with the slopes at Alexandra Palace : " The 250 watt electric motor which drives one of the back wheels proved incapable of powering the C5 up even the gentlest slopes without using pedal power . The tricycle was soon making a plaintive " peep , peep " noise signalling that the engine had overheated . " Even the distinguished former racing driver Stirling Moss ran into problems when he tried out the C5 on the roads around Alexandra Palace . The Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail reported that while he had started out well , " a jaunty smile on [ his ] face as he braved some of the worst exhaust fumes in the world spluttering almost directly into his face from trucks he could almost drive underneath " , he ran into problems when he reached a hill : " It was at this point that he realised the battery had gone dead . On a cold and foggy London day , the great man was visibly sweating . "
The timing and location of the launch event – in the middle of winter , on the top of a snow- and ice @-@ covered hill – later prompted criticism even from Sinclair executives , who admitted off the record that spring conditions might have been better for a vehicle with so little protection from the British climate . The Financial Times called it " the worst possible timing to launch what was proclaimed to be a serious , road @-@ going vehicle " . Sinclair 's biographer Rodney Dale describes it as " a calculated ( or miscalculated ) risk " , pointing out that production was already underway , details were beginning to leak out to the press and " the launch could hardly have been held up until the possibility of a bright spring day . " He justified the choice of January as being necessitated by a need to release the C5 " as soon as possible lest the erroneous speculation should have done more harm than good . " Rob Gray offers an alternative explanation , that the launch date had been brought forward because Sinclair 's development funds were running low .
= = = Reviews = = =
It soon became apparent that the C5 faced more serious problems with public perception than merely a botched launch event . Media reactions to the C5 were generally negative when the first reviews appeared over the following days . As the Financial Times observed , " the few hardy journalists who ventured out on the roads returned shivering and dubious about the C5 's abilities in such harsh conditions . "
A common concern was that it was simply too vulnerable in traffic . Your Computer commented that " a periscope would be handy if you intended driving the C5 on busy roads since your head is only at bonnet level . " The Guardian 's motoring correspondent wrote of her " grave misgivings about its use in congested traffic ... On a sharp turn it too easily lifts a rear wheel , is hazardously silent , and low down . It disappears below a car driver 's sight @-@ line when pulling up alongside . The prospect of these vehicles merging into heavy traffic , dwarfed by heavy lorries , buses , and cars , is worrying . Their low speed risks turning them into mobile chicanes for other traffic . " Another Guardian writer wrote that he " would not want to drive [ the ] C5 in any traffic at all . My head was on a level with the top of a juggernaut 's tyres , the exhaust fumes blasted into my face . Even with the minuscule front and rear lights on , I could not feel confident that a lorry driver so high above the ground would see me . " Sinclair issued a publicity photograph showing the C5 's industrial designer , Gus Desbarats , in a C5 alongside a cardboard cutout of an Austin Mini to illustrate that the C5 driver 's seated position was actually higher than that of a Mini driver .
As teenagers were among the target audiences for the C5 , some commentators also raised the prospect of ( in Adamson and Kennedy 's words ) " packs of 14 @-@ year @-@ olds terrorising the neighbourhood in their customised C5s " . The secretary of the Cyclists Touring Club raised the prospect of " kids us [ ing ] them in a pretty wild way . They may run them over paths and pavements and knock people down . " Sinclair dismissed such concerns – " I have qualms about seven @-@ year @-@ olds riding bicycles on the open road , but I have far fewer qualms about a 14 @-@ year @-@ old driving one of these " . Teenagers interviewed by The Guardian were doubtful about whether they would want a C5 , commenting that while it was fun to drive they felt insecure in it and preferred their bicycles .
Sinclair 's claims to have revolutionised the electric vehicle were dismissed by many reviewers ; Your Computer called the C5 " more of a toy than the ' ideal solution for all types of local journey ' which the brochure claims . " The Guardian 's motoring correspondent also characterised it as " a delightful toy " The Daily Telegraph described it as " a cleverly @-@ designed ' fun ' machine that can hardly be regarded as serious , everyday all @-@ weather transport " , while The Engineer viewed it as " a smashing big boy 's toy , tough enough to take teenage thrashing and possibly a serious vehicle for fit adults to nip out in for the Sunday papers . "
On the plus side , the C5 's handling characteristics were praised by reviewers . The Guardian called it " very easy to master once you have become familiar with the under @-@ thigh handlebar steering and the semi @-@ recumbent driving position with feet on bicycle @-@ type pedals . " The Daily Mirror described the arrangement as " surprisingly easy " to master , although it cautioned that " on full speed and on full lock it 's very easy to tip it onto two wheels . " The Daily Express motoring correspondent wrote that he found the C5 " stable , comfortable and easy to handle . "
The verdict from motoring organisations , road safety groups , and consumer watchdogs was decidedly negative and probably sealed the C5 's fate . The British Safety Council ( BSC ) tested the C5 at Sinclair Vehicles ' headquarters in Warwick and issued a highly critical report to its 32 @,@ 000 members . Sinclair was furious and announced that he would sue the BSC and its chairman , James Tye , for defamation after Tye told the press : " I am shattered that within a few days 14 @-@ year @-@ old children will be allowed to drive on the road in this Doodle Bug without a licence ... without insurance and without any form of training . " Several years later , Tye was happy to take responsibility for the C5 's failure , describing himself as " the man entirely to blame for the failure of the Sinclair C5 . "
= = = Sales history = = =
Despite the problems of the press launch day , a more positive response was expected from the 20 @,@ 000 members of the public who attended the remaining two days of the launch event to try out the C5 on the Alexandra Palace test track . Sinclair reported the day after the event that its switchboard had been overwhelmed by enquirers , and it expected that all 2 @,@ 700 units from the first production run would be sold by the following Monday . Setting a pattern that would be repeated throughout the C5 's short commercial life , this prediction was wildly optimistic ; less than 200 were sold during the Alexandra Palace event . However , sales picked up as mail order forms – which had been sent to all of Sinclair 's computer customers – were returned with fresh orders . Within four weeks of launch , 5 @,@ 000 C5s had been sold .
The C5 's users were an eclectic group . They included holiday camps who wanted C5s to rent to campers ; the British Royal Family – Princes William and Harry each had one to drive around Kensington Palace before they were old enough to drive ; Sir Elton John , who had two ; the magician Paul Daniels , who bought a demonstration model he saw being driven around the BBC Television Centre car park ; Sir Arthur C. Clarke , who had two shipped out to his home at Colombo in Sri Lanka ; and the Mayor of Scarborough , Michael Pitts , who swapped his official Daimler for a C5 . However , as The Times reported , some of the early buyers were disappointed by the vehicle 's limitations , citing its slowness , its limited range and its inability to cope with steep hills , which led some people to return their C5s and ask for a refund .
Although the C5 reached retail stores at the start of March 1985 , sales had tailed off . Sinclair resorted to hiring teams of teenagers to drive around London in C5s to promote the vehicle , at a cost to the company of £ 20 a day . Similar teams were established in Manchester , Birmingham , and Leeds . The company denied that it was a marketing campaign ; a spokesman told The Times that " we haven 't done ... tests on inner city roads . That is what the team is doing . Marketing is not the prime function but will undoubtedly be a spin @-@ off . " Sinclair was reported to be surprised at the lack of demand and blamed the press for " a lack of foresight and pessimistic reporting . " Matters did not improve . The retail chain Comet acquired 1 @,@ 600 C5s but nine months later most were still unsold .
Adding to Sinclair 's problems , production of the C5 had to be halted for three weeks after numerous customers reported that the plastic moulding attached to the gearbox was impairing the performance of their vehicles . 100 Hoover workers were shifted from the C5 production line to work on replacing the faulty mouldings on returned vehicles . Barrie Wills admitted that Sinclair was also taking the opportunity to " adjust stocks " in the light of the C5 's poor sales . When production resumed a month later it was at only 10 % of the previous level , with 90 of the workers being transferred back to the washing machine production lines . Only 100 C5s were now being produced a week , down from the original 1 @,@ 000 . Over 3 @,@ 000 unsold C5s were piled up in storage at the Hoover factory , with additional unsold stock in 500 retail outlets nationwide .
Sinclair tried to put a brave face on it , admitting that " sales have not been entirely up to expectations " but claiming to be " confident of a high level of demand for the vehicle . " A spokesman told the media that " we expect a rapid rise in sales now that the weather is improving " . Possible sales opportunities were explored in mainland Europe , Asia , and the United States , with Sinclair claiming that he had found " very big " levels of interest . Hoover were sufficiently persuaded to allow Sinclair to divert 10 of their employees to modify C5s for overseas export . The bid to sell the C5 abroad failed ; the Dutch National Transport Service told Sinclair that the C5 was not suitable for Dutch roads without improvements to its braking system , the addition of more reflectors , and the inclusion of the High @-@ Vis Mast as part of the basic package . Most of the other ten countries that Sinclair inquired of demanded similar changes .
The C5 's reputation received a further battering when major consumer organisations published sceptical evaluations . The Automobile Association questioned many of Sinclair 's claims in a report published at the start of May . It found that the range of the vehicle was typically only about 10 miles ( 16 km ) rather than the 20 miles ( 32 km ) promised by Sinclair , and reported that the C5 's battery ran flat after only 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) on a cold day . The C5 's running speed was more usually around 12 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 20 @.@ 1 km / h ) than the claimed 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) , while its running costs compared unfavourably to that of a petrol @-@ driven Honda PX50 moped . The stability , general roadworthiness , and especially the safety of the C5 were questioned , and the AA suggested that the High @-@ Vis Mast should be included as part of the standard package . It concluded :
The C5 looks more comfortable and convenient than it really is – older cyclists looking for less pedal effort will be disappointed by the agility its layout demands . Although it is delightfully quiet , performance , range , and comfort do not compare with the better mopeds and costs are much closer than one might think when one allows for the inevitable battery replacement .
The Consumers ' Association published a critical report on the C5 in the June issue of its magazine Which , concluding that the vehicle was of only limited use and represented poor value for money . All three of the C5s that it tested broke down with a " major gearbox fault " and their High @-@ Vis Masts snapped . The longest run between battery charges was only 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) , and a more realistic achievable range was 5 – 10 miles ( 8 – 16 km ) . It also echoed the AA 's concerns about the C5 's safety and the omission of the High @-@ Vis Mast from the standard package . The magazine also called the C5 " too easy to steal " , hardly surprising considering that while a security lock could be used to prevent it being driven away , the C5 was light enough that a would @-@ be thief could simply pick it up and carry it off .
As the summer of 1985 continued , sales of the C5 remained far below Sinclair 's predictions ; only 8 @,@ 000 had been sold by July . In the middle of that month , the Advertising Standards Authority ordered Sinclair to amend or withdraw its advertisements for the C5 after finding that the company 's claims about the safety and speed of the C5 either could not be proved or were not justified . Retailers attempted to deal with unsold stocks of C5s by drastically cutting the vehicle 's price . Comet first reduced the price to £ 259 @.@ 90 but by the end of the year was selling C5s with a complete set of accessories for only £ 139 @.@ 99 , 65 % less than the launch price .
Production was terminated in August 1985 , by which time 14 @,@ 000 C5s had been assembled . Cashflow problems caused by the paucity of sales caused relations to break down between Sinclair Vehicles and Hoover . In June 1985 Hoover obtained a writ against Sinclair for unpaid debts of over £ 1 @.@ 5 million , relating to work carried out over the previous eight months . It did not actually serve the writ but entered negotiations with Sinclair . In mid @-@ August , it publicly announced that it was ceasing production of the C5 . A Sinclair spokesman told the media that the halt in production was " due to a shortage of certain components which are unable to be re @-@ ordered while a financial settlement is pending . Once this has been concluded production is envisaged to recommence . "
= = = Demise of Sinclair Vehicles = = =
Production did not recommence and the Hoover production line remained closed permanently . On 19 September , Sinclair Vehicles changed its name to TPD Limited , with a direct subsidiary named Sinclair Vehicles Sales Limited continuing to sell C5s . TPD only lasted until 15 October , when it was placed into receivership . The receivers announced that 4 @,@ 500 C5s had been sold by Sinclair Vehicles , with another 4 @,@ 500 remaining in the company 's hands . £ 7 @.@ 75 million was reportedly owed to creditors , of which £ 7 million was owed to Sir Clive Sinclair himself in reflection of his personal investment in the project . Hoover was not among the creditors , as Sinclair had managed to settle the dispute on terms that neither company would reveal .
On 5 November , TPD was formally liquidated at a creditors ' meeting . It was revealed , to the anger of the creditors , that Sinclair had taken out a £ 5 million debenture to cover the money that he had put into the company . Ordinary creditors faced little prospect of recovering the £ 1 million left outstanding . Primary Contact , the marketing agency used by Sinclair to promote the C5 , was left with the biggest unpaid bill , of nearly £ 500 @,@ 000 . The last of the unsold C5s were bought for £ 75 each by Ellar ( Surplus Goods ) Ltd of Liverpool , which planned to sell 1 @,@ 000 of them to an Egyptian businessman for use on a university campus while another 1 @,@ 500 were intended to be sold in the UK .
Many reasons have been suggested for the failure of Sinclair Vehicles and what Dale calls " the jigsaw of the C5 's disappointment " . One of the receivers of Sinclair Vehicles , John Sapte , suggested that Sinclair had taken the wrong tack with its marketing of the C5 : " It was presented as a serious transport , when perhaps it should have been presented as a luxury product , an up @-@ market plaything . " Ellar 's director Maurice Levensohn took exactly this tack when he purchased Sinclair Vehicles ' remaining stock , saying that his company would market them as " a sophisticated toy " : " If you were a little boy , wouldn 't you want your parents to get you one this Christmas ? " His strategy was notably successful ; Ellar sold nearly 7 @,@ 000 C5s at up to £ 700 each , far more ( and at a higher price ) than Sinclair had ever managed .
Some commentators attributed the C5 's failure to problems with Sinclair 's marketing strategy ; only a year after the demise of Sinclair Vehicles , the Globe and Mail newspaper called it " one of the great marketing bombs of postwar British industry " . Andrew P. Marks of Paisley College of Technology criticises Sinclair 's marketing strategy as confused ; the C5 promotional brochure depicts it as a leisure vehicle , showing boys in C5s at a football pitch , women in C5s on a suburban road , and so on , while the text suggests that the C5 is a serious substitute for a car . He concludes that the C5 was poorly defined , appearing to be " trying to grasp at two different markets " but was unable to appeal to either , and so failed to take off . The fact that it was initially only available via mail order was also a mistake , in Marks ' view , as it meant that no physical inspection of the product could be made before purchasing it . This was a serious deterrent to consumers as it made the C5 a much more risky purchase .
The design researcher and academic Nigel Cross calls the C5 a " notorious ... example of failure " and describes its basic concept as " wrong " . He points out that the marketing research for the C5 was carried out after the vehicle 's concept had already been decided ; he notes that it appears to have been intended " mainly to aid promotion " rather than to guide development . Gus Desbarats , the C5 's industrial designer , attributes the vehicle 's flawed concept to Sinclair operating in a " bubble " and believes that Sinclair " failed to understand the difference between a new market , computing , and a mature one , transport , where there were more benchmarks to compare against . " He comments that the experience of working on the C5 convinced him of the need for industrial designers such as himself to get " involved early in the innovation process , shaping basic configurations , never again [ being ] satisfied to simply decorate a fundamentally bad idea " .
Sinclair himself said in 2005 that the C5 " was early for what it was . People reacted negatively and the press didn 't help . It was too low down and people felt insecure , hence it got bad press . " Sam Dawson of Classic and Sport Car Magazine described the C5 as " incredibly fun to drive " , suggesting that the safety concerns could have been addressed if it wasn 't for the fact that it was already doomed as a national joke . " He noted the disconnect between the media 's expectations of a serious electric car and the reality of the C5 , which he called " just a fun way of getting around . " Professor Stuart Cole of the University of South Wales comments that the C5 suffered from the design of the roads and the attitudes of the time , which were not geared towards pedal or electric vehicles : " In the days before unleaded petrol , your face would have been at the height of every exhaust pipe , and drivers weren 't used to having to consider slower @-@ moving cyclists . But with more cycle lanes , better education , and workplaces providing showers , etc . , the world now is much more geared up for people looking for alternatives to the car , and hopefully will become even more so in the future . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sinclair 's other electric vehicles = = =
Sinclair envisaged producing follow @-@ up vehicles such as the C10 , a two @-@ seater city car , and the C15 , a four @-@ seater capable of travelling at 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) . As Wills put it at the launch event , " We 're developing a family of traffic @-@ compatible , quiet , economic and pollution @-@ free vehicles for the end of the ' 80s . " The C5 was described as " the baby of the family " . The C10 was intended to be a city car , capable of carrying two passengers at up to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) in a roofed but open @-@ sided compartment with two wheels at the front and one at the back . Wood Rogers intended it to effectively be an updated version of the Isetta , a 1960s Italian microcar . Sinclair built a full @-@ scale mock @-@ up of it ; according to Wood Rogers , " it looked great . I specified open sides to keep the cost down and having no doors meant it escaped a lot of regulations too . " The design is strikingly similar to the modern Renault Twizy electric vehicle ; Wood Rogers comments that " you could put the C10 into production today and it would still look contemporary . "
Sinclair described the C15 as having " a futuristic design with an elongated ' tear @-@ drop ' shape , a lightweight body made of self @-@ coloured polypropylene and a single , possibly ' roller ' type rear wheel . " It would have been launched at the 1988 International Motor Show in Birmingham following a development programme costed at £ 2 million . Unlike the relatively conventional technology used in the C5 , Sinclair intended to use sodium sulphur batteries with four times the power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of lead @-@ acid batteries to give the C15 much greater speed and range – over 180 miles ( 290 km ) on a single charge . It would have had approximately the same dimensions as a conventional small car , measuring 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 ft 5 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 ft 5 in ) wide . However , it could only have worked if sodium sulphur batteries had realised their promise . In the event they did not , due to thermal problems . Neither the C10 nor the C15 ever left the drawing board .
Although Sinclair went on to produce more ( but much smaller ) electric vehicles , the C5 debacle did lasting damage to the reputation of subsequent EVs in the UK , which the media routinely compared to the C5 . It was not until a highly regarded manufacturer , Toyota , launched a serious and well @-@ received vehicle in the 1990s , the Prius , that the C5 " jinx " was finally laid to rest .
= = = From flop to cult = = =
Despite its lack of commercial success when it was first released , the C5 gained an unexpected degree of cult status in the later years . Collectors began purchasing them as investment items , reselling
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and Durham , both of which were rain @-@ affected draws .
= = Fifth Test = =
Johnston rounded off his Ashes series with the Fifth Test at The Oval . English skipper Norman Yardley elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch , a decision many regarded as surprising . Precipitation in the past week rendered play before midday impossible . Former Australian Test batsman and leading commentator Jack Fingleton speculated that the tourists would have bowled if they had won the toss .
The damp conditions meant required a large amount of sawdust to be laid down to help the players keep their grip . Along with the rain , the humid conditions assisted the Australian bowlers , who were able to make the ball bounce at variable heights .
After Miller removed John Dewes with the score at 1 / 2 , Bradman made an early bowling change and introduced Johnston . Edrich joined Hutton and they played cautiously until the former attempted to hook a short ball from Johnston . He failed to get the ball in the middle of the bat and it looped up and travelled around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . Lindsay Hassett caught the ball just behind square leg , after diving sideways and getting both hands to the ball . This left England at 2 / 10 . After the lunch break , Johnston dismissed debutant Allan Watkins without scoring after the batsman played across the line to be trapped lbw , leaving England at 6 / 42 . Johnston ended with 2 / 20 from 16 overs as England were skittled for 52 . After being unbeaten without scoring in Australia 's innings of 389 , Johnston was again among the wickets when England 's second innings late on the second day .
England started their second innings with a deficit of 337 runs and reached 1 / 54 by the premature end of the second day due to bad light . The following morning , they made slow and steady progress as Johnston bowled his finger spin from around the wicket with a well @-@ protected off side . The four men in the off side ring had much work to do as Hutton hit the ball there repeatedly . The English batsmen progressed and Johnston had one confident appeal for lbw against Compton , but there were few scares .
They reached 2 / 125 after lunch , when Compton — who was on 39 — aimed a hard cut shot from Johnston 's bowling , which flew off the edge into Lindwall 's left hand at second slip for a " freak slip catch " . This triggered a collapse late in the afternoon , which saw the hosts lose 4 / 25 to end the third day at 7 / 178 . England resumed on the fourth morning with only three wickets in hand , still needing 159 runs to make Bradman ’ s men bat again . Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets , Alec Bedser , Yardley and Eric Hollies to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs . Only ten runs were added in the brief morning session ; Hollies fell for a golden duck after skying a ball to Morris , immediately after Yardley became the ninth man to fall . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 from 27 @.@ 3 overs and he was the most economical of the bowlers . Given the time lost to inclement weather on the first day , Australia had won the match in less than three days of playing time . Overall , Johnston finished with 27 Test wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 33 , equal to Lindwall but at a higher average .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Australia batted first against Kent and made 361 . Johnston then took three wickets with the new ball to help reduce the hosts to 5 / 16 , before ending with 3 / 10 from six overs . Forced to follow on after being bowled out for 51 in 23 overs , Kent were reduced to 4 / 37 by three early Lindwall wickets . Johnston ended with 1 / 28 as the home team capitulated for 124 and lost by an innings . The victory over Kent was followed by a match against the Gentlemen of England . Johnston was rested as Australia completed another innings victory . He returned for the match against Somerset , which resulted in a third consecutive innings win . After Australia had declared at 5 / 560 , Johnston took the opening wicket of Harold Gimblett before returning to take the last two scalps of the first innings from consecutive balls , bowling his finger spin . He ended with 3 / 34 as Somerset fell for 115 and were forced to follow on . Johnston bowled the second over of the second innings . As Johnston had taken wickets with his last two balls in the first innings , his first delivery was the hat @-@ trick ball . Gimblett negotiated the first ball safely , before being trapped lbw for a duck on the next . Johnston had thus taken three wickets in four balls . He bowled unchanged throughout the innings to end with 5 / 34 from 17 @.@ 4 overs as Somerset were bowled out for 71 . Johnston took the final wicket to fall — Horace Hazell — trapped for a duck , which brought up his 100th first @-@ class wicket for the tour .
In the match against the South of England , Johnston took 1 / 63 — Edrich being his only wicket — after Australia declared at 7 / 522 . Bradman ’ s men dismissed the hosts for 298 and rain ended the match before the second innings could start .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to represent the hosts . After his opponents had finalised their players , Bradman named a full @-@ strength team . In a rain @-@ interrupted match , Johnston bowled Edrich for 15 . He ended with 1 / 20 as the hosts folded for 177 . Johnston made an unbeaten 26 in a partnership of 30 with Lindsay Hassett as Australia replied with 8 / 489 declared . Time ran out with the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI at 0 / 75 in the second innings .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first , Australia scored 236 before Johnston took 6 / 15 from 12 @.@ 5 overs . He took the last four wickets as the home team fell from 6 / 81 to be all out for 85 . Johnston bowled four wicketless overs in the second innings as Australia completed victory without needing to bat for a second time . In the second match , he signed off on his tour in a low key manner , taking a wicket in each innings to end with a match total of 2 / 48 as Australia completed another innings triumph .
= = Role = =
Johnston played as a left @-@ arm fast bowler when the ball was new and conducive to pace bowling , before reverting to finger spin when it became old and lost its shine . He was Australia 's third fast bowler in the Tests , reinforcing the new ball pairing of Keith Miller and Ray Lindwall , who were regarded as one of the finest pace duos of all time . Bradman typically used Miller and Lindwall in short and sharp new ball bursts against the local batsmen . England had agreed that a new ball would be available every 55 overs , a milestone that usually came more frequently than the old regulation of 200 runs for every ball . This allowed Australia — who had the superior pace attack — more frequent use of a shiny ball , which swung at high pace . Johnston typically bowled pace after the first @-@ choice pair had finished their new ball spell , before reverting to spin when the ball was worn . He took 27 wickets at 23 @.@ 33 in the Tests , making him the equal @-@ leading wicket @-@ taker along with Lindwall , who averaged 19 @.@ 62 . The Australian pacemen ’ s tally was substantially more than the next best , recorded by England 's Alec Bedser , who took 18 wickets at 38 @.@ 22 .
In both the Test and county matches during the 1948 tour , Johnston carried the heaviest workload , bowling nearly 200 overs more than any other squad member . He was the leading wicket @-@ taker in all first @-@ class matches with 102 wickets at 16 @.@ 42 , and the last Australian to take a century of wickets on a tour of England . His average was only slightly inferior to that of Lindwall , who took 86 wickets at 15 @.@ 68 . The roles Johnston fulfilled are borne out in his economy rate and strike rate . He was more economical than Miller and Lindwall , who took wickets more frequently .
Johnston 's performances prompted Bradman to call him " Australia 's greatest left @-@ hand bowler " . As a result of his ability to bowl spin and pace , teammate Neil Harvey thought the team effectively had 13 players , saying " we reckoned Bradman was worth two [ batsmen ] and Bill Johnston was worth two [ bowlers ] " . Harvey rated Johnston the best team man in the squad , and Bill Brown praised Johnston 's work ethic in bowling for long periods after Lindwall and Miller had been given the best opportunities with the new ball . Spin bowling teammate Ian Johnson described him as " the finest team man and tourist " in cricket and valued his personality , while Miller described him as " the most popular man in cricket " . Johnston sometimes amused his colleagues by demonstrating his double jointedness , wrapping his feet around the back of his neck . He was reputed to have nearly drowned when he attempted this in the communal bath at Lord 's .
After carrying a heavy workload in the early stages of the tour , Johnston was used more sparingly in the latter stages . As the tour progressed , Johnston improved his control and restrained England 's batsmen between the new ball bursts of Lindwall and Miller . Johnston was chosen as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Wisden said " no Australian made a greater personal contribution to the playing success of the 1948 side " . Fingleton wrote that Australia had never sent a greater left @-@ hander to England .
During the tour , Johnston had few opportunities with the bat , invariably batting at either No. 10 and No. 11 alongside Toshack , another tail @-@ ender with little batting ability.N- Neither player ever passed 30 in their first @-@ class career , and they were the only two Australians who failed to pass 50 during the tour . As Australia 's other frontline bowlers were Miller , Lindwall , Colin McCool , Ian Johnson and Doug Ring , all of whom scored centuries and more than 20 fifties each during their first @-@ class career , Toshack and Johnston were rooted at the bottom of the batting order . As Australia often won by an innings , and declared in the first innings many time due to their batting strength , Johnston only had 18 innings in his 21 first @-@ class fixtures and scored 188 runs at 18 @.@ 80 , the third lowest average and aggregate . He scored 62 runs in the Tests at 20 @.@ 66 , including his highest first @-@ class score of 29 in the Second Test at Lord ’ s .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
= George M. Stratton =
George Malcolm Stratton ( September 26 , 1865 – October 8 , 1957 ) was a psychologist who pioneered the study of perception in vision by wearing special glasses which inverted images up and down and left and right . He studied under one of the founders of modern psychology , Wilhelm Wundt , and started one of the first experimental psychology labs in America , at the University of California , Berkeley . Stratton 's studies on binocular vision inspired many later studies on the subject . He was one of the initial members of the philosophy department at Berkeley , and the first chair of its psychology department . He also worked on sociology , focusing on international relations and peace . Stratton presided over the American Psychological Association in 1908 , and was a member of the National Academy of Sciences . He wrote a book on experimental psychology and its methods and scope ; published articles on the studies at his labs on perception , and on reviews of studies in the field ; served on several psychological committees during and after World War I ; and served as advisor to doctoral students who would go on to head psychology departments .
Stratton was born and brought up in the Oakland area of California , in a family with deep roots in America , and spent much of his career at Berkeley . He received his undergraduate degree from the University of California , an M.A. from Yale University , and a PhD from the University of Leipzig . He returned to the philosophy department at Berkeley , teaching psychology , and was promoted to associate professor . Stratton left for Johns Hopkins University in the early 1900s and spent a few years as faculty at the psychology department before returning to Berkeley . During this period , he focused on studies on sensation and perception and the psychological effects of inverting sensory stimuli in different ways . He was involved in establishing some of the early regional associations devoted to the field of psychology .
Stratton served in the Army during World War I , developing psychological tests to select airmen for Army aviation . Exposure to the war effort prompted his interest in international relations and causes of wars . He was an anti @-@ war believer who held psychology should aim to assist humanity 's quest to avert future wars . He was optimistic that people and ethnicities , making up nations , could be taught to live in peace , though the races were not equal in inborn mental capacity , a belief he held as scientific . In the later part of his career he wrote books looking at international relations , war , and the differences between races on emotions . He was also a scholar of the classics and translated Greek philosophers .
Of Stratton 's many contributions , his studies on perception and visual illusions would continue to influence the field of psychology well after his death . Of the nine books he wrote , the first was a scholarly look at the methodology and scope of experimental psychology . The remaining , including one unfinished at his death , were on sociology , international relations and the issues of war and how findings from psychology could be used to eradicate conflict between nations . Stratton considered these issues more salient to the application of psychology in the real world , though his ideas on this front did not produce a lasting impact in the field because of their subjective and non @-@ experimental nature .
= = Early life and education = =
George Stratton was born on September 26 , 1865 to James Thompson Stratton , originally from Ossining , New York , and Cornelia A. Smith . His parents had met and married in New York in 1854 , and settled back in Clinton , now East Oakland , California . James Stratton had been to California once before during the gold rush of 1850 , sailing around North America and crossing by land the Panama stretch , but finding little gold . The senior Stratton traced his ancestry to the early settlers of the British settlements of America , and Cornelia Smith had Dutch and English forebears . James Stratton would live the rest of his life in California , pursuing a civil engineering career as County Surveyor for Alameda County in 1858 – 59 and later as the U.S. Surveyor @-@ General of the state , and finally as Chief Deputy State Surveyor . An expert on the big Mexican land grants , he split up several of the Spanish deeds . One of his sons , Frederick , went to the University of California , today 's Berkeley , and became a lawyer , state senator , and Collector of the Port of San Francisco , before killing himself on November 30 , 1915 . Another , Robert Thomas , became a doctor in Oakland and died after a long illness on May 6 , 1924 . The couple also had a daughter , Jeanne , the later Mrs. Walter Good . George was their youngest child who lived past toddlerhood .
Stratton 's early education was at the Oakland public schools and undergraduate education at the University of California . At the university he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . He was also the editor of the student news publication , The Berkeleyan in 1886 . Stratton graduated in 1888 with an A.B. degree from the University of California , in a total graduating class of 34 students . He learned Latin and English and taught in Buenaventura High School in 1888 – 89 , and was its principal in 1889 – 90 . At the school he met and courted San Francisco @-@ born Alice Elenore Miller .
Stratton then obtained an A.M. degree from Yale in 1890 . He was a fellow in the philosophy department at Berkeley from 1891 to 1893 . The chair of the philosophy department , George Holmes Howison , whom he met as an undergraduate , would become a significant influence on his life . He taught two philosophy courses , both with Howison . On March 14 , 1893 he was appointed an instructor in the department of philosophy . As an instructor , he began teaching psychology and logic courses , in addition to a philosophy course .
Howison obtained a fellowship from the University of California for his protege to study at the University of Leipzig . On May 17 , 1894 , Stratton married Alice Miller at the Methodist Episcopal Church in Berkeley , while being an instructor in the philosophy department . Immediately after , the couple left for the East on their way to Europe , with Stratton taking a leave of absence from Berkeley . He then spent two years at Wundt 's Institute for Experimental Psychology at Leipzig , from where he received an M.A. and a PhD in 1896 . He received his degree summa cum laude , with a thesis submitted to Wundt 's publication , Philosophische Studien .
= = Work years = =
Stratton spent his working years primarily at Berkeley . He founded the department of psychology at the university . He left once for Johns Hopkins and once to join the Army during World War I , serving in San Francisco , San Diego and New York .
= = = Early Berkeley = = =
Returning to America in 1896 , Stratton rejoined the University of California as an instructor . In 1897 he was promoted to assistant professor . By 1898 he no longer taught philosophy but several psychology courses . Two years later , he would influence the Philosophical Union into dedicating a year to investigating contemporary psychology . He himself presented a well @-@ attended lecture series at the Union , with lively debates at the end , on psychological experiments . Over this time he also published three papers on his study with inverting lenses and how people adapt over time to such a view of the world : " Upright vision and the retinal image " , " Vision without inversion of the retinal image " , and " A mirror pseudoscope and the limit of visible depth " , all in Psychological Review . He also presented a report of experiments with inverted vision to the Science Association of the university .
Stratton also became a member of the APA . One of Stratton 's psychology students in the Philosophy department was Knight Dunlap , a later chair at Johns Hopkins and University of California , Los Angeles . Stratton became a director of the newly established psychology lab , in the philosophy department , in 1899 . By 1900 he was an associate professor in the philosophy department , then headed by Howison . He contributed a paper to the Festschrift honoring Wundt 's seventieth birthday in 1902 : " Eye movements and the aesthetics of the visual form " . He also taught a series of twenty lectures on philosophy and psychology at the Pacific Theological Seminary in Berkeley . His first daughter , Elenore , was born in 1900 , and son James Malcolm around 1903 .
= = = Johns Hopkins and return to Berkeley = = =
Stratton left Berkeley at end of June , 1904 , and moved east to Johns Hopkins University as a professor of experimental psychology in October . At this time , philosophers and psychologists at Baltimore formed the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology ( SSFY ) and Stratton was one of the first 36 charter members . At its first meeting , he presented results of an experiment on fidelity of the senses .
While Stratton was at Johns Hopkins , the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 struck destroying large swaths of the city . He had specific suggestions on how to rebuild the city to resist earthquakes and fires even with the water supply cut off . He urged the city be split into districts with avenues or boulevauds as firebreaks between the divisions .
Stratton 's second daughter , Florence , was born in Baltimore on May 24 , 1907 . He left Johns Hopkins in October 1909 , and was replaced there as professor of experimental psychology by John Broadus Watson .
= = = The army = = =
During World War I , Stratton served in army aviation developing psychological recruitment tests for aviators . He worked at San Francisco , Rockwell Field , San Diego , and at Hazelhurst Field , Mineola , New York . Joining as a captain , he was promoted to major in 1918 along with a transfer to Mineola . Stratton presided over the Army Aviation Examining Board in San Francisco in 1917 , chaired the subcommittee of the National Research Council of the APA : " Psychological Problems of Aviation , including Examination of Aviation Recruits " in the summer of 1917 , and headed the psychological section of the Medical Research Lab of the Army Medical Research Board at Hazelhurst Field , a wing of the Army 's Sanitary Corps , in 1918 . As a member of the psychological division , his research focused on developing psychological recruiting tests for would @-@ be aviators . The tests he designed tested for reaction times , ability to imagine completions of curves presented visually , and the ability to sense a gradual tilting of one 's own body . Edward L. Thorndike pooled Stratton 's results with other studies to statistically analyze and correlate weak performance to a poor flying record . Part of this research was carried out in the spring of 1918 with Captain Henmon at Kelly Field , and the army thought enough of the results to allow the tests for checking recruits in four new units .
= = = Berkeley again = = =
After the war , Stratton returned to Berkeley in January 1919 . Stratton also taught at Berkeley 's extension school , lecturing on " Psychology and health " in San Francisco to people from the medical profession in 1918 – 19 , and in Oakland in 1919 – 20 . By this time the introductory course on psychology was so in demand among the students , it was split into two , with Stratton and Warner Brown teaching it concurrently . His wife was the editor of the Semicentenary of the University of California , a volume issued by the University Press at Berkeley in 1920 .
In 1921 his daughter , Elenore Stratton , graduated from Berkeley . That August she married Harvard graduate Edward Russell Dewey of New York at her father 's house , and moved to the city , where she had done social settlement work following graduation . The same year his son attended Berkeley . The Berkeley department of psychology officially split from the department of philosophy , with Stratton as its first chair , on July 1 , 1922 . His second daughter , Florence , graduated from Berkeley with a B.A. in 1929 .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
Stratton retired in 1935 , but remained at the university , and died on October 8 , 1957 at the age of 92 , a year after his wife 's death . He kept coming to the university till just before the end . When he died he was working on a book , The Divisive and Unifying Forces of the Community of Nations though his eyesight was by then poor . During his retirement , he had lectured at universities across America , Europe and Asia . He was survived by his son , Malcolm Stratton , a physician at Berkeley ; two daughters : Elenore , divorced and then married to Robert Fliess of New York , and Florence , married to Albert R. Reinke of Berkeley ; nine grandchildren and one great @-@ grandchild .
= = Personal life = =
Stratton had several hobbies , brick @-@ laying the most important one . He built the brick walls and paths in the garden of his house , a house he himself helped design . His daughter , Elenore , would recall decades later living in the house , with a view of the San Francisco bay and the Golden Gate on one side and the Marin county hills beyond . Annual camping in summer in the Sierras was another pastime , and he carried his love of books over there as well , writing in the shade of a tree in the mornings . Elenore also recalled his night @-@ time reading of Homer to his children , mixing with fascinating guests for weekend suppers prepared by her mother , and the family camping out with Latin professor " Uncle " Leon Richardson .
= = Work = =
Stratton began his career working in a philosophy department , teaching philosophy courses , but branched into experimentation soon after . He tackled problems of sociology and international relations later in his career .
= = = Wundt 's lab and the inverted @-@ glasses experiments = = =
Stratton went on to become a first @-@ generation experimentalist in psychology . Wundt 's lab in Leipzig , with experimental programs bringing together the fields of evolutionary biology , sensory physiology and nervous @-@ system studies , was a part of the career of most of the first generation . It was the exposure there , added to the graduate work at Yale , that influenced Stratton into becoming a psychologist . It was there that he started his binocular vision experiments as well . In these experiments , he found himself adapting to the new perception of the environment over a few days , after inverting the images his eyes saw on a regular basis . For this , he wore a set of glasses inverting images both upside @-@ down and left @-@ right . Stratton wore these glasses over his right eye and covered the left with a patch during the day , and slept blindfolded at night . Initial movement was clumsy , but adjusting to the new environment took only a few days .
Stratton tried variations of the experiment over the next few years . First he wore the glasses for eight days , back at Berkeley . The first day he was nauseated and the inverted landscape felt unreal , but by the second day just his own body position seemed strange , and by day seven , things felt normal . A sense of strangeness returned when the glasses were taken out though the world looked straight side up , and he found himself reaching out with the right hand when he should have used the left , and the other way around . Then he tried the experiment outdoors . He also tried another experiment disrupting the mental link between touch and sight . There he wore a set of mirrors attached to a harness as shown in the figure allowing , and forcing , him to see his body from above . He found the senses adapted in a similar way over three days . His interpretation was that we build up an association between sight and touch by associational learning over a period of time . During certain periods , the disconnect between vision and touch made him feel as if his body was not where his touch and proprioceptive feeling told him it was . This out @-@ of @-@ body experience , caused by an altered but normal sensory perception , vanished when he attended to the issue critically , focusing on the disconnect .
= = = Berkeley psychology department = = =
Back at Berkeley from Johns Hopkins , Stratton stayed in the philosophy department as its second faculty member and first psychology specialist until the psychology department broke off in 1922 . The new department started with four people : Stratton as chair ; Edward Chace Tolman , with a Harvard degree , and an initiator of rodent experiments soiling the rooms of the philosophy department and hastening the split of the psychology division ; Brown , Stratton 's earlier student and Berkeley faculty member from 1908 onward ; and Olga Bridgman , the first Berkeley psychology PhD awardee , albeit from the philosophy department . Before the split Stratton had set up Berkeley 's first psychology lab in the philosophy department and taught psychology courses with Brown . The courses included sensation , perception , emotion , memory , and applications of psychology to professions such as law , medicine , schooling and clerical work by priests .
Stratton continued his experiments on perception , branching into studies on pseudoscopic vision , stereoscopic acuity , eye movements , symmetry and visual illusions , how people
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2 helped to form the Rhodesian Front , a right @-@ wing party whose avowed goal was full independence from Britain without an immediate transfer to black majority rule . He became Deputy Prime Minister in December that year when the new party , led by Winston Field , surprised most observers by winning that month 's election . After the Cabinet forced Field to resign in April 1964 , following his failure to gain independence from Britain , they chose Smith as the new Prime Minister .
Smith , Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born head of government , was strongly influenced as premier by his wartime experiences . Southern Rhodesia 's military contributions during the two World Wars , the Malayan Emergency and other conflicts , combined with memories of his own travails for Britain with the Royal Air Force — " undoubtedly the central experience of his life " , R W Johnson wrote — caused Smith to feel profoundly betrayed when the British government proved one of his main adversaries as Prime Minister . The UK government 's objection to continued white minority rule , based on moral and geopolitical factors , clashed with Smith 's refusal to establish a set timetable for the progressive introduction of majority rule in Southern Rhodesia . After talks repeatedly broke down , Smith 's government unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . In 1970 , following the results of a referendum , he declared Rhodesia a republic . He argued that Britain was to blame for all of this — " Rhodesia did not want to seize independence from Britain . It was forced upon us , " he said .
For many in Britain during this time , attitudes towards the breakaway colony were complicated by the fact that " Plucky Little Rhodesia " , often described as " more British than the British " , had given so much for the mother country in its fight against Nazi Germany . Smith 's own military service and reputation for bravery gave rise to similar sentiments regarding him personally . White Rhodesians widely hailed him a war hero , as did many overseas commentators . In 1966 , Smith supporters in Britain sent him a painting " on behalf of many British people who remained true despite the misguidance of government " , depicting two Spitfires taking off for a dawn raid . Smith retained his affection for the Spitfire for the rest of his life ; in his memoirs he described the fighter as " the most beautiful aircraft ever made . " He also remained some proficiency in the Italian language , though according to one Italian visitor his accent was " atrocious " .
Smith 's years as an RAF pilot were often alluded to in political rhetoric and popular culture . In the phrase of Martin Francis , " no white Rhodesian kitchen in the 1960s and 1970s was complete without an illustrated dishcloth featuring ' Good Old Smithy ' and his trusty Spitfire " . The Rhodesian Front 's election strategy of emphasising Smith 's reputation as a war hero was criticised by the journalist Peter Niesewand , who was deported from Rhodesia in 1973 ; according to Niesewand , Smith 's contribution to the Allied war effort had been " to crash two perfectly good Hurricane planes [ sic ] for the loss of no Germans " . Smith won decisive election victories in 1970 , 1974 and 1977 , and remained in office until the country was reconstituted under majority rule as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 . He continued to wear his RAF Spitfire pilot 's tie well into old age , including on the final day before Zimbabwe Rhodesia 's formal establishment on 1 June 1979 — " a final gesture of defiance " , Bill Schwarz writes , " symbolising an entire lost world . "
= Jiggs Parrott =
Walter Edward " Jiggs " Parrott ( July 14 , 1871 – April 14 , 1898 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned eight seasons , four of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Chicago Colts ( 1892 – 95 ) . Parrott , an infielder , compiled a career batting average of .235 with 174 runs scored , 309 hits , 35 doubles , 23 triples , six home runs and 152 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 317 games played . Although the majority of his career was spent in the major leagues , Parrott also played in minor league baseball . He got his start playing amateur baseball with the East Portland Willamettes . His professional baseball debut came in 1890 as a member of the Portland Webfeet . Parrott was the first MLB player from Oregon . He stood at 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighed 160 pounds ( 73 kg ) . His brother , Tom Parrott , was also an MLB player and a teammate of his on the Chicago Colts .
= = Early life = =
Walter Edward " Jiggs " Parrott was born on the east side of Portland , Oregon on July 14 , 1871 to Thomas H. Parrott and the former Eliza Ann Rhodes . Thomas H. Parrott was born in England , but moved outside of Sherwood , Oregon in 1857 which used to be a part of Yamhill County , Oregon . Although he was training to be a shoemaker in England , when Thomas H. Parrott moved to Portland , he opened a music business . He organized the East Portland Brass Band . Jiggs Parrott had seven siblings : six brothers and one sister . Several of his siblings went on to play professional baseball and worked in music . Parrott played sandlot ball in Portland during his youth . He would also play with his classmates while attending Portland Public Schools . Eventually , Parrott and his brothers , Dode and Tom , signed with the East Portland Willamettes , an amateur baseball team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early minor league career ( 1890 – 92 ) = = =
In 1890 , Parrott began his professional baseball career with the Portland Webfeet of the Pacific Northwest League . His brother , Tom Parrott , was his teammate on the Portland club . On the season , Jiggs Parrott batted .268 with 71 runs scored , 104 hits , 24 doubles , six triples , five home runs , and 26 stolen bases in 94 games played . He was second in the league in home runs , third in hits and fourth in doubles . Defensively that season , he played third base . Parrott continued to play with the Portland club in 1891 , who were now renamed the Gladiators . During the season , the Spokane Daily Chronicle stated that , " ' Jiggs ' [ Parrott ] was as much at home at third [ base ] as ever , and his throws to first [ base ] continue to excite the admiration of all the bleachers . " At the start of the 1892 season , Parrott joined the Minneapolis Minnies of the Class @-@ A Western League . Before the start of the season , The Sporting News said that Parrott " has the build of a successful third baseman . He is tall and spare in flesh . He has been in a gymnasium all winter . " With Minneapolis that season , he batted .317 with 31 runs scored , 53 hits , 13 doubles , and six home runs in 41 games played . He was tied for second in the league with James Graham , Joseph Katz and Billy O 'Brien in home runs .
= = = Chicago Colts ( 1892 – 95 ) = = =
During the 1892 season , Cap Anson , the manager of the Chicago Colts , offered Parrott a Major League Baseball ( MLB ) contract to play with his club . Parrott made his MLB debut on July 11 , 1892 . During that game , he stuck out twice and made two errors . He was the first player from the State of Oregon to appear in an MLB game . Parrott hit second in the Colts ' batting order for most of the season . In his first MLB season , Parrott batted .201 with 38 runs scored , 67 hits , eight doubles , five triples , two home runs , 22 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , and seven stolen bases in 78 games played . He finished the season third in fielding percentage amongst National League third basemen ( .891 ) , behind Billy Nash and George Davis . Before the start of the 1893 season , The Sporting Life wrote that Parrott " is somewhat of an erratic player . There are times when he plays good ball , but just when good steady play is necessary , he is very liable to get a case of ' rattles . ' " However , in June , The Sporting Life changed its tune and called Parrott 's work at third base a " little less than brilliant " . It was reported that Anson was impressed by Parrott as a person , calling him a " well @-@ behaved young man " despite some criticism he was getting from the media and fans . During the 1893 season , the Colts signed pitcher Tom Parrott , Jiggs Parrott 's brother . The Washington Post reported that Tom Parrott bought out his contract with his former team so he could play with his brother in Chicago . The two Parrott brothers were the only two players from Oregon to play in the MLB during the 19th century . Jiggs Parrott was moved to seventh in Chicago 's batting order during the year . In his second season , Parrott batted .244 with 54 runs scored , 111 hits , 10 doubles , nine triples , one home run , 65 RBIs , and 25 stolen bases in 110 games played . His fielding percentage at third base was the fifth highest in the National League ( .904 ) , behind Jack Crooks , Denny Lyons , George Pinkney and Billy Nash .
At the start of the 1894 season , Parrott was converted to a second baseman , making way for Charlie Irwin at third base . Manager Cap Anson was criticized by The Sporting Life for continuing to play Parrott . The publication stated , " It is true that [ Anson ] holds Parrot in high esteem and insists that ' Jiggs ' is a great infielder , hence a suffering public may confidently expect to witness still further attempts of ' Jiggs ' to hold down the second base bag . " On the season , Parrott batted .248 with 82 runs scored , 130 hits , 17 doubles , nine triples , three home runs , 65 RBIs , and 30 stolen bases in 126 games played . In 1895 , Anson signed a new second baseman , Ace Stewart from Sioux City , Iowa , which demoted Parrott to the role of utility player . Anson responded to the criticism he had been taking for keeping Parrott by stating , " I realize that ' Jiggs ' is not popular with the Chicago crowds , so we will play him in games abroad only . " However , The Sporting Life responded by saying , " The local scribes and fans thought we had buried the lanky ' Jigglets , ' so far as Chicago was concerned , but he bobs up serenely . " Parrott 's final MLB game came on June 6 , 1895 . He played just three games with Chicago that season . In those games , he batted .250 with one hit in four at @-@ bats . He was released early in the season .
= = = Later career ( 1895 – 97 ) = = =
After being released by the MLB Chicago Colts , Parrott returned to the minor leagues with the Class @-@ B Rockford Forest Citys / Reds of the Western Association . On the season with Rockford , he batted .351 with 18 runs scored , 40 hits , five doubles and two triples in 26 games played . In 1896 , he started the season with the Grand Rapids Rippers / Gold Bugs of the Class @-@ A Western League as their starting third baseman . On June 22 , he was released by the Grand Rapids club . Parrott then signed with the Columbus Buckeyes / Senators , also of the Western League . Combined between the two clubs that year , he batted .306 in 86 games played . In 1897 , he re @-@ signed with the Columbus Senators . As a member of the Columbus club , The Milwaukee Journal noted in September that Parrott had " been playing a great fielding game " . However , he appeared in just one game with the Senators , getting one hit in four at @-@ bats . He then signed with the Dubuque , Iowa club of the Class @-@ B Western Association . In 15 games , he batted .213 with six runs scored and 13 hits .
= = Death = =
After the 1897 baseball season , he returned to his home in Portland , Oregon with his health deteriorating . In December , Parrott traveled to New Mexico in hopes of re @-@ gaining his health . When in New Mexico , he reported that the weather was too cold and that he was planning to move to Arizona where the climate is more mild . On April 14 , 1898 , while in a hospital in Phoenix , Arizona , Parrott died of tuberculosis . Earlier that day , Parrott had telegraphed his father , Thomas H. Parrott , back in Portland alerting him that it was not likely he would live two more days . Upon receiving the telegram , Thomas H. Parrott sent his son , Archie Parrott , on a train to Arizona to be with the dying Jiggs Parrott . However , after the train left the station in Portland , the Parrott family got word that Jiggs Parrott had died . Archie Parrott continued to Arizona to retrieve his brother 's remains . His remains were returned on April 23 . Parrott 's funeral was held on April 25 , at his home in East Portland . His pall @-@ bearers were several former teammates from the Portland Willamettes : Joseph Beveridge , Charles Neale , Frank Buchtel , William Kern , Fred Bailey , and John Rankin . According to The Oregonian hundreds attended his funeral and 500 people attended his burial at Lone Fir Cemetery in Portland .
= 1964 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1964 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of U.S.-landfalling hurricanes since 1933 . The season officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was slightly above average , with twelve total storms and six hurricanes . All of the hurricanes strengthened into major hurricanes , an event that had not occurred since 1930 . The first system , an unnamed tropical storm , developed on June 2 , almost two weeks before the official start of the season . Striking Florida on June 6 , the storm brought localized flooding to portions of Cuba and the Southeastern United States , leaving about $ 1 million in damage . The next storm , also unnamed , developed near the end of July ; it did not impact land .
The effects of Hurricanes Cleo , Dora , and Isbell combined were devastating to Florida . Cleo also brought destruction to portions of the Caribbean , especially Guadeloupe and Haiti . After moving inland , Cleo brought flooding to states such as Virginia . Overall , the storm caused 219 deaths and about $ 187 @.@ 5 million in damage . Dora lashed much of North Florida and southeastern Georgia with hurricane @-@ force winds , leaving five fatalities and around $ 280 million in damage . In October , Isbell brought strong winds and several tornadoes to Florida , as well as flooding to Cuba and The Carolinas . Isbell killed seven people and left approximately $ 30 million in damage .
The strongest tropical cyclone of the season was Hurricane Hilda , a powerful Category 4 hurricane that devastated portions of the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Mississippi and Louisiana . Upon striking the latter as a Category 3 , Hilda brought heavy rainfall , strong winds , tornadoes , and coastal flooding . Many other areas of the Southern United States experienced flooding from Hilda and its remnants . Overall , Hilda caused 38 deaths and about $ 126 million in damage . The names Cleo , Dora , and Hilda were retired following the season . Collectively , the tropical cyclones resulted in 270 fatalities and approximately $ 609 @.@ 5 million in damage .
= = Season summary = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1964 . It was a slightly above average season in which twelve tropical storms formed , compared with the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . Six of these reached hurricane status , which is near the 1950 – 2000 average of 5 @.@ 9 . All six of the hurricanes reached major hurricane status – well above the 1950 – 2000 mean of 2 @.@ 3 per season . Prior to the season , National Hurricane Center Director Gordon Dunn noted that the probability of a hurricane striking the United States was " astronomical . " Four hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing at least 270 deaths and $ 609 @.@ 5 million in damage . Tropical Storm Brenda and Hurricane Gladys also caused damage and fatalities , but neither struck land . The season officially ended on November 30 , 1964 .
The first system , an unnamed tropical storm , developed on June 2 , 13 days before the start of the season . It struck Florida as a tropical depression and then strengthened into a tropical storm while out at sea . The storm ceased to exist on June 11 . Thereafter , the season went dormant for nearly seven weeks , as the next cyclone , another unnamed storm , did not form until July 28 . Tropical cyclogenesis increased in August , which had four tropical cyclones , Abby , Brenda , Cleo , and Dora . Four additional storms originated in September , including Ethel , Florence , Gladys , and Hilda . The strongest storm of the season , Hilda , peaked with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 941 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Hurricane Isbell was the sole tropical cyclone to form in the month of October . The final system , another unnamed storm , existed developed on November 5 and dissipated on November 10 , about 20 days before the end of the season .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 170 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
A disturbance that moved out of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) developed into a tropical depression to the east of British Honduras ( modern day Belize ) on June 2 . Moving slowly northward to north @-@ northeastward across the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico , the depression failed to intensify significantly . Between 12 : 00 UTC and 18 : 00 UTC on June 6 , it made landfall near Cedar Key , Florida , with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Early the following day , the depression emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Jacksonville and began to strengthen and move northeastward . While located offshore South Carolina on June 7 , the system became a tropical storm . Further deepening occurred slowly , with the storm peaking with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on June 9 . By June 11 , it was absorbed by an extratropical low while located about 365 mi ( 585 km ) south @-@ southeast of Sable Island in Nova Scotia .
The storm brought local flooding to portions of western Cuba and the Southeastern United States . Some areas in North Florida experienced considerable damage from strong winds and hail associated with thunderstorm , particularly in Cross City . Damage in the Jacksonville area alone was over $ 300 @,@ 000 . A few gale warnings were issued between Myrtle Beach , South Carolina , and Nags Head , North Carolina . More than 8 in ( 200 mm ) of rain in the former resulted in inundated streets and overflowing streams . Additionally , about 20 in ( 510 mm ) of water covered streets in downtown Conway , South Carolina . Overall , the storm caused about $ 1 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Television Infrared Observation Satellite ( TIROS ) indicated an area of disturbed weather with a weak surface circulation in the vicinity of Cape Verde on July 25 . Reports from a reconnaissance aircraft indicate that a tropical depression developed at 06 : 00 UTC on July 28 , while located about halfway between the Leeward Islands and the northernmost islands of Cape Verde . Initially the depression moved rapidly west @-@ northwestward , which likely caused the minimal intensification . By July 30 , a north @-@ northwest to south @-@ southeast oriented trough forced the depression to re @-@ curve north @-@ northwestward .
While situated about 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Bermuda on July 31 , it began heading northeastward . Later that day , the depression finally organized further and developed a well @-@ defined rainband . The Atlantic hurricane database indicates that the depression strengthened into a tropical storm at 18 : 00 UTC on July 31 , due to ships reports of winds reaching 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . Around that time , maximum sustained winds peaked at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm continued moving rapidly northeastward and began to interact with a cold front . It transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 2 , while located about 525 mi ( 845 km ) east of Cape Race , Newfoundland .
= = = Tropical Storm Abby = = =
A weak trough developed into a tropical depression on August 5 while located about 225 mi ( 360 km ) south of Dauphin Island , Alabama . The depression moved westward and initially remained disorganized . At 12 : 00 UTC on August 7 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Abby . It was a small tropical cyclone , spanning a diameter of less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) . The storm quickly intensified further to peak with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) late on August 7 . A few hours later , Abby made landfall near Matagorda , Texas at the same intensity . It weakened to a tropical depression early on August 8 , before dissipating later that day .
Overall , impact from this system was minor . In Texas , precipitation peaked at 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) at the Victoria Regional Airport . However , only localized flooding occurred and rainfall was mostly beneficial . In the city of Victoria , several streets were temporarily inundated with water . A fishing company in Matagorda lost a portion of its roof . Abby resulted in an estimated $ 750 @,@ 000 in losses , with $ 150 @,@ 000 in damage to property and $ 600 @,@ 000 to crops . The impacts from the storm were most severe in Jackson and Victoria counties , where damage to crops were estimated at $ 275 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 , respectively .
= = = Tropical Storm Brenda = = =
A minor trough of low pressure was situated west of Bermuda in early August . An airline crew member observed a low @-@ level circular cloud forming at 32 @.@ 0 ° N , 69 @.@ 0 ° W at 18 : 00 UTC on August 7 . Around that time , a tropical depression developed about 245 mi ( 395 km ) west of Bermuda . It moved just north of due east and strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda on August 8 . Shortly thereafter , the storm struck Bermuda . Sustained winds on the island reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , while gusts up to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported . A tornado damaged several aircraft , most of which were privately owned . Losses reached approximately $ 275 @,@ 000 .
Shortly after moving across Bermuda on August 8 , spiral bands appeared on the island 's radar . Advisories on Brenda were not initiated until 18 : 00 UTC on August 8 , due to sparsity of data , making it difficult to confirm a tropical cyclone . A cold front caused the storm to re @-@ curve northeastward on August 9 . Later that day , Brenda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Brenda then began weakening and dissipated late on the following day , while located about 585 mi ( 940 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Cleo = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression while located about 890 mi ( 1 @,@ 430 km ) east of Barbados late on August 20 . Early the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cleo . It continued west @-@ northwestward , quickly deepening into a hurricane later on August 21 . Cleo rapidly deepened and reached Category 3 early on August 22 . Several hours later , Cleo struck Guadeloupe with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The storm then intensified into a Category 4 hurricane and entered the Caribbean Sea . While located south of Dominican Republic around 18 : 00 UTC on August 23 , Cleo attained its peak intensity with of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . Cleo weakened slightly before making landfall near Les Cayes , Haiti , on August 25 , with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean hours later , but rapidly weakened , falling to Category 3 hurricane at 12 : 00 UTC and to Category 1 hurricane only six hours later . Around 12 : 00 UTC on August 25 , the hurricane briefly moved ashore near Cape Cruz , Cuba , while winds were at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
Cleo emerged into the Gulf of Guacanayabo , before striking Sancti Spíritus Province as a minimal hurricane early on August 26 . Several hours later , the hurricane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and began re @-@ strengthening while moving northward , becoming a Category 2 hurricane early the next day . Around 06 : 00 UTC on August 27 , Cleo made landfall on Key Biscayne , Florida , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system quickly weakened inland , falling to tropical storm intensity early the following day . However , Cleo did not deteriorate to a tropical depression until on August 29 . Thereafter , the cyclone meandered slowly across The Carolinas and Virginia , but did not dissipate . Cleo instead re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm while re @-@ entering the Atlantic near Norfolk , Virginia , on September 1 . It moved east @-@ northeastward and became a hurricane again about 24 hours later . By early on September 4 , the cyclone accelerated and curved north @-@ northeastward . Cleo weakened to a tropical storm on September 5
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and soon became extratropical while located about 370 mi ( 600 km ) east @-@ northeast of Cartwright , Newfoundland and Labrador .
In Guadeloupe , the storm destroyed 1 @,@ 000 homes and caused extensive damage to roofs , roads , and power lines . Additionally , the banana crop was ruined . Overall , there were 14 deaths and about $ 50 million in damage . Cleo caused seven fatalities and at least $ 2 million in damage in Dominican Republic . Strong winds in Haiti caused severe damage . On Île @-@ à @-@ Vache , 50 houses either had the roof caved in or the walls knocked over . In Les Cayes , 70 % of houses were destroyed , as was the sugar mill . In rural areas outside of the city , 90 % to 95 % of dwellings were demolished . About half of the houses in Camp @-@ Perrin were leveled . Near Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Sud , many sugarcane crops , particularly on the west side of the city , were ruined . The storm left 192 fatalities and $ 5 million in damage in Haiti . Impact in Cuba was minor , with one death and $ 2 million in damage . In Florida , Cleo left damage along much of the east coast . Winds left about 620 @,@ 000 people without electricity in South Florida alone . Throughout the state , the storm damaged almost 19 @,@ 000 homes and destroyed 4 others , while 2 @,@ 187 mobile homes were flattened or suffered severe impact . Additionally , 605 small businesses were damaged or destroyed . There were three deaths and about $ 125 million in damage , including agriculture . Cleo brought flooding to a few other states , especially Virginia . In the Hampton Roads area , many streets were inundated and blocked . Hundreds of dwellings were flooded , forcing several areas to evacuate . Two deaths and about $ 3 million in damage occurred in Virginia . Overall , the storm caused 219 fatalities and about $ 187 @.@ 5 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Dora = = =
A tropical depression developed from a low pressure on August 28 , shortly after moving offshore the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dora on September 1 . It then curved northeastward and continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane status by early on September 3 . Intensification slowed somewhat , though Dora became a Category 3 major hurricane on September 5 . Deepening further , the peaked as a Category 4 with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) early the following day . At 18 : 00 UTC on September 16 , Dora weakened to a Category 3 hurricane , then a Category 2 hurricane while curving westward early the following day . However , later on September 17 , the system re @-@ strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane .
Approaching the east coast of Florida , Dora 's motion became erratic , making a few cyclonic loops . Around 04 : 00 UTC on September 10 , the hurricane made landfall near St. Augustine , Florida , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Two hours later , Dora weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . However , deterioration then slowed , with the hurricane falling to tropical storm intensity on September 11 . Dora then briefly drifted over southwestern Georgia , until turned east @-@ northeastward late the next day . Early on September 14 , the storm re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , and became extratropical several hours later . The remnants of Dora moved rapidly northeastward and dissipated offshore Newfoundland early on September 16 .
Hurricane Dora was the only hurricane in the twentieth century to make landfall in the First Coast region of Florida . Along the coast , tides reached up to 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean sea level . Strong winds lashed North Florida , with sustained wind of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) observed in St. Augustine . In Jacksonville , approximately 156 @,@ 000 customers were left without electricity , while about 19 % of phones in Duval County were out of service . Much of the damage in the Jacksonville area occurred to older buildings and those located in coastal areas . Additionally , sections of the city experienced wind @-@ induced river flooding in the vicinity of the St. Johns River . Three homes were destroyed and 3 @,@ 992 suffered damage , while 5 mobile homes were demolished and 25 experienced impact , overall in Duval County . Heavy rainfall damaged many unharvested crops and inundated numerous of roads and bridges , isolated some communities for several days . Throughout Florida , 74 dwellings were flattened and 9 @,@ 374 received damage , while 14 mobile homes were destroyed and 218 others suffered severe impact . About 50 farm buildings and 423 small businesses were severely damaged or demolished . Three deaths and at least $ 230 million in damage occurred . In Georgia , the storm damaged about 1 @,@ 135 homes and obliterated five others . Additionally , 18 trailers suffered major impact , while 43 small businesses were destroyed or experienced severe damage . There was one death in the state and at least $ 9 million in damage . A few other states were affected by the storm , though impact there was much lesser . One death occurred in Virginia . Overall , Dora caused $ 280 million in damage and five deaths .
= = = Hurricane Ethel = = =
TIROS observed a large cloud mass near 18 ° N , 37 ° W on September 4 . Later that day , it developed into a tropical depression while located about 665 mi ( 1 @,@ 070 km ) east of Cape Verde . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Ethel at 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 . Initially , it was suggested that Hurricane Dora could absorb Ethel , as the storms were located 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) apart . On September 7 , Ethel strengthened into a hurricane . By early on the following day , it curved westward and continued to slowly deepen . Late on September 9 , the storm peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) .
Thereafter , the storm weakened back to a Category 2 hurricane early on September 10 . It further deteriorated to a Category 1 on the following day . Early on September 12 , Ethel re @-@ strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane . Later that day , the storm passed to the northwest of Bermuda on September 12 , bringing 4 @.@ 05 in ( 103 mm ) of and wind gusts up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Throughout the island , low @-@ lying areas were flooded and trees were felled . At St. George 's Island , residents were briefly left without electricity and telephones and the causeway linking St. George 's Island to the main island was inundated . Next , it resumed weakened and was downgraded to a Category 1 late on September 13 . Ethel accelerated northeastward and became extratropical late on September 15 , while located about 540 mi ( 870 km ) northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Florence = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 5 . The wave quickly developed into a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 5 , while located about 180 mi ( 290 km ) northwest of Dakar , Senegal . Shortly later , the depression produced squally weather in Cape Verde . Despite having sustained winds of only 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) , the system 's minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) was recorded early on September 6 . The depression then re @-@ curved northwestward and began to intensify . Early on September 8 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Florence . Six hours later , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Florence curved north @-@ northeastward on September 8 and slowly weakened . A reconnaissance aircraft reported that Florence degenerated into an area of squalls to the south of the Azores at 0600 UTC on September 10 .
= = = Hurricane Gladys = = =
A emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 8 . Tracking westward , it developed into a tropical depression while centered about midway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it strengthened Tropical Storm Gladys . On September 14 , Gladys abruptly strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , with winds increasing from 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) in just six hours . However , early on the following day , Gladys weakened slightly to a Category 1 hurricane . Between late on September 16 and late on September 17 , the storm rapidly intensified and peaked as a 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane later that day . Gladys began weakening on the following day and re @-@ curved northward on September 19 .
The storm turned northwestward on September 22 and briefly threatened the East Coast of the United States . However , it veered northeastward on September 23 and moved rapidly toward Atlantic Canada . By 00 : 00 UTC on September 25 , Gladys became extratropical while centered between Sable Island and the Nova Scotia mainland . Along the East Coast of the United States , Gladys produced light rainfall , gusty winds , and storm surge . Coastal flooding was reported in North Carolina and Virginia . In the former , high tides inundated homes and buildings with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in two small villages on the Outer Banks and flooded a highway to Manteo . In the state of Virginia , one death occurred when a man was fatally struck in the throat by debris . Abnormally high tides also affected the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada , with tides ranging from 2 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) higher than average in Virginia .
= = = Hurricane Hilda = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on September 28 , while located about 40 mi ( 65 km ) south of Trinidad , Cuba . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward and struck Isla de la Juventud , Cuba early on September 29 . After briefly re @-@ emerging into the northwestern Caribbean Sea later that day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hilda at 1200 UTC on September 29 . Around that time , Hilda made landfall near Sandino , Cuba with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By late on September 29 , it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Cape San Antonio . The storm continued to intensify , reaching hurricane status on September 30 . During the following 30 hours , Hilda strengthened significantly and peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) late on October 1 . It re @-@ curved northward and began weakening due to unfavorable conditions . Around 00 : 00 UTC on October 4 , the storm made landfall near Franklin , Louisiana with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . It rapidly weakened inland and became extratropical over southern Mississippi by 1200 UTC that day .
In Cuba , the storm caused minor impact , with damage totaling about $ 1 million . Offshore the United States in the Gulf of Mexico , 13 oil platforms were destroyed and 5 others were damaged beyond repair . Losses to the oil industry reached $ 100 million . In Louisiana , sustained winds of 100 to 120 mph to ( 155 to 195 km / h ) lashed the Abbeville @-@ Morgan City @-@ New Iberia area . Additionally , several tornadoes in the New Orleans area resulted in significant damage . There were 37 fatalities and an estimated 5 @,@ 000 injuries . Approximately 19 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in the state , 2 @,@ 600 of which were severely impacted . Outside of Louisiana , damage was primarily caused by flooding in the Southeastern United States . Impacted worst by flooding was North Carolina , where 2000 homes and buildings suffered water damage and one death was reported . Throughout the United States , the storm caused 38 fatalities and $ 125 million in losses .
= = = Hurricane Isbell = = =
A diffused frontal trough developed into a tropical depression in the southwestern Caribbean on October 8 . The depression initially remained disorganized as it track northwestward , but strengthened into Tropical Storm Isbell on October 13 . Re @-@ curving northeastward , Isbell quickly strengthened further and reached hurricane status by later that day . Late on October 13 , Isbell made landfall in the Pinar del Río Province of Cuba . Despite land interaction , the storm continued strengthening and peaked as a Category 3 hurricane winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on the following day . Isbell moved northeastward and made landfall near Everglades , Florida , at the same intensity late on October 14 . After reaching the Atlantic on the following day , the storm began to weaken and fell Category 1 hurricane . Isbell turned northward and continued weakening , before transitioning to an extratropical cyclone while located just offshore of eastern North Carolina on October 16 .
The storm produced strong winds throughout western Cuba . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , as were several tobacco warehouses . There were four deaths in Cuba , three of them caused by collapsing houses in the Guane area . Several tornadoes in Florida caused significant damage overall . Throughout the state , 1 house was destroyed , 33 severely damage , and 631 suffered minor impact . Additionally , 66 trailers were destroyed and 88 were inflicted with major damage . Three deaths occurred in the state , one due to a heart attack and two from drowning in Florida Keys when their shrimp boat sank . Because the storm weakened considerably , impact in North Carolina was generally minor . The storm also spawned at least six tornadoes in the state , which demolished trailers and unroofed homes and other buildings in several communities . Damage throughout the United States totaled $ 10 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
An area of disturbed weather within the ITCZ developed into a tropical depression early on November 5 , while located about 135 mi ( 220 km ) north @-@ northwest of Colón , Panama . The depression strengthened slowly , reaching tropical storm status on November 6 . Thereafter , it curved westward and headed for Central America . Early on November 7 , the storm made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Several hours later , it weakened to a tropical depression , shortly before re @-@ emerging into the Caribbean Sea . The storm failed to re @-@ intensify and made landfall in Belize on November 9 . It dissipated early on the following day .
In Nicaragua , winds and heavy rainfall caused significant crop damage , especially to bananas . Many residents living near the Caratasca Lagoon evacuated . The entire town of Caukira was flooded , with five small houses completely destroyed . Tides were as high as 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) above @-@ normal . In Puerto Castilla , large amounts of precipitation caused flooding and destroyed a bridge , leaving part of the population out of communication . Another bridge collapsed in the town of Rus @-@ Rus . Strong winds and heavy rainfall also resulted in " considerable damage " on the Bay Islands . Overall , the storm resulted in about $ 5 million in damage .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the twelve tropical storms , there were three depressions monitored throughout the season . On July 25 , a tropical depression developed east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Winds of 35 – 45 mph ( 55 – 75 km / h ) occurred in squalls associated with the system as it moved northeast . It was last noted on July 27 as it moved over Nova Scotia . TIROS VII depicted two tropical depressions , one on July 15 and the other on September 19 at 20 ° N 25 ° W / 20 ; -25 and 15 ° N 27 ° W / 15 ; -27 , respectively . Due to the sparsity of data in the region and lack of complete satellite coverage , no further information on these systems is available .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1964 . This is the same list used in the 1960 season with the exception of Dora , which replaced Donna . A storm was named Isbell for the first time in 1964 . The names Cleo , Dora , and Hilda were later retired and replaced with Candy , Dolly , and Hannah , respectively , in the 1968 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= Flicker ( song ) =
" Flicker " is a song recorded by American electronic music producer Porter Robinson . It was released on July 28 , 2014 as the fourth single from his debut studio album Worlds ( 2014 ) . Robinson wrote , produced , and performed the track . Musically , the song contains elements of disco and hip @-@ hop , as well as sampling of soul music . Vocally , the song contains a text @-@ to @-@ speech voice incorrectly translating " never seen " Japanese song titles that have been chopped and screwed in a rap @-@ like style .
An official music video for the single premiered on August 14 , 2014 , and involves footage of Japan filtered with effects including those of 8 @-@ bit video games . The song was well @-@ received from critics , and was a hit on the American Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Composition = =
With " Flicker " , one of Porter Robinson 's favorite songs of his debut studio album Worlds ( 2014 ) , he wanted to experiment with samples of soul music , which he became a fan of ever since he listened to his favorite album , Daft Punk 's second studio record Discovery ( 2001 ) . The result was a hip @-@ hop @-@ style instrumental that he felt was " incomplete " with only drums and the phased samples . He didn 't initially plan " Flicker " to be a track on Worlds until some time later when he was using a translation website to translate " song titles that would never be seen " incorrectly into Japanese , and then put the Japanese text into a text @-@ to @-@ speech program for it to be converted into a WAV file for him to " cut it into a rap " which he called a " charming little thing " . Finally , he composed the lead melody and chord progression .
Robinson described " Flicker " as more of a " journey " than a pop song , saying that it goes " to a lot of different places " structure @-@ wise . The text @-@ to @-@ speech speaker on the song saids " Watashi wa choudo nani ga juuyou ka mitsukeyou toshite iru , ” translating to “ I ’ m just trying to find what is important to me , ” which Robinson said was " nice , because it could have come out as something completely random . " The song also contains influences of disco , opening with a " summer @-@ y disco guitar " before moving into " hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air synth blasts " as a critic for Vice magazine described. and that the pitch shifting of the samples was influenced by the works of Jay D
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Wisconsin , 59 – 41 . On February 18 , the Wolverines defeated another top @-@ 10 opponent , edging 6th @-@ ranked Ohio State , 56 – 51 . The win clinched Beilein 's first winning record in Big Ten play . On March 1 , Michigan won at Illinois for the first time since 1995 , ending a 13 @-@ game losing streak in Champaign . The Wolverines finished 24 – 10 overall and 13 – 5 in Big Ten play , winning a share of the regular @-@ season Big Ten championship for the first time since the 1985 – 86 team .
By helming the 2012 – 13 Wolverines , Beilein reached his sixth season with the same team for the first time . Beilein achieved several milestones with the 2012 – 13 Wolverines : 650th win as a college basketball head coach ( December 4 vs. Western Michigan ) , 100th win as head coach at Michigan ( December 8 vs. Arkansas ) , 400th Division I win as a head coach ( January 9 vs. Nebraska ) and his best career start ( December 15 vs. West Virginia ) . The 400th win came on a night when Michigan achieved its 16th straight victory which tied the school record for best start . Michigan went on to record its first 19 – 1 start to a season in school history . On January 28 , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 . John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . In the 2013 NCAA Tournament , fourth @-@ seeded Michigan defeated South Dakota State , 71 – 56 @.@ in its South Regional opening game , and in so doing the team matched Beilein 's career high with 27 wins . Michigan then surpassed this record , and continued to advance , by defeating fifth @-@ seeded Virginia Commonwealth , 78 – 53 and top @-@ seeded Kansas , 87 – 85 before beating third @-@ seeded Florida 79 – 59 to send Michigan to the Final Four for the first time since 1993 . In the 2013 Final Four , the Wolverines defeated East region champion Syracuse , 61 – 56 , to advance to the national championship game against Louisville , which they lost , 82 – 76 . During the following offseason , Bleacher Report named Beilein the most creative coach in college basketball . During the offseason , Beilein signed a second contract extension through the 2018 – 19 season .
The 2013 – 14 team was ranked in the top 10 to start the season , but lost four non @-@ conference games to fall out of the polls for the first time in over two seasons . Then , the team won three in a row against top @-@ 10 ranked conference opponents including a road victory over 3rd @-@ ranked Wisconsin en route to a 10 @-@ game winning streak . Beilein led Michigan to a 15 @-@ 3 conference record and won Michigan 's first outright regular season Big Ten championship since 1986 . The Wolverines earned a # 2 seed in the NCAA Tournament , where they lost in the Elite Eight to eventual runner @-@ up Kentucky . Beilein was one of ten finalists for the USBWA 's Henry Iba Award for Coach of the Year . He clinched his fourth career conference championship and second at Michigan on March 1 against Minnesota , and won the title outright three days later at Illinois . Following the regular season , Beilein was named Big Ten Coach of the Year by the media . On March 11 Beilein was named District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Coach of the Year by the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Beilein was named one of five finalists for the Naismith College Coach of the Year and one of fifteen finalists for the Jim Phelan Award . On March 22 in Michigan 's second game of the 2014 NCAA Tournament , against Texas , Beilein earned his 700th career win to advance to the Sweet 16 of the NCAA tournament for the second consecutive season . Beilein led Michigan on to beat the # 11 seed University of Tennessee before falling to # 8 seed Kentucky 75 @-@ 72 in the Elite Eight .
The 2014 – 15 team entered the season ranked number 23 in the Coaches ' Poll and number 24 in the AP Poll . The team struggled in the preconference schedule , losing four games in a row in December . In January , the team lost Caris LeVert and Derrick Walton to injuries in January and after a 6 – 3 conference start finished 8 – 10 in conference and 16 – 16 overall ( going 5 – 9 in games without LeVert and Walton ) . Prior to the 2015 – 16 season , Michigan extended Beilein 's contract through the 2020 – 21 season .
= = Coaching style = =
Beilein is known for his offensive system , which emphasizes constant motion , passing , disciplined teamwork , and precision shooting . The offense usually starts out with four players outside the three @-@ point arc , and one player at the top of the key ( though at times a post player may operate closer to the basket ) . From this formation , Beilein 's teams not only try to open up space for players to cut to the basket , but also are known for their high number of three @-@ point attempts . On defense , Beilein has become known for employing the 1 – 3 – 1 halfcourt zone defense , which is considered to be an unconventional zone defense – though he also regularly employs man @-@ to @-@ man and 2 @-@ 3 zone defenses .
= = Personal life = =
Beilein married the former Kathleen Griffin in 1978 . The Beileins have three sons ( Patrick , who played for his father at WVU and is the current head basketball coach at Le Moyne College ; Mark , a former football player at Richmond and WVU grad who currently works for Alro Steel ; and Andrew , a Michigan grad who currently works for the Business Roundtable in Washington , D.C. ) and a daughter ( Seana Hendricks ) . Patrick , who was the 2002 Virginia Independent Schools Division I Player of the Year , had intended to play at Richmond with his father , and instead went to West Virginia when his father moved there . Patrick was a 2008 – 2009 season graduate assistant coach at University of Michigan . He has since held posts as assistant coach at Dartmouth , Director of Men 's Basketball Operations at Bradley University , and head coach of West Virginia Wesleyan College before his current role at Le Moyne .
When Patrick was a highly recruited high school basketball player , John was restricted by NCAA rules from some normal behaviors regarding his son , such as giving his son 's teammates a ride home from practice , talking with his son at a basketball camp or discussing his son 's abilities with news media , because the interactions of college coaches with recruits are restricted . The relevant NCAA rules for recruiting ( Bylaw article 13 ) are quite extensive . Beilein had to follow recruiting rules when visiting his son at a basketball camp . According to rule 13 @.@ 12 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 coaches wishing to attend a camp as observers must comply with appropriate recruiting contact and evaluation periods . According to 13 @.@ 02 @.@ 3 , a contact includes any face @-@ to @-@ face encounter between a prospective student @-@ athlete . . . and an institutional staff member or athletics representative during which any dialogue occurs in excess of an exchange of a greeting . In short , talking to coaches not employed by a camp is not allowed during the camp , which left Beilein unable to offer his son milk money .
= = Coaching tree = =
These former players and assistant coaches of Beilein later became head coaches at the collegiate or professional levels .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Junior college = = =
= = = College = = =
= Falkner Island Light =
Falkner Island Light , also known as the Faulkner Island Lighthouse , is a lighthouse in Connecticut , United States , on Falkner Island which is off Guilford Harbor on Long Island Sound . The lighthouse was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson . The lighthouse has had three keeper 's houses : the original house of 1802 was rebuilt in 1851 and then again in 1871 . The 1871 keeper 's house survived to 1976 , when it was destroyed by fire ; the Coast Guard repaired and automated the lighthouse two years later . A volunteer group , the Faulkner 's Light Brigade , has undertaken the restoration and preservation of the lighthouse since 1991 , completing the last major restoration work in March 2011 . Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns from May to August yearly . The Falkner Island Lighthouse , as the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut , is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Falkner Island = =
Falker Island is a crescent @-@ shaped island located three and a half miles offshore of Guilford , Connecticut . The island has had several owners including Andrew Leete in the 1600s . In 1715 , Caleb and Ebenezer Stone purchased the island , which remained in the Stone family until 1801 . In 1800 , Noah Stone sold it to a distant relative , Medad Stone , for $ 158 @.@ 34 . On May 12 , 1801 , Medad Stone sold the island to the government for $ 325 . Joel Henderson , a historian , notes that Medad Stone and the government were likely openly communicating about the island . The United States Congress had appropriated $ 6000 in March 1801 for the lighthouse , prior to the government 's acquisition of the property .
= = Construction = =
The Falkner Island Lighthouse was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson in 1802 . It was constructed and completed by Abisha Woodward in 1802 . Woodward also built New London Harbor Light in 1801 and the Black Rock Harbor Light in 1808 . Falkner Island Lighthouse cost $ 5977 @.@ 62 to build , according to the United States government . The 46 ft ( 14 m ) octagonal tower was made of brownstone lined with brick , and it originally had a spiral wooden staircase that led outside to the lantern room . This staircase was an unusual and distinguishing characteristic of the Falkner Island Light . The original fixed light used twelve lamps and reflectors on two stacked tables . It was replaced in 1840 , at a cost of $ 2842 @.@ 00 , with a lantern that used nine lamps and sixteen @-@ inch reflectors . A 33 ft ( 10 m ) cast iron spiral staircase was installed in a major renovation in 1871 .
Originally , the keeper 's house had eight rooms , but it deteriorated and was rebuilt in 1858 . When rebuilt it was one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stories high and had three bedrooms , a kitchen , dining and sitting rooms . Construction quality was poor , allowing snow to enter the house during the winter through gaps in the walls and roof . In 1871 , it was rebuilt by the United States Coast Guard as a three @-@ story house , which remained until it was destroyed by fire on March 15 , 1976 . The fire also scorched the adjacent lighthouse . In the Spring 2002 edition of The Octagon , the keeper 's house was said to be a two @-@ story house with eleven rooms .
= = Service = =
During the War of 1812 , the British forces landed on the island and told the keeper 's wife , Thankful Stone , that they had nothing to fear as long as they kept the light burning . Later , the keeper , Solomon Stone , had to put the light out per order of the New London customs inspector . The British threatened to blow up the lighthouse , and Stone got an order to relight the lighthouse . In 1856 , the light was upgraded from the twelve lamps to a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens . The light 's new characteristic was a fixed light with a flash every two seconds . Around 1976 , a GE 1000 @-@ watt bulb was used . When the lighthouse was repaired after the fire and automated in 1978 , a modern optic replaced the Fresnel lens . The lighthouse currently uses a VRB @-@ 25 lens . The lighthouse switched to solar power in 1988 . The light 's characteristic is a flash of white light every ten seconds . It continues to operate as a navigational aid to the nearby Intracoastal Waterway .
Falkner Island Light was chosen for fog @-@ signal experiments in 1865 and in 1902 . In 1865 , Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution , the Chairman of the Lighthouse Board , set up bells and whistles and tested the distances they could be heard . In 1879 , a steam fog whistle was installed at the cost of $ 5000 . In 1902 , a air siren was installed and powered by two 16 ½ horsepower engines and used in an experiment in sound penetration . In 1934 , a Leslie @-@ Tyfon trumpet was installed .
= = Restoration = =
After the fire in 1976 , vandals caused additional damage that resulted in the windows being bricked up and a steel door installed . Restoration and preservation of the light is done through the volunteer " Faulkner 's Light Brigade " , which formed in 1991 . In 1997 , Walter Sedovic was selected by a Lighthouse Restoration Committee to perform the restoration of the lighthouse . Completed in 1999 , the restorations included painting the interior and exterior , replacing the door and a new entry deck made of Pau Lope wood .
The lighthouse has been threatened by erosion for decades . In the 1930s , as a response to the erosion , a breakwater was constructed to protect the boat landing area . In 1996 , the Connecticut Trust for Historic Preservation and the National Trust for Historic Preservation assisted the task of obtaining funding for a $ 4 @.@ 5 million erosion @-@ control project . The funds were approved in 1998 with the help of Connecticut Senators , Joseph Lieberman and Christopher Dodd and New Haven 's Congressional Representative Rosa DeLauro . In 2001 , the construction of a stone wall and creation of a buffer zone was completed . The second phase of the project calls for protective revetment on the south side of the island .
The 33 @-@ foot cast iron spiral staircase from 1871 was repaired and restored for the cost of $ 15 @,@ 724 . The work was done by Conservation Services and they uncovered and preserved the numbering of the stairs . In October 2010 , a major restoration project repainted the tower and lantern , installed ventilated steel doors , restored the original weathervane and repaired the 12 @-@ pane casement window on the west wall of the lighthouse . The work was completed in March 2011 after it was suspended due to poor weather in December 2010 ; the total cost was $ 121 @,@ 000 .
= = Importance = =
Falkner Island Light is the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1990 . The Town of Guilford proclaimed that September 7 , 2002 , would be " Faulkner 's Island Light Day " to honor the 200th birthday of the lighthouse . Falkner Island Light is home to one of the world 's largest breeding colonies of the endangered roseate tern ; the nesting season is May through August . Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns .
= New York State Route 64 =
New York State Route 64 ( NY 64 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 21 in the hamlet of Bristol Springs within the town of South Bristol , Ontario County . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 96 and NY 252 in the village of Pittsford , Monroe County . NY 64 is a mostly two @-@ lane highway that primarily serves as a connector between the southeastern suburbs of the city of Rochester and the Canandaigua Lake area , home to Bristol Mountain Ski Resort . Near the midpoint of the route , NY 64 has an overlap with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 that takes the route through the village of Bloomfield .
The majority of what is now NY 64 was originally designated as part of Route 14 , an unsigned legislative route , by the New York State Legislature in 1908 . In the vicinity of Bloomfield , however , Route 14 initially followed what later became NY 20C in order to access Holcomb . The alignment of Route 14 through Bloomfield was modified in 1921 to use modern NY 64 instead . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of Route 14 between Mendon and Pittsford became part of NY 15 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was realigned to follow a new routing to the east while the Mendon – Pittsford segment of its former routing became the basis for NY 64 , a new route that extended southward over the post @-@ 1921 routing of legislative Route 14 to South Bristol .
= = Route description = =
NY 64 begins at an intersection with NY 21 on a ridge overlooking Canandaigua Lake in Bristol Springs , a hamlet of South Bristol . The route heads to the northwest as a two @-@ lane highway , running in the base of the Bristol Valley , a lowland created by a pair of imposing mountain ranges to the east and west that is home to the Bristol Mountain Ski Resort . At the hamlet of Bristol Center ( in the town of Bristol ) , roughly 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from Bristol Springs , the western mountains give way to flat farmland while the eastern range continues on , although to a lesser extent and a lower elevation than before . The elevation of NY 64 remains virtually unchanged , however , as it progresses northward . 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from Bristol Center , the route meets US 20A .
US 20A joins NY 64 here , following the latter for about 4 miles ( 6 km ) , allowing US 20A to terminate at its parent , US 20 , here concurrent with NY 5 , at an intersection in East Bloomfield . At this point , NY 64 turns west onto US 20 and NY 5 . The three routes head westward across mostly open fields , meeting the southern terminus of NY 444 south of the former village of Holcomb . Past the junction , which once served as the eastern terminus of NY 20C , US 20 , NY 5 , and NY 64 continue into the village of Bloomfield before NY 64 breaks from NY 5 and US 20 and turns northward toward Rochester once again .
A mere 50 yards ( 46 m ) north of US 20 and NY 5 , NY 64 meets the west end of Bloomfield 's West Main Street at a rural intersection that was the western terminus of NY 20C . North of West Main Street , the highway curves to the northwest as it exits East Bloomfield and enters the adjacent town of West Bloomfield . In the northeast corner of the town , NY 64 passes through the hamlet of Ionia . Northwest of the community , the route breaks to the north , taking a due north alignment as it passes into Monroe County and becomes Mendon – Ionia Road . The road stays on a relatively straight path northward as it heads through the rural southern portion of the town of Mendon to the hamlet of Mendon , where NY 64 meets NY 251 in the center of the community .
On the opposite side of NY 251 , NY 64 becomes Pittsford – Mendon Road . Outside of the hamlet , the highway maintains a consistent northerly alignment as it runs through slightly more populated areas of the town of Mendon and passes over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) . The route enters the town of Pittsford a short distance north of the Thruway , at which time NY 64 becomes Mendon Road . Within Pittsford , NY 64 passes through increasingly more populated areas as it approaches the village of Pittsford . Directly south of the village , the highway enters an intersection with South Main Street , Stone Road and Mendon Center Road at a sharp angle . NY 253 once entered this junction on Mendon Center Road and followed NY 64 into Pittsford ; however , today , NY 64 continues alone onto South Main Street . The route ends just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later at the junction of South Main Street and Jefferson Road , where it meets NY 96 and NY 252 .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 14 , an unsigned legislative route that extended from Corning to Rochester via South Bristol and Pittsford . The majority of Route 14 south of Pittsford was routed on what is now NY 64 ; however , in the vicinity of Bloomfield , Route 14 broke from modern NY 64 and used what later became NY 20C to access Holcomb . At the same time , the portion of current NY 64 that overlaps with US 20 and NY 5 was included in Route 6 , a cross @-@ state highway connecting Albany to Buffalo . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 14 was altered to bypass Holcomb to the south on what is now NY 64 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of legislative Route 14 between Mendon and Pittsford became part of NY 15 , a route that mostly followed the current alignment of NY 96 from Owego to Rochester . Between Victor and Pittsford , however , NY 15 strayed from the modern routing of NY 96 and followed what is now NY 251 to Mendon . At the same time , the segment of legislative Route 6 in East Bloomfield became part of both NY 5 and NY 5A . The NY 5A designation was replaced along this stretch with NY 7 by 1926 , which in turn was replaced by US 20 in 1927 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was realigned to bypass Mendon to the northeast by way of the current alignment of NY 96 between Victor and Pittsford . The former alignment of NY 15 from Pittsford to Mendon became part of NY 64 , a new route that extended south to South Bristol over the post @-@ 1921 routing of legislative Route 14 . The 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) portion of NY 64 between Vincent and South Bloomfield became part of US 20A c . 1939 , allowing the route to reconnect to US 20 at South Bloomfield .
NY 64 briefly extended north of the village of Pittsford during the 1950s and 1960s . In the mid @-@ 1950s , NY 96 was realigned onto the new Eastern Expressway from Bushnell 's Basin to NY 31F near East Rochester . From there , NY 96 followed modern NY 31F west to East Avenue , where it rejoined its original alignment . The portion of NY 96 's original surface routing between the village of Pittsford and what is now NY 31F became part of an extended NY 64 . A northwest extension of the freeway to what is now the Can of Worms was completed c . 1957 as a realignment of NY 96 , resulting in another extension of NY 64 along East Avenue to the eastern edge of Rochester . NY 64 and NY 96 were restored to their pre @-@ 1950s alignments c . 1961 when the Eastern Expressway was designated as I @-@ 490 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Rock N Roll McDonald 's =
The Rock N Roll McDonald 's ( formerly The Original Rock ' N Roll McDonald 's ) is a flagship McDonald 's restaurant located in Chicago , Illinois . It is one of the most famous McDonald 's locations in the world and was once the busiest in the United States . The restaurant / museum , located in the River North section of the Near North Side community area ( neighborhood ) of Chicago , a few city blocks west of the Magnificent Mile , has been a tourist attraction since it opened in 1983 . Its present building opened in 2005 . The restaurant has a maximum occupancy of 300 , which is about three times the standard patron seating capacity . The site has a rock and roll exhibit in a building adjacent to the restaurant and a small upstairs McDonald 's museum display . The building features the first two @-@ lane McDonald 's drive @-@ through , relatively luxurious decor , a café , flat screen televisions and a green roof .
= = Restaurant = =
The franchise has had a restaurant at the 600 N. Clark Street address since 1983 , but the new building was redeveloped and reopened on April 15 , 2005 as a bilevel flagship restaurant / museum with a two lane drive through . This is the first McDonald 's location with a two @-@ lane drive @-@ through . The reopening coincided with the 50th anniversary of the Des Plaines , Illinois restaurant which was opened by Ray Kroc on April 15 , 1955 . Rock N Roll McDonald 's is the location where the corporation kicked off its celebration of the 50th anniversary of the franchise . Among the celebrities in attendance were Colin Powell and Elton John . At the time of the 2004 demolition , the location was the 3rd busiest in the United States and 12th in the world . In the early 90s , it had been the busiest in the United States . It was expected to increase its sales revenue rankings from 3rd in the United States and 12th in the world with the renovation and redevelopment .
The restaurant is priced higher than other Chicago @-@ area McDonald 's , in order to subsidize the interior decor which includes numerous plasma display flat screen televisions and expensive Italian lighting . Its second floor includes a coffee bar serving lattes , gelato and biscotti and lounges that pay homage via museum display , music , and decor to every decade the chain has been in business . The 2nd floor McCafe is designed to compete with Starbucks by serving cappuccino , espresso , gelato and Italian pastries . The building features a pair of 60 foot arches and two stories worth of windows that weigh 800 pounds apiece . It has 10 cash register stations to complement its 300 patron capacity , which is about 3 times the normal McDonald 's capacity . The restaurant has three front walls of glass .
Franchisee Marilyn Wright and her husband Ralph Wright have operated 10 McDonald 's locations for the past 12 years . In addition to a perimeter of trees , the building has two green roof gardens on two levels . The lower one is visible from inside . However , the upper roof is only visible from surrounding high @-@ rise buildings . Neither accommodates customer access . The trash cans in this tourist mecca say thank you in ten languages . The restaurant has separate preparation lines for white meat and red meat in the giant kitchen . The demolished building faced Ohio Street , but the new building is rotated 180 degrees to face the Ontario Street tourist pedestrian strip .
The restaurant was sung about by the cult Chicago musician Wesley Willis in a song entitled " Rock N Roll McDonald 's " . The song was featured in the movie Super Size Me .
= = = Museum = = =
The south ( rear ) half of the upstairs portion has a series of displays of early McDonald 's photos , multimedia , and paraphernalia including the fast food giant 's striped polyester uniforms from the 60 's . Much of it is arranged by decade going back to the mid @-@ 1950s when McDonald 's first opened and is accompanied by pop culture artifacts such as pet rocks , early cell phones , and 8 @-@ track tape players . Downstairs there is a section on the first floor entitled " Chicago Firsts , " featuring events and organizations that originated in Chicago .
= = Neighborhood = =
The restaurant / museum , its rock and roll exhibit and its parking lot occupy the entire block bounded by West Ontario Street to the north , West Ohio Street to the south , North LaSalle Street to the west and North Clark Street to the east in the River North neighborhood of the Near North Side community area . The building is situated near several other theme restaurants . It is across the street ( Clark Street ) from the Hard Rock Cafe and the Rainforest Cafe .
= = Rock and roll exhibit = =
There is display of rock and roll memorabilia focusing mainly on Elvis Presley in an exhibit in a separate structure on the same lot . The exhibit includes a set of The Beatles statues reminiscent of their Abbey Road album cover .
= = Gallery = =
= Adlertag =
Adlertag ( " Eagle Day " ) was the first day of Unternehmen Adlerangriff ( " Operation Eagle Attack " ) , which was the codename of a military operation by Nazi Germany 's Luftwaffe ( German air force ) to destroy the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . By June 1940 , the Allies had been defeated in Western Europe and Scandinavia . Rather than come to terms with Germany , Britain rejected all overtures for a negotiated peace .
During the Battle of Britain , Hitler gave the German armed forces ( Wehrmacht ) a directive ( Directive No. 16 ) that ordered provisional preparations for invasion of Britain . This operation was codenamed Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) . Before this could be carried out , air superiority or air supremacy was required . The Luftwaffe was to destroy the RAF in order to prevent it from attacking the invasion fleet or providing protection for the Royal Navy 's Home Fleet which might attempt to prevent a
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on Spears ' first home video release , Time Out with Britney Spears .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Kristian Lundin – songwriting , producer , keyboards , programming
Andreas Carlsson – songwriting , background vocals
Nana Hedin – background vocals
Esbjörn Öhrwall – bass , guitar
Max Martin – mixing
Michael Tucker – pro @-@ tools engineer
Reza Safina – assistant engineer
Tom Coyne – audio mastering
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Jan Dekert =
Jan Dekert or Jan Dekiert ( 1738 – 4 October 1790 ) was a Polish merchant of German descent and political activist . Starting in the 1760s , he rose to become one of the most prominent merchants in the Polish capital of Warsaw . He was an activist arguing for more rights for the burghers in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth while opposing Jewish merchants . As the representative of Warsaw , he was elected a deputy to the Sejms of 1784 and 1786 , as well as to the Great Sejm ( 1788 – 1892 ) . He was the mayor of Warsaw ( 1789 – 1790 ) , during which period he organized the Black Procession on 2 December 1789 ( a march of burghers who delivered a petition to the king ) . This was a major step towards the passing of the Free Royal Cities Act enfranchising burghers , as one of the reforms of the Great Sejm and part of the Constitution of the 3rd May , 1791 .
= = Biography = =
He was born in 1738 in the city of Blesen . The exact date , and information about his family are unknown , as any relevant documents have been lost . He likely had beyond basic education , and some sum of money when he left Bledzew and traveled to Warsaw .
In December 1756 , Dekert was admitted to the Warsaw " youth " Confraternity of Merchants ( warszawska konfraternia kupiecka " młodziańska " ) . He started out as a clerk in a cloth store of Kazimierz Martynkowski ( or Marcinkowski ) , in whose house he also stayed . In April 1761 he married his patron 's daughter , Róża Martynkowska . By 1762 he had taken over the cloth store , moved from the " youth " Confraternity of Merchants to the " senior " ( " starsza " ) one , and become a full citizen of Warsaw . Some time before 1786 , Róża died , and Dekert married Antonina Dembska ( Dębska ) . He had several children from his two marriages , among them Jan Dekert , future bishop of Warsaw .
Dekert 's rise to mayor began with his first official positions in the Warsaw merchant organizations in the 1760s . In the early 1760s he was among the steering group of the " youth " Confraternity , which he resigned in 1762 upon joining the " senior " one . There is some confusion regarding his exact positions and the dates he held them . According to Zienkowska , in 1767 he received a position ( gminny ) in the magistrate of Warsaw . According to Jędruch , he became Alderman ( a position usually known in Polish as " radny " ) of Warsaw in 1769 , but this is contradicted by Zienkowska ; according to her , it was only in 1776 that he reached the rank of " ławnik " in the magistrate . He also served an elder ( " starszy " ; Jędruch translates this as an alderman ) for the Confraternity of Merchants from 1771 to 1785 .
Along with his political career , Dekert 's business enterprise was growing . He gathered enough savings to become a cofounder of the Company of Woolen Manufacture in 1766 ( Kompania Manufaktur Wełnianych ) . In 1775 the Sejm granted him a request to buy landed estates ( a privilege usually restricted only to the nobility ) . In 1776 he leased the Tobacco Monopoly ( or Company ; Kompania Tabaczna ) from the Polish Treasury ; ten years later , in 1786 , he leased a theatre in Warsaw .
As the representative of Warsaw , he was elected a deputy to the Sejms of 1784 and 1786 , as well as to the Great Sejm ( 1788 – 1892 ) . In the meantime , in February 1789 , he was elected mayor of Warsaw ; he would be reelected in 1790 ( as a mayor of Warsaw , he succeeded Wojciech Lobert , and would in turn be succeeded by Józef Michał Łukasiewicz ) . During the Great Sejm , together with Hugo Kołłątaj , Dekert organized the confederation of 141 cities and towns and was at the forefront of demanding the representations and enfranchisement of the burghers in the Sejm ; notably , he helped organize the Black Procession on 2 December 1789 ( a march of burghers who delivered a petition to the king ) . The burghers demanded similar privileges to those held by the nobles ( szlachta ) . Their demands included the right to buy and own land estates , the right to be represented in the Polish parliament ( Sejm ) and reforms to the urban law . The procession influenced the Great Sejm to create a Commission for the Cities ( Deputacja w sprawie miast ) tasked with addressing those concerns during the works on the new constitution .
He was a vocal critic of Jews , accusing them of unfair competition .
He spend much of his fortune on political activism , and was nearly bankrupt by the time of his death . In February 1790 , despite his objections , he was pressured , through general public demand , into reelection for a second ( yearly ) term of office as the mayor of Warsaw . It is likely that major reasons he preferred not to have been elected were his ailing business operations and his worsening health . He led his last public debate on 31 April 1790 , and withdrew from politics afterward . He died on 4 October 1790 in Warsaw . He was buried in St. John 's Archcathedral , and his large funeral was paid for by the City of Warsaw .
He died before the Free Royal Cities Act , enfranchising burghers , was passed in 1791 as one of the reforms of the Great Sejm , next to the Constitution of the 3rd May , 1791 .
= = Legacy = =
His contemporary , poet Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin , called him the " leader of Polish burghers " . In 1896 a plaque dedicated to him in St. John 's Archcathedral proclaimed him " the first defender and representative of the burgher class in the Commonwealth " .
Jan Dekert is one of the characters in Jan Matejko 's painting of the " Adoption of the Polish Constitution of May 3 , 1791 " .
= Operation Copperhead =
Operation Copperhead was a small military deception operation run by the British during the Second World War . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , the cover plan for the invasion of Normandy in 1944 , and was intended to mislead German intelligence as to the location of General Bernard Montgomery . The operation was conceived by Dudley Clarke in early 1944 after he watched the film Five Graves to Cairo . Following the war M. E. Clifton James wrote a book about the operation , I Was Monty 's Double . It was later adapted into a film , with James in the lead role .
The German high command expected Montgomery ( one of the best @-@ known Allied commanders ) to play a key role in any cross @-@ channel bridgehead . Clarke and the other deception planners reasoned that a high @-@ profile appearance outside the United Kingdom would suggest that an Allied invasion was not imminent . An appropriate look @-@ alike was found , M. E. Clifton James , who spent a short time with Montgomery to familiarise himself with the general 's mannerisms . On 26 May 1944 , James flew first to Gibraltar and then to Algiers , making appearances where the Allies knew German intelligence agents would spot him . He then flew secretly to Cairo and remained in hiding until Montgomery 's public appearance in Normandy following the invasion .
The operation did not appear to have any significant impact on German plans and was not reported high up the chain of command . It was executed some time before D @-@ Day , and in the midst of several other Allied deceptions . German intelligence might have suspected a trick , or not attributed much importance to the visit .
= = Background = =
In preparation for the 1944 invasion of Normandy , the Allied nations conducted a complex series of deceptions under the codename Bodyguard . The overall aim of the plan was to confuse the German high command as to the exact location and timing of the invasion . Significant time was spent constructing the First United States Army Group , a notional army to threaten Pas de Calais , along with political and visual deceptions to communicate a fictional Allied battle plan . Copperhead was a small portion of Bodyguard conceived by Dudley Clarke . Earlier in the war Clarke had pioneered the idea of strategic deception , forming a deception department in Cairo named ' A ' Force . Clarke and ' A ' Force were not officially in charge of Bodyguard planning ( a role that fell to the London Controlling Section ) , but because of the location of the deception the Cairo planners organised much of the operation .
On a visit to Naples in January 1944 Clarke had seen the film Five Graves to Cairo , in which actor Miles Mander makes a brief appearance as Bernard Montgomery . The film involves one character impersonating another and Clarke suggested attempting the same trick in real life . He proposed an operation to mislead German commanders as to Montgomery 's location in the days immediately before the Normandy landings ( codenamed Operation Neptune ) .
Montgomery was one of the most prominent Allied commanders and the German high command expected him to be present for any invasion of France . Clarke hoped Montgomery 's apparent presence in Gibraltar and Africa would lend support to the idea that the Allies might be planning landings in Southern France , as part of Operation Vendetta , rather than across the Channel . While in London , in February 1944 , Clarke , the London Controlling Section and Ops ( B ) drafted Copperhead in support of Vendetta .
= = Operation = =
Mander , the actor from Five Graves to Cairo , was located in Hollywood but found to be too tall in real life . Another look @-@ alike was identified but before he could be drafted into the operation he broke a leg in a motorbike accident . Eventually , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J. V. B. Jervis @-@ Reid , head of Ops ( B ) , spotted a photograph of Meyrick Clifton James in the News Chronicle . James , an Australian , had spent 25 years as an actor before the war , and at the time was assigned to the Royal Army Pay Corps . Colonel David Niven , a well @-@ known British actor , was asked to contact James and offer him a screen test for future army films . When he arrived at the meeting , James was told his true role .
James was not a perfect stand @-@ in for Montgomery . He had lost a finger during the First World War , so a prosthetic had to be made . He had also never flown before , so the London Controlling Section 's Dennis Wheatley took James up for a test flight to make sure he did not suffer from air sickness . Finally , James both drank heavily and smoked cigars , while Montgomery was a teetotaler and disliked smoking . The deception planners were worried that James might be spotted drinking , spoiling the performance . Despite these hitches , and with Montgomery 's approval , the plan went forward . To get into character , James spent some time with the general , posing as a journalist , to study his mannerisms .
Allied deceivers used their double agent network to circulate the idea that Montgomery would command ground forces during the invasion . Then , on 26 May 1944 , James flew overnight from RAF Northolt to Gibraltar , where the Germans maintained an observation post overlooking the airport from across the Spanish border . The plane had to circle for an hour before landing to allow James , who had smuggled a bottle of gin onto the flight , to sober up . He then attended breakfast with the British governor , Sir Ralph Eastwood , before departing again for the airfield . The Allies had arranged for Ignacio Molina Pérez , a Spanish envoy known to be a German spy , to visit Government House . After observing James 's departure , Pérez hurriedly crossed the border to place a call to his German handler .
James then flew to Algiers , where he was publicly paraded through the airport and driven to meet General Maitland Wilson , ostensibly for a meeting to discuss operations against the south of France . Instead , he was moved quietly to a remote villa by ' A ' Force 's Rex Hamer . Rumours suggest this was because James had been spotted smoking and staggering around Algiers , so the deceivers decided to cut his appearances short . Whatever the reason , the next day , out of character , James was flown to Cairo . He was to remain hidden there until the public disclosure of Montgomery 's presence in France . Meanwhile , double agents in North Africa were used to extend the masquerade for a few more days , by hinting Montgomery was still in the region .
= = Impact = =
The impact of Copperhead is unclear . The visit was reported up the German chain of command , and some double agents later received requests for information about Montgomery 's movements . There is no indication that Montgomery 's appearance affected German views of the imminent invasion threat . Writing in 2011 , historian Joshua Levine attributes this to the fact that the deception was carried out ten days before D @-@ Day , arguing that there would be no reason for a flying visit to North Africa to preclude an imminent invasion .
Another factor was that , in early May 1944 , an uncontrolled agent based in Spain ( who sold fictional intelligence to the Germans ) had passed on details of a meeting in Gibraltar between several high @-@ ranking Allied officers . Documents found after the war indicate that the Germans found this information suspect , and may have treated Montgomery 's appearance as equally so . Although double agents received several urgent requests from the Abwehr about his whereabouts it does not appear that this information was passed on to the German command in France . According to captured enemy generals , German intelligence believed that it was Montgomery , though they still guessed that it was a feint . The Bodyguard deception had confused the German command as to Allied intentions and the apparent arrival of Montgomery in Gibraltar added little to the picture .
James did not enjoy the experience . Although he received equivalent pay ( £ 10 per day ) to Montgomery during the operation , it had been a stressful assignment . Following Montgomery 's public appearance on the Normandy beachhead , James flew back to England and resumed his role within the Pay Corps and was warned not to discuss the operation . Dennis Wheatley , in his memoirs , commented that he felt James had been treated " shabbily " for his efforts .
= = Later depictions = =
In 1954 James wrote an account of the operation , entitled I Was Monty 's Double ( published in the United States as The Counterfeit General ) . The British government made no attempt to stop publication , and in 1958 the book was adapted into a film of the same name . James starred , both as himself and Montgomery , alongside John Mills as an intelligence agent .
= Madeline Montalban =
Madeline Montalban ( born Madeline Sylvia Royals ; 8 January 1910 – 11 January 1982 ) was an English astrologer and ceremonial magician . She co @-@ founded the esoteric organisation known as the Order of the Morning Star ( OMS ) , through which she propagated her own form of Luciferianism .
Born in Blackpool , Lancashire , Montalban moved to London in the early 1930s , immersing herself in the city 's esoteric subculture , and influenced by Hermeticism she taught herself ceremonial magic . She associated with significant occultists , including Thelemites like Aleister Crowley and Kenneth Grant , and Wiccans like Gerald Gardner and Alex Sanders . From 1933 to 1953 she published articles on astrology and other esoteric topics in the magazine London Life , and from then until her death in the nationally syndicated magazine Prediction . These were accompanied by several booklets on astrology , released using a variety of different pseudonyms , including Dolores North , Madeline Alvarez and Nina del Luna .
In 1952 she met Nicholas Heron , with whom she entered into a relationship . After moving to Southsea in Essex , they founded the OMS as a correspondence course in 1956 , teaching subscribers their own magical rites . Viewing Lucifer as a benevolent angelic deity , she believed Luciferianism had its origins in ancient Babylon , and encouraged her followers to contact angelic beings associated with the planetary bodies to aid their spiritual development . After her relationship with Heron ended in 1964 , she returned to London , continuing to propagate the OMS . She settled in the St. Giles district , where she became known to the press as " The Witch of St. Giles " . She died of lung cancer in 1982 .
Having refused to publish her ideas in books , Montalban became largely forgotten following her death , although the OMS continued under new leadership . Her life and work was mentioned in various occult texts and historical studies of esotericism during subsequent decades ; a short biography by Julia Philips was published by the Atlantis Bookshop in 2012 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1910 – 1938 = = =
Madeline Sylvia Royals was born on 8 January 1910 in Blackpool , Lancashire . Little is known of her early life , which coincided with Britain 's involvement in the First World War , although she appears to have had a strained relationship with her parents . Her father , Willie Royals , was an insurance agent , while her mother , Marion Neruda Shaw , was a tailor 's daughter from Oldham . Willie and Marion had married on 28 June 1909 , followed by Madeline 's birth seven months later . In early life , Madeline was afflicted with polio , resulting in a lifelong withered leg and limp . Bedridden for the course of the illness , she read literature to entertain herself , enjoying the works of Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton , H. Rider Haggard and E. T. A. Hoffman . She also read the Bible in her youth , becoming particularly enamored with the texts of the Old Testament , and was convinced that they contained secret messages , a theme that became a central tenet of her later Luciferian beliefs .
In the early 1930s , she left Blackpool , and moved south to London . Her reasons for doing so have never been satisfactorily explained , and she would offer multiple , contradictory accounts of her reasoning in later life . According to one account , her father sent her to study with the famed occultist and mystic Aleister Crowley , who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904 ; Montalban 's biographer Julia Philips noted that while she met Crowley in London , this story remains implausible . Another of Montalban 's accounts held that she moved to the capital to work for the Daily Express newspaper ; this claim has never been corroborated , and one of the paper 's reporters at the time , Justine Glass , has claimed that she never remembered Montalban working there . Montalban often changed her stories , and informed later disciple Michael Howard that upon arrival in London , the Daily Express sent her to interview Crowley . According to this story , when she first visited him at his lodgings in Jermyn Street , he was suffering from an asthma attack , and having had experience with this ailment from a family member she was able to help him , earning his gratitude . They subsequently went to the expensive Café Royal in Regent Street , where after their lunch , he revealed that he was unable to pay , leaving Montalban to sort out payment .
Although her own accounts of the initial meeting are unreliable , Montalban met with Crowley , embracing the city 's occult scene . Having a deep interest in western esotericism , she read widely on the subject , and taught herself the practice of magic rather than seeking out the instruction of a teacher . She was particularly interested in astrology , and in 1933 wrote her first article on the subject for the magazine London Life , entitled " The Stars in the Heavens " . Her work continued to see publication in that magazine until 1953 , during which time she used different pseudonyms : Madeline Alvarez , Dolores del Castro , Michael Royals , Regina Norcliff , Athene Deluce , Nina de Luna , and the best known , Madeline Montalban , which she created based upon the name of a film star whom she liked , the Mexican actor Ricardo Montalbán .
= = = Marriage and London Life : 1939 – 1951 = = =
By the end of the 1930s , Montalban was living on Grays Inn Road in the Borough of Holborn . In 1939 , she married fireman George Edward North in London . They had a daughter , Rosanna , but their relationship deteriorated and he left her for another woman . She later informed friends that during the Second World War , George had served in the Royal Navy while she served in the Women 's Royal Naval Service ( WRNS ) , although such claims have never been corroborated . Gerald Gardner , founder of Gardnerian Wicca – known for his unreliable stories – claimed that he met Montalban during the war , when she was wearing a WRNS uniform , and that at the time she was working as a " personal clairvoyant and psychic advisor " to Lord Louis Mountbatten . Various individuals who knew her would comment that she had in her possession a framed blurry picture of Mountbatten with an individual who looked like her .
She continued her publication of articles under an array of pseudonyms in London Life , and from February 1947 was responsible for a regular astrological column entitled " You and Your Stars " under the name of Nina del Luna . She also undertook other work , and in the late 1940s , Michael Houghton , proprietor of Bloomsbury 's esoteric @-@ themed Atlantis Bookshop , asked her to edit a manuscript of Gardner 's novel High Magic 's Aid , which was set in the Late Middle Ages and which featured practitioners of a Witch @-@ Cult ; Gardner later alleged that the book contained allusions to the ritual practices of the New Forest coven of Pagan Witches who had initiated him into their ranks in 1939 . Gardner incorrectly believed that Montalban " claimed to be a Witch ; but got evrything [ sic ] wrong " although he credited her with having " a lively imagination . " Although initially seeming favourable to Gardner , by the mid @-@ 1960s she had become hostile towards him and his Gardnerian tradition , considering him to be " a ' dirty old man ' and sexual pervert . " She also expressed hostility to another prominent Pagan Witch of the period , Charles Cardell , although in the 1960s became friends with the two Witches at the forefront of the Alexandrian Wiccan tradition , Alex Sanders and his wife , Maxine Sanders , who adopted some of her Luciferian angelic practices . She personally despised being referred to as a " witch " , and was particularly angry when the esoteric magazine Man , Myth and Magic referred to her as " The Witch of St. Giles " , an area of Central London which she would later inhabit .
In his 1977 book Nightside of Eden , the Thelemite Kenneth Grant , then leader of the Typhonian OTO , told a story in which he claimed that both he and Gardner performed rituals in the St. Giles flat of a " Mrs. South " , probably a reference to Montalban , who often used the pseudonym of " Mrs North " . The truthfulness of Grant 's claims have been scrutinised by both Doreen Valiente and Julia Philips , who have pointed out multiple incorrect assertions with his account .
= = = Prediction and The Order of the Morning Star : 1952 – 1964 = = =
From August 1953 , Montalban ceased working for London Life , publishing her work in the magazine Prediction , one of the country 's best @-@ selling esoteric @-@ themed publications . Starting with a series on the uses of the tarot , in May 1960 she was employed to produce a regular astrological column for Prediction . Supplementing such esoteric endeavours , she penned a series of romantic short stories for publication in magazines . Throughout the 1950s she released a series of booklets under different pseudonyms that were devoted to astrology ; in one case , she published the same booklet under two separate titles and names , as Madeline Montalban 's Your Stars and Love and Madeline Alvarez 's Love and the Stars . She never wrote any books , instead preferring the shorter booklets and articles as mediums through which to propagate her views , and was critical of those books that taught the reader how to perform their own horoscopes , believing that they put professional astrologers out of business .
In 1952 she met Nicholas Heron , with whom she entered into a relationship . An engraver , photographer and former journalist for the Brighton Argus , he shared her interest in the occult , and together they developed a magical system based upon Luciferianism , the veneration of the deity Lucifer , or Lumiel , whom they considered to be a benevolent angelic deity . In 1956 , they founded the Order of the Morning Star , or Ordo Stella Matutina ( OSM ) , propagating it through a correspondence course . The couple sent out lessons to those who paid the necessary fees over a series of weeks , eventually leading to the twelfth lesson , which contained The Book of Lumiel , a short work written by Montalban that documented her understanding of Lumiel , or Lucifer , and his involvement with humankind . The couple initially lived together in Torrington Place , London , from where they ran the course , but in 1961 moved to the coastal town of Southsea in Essex , where there was greater room for Heron 's engraving equipment .
She encouraged members of her OMS course to come and meet with her , and developed friendships with a number of them , blurring the distinction between teacher and pupil . Meetings of OMS members were informal , and rarely for ritual , with the majority of the organisation 's rites requiring solitary work . According to later members of her Order , Montalban 's basis was in Hermeticism , although she was heavily influenced by Mediaeval and Early Modern grimoires like the Picatrix , Corpus Hermeticum , The Heptameron of Pietro d 'Abano , The Key of Solomon , The Book of Abramelin , and Cornelius Agrippa 's Three Books of Occult Philosophy . Unlike the founders of several older ceremonial magic organisations , such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn or the Fraternity of the Inner Light , she did not claim any authority from higher spiritual beings such as the Ascended masters or Secret Chiefs . She believed that the Luciferian religion had its origin among the Chaldean people of ancient Babylon in the Middle East , and believed that in a former life , the OMS 's members had been " initiates of the Babylonian and Ancient Egyptian priesthood " from where they had originally known each other . She considered herself the reincarnation of King Richard III , and was a member of the Richard III Society ; on one occasion , she visited the site of Richard 's death at the Battle of Bosworth with fellow OMS members , wearing a suit of armour . In March 1964 , Montalban broke from her relationship with Heron , and moved back to London .
= = = Later life : 1964 – 1982 = = =
From 1964 until 1966 she dwelt in a flat at 8 Holly Hill , Hampstead , which was owned by the husband of one of her OMS students , the Latvian exile and poet Velta Snikere . After leaving Holly Hill , Montalban moved to a flat in the Queen Alexandra Mansions at 3 Grape Street in the St. Giles district of Holborn . Here , she was in close proximity to the two primary bookstores then catering to occult interests , Atlantis Bookshop and Watkins Bookshop , as well as to the British Museum . She offered one of the rooms in her flat to a young astrologer and musician , Rick Hayward , whom she had met in the summer of 1967 ; he joined the OMS , and in the last few months of Montalban 's life authored her astrological forecasts for Prediction . After her death , he continued publishing astrological prophecies in Prediction and Prediction Annual until summer 2012 .
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guitar , keyboards ) , Phil Stack ( bass guitar ) , Karl Robertson ( drums ) , and Matthew Baker ( guitar ) . In 2004 Baker was replaced by Sean Carey who was , in turn , replaced by Matt Smith in 2010 . Thirsty Merc have released one extended play , First Work ( September 2003 ) , and four studio albums : Thirsty Merc ( August 2004 ) , Slideshows ( April 2007 ) , Mousetrap Heart ( June 2010 ) and Shifting Gears ( September 2015 ) . The band have sold over 200 @,@ 000 albums , toured extensively around Australia , and received national radio airplay for their tracks .
In June 2005 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer felt their debut album showed " eclectic rock- , classical- and jazz @-@ influenced pop [ that ] appealed to Australian radio programmers " . The work reached the top 20 on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified platinum by ARIA for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2005 . Slideshows peaked at No. 4 in Australia – their highest position . It reached No. 38 on the New Zealand Albums Chart , however Thirsty Merc had attained No. 29 in that market . The group were nominated for four ARIA Awards in 2005 and the Thistlethwayte @-@ written track , " 20 Good Reasons " , was nominated for Song of the Year at the APRA Music Awards of 2008 . From 2006 , their song " In the Summertime " was the opening theme for the Australian TV reality show , Bondi Rescue .
= = History = =
Three of the founding members of Thirsty Merc – Matthew Baker , Karl Robertson , and Phil Stack – had played together in various bands in Dubbo , a regional New South Wales city . In 1996 Drown was formed with Baker on guitar , Robertson on drums , Peter Jamieson on vocals , and Stack on bass guitar . By 1998 Baker , Jamieson and Stack had split to form Twenty Two and then moved to Sydney . In 2002 , Baker and Stack returned to Dubbo where Rai Thistlethwayte , from Sydney , as lead singer ( later also on guitar and keyboards ) and Stack worked as a live jazz duo and session musicians . They were joined by Baker and Robertson , and formed a pop rock band , initially called Thirsty ; soon after they moved to Sydney and were renamed , Thirsty Merc . The band 's name came from Thistlethwayte 's old Mercedes Benz , which was a gas @-@ guzzler .
In October 2006 Thistlethwayte described his jazz and R & B background to MusicFix and the band 's sound as " rock Sinatra " where " [ t ] he outlook , I guess , is about being a young person in today 's society ... being an Australian in an American @-@ ised , Britain @-@ ised kind of world , where you 're trying to stay true to yourself " . Baker added " We contrived to make it not contrived ... Rai was all for originality in his own vision and so were we " .
A car accident on 22 September 2015 at Streatham , Victoria during a Thirsty Merc tour killed the band 's stage manager and injured drummer Mick Skelton .
= = = First Work = = =
Thirsty Merc 's first extended play , First Work , was released on 8 September 2003 by the band 's own label , Don 't Music and was distributed by Warner Music Australia . The five @-@ track CD was independently recorded during downtime at a studio where Thistlethwayte worked . The EP reached the top 100 on the ARIA Singles Chart ; and its lead single , " Wasting Time " , achieved radio airplay on national radio stations , Triple J and Nova . The self @-@ funded music video for the single was broadcast on Channel [ V ] , and became the ' ripe clip of the week ' . At the time of recording the EP they were without a label . After extensive gigging around Sydney 's pubs , representatives from Warner had signed the band in June 2003 , for the release of the EP and the follow up single , " Emancipate Myself " , which was a reworked version of the EP track . It was issued in April 2004 and The Age 's Andrew Murfett declared that " this bitter tirade wrapped in melodic hooks has become one of the biggest local radio successes of the year " .
= = = Debut studio album = = =
On 16 August 2004 Thirsty Merc issued their debut studio album , the self @-@ titled , Thirsty Merc , which was co @-@ produced by the group with Lindsay Gravina ( The Living End , Magic Dirt ) . Also that month , prior to a national tour in support of its release , Baker left and was replaced on guitar by Sean Carey ( ex @-@ Midnight Swim ) , whom they had met when playing a support slot to his group at a Kings Cross venue , Club 77 . The album spent 48 weeks on the ARIA Albums Chart Top 50 , peaking at No. 15 , and launched the band in the Australian mainstream. dB Magazine 's Kelly Parish observed " [ e ] ven though the band 's sound is predominantly rock , it has been influenced by more traditional flavours ... they have developed a very wide audience which embraces both the alternative and mainstream camps " . Thirsty Merc reached No. 29 on New Zealand 's RIANZ Albums Chart . It was recorded and mixed on 2 inch tape , and then further mixed by Gravina at his Birdland Studios .
Five singles were released from Thirsty Merc : " Emancipate Myself " , " My Completeness " ( August 2004 ) , " Someday , Someday " ( December ) , " In the Summertime " ( April 2005 ) , and " When the Weather Is Fine " ( September ) . All five appeared in the ARIA Singles Chart top 50 , with the highest charting , " Someday , Someday " reaching No. 19 . Of these singles only " In the Summertime " reached the top 50 in New Zealand , where it peaked at No. 12 . In June 2005 Billboard 's Christie Eliezer felt the album showed " eclectic rock- , classical- and jazz @-@ influenced pop [ that ] appealed to Australian radio programmers " . The album was due for United States and European release in early 2006 on Atlantic Records .
" In the Summertime " was nominated at the ARIA Music Awards of 2005 for " Best Video " , while " Someday , Someday " was nominated for " Single of the Year " , " Best Group " , and " Best Pop Release " . At the ceremony in October , the group performed " Someday , Someday " . In 2006 Carey described the group 's style to Jet Magazine , it was " Just be yourself " and " about being young and living in Australia . We ’ re not trying to be 50 Cent or anything , we ’ re all just boys from the country , just trying to move into the city and make our way " . He listed Evermore , Crowded House , Foo Fighters and Cold Chisel as his favourite bands . In February 2007 they supported Ozzy Osbourne on the Australian leg of his national tour .
= = = Slideshows = = =
Thirsty Merc 's second album , Slideshows , was issued on 21 April 2007 via Warner Music Australia . It became the band 's most successful release yet , peaking at No. 4 in Australia , although it was less successful in New Zealand , only reaching No. 38 . To support the release of Slideshows , Thirsty Merc toured Australia , playing an album tour in theatres nationally and then various regional tours , the biggest of which had 38 shows booked across seven weeks . The album 's first single , " 20 Good Reasons " ( March 2007 ) , reached No. 4 in Australia and No. 17 in New Zealand . In June they supported Evermore on a tour of New Zealand , showcasing their " unique blend of pop rock dance @-@ able balladry " . The next three singles appeared in the top 100 in Australia , " The Hard Way " ( September ) , " Those Eyes " ( December ) , and " Homesick " ( May 2008 ) .
The band 's main songwriter , Thistlethwayte , inadvertently wrote a " break @-@ up album " , which The Sydney Morning Herald 's Brett Winterford noted was unusual , " that the articulate and intelligent 27 @-@ year @-@ old has strung together 12 such stock @-@ standard , radio @-@ friendly songs about broken hearts " . Thistlethwayte described his influences : " Jazz taught me about spontaneity ... Central to jazz is improvisation . It 's also great to get that knowledge of theory , an understanding of the geeky side of music " and writing advertising jingles had showed him how to " do a lot of things in differing genres and recording styles – but had to try to be authentic about it " . After writing the tracks , the other members " choose the songs that had the ultimate emotional impact " .
= = = Mousetrap Heart = = =
On 14 January 2010 Thirsty Merc announced that Carey had left the band and was replaced on guitar by Matt Smith , from afrobeat and reggae band , The Strides . Carey wanted to work as a record producer and spend more time with his wife . On 18 June 2010 Thirsty Merc released their third album , Mousetrap Heart , which was recorded mostly in Los Angeles with Matt Wallace co @-@ producing , while two tracks were produced in Melbourne with Gravina . Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald opined that " we buy , or actively avoid , songs that excite a response in us but radio wants songs that fit in , that don 't provoke strong responses , that offend the fewest people ... this [ album ] is a collection of extremely professional , well @-@ considered , carefully targeted songs whose key performance indicators are ticked off one by one in a manner so efficient you suspect band meetings must have an agenda , notes secretary and double @-@ cream biscuits for elevenses " .
The band toured nationally in July 2010 to support the album , while its lead single , the title track , had appeared in May and charted in the Top 30 on the ARIA Singles Chart . The second single , " Tommy and Krista " , was released in September , which peaked at No. 10 in New Zealand . Another single , " All My Life " , was featured in the promotional clips for the 2010 AFL grand final . Its music video was directed by Adrian Van de Velde and was shot in early October in Bangkok , Thailand . The narrative is a ' heroic love ' set on a local military base and features Russian model @-@ actress Maria Mazikova , together with 50 Thai army troops , an Iroquois helicopter , and a Chinook helicopter . In November Lip Magazine 's Shannon Andreucci reviewed a live gig , " [ they ] are certainly no Pixies , Beatles or Sex Pistols . They 're not breaking any rules or boundaries in the revolutionary world of rock music . In fact they are perfectly happy and capable of playing within the parameters of radio friendly and commercially safe pop rock . But one thing is for sure ; they go the extra mile in giving a charmingly refined and hearty live performance and that in itself should be commended " .
= = Members = =
Current members
Rai Thistlethwayte – guitar , piano , singer @-@ songwriter ( 2002 – present )
Phil Stack – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 2002 – present )
Matt Smith – guitar ( 2010 – present )
Former members
Matt Baker – guitar , backing vocals ( 2002 – 2004 )
Sean Carey – guitar , backing vocals ( 2004 – 2009 )
Karl Robertson – drums , percussion ( 2002 – 2014 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Extended plays = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = APRA Music Awards = = =
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) .
= = = ARIA Music Awards = = =
The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Thirsty Merc have received four nominations .
= Laurentia Tan =
Laurentia Tan Yen Yi BBM PBM ( / lɒˈrɛnʃə / lo @-@ REN @-@ shə ; Chinese : 陈雁仪 ; pinyin : Chén Yànyí , pronounced [ tʂə ̌ n jɛ ̂ n í ] ) ( born 24 April 1979 ) , is a United Kingdom @-@ based Singaporean Para @-@ equestrian competitor . Tan developed cerebral palsy and profound deafness after birth , and moved to the United Kingdom with her parents at the age of three . She took up horse riding at age of five years as a form of physiotherapy . She subsequently completed her A @-@ levels at the Mary Hare Grammar School , a residential special school for the deaf , and graduated with an honours degree from Oxford Brookes University in hospitality management and tourism .
In March 2007 , the Riding for the Disabled Association Singapore ( RDA ) invited Tan to join the Singapore team for the World Para Dressage Championships at Hartpury College in Hartpury , Gloucester , in England in July that year . At this event , her first international competition , she did well enough to qualify for the 2008 Paralympic Games . In September 2008 , at the Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Centre at Sha Tin , she achieved bronze medals in the Individual Championship and Individual Freestyle Tests ( class Ia ) . These were Singapore 's first Paralympic medals and Asia 's first equestrian medals at the Paralympic Games . Tan was conferred the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Medal ) by the President of Singapore at a ceremony at the Istana Singapore on 20 September 2008 .
On 2 September 2012 , Tan won Singapore 's first medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , a bronze in the dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . She followed this up with a silver medal in the Individual Freestyle Test ( class Ia ) on 4 September . For her achievements , Tan was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) by the President in November 2012 .
= = Early years and education = =
Laurentia Tan was born on 24 April 1979 in Singapore . She moved with her family to London at the age of three years due to her father 's work . Tan developed cerebral palsy and profound deafness after birth , and doctors informed her parents that she would probably not be able to walk . Her family decided to settle in the United Kingdom as they felt she would be better able to reach her full potential with the medical facilities and specialist educational support available there . When she was in school , she fell so often and sustained so many minor injuries that her teachers and the school nurse affectionately nicknamed her " Trouble " . At five years she was unable to sit and walk properly , and took up horse riding at the Diamond Centre for Disabled Riders in London as a form of physiotherapy . This activity also helped her confidence and self @-@ esteem .
Tan completed her A @-@ levels at the Mary Hare Grammar School , a residential special school for the deaf , where she was a prefect . She also won an Elizabeth Dyson Prize for progress and achievement and a prize for business studies . From the age of 18 , she stopped horse riding for eight years to pursue an honours degree in hospitality management and tourism at Oxford Brookes University , and for a job as a mental health worker . However , she missed the sport and took it up again in 2005 . Tan said , " For me , riding a horse gives me the freedom , movement and energy that my own legs cannot do . "
= = Sporting career = =
Tan took up riding in October 2005 at the Diamond Centre for Disabled Riders , where she met her coach Heather " Penny " Pegrum . Encouraged to participate in dressage competitions in March 2006 , she quickly progressed to the Riding for the Disabled Association ( RDA ) Nationals that year . In March 2007 , RDA Singapore contacted Tan and invited her to join the Singapore team for the World Para Dressage Championships 2007 , which was a qualifier for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . The event , Tan 's first international competition , was held at Hartpury College , Gloucester , in England in July 2007 . She achieved 63 % or higher in both her Team and Individual Tests , qualifying her to be selected for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . In the Freestyle to Music Test , despite her profound deafness , she was placed fourth in a field of 18 riders with a best score of 67 @.@ 94 % . In October 2007 , Tan went to Singapore for a visit and trained daily at Singapore 's RDA with volunteer coach Sally Drummond . Tan resigned her job in June 2008 to train full @-@ time with her coach Penny Pegrum and physiotherapist Anthea Pell .
= = = 2008 Summer Paralympics = = =
Tan 's first Paralympic event was the para @-@ dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . Riders in this event are categorized into classes I to IV , those in class I having the most severe disabilities . On 9 September , riding a 20 @-@ year @-@ old chestnut gelding loaned to her named Nothing to Lose ( also known as Harvey ) at the Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Centre in Sha Tin , Tan scored 68 @.@ 80 % to claim the bronze medal behind the United Kingdom 's Anne Dunham ( 73 @.@ 10 % ) and Sophie Christiansen ( 72 @.@ 80 % ) . She thus became the first Singaporean to win a Paralympic medal , and the holder of Asia 's first Paralympic equestrian medal . Two days after achieving the first medal , Tan collected her second bronze with a score of 70 @.@ 167 % for the Individual Freestyle Event , in which she performed to music with Nothing To Lose . The president of the Equestrian Federation of Singapore , Melanie Chew , described her performance as " beyond our expectations " , and that the wins would aid in promoting local awareness of the sport .
Tan 's win sparked discussion about the recognition given to Paralympians in Singapore . A correspondent to the Straits Times criticized the fact that the newspaper had not elaborated on Tan 's performance or what was involved in the event , but had " focused almost primarily on her disability " . Another letter writer to my paper expressed disappointment that less publicity had been given to Tan 's achievement compared to the silver medals won by the Singapore women 's table tennis team at the 2008 Summer Olympics . In addition , a Today reader noted that Tan would be receiving S $ 25 @,@ 000 for her bronze medal , a tenth of the S $ 250 @,@ 000 that table tennis players Feng Tianwei , Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu received for their silver medals . He felt that she should receive even more than them , given what she had achieved in spite of her disabilities . The President of the Society for the Physically Disabled , Ms Chia Yong Yong , commented that the disparity between the cash awards given to able @-@ bodied and disabled sportspeople was " disconcerting " and looked forward to a single common scheme , because :
If we persist in having two different standards , we reinforce the erroneous perception that disabled people are different , and strengthen the barriers against building an inclusive society . We cannot build a gracious inclusive society if we continue to deny the achievements of those perceived to be different and less able than we .
On 16 September , Nominated Member of Parliament Eunice Olsen asked in Parliament if there was a difference in the amount of funding given to Olympians and Paralympians , and why Paralympians receive a much smaller cash reward for medals won compared to Olympians . Teo Ser Luck , Senior Parliamentary Secretary ( Community Development , Youth and Sports ) , said that on a per capita basis disabled sportspeople received about S $ 106 @,@ 000 in the current financial year compared to S $ 54 @,@ 000 for each able @-@ bodied sportsperson as there were 794 registered able @-@ bodied sportspeople but only 16 disabled ones . Teo attributed the disparity in the cash rewards to the fact that Olympians faced higher levels and a larger scale of competition , since disabled sportspeople compete within disability classes . Further , cash rewards were provided by the private sector and Singapore Totalisator Board and were not paid out of state funds . The scheme for Olympians had also been in place for a number of years , while cash rewards for Paralympians were only introduced recently . He said that the government was looking at how it could " develop a system to accommodate all athletes that represent Singapore " .
Tan was conferred the Pingat Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Medal ) by the President of Singapore at a ceremony at the Istana Singapore on 20 September 2008 . At an appreciation dinner on 21 November 2008 , the Singapore National Paralympic Committee ( SNPC ) announced that it was increasing the monetary awards under its Athlete Achievement Award scheme for Paralympic Games medallists in individual and team events , a quarter of which would be paid to the SNPC towards developing elite athletes and sports . As a result , for her Paralympic win , Tan received a cash reward of S $ 37 @,@ 500 , S $ 12 @,@ 500 of which went to the SNPC . She made it into Today newspaper 's list of athletes of the year for 2008 in eighth place , and shared the Her World Young Woman Achiever 2008 award with Paralympian swimmer Yip Pin Xiu .
= = = 2012 Summer Paralympics = = =
On 2 September 2012 , Tan won Singapore 's first medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , a bronze in the dressage Individual Championship Test ( class Ia ) . Riding on Ruben James 2 , a gelding from Germany she had only known for ten months , she scored 73 @.@ 650 percentage points . Two days later , on 4 September , she scored 79 @.@ 000 in the Individual Freestyle Test ( class Ia ) which brought her a silver medal . Her wins brought her prizes of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( for her bronze medal ) and $ 100 @,@ 000 ( silver ) from the SNPC 's Athletes Achievement Awards scheme , again leading to comments about the stark difference between the cash prizes that Olympic and Paralympic medallists receive . Twenty per cent of the prize money will be paid to the Singapore National Paralympic Council for training and development . For her achievements , Tan won The Straits Times newspaper 's Star of the Month for September , and was conferred a Bintang Bakti Masyarakat ( Public Service Star ) by the President on 11 November 2012 .
= = Medals = =
= The First Time ( Glee ) =
" The First Time " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ ninth overall . Written by Roberto Aguirre @-@ Sacasa and directed by co @-@ executive producer Bradley Buecker , it first aired on Fox in the United States on November 8 , 2011 . The episode features the preparations for performing West Side Story and the show 's opening night , and the various events
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ulse was the only ship of her class to see combat in the First World War when she participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in 1917 . Both ships were reconstructed twice between the wars ; the 1920s reconstruction increased their armour protection and made lesser improvements , while the 1930s reconstruction was much more thorough , especially for Renown . Repulse accompanied the battlecruiser Hood during the Special Service Squadron 's round @-@ the @-@ world cruise in 1923 – 24 and protected British interests during the Spanish Civil War between 1936 – 39 . Renown frequently conveyed royalty on their foreign tours and served as flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was refitting .
Both ships served during the Second World War ; they searched for the Admiral Graf Spee in 1939 , participated in the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 and searched for the German battleship Bismarck in 1941 . Repulse was sunk on 10 December 1941 in the South China Sea off Kuantan , Pahang by Japanese aircraft . Renown spent much of 1940 and 1941 assigned to Force H at Gibraltar , escorting convoys and she fought in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . She was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet and provided cover to several Arctic convoys in early 1942 . The ship was transferred back to Force H for Operation Torch and spent much of 1943 refitting or transporting Winston Churchill and his staff to and from various conferences with various Allied leaders . In early 1944 Renown was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean where she supported numerous attacks on Japanese @-@ occupied facilities in Indonesia and various island groups in the Indian Ocean . The ship returned to the Home Fleet in early 1945 and was refitted before being placed in reserve after the end of the war . Renown was sold for scrap in 1948 .
= = Genesis = =
= = = Improved Revenge @-@ class battleships = = =
The battleships of the 1914 Naval Programme consisted of three improved Revenge @-@ class ships , named Renown , Repulse and Resistance , and one further member of the Queen Elizabeth class , called Agincourt . Resistance and Agincourt were to be built in Royal dockyards while Renown was awarded to Fairfield and Repulse to Palmers . The design was approved on 13 May 1914 and the improvements over the Revenge class consisted of :
A consistent thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) for the protective wing bulkheads .
An enlarged torpedo control tower .
An enlarged conning tower with the armour rearranged for better access .
A protected spotting position in the bow .
The width of the keel was increased to provide a more rigid structure amidships to resist stress while docking .
Shell stowage for the main guns was increased from 80 rounds per gun to 100 .
These changes would have done little to change the size of the ships in comparison to their predecessors other than a decrease in draught to 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) , 1 foot 6 inches ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) less than the older ships . They would , however , have been 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower than the Revenge @-@ class ships as they were to be provided with only 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) rather than the 40 @,@ 000 shp ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) of their predecessors .
Work on all four ships was suspended at the beginning of the First World War and the two ships to be built in the Royal dockyards were cancelled on 26 August 1914 , as it was believed that they could not be completed before the end of the war . Admiral Lord Fisher , once he returned to office as First Sea Lord in October , began pressuring Winston Churchill , then First Lord of the Admiralty , to allow him to convert the suspended contracts for Renown and Repulse into a new class of battlecruisers capable of the very high speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . Churchill argued that their construction would interfere with other construction programmes , absorb too many resources , and still could not be finished in time . Fisher countered by arguing he could keep the building time to a minimum , as he had done with Dreadnought , by using as much material ordered for the battleships as possible , including their 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) gun turrets . Churchill was unmoved , however , until the experiences of Battle of Heligoland Bight in August and the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December , seemed to demonstrate that high speed and heavy gun power was a potent combination and vindicated Fisher 's long @-@ held belief on the viability of the battlecruiser . These actions , plus pressure from Admiral Jellicoe , commander of the Grand Fleet , and Vice Admiral Beatty , commander of the Battlecruiser Force , caused Churchill to gain approval from the Cabinet to build two ships on 28 December .
= = = Battlecruisers = = =
Admiral Lord Fisher first presented his requirements for the new ships to the DNC on 18 December , before they had even been approved . He wanted a long , high , flared bow , like that on the pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Renown , but higher , four 15 @-@ inch guns in two twin turrets , an anti @-@ torpedo boat armament of twenty 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns mounted high up and protected by gun shields only , speed of 32 knots using oil fuel , and armour on the scale of the battlecruiser Indefatigable . Within a few days , however , Fisher increased the number of guns to six and added two torpedo tubes . Minor revisions in the initial estimate were made until 26 December , and a preliminary design was completed on 30 December .
During the following week the DNC 's department examined the material delivered for the two battleships and decided what could be used in the new design and the contract for Repulse was transferred from Palmers to John Brown & Company because the former lacked a slipway long enough to use for the new ship . The usable material was transferred to John Brown and both builders had received enough information from the DNC 's department to lay the keels of both ships on 25 January 1915 , well before the altered contracts were completed on 10 March !
= = Description = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Renown @-@ class ships had an overall length of 794 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 242 @.@ 0 m ) , a beam of 90 feet 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 27 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 30 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) at deep load . They displaced 27 @,@ 320 long tons ( 27 @,@ 760 t ) at standard load and 32 @,@ 220 long tons ( 32 @,@ 740 t ) at deep load . While 90 feet ( 27 @.@ 4 m ) longer than their predecessor , Tiger , they displaced 2 @,@ 780 long tons ( 2 @,@ 820 t ) less than the older ship at deep load .
The ships proved to be good sea boats , but had to be reinforced while under construction with additional stiffening and pillars under the forecastle deck to cure some minor structural problems forward . They had a metacentric height of 6 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load as built as well as a complete double bottom .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The original plan for these ships was to use lightweight machinery producing a total of 110 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 82 @,@ 000 kW ) , but that would have required a considerable amount of time to complete its design . Rather than risk delaying the completion of the ships the machinery from HMS Tiger was duplicated with the addition of three extra boilers to provide the required power needed for the additional speed . Each ship had two paired sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , housed in separate engine @-@ rooms . Each set comprised high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines driving an outboard shaft and low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines , housed in the same casing , driving an inner shaft . Their three @-@ bladed propellers were 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) in diameter . The turbines were powered by 42 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers in six boiler rooms at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . They were designed to produce a total of 112 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 84 @,@ 000 kW ) , but achieved more than 126 @,@ 000 shp ( 93 @,@ 958 kW ) during Renown 's trials , when she reached a speed of 32 @.@ 58 knots ( 60 @.@ 34 km / h ; 37 @.@ 49 mph ) . They were the fastest capital ships in existence until the arrival of Hood in 1920 .
They were designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 4 @,@ 289 long tons ( 4 @,@ 358 t ) . At full capacity , the Renown @-@ class ships could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 410 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) . The ships had two reciprocating steam @-@ driven 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) dynamos , one oil @-@ driven 150 @-@ kilowatt ( 200 hp ) dynamo , and one turbine @-@ driven 200 @-@ kilowatt ( 270 hp ) dynamo that supplied the common ring main at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The Renown @-@ class ships mounted six 42 @-@ calibre BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in three twin hydraulically powered gun turrets , designated " A " , " B " , and " Y " from front to rear . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 20 ° ; they could be loaded at any angle up to 20 ° , although loading at high angles tended to slow the gun 's return to battery ( firing position ) . The ships carried 120 shells per gun . They fired 1 @,@ 910 @-@ pound ( 866 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 785 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 734 yd ( 21 @,@ 702 m ) with armour @-@ piercing shells .
The ships were designed with seventeen 45 @-@ calibre BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns , fitted in five triple and two single mounts . These were manually powered and quite cumbersome in use as they required a crew of thirty @-@ two men to load and train the triple gun mounts . The gun 's rate of fire was only 10 to 12 rounds per minute as the loaders kept getting in each other 's way . They had a maximum depression of − 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 30 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high @-@ explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 625 ft / s ( 800 m / s ) . At maximum elevation the guns had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 yards ( 12 @,@ 344 m ) . The ships carried 200 rounds for each gun .
Each ship mounted a pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns on single high @-@ angle mountings . These were mounted on the shelter deck abreast the rear funnel . The gun had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) . Both ships carried ten torpedoes and mounted two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes fitted just forward of " A " barbette .
= = = Fire control = = =
The main guns of the Renown @-@ class ships could be controlled from either of the two fire @-@ control directors . The primary director was mounted above the conning tower in an armoured hood and the other was in the fore @-@ top on the foremast . Data from a rangefinder in the armoured hood was input into a Mk IV * Dreyer Fire Control Table located in the Transmitting Station ( TS ) where it was converted into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . The secondary armament was controlled by directors mounted on platforms on each mast . Each turret was provided with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder in an armoured housing on the turret roof .
During the war the number and size of rangefinders increased . By 1918 Renown carried two 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinders , one on " Y " turret and the other in the armoured hood above the conning tower . Fifteen @-@ foot rangefinders were mounted on " A " and " B " turrets , the torpedo control tower abaft the mainmast , and the armoured hood . The fore @-@ top was equipped with a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a simple 6 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) rangefinder mounted on the aft superstructure . Two 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders were mounted on the bridge .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection of the Renown @-@ class ships was similar to that of Indefatigable ; her waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour measured 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick amidships . It ran from the midpoint of " A " barbette to the midpoint of " Y " barbette , a length of 462 feet ( 140 @.@ 8 m ) , and was 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . Strakes of three @-@ inch armour aft and four @-@ inch armour forward continued the belt towards the ends of the ship , although neither reached the bow or the stern . The strakes were enclosed by transverse bulkheads of the same thickness . For much of the length of the main belt there was an upper belt of high @-@ tensile steel , 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick , intended as splinter protection .
The gun turrets were 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick on the face and front sides , 7 inches ( 178 mm ) thick on the rear side plates while their roofs were 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected by 7 inches ( 178 mm ) of armour above the upper deck , but it thinned to 4 – 5 inches ( 102 – 127 mm ) below the deck . The conning tower sides were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and it had a three @-@ inch roof . The walls of the communication tube were three inches thick . The torpedo control tower had 3 @-@ inch walls and a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch cast steel roof .
As designed the high @-@ tensile @-@ steel decks ranged from 0 @.@ 75 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 19 to 38 mm ) in thickness . After the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , while the ships were still completing , an extra inch of high @-@ tensile steel was added on the main deck over the magazines . Despite these additions , the ships were still felt to be too vulnerable to plunging fire and each ship was refitted in Rosyth in 1916 – 17 with additional horizontal armour , weighing approximately 504 long tons ( 512 t ) , added to the decks over the magazines and over the steering mechanism .
The Renown @-@ class ships were fitted with a shallow anti @-@ torpedo bulge integral to the hull which was intended to explode the torpedo before it hit the hull proper and vent the underwater explosion to the surface rather than into the ship . However , later testing proved that it was not deep enough to accomplish its task as it lacked the layers of empty and full compartments that were necessary to absorb the force of the explosion .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
= = = First World War = = =
Both ships spent much of the remainder of 1916 and early 1917 in the hands of dockyards having their armour upgraded and conducting routine patrols of the North Sea . They were assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) for the duration of the war . Repulse relieved Lion as flagship of the 1st BCS .
= = = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Over the course of 1917 the Admiralty became more concerned about German efforts in the North Sea to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships and the Admiralty decided on a larger operation to destroy the minesweepers and their escorting light cruisers . Based on intelligence reports the Admiralty decided on 17 November 1917 to allocate two light cruiser squadrons , the 1st Cruiser Squadron covered by the reinforced 1st BCS ( less Renown ) and , more distantly , the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron to the operation .
The German ships , four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight sperrbrechers ( cork @-@ filled trawlers , used to detonate mines without sinking ) and two trawlers to mark the swept route , were spotted at 7 : 30 a.m. , silhouetted by the rising sun . The light battlecruiser Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying an effective smoke screen . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers as opportunity permitted . Repulse was detached not long after and raced forward at full speed to engage the enemy ships . She opened fire at about 9 : 00 , scoring a single hit on the light cruiser SMS Königsberg during the battle . When the German battleships SMS Kaiser and SMS Kaiserin were spotted about 9 : 50 the British broke off their pursuit and Repulse covered their retreat , aided by a heavy fog that came down around 10 : 40 .
In September 1917 Repulse became the first capital ship to be fitted with aircraft flying @-@ off platforms on her turrets . A Sopwith Pup successfully took off from the platform mounted on " B " turret on 1 October and repeated his achievement on 9 October from " Y " turret . Renown received her platforms in early 1918 .
On 12 December 1917 Renown put to sea with other elements of the fleet in an unsuccessful attempt to intercept the German 3rd Half @-@ Flotilla of destroyers that had destroyed the Scandinavian convoy and most of its escorts . For the rest of the war the two ships patrolled the North Sea uneventfully . Both ships were present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 .
= = = Inter @-@ war service = = =
Repulse began a major refit at Portsmouth on 17 December 1918 intended to drastically improve her armour protection . Her existing 6 @-@ inch armour belt was replaced by 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) armour plates made surplus by the conversion of the battleship Almirante Cochrane ( originally ordered by Chile and purchased after the war began ) to the aircraft carrier Eagle . The old armour was fitted between the main and upper decks , above the new armour belt . Additional high @-@ tensile plating was added to the decks over the magazines . The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo bulge was deepened and reworked along the lines of that installed on the battleship Ramillies . The bulge covered her hull from the submerged torpedo room to " Y " magazine and the inner compartments of which were filled with crushing tubes . The bulges added 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) to her beam and 1 foot 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 4 m ) to her draught . The refit added about 4 @,@ 500 long tons ( 4 @,@ 600 t ) to her displacement and raised her metacentric height to 6 @.@ 4 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) at deep load . Three 30 @-@ foot rangefinders were also added as well as eight torpedo tubes in twin mounts on the upper deck . Both flying @-@ off platforms were removed .
When the Grand Fleet was disbanded in April 1919 Renown was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . In June she was refitted in preparation for a tour of Canada , Newfoundland and the United States by Edward , the Prince of Wales , and both flying @-@ off platforms were removed . From January to March 1920 Renown was refitted more extensively as a " royal yacht " . Her aft 4 @-@ inch mounting and both 3 @-@ inch AA guns were removed so that extra accommodation and a promenade deck could be built . A large deckhouse was built on the shelter deck between the funnels . The port side housed a squash court while the starboard side was a cinema . The ship sailed in March for Australia and New Zealand with the Prince of Wales and his entourage aboard and made many stops en route . She returned to Portsmouth in October and was placed in reserve in November .
Renown was recommissioned in September 1921 for a tour of India and Japan by the Prince of Wales and sailed from Portsmouth in October . The ship arrived back in Portsmouth in June 1922 and she was placed in reserve the following month . The ship began a reconstruction that same month along the lines of her sister , although changes were made based on the experiences with Repulse . Renown 's main armour belt was removed and a new 9 @-@ inch belt was installed , using up the remaining plates leftover from Almirante Cochrane as well as new armour , but installed about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) higher than on Repulse to offset any increase in draught . A strake of tapered armour was fitted underneath the main belt to deflect any shell that dived beneath the water 's surface ; it was 9 @-@ inches thick at top and thinned to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) at the bottom . The ship 's deck armour was heavily reinforced adjacent to its machinery spaces and magazines . Two longitudinal bulkheads were added between the upper and main decks that ran from the base of the conning tower to the end of the boiler rooms . The bulges were reworked and based on those used in the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships although crushing tubes were only used abreast the magazines . The rear triple 4 @-@ inch gun mount was replaced . The flying @-@ off platform on " B " turret was reinstated and a high @-@ angle control position ( HACP ) was added to the fore @-@ top . The pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns and her two single four @-@ inch gun mounts were removed and replaced with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V anti @-@ aircraft guns . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 80 ° . They fired a 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 387 ft / s ( 728 m / s ) at a rate of ten to fifteen rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 31 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 400 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The reconstruction only added 3 @,@ 500 long tons ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) to the ship 's displacement and three inches to her draught .
Repulse was recommissioned on 1 January 1921 and joined the Battlecruiser Squadron . In November 1923 , Hood , accompanied by Repulse and a number of Danae @-@ class cruisers of the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , set out on a world cruise from west to east via the Panama Canal . They returned home ten months later in September 1924 . Shortly after her return the ship 's pair of 3 @-@ inch AA guns and her two single four @-@ inch gun mounts were removed and replaced with four QF four @-@ inch Mark V AA guns . The Battlecruiser Squadron visited Lisbon in February 1925 to participate in the Vasco da Gama celebrations before continuing on the Mediterranean for exercises . A squash court was added on the starboard side between the funnels for the Prince of Wales ' tour of Africa and South America that lasted from March to October . Upon her return she was refitted from November 1925 to July 1926 and had a HACP added to her fore @-@ top .
Renown finished her reconstruction in September 1926 and she was assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron until the ship was detached to convey Prince Albert of York to Australia between January and July 1927 . Upon her return she rejoined the Atlantic Fleet . Renown became the flagship of the BCS when Hood was refitting between 1929 and 1931 . Hood reassumed the role as flagship after she was recommissioned and Renown was paid off for a refit of her own . A High @-@ Angle Control System Mark I was fitted with a director on the roof of the fore @-@ top that replaced the high @-@ angle rangefinder and the conning tower platform was enlarged to accommodate a pair of Mk V octuple mountings for the QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun The Mk V mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 80 ° . The Mark VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . Only one mount was initially available , however , and it , along with its director , was fitted on the starboard side . Renown had her midships triple 4 @-@ inch mount removed to make room for an aircraft catapult that was not fitted until 1933 . The port Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mount was finally fitted , albeit without its director , that same year . The ship now carried a Fairey III floatplane for reconnaissance purposes . The flying @-@ off platform was also removed .
= = = = 1930s reconstructions = = = =
After Repulse completed her 1926 refit she remained in commission , aside from a brief refit in July – September 1927 , with the BCS of the Atlantic Fleet until she was paid off in June 1932 prior to beginning her reconstruction in April 1933 . Most of the existing layers of high @-@ tensile steel that constituted the ship 's horizontal armour were replaced by non @-@ cemented armour plates 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 – 89 mm ) in thickness and the torpedo control tower was removed from the aft superstructure . A fixed catapult replaced the midships 4 @-@ inch triple mount and a hangar was built on each side of the rear funnel to house two of the ship 's Faire
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y III aircraft . One additional aircraft could be carried on the deck and another on the catapult itself . Electric cranes were mounted above each hangar to handle the aircraft . The four 4 @-@ inch AA guns were moved , one pair abreast the rear funnel at the level of the hangar roof and the other pair abreast the fore funnel on the forecastle deck . Four prototype QF 4 @-@ inch Mark XV dual @-@ purpose guns were added in twin @-@ gun Mark XVIII mounts abreast the mainmast . Two octuple Mark VI 2 @-@ pounder mounts were fitted on extensions of the conning @-@ tower platform abreast the fore funnel . Above these a pair of quadruple Mark II * mountings for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun were added . These mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of 70 ° . The machine guns fired a 1 @.@ 326 @-@ ounce ( 37 @.@ 6 g ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 520 ft / s ( 770 m / s ) . This gave the gun a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , although its effective range was only 800 yd ( 730 m ) Repulse received two HACS directors , one Mark II on the fore @-@ top and a Mark I * mounted on a pedestal above the rear superstructure . The two submerged torpedo tubes were removed and the vacant spaces sub @-@ divided and turned into store @-@ rooms .
Renown began her own even more thorough reconstruction in September 1936 , based on that of the battleship Warspite . Her superstructure and funnels were razed to the level of the upper deck , her masts taken out and the ship 's main and secondary armament was removed . A large splinter @-@ proof tower superstructure was built , topped with a director @-@ control tower for the main armament and two HACS Mark IV directors . The armoured hood formerly mounted above the conning tower was reinstalled on the rear superstructure . The ship 's engines and boilers were replaced by Parsons geared turbine sets and eight Admiralty three @-@ drum boilers . This saved some 2 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 800 t ) of weight and allowed the two forward boiler rooms to be converted to 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) magazines and other uses . Renown 's deck protection was somewhat upgraded by adding non @-@ cemented armour where it had not been added earlier and protecting the new 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch magazines . As in Repulse hangars were built abreast her rear funnel and a catapult was fitted between the rear funnel and the aft superstructure .
The ship 's 15 @-@ inch gun turrets were modified to the Mark I ( N ) standard with their elevation increased to 30 ° . Twenty dual @-@ purpose QF 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mark III guns in twin BD Mark II mountings replaced all of the 4 @-@ inch guns . Six of the gun turrets , three on each side , were abreast the forward funnel while the remaining four were mounted on abreast the main mast . The BD Mark II mounts had elevation limits of − 5 ° to + 80 ° . The Mark III gun fired a 55 @-@ pound ( 25 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ( 720 m / s ) . Its rate of fire was 12 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 41 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . The guns were controlled by four dual @-@ purpose Mark IV directors , two mounted on the rear of the bridge structure and the remaining two on the aft superstructure . They fed tracking data to a HACS Mark IV analog computer for high @-@ angle targets and an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark VII for low @-@ angle targets . Each gun was provided with 400 round of ammunition . Three octuple Mark VI 2 @-@ pounder mounts were fitted , two on a platform between the funnels and the third at the rear of the aft superstructure . Each was provided with a Mark III * director . Four quadruple Vickers .50 @-@ calibre Mark III mounts were also added , two each on the forward and rear superstructures . The submerged torpedo tubes were removed and eight above @-@ water torpedo tubes added .
Repulse was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet when she recommissioned in April 1936 . She transported 500 refugees from Palma , Majorca to Marseilles , France in late 1936 after the start of the Spanish Civil War . The ship was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI . Repulse was sent to Haifa in July 1938 to maintain order during the Arab Revolt . She was selected to convey the King and Queen during their May 1939 Canadian Tour and she was refitted between October 1938 and March 1939 for this role . The twin 4 @-@ inch AA guns were replaced by two more Mark V guns and two additional quadruple .50 @-@ calibre mounts were added . The King and Queen ultimately traveled aboard the liner RMS Empress of Australia while Repulse escorted them on the first half of the journey .
= = = Second World War = = =
The beginning of the Second World War found Repulse assigned to the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet . She patrolled off the Norwegian coast and in the North Sea in search of German ships and to enforce the blockade . Early in the war Repulse had her aft triple 4 @-@ inch mount replaced by an 8 @-@ barrel 2 @-@ pounder mount . In late October she was transferred to Halifax with the aircraft carrier Furious to protect convoys and search for German raiders . She escorted the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 and was reassigned to the Home Fleet . The ship supported Allied operations during the Norwegian Campaign in April – June 1940 . Accompanied by Renown and the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Repulse attempted to intercept the German battleship Gneisenau as it sailed from Trondheim to Germany in July . Until May 1941 the ship escorted convoys and unsuccessfully searched for German ships . On 22 May Repulse was diverted from escorting Convoy WS8B to assist in the search for the German battleship Bismarck , but she had to break off the search early on 25 May as she was running low on fuel . The ship was refitted from June to August and received eight Oerlikon 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) autocannon as well as a Type 284 surface gunnery radar . Repulse escorted a troop convoy around the Cape of Good Hope from August to October and was transferred to East Indies Command .
To deter Japanese aggression in the Far East in late 1941 , Winston Churchill was determined to send a small group of fast capital ships , along with one modern aircraft carrier to Singapore . Repulse was already in the Indian Ocean and was ordered to Colombo in November to rendezvous with the battleship Prince of Wales where they would form Force Z. The carrier Indomitable was supposed to join them , but she was delayed when she ran aground while working up in the Caribbean . The two ships , and their escorting destroyers , arrived in Singapore on 2 December . Force Z departed on the evening of 8 December in an attempt to destroy Japanese troop convoys and protect the army 's seaward flanks from any Japanese landings in their rear . They were spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft during the following afternoon and shadowed for the rest of the day . Admiral Sir Tom Phillips decided to cancel the operation as the Japanese were now alerted . Force Z turned back during the evening , but was spotted again early on the morning of 10 December . About four hours later Japanese bombers arrived and attacked Repulse from high altitude ; she was slightly damaged by one bomb hit in her port hangar . The second wave consisted of torpedo bombers which missed Repulse , but scored at least one hit on Prince of Wales . The third wave again consisted of high @-@ altitude level bombers that missed Repulse entirely . The fourth wave of torpedo bombers managed to hit Repulse once amidships on her port side . The final wave of torpedo bombers hit Repulse with three more torpedoes and the ship capsized with the loss of 508 officers and men . The sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse contributed to the rapid fall of Singapore and Malaya to the Japanese , and demonstrated the dominance of air power over the capital ships that had been the backbone of naval power since the 1600s .
Renown was recommissioned on 28 August 1939 as part of the Home Fleet . Much like her sister , she spent September patrolling in the North Sea , but was transferred to Force K in the South Atlantic to help search for the " pocket battleship " Admiral Graf Spee . The ship joined Force H at the Cape of Good Hope in November to prevent Admiral Graf Spee from breaking into the South Atlantic . She was unsuccessful in this , but sank the blockade runner SS Watussi on 2 December . She remained in the South Atlantic even after Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled on 13 December and did not return to the Home Fleet until March 1940 . The ship became flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron when Hood was paid off to refit that month . Renown also supported British forces during the Norwegian Campaign and briefly engaged the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau on 9 April . Renown opened fire first , but she was hit first by two 28 @-@ centimetre ( 11 in ) shells that only slightly damaged her . A few minutes later she hit Gneisenau with one 15 @-@ inch and two 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells that knocked out the main fire @-@ control director and damaged the rangefinder on " A " turret . The German ships were faster than Renown in the heavy weather and were able to successfully disengage . The ship was repaired from 20 April to 18 May and provided cover during the evacuation from Norway in early June . Renown was transferred to Force H at Gibraltar in August and relieved Hood as flagship .
In November 1940 Force H covered the small aircraft carrier Argus as she flew off Hurricane fighters bound for Malta from a position south of Sardinia . Later that month Force H participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento . Renown bombarded Genoa on 9 February 1941 with little effect . Renown and Force H escorted convoys both inside and outside the Mediterranean in March – May 1941 before being summoned into the Atlantic to search for the Bismarck . Force H escorted another convoy to Malta in July and Renown returned home for repairs the next month . The ship was transferred to the Home Fleet in November when her repairs were complete . She provided cover for the inbound and outbound convoys to the Soviet Union in early March 1942 . She became flagship of Force W which was formed to escort carriers carrying fighters to be flown @-@ off for Malta in April – May .
Renown rejoined Home Fleet once those missions were completed , but was transferred to Force H in October 1942 to participate in Operation Torch . She returned to Britain to refit from February to June 1943 . The ship brought Winston Churchill and his staff back from the Quebec Conference in September and conveyed them to the Cairo Conference in November . She rejoined the Home Fleet in December , just in time to be transferred to the Eastern Fleet a few weeks later . Renown arrived in Colombo at the end of January 1944 where she was flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron . In April she participated in Operation Cockpit , an airstrike against port and oil facilities on Sabang , off the island of Sumatra . The ship bombarded Japanese @-@ occupied facilities on Car Nicobar in the Nicobar Islands and Port Blair in the Andaman Islands on 30 April – 1 May . Renown supported the airstrike against Surabaya , Java ( Operation Transom ) on 17 May as well as follow @-@ on attack against Port Blair on 21 June . After another airstrike on 25 July on Sabang the ship bombarded the city . She bombarded facilities in the Nicobar Islands from 17 – 19 October . On 22 November Renown was replaced as flagship by Queen Elizabeth and the ship began a refit at Durban from December to February 1945 . She was recalled to home waters in March , lest the remaining German heavy ships make a final sortie , and reached Rosyth on 15 April . She was given a brief refit when this concern proved illusory and was placed in reserve in May 1945 . Renown was partially disarmed in July when six of her 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch turrets were removed , as well as all of her light guns . The ship hosted a meeting between King George VI and President Truman on 3 August when the latter was en route home aboard the heavy cruiser USS Augusta . The decision to dispose of the ship was announced on 21 January 1948 and she was towed to Faslane for scrapping on 3 August .
= I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a 1969 autobiography about the early years of American writer and poet Maya Angelou . The first in a seven @-@ volume series , it is a coming @-@ of @-@ age story that illustrates how strength of character and a love of literature can help overcome racism and trauma . The book begins when three @-@ year @-@ old Maya and her older brother are sent to Stamps , Arkansas , to live with their grandmother and ends when Maya becomes a mother at the age of 16 . In the course of Caged Bird , Maya transforms from a victim of racism with an inferiority complex into a self @-@ possessed , dignified young woman capable of responding to prejudice .
Angelou was challenged by her friend , author James Baldwin , and her editor , Robert Loomis , to write an autobiography that was also a piece of literature . Reviewers often categorize Caged Bird as autobiographical fiction because Angelou uses thematic development and other techniques common to fiction , but the prevailing critical view characterizes it as an autobiography , a genre she attempts to critique , change , and expand . The book covers topics common to autobiographies written by Black American women in the years following the Civil Rights Movement : a celebration of Black motherhood ; a critique of racism ; the importance of family ; and the quest for independence , personal dignity , and self @-@ definition .
Angelou uses her autobiography to explore subjects such as identity , rape , racism , and literacy . She also writes in new ways about women 's lives in a male @-@ dominated society . Maya , the younger version of Angelou and the book 's central character , has been called " a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America " . Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight @-@ year @-@ old child overwhelms the book , although it is presented briefly in the text . Rape is used as a metaphor for the suffering of her race . Another metaphor , that of a bird struggling to escape its cage , is a central image throughout the work , which consists of " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . Angelou 's treatment of racism provides a thematic unity to the book . Literacy and the power of words help young Maya cope with her bewildering world ; books become her refuge as she works through her trauma .
Caged Bird was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970 and remained on The New York Times paperback bestseller list for two years . It has been used in educational settings from high schools to universities , and the book has been celebrated for creating new literary avenues for the American memoir . However , the book 's graphic depiction of childhood rape , racism , and sexuality has caused it to be challenged or banned in some schools and libraries .
= = Background = =
Before writing I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the age of forty , Angelou had a long and varied career , holding jobs such as composer , singer , actor , civil rights worker , journalist , and educator . In the late 1950s , she joined the Harlem Writers Guild , where she met a number of important African @-@ American authors , including her friend and mentor James Baldwin . After hearing civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. speak for the first time in 1960 , she was inspired to join the Civil Rights Movement . She organized several benefits for him , and he named her Northern Coordinator of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference . She worked for several years in Ghana , West Africa , as a journalist , actress , and educator . She was invited back to the US by Malcolm X to work for him shortly before his assassination in 1965 . In 1968 , King asked her to organize a march , but he too was assassinated on April 4 , which also happened to be her birthday . For many years , Angelou responded to King 's murder by not celebrating her birthday , choosing to meet with , call , or send flowers to his widow , Coretta Scott King .
Angelou was deeply depressed in the months following King 's assassination , so to help lift her spirits , Baldwin brought her to a dinner party at the home of cartoonist Jules Feiffer and his wife Judy in late 1968 . The guests began telling stories of their childhoods and Angelou 's stories impressed Judy Feiffer . The next day she called Robert Loomis at Random House , who became Angelou 's editor throughout her long writing career until he retired in 2011 , and " told him that he ought to get this woman to write a book " . At first , Angelou refused , since she thought of herself as a poet and playwright . According to Angelou , Baldwin had a " covert hand " in getting her to write the book , and advised Loomis to use " a little reverse psychology " , and reported that Loomis tricked her into it by daring her : " It 's just as well " , he said , " because to write an autobiography as literature is just about impossible " . Angelou was unable to resist a challenge , and she began writing Caged Bird . After " closeting herself " in London , it took her two years to write it . She shared the manuscript with her friend , writer Jessica Mitford , before submitting it for publication .
Angelou subsequently wrote six additional autobiographies , covering a variety of her young adult experiences . They are distinct in style and narration , but unified in their themes and stretch from Arkansas to Africa , and back to the US , from the beginnings of World War II to King 's assassination . Like Caged Bird , the events in these books are episodic and crafted as a series of short stories , yet do not follow a strict chronology . Later books in the series include Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 , at the age of 85 ) . Critics have often judged Angelou 's later autobiographies " in light of the first " , and Caged Bird generally receives the highest praise .
Beginning with Caged Bird , Angelou used the same " writing ritual " for many years . She would get up at five in the morning and check into a hotel room , where the staff were instructed to remove any pictures from the walls . She wrote on yellow legal pads while lying on the bed , with a bottle of sherry , a deck of cards to play solitaire , Roget 's Thesaurus , and the Bible , and left by the early afternoon . She averaged 10 – 12 pages of material a day , which she edited down to three or four pages in the evening . Lupton stated that this ritual indicated " a firmness of purpose and an inflexible use of time " . Angelou went through this process to give herself time to turn the events of her life into art , and to " enchant " herself ; as she said in a 1989 interview with the British Broadcasting Corporation , to " relive the agony , the anguish , the Sturm und Drang " . She placed herself back in the time she wrote about , even during traumatic experiences like her rape in Caged Bird , to " tell the human truth " about her life . Critic Opal Moore says about Caged Bird : " ... Though easily read , [ it ] is no ' easy read ' " . Angelou stated that she played cards to reach that place of enchantment , to access her memories more effectively . She has stated , " It may take an hour to get into it , but once I 'm in it — ha ! It 's so delicious ! " She did not find the process cathartic ; rather , she found relief in " telling the truth " .
= = = Title = = =
When selecting a title , Angelou turned to Paul Laurence Dunbar , an African @-@ American poet whose works she had admired for years . Jazz vocalist and civil rights activist Abbey Lincoln suggested the title . According to Lyman B. Hagen , the title pulls Angelou 's readers into the book while reminding them that it is possible to both lose control of one 's life and to have one 's freedom taken from them . Angelou has credited Dunbar , along with Shakespeare , with forming her " writing ambition " . The title of the book comes from the third stanza of Dunbar 's poem " Sympathy " :
I know why the caged bird sings , ah me ,
When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore ,
When he beats his bars and would be free ;
It is not a carol of joy or glee ,
But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core ,
But a plea , that upward to Heaven he flings –
I know why the caged bird sings .
= = Plot summary = =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings follows Marguerite 's ( called " My " or " Maya " by her brother ) life from the age of three to 17 and the struggles she faces – particularly with racism – in the Southern United States . Abandoned by their parents , Maya and her older brother Bailey are sent to live with their paternal grandmother ( Momma ) and crippled uncle ( Uncle Willie ) in Stamps , Arkansas . Maya and Bailey are haunted by their parents ' abandonment throughout the book – they travel alone and are labeled like baggage .
Many of the problems Maya encounters in her childhood stem from the overt racism of her white neighbors . Although Momma is relatively wealthy because she owns the general store at the heart of Stamps ' Black community , the white children of their town hassle Maya 's family relentlessly . One of these " powhitetrash " girls , for example , reveals her pubic hair to Momma in a humiliating incident . Early in the book , Momma hides Uncle Willie in a vegetable bin to protect him from Ku Klux Klan raiders . Maya has to endure the insult of her name being changed to Mary by a racist employer . A white speaker at her eighth grade graduation ceremony disparages the Black audience by suggesting that they have limited job opportunities . A white dentist refuses to treat Maya 's rotting tooth , even when Momma reminds him that she had loaned him money during the Depression . The Black community of Stamps enjoys a moment of racial victory when they listen to the radio broadcast of Joe Louis 's championship fight , but generally they feel the heavy weight of racist oppression .
A turning point in the book occurs when Maya and Bailey 's father unexpectedly appears in Stamps . He takes the two children with him when he departs , but leaves them with their mother in St. Louis , Missouri . Eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya is sexually abused and raped by her mother 's boyfriend , Mr. Freeman . He is found guilty during the trial , but escapes jail time and is murdered , presumably by Maya 's uncles . Maya feels guilty and withdraws from everyone but her brother . Even after returning to Stamps , Maya remains reclusive and nearly mute until she meets Mrs. Bertha Flowers , " the aristocrat of Black Stamps " , who encourages her through books and communication to regain her voice and soul . This coaxes Maya out of her shell .
Later , Momma decides to send her grandchildren to their mother in San Francisco , California , to protect them from the dangers of racism in Stamps . Maya attends George Washington High School and studies dance and drama on a scholarship at the California Labor School . Before graduating , she becomes the first Black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco . While still in high school , Maya visits her father in southern California one summer , and has some experiences pivotal to her development . She drives a car for the first time when she must transport her intoxicated father home from an excursion to Mexico . She experiences homelessness for a short time after a fight with her father 's girlfriend .
During Maya 's final year of high school , she worries that she might be a lesbian ( which she equates with being a hermaphrodite ) , and initiates sexual intercourse with a teenage boy . She becomes pregnant , which on the advice of her brother , she hides from her family until her eighth month of pregnancy in order to graduate from high school . Maya gives birth at the end of the book .
= = Style and genre = =
Angelou 's prose works , while presenting a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form , can be placed in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development , however , often lead reviewers to categorize her books ,
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including I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , as autobiographical fiction . Other critics , like Lupton , insist that Angelou 's books should be categorized as autobiographies because they conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . In a 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , Angelou calls her books autobiographies .
At first , Angelou intended to return to poetry and play @-@ writing after completing Caged Bird and write no more autobiographies , but she chose the genre as her primary mode of expression because of its challenge and so that she could " change it , to make it bigger , richer , finer , and more inclusive in the twentieth century " . In a 1989 interview , she stated , " I think I am the only serious writer who has chosen the autobiographical form to carry my work , my expression " . As she told journalist George Plimpton during a 1990 interview , " Autobiography is awfully seductive ; it ’ s wonderful " . She also told Plimpton that like the tradition begun by Frederick Douglass in slave narratives , she used the literary technique of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . As critic Susan Gilbert states , Angelou was reporting not one person 's story , but the collective 's . Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agrees , and sees Angelou as representative of the convention in African @-@ American autobiography as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people .
Scholar Joanne M. Braxton sees Caged Bird as " the fully developed black female autobiographical form that began to emerge in the 1940s and 1950s " . The book presents themes that are common in autobiography by Black American women : a celebration of Black motherhood ; a criticism of racism ; the importance of family ; and the quest for independence , personal dignity , and self @-@ definition . Angelou introduces a unique point of view in American autobiography by revealing her life story through a narrator who is a Black female from the South , at some points a child , and other points a mother . Writer Hilton Als calls Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , Angelou was worried about her readers ' reactions to her disclosure in her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , that she was a prostitute . She went through with it , anyway , after her husband Paul Du Feu advised her to be honest about it .
Angelou has recognized that there are fictional aspects to her books , and that she tends to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . Angelou discussed her writing process with Plimpton , and when asked if she changed the truth to improve her story , she admitted that she had . She stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about . " Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she has used these facts to make an impact with the reader . As Hagen states , " One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work " . Hagen also states that Angelou " fictionalizes , to enhance interest " . For example , Angelou uses the first @-@ person narrative voice customary with autobiographies , told from the perspective of a child that is " artfully recreated by an adult narrator " .
Angelou uses two distinct voices , the adult writer and the child who is the focus of the book , whom Angelou calls " the Maya character " . Angelou reports that maintaining the distinction between herself and the Maya character is " damned difficult " , but " very necessary " . Scholar Liliane Arensberg suggests that Angelou " retaliates for the tongue @-@ tied child 's helpless pain " by using her adult self 's irony and wit . As such , Caged Bird has been called a Bildungsroman or coming @-@ of @-@ age story ; critic Mary Jane Lupton compares it to other Bildungsromans like George Eliot 's novel The Mill on the Floss . According to Lupton , the two books share the following similarities : a focus on young strong @-@ willed heroines who have solid relationships with their brothers , an examination of the role of literature in life , and an emphasis on the importance of family and community life .
= = Form = =
When Angelou wrote I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the end of the 1960s , one of the necessary and accepted features of literature , according to critic Pierre A. Walker , was thematic unity . One of Angelou 's goals was to create a book that satisfied this criterion , in order to achieve her political purposes , which were to demonstrate how to resist racism in America . The structure of the text , which resembles a series of short stories , is not chronological but rather thematic . Walker , in his 1993 article about Caged Bird , " Racial Protest , Identity , Words , and Form " , focuses on the book 's structure , and describes how it supports her presentation of racism . According to Walker , critics had neglected analyzing its structure , choosing to focus instead on its themes , which he feels neglects the political nature of the book . He states , " One serves Angelou and Caged Bird better by emphasizing how form and political content work together " . Angelou structures her book so that it presents a series of lessons about how to resist racism and oppression . The progression Maya goes through thematically unifies the book , something that " stands in contrast to the otherwise episodic quality of the narrative " . The way in which Angelou constructs , arranges , and organizes her vignettes often undermined the chronology of her childhood by " juxtaposing the events of one chapter with the events of preceding and following ones so that they too comment on each other " .
For example , the incident with the " powhitetrash " girls takes place in chapter 5 , when Maya was ten years old , well before Angelou 's recounting of her rape in chapter 12 , which occurred when Maya was 8 . Walker explains that Angelou 's purpose in placing the vignettes in this way is that it followed her thematic structure . Angelou 's editor , Robert Loomis , agrees , stating that Angelou could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader . Hagen sees Angelou 's structure somewhat differently , focusing on Maya 's journey " to establish a worthwhile self @-@ concept " , and states that she structures the book into three parts : arrival , sojourn , and departure , which occur both geographically and psychologically . However , Hagen notes that instead of beginning Caged Bird chronologically , with Maya and Bailey 's arrival in Stamps , Angelou begins the book much later chronologically by recounting an embarrassing experience at church , an incident that demonstrates Maya 's diminished sense of self , insecurity , and lack of status . Hagen explains that Angelou 's purpose is to demonstrate Maya 's journey from insecurity to her feelings of worth gained by becoming a mother at the end of the book .
= = Themes = =
= = = Identity = = =
In the course of Caged Bird , Maya , who has been described as " a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America " , goes from being a victim of racism with an inferiority complex to a self @-@ aware individual who responds to racism with dignity and a strong sense of her own identity . Feminist scholar Maria Lauret states that the " formation of female cultural identity " is woven into the book 's narrative , setting Maya up as " a role model for Black women " . Scholar Liliane Arensberg calls this presentation Angelou 's " identity theme " and a major motif in Angelou 's narrative . Maya 's unsettled life in Caged Bird suggests her sense of self " as perpetually in the process of becoming , of dying and being reborn , in all its ramifications " . African @-@ American literature scholar Dolly McPherson agrees , stating that Angelou creatively uses Christian mythology and theology to present the Biblical themes of death , regeneration , and rebirth .
As Lauret indicates , Angelou and other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s used autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Up until this time , Black women were not depicted realistically in African @-@ American fiction and autobiography , meaning that Angelou was one of the first Black autobiographers to present , as Cudjoe put it , " a powerful and authentic signification of [ African @-@ American ] womanhood in her quest for understanding and love rather than for bitterness and despair " . Lauret sees a connection between Angelou 's autobiographies , which Lauret calls " fictions of subjectivity " and " feminist first @-@ person narratives " , and fictional first @-@ person narratives ( such as The Women 's Room by Marilyn French and The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing ) written during the same period . As French and Lessing do in their novels , Angelou employs the narrator as protagonist and depends upon " the illusion of presence in their mode of signification " .
As a displaced girl , Maya 's pain is worsened by an awareness of her displacement . She is " the forgotten child " , and must come to terms with " the unimaginable reality " of being unloved and unwanted ; she lives in a hostile world that defines beauty in terms of whiteness and that rejects her simply because she is a Black girl . Maya internalizes the rejection she has experienced – her belief in her own ugliness was " absolute " . McPherson believes that the concept of family , or what she calls " kinship concerns " , in Angelou 's books must be understood in the light of the children 's displacement at the beginning of Caged Bird . Being sent away from their parents was a psychological rejection , and resulted in a quest for love , acceptance , and self @-@ worth for both Maya and Bailey .
Angelou uses her many roles , incarnations , and identities throughout her books to illustrate how oppression and personal history are interrelated . For example , in Caged Bird , Angelou demonstrates the " racist habit " of renaming African Americans , as shown when her white employer insists on calling her " Mary " . Angelou describes the employer 's renaming as the " hellish horror of being ' called out of [ one 's ] name ' " . Scholar Debra Walker King calls it a racist insult and an assault against Maya 's race and self @-@ image . The renaming emphasizes Maya 's feelings of inadequacy and denigrates her identity , individuality , and uniqueness . Maya understands that she is being insulted and rebels by breaking Mrs. Cullinan 's favorite dish , but feels vindicated when , as she leaves her employer 's home , Mrs. Cullinan finally gets her name right . Another incident in the book that solidifies Maya 's identity is her trip to Mexico with her father , when she has to drive a car for the first time . Contrasted with her experience in Stamps , Maya is finally " in control of her fate " . This experience is central to Maya 's growth , as is the incident that immediately follows it , her short period of homelessness after arguing with her father 's girlfriend . These two incidents give Maya a knowledge of self @-@ determination and confirm her self @-@ worth .
Scholar Mary Burgher believes that female Black autobiographers like Angelou have debunked the stereotypes of African @-@ American mothers as " breeder [ s ] and matriarch [ s ] " , and have presented them as having " a creative and personally fulfilling role " . Lupton believes that Angelou 's plot construction and character development were influenced by the same mother / child motif as is found in the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Jessie Fauset . For the first five years of her life , Maya thinks of herself as an orphan and finds comfort in the thought that her mother is dead . Maya 's feelings for and relationship with her own mother , whom she blames for her abandonment , express themselves in ambivalence and " repressed violent aggression " . For example , Maya and her brother destroy the first Christmas gifts sent by their mother . These strong feelings are not resolved until the end of the book , when Maya becomes a mother herself , and her mother finally becomes the nurturing presence for which Maya has longed . The two main maternal influences on Maya 's life change as well ; Vivian becomes a more active participant , while Momma becomes less effective as Maya , by becoming a mother herself , moves from childhood to adulthood .
= = = Racism = = =
Stamps , Arkansas , as depicted in Caged Bird , has very little " social ambiguity " : it is a racist world divided between Black and white , male and female . Als characterizes the division as " good and evil " , and notes how Angelou 's witness of the evil in her society , which was directed at Black women , shaped Angelou 's young life and informed her views into adulthood . Angelou uses the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage , described in Paul Laurence Dunbar 's poem , as a prominent symbol throughout her series of autobiographies . Like elements within a prison narrative , the caged bird represents Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and oppression . The caged bird metaphor also invokes the " supposed contradiction of the bird singing in the midst of its struggle " . Scholar Ernece B. Kelley calls Caged Bird a " gentle indictment of white American womanhood " ; Hagen expands it further , stating that the book is " a dismaying story of white dominance " .
Caged Bird has been called " perhaps the most aesthetically satisfying autobiography written in the years immediately following the Civil Rights era " . Critic Pierre A. Walker expresses a similar sentiment , and places it in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest . Angelou demonstrates , through her involvement with the Black community of Stamps , as well as her presentation of vivid and realistic racist characters and " the vulgarity of white Southern attitudes toward African Americans " , her developing understanding of the rules for surviving in a racist society . Angelou 's autobiographies , beginning with Caged Bird , contain a sequence of lessons about resisting oppression . The sequence she describes leads Angelou , as the protagonist , from " helpless rage and indignation to forms of subtle resistance , and finally to outright and active protest " .
Walker insists that Angelou 's treatment of racism is what gives her autobiographies their thematic unity and underscores one of their central themes : the injustice of racism and how to fight it . For example , in Angelou 's depiction of the " powhitetrash " incident , Maya reacts with rage , indignation , humiliation , and helplessness , but Momma teaches her how they can maintain their personal dignity and pride while dealing with racism , and that it is an effective basis for actively protesting and combating racism . Walker calls Momma 's way a " strategy of subtle resistance " and McPherson calls it " the dignified course of silent endurance " .
Angelou portrays Momma as a realist whose patience , courage , and silence ensured the survival and success of those who came after her . For example , Maya responds assertively when subjected to demeaning treatment by Mrs. Cullinan , her white employer , and , later on in the book , breaks the race barrier to become the first black streetcar operator in San Francisco . In addition , Angelou 's description of the strong and cohesive black community of Stamps demonstrates how African Americans subvert repressive institutions to withstand racism . Arensberg insists that Angelou demonstrates how she , as a Black child , evolves out of her " racial hatred " , common in the works of many contemporary Black novelists and autobiographers . At first Maya wishes that she could become white , since growing up Black in white America is dangerous ; later she sheds her self @-@ loathing and embraces a strong racial identity .
= = = Rape = = =
Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight @-@ year @-@ old child overwhelms the autobiography , although it is presented briefly in the text . Scholar Mary Vermillion compares Angelou 's treatment of rape to that of Harriet Jacobs in her autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl . Jacobs and Angelou both use rape as a metaphor for the suffering of African Americans ; Jacobs uses the metaphor to critique slaveholding culture , while Angelou uses it to first internalize , then challenge , twentieth @-@ century racist conceptions of the Black female body ( namely , that the Black female is physically unattractive ) . Rape , according to Vermillion , " represents the black girl 's difficulties in controlling , understanding , and respecting both her body and her words " .
Arensberg notes that Maya 's rape is connected to the theme of death in Caged Bird , as Mr. Freeman threatens to kill Maya 's brother Bailey if she tells anyone about the rape . After Maya lies during Freeman 's trial , stating that the rape was the first time he touched her inappropriately , Freeman is murdered ( presumably by one of Maya 's uncles ) and Maya sees her words as a bringer of death . As a result , she resolves never to speak to anyone other than Bailey . Angelou connects the violation of her body and the devaluation of her words through the depiction of her self @-@ imposed , five @-@ year @-@ long silence . As Angelou later stated , " I thought if I spoke , my mouth would just issue out something that would kill people , randomly , so it was better not to talk " .
African @-@ American literature scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe calls Angelou 's depiction of the rape " a burden " of Caged Bird : a demonstration of " the manner in which the Black female is violated in her tender years and ... the ' unnecessary insult ' of Southern girlhood in her movement to adolescence " . Vermillion goes further , maintaining that a Black woman who writes about her rape risks reinforcing negative stereotypes about her race and gender . When asked decades later how she was able to survive such trauma , Angelou explained it by stating , " I can 't remember a time when I wasn 't loved by somebody . " When asked by the same interviewer why she wrote about the experience , she indicated that she wanted to demonstrate the complexities of rape . She also wanted to prevent it from happening to someone else , so that anyone who had been raped might gain understanding and not blame herself for it .
= = = Literacy = = =
As Lupton points out , all of Angelou 's autobiographies , especially Caged Bird and its immediate sequel Gather Together in My Name , are " very much concerned with what [ Angelou ] knew and how she learned it " . Lupton compares Angelou 's informal education with the education of other Black writers of the twentieth century , who did not earn official degrees and depended upon the " direct instruction of African American cultural forms " . Angelou 's quest for learning and literacy parallels " the central myth of black culture in America " : that freedom and literacy are connected . Angelou is influenced by writers introduced to her by Mrs. Flowers during her self @-@ imposed muteness , including Edgar Allan Poe and William Shakespeare . Angelou states , early in Caged Bird , that she , as the Maya character , " met and fell in love with William Shakespeare " . Critic Mary Vermillion sees a connection between Maya 's rape and Shakespeare 's " The Rape of Lucrece " , which Maya memorizes and recites when she regains her speech . Vermillion maintains that Maya finds comfort in the poem 's identification with suffering . Maya finds novels and their characters complete and meaningful , so she uses them to make sense of her bewildering world . She is so involved in her fantasy world of books that she even uses them as a way to cope with her rape , writing in Caged Bird , " ... I was sure that any minute my mother or Bailey or the Green Hornet would bust in the door and save me " .
According to Walker , the power of words is another theme that appears repeatedly in Caged Bird . For example , Maya chooses to not speak after her rape because she is afraid of the destructive power of words . Mrs. Flowers , by introducing her to classic literature and poetry , teaches her about the positive power of language and empowers Maya to speak again . The importance of both the spoken and written word also appears repeatedly in Caged Bird and in all of Angelou 's autobiographies . Referring to the importance of literacy and methods of effective writing , Angelou once advised Oprah Winfrey in an 1993 interview to " do as West Africans do ... listen to the deep talk " , or the " utterances existing beneath the obvious " . McPherson says , " If there is one stable element in Angelou 's youth it is [ a ] dependence upon books " . The public library is a " quiet refuge " to which Maya retreats when she experiences crisis . Hagen describes Angelou as a " natural story @-@ teller " , which " reflect [ s ] a good listener with a rich oral heritage " . Hagen also insists that Angelou 's years of muteness provided her with this skill .
Angelou was also powerfully affected by slave narratives , spirituals , poetry , and other autobiographies . Angelou read through the Bible twice as a young child , and memorized many passages from it . African @-@ American spirituality , as represented by Angelou 's grandmother , has influenced all of Angelou 's writings , in the activities of the church community she first experiences in Stamps , in the sermonizing , and in scripture . Hagen goes on to say that in addition to being influenced by rich literary form , Angelou has also been influenced by oral traditions . In Caged Bird , Mrs. Flowers encourages her to listen carefully to " Mother Wit " , which Hagen defines as the collective wisdom of the African @-@ American community as expressed in folklore and humor .
Angelou 's humor in Caged Bird and in all her autobiographies is drawn from Black folklore and is used to demonstrate that in spite of severe racism and oppression , Black people thrive and are , as Hagen states , " a community of song and laughter and courage " . Hagen states that Angelou is able to make an indictment of institutionalized racism as she laughs at her flaws and the flaws of her community and " balances stories of black endurance of oppression against white myths and misperceptions " . Hagen also characterize Caged Bird as a " blues genre autobiography " because it uses elements of blues music . These elements include the act of testimony when speaking of one 's life and struggles , ironic understatement , and the use of natural metaphors , rhythms , and intonations . Hagen also sees elements of African American sermonizing in Caged Bird . Angelou 's use of African @-@ American oral traditions creates a sense of community in her readers , and identifies those who belong to it .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Critical reception and sales = = =
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the most highly acclaimed of Angelou 's autobiographies . The other volumes in her series of seven autobiographies are judged and compared to Caged Bird . It became a bestseller immediately after it was published . Angelou 's friend and mentor , James Baldwin , maintained that her book " liberates the reader into life " and called it " a Biblical study of life in the midst of death " . According to Angelou 's biographers , " Readers , especially women , and in particular Black women , took the book to heart " .
By the end of 1969 , critics had placed Angelou in the tradition of other Black autobiographers . Poet [ [ James Bertolino ] ] asserts that Caged Bird " is one of the essential books produced by our culture " . He insists that " [ w ] e should all read it , especially our children " . It was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970 , has never been out of print , and has been published in many languages . It has been a Book of the Month Club selection and an Ebony Book Club selection . In 2011 , Time Magazine placed the book in its list of 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923 .
Critic Robert A. Gross called Caged Bird " a tour de force of language " . Edmund Fuller insisted that Angelou 's intellectual range and artistry were apparent in how she told her story . Caged Bird catapulted Angelou to international fame and critical acclaim , was a significant development in Black women 's literature in that it " heralded the success of other now prominent writers " . Other reviewers have praised Angelou 's use of language in the book , including critic E. M. Guiney , who reported that Caged Bird was " one of the best autobiographies of its kind that I have read " . Critic R. A. Gross praised Angelou for her use of rich and dazzling images .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , Caged Bird had gone through 20 hardback printings and 32 paperback printings . The week after Angelou recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at President Bill Clinton 's 1993 inauguration , sales of the paperback version of Caged Bird and her other works rose by 300 – 600 percent . Caged Bird had sold steadily since its publication , but it increased by 500 percent . The 16 @-@ page publication of " On the Pulse of Morning " became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award . The Bantam Books edition of Caged Bird was a bestseller for 36 weeks , and they had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of her books to meet demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , marking a 1 @,@ 200 percent increase .
The book 's reception has not been universally positive ; for example , author Francine Prose considers its inclusion in the high school curriculum as partly responsible for the " dumbing down " of American society . Prose calls the book " manipulative melodrama " , and considers Angelou 's writing style an inferior example of poetic prose in memoir . She accuses Angelou of combining a dozen metaphors in one paragraph and for " obscuring ideas that could be expressed so much more simply and felicitously " . Many parents throughout the U.S. have sought to ban the book from schools and libraries for being inappropriate for younger high school students , for promoting premarital sex , homosexuality , cohabitation , and pornography , and for not supporting traditional values . Parents have also objected to the book 's use of profanity and to its graphic and violent depiction of rape and racism .
= = = Influence = = =
When Caged Bird was published in 1969 , Angelou was hailed as a new kind of memoirist , one of the first African @-@ American women who was able to publicly discuss her personal life . Up to that point , Black women writers were marginalized to the point that they were unable to present themselves as central characters . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called Caged Bird " a work of art that eludes description " , has insisted that Angelou 's autobiographies set a precedent for African @-@ American autobiography as a whole . Als insisted that Caged Bird marked one of the first times that a Black autobiographer could , as Als put it , " write about blackness from the inside , without apology or defense " . Through the writing of her autobiography , Angelou became recognized as a respected spokesperson for blacks and women . Caged Bird made her " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . Although Als considers Caged Bird an important contribution to the increase of Black feminist writings in the 1970s , he attributes its success less to its originality than to " its resonance in the prevailing Zeitgeist " of its time , at the end of the American Civil Rights movement . Angelou 's writings , more interested in self @-@ revelation than in politics or feminism , freed many other women writers to " open themselves up without shame to the eyes of the world " .
Angelou 's autobiographies , especially the first volume , have been used in narrative and multicultural approaches to teacher education . Jocelyn A. Glazier , a professor at George Washington University , has used Caged Bird and Gather Together in My Name when training teachers to appropriately explore racism in their classrooms . Angelou 's use of understatement , self @-@ mockery , humor , and irony causes readers of Angelou 's autobiographies to wonder what she " left
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, 2013 , Lucasfilm announced that it was postponing the 3D release of episodes II and III in order to " focus 100 percent of our efforts on Star Wars : The Force Awakens " and that further information about 3D release plans would be issued at a later date . The premiere of the 3D version was shown on April 17 , 2015 , at Star Wars Celebration Anaheim .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave Revenge of the Sith a 79 % approval rating and average rating of 7 @.@ 3 / 10 based on 282 reviews from critics , with the consensus being " With Episode III : Revenge of the Sith , George Lucas brings his second Star Wars trilogy to a suitably thrilling and often poignant – if still a bit uneven – conclusion . " Metacritic gave the film a 68 out of 100 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Most critics have considered the film to be the best of the prequels . A. O. Scott of The New York Times concluded that it was " the best of the four episodes Mr. Lucas has directed " , and equal to The Empire Strikes Back as " the richest and most challenging movie in the cycle " . In a 2007 summary of the 100 Best Science @-@ Fiction Films on Rotten Tomatoes , Revenge of the Sith was placed 51 out of 100 , making it the only prequel film in the Star Wars series to earn a ranking . Jonathan Rosenbaum , a critic who disliked A New Hope and The Empire Strikes Back , gave the film a positive review saying that it had a " relatively thoughtful story " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , writing " If [ Lucas ] got bogged down in solemnity and theory in Episode II : Attack of the Clones , the Force is in a jollier mood this time , and Revenge of the Sith is a great entertainment . "
In 2012 , art critic Camille Paglia praised the film in Glittering Images , comparing some of its scenes to works by modern painters and calling it " the greatest work of art in recent memory " . Paglia explained " The long finale of Revenge of the Sith has more inherent artistic value , emotional power , and global impact than anything by the artists you name . It 's because the art world has flat @-@ lined and become an echo chamber of received opinion and toxic over @-@ praise . It 's like the emperor 's new clothes -- people are too intimidated to admit what they secretly think or what they might think with their blinders off . Episode III epitomizes the modern digital art movement , more so than other piece from the last 30 years . I had considered using Japanese anime for the digital art chapter of the book , but it lacked the overwhelming operatic power and yes , seriousness of Lucas 's Revenge of the Sith . "
Though many critics and fans saw it as the strongest of the three prequels , some saw it as more or less on par with The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . Much of the criticism for the film was directed towards the dialogue , particularly the film 's romantic scenes , and for Hayden Christensen 's performance ( which won him his second Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor ) . Critics and fans alike were quick to jump on such lines as " Hold me , Ani . Hold me , like you did by the lake on Naboo ... where there was nothing but our love ... " Critics have claimed this demonstrated Lucas ' weakness as a writer of dialogue , a subject with which Lucas openly agreed when receiving the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute .
Some American conservatives criticized the film , claiming it has a liberal bias and is a commentary on the George W. Bush administration and the Iraq War . Some websites went so far as to propose a boycott of the film . Lucas defended the film , stating that the film 's storyline was written during the Vietnam War and was influenced by that conflict rather than the war in Iraq . Lucas did note , however , that " The parallels between Vietnam and what we 're doing in Iraq now are unbelievable " .
= = = Box office performance = = =
The film was released in 115 countries . Its worldwide gross eventually reached $ 849 million — making it the second most financially successful film of 2005 , behind Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . The film earned an estimated $ 16 @.@ 91 million from 2 @,@ 900 midnight screenings in North America upon its release . In total , it earned a record $ 50 million on its opening day . It was surpassed the following year by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , which earned $ 55 @.@ 5 million on its opening day .
With only the May 19 earnings , the film broke four box office records : midnight screenings gross ( previously held by The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King , $ 8 million ) , opening day gross ( Spider @-@ Man 2 , with $ 40 @.@ 4 million ) , single day gross ( Shrek 2 with $ 44 @.@ 8 million ) and Thursday gross ( The Matrix Reloaded with $ 37 @.@ 5 million ) . Its single day and opening day gross records were later surpassed by Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest on July 7 , 2006 , when that movie grossed $ 55 @.@ 5 million on its opening day , and its midnight screening gross was broken by The Dark Knight on July 18 , 2008 with $ 18 @.@ 5 million . It still retains its record for Thursday gross , however . According to box office analysis sites , the film set American records for highest gross in a given number of days for each of its first 12 days of release except for the seventh and eighth , where the record is narrowly held by Spider @-@ Man 2 . On its fifth day , it became the highest @-@ grossing film of 2005 , surpassing Hitch ( $ 177 @.@ 6 million ) . The film earned $ 158 @.@ 5 million in its first four @-@ day period , surpassing the previous four @-@ day record held by The Matrix Reloaded ( $ 134 @.@ 3 million ) , and joining Spider @-@ Man , The Matrix Reloaded and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire as one the only films to make $ 100 million in three days . In eight days , it reached the $ 200 million mark ( a record tied with Spider @-@ Man 2 ) and by its 17th day , the film had passed $ 300 million ( surpassing the record of 18 days of Shrek 2 ) . It was eventually the third @-@ fastest film ( after Shrek 2 and Spider @-@ Man ) to reach $ 350 million .
The film ended its run in American theaters on October 20 , 2005 , finishing with a total gross of $ 380 @,@ 270 @,@ 577 . It ranks 27th in all @-@ time domestic grosses and is the highest @-@ grossing U.S. of 2005 , outgrossing second @-@ place The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe by nearly $ 90 million . The film sold an estimated 59 @,@ 324 @,@ 600 tickets in the US .
International grosses that exceeded $ 10 million include those Australia ( $ 27 @.@ 2 million ) , France and Algeria ( $ 56 @.@ 9 million ) , Germany ( $ 47 @.@ 3 million ) , Italy ( $ 11 @.@ 3 million ) , Japan ( $ 82 @.@ 7 million ) , Mexico ( $ 15 @.@ 3 million ) , South Korea ( $ 10 @.@ 3 million ) , Spain ( $ 23 @.@ 8 million ) , and the United Kingdom and Ireland ( $ 72 @.@ 8 million ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
Post the release of Revenge of the Sith — the completion of the original and prequel Star Wars series — on June 9 , 2005 , George Lucas was presented with the 33rd American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement Award . The institute honored his " astonishing contributions to the art and technology of filmmaking , as well as the impact of the epic Star Wars series " .
Despite being the prequel trilogy 's best reviewed and received film , it received fewer award nominations than the previous films . It became the only Star Wars film not to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects ; however , it was nominated for Best Makeup ( Dave Elsey and Nikki Gooley ) , losing to The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . It also won " Favorite Motion Picture " and " Favorite Dramatic Motion Picture " awards at the People 's Choice Awards , " Hollywood Movie of the Year " award at the Hollywood Film Festival , Empire Awards ( Sci @-@ Fi / Fantasy Film ) , and the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie - Action . It also was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006 .
As every film of the original trilogy , the film won the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film . Williams also won Best Music . The film was nominated for ten Saturn Awards overall , including Best Director and Best Writing for Lucas , Best Actor for Christensen , Best Actress for Natalie Portman and Best Supporting Actor for Ian McDiarmid .
The film did , however , receive the fewest Golden Raspberry Awards nominations : only one , for Christensen as Worst Supporting Actor , which he won . ( The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones received seven nominations each , with one and two wins , respectively . ) It is the only Star Wars prequel not to receive a Razzie nomination for " Worst Picture " . Christensen further won the " Best Villain " award at the MTV Movie Awards .
= = Themes = =
Throughout Revenge of the Sith , Lucas refers to a wide range of films and other sources , drawing on political , military , and mythological motifs to enhance his story 's impact . Perhaps the most media coverage was given to a particular exchange between Anakin and Obi @-@ Wan , which led to the aforementioned controversy : " If you 're not with me , then you 're my enemy " , Anakin declares . Despite Lucas ' insistence to the contrary , The Seattle Times concluded , " Without naming Bush or the Patriot Act , it 's all unmistakable no matter what your own politics may be . "
McDiarmid , Lucas , and others have also called Anakin 's journey to the dark side Fa
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ustian in the sense of making a " pact with the devil " for short @-@ term gain , with the fiery volcano planet Mustafar representing hell . Midway through the film , Lucas intercuts between Anakin and Padmé by themselves , thinking about one another in the Jedi Temple and their apartment , respectively , during sunset . The sequence is without dialog and complemented by a moody , synthesized soundtrack . Lucas ' coverage of the exterior cityscapes , skylines and interior isolation in the so @-@ called " Ruminations " sequence is similar to the cinematography and mise @-@ en @-@ scène of Rosemary 's Baby , a film in which a husband makes a literal pact with the devil .
As with the previous film and its allusions to The Empire Strikes Back , some deliberately placed references have been made to draw allusions with Return of the Jedi . The title is similar in style to the original planned " Revenge of the Jedi " . Some dialog is mirrored in both films especially the line " I can feel your anger ! " spoken by Palpatine , who also orders his personal entourage / bodyguards to " Leave us " at important moments in both films . Darth Vader attempts to play on Luke 's fear of loss by taunting him with threats against Leia . His own fear of the loss of Padme is what draws him to the dark side . Prior to settling on the Ewoks as the main helpers , the Wookiee race was originally planned to be in Jedi .
= = Other media = =
= = = Novelization = = =
The film 's novelization was written by Matthew Stover . It includes much more dialogue than the film , including : a conversation between Count Dooku and Darth Sidious , where the reader learns Palpatine lied to Dooku about what the Empire would truly be ; a conversation between Mace Windu and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi where Obi @-@ Wan expresses self @-@ doubt about whether he is the right Jedi to battle General Grievous ; and a conversation between Anakin and Palpatine in which Palpatine promises to give Anakin anything he wants — whether it be a new speeder or the star system Corellia . The novel includes many minor details . For example , during the Battle of Coruscant , Anakin 's callsign is Red 5 , a reference to Luke 's callsign in the climactic battle of A New Hope , and one of the Republic capital ships is commanded by Lieutenant Commander Lorth Needa , who becomes Captain Needa in The Empire Strikes Back . There are also references to the Star Wars : Republic comic book series , such as the Battle of Jabiim ( Volume 3 ) . In addition to this , the siege of the Jedi Temple is much more violent and far more graphically explained than the cinematic version .
Some unseen or unheard @-@ of elements of the story were fleshed out in the course of the novel . Such examples include more discussions between Anakin and Palpatine , in which Palpatine explicitly says that Darth Plagueis was his master ; in the film , it is merely hinted at . Additionally , it is revealed that the primary reason for Anakin 's outrage over not becoming a Jedi Master is that only Masters have access to the holocrons in the Temple Archives , which is where Anakin had hoped to find information about how to prevent Padme 's death . Not only is Saesee Tiin revealed to be a telepath , but his horn , lost in the Clone Wars , is revealed to have grown back . The book explains that Palpatine purposely manipulated the Council into sending Obi @-@ Wan to fight General Grievous , because he knew he needed to get Obi @-@ Wan off Coruscant before he could turn Anakin to the dark side . The novel also reveals Mace Windu 's rationale for not bringing Anakin along to the fight with Palpatine : he can sense Anakin 's fear and distress , and does not believe the young Jedi is in any mental state to fight a Sith Lord . These are a few examples of many descriptions of characters ' feelings and inner narrative . There are even some humorous lines added in , including extra dialogue in the battle between Grievous and Obi Wan - Grievous says , " I was trained by Count Dooku , " and Obi @-@ Wan replies , " What a coincidence ; I trained the man who killed him . "
= = = Video game = = =
A video game based on the film was released on May 5 , 2005 , two weeks before the film . The game followed the film 's storyline for the most part , integrating scenes from the film . However , many sections of the game featured scenes cut from the film , or entirely new scenes for the game . The style of the game was mostly lightsaber combat and fighting as Obi @-@ Wan or Anakin . It also has a form of multiplayer mode , which includes both " VS " and " Cooperative " mode . In the first mode , two players fight with characters of their choice against each other in a lightsaber duel to the death . In the latter mode , two players team up to combat increasingly difficult waves of enemies .
= Halo : Ghosts of Onyx =
Halo : Ghosts of Onyx is a military science fiction novel by Eric Nylund , based on the Halo series of video games . The book was released in October 2006 and is the fourth Halo novel ; Nylund 's third contribution to the series . Onyx was also the first of three Halo novels to be published by Tor Books , rather than the previous publisher , Del Rey .
Ghosts of Onyx details the creation of a group of supersoldiers known as the SPARTAN @-@ IIIs to defend humanity against the alien collective known as the Covenant . After the events of Halo 2 , the SPARTAN 's training world of Onyx is beset by robotic attackers . The SPARTANs and their trainers must fight the robots and the Covenant as they work to uncover the planet 's secrets .
Upon release , Ghosts of Onyx garnered generally positive reviews . The novel debuted on The New York Times bestseller list and became an international bestseller .
= = Background and writing = =
Ghosts of Onyx author Eric Nylund had previously written two of the three past Halo novels , The Fall of Reach and First Strike , and went to Halo 's developer Bungie with an outline of what he wanted to do next . According to Nylund , Bungie gave him room to write the story as long as he accomplished some " very specific [ story ] goals " , sometimes making changes to the Halo universe to incorporate his ideas . However , he acknowledged the difficulty of fitting his story into the rest of the Halo universe was far greater for Ghosts of Onyx than the other novels as more of the story had been made public and was no longer able to be modified . Nylund mentioned in an interview with IGN that writing a Halo novel had both its positive aspects and drawbacks . " It 's better because I have all these great toys and characters to play with , " Nylund stated in an interview , " It 's not so good because I have to work and play well with other parts of the intellectual property so everything meshes . "
Ghosts of Onyx , originally known as Ghosts of Coral , was the first Halo novel to be published by Tor Books instead of Del Rey . Nylund had 15 weeks to write the book , as opposed to the 7 weeks for The Fall of Reach , but he claimed he still " lost sleep ... ate a bunch of chocolate and drank too much coffee . " Tor 's editors also had more time than those of Del Rey and helped " untangle " the complicated plot of Onyx . On writing , Nylund pointed out that " tension is the cornerstone of any good story " , and that Ghosts of Onyx would be no different .
IGN 's reviewer , Douglass C. Perry , found that by using short paragraphs and many jumps in time " [ the novel 's ] style of writing keeps the pace going , even when nothing much is going on . " This technique is used deliberately by Nylund to hasten the pace to avoid " fatiguing the reader and losing them . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Ghosts of Onyx takes place in the 26th century , where humanity , under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command , has developed faster @-@ than @-@ light travel and colonized hundreds of worlds . Without warning , an alien collective known as the Covenant attacks the outer human colony of Harvest . The Covenant begin to hunt down human colonies , vitrifying the surface of each world . Humanity 's best weapon against the technologically superior Covenant are the SPARTAN @-@ IIs , supersoldiers equipped with powerful armor ; unfortunately , there are too few of the SPARTANs to turn the tide of the war .
= = = Characters = = =
Kurt @-@ 051
Kurt is a SPARTAN @-@ II who serves in John @-@ 117 's squad . Kurt is known for his sense of intuition , which saves his team on several occasions . Recruited to train a new series of Spartans , Kurt is devastated by the massive casualties his trainees suffer . In response , Kurt begins instituting illegal brain modifications to give his soldiers a better chance at survival . Due to the secretive lengths taken by his superiors to recruit him to the program , none of Kurt 's former colleagues know he is alive .
Franklin Mendez
Mendez is one of the SPARTAN @-@ III project 's trainers . In Nylund 's previous novel , Halo : The Fall of Reach , Mendez is the SPARTAN @-@ II 's trainer and leaves shortly after humanity 's first encounter with the Covenant to train the next generation of Spartans . After the next batch of SPARTAN @-@ IIs are postponed , Mendez returns to active duty fighting against the Covenant before training the SPARTAN @-@ IIIs .
Catherine Halsey
Halsey is the creator behind the SPARTAN @-@ II project . In order to train the young recruits whom she has selected for the program , Halsey abducts the children and replaces them with clones . Though her soldiers are phenomenally successful , Halsey abruptly leaves with the injured SPARTAN Kelly in Halo : First Strike on an unspecified mission . After years of willingly manipulating her " children " , Halsey decides to attempt to save them all instead of throwing them into a war she believes humanity will lose .
James Ackerson
Ackerson is a Colonel in the Army , and a fierce opponent of the SPARTAN @-@ II program ; during The Fall of Reach , Ackerson goes as far as attempting to kill John @-@ 117 in a training exercise . Ackerson proposes his own SPARTAN program , which would attempt to duplicate the SPARTAN @-@ II 's operational record at a lower cost — creating " disposable Spartans . " The existence of this program is kept a secret from the public and much of the UNSC , especially Halsey .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The story begins with a group of SPARTAN @-@ IIIs being deployed to a Covenant fleet refueling depot in the year 2545 . The soldiers destroy the facility , but all save two of the three hundred SPARTANs are killed . The narrative then moves back to 2531 , where SPARTAN @-@ IIs are deployed against human insurrectionists ; though the team is almost captured , the timely intervention of Kurt @-@ 051 allows the team to complete their mission . Meanwhile , Colonel James Ackerson meets with the Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) . Ackerson announces his plan to create a new breed of SPARTANs which retains much of the supersoldiers ' effectiveness , without the high price tag of the SPARTAN @-@ II program . These SPARTAN @-@ IIIs are trained by Franklin Mendez , as well as Kurt @-@ 051 . With his death staged by ONI , Kurt @-@ 051 is placed in full charge of SPARTAN @-@ III training , under the name and rank of Lieutenant Kurt Ambrose . The SPARTAN @-@ III project is carried out on a secret ONI planet named Onyx , where there is also an archaeological excavation of ancient Forerunner ruins in an area known as " Zone 67 " . When a company of SPARTAN @-@ IIIs goes missing in Zone 67 , it is declared off @-@ limits to all personnel .
Like the SPARTAN @-@ IIs , the SPARTAN @-@ III candidates undergo radical cybernetic and biological enhancements and are outfitted with special armor to increase their abilities . The first SPARTAN @-@ III company proves highly successful , but is wiped out when ordered to destroy a Covenant orbital shipyard in 2537 . Shaken by the massacre of his troops , Kurt improves the training regimen for his next batch of SPARTAN @-@ III recruits , but they too are all killed in action so Kurt , in an effort to reduce casualties , institutes illegal biological modifications on the third company of SPARTANs . While conducting a training exercise near Zone 67 , UNSC personnel find themselves under attack by alien robotic drones .
Meanwhile , Dr. Catherine Halsey , the SPARTAN @-@ II project 's creator , along with the SPARTAN Kelly @-@ 087 arrive in the Onyx system . As they near the surface of the planet they are attacked by more robot drones and crash , meeting up with the human survivors of the attacks . Halsey identifies the robotic drones as Forerunner Sentinels from the artificial intelligence Cortana 's logs of the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Halsey sends a message back to Earth , which is under attack by Covenant ; in response , Lord Hood sends the SPARTAN @-@ IIs Fred @-@ 104 , Linda @-@ 058 , and Will @-@ 043 to Onyx .
At the Forerunner ringworld Delta Halo , the Covenant are in the midst of a civil war . Elites intercept Halsey 's distress signal and learn of the existence of Onyx and its Forerunner technology . Both the Covenant and the UNSC forces which arrive at Onyx are attacked by Sentinels . The entire UNSC fleet at Onyx is destroyed by the ensuing battle , save for one stealth ship , the Dusk , which stays hidden , observing the events .
The remaining human forces on Onyx discover a Forerunner city being rapidly uncovered by the Sentinels , and are guided into a massive sphere by Dr. Halsey . She determines that the entire planet is actually a " Shield World " constructed by the Forerunners to protect themselves from the firing of the Halo ringworlds , which are designed to eradicate all sentient life . Fighting off Covenant pursuers , the humans discover an entrance leading to a Dyson Sphere . Kurt remains behind in order to detonate two nuclear weapons to stop the Covenant from following the humans into the Sphere . Hiding at a distance from Onyx , the Dusk watches as Onyx 's surface rips apart to reveal that the entire world is constructed of Sentinels , all connected together to provide an impenetrable defense around the Dyson Sphere at the heart of the planet . The Sentinels annihilate the remaining Covenant fleet vessels orbiting the planet and the Prowler retreats . Fred , now inside the Dyson Sphere , takes command of the survivors and orders everyone to search for method of escape .
= = Reception = =
IGN gave Ghosts of Onyx good marks , praising Nylund 's writing style and how Onyx managed to tie up many plot threads that were left hanging from both the novels and the games . The publication did note , however , that the Master Chief made only a cameo appearance , and that Ghosts of Onyx is " about the supporting cast of characters " , rather than the heroes of the video game . Offering a less positive outlook on the book were publications like Subnova.com , which blasted the novel as being much worse than Halo : First Strike , introducing characters the reader didn 't care about and using too much jargon . The reviewer stated that " It 's a good book . Honest . It just doesn 't measure up to the standard set by the other books in the series . " In response to complaints about typographical errors , Nylund responded that a reprint of the book fixing these issues would appear .
Ghosts of Onyx debuted as The New York Times bestseller , remaining on the list for eleven weeks . The novel would go on to become an international bestseller ; a mass @-@ market paperback would be released on April 7 , 2007 .
= William Harper ( Rhodesian politician ) =
William John Harper ( 22 July 1916 – 8 September 2006 ) was a politician , general contractor and Royal Air Force fighter pilot who served as a Cabinet minister in Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) from 1962 to 1968 , and signed that country 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) from Britain in 1965 . Born into a prominent Anglo @-@ Indian merchant family in Calcutta , Harper was educated in India and England and joined the RAF in 1937 . He served as an officer throughout the Second World War and saw action as one of " The Few " in the Battle of Britain , during which he was wounded in action . Appalled by Britain 's granting of independence to India in 1947 , he emigrated to Rhodesia on retiring from the air force two years later .
Harper contended that British rule in the subcontinent should never have ended , and took a similar stance regarding his adopted homeland , reportedly declaring that it , South Africa and the neighbouring Portuguese territories would " be under white rule forever " . He entered politics with the Dominion Party in 1958 and became Minister of Irrigation , Roads and Road Traffic in the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) government in 1962 . The head of a far @-@ right group within the RF , he called for Rhodesia to abolish black representation in parliament and adopt " a form of political apartheid " . When the Prime Minister Winston Field resigned in 1964 , Harper was a front @-@ runner to succeed him , but lost out to Ian Smith , who moved him to the Ministry of Internal Affairs .
Each breakdown or setback during the early years of Smith 's premiership prompted press speculation that Harper might replace him . In 1966 , when Smith brought a working document back from the HMS Tiger talks with the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson , Harper led opposition to the terms in Cabinet , contributing to their rejection . Harper resigned from the Rhodesian Front in 1968 , soon after Smith dismissed him from the Cabinet , reportedly because Harper had had an extramarital affair with a British agent . He subsequently became a vocal critic of the Prime Minister , greeting each step Smith made towards settlement with black nationalists during the Bush War with public indignation . By the time majority rule began in Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 , following the Internal Settlement of the previous year , Harper had left for South Africa . He died in 2006 at the age of 90 .
= = Early life = =
William John Harper was born on 22 July 1916 in Calcutta , British India , scion of an old and prominent Anglo @-@ Indian merchant family that had been based in the subcontinent for generations , working with the East India Company during the 18th and 19th centuries . He was educated at North Point in Darjeeling , India , and in the English town of Windsor . He grew into a short but tough man who spoke with clipped diction . Nathan Shamuyarira wrote of him in 1966 that " his tight mouth rarely relaxes into a smile , so ... he seems always on the point of losing his temper " .
= = Second World War ; Royal Air Force pilot = =
Harper joined the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1937 , and was commissioned as an acting pilot officer on 5 September . He was promoted to flying officer on 12 February 1940 , and attached to No. 17 Squadron . On 18 May 1940 he shared in the destruction of a Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighter , and a week later he destroyed a Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bomber . He was appointed B Flight commander , with the rank of acting flight lieutenant , on 26 May . He destroyed another Bf 110 over Dunkirk three days later , during the evacuation of Allied forces , and continued as flight commander until 8 June 1940 , reverting to the rank of flying officer . He was again promoted to acting flight lieutenant on 4 July , when he was given command of A Flight .
From July 1940 , still flying with No. 17 Squadron , Harper was one of " The Few " , the Allied pilots of the Battle of Britain . On 11 August he shared in the probable destruction of a Bf 110 and damaged a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter . Four days later , after taking off as part of a group of six Hawker Hurricanes assigned to intercept more than 20 Luftwaffe aircraft , Harper contacted the German planes alone and probably destroyed a Bf 109 before being shot down . He crash @-@ landed in a field near the Suffolk seaside town of Felixstowe , and convalesced in hospital there with wounds to his face and leg . He soon rejoined No. 17 Squadron and continued his command of A Flight from the ground — he returned to the skies on 1 November 1940 . A week later he destroyed a Ju 87 and probably another . Harper received the war substantive rank of flight lieutenant on 12 February 1941 . A month later he was posted to No. 57 Operational Training Unit RAF , based at RAF Hawarden in Wales , as an instructor .
In September 1941 , Harper was seconded to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) to command No. 453 Squadron RAAF , which was based at Singapore and operated Brewster Buffalo fighters . After suffering heavy losses during the Malayan Campaign in December , No. 453 Squadron was temporarily amalgamated with another Buffalo unit , No. 21 Squadron RAAF , to form No. 21 / 453 Squadron under Harper 's command . By February 1942 , No. 453 Squadron was denuded of aircraft and its remaining personnel were evacuated to Australia . Harper assumed command of No. 135 Squadron RAF in India in April 1942 . In January 1943 he took command of No. 92 ( East India ) Squadron RAF in North Africa , and was promoted to temporary squadron leader with seniority backdated to March 1942 . He was transferred to England in September 1943 and commanded the University Air Squadron at Leeds until 1944 . He remained with the RAF following the end of hostilities .
= = Political career = =
= = = Emigration to Rhodesia = = =
Harper was appalled when Britain made India independent in 1947 — he held that the British government had unnecessarily caved in to Indian nationalist demands and should have continued in the subcontinent indefinitely . He retained this view for years afterwards . He retired from the RAF in April 1949 with the rank of wing commander , and the same year emigrated to Southern Rhodesia , a British colony in southern Africa that had been self @-@ governing since 1923 . He settled in the central town of Gatooma , where he farmed , mined and set up an earth @-@ moving contractor 's business . In 1953 , Southern Rhodesia became a territory of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland alongside Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland . Each territory retained its own political status and government , and Southern Rhodesia 's constitutional status was unaltered .
= = = Dominion Party = = =
Harper entered politics when he contested the Gatooma seat in the 1958 general election , running for the opposition Dominion Party ( which called for full " dominion " or Commonwealth realm status ) . The Southern Rhodesian electoral system allowed only those who met certain financial and educational qualifications to vote — the criteria were applied equally regardless of race , but since most black citizens did not meet the set standards , the electoral roll and colonial Legislative Assembly were overwhelmingly drawn from the white minority ( about 5 % of the population ) . Harper won in Gatooma with 717 out of 1 @,@ 300 votes . Holding strongly conservative views , he soon became seen as the voice of the party 's right wing . He was elected president of the Dominion Party 's Southern Rhodesian arm in October 1959 , and by 1960 he was the official Leader of the Opposition in the Southern Rhodesian parliament .
Amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , the Federation was looking ever more tenuous and the idea of " no independence before majority rule " was gaining considerable ground in British political circles . Harper called for Southern Rhodesia to abandon the Federation and " go it alone " . In June 1960 he and the Southern Rhodesian branch of the Dominion Party adopted the policy of " Southern Rhodesia first " , prompting strong protests from the party 's Northern Rhodesian division ; the Dominion Party splintered into separate Federal and territorial entities a month later . When black nationalist riots broke out in the townships in October 1960 , Harper condemned the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Sir Edgar Whitehead and the governing United Federal Party ( UFP ) as too lenient on the protesters , and argued that giving concessions following political violence would make black Rhodesians believe that " trouble pays dividends " . Arguing against black representation in the Legislative Assembly , he said that if there were black MPs " they will share the restaurant with us and they will share the bars with us . We will be living cheek by jowl with them , and what sort of legislation can the people of this country expect when we ourselves are being conditioned to living cheek by jowl with Africans ? "
= = = Rhodesian Front = = =
In 1962 Harper was a founding member of the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) , an alliance of conservative voices centred around the former Dominion Party and defectors from the UFP . The party 's declared goal was independence for Southern Rhodesia without radical constitutional change and without any set timetable for the introduction of majority rule . After the RF won a surprise victory in the November 1962 general election — Harper comfortably retained his seat in Gatooma , and elsewhere the country 's first black MPs were elected — the new Prime Minister Winston Field made him Minister of Irrigation , Roads and Road Traffic in the new government . Over the next few years , Harper became one of the main agitators in the Cabinet for a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) ; equating Southern Rhodesia to India , he saw this as a way to prevent a repeat of " the same mistake " .
The RF grew dissatisfied with Field during late 1963 and early 1964 because of his failure to win independence on Federal dissolution at the end of 1963 . Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , by contrast , were both independent under black majority governments within a year , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi . Harper , who had been assigned the additional portfolios of Transport and Power in November 1963 , was one of two frontrunners to replace Field . The other was the Deputy Prime Minister Ian Smith , formerly of the UFP , who was also Minister of the Treasury . Harper , described in The Spectator as " an ambitious politician and single @-@ minded upholder of white supremacy " , was generally considered the more hardline choice , and the man more likely to go through with UDI . When the Cabinet forced Field to resign in April 1964 , it was Smith who was nominated by the ministers to become the new Prime Minister . Accepting the premiership , Smith reshuffled the Cabinet a few days later and moved Harper to the Ministry of Internal Affairs . Harper was deeply disappointed not to have succeeded Field .
As Minister of Internal Affairs , Harper oversaw the indaba ( conference ) of chiefs and headmen at Domboshawa in October 1964 , at the end of which the tribal leaders unanimously announced their support for the government 's line on independence . He continued to be linked with the premiership . During Smith 's negotiations with the British government , each breakdown or setback was accompanied by speculation in Rhodesia ( " Southern " was dropped in late 1964 ) that Harper might step up to take his place . As the dispute with Britain intensified and white Rhodesians clamoured for independence , Harry Franklin reported in The Spectator in August 1965 that if Smith proved unwilling to go through with UDI , " it is widely believed that ... Harper will emerge from the wings , no longer an understudy , to dare what Mr Smith dare not " . Harper was one of four ministers chosen by Smith to accompany him to London for talks in October 1965 , the others being John Wrathall ( Finance ) , Desmond Lardner @-@ Burke ( Justice ) and the Deputy Minister of Information P K van der Byl . Agreement was not reached and a month later , on 11 November 1965 , Smith and his Cabinet declared Rhodesia independent .
At the time of UDI , Harper reportedly kept a map of southern Africa on the wall of his office , on which he had coloured South Africa , South @-@ West Africa , Rhodesia , Mozambique south of the Zambezi and Angola red ; he told visitors that " the red area will be under white rule forever " . While insisting that Rhodesia would continue regardless of international opinion , he publicly demonised the UK government , describing it in January 1966 as " an enemy ... [ that ] must be brought down " . He also vilified black nationalist guerrilla fighters opposed to the Rhodesian government , calling them " gangs of terrorists " and " criminals " . Comments such as these helped to cement Harper 's reputation as a hardline right @-@ winger and rival to Smith 's leadership . The strong personalities of Harper and other ministers such as the Duke of Montrose ( generally known in Rhodesia by his former title Lord Graham ) were perceived by the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his compatriots as a great influence on Smith 's political decision @-@ making , an opinion also expressed by Harper himself .
Although Harper was considered an intelligent and capable minister by peers and reporters — a 1965 report in The Economist called him " by far the best brain " in the Rhodesian Cabinet — his views were often perceived as overly reactionary . He led a phalanx of far @-@ right voices within the RF calling for " a form of political apartheid " in Rhodesia , and while the party line was gradual advancement of black political representation , Harper called not only for the cessation of such moves , but for the abolition of black MPs altogether . He thus became something of an obstacle to an Anglo @-@ Rhodesian settlement . Indeed , when Smith brought a working document back from the HMS Tiger talks with Wilson in October 1966 , it was Harper who led opposition to the terms in Cabinet , contributing to its ultimate rejection . Harper considered himself to have been overlooked when Smith gave the office of Deputy Prime Minister ( which had been vacant since UDI ) to the more moderate Wrathall the month before the Tiger conference . The South African newspaper Die Beeld reported in December 1966 that the RF 's right wing was poised to oust Smith in favour of Harper , but this did not occur .
= = = Resignation = = =
On 4 July 1968 , Harper resigned from the Cabinet at Smith 's request . He was the first minister to be dismissed during Smith 's premiership . The government released a statement explaining that Harper had been removed " for reasons entirely unrelated to differences of opinion over constitutional or other political issues " , and saying simply that Harper had been deemed " a security risk " . Harper publicly claimed that he had been fired for political reasons and because of the threat he posed to Smith 's leadership . Smith was reticent but told reporters he was prepared to tell " the whole sorry tale " if Harper wished .
According to the memoirs of Ken Flower , then the director of Rhodesia 's Central Intelligence Organisation ( CIO ) , Harper 's downfall was the result of an extramarital affair with a young secretary in the Rhodesian civil service who the CIO discovered was an agent for MI6 . Flower informed Smith of this on 3 July and the Prime Minister demanded Harper 's resignation that afternoon ; Harper acquiesced the next day . Because this was kept secret ( presuming it is true ) , Harper 's sudden departure from the Cabinet was interpreted by many observers at the time as the culmination of the personal and political rivalry between Smith and Harper , or the result of disagreements over the new constitution .
Harper officially resigned his parliament seat and left the Rhodesian Front on 11 July 1968 . Wilson publicly welcomed his departure as a " step in the right direction " , prompting a retort from Smith that he did not appoint or sack ministers to please the British government . Smith said that Harper had been depicted as more extreme than he really was , and denied that he had obstructed a settlement . In retrospect , Smith said he had been glad to be rid of Harper , who he considered underhand and devious . Harper ignored an approach from the ultra @-@ right @-@ wing Rhodesian National Party , offering the leadership , and for a time withdrew from public affairs . Montrose and the ministers A P Smith and Phillip van Heerden briefly threatened to follow Harper out of the government , but backed down within a few days . After a fresh dispute Montrose resigned on 11 September 1968 in protest against Smith 's proposed constitutional and racial policies , which he deemed too liberal . A week later the RF 's Albert Mells easily won the by @-@ election to fill Harper 's former seat in Gatooma .
= = = Later career = = =
By the time of the July 1974 general election , amid the Bush War , Harper had formed a small bloc of independents called the " Harper Group " . In an attempt to co @-@ ordinate opposition to the Rhodesian Front , the group made an election agreement with the Rhodesia Party ( RP ) , which had been formed two years earlier ; according to The Bulletin it was " seriously hampered by lack of established leadership " but nevertheless " the only real resistance [ to the RF ] in the polls " . Shortly before election day , Harper told a meeting of 300 people that under the present system , which was geared to eventually bring parity between black and white Rhodesians , racial tension would increase and " the white man will be forced out of the country " . He said that while he was not prepared to let black Rhodesians take control of the government , he understood that some form of power @-@ sharing between the races was imperative to the country 's future . The RF won all 50 white roll seats , denying the RP any representation in parliament ; Harper himself lost decisively in the southern Salisbury constituency of Hatfield .
By the end of 1974 , Harper had formed the United Conservative Party , which called for separate black and white legislatures . He subsequently reacted with revulsion each time Smith moved towards settlement with black nationalist factions . In December that year he described Smith 's announcement of a ceasefire in the run @-@ up to the Victoria Falls Conference as a " ghastly capitulation " . In 1976 , when Smith announced his acceptance of unconditional majority rule by 1978 , Harper accused the Prime Minister of " selling us out " . " The mind boggles at the enormous impertinence and audacity of this man Smith , " he said .
In December 1975 , two months after the disappearance of the prominent lawyer and black nationalist leader Edison Sithole from the middle of Salisbury , along with his secretary Miriam Mhlanga , Harper stepped forward claiming that the Rhodesian state had kidnapped them . In what became known as the " Harper Memorandum " , the ex @-@ minister stated that Special Branch had interrogated Sithole at Goromonzi prison and then shuttled him between holding points around the country . The Rhodesian government denied that it was holding Sithole , adding that he was not under any form of restriction . Sithole and Mhlanga were never seen again , and their fate has never been explained .
= = Emigration to South Africa and death = =
Smith and non @-@ militant nationalists agreed what became the Internal Settlement in March 1978 , and in January the following year whites backed
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@-@ French invasion of Egypt to seize control of the Suez Canal . Jamaica was paid off in 1958 and sold for scrap in 1960 .
= = Description = =
Jamaica displaced about 8 @,@ 631 long tons ( 8 @,@ 770 t ) at standard load and 11 @,@ 017 long tons ( 11 @,@ 194 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 555 feet 6 inches ( 169 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 68 feet 5 inches ( 20 @.@ 9 m ) and a draught of 19 feet 10 inches ( 6 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving four shafts , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 25 knots ( 59 @.@ 73 km / h ; 37 @.@ 11 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by four Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Jamaica carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 700 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 6 @,@ 520 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 080 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 733 officers and men in peacetime and 900 during war .
The ship mounted twelve 50 @-@ calibre 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in four three @-@ gun turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of eight 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in four twin turrets . Jamaica mounted two quadruple 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA mounts ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . Her short @-@ range AA armament is not known . The ship carried two above @-@ water triple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .
Jamaica lacked a full waterline armour belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms and the magazines were protected by 3 @.@ 25 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 83 – 89 mm ) of armour . The deck over the machinery spaces and magazines was reinforced to a thickness of 2 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 – 89 mm ) . She carried an aircraft catapult and two Supermarine Sea Otter seaplanes .
= = History = =
Jamaica was laid down on 28 April 1938 by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , England as part of the 1938 Naval Programme and named for the Colony of Jamaica . The ship was launched on 16 November 1940 and completed on 29 June 1942 . After working up , the ship provided distant cover to Convoy PQ 18 in September . She was assigned to the Centre Task Force of Operation Torch in early November and was unsuccessfully attacked by the Vichy French submarine Fresnel . The Arctic convoys had been suspended at PQ 18 , but were scheduled to resume on 15 December with Convoy JW 51A . HMS Jamaica and HMS Sheffield , with several escorting destroyers , formed Force R , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Burnett and were tasked to cover the convoy against any German surface ships . The convoy was not spotted by the Germans and arrived at the Kola Inlet without incident on 25 December .
= = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = =
Force R sailed from Kola on 27 December to rendezvous with Convoy JW 51B in the Norwegian Sea , but the convoy had been blown southwards by a major storm . Several of its ships had been separated during storm and they confused the radar of Force R 's ships as to the true location of the convoy . Thus Force R was 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the convoy on the morning of 31 December when the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper attacked the convoy . Admiral Hipper was first held at bay by the British destroyers HMS Onslow , HMS Obedient , HMS Obdurate and HMS Orwell . Initially driven off , Admiral Hipper returned , only to be engaged by Force R shortly before noon and was hit by three 6 @-@ inch shells from the cruisers . Two German destroyers , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt and Z4 Richard Beitzen , misidentified Sheffield as Admiral Hipper and attempted to form up on her . Sheffield sank Friedrich Eckoldt at a range of 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) while Jamaica unsuccessfully engaged Richard Beitzen . Less than an hour later Force R spotted the pocket battleship Lutzow and Admiral Hipper and opened fire . Neither side scored any hits in the darkness before both sides turned away a few minutes later . Force R continued to track the German ships for several hours before they lost contact . Although the destroyer HMS Achates and the minesweeper HMS Bramble were sunk by the Kriegsmarine , the convoy reached the Kola Inlet intact . Force R remained at sea to protect Convoy RA 51 that was returning to Great Britain until relieved by HMS Berwick and HMS Kent .
Jamaica was relieved of escort duties on her return in January 1943 and had her main gun barrels replaced in March . She rejoined the Home Fleet , but was refitted in Portsmouth from July to September . Sometime during the year she received six twin power @-@ operated 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns as well as four single guns . During November she protected the convoys RA 54B , JW 54A , JW 54B and RA 54B , but was not engaged . On 15 December she was assigned to Force 2 , the distant escort for Convoy JW 55A , with the battleship HMS Duke of York and four destroyers . Force 2 was commanded by Admiral Bruce Fraser , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Home Fleet , in Duke of York . For the first time the British distant cover force escorted the convoy all the way to the Kola Inlet . Their passage was uneventful and Force 2 sailed on 18 December to refuel at Iceland . Before he reached his destination , Admiral Fraser received Ultra information that a sortie by the German battleship Scharnhorst was likely to attack Convoy JW 55B , which was already at sea .
= = = Battle of North Cape = = =
German aerial reconnaissance spotted the convoy on 22 December , and Scharnhorst , escorted by five destroyers of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla , sailed on 25 December to intercept it . The resulting engagement became known as the Battle of North Cape . The Germans were spotted on the morning of 26 December and were engaged by the covering force that consisted of the cruisers HMS Belfast , HMS Sheffield , HMS Norfolk and four destroyers . Meanwhile , HMS Jamaica and HMS Duke Of York approached from the south west , barring the Scharnhorst ’ s path of retreat . The German battleship turned for her base at Altafjord in the early afternoon after two brief encounters with the British cruisers . She was spotted by Duke of York 's Type 273 radar at a range of 45 @,@ 500 yards ( 41 @,@ 600 m ) and Duke of York opened fire half an hour later . Jamaica fired her first salvo a minute after , and hit Scharnhorst on her third broadside . She was forced to cease fire after 19 volleys as the German ship was faster in the heavy seas than the British ships , and was opening up the range despite heavy damage from the British shells . One shell from Duke of York 's last volley penetrated into Scharnhorst 's Number One boiler room and effectively destroyed it . This reduced the German ship 's speed sufficiently for the British destroyers to catch up and make four torpedo hits using a pincer attack . This slowed the ship again , so that Jamaica and Duke of York also caught up and opened fire at a range of 10 @,@ 400 yards ( 9 @,@ 500 m ) . They hit the German ship continually , but she was not sinking after 20 minutes of firing so Jamaica was ordered to torpedo her . Two torpedoes from her first volley of three missed and the third misfired , so the cruiser had to turn about to fire her other broadside of three , two of which appeared to hit . Belfast and the destroyers also fired torpedoes before Scharnhorst finally sank .
= = = Further convoys and the raids on the Tirpitz = = =
In February – March 1944 , Jamaica served as part of the covering forces for Convoys JW 57 , JW 58 and RA 58 . She was detached from the latter to escort the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious as she launched an air strike against the German battleship Tirpitz as part of Operation Tungsten . In July she formed part of the covering force for the carriers HMS Formidable , HMS Furious and HMS Indefatigable during an unsuccessful attack on the German battleship Tirpitz berthed in Kaafjord ( Operation Mascot ) . Jamaica escorted the Convoys JW 59 and RA 59 in August – September before starting a major refit in October that lasted until April 1945 . The ship 's ' X ' turret ( third from the front ) was removed and replaced by two more 2 @-@ pounder mounts while her radar suite was modernized .
On 6 June the cruiser conveyed King George VI and the Queen on a visit the Channel Islands . Jamaica joined the 5th Cruiser Squadron at Colombo in October and replaced HMS Norfolk as the squadron flagship in April 1946 . The ship returned to Devonport for a refit in November 1947 and was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in August 1948 after its completion . She was sent to Hong Kong in April 1949 and remained in the Far East until the Korean War began in June 1950 .
= = = The Korean War = = =
Fighting between North and South Korea had broken out on 25 June 1950 , whilst Jamaica was on passage to Japan . She , and her escort HMS Black Swan , were ordered to rendezvous with the American light cruiser USS Juneau off the east coast of Korea to bombard advancing North Korean troops . On 2 July a North Korean supply convoy was returning from Chumunjin when it was spotted by the Allied ships . The escorting motor torpedo boats and motor gun boats turned to fight , but three torpedo boats and both gun boats were sunk without inflicting any damage on the Allied ships . They resumed bombarding coastal targets . Six days later Jamaica was hit by a 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) shell that killed six and wounded five . On 15 August the ship bombarded captured harbour facilities in Kunsan . The following month , Jamaica participated in the preparatory bombardment of the island of Wolmi @-@ do before the main landing on 15 September . During the landing itself she supported the southern flank of the assault and she was tasked to support the 1st Marine Regiment afterwards . Two days after the landing Jamaica and the American heavy cruiser USS Rochester were attacked by a pair of Yakovlev piston @-@ engined fighters at dawn . One aircraft succeeded in strafing the ship , killing one sailor , before it was shot down by the ship 's guns . Jamaica was sent to refit in Singapore in October and then sailed for home after it was completed . She arrived in Plymouth in February 1952 and was placed in reserve .
= = = Post war = = =
The ship was the flagship of the Reserve Fleet from May 1953 to 1954 when she was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . Assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron , she was refitted in Chatham Dockyard from June 1955 and rejoined her squadron . The ship participated in Operation Musketeer in November 1956 . The ship led the bombardment force covering the Royal Marine landings at Port Said , but she was not permitted to fire her main guns as the Cabinet had banned naval gunfire support by guns larger than 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) . In 1954 she played the part of HMS Exeter in the war film The Battle of the River Plate . Jamaica was placed in reserve again in September 1958 after a port visit to Kiel . She was sold on 14 November 1960 to BISCO . The ship arrived at Arnott Young 's yards at Dalmuir on 20 December 1960 for scrapping . This was not completed until 15 August 1963 at Troon .
= Thatgamecompany =
Thatgamecompany , LLC ( stylized as thatgamecompany ) is an American independent video game development company co @-@ founded by University of Southern California students Jenova Chen and Kellee Santiago in 2006 . The company was a developer for Sony Computer Entertainment , contracted to create three downloadable games for the PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network service , and has since secured independent funding . The first of their games is a remake of Chen 's award @-@ winning Flash title Flow , with enhanced visuals and sound , added multiplayer modes and compatibility with the PlayStation 3 's motion sensitive controller . The title was released on the PlayStation Store in 2007 . The company 's second PlayStation 3 game , Flower , was released on the PlayStation Store in 2009 , and their third game , Journey , was released in March 2012 on the PlayStation Store .
The company focuses on creating video games that provoke emotional responses from players . Its employees have stated that , while they are not opposed to making action @-@ oriented games , they believe that enough such titles are released by the established video game industry . When designing a game , Thatgamecompany employees start by mapping out what they want the player to feel , rather than by establishing game mechanics . Employees have stated that the company does not plan to produce large , blockbuster titles , due to their belief that the pressure for high sales would stifle innovation .
= = History = =
In late 2005 , Jenova Chen and Kellee Santiago began thinking about creating their own video game company . The two were in their final year as master 's students in the Interactive Media Program at the University of Southern California 's School of Cinematic Arts , and had just released a video game — Cloud — that they had developed with several other students . The group intended the project as an experiment , meant to reveal whether they could create a game that " expressed something different than video games had in the past " , and to determine the public 's level of interest in video games of that nature . Due to the game 's strongly positive reception , Chen and Santiago began to consider founding their own company , so that they could continue making games like Cloud — in which the design is not based on gameplay mechanics , but on inspiring emotions in players — after they left college .
At the time , digital distribution was gaining popularity . The two saw it as an opportunity to create games without the high financial risk of retail distribution , which they believed would require them to first accumulate funds by working for other video game companies . Thatgamecompany was founded on May 15 , 2006 , as Chen and Santiago finished their master 's degrees . The company soon signed a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , which had been impressed by Chen 's Flash game Flow — a component of his master 's thesis at USC . Thatgamecompany was contracted to produce three games for the upcoming PlayStation Network distribution system , and was given startup funding and a location at Sony 's offices in Los Angeles .
Initially , Thatgamecompany consisted of Chen , Santiago , Nick Clark , who had collaborated with Chen on Flow , and John Edwards . Santiago was the president of the company and the producer for its games , Clark was the designer , and Edwards was the lead engineer . Although Chen cofounded the company , he initially worked at Maxis on the game Spore . The company considered adapting Cloud as their first product for Sony , but instead decided on Flow , as it was " more fleshed @-@ out as a design " . They felt that it would be easier than Cloud to develop while they built the company ; no members of the team had experience with managing a business or with creating a commercial game . Several contract workers assisted Thatgamecompany with Flow 's development , including Austin Wintory , the game 's composer .
The company had believed that the PlayStation 3 version of Flow could be completed in four months , and that it would be ready for the November 2006 launch of the PlayStation Network . However , when it was released in February 2007 , it did not include " half of the original design " . According to Santiago , the Sony producer assigned to the team had anticipated that they would underestimate the game 's development length , and was not surprised by the delay . The game was well received ; it became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and was nominated for the Best Downloadable Game of the Year award at the 2008 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Interactive Achievement Awards , and for the Best Innovation award at the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) awards . After its release , an expansion pack and a PlayStation Portable version of the game were created by SuperVillain Studios . Thatgamecompany was not involved in the development of either project beyond ensuring that they retained the same design and art direction as the original , as they were busy creating their next title , Flower .
Flower was Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " , according to Santiago . Six to nine people were involved at different stages of development . Chen returned to work full @-@ time at the company prior to the game 's development , and served as the creative director . The game 's music was composed by Vincent Diamante , who had worked with Chen and Santiago on Cloud . The game was developed for two years , but the team spent three @-@ fourths of that time in the prototyping stage . After they decided on the game 's elements , Flower was produced in only six months . Like Flow , the game was well received when it was released in February 2009 , selling in the top ten PlayStation Network titles of the year and garnering several awards . After the release of Flower , Thatgamecompany moved into their own building in Los Angeles .
The company 's latest project is Journey , which was released on March 13 , 2012 . It was the final game in Thatgamecompany 's three @-@ game contract with Sony , and was developed by a team of fourteen . This team did not include Santiago , who , in order to concentrate on her role as the company 's president , was replaced as a producer by Robin Hunicke . The game was in development for three years , despite having been expected to take one year , and the development team faced several problems in expanding the company from seven employees as they began the game to eighteen , and risked running out of money . Upon release , the game achieved both critical and commercial success . It became the fastest @-@ selling game to date on PlayStation Store in North America and Europe . After the game was released , as the company began work on another project , several employees left for other opportunities . Santiago left the company to pursue other ventures , designer Chris Bell left to form his own studio The Willderness , and Hunicke resigned to work at Tiny Speck . Chen attributes the exodus to the end of Thatgamecompany 's three @-@ game contract , and to the fact that the company had run out of money to pay employees , mandating an unpaid hiatus until the revenue from Journey came in .
Once the money from Journey began to arrive , Thatgamecompany brought back several of the employees affected by the cashflow problems , and some new developers . The company , with its contract with Sony complete , raised $ 5 @.@ 5 million in venture capitalist funding , which they hope to use to develop future games for multiple platforms without influences by publishers . The team has been working since the release of Journey on a new , unannounced game , and as of June 2013 was made up of around 12 people , only half of whom worked on Journey . Thatgamecompany hopes to release the game on " as many platforms as possible " , and to include touch controls in an innovative way in the same way their previous games included tilting the controller . On May 27 , 2014 it was reported that the next game from Thatgamecompany had received $ 7 million in funding from Capital Today and a team of other investors . While the unnamed game has been in development , Thatgamecompany has re @-@ released Flow and Flower onto both the PlayStation 4 and the PlayStation Vita , and an updated port of Journey for the PlayStation 4 .
= = Philosophy = =
When Thatgamecompany designs a game , they begin by deciding on the emotions and feelings they wish to invoke in the player . This differs from the approach of most developers , who build from game mechanics or genre features . According to Santiago , the company creates emotional responses to demonstrate the wide range of possible experiences in video games , which she believes is larger than the few — excitement and fear , for example — that are typically presented . Chen has said that the company 's games are meant to evoke emotions more than a message ; he specifically changed the design of Flower when early testers felt that the game promoted green energy . Chen believes that he is " too young " to make a game with a strong message , and so designs the company 's products to avoid overt meanings . Santiago has said that Thatgamecompany 's goal is " to create games that push the boundaries of videogames as a communicative medium , and to create games that appeal to a wide variety of people " . She hopes to change the video game industry with this process , so that other companies approach video games as a " creative medium " instead of a mass product .
Thatgamecompany 's employees are not opposed to making action titles , and , as a break from their regular projects , have internally created " exciting " games that were well received by Sony . However , Chen believes that there is no reason for the company to commercially produce such games , as they would not be creating new ideas that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio , as opposed to working for existing game developers . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as he believes that the financial pressure would stifle innovation .
= = Games = =
In Flow , the player navigates a series of two @-@ dimensional planes with an aquatic microorganism that evolves by consuming other microorganisms . The game 's design is based on Chen 's research into dynamic difficulty adjustment at the University of Southern California , and on psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi 's theoretical concept of mental immersion or flow . It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 22 , 2007 .
Flower was intended as a spiritual successor to Flow . Using the PlayStation 3 's motion sensitive controller , the player controls wind that blows a flower petal through the air . Flying close to flowers results in the player 's petal being followed by other flower petals . Approaching flowers may also have side @-@ effects on the game world , such as bringing vibrant color to previously dead fields or activating stationary windmills . The game features no text or dialogue , forming a narrative arc primarily through visual representation and emotional cues . It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 12 , 2009 .
Journey is Thatgamecompany 's latest game . The player controls a robed figure who wakes up in a desert , with a large mountain in the distance as their destination . While traveling , the player can encounter other players over the Internet , one at a time . Players cannot communicate verbally , but may help each other or not as they wish . The game was released for the PlayStation 3 on March 13 , 2012 . Austin Wintory was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2013 for Best Score Soundtrack for Journey , the first such nomination for a full video game score , but lost to Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo .
= Roger le Poer =
Roger le Poer ( sometimes Roger Pauper or Roger Poer ) was a medieval Lord Chancellor from 1135 until 1139 for King Stephen of England . The son of a powerful bishop , Roger owed his position to his family connections . He lost his office when his father and other relatives lost power . Arrested along with his father , Roger was used to secure the surrender of a castle held by his mother and then disappeared from history .
= = Background and early life = =
Roger was the son of Roger of Salisbury , Lord Chancellor for King Henry I of England and Bishop of Salisbury , and Matilda of Ramsbury . It is possible that Roger of Salisbury was married to Matilda prior to his elevation to the episcopate , but this is unlikely . Because their son Roger le Poer was described as " young " in 1139 , it is most likely that he was born after his father 's consecration as bishop in 1107 . A biographer of Roger of Salisbury , Edward Kealey , has argued that Roger le Poer is the same person as Roger , the archdeacon of Berkshire who died in the 1160s . Another possibility , that the younger Roger was the same as Roger of Ramsbury , archdeacon of Wiltshire , is less likely , as it is known that Roger of Ramsbury was not closely related to Adelelm , the nephew or son of Roger of Salisbury . The historian Diana Greenway in the Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066 – 1300 takes this view .
= = Chancellor = =
The younger Roger 's family was a powerful one in England - not only was his father the Bishop of Salisbury , but he also held the administration of the government in his hands . The older Roger had the powers of the office of justiciar , without having actually been appointed to that office , as a continuation of the power he had held during the second part of the reign of Henry I. The elder Roger 's two nephews – Nigel , who was Bishop of Ely and had previously been Lord Treasurer , and Alexander , who was Bishop of Lincoln - both held important bishoprics , and another nephew or son held the Treasurership from 1136 . This was Adelelm , who may have been a full brother to Roger le Poer . The family also controlled a number of castles throughout England . William of Malmesbury , a medieval chronicler , claimed that the younger Roger 's appointment as chancellor was the price demanded by the elder Roger for the bishop 's support of Stephen as king after the death of King Henry I of England . Roger served as chancellor from 1135 until 24 June 1139 .
Roger travelled with the king , often accompanying him in the royal progresses around England . In late 1136 or 1137 , Roger was with the king at a court called at Westminster which heard a complaint by the Holy Trinity Priory in London that Hasculf de Tany , the castellan of the Tower of London , had taken land that belonged to the priory . In the end , the priory regained custody of their land . In March 1137 Roger was with the king right before the king sailed to Normandy , as the chancellor witnessed a charter of the king just prior to his departure . As chancellor , Roger was a witness on over 60 royal writs .
= = Arrest and exile = =
In the middle of 1139 , rumours were current that the family was going to defect to Stephen 's rival for the throne , the Empress Matilda . These rumours appear to have been started by a group of nobles led by twin brothers Waleran de Beaumont , the Count of Meulan , and Robert de Beaumont , the Earl of Leicester , with Alan of Brittany . Whether Roger and his family really intended to switch their support to Matilda is unclear , but unlikely . In late June , a fight broke out between some of the retainers of Alan and men in the service of Roger 's family . This fight was the excuse for the king moving against Roger 's family . Both the elder and younger Roger were arrested , along with Alexander , but Nigel escaped . Matilda of Ramsbury , who held out in Devizes Castle against the king , was persuaded to surrender the castle to Stephen when the king threatened to hang the younger Roger if she did not yield . The younger Roger
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was restrained with chains and put on a high platform in view of the castle with a noose around his neck .
The name le poer , or pauperus , means " pauper " and was not given to Roger until after his and his father 's fall from power in 1139 . It is possible the new name was bestowed because he could have expected to receive a bishopric after his time as chancellor , which did not happen because of his family 's disgrace . Another possible reason for the name was to contrast with his father 's wealth . It is unlikely that he was actually poor , as his family was wealthy and powerful . The historian Francis West described the base of the family 's power as " control of the important offices of royal government " .
Roger was sent into exile after his family 's disgrace . If he is the same person as the archdeacon of Berkshire , he died in the middle of the 1160s , but no other sure information is known about him after his exile .
= Arizona State Route 89A =
State Route 89A ( SR 89A ) is an 83 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 134 @.@ 94 km ) state highway that runs from Prescott north to Flagstaff in the U.S. state of Arizona . The highway begins at SR 89 and heads northward from Prescott , entering Jerome . From Jerome , the route then heads to Cottonwood and Sedona . The highway is notable for its scenic value as it passes through Sedona and the Oak Creek Canyon . The route then enters Flagstaff , where it crosses Interstate 17 ( I @-@ 17 ) and I @-@ 40 . The highway ends at I @-@ 40 Business in Flagstaff . What is now SR 89A became a state highway in the late 1920s as SR 79 . The highway was extended and improved several times through 1938 . SR 79 was renumbered to U.S. Route 89A ( US 89A ) in 1941 and then to SR 89A in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
SR 89A runs from its southern terminus in Prescott northward through the towns of Jerome , Cottonwood and Sedona to its northern terminus in Flagstaff . The highway is known for its scenic views as it passes through the Sedona and Oak Creek Canyon .
= = = Prescott to Jerome = = =
The southern terminus of SR 89A is located at a junction with SR 89 north of Prescott near the Antelope Hills Golf Course and Ernest A. Love Field . The road heads east from the junction with SR 89 as a four @-@ lane divided highway with diamond interchanges located at most intersections . It continues as a divided highway until it reaches Fain Road in Prescott Valley . The route continues beyond this intersection as a two @-@ lane undivided highway .
As SR 89A moves to the northeast , it begins to ascend the Black Hills mountain range . The roadway follows the terrain through a series of hairpin turns as it climbs in elevation . Once SR 89A reaches passes over the mountains , it begins its descent into the Verde Valley . During its descent , SR 89A enters the town of Jerome . In Jerome , the highway provides access to the nearby Jerome State Historic Park .
= = = Jerome to Sedona = = =
Upon exiting Jerome , SR 89A heads northeast through the Verde Valley . After it enters the town of Clarkdale , it turns southeast at a roundabout with Clarkdale Parkway . The route continues towards the southeast through Clarkdale before entering the town of Cottonwood . There , the highway starts heading east at Cottonwood Street before reaching an intersection with Main Street .
The historic route of 89A from Clarkdale to Cottonwood , when it was called U.S. Route 89A , ran through the old downtown areas of each city . From Jerome , the route continued along 11th Street ( now Clarkdale Parkway ) , turning right at Main Street in Clarkdale , and then right again at Broadway . It continued past Tuzigoot National Monument , becoming Main Street in Cottonwood , and providing access to Dead Horse Ranch State Park . The route intersects Cottonwood Street , where the bypass route now intersects Main Street . This portion is now signed as " Historic U.S. 89A . "
Following the intersection with Cottonwood Street , the road follows Main Street to an intersection with SR 260 , which heads to the south toward Camp Verde and I @-@ 17 . SR 89A then moves northeastward towards Sedona .
As the highway leaves Cottonwood , it again becomes a divided highway north of Rocking Chair Road , heading into desert . Before reaching Sedona , SR 89A provides access to Red Rock State Park . The route remains a divided highway until it reaches Sedona , an arts and resort community known for its red sandstone formations . As it enters the city of Sedona , the route is known as the Si Birch Memorial Highway . The route continues east through Sedona , providing access to the Sedona Airport . SR 89A continues towards the east through Sedona to an intersection with SR 179 , which heads south from this intersection through the southern part of Sedona to provide access to I @-@ 17 .
= = = Sedona to Flagstaff = = =
The highway heads northeast into a wooded area from Sedona and follows Oak Creek as it enters Oak Creek Canyon . SR 89A then curves to the north as it follows the creek and provides access to Slide Rock State Park along this portion of the highway . The roadway leaves the creek as it begins to ascend through the canyon . Upon ascending , the road goes through a series of hairpin turns ( no trucks over 50 ft . ) towards the Mogollon Rim . The roadway continues northward away from the canyon towards Flagstaff . It curves northeastward as it passes to the west of the Forest Highlands Golf Club . The route continues to the northeast towards I @-@ 17 near Flagstaff Pulliam Airport . SR 89A begins to run concurrently with I @-@ 17 as a freeway northward . The two highways continue north to an interchange with I @-@ 40 , where I @-@ 17 terminates . The route continues north along Milton Road , passing to the west of Northern Arizona University before reaching its northern terminus at Interstate 40 Business in Flagstaff .
= = History = =
The routing of SR 89A was first defined as a state highway in 1927 as SR 79 by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) . At the time , only the portion from Prescott to Clarkdale was built , but the remaining portion to Flagstaff had been planned . By 1929 , the highway had been extended north to Sedona , although the entire highway was not paved at this time . A graded dirt road was built the following year between Flagstaff and Sedona . The southern half of the section between Sedona and Flagstaff had been improved to a gravel road by 1934 , with the northern half under construction . The next year , the construction on the northern section near Flagstaff was complete . The southern end of the highway near Prescott and the section between Jerome and Cottonwood had been paved by this time . By 1938 , the entire route had been paved .
By 1941 , the highway was redesignated from SR 79 to US 89A . Before the establishment of the route for I @-@ 17 , the only route to Flagstaff was through Prescott . There were two routes available : US 89A through Jerome , Cottonwood , Clarkdale , Sedona and Oak Creek Canyon or north through Chino Valley via US 89 to US 66 . The route was redesignated from US 89A to SR 89A in 1993 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Spur route = =
Fain Road / Prescott Loop is a short , route running roughly northwest to southeast , along Fain Road in Prescott Valley . Its primary original purpose was to provide a direct route from SR 69 to SR 79 and was originally designated as SR 179 and went to west mingus meeting than SR 79 ( Jerome JCT ) now known as 89A . It now moves west away from West Mingus and towards Robert Road in Prescott Valley where it meets 89A . The road was originally two lanes wide , but it has since been widened to a 4 @-@ lane divided highway and Future plans to make it part of the Prescott Loop Freeway system that will connect Future Interstate 11 and Interstate 17 via Freeway .
= Play @-@ Doh =
Play @-@ Doh is a modeling compound used by young children for art and craft projects at home and in school . Composed of flour , water , salt , boric acid , and mineral oil , the product was first manufactured in Cincinnati , Ohio , U.S. , as a wallpaper cleaner in the 1930s . The product was reworked and marketed to Cincinnati schools in the mid @-@ 1950s . Play @-@ Doh was demonstrated at an educational convention in 1956 and prominent department stores opened retail accounts . Advertisements promoting Play @-@ Doh on influential children 's television shows in 1957 furthered the product 's sales . Since its launch on the toy market in the mid @-@ 1950s , Play @-@ Doh has generated a considerable amount of ancillary merchandise such as The Fun Factory . In 2003 , the Toy Industry Association named Play @-@ Doh in its " Century of Toys List " .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The non @-@ toxic , non @-@ staining , reusable modeling compound that came to be known as " Play @-@ Doh " was a pliable , putty @-@ like substance concocted by Noah McVicker of Cincinnati @-@ based soap manufacturer Kutol Products . It was devised at the request of Kroger Grocery , which wanted a product that could clean coal residue from wallpaper . Following World War II , with the transition from coal @-@ based home heating to natural gas and the resulting decrease in internal soot , and the introduction of washable vinyl @-@ based wallpaper , the market for wallpaper cleaning putty decreased substantially . McVicker 's nephew , Joe McVicker , joined Kutol with the remit to save the company from bankruptcy . Joe McVicker was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of nursery school teacher Kay Zufall , and Zufall had seen a newspaper article about making art projects with the wallpaper cleaning putty . Her students enjoyed it , and she persuaded Bill Rhodenbaugh ( who also sold the putty ) and Joe McVicker to manufacture it as a child ’ s toy . Zufall and her husband came up with the name Play @-@ Doh ; Joe McVicker and Rhodenbaugh had wanted to call it " Rainbow Modeling Compound " .
= = = Launch = = =
Joe McVicker took Play @-@ Doh to an educational convention for manufacturers of school supplies , and Woodward & Lothrop , a department store in Washington , DC began selling the compound . In 1956 , the McVickers formed the Rainbow Crafts Company to make and sell Play @-@ Doh . Also in 1956 , a three @-@ pack of 7 @-@ ounce cans was added to the product line , and , after in @-@ store demonstrations , Macy 's of New York and Marshall Field 's of Chicago opened retail accounts . In 1957 , chemist Dr. Tien Liu reduced Play Doh 's salt content ( thus allowing models to dry without losing their color ) , and Play @-@ Doh ads were telecast on Captain Kangaroo , Ding Dong School , and Romper Room . In 1958 , Play @-@ Doh 's sales reached nearly $ 3 million .
= = = Subsequent developments = = =
In 1964 , Play @-@ Doh was exported to Britain , France , and Italy . In the 1980s , its cardboard can ( with a rust @-@ prone metal bottom ) was scuttled for a more cost effective plastic container . By 1965 , Rainbow Crafts was issued a patent for Play @-@ Doh . Also in 1965 , General Mills purchased Rainbow Crafts and all rights to Play @-@ Doh for $ 3 million , placing the compound with its Kenner Products subsidiary . In 1971 , Rainbow Crafts and Kenner Products merged , and , in 1987 , the Tonka Corporation bought the two . In 1991 , Hasbro became Play @-@ Doh 's owner , and continues to manufacture the product today through its preschool division . In 1996 , gold and silver were added to Play @-@ Doh 's palette to celebrate its 40th anniversary .
= = = Mascots = = =
Play @-@ Doh packaging was briefly illustrated with children in the mid @-@ 1950s , but replaced by an elf mascot which , in 1960 , was superseded by Play @-@ Doh Pete , a smock and beret @-@ wearing cartoonish boy . In 2002 , Play @-@ Doh Pete 's beret was replaced with a baseball cap . Since 2011 , living Play @-@ Doh cans named the Doh @-@ Dohs have been seen in adverts .
= = Ingredients = =
Play @-@ Doh 's current manufacturer , Hasbro , reveals the compound is primarily a mixture of water , salt , and flour , while its 2004 United States patent indicates it is composed of water , a starch @-@ based binder , a retrogradation inhibitor , salt , lubricant , surfactant , preservative , hardener , humectant , fragrance , and color . A petroleum additive gives the compound a smooth feel , and borax prevents mold from developing . Many home @-@ made recipes will include salt , flour or corn starch , a vegetable oil ( such as canola or olive oil ) and cream of tartar .
= = Related merchandise = =
In 1960 , the Play @-@ Doh Fun Factory ( a toy press that extrudes the compound in various shapes ) was invented by Bob Boggild and Bill Dale . The Play @-@ Doh Fuzzy Pumper Barber & Beauty Shop of 1977 featured a figurine whose extruded " hair " could be styled . Making its debut in 1996 for computer @-@ savvy young modelers was an educational software CD @-@ ROM game , Play @-@ Doh Creations , and , in 2003 , the Play @-@ Doh Creativity Table was made available . Play @-@ Doh related merchandise introduced during the 2007 anniversary year included the Play @-@ Doh Birthday Bucket , the Play @-@ Doh Fifty Colors Pack , the Fuzzy Pumper Crazy Cuts ( a reworking of the 1977 Fuzzy Pumper Barber & Beauty Shop ) , and the Play @-@ Doh Creativity Center . In 2012 , " Play @-@ Doh Plus " was created . It is lighter , more pliable , and softer than regular Play @-@ Doh .
= = Cultural impact = =
More than two billion cans of Play @-@ Doh were sold between 1955 and 2005 , and , in 2005 , Play @-@ doh was being sold in 75 countries around the world at 95 million cans a year . In the United States , more than 6 @,@ 000 stores carry Play @-@ Doh .
To mark Play @-@ Doh 's fiftieth anniversary , Greece created a limited @-@ edition fragrance inspired by Play @-@ Doh 's odor for " highly @-@ creative people , who seek a whimsical scent reminiscent of their childhood . "
Play @-@ Doh was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester , New York , in 1998 .
In 2003 , the Toy Industry Association placed Play @-@ Doh into its " Century of Toys List " , a roll call of the 100 most memorable and most creative toys of the twentieth century .
In late 2014 the company offered to replace a new " Play @-@ Doh Cake Mountain " extruder tool , for free , after receiving complaints about the toy 's " phallic shape " .
= = Film = =
In April 2 , 2015 , 20th Century Fox announced to work on a Play @-@ Doh movie with Hasbro Studios and Chernin Entertainment producing , Jason Micallef writing and Paul Feig directing from his production company Feigco .
= Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes is a first @-@ person , action @-@ adventure video game developed by Retro Studios and published by Nintendo for the GameCube video game console . It is the seventh published game in the Metroid series , a direct sequel to Metroid Prime , and the first game in the series with a multiplayer feature . Echoes was released in North America , Europe , and Australia in 2004 ; and in Japan in May 2005 .
The story of Echoes follows bounty hunter Samus Aran after she is sent to rescue Galactic Federation Marines from a ship near Aether , a planet inhabited by a race known as the Luminoth . There , she discovers that the troops were slaughtered by the Ing , a race that came from an alternate dimension of Aether . Samus must travel to three temples to ensure the destruction of the Ing , while battling Space Pirates and her mysterious doppelgänger called Dark Samus .
Retro decided to make the game different from its predecessor by adding more focus on storyline and including new gameplay elements . Nintendo launched a viral marketing campaign to promote the game that included several websites written as if taking place in the Metroid universe . Echoes ' single player mode and graphics were praised by critics , while its steep difficulty level and multiplayer components were met less positively . Since its release , Echoes has received several video game industry awards , as well as spots on " top games " lists by Nintendo Power and IGN . Over 800 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold worldwide . In 2009 , an enhanced version was released for Wii as a standalone game in Japan and as part of Metroid Prime : Trilogy internationally .
= = Gameplay = =
Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes is a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game that takes place in an open @-@ ended world with interconnected regions . Gameplay revolves around solving puzzles to uncover secrets , platform jumping , and shooting enemies . Echoes features two parallel dimensions , Light Aether and Dark Aether , where changes in either dimension often reflect changes in the other . Although the maps in both dimensions have the same general layout , rooms often vary in their designs , creatures , and objects . Progress through the game requires both dimensions to be explored , using power @-@ ups that Samus acquires over time . Equipment players collect include the Screw Attack , which allows Samus to somersault in midair and off certain surfaces , and new beam weapons that have limited ammunition .
Dark Aether 's atmosphere is caustic and damages Samus 's Power Suit , requiring the player to move between designated " safe zones " that allow Samus 's health to be regained slowly . Safe zones are either permanent , or need to be activated by firing certain beam weapons at force field generators . Power Suit upgrades can reduce or nullify damage caused by the atmosphere .
The game 's head @-@ up display simulates
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urgent . In October , a committee to " preserve the national memory " began assembling the collection for display .
= = = = = Opening = = = = =
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 , the first anniversary of the monarchy 's demise . The public was given free access on three days per week , which was " perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated " . The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art . Three quarters were derived from the royal collections , the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property ( biens nationaux ) . To expand and organize the collection , the Republic dedicated 100 @,@ 000 livres per year . In 1794 , France 's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from Northern Europe , augmented after the Treaty of Tolentino ( 1797 ) by works from the Vatican , such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere , to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a " sign of popular sovereignty " .
The early days were hectic ; privileged artists continued to live in residence , and the unlabelled paintings hung " frame to frame from floor to ceiling " . The structure itself closed in May 1796 due to structural deficiencies . It reopened on 14 July 1801 , arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns .
= = = = Napoleon = = = =
Under Napoleon I , a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galerie was begun , and the collection grew through successful military campaigns . Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798 – 1801 , Napoléon appointed the museum 's first director , Dominique Vivant Denon . In tribute , the museum was renamed the " Musée Napoléon " in 1803 , and acquisitions were made of Spanish , Austrian , Dutch , and Italian works , either as spoils or through treaties such as the Treaty of Tolentino . At the end of Napoleon 's First Italian Campaign in 1797 , the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed with Count Philipp von Cobenzl of the Austrian Monarchy . This treaty not only marked the completion of Napoleon 's conquest of Italy , but also the end of the first phases of the French Revolutionary Wars . Under this treaty , Italian cities were required to contribute pieces of art and patrimony to take part in Napoleon 's " parades of booty " through Paris before being put into the Louvre Museum . One of the most famous pieces taken under this program was the Horses of Saint Mark . The four antique bronze horses , which had adorned the basilica of San Marco in Venice after the sack of Constantinople in 1204 , were brought to Paris to reside atop Napoleon 's Arc du Carrousel in Paris in 1797 .
Several churches and palaces , including Saint Mark 's Basilica , were looted by the French , which outraged the Italians and their artistic and cultural sensibilities . In 1797 , the Treaty of Tolentino was signed by Napoleon , and two statues , the Nile and Tiber , were taken to Paris . These statues had previously been in the Vatican , and both were housed in the Louvre until 1815 . After the defeat of Napoleon , the Nile was returned to Italy . However , the Tiber remained in the Louvre Museum and can be seen in the collections today .
The Italian Peninsula was not the only region from which Napoleon took art . Under the Directory government of the 1790s , Napoleon ( then a General ) led an expedition to Egypt . The campaign was an expansionist effort on the part of the government , but the Directory had another goal to make Paris the center of art , science , and culture . The Directory wanted France to assume responsibility for liberating the works of art they deemed in danger in order to protect and nationalize the heritage and culture of their subjects . As a result , there were teams of artists and scientists who accompanied the armies into battle equipped with lists of paintings , sculptures , and other pieces of patrimony that would be collected , crated , and shipped back to France .
Dominique Vivant Denon was Napoleon 's art advisor , and accompanied him on the expedition to Egypt . Through his initiative , the Valley of the Kings in Egypt was discovered and studied extensively . As a result , he was later installed by Napoleon as the director of Musée Napoléon , formerly the Louvre , cementing the status of the museum as a center for global patrimony and storehouse for cultural heritage .
One of the most important discoveries made during Napoleon 's campaign in Egypt was the Rosetta Stone . It was discovered in 1799 , and eventually led to the ability to decipher ancient hieroglyphs . Although the Rosetta Stone was discovered by the French , it actually never made it to the Louvre Museum . It was seized by British Forces following the defeat of Napoleon in Egypt and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Alexandria in 1801 . It is now on display at the British Museum .
After the French defeat at Waterloo , the works ' former owners sought their return . The Louvre 's administrators were loath to comply and hid many works in their private collections . In response , foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help , and many pieces were returned , even some that had been restored by the Louvre . In 1815 Louis XVIII finally concluded agreements with the Austrian government for the keeping of pieces such as Veronese 's Wedding at Cana which was exchanged for a large Le Brun or the repurchase of the Albani collection .
= = = = Restoration and Second Empire = = = =
During the Restoration ( 1814 – 30 ) , Louis XVIII and Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of 720 @,@ 000 francs and created the department of Egyptian antiquities curated by Champollion , increased by more than 7 @,@ 000 works with the acquisition of antiquities in the Edme @-@ Antoine Durand , the Egyptian collection of Henry Salt or the second collection former by Bernardino Drovetti . This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles , and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris . After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848 , the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d 'Apollon , the Salon Carré , and the Grande Galérie . In 1861 , Louis @-@ Napoléon Bonaparte bought 11 @,@ 835 artworks including 641 paintings , Greek gold and other antiquities of the Campana collection . During the Second French Empire , between 1852 and 1870 , the French economy grew ; by 1870 the museum had added 20 @,@ 000 new pieces to its collections , and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galérie were remodelled under architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel .
= = = = Third Republic and World Wars = = = =
During the Third Republic ( 1870 – 1940 ) the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts . The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve @-@ lès @-@ Avignon , and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea . This piece , though heavily damaged , has been prominently displayed since 1884 . The 583 @-@ item Collection La Caze donated in 1869 , included works by Chardin ; Fragonard ; Rembrandt – such as Bathsheba at Her Bath – and Gilles by Watteau .
Museum expansion slowed after World War I , and the collection did not acquire many significant new works ; exceptions were Georges de La Tour 's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild 's ( 1845 – 1934 ) 1935 donation of 4 @,@ 000 engravings , 3 @,@ 000 drawings , and 500 illustrated books . During World War II the museum removed most of the art and hid valuable pieces . When Germany occupied the Sudetenland , many important artworks such as the Mona Lisa were temporarily moved to the Château de Chambord . When war was formally declared a year later , most of the museum 's paintings were sent there as well . Select sculptures such as Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Venus de Milo were sent to the Château de Valençay . On 27 August 1939 , after two days of packing , truck convoys began to leave Paris . By 28 December , the museum was cleared of most works , except those that were too heavy and " unimportant paintings [ that ] were left in the basement " . In early 1945 , after the liberation of France , art began returning to the Louvre .
= = = = Grand Louvre Pyramids = = = =
By 1874 , the Louvre Palace had achieved its present form of an almost rectangular structure with the Sully Wing to the east containing the square Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre ; and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon , the Richelieu Wing to the north and the Denon Wing , which borders the Seine to the south . In 1983 , French President François Mitterrand proposed , as one of his Grands Projets , the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry , allowing displays throughout the building . Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid to stand over a new entrance in the main court , the Cour Napoléon . The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988 ; the pyramid was completed in 1989 . The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan , La Pyramide Inversée ( The Inverted Pyramid ) , was completed in 1993 . As of 2002 , attendance had doubled since completion .
= = = 21st century = = =
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380 @,@ 000 objects and displays 35 @,@ 000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60 @,@ 600 square metres ( 652 @,@ 000 sq ft ) dedicated to the permanent collection . The Louvre exhibits sculptures , objets d 'art , paintings , drawings , and archaeological finds . It is the world 's second most visited museum , averaging 15 @,@ 000 visitors per day , 65 percent of whom are foreign tourists .
After architects Mario Bellini and Rudy Ricciotti had won an international competition to create its new galleries for Islamic art , the new 3 @,@ 000 sq m pavilion eventually opened in 2012 , consisting of ground- and lower @-@ ground @-@ level interior spaces topped by a golden , undulating roof ( fashioned from almost 9 @,@ 000 steel tubes that form an interior web ) that seems to float within the neo @-@ Classical Visconti Courtyard in the middle of the Louvre 's south wing . The galleries , which the museum had initially hoped to open by 2009 , represent the first major architectural intervention at the Louvre since the addition of I.M. Pei 's glass pyramid in 1989 .
On 5 February 2015 about one hundred archaeologists , protesting against commercial private involvement to protect France 's heritage , blocked Louvre 's ticket desks to facilitate free access to the museum . At least one announcement reading " Free entrance offered by the archeologists " has been attached to the ticket desk and a number of people visited the museum free of charge .
The Louvre is owned by the French government ; however , since the 1990s it has become more independent . Since 2003 , the museum has been required to generate funds for projects . By 2006 , government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent . Every year , the Louvre now raises as much as it gets from the state , about € 122 million . The government pays for operating costs ( salaries , safety and maintenance ) , while the rest – new wings , refurbishments , acquisitions – is up to the museum to finance . A further € 3 million to € 5 million a year is raised by the Louvre from exhibitions that it curates for other museums , while the host museum keeps the ticket money . As the Louvre became a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book , the museum earned $ 2 @.@ 5 million by allowing filming in its galleries . In 2008 , the French government provided $ 180 million of the Louvre 's yearly $ 350 million budget ; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales .
The Louvre employs a staff of 2 @,@ 000 led by Director Jean @-@ Luc Martinez , who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications . Martinez replaced Henri Loyrette in April 2013 . Under Loyrette , who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001 , the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before . In 2006 , it loaned 1 @,@ 300 works , which enabled it to borrow more foreign works . From 2006 to 2009 , the Louvre lent artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta , Georgia , and received a $ 6 @.@ 9 million payment to be used for renovations .
In 2012 , the Louvre and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco announced a five @-@ year collaboration on exhibitions , publications , art conservation and educational programming . The € 98 @.@ 5 million expansion of the Islamic Art galleries in 2012 received state funding of € 31 million , as well as € 17 million from the Alwaleed Bin Talal Foundation founded by the eponymous Saudi prince . The republic of Azerbaijan , the Emir of Kuwait , the Sultan of Oman and King Mohammed VI of Morocco donated in total € 26 million . In addition , the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is supposed to provide € 400 million over the course of 30 years for its use of the museum 's prestigious brand . Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that " 20 % of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions " . He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily , as opposed to 80 percent previously . He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $ 36 million from $ 4 @.@ 5 million .
= = = = Satellite museums = = = =
= = = = = Lens = = = = =
In 2004 , French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre , increase total museum visits , and improve the industrial north 's economy . Six cities were considered for the project : Amiens , Arras , Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer , Calais , Lens , and Valenciennes . In 2004 , French Prime Minister Jean @-@ Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building , called Le Louvre @-@ Lens . Japanese architects SANAA were selected to design the Lens project in 2005 . Museum officials predicted that the new building , capable of receiving about 600 works of art , would attract up to 500 @,@ 000 visitors a year when it opened in 2012 .
= = = = = Abu Dhabi = = = = =
In March 2007 , the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2016 in Abu Dhabi . A 30 @-@ year agreement , signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan , will establish the museum on Saadiyat Island in Abu Dhabi in exchange for € 832 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion ) . The Louvre Abu Dhabi , designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold , will occupy 24 @,@ 000 square metres ( 260 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer . France agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10 @-@ year period ; to provide management expertise ; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years . The art will come from multiple museums , including the Louvre , the Georges Pompidou Centre , the Musée d 'Orsay , Versailles , the Musée Guimet , the Musée Rodin , and the Musée du quai Branly .
= = = = Conservation = = = =
In 2009 , Minister of Culture Frédéric Mitterrand approved a plan that would have created a storage facility 30 km northwest of Paris to hold objects from the Louvre and two other national museums in Paris 's flood zone , the Musée du Quai Branly and the Musée d 'Orsay ; the plan was later scrapped . In 2013 , his successor Aurélie Filippetti announced that the Louvre would move more than 250 @,@ 000 works of art held in a 20 @,@ 000 square metres ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) basement storage area in Liévin ; the cost of the project , estimated at € 60 million , will be split between the region ( 49 % ) and the Louvre ( 51 % ) . The Louvre will be the sole owner and manager of the store . In July 2015 , a team led by British firm Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners was selected to design the complex , which will have light @-@ filled work spaces under one vast , green roof .
= = = Controversial acquisitions = = =
The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized under Napoleon I , as well as during World War II by the Nazis . During Nazi occupation , thousands of artworks were stolen . But after the war , 61 @,@ 233 articles of more than 150 @,@ 000 seized artworks returned to France and were assigned to the Louvre 's Office des Biens Privés . In 1949 , it entrusted 2 @,@ 130 unclaimed pieces ( including 1 @,@ 001 paintings ) to the Direction des Musées de France in order to keep them under appropriate conditions of conservation until their restitution and meanwhile classified them as MNRs ( Musees Nationaux Recuperation or , in English , the National Museums of Recovered Artwork ) . Some 10 % to 35 % of the pieces are believed to come from Jewish spoliations and until the identification of their rightful owners , which declined at the end of the 1960s , they are registered indefinitely on separate inventories from the museum 's collections .
They were exhibited in 1946 and shown all together to the public during four years ( 1950 – 1954 ) in order to allow rightful claimants to identify their properties , then stored or displayed , according to their interest , in several French museums including the Louvre . From 1951 to 1965 , about 37 pieces were restituted . Since November 1996 , the partly illustrated catalogue of 1947 – 1949 has been accessible online and completed . In 1997 , Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission , headed by Jean Mattéoli , to investigate the matter and according to the government , the Louvre is in charge of 678 pieces of artwork still unclaimed by their rightful owners . During the late 1990s , the comparison of the American war archives , which had not been done before , with the French and German ones as well as two court cases which finally settled some of the heirs ' rights ( Gentili di Giuseppe and Rosenberg families ) allowed more accurate investigations . Since 1996 , the restitutions , according sometimes to less formal criteria , concerned 47 more pieces ( 26 paintings , with 6 from the Louvre including a then displayed Tiepolo ) , until the last claims of French owners and their heirs ended again in 2006 .
According to Serge Klarsfeld , since the now complete and constant publicity which the artworks got in 1996 , the majority of the French Jewish community is nevertheless in favour of the return to the normal French civil rule of prescription acquisitive of any unclaimed good after another long period of time and consequently to their ultimate integration into the common French heritage instead of their transfer to foreign institutions like during World War II .
In June 2015 , the Louvre had been accused of discriminating against Israeli students .
Napoleon 's campaigns acquired Italian pieces by treaties , as war reparations , and Northern European pieces as spoils as well as some antiquities excavated in Egypt , though the vast majority of the latter were seized as war reparations by the British army and are now part of collections of the British Museum . On the other hand , the Dendera zodiac is , like the Rosetta stone , claimed by Egypt even though it was acquired in 1821 , before the Egyptian Anti @-@ export legislation of 1835 . The Louvre administration has thus argued in favor of retaining this item despite requests by Egypt for its return . The museum participates too in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO 's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin . The museum consequently returned in 2009 five Egyptian fragments of frescoes ( 30 cm x 15 cm each ) whose existence of the tomb of origin had only been brought to the authorities attention in 2008 , eight to five years after their good @-@ faith acquisition by the museum from two private collections and after the necessary respect of the procedure of déclassement from French public collections before the Commission scientifique nationale des collections des musées de France .
= = Collections = =
The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380 @,@ 000 objects and displays 35 @,@ 000 works of art in eight curatorial departments .
= = = Egyptian antiquities = = =
The department , comprising over 50 @,@ 000 pieces , includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4 @,@ 000 BC to the 4th century AD . The collection , among the world 's largest , overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt , the Middle Kingdom , the New Kingdom , Coptic art , and the Roman , Ptolemaic , and Byzantine periods . The department 's origins lie in the royal collection , but it was augmented by Napoleon 's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant , the future director of the Louvre . After Jean @-@ François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone , Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created . Champollion advised the purchase of three collections , formed by Edmé @-@ Antoine Durand , Henry Salt and Bernardino Drovet ; these additions added 7 @,@ 000 works . Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette , founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo . Mariette , after excavations at Memphis , sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe .
Guarded by the Large Sphinx ( c . 2000 BC ) , the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms . Holdings include art , papyrus scrolls , mummies , tools , clothing , jewelry , games , musical instruments , and weapons . Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel el @-@ Arak Knife from 3400 BC , The Seated Scribe , and the Head of King Djedefre . Middle Kingdom art , " known for its gold work and statues " , moved from realism to idealization ; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer . The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep , but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth .
= = = Near Eastern antiquities = = =
Near Eastern antiquities , the second newest department , dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and " first settlements " , before the arrival of Islam . The department is divided into three geographic areas : the Levant , Mesopotamia ( Iraq ) , and Persia ( Iran ) . The collection 's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul @-@ Émile Botta 's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II 's palace . These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum , the precursor to today 's department .
The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad , with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash 's Stele of the Vultures from 2450 BC and the stele erected by Naram @-@ Sin , King of Akkad , to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains . The 2 @.@ 25 @-@ metre ( 7 @.@ 38 ft ) Code of Hammurabi , discovered in 1901 , displays Babylonian Laws prominently , so that no man could plead their ignorance . The 18th @-@ century BC mural of the Investiture of Zimrilim and the 25th @-@ century BC Statue of Ebih @-@ Il found in the ancient city @-@ state of Mari are also on display at the museum .
The Persian portion of Louvre contains work from the archaic period , like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I. This section also contains rare objects from Persepolis which were also lent to the British Museum for its Ancient Persia exhibition in 2005 .
= = = Greek , Etruscan , and Roman = = =
The Greek , Etruscan , and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century . The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire . This department is one of the museum 's oldest ; it began with appropriated royal art , some of which was acquired under Francis I. Initially , the collection focused on marble sculptures , such as the Venus de Milo . Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars , but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I 's fall in 1815 . In the 19th century , the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection , bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale .
The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre , from 640 BC ; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos , circa 570 – 560 BC . After the 4th century BC , focus on the human form increased , exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator . The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era , including The Winged Victory of Samothrace ( 190 BC ) and the Venus de Milo , symbolic of classical art . The long Galerie Campana displays an outstanding collection of more than one thousand Greek potteries . In the galleries paralleling the Seine , much of the museum 's Roman sculpture is displayed . The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre ; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus ; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino .
= = = Islamic art = = =
The Islamic art collection , the museum 's newest , spans " thirteen centuries and three continents " . These exhibits , comprising ceramics , glass , metalware , wood , ivory , carpet , textiles , and miniatures , include more than 5 @,@ 000 works and 1 @,@ 000 shards . Originally part of the decorative arts department , the holdings became separate in 2003 . Among the works are the Pyxide d 'al @-@ Mughira , a 10th century ivory box from Andalusia ; the Baptistery of Saint @-@ Louis , an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14th century Mamluk period ; and the 10th century Shroud of Saint @-@ Josse from Iran . The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh , an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian , and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase .
= = = Sculpture = = =
The sculpture department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan , Greek , and Roman department . The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace ; however , only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824 , except for Michelangelo 's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave . Initially the collection included only 100 pieces , the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles . It remained small until 1847 , when Léon Laborde was given control of the department . Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection , King Childebert and stanga door , respectively . The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod , a director who organized a wider representation of French works . In 1986 , all post @-@ 1850 works were relocated to the new Musée d 'Orsay . The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces ; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing , and foreign works in the Denon wing .
The collection 's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th @-@ century Daniel in the Lions ' Den and the 12th @-@ century Virgin of Auvergne . In the 16th century , Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained , as seen in Jean Goujon 's bas @-@ reliefs , and Germain Pilon 's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ . The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Gian Lorenzo Bernini 's 1640 – 1 Bust of Cardinal Richelieu , Étienne Maurice Falconet 's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant , and François Anguier 's obelisks . Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova 's Psyche Revived by Cupid 's Kiss ( 1787 ) . The 18th and 19th centuries are represented by the French sculptor Alfred Barye .
= = = Decorative arts = = =
The Objets d 'art collection spans the time from the Middle Ages to the mid @-@ 19th century . The department began as a subset of the sculpture department , based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint @-@ Denis , the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France . Among the budding collection 's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes . The Durand collection 's 1825 acquisition added " ceramics , enamels , and stained glass " , and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil . The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork , and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1 @,@ 500 middle @-@ age and faïence works . In 1862 , the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas , mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries .
The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing 's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery , named by the painter Charles Le Brun , who was commissioned by Louis XIV ( the Sun King ) to decorate the space in a solar theme . The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV , Charles V 's sceptre , and the 12th century porphyry vase . The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna 's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian 's Hunt . From later periods , highlights include Madame de Pompadour 's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III 's apartments .
In September 2000 , the Louvre Museum dedicated the Gilbert Chagoury and Rose @-@ Marie Chagoury Gallery to display tapestries donated by the Chagourys , including a 16th @-@ century six @-@ part tapestry suite , sewn with gold and silver threads representing sea divinities , which was commissioned in Paris for Colbert de Seignelay , Secretary of State for the Navy .
= = = Painting = = =
The painting collection has more than 7 @,@ 500 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection 's display . Nearly two @-@ thirds are by French artists , and more than 1 @,@ 200 are Northern European . The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV 's collections , others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era , and some were bought . The collection began with Francis , who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court . After the French Revolution , the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre . When the d 'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d 'Orsay in 1986 , the collection was split , and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum . French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée ; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing .
Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pietà of Enguerrand Quarton ; the anonymous painting of King Jean le Bon ( c.1360 ) , possibly the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era ; Hyacinthe Rigaud 's Louis XIV ; Jacques @-@ Louis David 's The Coronation of Napoleon ; and Eugène Delacroix 's Liberty Leading the People . Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer 's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer ; Caspar David Friedrich 's The Tree of Crows ; Rembrandt 's The Supper at Emmaus , Bathsheba at Her Bath , and The Slaughtered Ox .
The Italian holdings are notable , particularly the Renaissance collection . The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini 's Calvarys , which reflect realism and detail " meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world " . The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa , Virgin and Child with St. Anne , St. John the Baptist , and Madonna of the Rocks . Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin . From 16th century Venice , the Louvre displays Titian 's Le Concert Champetre , The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns .
The La Caze Collection , a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze , was the largest contribution of a person in the history of the Louvre . La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum . The bequest included Antoine Watteau 's Commedia dell 'arte player of Pierrot ( " Gilles " ) . In 2007 , this bequest was the topic of the exhibition " 1869 : Watteau , Chardin ... entrent au Louvre . La collection La Caze " .
Some of the best known paintings of the museum have been digitized by the French Center for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France .
= = = Prints and drawings = = =
The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper . The origins of the collection were the 8 @,@ 600 works in the Royal Collection ( Cabinet du Roi ) , which were increased via state appropriation , purchases such as the 1 @,@ 200 works from Fillipo Baldin
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gay mayor of an American state capital . Providence was the largest American city to have an openly gay mayor , until Sam Adams took office in Portland , Oregon , on January 1 , 2009 .
The city 's first Latino mayor was elected in 2010 , Angel Taveras , who assumed office on January 3 , 2011 . Jorge Elorza succeeded him on January 5 , 2015 .
= = Education = =
= = = Postsecondary = = =
The flagship campuses of five of Rhode Island 's colleges and universities are in Providence ( city proper ) :
Brown University , an Ivy League university and one of nine colonial colleges in the nation .
Johnson & Wales University
Providence College
Rhode Island College , the state 's oldest public college .
Rhode Island School of Design ( RISD )
In addition , the Community College of Rhode Island ( Downcity and Liston campuses ) , Roger Williams University ( Providence campus ) and University of Rhode Island ( Providence campus ) have satellite campuses in the city . Between these schools the number of postsecondary students is approximately 44 @,@ 000 . Compounded by Brown University 's being the second @-@ largest employer , higher education exerts a considerable presence in the city 's politics and economy .
= = = Private and charter schools = = =
Several private schools , including Moses Brown , the Lincoln School , and the Wheeler School , are in the city 's East Side . La Salle Academy is located in the Elmhurst area of the city near Providence College . The public charter schools Time Squared Academy ( K @-@ 12 ) and Textron Chamber of Commerce ( 9 – 12 ) are funded by GTECH Corporation and Textron respectively . In addition , the city 's South Side houses Community Preparatory School , a private school serving primarily low @-@ income students in grades 3 – 8 . There are two separate centers for students with special needs .
= = = Public schools = = =
The Providence Public School District serves about 30 @,@ 000 students from pre @-@ Kindergarten to grade 12 . The district has 25 elementary schools , nine middle schools , and thirteen high schools . The Providence Public School District features magnet schools at the middle and high school level , Nathanael Greene and Classical respectively . The overall graduation rate as of 2007 is 70 @.@ 1 % , which is close to the statewide rate of 71 % and the national average of 70 % . Rhode Island also operates two public schools in Providence . The Metropolitan Regional Career and Technical Center is public high school that offers individualized curriculum and real world learning to more than 800 students from around the state . The Rhode Island School for the Deaf is a critical , strategic and responsive educational center with a commitment to educational excellence for children who are deaf or hard of hearing .
= = Culture = =
Much of Providence culture is synonymous with Rhode Island culture . Like the state , the city has a non @-@ rhotic accent that can be heard on local media . Providence also shares Rhode Island 's affinity for coffee , as the former has the most coffee / doughnut shops per capita of any city in the country . Providence , like many other towns , is also reputed to have the highest number of restaurants per capita , many of which founded and / or staffed by its own Johnson & Wales University graduates .
Providence has several ethnic neighborhoods , notably Federal Hill and the North End ( Italian ) , Fox Point ( Portuguese ) , West End ( mainly Central American and Asians ) , and Smith Hill ( Irish with miscellaneous enclaves of other groups ) . There are also many dedicated community organizations and arts associations located in the city .
The city gained the reputation as one of the most active and growing gay communities in the Northeast ; the rate of reported gay and lesbian relationships is 75 % higher than the national average and Providence has been named among the " Best Lesbian Places to Live " . The former mayor , David Cicilline , won his election running as an openly gay man , making him the first openly gay mayor of a U.S. state capital . Former Mayor Cianci instituted the position of Mayor 's Liaison to the Gay and Lesbian community in the 1990s . Providence is home to the largest gay bathhouse in New England .
During the summer months , the city regularly hosts WaterFire , an environmental art installation that consists of about 100 bonfires that blaze just above the surface of the three rivers that pass through the middle of downtown Providence . There are multiple Waterfire events that are accompanied by various pieces of classical and world music . The public art displays , most notably sculptures , change on a regular basis .
The city is also the home of the Tony Award @-@ winning theater group Trinity Repertory Company , the Providence Black Repertory Company , and the Rhode Island Philharmonic Orchestra , as well as groups like The American Band , once associated with noted American composer D. W. Reeves . Providence is also the home of several performing arts centers such as the Veterans Memorial Auditorium , the Providence Performing Arts Center , and the Providence Festival Ballet . The city 's underground music scene , centered on artist @-@ run spaces such as the now @-@ defunct Fort Thunder , is known in underground music circles . Providence is also home to the Providence Improv Guild , an improvisational theatre that has weekly performances and offers improv and sketch comedy classes .
= = = Sites of interest = = =
Providence is home to an 1 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 km2 ) park system , notably Waterplace Park and Riverwalk , Roger Williams Park , Roger Williams National Memorial , and Prospect Terrace Park , the latter featuring expansive views of the downtown area as well as a 15 @-@ foot tall granite statue of Roger Williams gazing over the city . As one of the first cities in the country , Providence contains many historic buildings while the East Side neighborhood in particular includes the largest contiguous area of buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the U.S. with many pre @-@ revolutionary houses . The East Side is also home to the First Baptist Church in America , the oldest Baptist church in the Americas , founded by Roger Williams in 1638 , as well as the Old State House , which served as the state 's capitol from 1762 to 1904 . Nearby is Roger Williams National Memorial . Downcity Providence is home to the fourth @-@ largest unsupported dome in the world ( the second @-@ largest marble dome after St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome ) , as well as the Westminster Arcade , which is the oldest enclosed shopping center in the U.S.
The main art museum is the Rhode Island School of Design Museum , which has the 20th @-@ largest collection in the country . In addition to the Providence Public Library and the nine branches of the Providence Community Library , the city is home to the Providence Athenæum , the fourth oldest library in the country . Here , on one of his many visits to Providence , Edgar Allan Poe , met and courted a love interest named Sarah Helen Whitman . Poe was a regular fixture there , as was H. P. Lovecraft ( who was born in Providence ) ; both of them influential writers of gothic literature .
The Bank of America Skating Center , formerly the Fleet Skating Center , is located near Kennedy Plaza in the downtown district , connected by pedestrian tunnel to Waterplace Park , a cobblestone and concrete park below street traffic that abuts Providence 's three rivers .
The southern part of the city is home to the famous roadside attraction Nibbles Woodaway ( also known as the " Big Blue Bug " ) , the world 's largest termite , as well as the aforementioned Roger Williams Park , which contains a zoo , a botanical center , and the Museum of Natural History and Planetarium .
Another well known site is the very famous Providence Biltmore Hotel located downtown near Kennedy Plaza . A historic location that was built in 1922 , the hotel is still a very popular site for travelers going in and out of the state every day . It was also added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 .
= = = Sports = = =
The city is home to the American Hockey League team Providence Bruins , which plays at the Dunkin ' Donuts Center ( formerly the Providence Civic Center ) . From 1926 to 1972 , the AHL 's Providence Reds ( renamed the Rhode Island Reds in their last years ) played at the Rhode Island Auditorium . In 1972 , the team relocated to the Providence Civic Center , where they played until moving to Binghamton , New York , in 1977 .
The city has two rugby teams , the Rugby Union team Providence Rugby Football Club , and the Semi @-@ Professional Rugby League team The Rhode Island Rebellion , which play at Classical High School . In 2013 the Rebellion finished the USA Rugby League ( USARL ) regular season in third place . Their playoff run took them to the USARL Semi @-@ Finals , the first time the Rebellion made the playoffs in its short three @-@ year history .
The NFL 's New England Patriots and MLS 's New England Revolution play in Foxborough , Massachusetts , which is situated halfway between Providence and Boston . Providence was formerly home to two major league franchises : the NFL 's Providence Steam Roller in the 1920s and 1930s , and the NBA 's Providence Steamrollers in the 1940s . The Rhode Island Auditorium also hosted won 29 of the 49 boxing fights of Rocky Marciano .
The city 's defunct baseball team , the Providence Grays , competed in the National League from 1879 through 1885 . The team defeated the New York Metropolitans in baseball 's first successful " world championship series " in 1884 . In 1914 , after the Boston Red Sox purchased Babe Ruth from the then @-@ minor league Baltimore Orioles , the team prepared Ruth for the major leagues by sending him to finish the season playing for a minor league team in Providence that was also known as the Grays . Today , professional baseball is offered by the Pawtucket Red Sox , the AAA affiliate of the Boston Red Sox , which plays in nearby Pawtucket . Most baseball fans — along with the local media — tend to follow the Boston Red Sox .
Major colleges and universities fielding NCAA Division I athletic teams are Brown University and Providence College . The latter is a member of the Big East Conference . Much local hype is associated with games between these two schools or the University of Rhode Island .
Providence has also hosted the alternative sports event Gravity Games from 1999 to 2001 , and was also the first host of ESPN 's X Games , known in its first edition as the Extreme Games , in 1995 . Providence has its own roller derby league . Formed in 2004 , it currently has four teams : the Providence Mob Squad , the Sakonnet River Roller Rats , the Old Money Honeys , and the Rhode Island Riveters . Providence is also home to the headquarters of the American Athletic Conference ( The American ) .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health and medicine = = =
Providence is home to eight hospitals , most prominently Rhode Island Hospital , the largest general acute care hospital in the state . It is also the Level I Trauma Center for Rhode Island , Southeastern Massachusetts and parts of Connecticut . The hospital is in a complex along I @-@ 95 that includes Hasbro Children 's Hospital and Women and Infants Hospital . The city is also home to the Roger Williams Medical Center , St. Joseph Hospital For Specialty Care ( a division of St. Joseph Health Services Of Rhode Island ) , The Miriam Hospital , a major teaching affiliate associated with the Alpert Medical School of Brown University , as well as a VA medical center .
The Rhode Island Blood Center has its main headquarters in Providence . Since 1979 , the Rhode Island Blood Center has been the sole organization in charge of blood collection and testing and distribution of blood products to 11 hospitals in Rhode Island .
= = = Transportation = = =
Providence is served by air primarily by the commercial airfield T. F. Green Airport in nearby Warwick . General aviation fields also serve the region . Because of overcrowding and Big Dig complications in Boston , Massport has been promoting T. F. Green as an alternative to Boston 's Logan International Airport .
Providence Station , located between the Rhode Island State House and the downtown district , is served by Amtrak and MBTA Commuter Rail services , with a commuter rail route running north to Boston and south to a recently opened station at T.F. Green Airport and Wickford Junction . Approximately 2400 passengers daily pass through the station .
I @-@ 95 runs from north to south through Providence while I @-@ 195 connects the city to eastern Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts , including New Bedford , Massachusetts , and Cape Cod . I @-@ 295 encircles Providence while RI 146 provides a direct connection with Worcester , Massachusetts . The city commissioned and began a long @-@ term project , the Iway , to move I @-@ 195 in 2007 not only for safety reasons , but also to free up land and to reunify the Jewelry District with Downcity Providence , which had been split from one another by the highway . The project was estimated to cost $ 610 million .
Kennedy Plaza , in downtown Providence , serves as a transportation hub for local public transit as well as a departure point for Peter Pan and Greyhound bus lines . Public transit is managed by Rhode Island Public Transit Authority ( RIPTA ) . Through RIPTA alone Kennedy Plaza serves over 71 @,@ 000 people a day . The majority of the area covered by RIPTA is served by traditional buses . Of particular note is the East Side Trolley Tunnel running under College Hill , the use of which is reserved for RIPTA buses . RIPTA also operates the Providence LINK , a system of tourist trolleys in downtown Providence . From 2000 to 2008 , RIPTA operated a seasonal ferry to Newport between May and October . In 2016 SeaStreak began operating the Providence - Newport ferry route . RIPTA began a rapid bus service called the R Line in June 2014 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Electricity and natural gas are provided by National Grid . Providence Water is responsible for the distribution of drinking water , ninety percent of which comes from the Scituate Reservoir about ten miles ( 16 km ) west of downtown , with contributions coming from four smaller bodies of water . Drinking water in Providence has been rated among the highest quality in the country .
= = Sister cities = =
As of 2008 , Providence had three official sister cities :
Praia ( 1994 )
Florence ( 2002 )
Santo Domingo ( 2004 )
= Chris Sheridan ( writer ) =
Christopher " Chris " Sheridan ( born September 19 , 1967 ) is an American television writer , producer , and occasional voice actor . Born in the Philippines , Sheridan grew up in New Hampshire . He attended Gilford High School , where he decided that he wanted to become a writer . After graduating from Union College , he moved back to his home , where he worked at several short @-@ term jobs before relocating to California to start his career . His first job came in 1992 when he was hired as a writer 's assistant for the Fox sitcom Shaky Ground . Following that , he was hired as an assistant on Living Single , a Fox sitcom , where he was eventually promoted to writer . He stayed with the show until its cancellation in 1998 .
After the show was cancelled and Sheridan became unemployed , he began writing for the animated television series Family Guy . Although initially skeptical , he accepted the job as he did not have other options . Sheridan was one of the first writers hired , and has continued to write for the show through its eleventh season . For his work on Family Guy , he has been nominated for five Primetime Emmy Awards , a British Academy Television Award , and has won a DVD Exclusive Award . Sheridan has also written episodes of Titus and Yes , Dear . He is divorced and has one daughter .
= = Early life = =
Christopher Sheridan was born on September 19 , 1967 in the Philippines . He grew up in New Hampshire and attended Gilford High School . While there , Sheridan discovered he enjoyed writing , but had not considered a career in it . After graduating from the school in 1985 , Sheridan went to Union College , where he majored in English and took every creative writing class available . After he met a person who had written a screenplay , Sheridan decided that he wanted to have a career in screenwriting .
After receiving his college degree in 1989 , Sheridan returned to his home . He held various jobs , including substitute teaching , bartending , and working in his father 's variety store . Sheridan eventually decided that if he wanted to establish a career , he had to relocate , so he moved to California in 1992 . Sheridan stayed at a friend 's house , and as he did not own a cell phone , he used a payphone located on Sunset Boulevard to call interested employers .
= = Career and later life = =
In 1992 , Sheridan was hired as an assistant writer for the sitcom Shaky Ground . During his time on the show , he also worked elsewhere as a freelance writer . Following that show 's cancellation in 1993 , Sheridan was hired as an assistant on the show Living Single , where he wrote four episodes . Sheridan was promoted to writer , and worked on the show until it was cancelled in 1998 . Shortly after , Sheridan received a call from his agent , where he was told that the only show with an open spot was Family Guy , which Sheridan did not want to do , thinking that writing for an animated show would end his career .
After meeting series creator Seth MacFarlane , Sheridan was hired as one of the series ' first writers . The first episode he wrote was " I Never Met the Dead Man " , the second episode of the first season , which premiered on April 11 , 1999 . Sheridan also wrote the second season premiere " Peter , Peter , Caviar Eater . " He later went on to write the episodes " I Am Peter , Hear Me Roar " , " If I 'm Dyin ' , I 'm Lyin ' " , " He 's Too Sexy for His Fat " , and " Lethal Weapons " .
Due to low ratings , Family Guy was cancelled at the end of its second season . While the show was on hiatus , Sheridan became a writer for the sitcom Titus and also wrote several episodes for the sitcom Yes , Dear . He returned to the show after it was revived for a fourth season , writing " The Fat Guy Strangler " . Sheridan would later write the episodes " Peter 's Daughter " , " Peter @-@ assment " and " Burning Down the Bayit " . He penned the Road to ... episode " Road to the North Pole " along with Danny Smith , and wrote the episode " Save the Clam " . Sheridan continues to write for the show , with his most recent credit being the twelfth season episode " Brian 's a Bad Father " . Sheridan also infrequently provides voices for several small characters on the show , such as recurring character James William Bottomtooth III . In 2011 , Sheridan wrote a television pilot entitled Lovelives for NBC . It was to star Ryan Hansen . Although a pilot was ordered and filmed , it did not continue .
Sheridan has received several nominations for awards for his work on Family Guy . At the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards , Sheridan was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics for writing the song " We Only Live to Kiss Your Ass . " He wrote that " It was a strange experience at the Emmys ... my song was called , ' We Only Live to Kiss Your Ass . ' I laughed out loud when the presenter had to list that song as one of the nominations alongside normal songs written by people like Marvin Hamlisch . " Along with the other producers of the series , he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program in 2005 for " North by North Quahog " at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards , and again in 2006 for " PTV " at the 58th . Also in 2006 , Sheridan won a DVD Exclusive Award for writing the " Stewie B. Goode " segment of the Family Guy direct to video film Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story . He shared the award with writer Gary Janetti . 2008 saw Sheridan receive another Outstanding Animated Program nomination , for " Blue Harvest " , at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards . 2008 also saw him receive a nomination for a British Academy Television Award for Best International and in 2009 he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards ; both awards were for Family Guy in general .
Sheridan was once married to Yolie , but he is now divorced . He splits his time between Los Angeles and Connecticut , and has a daughter , Lily . When asked if being a parent affected his style of humor , Sheridan responded that he found himself " a little less forgiving of pedophile jokes . "
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Gay Witch Hunt =
" Gay Witch Hunt " is the third season premiere of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twenty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode first aired in the United States on September 21 , 2006 on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch
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of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) discovers that Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) is gay . Michael tries to show Oscar that he is accepting of his sexual orientation , but only ends up insulting him . It is also revealed that after kissing Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) went through with transferring to Stamford . In addition , Pam called off her engagement with Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) .
The episode features a kiss between Michael and Oscar . This scene was not scripted , and was an improvised moment courtesy of Carell . An estimated 9 @.@ 1 million viewers watched the episode , a 23 percent increase from the previous season premiere " The Dundies " . " Gay Witch Hunt " received positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
After calling Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) " faggy " , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) learns that Oscar finds the word offensive because he is homosexual . Michael inadvertently outs Oscar to the entire office . Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) berates Michael for his behavior , after Michael 's seminar on homosexuality is a disaster . When Oscar threatens to quit , Michael attempts to reconcile with Oscar , first by hugging him , and then kissing him on the lips . Oscar is given three months paid vacation and use of a company car in exchange for not suing Dunder Mifflin .
It is revealed that after their kiss , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) confirmed to Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) her intention to marry Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) . However , a few days before the wedding , Pam got cold feet and decided to call it off . She moved into her own apartment and began taking art classes . Pam 's rejection sent Roy into a downward spiral , hitting rock bottom with a drunk driving arrest . When being interviewed by the camera crew , Roy makes a vow to win Pam back .
Jim has transferred to Dunder Mifflin 's Stamford branch and settles into his new office . He befriends smug co @-@ worker Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) who brags about his wild college days at Cornell University . Meanwhile , sales representative Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) is disconcerted by Jim 's constant smirks to the camera . Mr. Brown ( Larry Wilmore ) is briefly seen giving the Stamford branch a diversity day seminar due to " more problems at the Scranton branch . "
Dwight had contacted Jim in Stamford regarding a " gaydar " device . In the final moments , Dwight opens a package from Jim , a novelty " gaydar " machine fashioned from a metal detector and lettered with the prefixes " Homo " and " Hetero " . He confirms the device on Oscar , but is dumbfounded when the device goes off as he inadvertently swipes it across his own belt buckle . Pam is then seen smiling to herself .
= = Production = =
" Gay Witch Hunt " was the eighth episode of the series directed by Ken Kwapis . Kwapis had previously directed " Pilot " , " Diversity Day " , " Sexual Harassment " , " The Fire " , " The Fight " , " Booze Cruise " , and " Casino Night " . " Gay Witch Hunt " was written by executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels .
The kiss between Michael and Oscar in the conference room was not scripted . The scene had been shot a couple of times with Steve Carell not kissing Oscar Nunez . Then on one take , Oscar saw " [ Carell 's ] lips coming closer and closer " . Nunez recalled " I 'm like , ' Dear God , he 's going to kiss me . ' And sure enough , he planted one on my face . " The other cast members were laughing during the kiss but because the camera stays focused on Carell and Nunez , the scene was still usable .
At Paleyfest in early 2007 , Steve Carell later recalled that he enjoyed the episode " because it spoke to the fact that Michael is not a homophobe ; he just doesn 't understand the world . They are two very different things . It 's not that he 's intrinsically racist or homophobic or sexist , he just doesn 't have a frame of reference . He 's not capable of understanding . And once he does glean some understanding he misinterprets it into something altogether . But I think at least the way I feel about the character is he 's a decent heart , a decent person and he 's just trying his best . "
The third season DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode , including Karen pulling a prank on Jim by setting his dial tone to call Hong Kong , Andy comparing his jumping skills to Michael Jordan to Jim , Michael asking Pam how she is holding up since the wedding broke off , and Jan being furious at Michael .
= = Reception = =
" Gay Witch Hunt " first aired on NBC on September 21 , 2006 . The Nielsen ratings for " Gay Witch Hunt " indicated that it was watched by approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewers , a 23 percent increase from the second season premiere " The Dundies " . During its timeslot , " Gay Witch Hunt " ranked second among men ages 18 – 49 and 24 – 54 , and first among men ages 18 – 34 .
" Gay Witch Hunt " generally received praise from critics . TV Guide 's Matt Roush admitted that he " loved Oscar 's self @-@ deprecating reaction to his newfound notoriety " . Roush said that when watching Michael " you can 't help but forgive the idiot , while wondering how in the world he manages to keep his job , " and that the kiss between Michael and Oscar was " horrifically funny " . Brian Zoromski of IGN rated the episode with a 9 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He observed that the episode 's best scenes " show the impact of Jim and Pam being in different offices , " and thought Andy 's reactions made the audience appreciate Dwight more .
Steve West of Cinemablend stated that " the balance between laughing at Michael ’ s ineptitude and the discomfit of Oscar was handled so deftly that it ’ s a wonder the show became successful when similarly great writing in Arrested Development did nothing to garner viewers . " For his work on this episode , Greg Daniels won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series . Ken Kwapis also received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for his work on this episode as well , but lost to Ugly Betty 's Richard Shepard for his work on the pilot episode .
= Bouldering =
Bouldering is a form of rock climbing that is performed without the use of ropes or harnesses . While it can be done without any equipment whatsoever , most climbers use climbing shoes to help secure footholds , chalk to keep their hands dry , and bouldering mats to prevent injuries from falls . Unlike free solo climbing , which is also performed without ropes , bouldering problems ( the path that a climber takes in order to complete the climb ) are usually less than 6 meters ( 20 ft . ) tall . Artificial climbing walls allow boulderers to train indoors in areas without natural boulders . Bouldering competitions , which employ a variety of formats , take place in both indoor and outdoor settings .
The sport originated as a method of training for roped climbs and mountaineering . Bouldering enabled climbers to practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground . Additionally , the sport served to build stamina and increase finger strength . Throughout the 1900s , bouldering evolved into a separate discipline . Individual problems are assigned ratings based on their difficulty . There have been many different rating systems used throughout the history of the sport , but modern problems usually use either the V @-@ scale or the Fontainebleau scale .
The growing popularity of the sport has caused several environmental concerns , including soil erosion and trampled vegetation as climbers hike off @-@ trail to reach bouldering sites . This has caused some landowners to restrict access or prohibit bouldering altogether .
= = Overview = =
Bouldering is a form of rock climbing which takes place on boulders and other small rock formations , usually measuring less than 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from ground to top , but in some cases can measure up to 30 + ft . Unlike top rope climbing and lead climbing , no ropes are used to protect or aid the climber . Bouldering routes or " problems " require the climber to reach the top of a boulder , usually from a specified start position . Some boulder problems , known as " traverses , " require the climber to climb horizontally from one position to another .
The characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed . Granite , for example , often features long cracks and slabs . Sandstone rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks . Other common bouldering rocks include limestone and volcanic rock .
There are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States , including Hueco Tanks in Texas , Mount Evans in Colorado , and The Buttermilks in Bishop , California . Squamish , British Columbia is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada . Europe also hosts a number of bouldering sites , such as Fontainebleau in France , Albarracín in Spain , and various mountains throughout Switzerland .
= = = Indoor bouldering = = =
Artificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment , usually at climbing gyms . These walls are constructed with wooden panels , polymer cement panels , concrete shells , or precast molds of actual rock walls . Holds , usually made of plastic , are then bolted onto the wall to create problems . The walls often feature steep overhanging surfaces , forcing the climber to employ highly technical movements while supporting much of their weight with their upper body strength .
Climbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the same section of wall . In the US the most common method Routesetters use to designate the intended route for a particular problem is by placing colored tape next to each hold — for example , holds with red tape would indicate one bouldering problem , while green tape would be used to set off a different problem in the same area . Across much of the rest of the world problems and grades are usually designated by using a set color of plastic hold to indicate a particular problem . For example , green may be v0 @-@ v1 , blue may be v2 @-@ v3 and so on . Setting via color has certain advantages , the most notable of which are that it makes it more obvious where the holds for a problem are , and that there is no chance of tape being accidentally kicked off of footholds . Smaller , resource @-@ poor climbing gyms may prefer taped problems because large , expensive holds can be used in multiple routes simply by marking them with more than one color of tape .
= = = Competitions = = =
Bouldering competitions occur in both indoor and outdoor settings . The International Federation of Sport Climbing ( IFSC ) employs an indoor format that breaks the competition into three rounds : qualifications , semi @-@ finals , and finals . The rounds feature different sets of four or five boulder problems , and each competitor has a fixed amount of time to attempt each problem . At the end of each round , competitors are ranked by the number of completed problems , with ties settled by the total number of attempts taken to solve the problems .
There are several other formats used for bouldering competitions . Some competitions give climbers a fixed number of attempts at each problem with a timed rest period in between each attempt , unlike the IFSC format , in which competitors can use their allotted time however they choose . In an open @-@ format competition , all climbers compete simultaneously , and are given a fixed amount of time to complete as many problems as possible . More points are awarded for more difficult problems , while points are deducted for multiple attempts on the same problem .
In 2012 , the IFSC submitted a proposal to the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) to include lead climbing in the 2020 Summer Olympics . The proposal was later revised to an " overall " competition , which would feature bouldering , lead climbing , and speed climbing . In May 2013 , the IOC announced that climbing would not be added to the 2020 Olympic program .
= = History = =
Rock climbing first emerged as a sport in the mid @-@ 1800s . Early records describe climbers engaging in what is now referred to as bouldering , not as a separate discipline , but as a form of training for larger ascents . In the early 20th century , the Fontainebleau area of France established itself as a prominent climbing area , where some of the first dedicated bleausards ( or " boulderers " ) emerged . The specialized rock climbing shoe was invented by one such athlete , Pierre Allain .
In the 1960s , the sport was pushed forward by American mathematician John Gill , who contributed several important innovations . Gill 's previous athletic pursuit was gymnastics , a sport which had an established scale of difficulty for particular movements and body positions . He applied this idea to bouldering , which shifted the focus from reaching a summit to navigating a specific sequence of holds . Gill developed a closed @-@ ended rating system : B1 problems were as difficult as the most challenging roped routes of the time , B2 problems were more difficult , and B3 problems were those that had only been completed once .
Gill introduced chalk as a method of keeping the climber 's hands dry . He also emphasized the importance of strength training to complement technical skill . Neither of these practices had been popular among climbers , but as Gill 's ability level and influence grew , his ideas became the norm .
Two important training tools emerged in the 1980s : Bouldering mats and artificial climbing walls . The former , also referred to as " crash pads " , prevented injuries from falling , and enabled boulderers to climb in areas that would have been too dangerous to attempt otherwise . Indoor climbing walls helped spread the sport to areas without outdoor climbing , and allowed serious climbers to train year @-@ round regardless of weather conditions .
As the sport grew in popularity , new bouldering areas were developed throughout Europe and the United States , and more athletes began participating in bouldering competitions . The visibility of the sport greatly increased in the early 2000s , as YouTube videos and climbing blogs helped boulderers around the world to quickly learn techniques , find hard problems , and announce newly completed projects .
In early 2010 , two American climbers claimed first ascents on boulder problems that have come to be regarded as the most difficult in the world : The Game near Boulder , Colorado , established by Daniel Woods ; and Lucid Dreaming near Bishop , California , established by Paul Robinson . The following year , fellow American Carlo Traversi claimed the second ascent of The Game and in January 2014 , American Daniel Woods completed the second ascent of " Lucid Dreaming . " In 2011 , Czech climber Adam Ondra claimed the second ascent of Gioia , originally established three years earlier by Italian boulderer Christian Core , and suggested that it was among the world 's most challenging boulder problems .
= = Equipment = =
Unlike other climbing sports , bouldering can be performed safely and effectively with very little equipment , an aspect which makes the discipline highly appealing to many climbers . Bouldering pioneer John Sherman asserted that " The only gear really needed to go bouldering is boulders " . Others suggest the use of climbing shoes and a chalkbag as the bare minimum , while more experienced boulderers typically bring multiple pairs of shoes , chalk , brushes , crash pads , and a skincare kit .
Of the aforementioned equipment , climbing shoes have the most direct impact on performance . Besides protecting the climber 's feet from rough surfaces , climbing shoes are designed to help the climber secure and maintain footholds . Climbing shoes typically fit much tighter than other athletic footwear , and often curl the toes downwards to enable precise footwork . They are manufactured in a variety of different styles in order to perform well in different situations : High @-@ top shoes , for example , provide better protection for the ankle , while low @-@ top shoes provide greater flexibility and freedom of movement . Stiffer shoes excel at securing small edges , whereas softer shoes provide greater sensitivity . The front of the shoe , called the " toe box " , can be asymmetric , which performs well on overhanging rocks , or symmetric , which is better suited for vertical problems and slabs .
Most boulderers use gymnastics chalk on their hands to absorb sweat . It is stored in a small chalkbag which can be tied around the waist , allowing the climber to reapply chalk during the climb . Brushes are used to remove excess chalk and other debris from boulders in between climbs ; they are often attached to the end of a stick , pipe , or other straight object in order to reach higher holds . Crash pads , also referred to as bouldering mats , are foam cushions placed on the ground to protect climbers from falls .
= = Safety = =
Boulder problems are generally shorter than 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from ground to top . This makes the sport significantly safer than free solo climbing , which is also performed without ropes , but with no upper limit on the height of the climb . However , minor injuries are common in bouldering , particularly sprained ankles and wrists . Two factors contribute to the frequency of injuries in bouldering : first , boulder problems typically feature more difficult moves than other climbing disciplines , making falls more common . Second , without ropes to arrest the climber 's descent , every fall will cause the climber to hit the ground .
To prevent injuries , boulderers position crash pads near the boulder to provide a softer landing , as well as one or more spotters to help redirect the climber towards the pads . Upon landing , boulderers employ falling techniques similar to those used in gymnastics : spreading the impact across the entire body to avoid bone fractures , and positioning limbs to allow joints to move freely throughout the impact .
= = Technique = =
As with other forms of climbing , bouldering technique is largely centered on proper footwork . Leg muscles are significantly stronger than arm muscles ; thus , proficient boulderers use their arms primarily to maintain balance and body positioning , relying on their legs to push them up the boulder . Boulderers also keep their arms straight whenever possible , allowing their bones to support their body weight rather than their muscles .
Bouldering movements are described as either " static " or " dynamic " . Static movements are those that are performed slowly , with the climber 's position controlled by maintaining contact on the boulder with the other three limbs . Dynamic movements use the climber 's momentum to reach holds that would be difficult or impossible to secure statically , with an increased risk of falling if the movement is not performed accurately .
= = Grading = =
Bouldering problems are assigned numerical difficulty ratings by routesetters and climbers . The two most widely used rating systems are the V @-@ scale and the Fontainebleau system .
The V @-@ scale , which originated in the United States , is an open @-@ ended rating system with higher numbers indicating a higher degree of difficulty . The V1 rating indicates that a problem can be completed by a novice climber in good physical condition after several attempts . The scale begins at V0 , and as of 2013 , the highest V rating that has been assigned to a bouldering problem is V16 . Some climbing gyms also use a VB grade to indicate beginner problems .
The Fontainebleau scale follows a similar system , with each numerical grade divided into three ratings with the letters a , b , and c . For example , Fontainebleau 7A roughly corresponds with V6 , while Fontainebleau 7C + is equivalent to V10 . In both systems , grades are further differentiated by appending " + " to indicate a small increase in difficulty . Despite this level of specificity , ratings of individual problems are often controversial , as ability level is not the only factor that affects how difficult a problem will be for a particular climber . Height , arm length , flexibility , and other body characteristics can also be relevant .
= = Environmental impact = =
Bouldering can damage vegetation that grows on rocks , such as mosses and lichens . This can occur as a result of the climber intentionally cleaning the boulder , or unintentionally from repeated use of handholds and footholds . Vegetation on the ground surrounding the boulder can also be damaged from overuse , particularly by climbers laying down crash pads . Soil erosion can occur when boulderers trample vegetation while hiking off of established trails , or when they unearth small rocks near the boulder in an effort to make the landing zone safer . Other environmental concerns include littering , improperly disposed feces , and graffiti . These issues have caused some land managers to prohibit bouldering , as was the case in Tea Garden , a popular bouldering area in Rocklands , South Africa .
= The Red Throne =
" The Red Throne " is the forty @-@ seventh episode from the fifth season of Adventure Time , an animated television series . In the episode , Flame Princess ( Jessica DiCicco ) , with the help of Cinnamon Bun ( Dee Bradley Baker ) and Finn ( Jeremy Shada ) , tries to escape from an arranged marriage between her and Don John the Flame Lord ( Roddy Piper ) , as set up by her father the Flame King ( Keith David ) . Seo Kim and Somvilay Xayaphone wrote the episode from a synopsis devised by several other writers , including show creator Pendleton Ward .
Piper and David , stars of They Live ( 1987 ) , a John Carpenter film , lent their voices for two of the aforementioned characters . The episode contains a parody from a popular combat sequence in the film , in which the actors box for close to six minutes . Meanwhile , background art was accomplished by Derek Ballard , whose experience growing up in Utah inspired one of his pieces for the episode . Originally aired on 10 February 2014 , " The Red Throne " was seen by roughly two million viewers . Writers of entertainment- and education @-@ related websites praised the episode for its writing and themes , as well as the performances by Piper and David . Despite this praise , the Adventure Time crew perceived its online response from fans as negative .
= = Plot = =
In the Fire Kingdom , Don John the Flame Lord shows up to tell Flame Princess she is not brutish enough to rule over the Flame subjects . Her father , the Flame King , appears as his daughter is deprived of her body temperature and crown . He tells Flame Princess he has arranged her marriage with Don John . When she tries to escape their palace , its inhabitants – put under a mind @-@ control spell by Don John – try to seize her . Cinnamon Bun riding his wolf punctures the palace walls . He rescues Flame Princess , and the two escape . They enlist the aid of Finn , the ex of Flame Princess .
Still uneasy over their split , Finn tries to show off to Flame Princess , though she informs him that they should only remain friends . They return to the kingdom , its entrance now guarded by the inhabitants . Finn goes directly for the guards , but he and Flame Princess get captured after she advises him too late that the people are impenetrable through their spell . Don John visits the imprisoned duo , where Flame Princess vows never to marry him . Don John complains to the Flame King that he is failing to deliver on his promise . The lord and king box , with the latter authority knocking out Don John , which frees the Flame people from his spell . Cinnamon Bun delivers a speech to the palace convincing the people to detain the Flame King and Don John while earning the affections of Flame Princess .
= = Production = =
" The Red Throne " was written by Seo Kim and Somvilay Xayaphone . A separate group of writers – Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto – came up with the idea for the episode , which Kim and Xayaphone adapted to a storyboard . The creator of Adventure Time , Ward resigned from his occupation as its runner during production of the season . Employing other crew members , background artist Derek Ballard depicted a derelict van , a wrecked truck , and ruined musical instruments in one piece for the episode . This was inspired by his growing up in the desert of Utah . Since he himself was in a band , he would often let other bands temporarily stay at his house during their tours , often taking them to auto shops due to their vans and campers breaking down .
The voice of Don John the Flame Lord was supplied by " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , in unison with Keith David , who provided the voice of the Flame King . A distinguished wrestler and actor , Piper had appeared in numerous films . One of his most famous roles is that of the unnamed man ( dubbed Nada ) in They Live , directed by John Carpenter and released in 1988 . A well @-@ known scene in the film – lasting for nearly six minutes – has the man fight with his friend ( David ) , whom Nada wants to share his glasses with . In similar fashion , the Adventure Time episode includes a parody of that scene , in which Don John and the Flame King engage in combat . The scene in They Live was previously the subject of spoofs in South Park and Saints Row IV , though this parody was called exemplar for reuniting both Piper and David . WWE similarly found Don John 's line , " my gym is magic , and my protein shake is rage " , seemingly written for Piper 's wrestling persona .
= = Release and reception = =
Cartoon Network originally aired " The Red Throne " on 10 February 2014 . Approximately two million people saw the episode live on broadcast ; according to TV by the Numbers , 0 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old residents of households with television sets watched the episode , as indicated by its Nielsen rating . The network released the episode on DVD , first in the year of that broadcast , as part of the Finn the Human box set , and later in 2015 , as part of a box set for the complete fifth season .
The Adventure Time crew was satisfied with the episode on its completion . In spite of that , Muto described the reaction from fans on the Internet as largely negative , much to their surprise . It earned an A − grade from Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club , who compared Cinnamon Bun 's evolution from a simple @-@ minded character to one of complexity with the progression of the show itself . Sava opined that the theme of life following a broken romance benefits from this complexity . Sava saw the physical cooling of Flame Princess as a crafty metaphor for the personal changes an individual from a former relationship might experience , as well as the nostalgia felt over such a relationship . Separate from romance , Sava interpreted the battle between the Flame Lord and the Flame King as to demonstrate Flame Princess is a more sensible ruler .
The Huffington Post writer Cat Blake cited Cinnamon Bun gaining the affection of Flame Princess as a reason for secondary schoolers not to underestimate people . Staff writers of TV.com called this character progression for " seemingly one @-@ note characters " a strength of the show , as similarly applied to the Ice King . Writing in DVD Talk , Adam Tyner described the episode as showing Finn at his most embarrassing . In memoriam of Piper , who died in July 2015 , Brandon Stroud of Uproxx called Don Jon one of his best roles in pop culture . In the The Official Tribute Commemorative Magazine for Piper , editor Jeff Ashworth and staff supposed that fans of the series were likely foreign to the " grizzly tones " of Piper 's voice . The commemoration saw his guest role as showing his mastery of pop culture while calling Don Jon 's bizarre fate normal in the show 's universe .
= Running to Stand Still =
" Running to Stand Still " is a song by rock band U2 , and it is the fifth track from their 1987 album , The Joshua Tree . A slow ballad based on piano and guitar , it describes a heroin @-@ addicted couple living in Dublin 's Ballymun flats ; the towers have since become associated with the song . Though a lot of time was dedicated to the lyrics , the music was improvised with co @-@ producer Daniel Lanois during a recording session for the album .
The group explored American music for The Joshua Tree , and as such , " Running to Stand Still " demonstrates folk rock and acoustic blues influences . The song was praised by critics , many of them calling it one of the record 's best tracks . It has since been included in the regular set lists of four U2 concert tours , in two different arrangements and with several possible thematic interpretations . Since the song 's release , the phrase " running to stand still " has become more widely used .
= = Background = =
" Running to Stand Still " was written by U2 in the context of the heroin addiction epidemic in Dublin of the 1980s , much like " Bad " ( and to some extent " Wire " ) had been from their 1984 album The Unforgettable Fire . Bassist Adam Clayton has referred to the song as " Bad Part II " . Thin Lizzy frontman Phil Lynott 's decline and death from addiction also resonated with Clayton at the time .
Until their 2014 album Songs of Innocence , U2 had written relatively few songs directly related to their growing up in Dublin , often giving higher priority to works about The Troubles in Northern Ireland or to international concerns . When they have written about Dublin , allusions to it have often been disguised . But " Running to Stand Still " was one of those with specific Dublin connections :
This lyric was a reference to the Ballymun flats , a group of seven local authority , high @-@ rise residential tower blocks built in the Ballymun neighborhood of Dublin during the 1960s . Paul Hewson ( later known as U2 's lead vocalist Bono ) had grown up on Cedarwood Road in the adjacent Glasnevin neighborhood , in a house across fields behind the towers , near his friends and future artists Fionán Hanvey ( later known as Gavin Friday ) and Derek Rowan ( later known as Guggi ) . Bono had played in the towers ' foundations as they were being built , then traveled in their elevators for the novel experience . Over time , poor maintenance , lack of facilities for children , transient tenancies , and other factors caused social conditions and communal ties to break down in the flats . The place began to stink of urine and vomit , and glue sniffers and used needles were common sights , as were appearances of the Garda Síochána . Guggi later lived in the towers during years that he was struggling personally with drugs . It was through his exposure to people without hope in the flats that Bono began to develop his social consciousness .
Bono may have used Ballymun as the inspiration ( without any explicit lyrical references to it ) for the 1980 U2 song " Shadows and Tall Trees " , and later likened living in the area to some of the scenes portrayed in the 1992 Mike Newell film Into the West . Driving by there in 1987 , Bono said , " See the seven tall buildings there ? They 're ' the seven towers . ' They have the highest suicide rate in Ireland . After they discovered everywhere else in the world that you don 't put people living on top of each other , we built them here . "
= = Writing and recording = =
The song 's title phrase originated from Bono asking his brother how his struggling business was going , and the brother responding , " It 's like running to stand still . " Bono had not heard the phrase before , and he thought it expressed what heroin addiction and the effects of the drug on the body were like ; a writer later described the title as a " perfect distillation of the dynamic of feeding on addiction . " Bono had heard a real story about a pair of heroin addicts , a man and a woman , who lived in the Ballymun towers . Out of money and unable to pay the rent due to their habit , the man became a heroin smuggler , operating between Dublin and Amsterdam and taking enormous risks for a big payday . Bono felt the man was decent at heart but was constrained by his squalid living conditions , as well as poor choices , and Bono wanted to illustrate how these poor conditions affected their lives . The resulting lyric does not describe any of this explicitly , but instead limns the emotional atmosphere that the couple live in . In doing so , the song is not judgmental and shows sympathy for the woman . A character monologue from Wim Wenders ' 1984 film Paris , Texas , was also a significant influence on Bono 's writing of the song .
Although the lyrics of " Running to Stand Still " were worked on a great deal , the musical composition was essentially improvised by the band during the recording process at Dublin 's Windmill Lane Studios . Guitarist the Edge began playing some chords during a session for another song . Producer Daniel Lanois joined in on guitar , and the rest of the group followed . This initial improvised version incorporated all the elements of the final song structure , and the sound and feel of the group playing in a room together without overdubs contributed to the track 's effectiveness . Lou Reed 's " Walk on the Wild Side " and Elton John 's " Candle in the Wind " , both of which had served as end snippets for " Bad " on the Unforgettable Fire Tour , were loose inspirations . The influence of Reed 's works can be felt throughout the song , as can Van Morrison to an extent . Indeed , in a published tribute following Reed 's 2013 death , Bono offered " Running to Stand Still " as " red @-@ handed proof " of the influence that Reed and the Velvet Underground had had upon U2 .
= = Composition and interpretation = =
Much of The Joshua Tree showed the band 's fascination with American culture , politics , and musical forms , and while the lyrics of " Running to Stand Still " were Irish @-@ based , the musical arrangement for it began with touches of acoustic blues and country blues that represented an idiomatic stretch for the group . Although producer Brian Eno was known for introducing European textural music into U2 's sound , he also had a strong fondness for folk and gospel music . Indeed , writers have seen echoes of Bruce Springsteen 's stark acoustic 1982 album Nebraska in the song 's sound .
" Running to Stand Still " is a soft , piano @-@ based ballad played in a key of D major at a tempo of 92 beats per minute . The song follows a traditional verse @-@ chorus form . In the introduction and conclusion is a mournful slide acoustic guitar in Eno and Lanois ' production that Rolling Stone called both grim and dreamy . Most of the piano part alternates between the D and G chords , an example of the Edge 's longtime practice of composing around two @-@ chord progressions . The part gives the song an elegiac feel . Accompanying the piano for much of the song is Lanois ' soft playing of a so @-@ called electric " scrape guitar " , which he contributed to add texture . Soft , echoing drums from Larry Mullen , Jr . , enter after the second chorus . A harmonica part from Bono takes the song to its faded conclusion . Bono 's vocal range in the song runs from A3 to D6 .
In the song , the woman 's addiction and misdirected desire for transcendence are reflected in lines such as " She runs through the streets / With her eyes painted red " and " She will suffer the needle chill " . Bono 's lyrics evoke helplessness and frustration in the lines " You 've got to cry without weeping , talk without speaking , scream without raising your voice " . The title phrase is not used until the last line of the song . This compositional technique relies upon delayed gratification and is heard in a few other popular songs , such as the Cure 's " Just Like Heaven " and George Michael 's " One More Try " .
U2 songs often have multiple interpretations , and " Running to Stand Still " has ones beyond its immediate context . On the website SongMeanings.net , there are several posts from readers who never realized the song is about drug addiction and heard it instead in contexts ranging from personal challenge to religious salvation . A staffer for the fan website atU2.com found the song to be a very meaningful inspiration towards personal discovery . In the liner notes to the 20th anniversary reissue of The Joshua Tree , writer Bill Flanagan stated , " ' Running to Stand Still ' is for anyone who feels trapped in an impossible circumstance by overwhelming responsibility . " Uncut magazine writer Andrew Mueller noted that the theme was effective in depicting " the drug as another bogus escape , another fraudulent promise
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Ko has carried out the executions . Too timid to execute anyone , Ko @-@ Ko cooks up a conspiracy to misdirect the Mikado , which goes awry . Eventually , Ko @-@ Ko must persuade Katisha to marry him , in order to save his own life and the lives of the other conspirators .
With the opening of trade between England and Japan , Japanese imports , art and styles became fashionable in London , making the time ripe for an opera set in Japan . Gilbert said , " I cannot give you a good reason for our ... piece being laid in Japan . It ... afforded scope for picturesque treatment , scenery and costume , and I think that the idea of a chief magistrate , who is ... judge and actual executioner in one , and yet would not hurt a worm , may perhaps please the public . "
Setting the opera in Japan , an exotic locale far away from Britain , allowed Gilbert and Sullivan to satirise British politics and institutions more freely by clothing them in superficial Japanese trappings . Gilbert wrote , " The Mikado of the opera was an imaginary monarch of a remote period and cannot by any exercise of ingenuity be taken to be a slap on an existing institution . " G. K. Chesterton compared it to Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels : " Gilbert pursued and persecuted the evils of modern England till they had literally not a leg to stand on , exactly as Swift did ... I doubt if there is a single joke in the whole play that fits the Japanese . But all the jokes in the play fit the English . ... About England Pooh @-@ bah is something more than a satire ; he is the truth . " Several of the later operas are similarly set in foreign or fictional locales , including The Gondoliers , Utopia Limited , and The Grand Duke .
The Mikado became the partnership 's longest @-@ running hit , enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre , which was the second longest run for any work of musical theatre ( surpassing the 571 performances of Pinafore and 576 of Patience ) and one of the longest runs of any theatre piece up to that time . The Mikado remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera . It has been translated into numerous languages and is one of the most frequently played musical theatre pieces in history .
= = = = Ruddigore = = = =
Ruddigore ( 1887 ) , a topsy @-@ turvy take on Victorian melodrama , was less successful than most of the earlier collaborations with a run of 288 performances . The original title , Ruddygore , together with some of the plot devices , including the revivification of ghosts , drew negative comments from critics . Gilbert and Sullivan respelled the title and made a number of changes and cuts . Nevertheless , the piece was profitable , and the reviews were not all bad . For instance , the Illustrated London News praised the work and both Gilbert and , especially , Sullivan : " Sir Arthur Sullivan has eminently succeeded alike in the expression of refined sentiment and comic humour . In the former respect , the charm of graceful melody prevails ; while , in the latter , the music of the most grotesque situations is redolent of fun . " Further changes were made , including a new overture , when Rupert D 'Oyly Carte revived Ruddigore after the First World War , and the piece was regularly performed by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company thereafter .
Some of the plot elements of Ruddigore were introduced by Gilbert in his earlier one @-@ act opera , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , including the tale of the wicked ancestor and the device of the ghostly ancestors stepping out of their portraits . When Ruddigore closed , no new opera was ready . Gilbert again proposed a version of the " lozenge " plot for their next opera , and Sullivan reiterated his desire to leave the partnership . While the two men worked out their artistic differences , Carte produced revivals of such old favourites as H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance , and The Mikado .
= = = = The Yeomen of the Guard = = = =
The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) , their only joint work with a serious ending , concerns a pair of strolling players — a jester and a singing girl — who are caught up in a risky intrigue at the Tower of London during the 16th century . The dialogue , though in prose , is quasi @-@ early modern English in style , and there is no satire of British institutions . For some of the plot elements , Gilbert had reached back to his 1875 tragedy , Broken Hearts . The Times praised the libretto : " It should ... be acknowledged that Mr. Gilbert has earnestly endeavoured to leave familiar grooves and rise to higher things . " Although not a grand opera , the new libretto provided Sullivan with the opportunity to write his most ambitious score to date . The critics , who had recently lauded the composer for his successful oratorio , The Golden Legend , considered the score to Yeomen to be Sullivan 's finest , including its overture , which was written in sonata form , rather than as a sequential pot @-@ pourri of tunes from the opera , as in most of his other overtures . The Daily Telegraph wrote :
The accompaniments ... are delightful to hear , and especially does the treatment of the woodwind compel admiring attention . Schubert himself could hardly have handled those instruments more deftly , written for them more lovingly ... We place the songs and choruses in The Yeomen of the Guard before all his previous efforts of this particular kind . Thus the music follows the book to a higher plane , and we have a genuine English opera ...
Yeomen was a hit , running for over a year , with strong New York and touring productions . During the run , on 12 March 1889 , Sullivan wrote to Gilbert ,
I have lost the liking for writing comic opera , and entertain very grave doubts as to my power of doing it ... You say that in a serious opera , you must more or less sacrifice yourself . I say that this is just what I have been doing in all our joint pieces , and , what is more , must continue to do in comic opera to make it successful .
Sullivan insisted that the next opera must be a grand opera . Gilbert did not feel that he could write a grand opera libretto , but he offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted . The two would write a light opera for the Savoy , and at the same time , Sullivan a grand opera ( Ivanhoe ) for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British grand opera . After a brief impasse over the choice of subject , Sullivan accepted an idea connected with Venice and Venetian life , as " this seemed to me to hold out great chances of bright colour and taking music . "
= = = = The Gondoliers = = = =
The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) takes place partly in Venice and partly in a kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who attempt to remodel the monarchy in a spirit of " republican equality . " Gilbert recapitulates a number of his earlier themes , including the satire of class distinctions figuring in many of his earlier librettos . The libretto also reflects Gilbert 's fascination with the " Stock Company Act " , highlighting the absurd convergence of natural persons and legal entities , which plays an even larger part in the next opera , Utopia Limited . Press accounts were almost entirely favourable . The Illustrated London News reported :
... Gilbert has returned to the Gilbert of the past , and everyone is delighted . He is himself again . The Gilbert of the Bab Ballads , the Gilbert of whimsical conceit , inoffensive cynicism , subtle satire , and playful paradox ; the Gilbert who invented a school of his own , who in it was schoolmaster and pupil , who has never taught anybody but himself , and is never likely to have any imitator — this is the Gilbert the public want to see , and this is the Gilbert who on Saturday night was cheered till the audience was weary of cheering any more .
Sullivan 's old collaborator on Cox and Box ( later the editor of Punch magazine ) , F. C. Burnand , wrote to the composer : " Magnificento ! ... I envy you and W.S.G. being able to place a piece like this on the stage in so complete a fashion . " The opera enjoyed a run longer than any of their other joint works except for H.M.S. Pinafore , Patience and The Mikado . There was a command performance of The Gondoliers for Queen Victoria and the royal family at Windsor Castle in 1891 , the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be so honoured . The Gondoliers was Gilbert and Sullivan 's last great success .
= = = Carpet quarrel = = =
Gilbert and Sullivan sometimes had a strained working relationship , partly caused by the fact that each man saw himself as allowing his work to be subjugated to the other 's , and partly caused by the opposing personalities of the two — Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin @-@ skinned ( though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness ) , while Sullivan eschewed conflict . In addition , Gilbert imbued his libretti with " topsy @-@ turvy " situations in which the social order was turned upside down . After a time , these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan 's desire for realism and emotional content . Also , Gilbert 's political satire often poked fun at the wealthy and powerful whom Sullivan sought out for friendship and patronage .
Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject . After both Princess Ida and Ruddigore , which were less successful than the seven other operas from H.M.S. Pinafore to The Gondoliers , Sullivan asked to leave the partnership , saying that he found Gilbert 's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him . While the two artists worked out their differences , Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works . On each occasion , after a few months ' pause , Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan 's objections , and the partnership was able to continue successfully .
In April 1890 , however , during the run of The Gondoliers , Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production . Among other items to which Gilbert objected , Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership . Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone . Gilbert confronted Carte , who refused to reconsider the accounts . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " As scholar Andrew Crowther has explained :
After all , the carpet was only one of a number of disputed items , and the real issue lay not in the mere money value of these things , but in whether Carte could be trusted with the financial affairs of Gilbert and Sullivan . Gilbert contended that Carte had at best made a series of serious blunders in the accounts , and at worst deliberately attempted to swindle the others . It is not easy to settle the rights and wrongs of the issue at this distance , but it does seem fairly clear that there was something very wrong with the accounts at this time . Gilbert wrote to Sullivan on 28 May 1891 , a year after the end of the " Quarrel " , that Carte had admitted " an unintentional overcharge of nearly £ 1 @,@ 000 in the electric lighting accounts alone .
Things soon degraded , a legal hearing was held , and Sullivan supported Carte by making an affidavit erroneously stating that there were minor legal expenses outstanding from a battle Gilbert had with Lillian Russell . On 5 May 1890 , Gilbert had written to Sullivan : " The time for putting an end to our collaboration has at last arrived . " Gilbert later asked Sullivan to say he had been mistaken in his affidavit , but Sullivan refused . Gilbert felt it was a moral issue , and could not look past it . Sullivan felt that Gilbert was questioning his good faith , and in any event , Sullivan had other reasons to stay in Carte 's good graces : Carte was building a new theatre , the Royal English Opera House , to produce Sullivan 's only grand opera , Ivanhoe . Gilbert brought suit , and after The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , he withdrew the performance rights to
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concerned with understanding living organisms of the past paleontology can be considered to be a field of biology , but its historical development has been closely tied to geology and the effort to understand the history of the Earth itself .
In ancient times Xenophanes ( 570 @-@ 480 BC ) , Herodotus ( 484 @-@ 425 BC ) , Eratosthenes ( 276 @-@ 194 BC ) , and Strabo ( 64 BC @-@ 24 AD ) , wrote about fossils of marine organisms indicating that land was once under water . During the Middle Ages , fossils were discussed by the Persian naturalist , Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in Europe ) , in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ) , which proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony would elaborate on in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo .
In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . The nature of fossils and their relationship to life in the past became better understood during the 17th and 18th centuries , and at the end of the 18th century the work of Georges Cuvier ended a long running debate about the reality of extinction and led to the emergence of paleontology , in association with comparative anatomy , as a scientific discipline . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy .
In 1822 the word " paleontology " was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils , and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth , and progress towards definition of the geologic time scale largely based on fossil evidence . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory .
The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection , as demonstrated by a series of important discoveries in China near the end of the 20th century . Many transitional fossils have been discovered , and there is now considered to be abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related , much of it in the form of transitional fossils . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian .
= = Prior to the 17th century = =
As early as the 6th century BC , the Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon ( 570 @-@ 480 BC ) recognized that some fossil shells were remains of shellfish , which he used to argue that what was at the time dry land was once under the sea . Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 – 1519 ) , in an unpublished notebook , also concluded that some fossil sea shells were the remains of shellfish . However , in both cases , the fossils were complete remains of shellfish species that closely resembled living species , and were therefore easy to classify .
In 1027 , the Persian naturalist , Ibn Sina ( known as Avicenna in Europe ) , proposed an explanation of how the stoniness of fossils was caused in The Book of Healing . He modified an idea of Aristotle 's , which explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations . Ibn Sina modified this into the theory of petrifying fluids ( succus lapidificatus ) , which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and was accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century .
Shen Kuo ( Chinese : 沈括 ) ( 1031 – 1095 ) of the Song Dynasty used marine fossils found in the Taihang Mountains to infer the existence of geological processes such as geomorphology and the shifting of seashores over time . Using his observation of preserved petrified bamboos found underground in Yan 'an , Shanbei region , Shaanxi province , he argued for a theory of gradual climate change , since Shaanxi was part of a dry climate zone that did not support a habitat for the growth of bamboos .
As a result of a new emphasis on observing , classifying , and cataloging nature , 16th century natural philosophers in Europe began to establish extensive collections of fossil objects ( as well as collections of plant and animal specimens ) , which were often stored in specially built cabinets to help organize them . Conrad Gesner published a 1565 work on fossils that contained one of the first detailed descriptions of such a cabinet and collection . The collection belonged to a member of the extensive network of correspondents that Gesner drew on for his works . Such informal correspondence networks among natural philosophers and collectors became increasingly important during the course of the 16th century and were direct forerunners of the scientific societies that would begin to form in the 17th century . These cabinet collections and correspondence networks played an important role in the development of natural philosophy .
However , most 16th @-@ century Europeans did not recognize that fossils were the remains of living organisms . The etymology of the word fossil comes from the Latin for things having been dug up . As this indicates , the term was applied to wide variety of stone and stone @-@ like objects without regard to whether they might have an organic origin . 16th @-@ century writers such as Gesner and Georg Agricola were more interested in classifying such objects by their physical and mystical properties than they were in determining the objects ' origins . In addition , the natural philosophy of the period encouraged alternative explanations for the origin of fossils . Both the Aristotelian and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy provided support for the idea that stony objects might grow within the earth to resemble living things . Neoplatonic philosophy maintained that there could be affinities between living and non @-@ living objects that could cause one to resemble the other . The Aristotelian school maintained that the seeds of living organisms could enter the ground and generate objects resembling those organisms .
= = 17th century = =
During the Age of Reason , fundamental changes in natural philosophy were reflected in the analysis of fossils . In 1665 Athanasius Kircher attributed giant bones to extinct races of giant humans in his Mundus subterraneus . In the same year Robert Hooke published Micrographia , an illustrated collection of his observations with a microscope . One of these observations was entitled " Of Petrify 'd wood , and other Petrify 'd bodies " , which included a comparison between petrified and ordinary wood . He concluded that petrified wood was ordinary wood that had been soaked with " water impregnated with stony and earthy particles " . He then suggested that several kinds of fossil sea shells were formed from ordinary shells by a similar process . He argued against the prevalent view that such objects were " Stones form 'd by some extraordinary Plastick virtue latent in the Earth itself " . Hooke believed that fossils provided evidence about the history of life on Earth writing in 1668 :
... if the finding of Coines , Medals , Urnes , and other Monuments of famous persons , or Towns , or Utensils , be admitted for unquestionable Proofs , that such Persons or things have , in former times had a being , certainly those Petrifactions may be allowed to be of equal Validity and Evidence , that there have formerly been such Vegetables or Animals ... and are true universal Characters legible to all rational Men .
Hooke was prepared to accept the possibility that some such fossils represented species that had become extinct , possibly in past geological catastrophes .
In 1667 Nicholas Steno wrote a paper about a shark head he had dissected . He compared the teeth of the shark with the common fossil objects known as tongue stones . He concluded that the fossils must have been shark teeth . Steno then took an interest in the question of fossils , and to address some of the objections to their organic origin he began studying rock strata . The result of this work was published in 1669 as Forerunner to a Dissertation on a solid naturally enclosed in a solid . In this book , Steno drew a clear distinction between objects such as rock crystals that really were formed within rocks and those such as fossil shells and shark teeth that were formed outside of those rocks . Steno realized that certain kinds of rock had been formed by the successive deposition of horizontal layers of sediment and that fossils were the remains of living organisms that had become buried in that sediment . Steno who , like almost all 17th century natural philosophers , believed that the earth was only a few thousand years old , resorted to the Biblical flood as a possible explanation for fossils of marine organisms that were far from the sea .
Despite the considerable influence of Forerunner , naturalists such as Martin Lister ( 1638 – 1712 ) and John Ray ( 1627 – 1705 ) continued to question the organic origin of some fossils . They were particularly concerned about objects such as fossil Ammonites , which Hooke claimed were organic in origin , that did not resemble any known living species . This raised the possibility of extinction , which they found difficult to accept for philosophical and theological reasons . In 1695 Ray wrote to the Welsh naturalist Edward Lluyd complaining of such views : " ... there follows such a train of consequences , as seem to shock the Scripture @-@ History of the novity of the World ; at least they overthrow the opinion received , & not without good reason , among Divines and Philosophers , that since the first Creation there have been no species of Animals or Vegetables lost , no new ones produced . "
= = 18th century = =
In his 1778 work Epochs of Nature Georges Buffon referred to fossils , in particular the discovery of fossils of tropical species such as elephants and rhinoceros in northern Europe , as evidence for the theory that the earth had started out much warmer than it currently was and had been gradually cooling .
In 1796 Georges Cuvier presented a paper on living and fossil elephants comparing skeletal remains of Indian and African elephants to fossils of mammoths and of an animal he would later name mastodon utilizing comparative anatomy . He established for the first time that Indian and African elephants were different species , and that mammoths differed from both and must be extinct . He further concluded that the mastodon was another extinct species that also differed from Indian or African elephants , more so than mammoths . Cuvier made another powerful demonstration of the power of comparative anatomy in paleontology when he presented a second paper in 1796 on a large fossil skeleton from Paraguay , which he named Megatherium and identified as a giant sloth by comparing its skull to those of two living species of tree sloth . Cuvier ’ s ground @-@ breaking work in paleontology and comparative anatomy led to the widespread acceptance of extinction . It also led Cuvier to advocate the geological theory of catastrophism to explain the succession of organisms revealed by the fossil record . He also pointed out that since mammoths and wooly rhinoceros were not the same species as the elephants and rhinoceros currently living in the tropics , their fossils could not be used as evidence for a cooling earth .
In a pioneering application of stratigraphy , William Smith , a surveyor and mining engineer , made extensive use of fossils to help correlate rock strata in different locations . He created the first geological map of England during the late 1790s and early 19th century . He established the principle of faunal succession , the idea that each strata of sedimentary rock would contain particular types of fossils , and that these would succeed one another in a predictable way even in widely separated geologic formations . At the same time , Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart , an instructor at the Paris school of mine engineering , used similar methods in an influential study of the geology of the region around Paris .
= = Early to mid @-@ 19th century = =
= = = The age of reptiles = = =
In 1808 , Cuvier identified a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine reptile that would later be named Mosasaurus . He also identified , from a drawing , another fossil found in Bavaria as a flying reptile and named it Pterodactylus . He speculated , based on the strata in which these fossils were found , that large reptiles had lived prior to what he was calling " the age of mammals " . Cuvier 's speculation would be supported by a series of finds that would be made in Great Britain over the course of the next two decades . Mary Anning , a professional fossil collector since age eleven , collected the fossils of a number of marine reptiles from the Jurassic marine strata at Lyme Regis . These included the first ichthyosaur skeleton to be recognized as such , which was collected in 1811 , and the first two plesiosaur skeletons ever found in 1821 and 1823 . Many of her discoveries would be described scientifically by the geologists William Conybeare , Henry De la Beche , and William Buckland . It was Anning who observed that stony objects known as " bezoar stones " were often found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons , and she noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs . This led her to suggest to Buckland that they were fossilized feces , which he named coprolites , and which he used to better understand ancient food chains .
In 1824 , Buckland found and described a lower jaw from Jurassic deposits from Stonesfield . He determined that the bone belonged to a carnivorous land @-@ dwelling reptile he called Megalosaurus . That same year Gideon Mantell realized that some large teeth he had found in 1822 , in Cretaceous rocks from Tilgate , belonged to a giant herbivorous land @-@ dwelling reptile . He called it Iguanodon , because the teeth resembled those of an iguana . All of this led Mantell to publish an influential paper in 1831 entitled " The Age of Reptiles " in which he summarized the evidence for there having been an extended time during which the earth had teemed with large reptiles , and he divided that era , based in what rock strata different types of reptiles first appeared , into three intervals that anticipated the modern periods of the Triassic , Jurassic , and Cretaceous . In 1832 Mantell would find , in Tilgate , a partial skeleton of an armored reptile he would call Hylaeosaurus . In 1841 the English anatomist Richard Owen would create a new order of reptiles , which he called Dinosauria , for Megalosaurus , Iguanodon , and Hylaeosaurus .
This evidence that giant reptiles had lived on Earth in the past caused great excitement in scientific circles , and even among some segments of the general public . Buckland did describe the jaw of a small primitive mammal , Phascolotherium , that was found in the same strata as Megalosaurus . This discovery , known as the Stonesfield mammal , was a much discussed anomaly . Cuvier at first thought it was a marsupial , but Buckland later realized it was a primitive placental mammal . Due to its small size and primitive nature , Buckland did not believe it invalidated the overall pattern of an age of reptiles , when the largest and most conspicuous animals had been reptiles rather than mammals .
= = = Paleobotany and the origin of the word paleontology = = =
In 1828 Alexandre Brongniart 's son , the botanist Adolphe Brongniart , published the introduction to a longer work on the history of fossil plants . Adolphe Brongniart concluded that the history of plants could roughly be divided into four parts . The first period was characterized by cryptogams . The second period was characterized by the appearance of the conifers . The third period brought emergence of the cycads , and the fourth by the development of the flowering plants ( such as the dicotyledons ) . The transitions between each of these periods was marked by sharp discontinuities in the fossil record , with more gradual changes within the periods . Brongniart 's work is the foundation of paleobotany and reinforced the theory that life on earth had a long and complex history , and different groups of plants and animals made their appearances in successive order . It also supported the idea that the Earth 's climate had changed over time as Brogniart concluded that plant fossils showed that during the Carboniferous the climate of Northern Europe must have been tropical .
The increasing attention being paid to fossil plants in the first decades of the 19th century would trigger a significant change in the terminology for the study of past life . The editor of the influential French scientific journal , Journal de Physique , a student of Cuvier 's named Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , coined the term " paleozoologie " in 1817 to refer to the work Cuvier and others were doing to reconstruct extinct animals from fossil bones . However , Blainville began looking for a term that could refer to the study of both fossil animal and plant remains . After trying some unsuccessful alternatives , he hit on " palaeontologie " in 1822 . Blainville 's term for the study of the fossilized organisms quickly became popular and was anglicized into " paleontology " .
= = = Catastrophism , uniformitarianism and the fossil record = = =
In Cuvier 's landmark 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants , he referred to a single catastrophe that destroyed life to be replaced by the current forms . As a result of his studies of extinct mammals , he realized that animals such as Palaeotherium had lived before the time of the mammoths , which led him to write in terms of multiple geological catastrophes that had wiped out a series of successive faunas . By 1830 , a scientific consensus had formed around his ideas as a result of paleobotany and the dinosaur and marine reptile discoveries in Britain . In Great Britain , where natural theology was very influential in the early 19th century , a group of geologists that included Buckland , and Robert Jameson insisted on explicitly linking the most recent of Cuvier 's catastrophes to the biblical flood . Catastrophism had a religious overtone in Britain that was absent elsewhere .
Partly in response to what he saw as unsound and unscientific speculations by William Buckland and other practitioners of flood geology , Charles Lyell advocated the geological theory of uniformitarianism in his influential work Principles of Geology . Lyell amassed evidence , both from his own field research and the work of others , that most geological features could be explained by the slow action of present @-@ day forces , such as vulcanism , earthquakes , erosion , and sedimentation rather than past catastrophic events . Lyell also claimed that the apparent evidence for catastrophic changes in the fossil record , and even the appearance of directional succession in the history of life , were illusions caused by imperfections in that record . For instance he argued that the absence of birds and mammals from the earliest fossil strata was merely an imperfection in the fossil record attributable to the fact that marine organisms were more easily fossilized . Also Lyell pointed to the Stonesfield mammal as evidence that mammals had not necessarily been preceded by reptiles , and to the fact that certain Pleistocene strata showed a mixture of extinct and still surviving species , which he said showed that extinction occurred piecemeal rather than as a result of catastrophic events . Lyell was successful in convincing geologists of the idea that the geological features of the earth were largely due to the action of the same geologic forces that could be observed in the present day , acting over an extended period of time . He was not successful in gaining support for his view of the fossil record , which he believed did not support a theory of directional succession .
= = = Transmutation of species and the fossil record = = =
Jean Baptiste Lamarck used fossils in his arguments for his theory of the transmutation of species in the early 19th century . Fossil finds , and the emerging evidence that life had changed over time , fueled speculation on this topic during the next few decades . Robert Chambers used fossil evidence in his 1844 popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , which advocated an evolutionary origin for the cosmos as well as for life on earth . Like Lamarck 's theory it maintained that life had progressed from the simple to the complex . These early evolutionary ideas were widely discussed in scientific circles but were not accepted into the scientific mainstream . Many of the critics of transmutational ideas used fossil evidence in their arguments . In the same paper that coined the term dinosaur Richard Owen pointed out that dinosaurs were at least as sophisticated and complex as modern reptiles , which he claimed contradicted transmutational theories . Hugh Miller would make a similar argument , pointing out that the fossil fish found in the Old Red Sandstone formation were fully as complex as any later fish , and not the primitive forms alleged by Vestiges . While these early evolutionary theories failed to become accepted as mainstream science , the debates over them would help pave the way for the acceptance of Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection a few years later .
= = = Geological time scale and the history of life = = =
Geologists such as Adam Sedgwick , and Roderick Murchison continued , in the course of disputes such as The Great Devonian Controversy , to make advances in stratigraphy . They described new geological epochs such as the Cambrian , the Silurian , the Devonian , and the Permian . Increasingly , such progress in stratigraphy depended on the opinions of experts with specialized knowledge of particular types of fossils such as William Lonsdale ( fossil corals ) , and John Lindley ( fossil plants ) who both played a role in the Devonian controversy and its resolution . By the early 1840s much of the geologic time scale had been developed . In 1841 , John Phillips formally divided the geologic column into three major eras , the Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic , based on sharp breaks in the fossil record . He identified the three periods of the Mesozoic era and all the periods of the Paleozoic era except the Ordovician . His definition of the geological time scale is still used today . It remained a relative time scale with no method of assigning any of the periods ' absolute dates . It was understood that not only had there been an " age of reptiles " preceding the current " age of mammals " , but there had been a time ( during the Cambrian and the Silurian ) when life had been restricted to the sea , and a time ( prior to the Devonian ) when invertebrates had been the largest and most complex forms of animal life .
= = = Expansion and professionalization of geology and paleontology = = =
This rapid progress in geology and paleontology during the 1830s and 1840s was aided by a growing international network of geologists and fossil specialists whose work was organized and reviewed by an increasing number of geological societies . Many of these geologists and paleontologists were now paid professionals working for universities , museums and government geological surveys . The relatively high level of public support for the earth sciences was due to their cultural impact , and their proven economic value in helping to exploit mineral resources such as coal .
Another important factor was the development in the late 18th and early 19th centuries of museums with large natural history collections . These museums received specimens from collectors around the world and served as centers for the study of comparative anatomy and morphology . These disciplines played key roles in the development of a more technically sophisticated form of natural history . One of the first and most important examples was the Museum of Natural History in Paris , which was at the center of many of the developments in natural history during the first decades of the 19th century . It was founded in 1793 by an act of the French National Assembly , and was based on an extensive royal collection plus the private collections of aristocrats confiscated during the French revolution , and expanded by material seized in French military conquests during the Napoleonic Wars . The Paris museum was the professional base for Cuvier , and his professional rival Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire . The English anatomists Robert Grant and Richard Owen both spent time studying there . Owen would go on to become the leading British morphologist while working at the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons .
= = Late 19th century = =
= = = Evolution = = =
Charles Darwin 's publication of the On the Origin of Species in 1859 was a watershed event in all the life sciences , especially paleontology . Fossils had played a role in the development of Darwin 's theory . In particular he had been impressed by fossils he had collected in South America during the voyage of the Beagle of giant armadillos , giant sloths , and what at the time he thought were giant llamas that seemed to be related to species still living on the continent in modern times . The scientific debate that started immediately after the publication of Origin led to a concerted effort to look for transitional fossils and other evidence of evolution in the fossil record . There were two areas where early success attracted considerable public attention , the transition between reptiles and birds , and the evolution of the modern single @-@ toed horse . In 1861 the first specimen of Archaeopteryx , an animal with both teeth and feathers and a mix of other reptilian and avian features , was discovered in a limestone quarry in Bavaria and described by Richard Owen . Another would be found in the late 1870s and put on display at a Museum in Berlin in 1881 . Other primitive toothed birds were found by Othniel Marsh in Kansas in 1872 . Marsh also discovered fossils of several primitive horses in the Western United States that helped trace the evolution of the horse from the small 5 @-@ toed Hyracotherium of the Eocene to the much larger single @-@ toed modern horses of the genus Equus . Thomas Huxley would make extensive use of both the horse and bird fossils in his advocacy of evolution . Acceptance of evolution occurred rapidly in scientific circles , but acceptance of Darwin 's proposed mechanism of natural selection as the driving force behind it was much less universal . In particular some paleontologists such as Edward Drinker Cope and Henry Fairfield Osborn preferred alternatives such as neo @-@ Lamarckism , the inheritance of characteristics acquired during life , and orthogenesis , an innate drive to change in a particular direction , to explain what they perceived as linear trends in evolution .
There was also great interest in human evolution . Neanderthal fossils were discovered in 1856 , but at the time it was not clear that they represented a different species from modern humans . Eugene Dubois created a sensation with his discovery of Java Man , the first fossil evidence of a species that seemed clearly intermediate between humans and apes , in 1891 .
= = = Developments in North America = = =
A major development in the second half of the 19th century was a rapid expansion of paleontology in North America . In 1858 Joseph Leidy described a Hadrosaurus skeleton , which was the first North American dinosaur to be described from good remains . However , it was the massive westward expansion of railroads , military bases , and settlements into Kansas and other parts of the Western United States following the American Civil War that really fueled the expansion of fossil collection . The result was an increased understanding of the natural history of North America , including the discovery of the Western Interior Sea that had covered Kansas and much of the rest of the Midwestern United States during parts of the Cretaceous , the discovery of several important fossils of primitive birds and horses , and the discovery of a number of new dinosaur genera including Allosaurus , Stegosaurus , and Triceratops . Much of this activity was part of a fierce personal and professional rivalry between two men , Othniel Marsh , and Edward Cope , which has become known as the Bone Wars .
= = Overview of developments in the 20th century = =
= = = Developments in geology = = =
Two 20th century developments in geology had a big effect on paleontology . The first was the development of radiometric dating , which allowed absolute dates to be assigned to the geologic timescale . The second was the theory of plate tectonics , which helped make sense of the geographical distribution of ancient life .
= = = Geographical expansion of paleontology = = =
During the 20th century , paleontological exploration intensified everywhere and ceased to be a largely European and North American activity . In the 135 years between Buckland 's first discovery and 1969 a total of 170 dinosaur genera were described . In the 25 years after 1969 that number increased to 315 . Much of this increase was due to the examination of new rock exposures , particularly in previously little @-@ explored areas in South America and Africa . Near the end of the 20th century the opening of China to systematic exploration for fossils has yielded a wealth of material on dinosaurs and the origin of birds and mammals . Also study of the Chengjiang fauna , a Cambrian fossil site in China , during the 1990s has provided important clues to the origin of vertebrates .
= = = Mass extinctions = = =
The 20th century saw a major renewal of interest in mass extinction events and their effect on the course of the history of life . This was particularly true after 1980 when Luis and Walter Alvarez put forward the Alvarez hypothesis claiming that an impact event caused the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , which killed off the non @-@ avian dinosaurs along with many other living things . Also in the early 1980s Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup published papers with statistical analysis of the fossil record of marine invertebrates that revealed a pattern ( possibly cyclical ) of repeated mass extinctions with significant implications for the evolutionary history of life .
= = = Evolutionary paths and theory = = =
Throughout the 20th century new fossil finds continued to contribute to understanding the paths taken by evolution . Examples include major taxonomic transitions such as finds in Greenland , starting in the 1930s ( with more major finds in the 1980s ) , of fossils illustrating the evolution of tetrapods from fish , and fossils in China during the 1990s that shed light on the dinosaur @-@ bird relationship . Other events that have attracted considerable attention have included the discovery of a series of fossils in Pakistan that have shed light on whale evolution , and most famously of all a series of finds throughout the 20th century in Africa ( starting with Taung child in 1924 ) and elsewhere have helped illuminate the course of human evolution . Increasingly , at the end of the 20th century , the results of paleontology and molecular biology were being brought together to reveal detailed phylogenetic trees .
The results of paleontology have also contributed to the development of evolutionary theory . In 1944 George Gaylord Simpson published Tempo and Mode in Evolution , which used quantitative analysis to show that the fossil record was consistent with the branching , non @-@ directional , patterns predicted by the advocates of evolution driven by natural selection and genetic drift rather than the linear trends predicted by earlier advocates of neo @-@ Lamarckism and orthogenesis . This integrated paleontology into the modern evolutionary synthesis . In 1972 Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould used fossil evidence to advocate the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which maintains that evolution is characterized by long periods of relative stasis and much shorter periods of relatively rapid change .
= = = Cambrian explosion = = =
One area of paleontology that has seen a lot of activity during the 1980s , 1990s , and beyond is the study of the Cambrian explosion during which many of the various phyla of animals with their distinctive body plans first appear . The well @-@ known Burgess Shale Cambrian fossil site was found in 1909 by Charles Doolittle Walcott , and another important site in Chengjiang China was found in 1912 . However , new analysis in the 1980s by Harry B. Whittington , Derek Briggs , Simon Conway Morris and others sparked a renewed interest and a burst of activity including discovery of an important new fossil site , Sirius Passet , in Greenland , and the publication of a popular and controversial book , Wonderful Life by Stephen Jay Gould in 1989 .
= = = Pre @-@ Cambrian fossils = = =
Prior to 1950 there was no widely accepted fossil evidence of life before the Cambrian period . When Charles Darwin wrote The Origin of Species he acknowledged that the lack of any fossil evidence of life prior to the relatively complex animals of the Cambrian was a potential argument against the theory of evolution , but expressed the hope that such fossils would be found in the future . In the 1860s there were claims of the discovery of pre @-@ Cambrian fossils , but these would later be shown not to have an organic origin . In the late 19th century Charles Doolittle Walcott would discover stromatolites and other fossil evidence of pre @-@ Cambrian life , but at the time the organic origin of those fossils was also disputed . This would start to change in the 1950s with the discovery of more stromatolites along with microfossils of the bacteria that built them , and the publication of a series of papers by the Soviet scientist Boris Vasil 'evich Timofeev announcing the discovery of microscopic fossil spores in pre @-@ Cambrian sediments . A key breakthrough would come when Martin Glaessner would show that fossils of soft bodied animals discovered by Reginald Sprigg during the late 1940s in the Ediacaran hills of Australia were in fact pre @-@ Cambrian not early Cambrian as Sprigg had originally believed , making the Ediacaran biota the oldest animals known . By the end of the 20th century , paleobiology had established that the history of life extended back at least 3 @.@ 5 billion years .
= Doomsday ( 2008 film )
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lease the Deeside Railway . The other companies merged two days later , except the Banffshire and Morayshire , which had started as separate undertakings and were not included in the 1866 Act , although permission for the Banffshire to merge was gained the following year . After the extension of the Deeside opened in 1866 and the merger of the Banffshire the following year the Great North of Scotland Railway owned 226 1 ⁄ 4 route miles ( 364 @.@ 1 km ) of line and operated over a further 61 miles ( 98 km ) .
= = = Austerity , 1866 – 1879 = = =
In 1855 , the first full year after opening , the Great North of Scotland declared a dividend of 1 1 ⁄ 4 per cent , which rose to 4 1 ⁄ 4 the following year and 5 per cent in 1859 . The dividend reached a maximum of 7 1 ⁄ 4 per cent in 1862 before dropping to 7 per cent the following year and 5 per cent in 1864 , but in 1865 the directors could not pay any dividend on ordinary shares . At the directors ' suggestion a committee was set up to look into their actions ; the report 's main recommendation was the abandonment of the Port Gordon extension . The opening of direct route over the Highland Railway to the south had lost the through mail business , resulting in the withdrawal of Sunday services , and had lost revenue equivalent to a five per cent dividend . Joining the Clearing House system had resulted in the loss of twenty @-@ five per cent of goods traffic income and the conflict over the joint station in Aberdeen had been expensive and resulted in an overpriced lease on the Deeside . The collapse of Overend , Gurney and Company Bank in 1866 meant that for three months the bank rate rose to 10 per cent , making the company 's financial situation worse .
The whole board resigned and six members did not seek re @-@ appointment . At the beginning of 1867 the company owed £ 800 @,@ 000 and the new board imposed austerity measures . It would be 1874 before most of the company 's debt was settled and it became possible to pay a dividend again . The only line built in the early 70s was the 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 800 m ) to Macduff and few carriages and no locomotives were built until 1876 . The Deeside Railway merged in 1875 , the Aboyne & Braemar extension to Ballater in January 1876 , and the Morayshire Railway was absorbed in 1880 . After an engine boiler exploded at Nethy Bridge in September 1878 , the inquiry found the testing of boilers infrequent and inadequate . It was sixteen months before the locomotive was repaired .
= = = Renaissance , 1879 – 1899 = = =
= = = = Renewal and extension = = = =
In 1879 the Chairman , Lord Provost Leslie , died and was replaced by William Ferguson of Kinmundy . The following year both the Secretary and General Manager resigned and William Moffatt was appointed to both posts , and A.G. Reid became Superintendent of the Line . The railway was now paying a dividend and seeing increased traffic , but rolling stock , track , signals and stations all needed replacing in a project that was to cost £ 250 @,@ 000 . By June 1880 the main line was doubled as far as Kintore , and over the next five years 142 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 229 @.@ 3 km ) of iron rail track , much of it without fishplates , was replaced with steel rails and the main line doubled to Inveramsay . The railway had acquired a reputation for running slow trains on a perverse timetable and ill @-@ treating its passengers , and now resolved to address this . By the mid @-@ 1880s services were faster , there was upholstery in third class and the branches saw an accelerated service as a result of running fewer mixed trains .
On 27 November 1882 Inverythan Bridge on the Macduff Branch near Auchterless collapsed as a locomotive hauling five goods wagons , a brake van and four carriages crossed . The locomotive and tender crossed the bridge , but the wagons and carriages fell 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) to the road below , killing five people who had been travelling in the first and second carriages and injuring fifteen others . The Board of Trade report found that the collapse was due to an internal fault in a cast iron beam that had been fitted when the bridge had been built in 1857 .
A bill was introduced to parliament in 1881 to extend the line from Portsoy along the Moray Firth to Buckie , to be opposed by the Highland and rejected . The following year both the Great North and Highland railways applied to parliament , the Great North for a 25 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 40 @.@ 6 km ) line from Portsoy along the coast through Buckie to Elgin , and the Highland for a branch from Keith to Buckie and Cullen . Authority was granted , but in the case of the Highland Railway only for a line as far as Portessie , with running rights over the Great North coast line between Buckie and Portsoy and the Great North obtaining reciprocal rights over the Highland railway between Elgin and Forres . The coast line opened in stages , the outer sections from Portsoy to Tochieneal and Elgin to Garmouth opening in 1884 . The centre section , which involved heavy engineering , with a long viaduct with a central span of 350 feet ( 110 m ) over the Spey at Garmouth and embankments and viaducts at Cullen , opened in May 1886 . The line was served by four trains a day and a fast through train from Aberdeen that reached Elgin in 2 3 ⁄ 4 hours . The Highland Portessie branch had opened in 1884 and the Highland did not exercise its running rights over the Coast Line , thus preventing the Great North running over its lines west of Elgin .
The Great North had opened using a system of telegraphic train orders , and as the signalling was being upgraded this was being replaced with electric tablet working over the single line sections . Now express trains had to slow to exchange tokens in a process that frequently left railwaymen injured , so James Manson , the locomotive superintendent , designed an automatic token exchange system based on apparatus used to move cotton in a factory . At first tokens were exchanged at 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) , but soon they were exchanged at line speed . After trialling on the Fraserburgh line , the system was installed on the coast route in May 1889 , and by 1 January 1893 it was in operation on all single @-@ line sections .
= = = = Aberdeen to Inverness = = = =
The Great North and Highland had agreed in 1865 that Keith would be the exchange point for traffic between the two railways , but in 1886 the Great North had two lines to Elgin that , although longer than the Highland 's direct line , served more populous areas . The coastal route between Keith and Elgin was 87 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 140 @.@ 8 km ) long but had easier gradients than the 80 3 ⁄ 4 miles ( 130 @.@ 0 km ) via Craigellachie . The Highland 's main line south from Inverness was via Forres , the Great North believing that their competitors treated the line to Elgin as a branch . In 1883 a shorter route south from Inverness was promoted by an independent company , the bill defeated in parliament only after the Highland had promised to request authority for a shorter line . The following year , as well as the Highland 's more direct line from Aviemore , the Great North proposed a branch from its Speyside Section to Inverness . The Highland Railway route was chosen , but the Great North won a concession that goods and passengers that could be exchanged at any junction with through bookings and with services conveniently arranged .
In 1885 the Great North re @-@ timed the 10 : 10 am Aberdeen service to reach Keith at 11 : 50 am with through carriages that reached Elgin via Craigellachie at 1 pm . This connected with a Highland service at both Keith and Elgin , until the Highland re @-@ timed the train and broke the connection at Elgin . The Great North applied to the Board of Trade for an order for two connections a day at Elgin . This was refused , but in 1886 the Great North and Highland railways came to an agreement to pool receipts from the stations between Grange and Elgin and refer any disputes to an arbiter . The midday Highland train was re @-@ timed to connect with the Great North at Keith and Elgin , and a service connected at Elgin with an Aberdeen train that had divided en route to travel via the coast and Craigellachie .
In 1893 the Highland cancelled the traffic agreement and withdrew two connecting trains , complaining that they were unprofitable . One of the trains was reinstated after an appeal was made to the Railway & Canal Commissioners and a frustrated Great North applied to parliament in 1895 for running powers to Inverness , but withdrew after it was agreed that the Railway & Canal Commissioners would arbitrate in the matter . With no judgement by 1897 , the Great North prepared to apply again for running powers over the Highland to Inverness , this time agreeing to double track the line , but the commissioners published their finding before the bill was submitted to parliament . Traffic was to be exchanged at both Elgin and Keith , the services exchanged at Elgin needed to include through carriages from both the Craigellachie and the coast routes , and the timetable had to be approved by the commissioners . The resulting Commissioners ' Service started in 1897 with eight through services , four via the Highland to Keith taking between 4 1 ⁄ 2 and 5 hours , and four with carriages exchanged at Elgin with portions that travelled via Craigellachie and the coast , two of these taking 3 1 ⁄ 2 hours . The 3 pm from Inverness to Aberdeen via Keith took 3 hours 5 minutes . Initially portions for the coast and Craigellachie divided at Huntly , but Cairnie Platform was opened at Grange Junction in summer 1898 . The main line was double track to Huntly in 1896 and Keith in 1898 , except for a single @-@ track bridge over the Deveron between Avochie and Rothiemay , which was replaced by a double @-@ track bridge in 1900 .
= = = = Subbies and hotels = = = =
In 1880 an express was introduced on the Deeside Line , taking 90 minutes to travel from Aberdeen to Ballater ; by 1886 this had reduced to 75 minutes . In 1887 the service between Aberdeen and Dyce had improved with more local trains and new stations ; by the end of that year there were twelve trains a day , eventually becoming twenty trains a day calling at nine stops in twenty minutes . The trains were initially called the Jubilees , as it was Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee , but became known as the Subbies . Suburban services were also introduced between Aberdeen and Culter on the Deeside Line in 1894 , after the track had been doubled , starting with ten down and nine up trains calling at seven stops in twenty @-@ two minutes . The number of trains was eventually doubled and an additional station provided .
In 1891 the company offices were moved from Waterloo to a new building in Guild Street with direct access to the station . The same year the Great North took over the Palace Hotel ( closed after a fire in 1941 ) , near the joint railway station in Aberdeen and modernised it , installing electric lighting and building a covered way between the hotel and station . Encouraged by its success , the company obtained permission in 1893 to build an hotel and golf course at Cruden Bay , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Aberdeen . The hotel was linked to the Great North by the Boddam Branch , a new 15 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 24 @.@ 9 km ) single @-@ track branch from Ellon , on the Buchan section , which served Cruden Bay and fishing town at Boddam . The line opened in 1897 with services from Ellon taking about forty minutes . The hotel opened in 1899 , connected to the railway station by the Cruden Bay Hotel Tramway . This was nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long , with a gauge of 3 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 07 m ) and operated by electric tramcars that took power from an overhead line . Seasonal through services to Aberdeen began in 1899 with an up service in the morning ; for some years an afternoon up service returned in the evening . Excursions for tourists had operated on the Deeside Line from 1881 , later joined by special services on the Strathspey Line and the Coast Line alongside the Moray Firth , promoted as the Scottish Riviera .
= = = Maturity , 1900 – 1914 = = =
There was interest at the end of the 19th century in using the new Light Railways Act 1896 to approve lines to serve rural areas . The 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) long Aberdeenshire Light Railway was independently promoted in 1896 to serve Skene and Echt , with tracks laid along the public roads in Aberdeen . The Great North proposed an alternative Echt Light Railway and a line to Newburgh that would both use the Aberdeen tramway tracks in the city . In 1897 a line from Echt to Aberdeen was approved , but only as far the city outskirts after opposition to laying tracks in the public roads or using the tramways for goods traffic . The plans were changed to connect the line with the Great North at Kittybrewster , but the scheme abandoned after the costs had started to rise .
The Great North was granted a Light Railway Order on 8 September 1899 for a 5 1 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 2 km ) light railway from Fraserburgh to St Combs . The Order included a clause , unusual for the time , permitting the use of electric traction ; but the company opted for steam traction , and the locomotives were fitted with cowcatchers as the line was unfenced . Services started on 1 July 1903 , with six trains a day that took 17 minutes to complete the journey . A light railway was proposed to cover the 4 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) from Fraserburgh to Rosehearty , but the scheme was abandoned after opposition to laying tracks on the public road .
Finding its locomotive works at Kittybrewster cramped and inadequate , the Great North began construction on a new works at Inverurie in 1898 , electric lighting being provided in the buildings . The carriage and wagon department moved in 1901 , the locomotive department in 1902 , the offices the following year and the permanent way department in 1905 ; the buildings still stand and are listed Category B. Inverurie station was rebuilt nearer the works in 1902 , and is similarly a Category B building . The Great North built houses nearby for its staff , lit by electricity generated at the works , and the Inverurie Loco Works Football Club was formed by staff in 1902 .
The Great North rebuilt Elgin station in 1902 to replace a temporary wooden building dating from the 1860s , a joint structure with the adjacent station having been declined by the Highland Railway . Following negotiations , amalgamation of the Highland and the Great North of Scotland Railways was accepted by the Great North shareholders in early 1906 , but the Highland board withdrew after opposition from a minority of its shareholders . The Aberdeen and Inverness trains were jointly worked after 1908 and locomotives were no longer exchanged at Keith or Elgin ; between 1914 and 1916 the Highland paid the Great North to provide locomotives for all of the services through to Inverness .
In spring 1904 the Great North began a motor omnibus service to Braemar , connecting with trains at Ballater . These early buses had solid tyres and a legal speed limit of 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) , but were faster than the horse @-@ drawn coaches they replaced . By 1907 buses connected with Great North train services and conveyed passengers to Strathdon , Midmar , Echt , Cluny Castle and Aberchirden , between Cock Bridge and Tomintoul a horse @-@ drawn coach was used as the motor buses could not ascend the steep road . Services from Aberdeen connected with trains at Schoolhill , where a refreshment room was built . In 1914 the railway had 35 passenger road vehicles that , together with 15 five @-@ ton lorries , worked 159 miles ( 256 km ) daily .
Aberdeen joint station was congested , resulting in delayed trains , and the low , open platforms were frequently covered in oily slime due to the large quantities of fish that passed through . Agreement with the Caledonian Railway over rebuilding the station had been reached in 1899 , but the companies fell out over widening the line to the south . Moving the goods station to the east was similarly complex , with conflicts with the harbour commissioners and the town council . In 1908 new platforms on the western side opened and the adjoining station hotel was bought in 1910 . Foundations for the new building were laid in 1913 and the station was largely complete by July 1914 , although outbreak of war delayed further progress and the station was finally completed in 1920 .
= = = War and grouping , 1914 – 1922 = = =
With Britain 's declaration of war on the German Empire on 4 August 1914 , the government took control of the railways under the Regulation of the Forces Act 1871 . Day @-@ to @-@ day operations were left in the control of local management , but movements necessary for the war were coordinated by a committee of general managers . The Great North of Scotland 's main role was providing a relief route when the Highland Railway route south to Perth was congested , on one Sunday conveying twenty @-@ one troop specials from Keith to Aberdeen . Timber from the forests of the north of Scotland were carried from sidings at Kemnay , Knockando and Nethy Bridge . A total of 609 staff left to serve in the war , and a memorial to the 93 who died in action was erected at the offices in Aberdeen . Services were maintained until 1916 , when staff shortages reduced services , although no lines were closed .
The railways were in a poor state after the war , costs having increased , with higher wages , the introduction of an eight @-@ hour day and increased price of coal . A scheme was devised whereby the railways would be grouped into four large companies ; this was approved by parliament as the Railways Act 1921 . At the start of the 20th century the company 's shares had been restructured ; the final dividends were 3 per cent on preferred stock , unaltered from previously , and 1 1 ⁄ 2 per cent on ordinary stock , slightly above average . Before grouping the Great North of Scotland Railway operated 333 1 ⁄ 2 route miles ( 536 @.@ 7 km ) of track .
= = = London and North Eastern Railway = = =
On 1 January 1923 the Great North of Scotland became an isolated part of the Scottish division of the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) , the Caledonian to the south and Highland to the west both becoming part of a different group , the London , Midland and Scottish Railway . That summer a sleeping carriage operated between Lossiemouth and London Kings Cross , and a through carriage ran from Edinburgh Waverley to Cruden Bay on Fridays . Sunday services were re @-@ introduced ; from 1928 Aberdeen suburban services ran hourly during the afternoon and evenings . Afterwards the economic situation deteriorated and the railway companies advised the trade unions in 1928 that wages would need to be cut ; this was implemented in August 1930 after the Wall Street Crash the previous year . Economy measures were introduced and unprofitable passenger services withdrawn , the Oldmeldrum branch closing on 2 November 1931 and the branch to Cruden Bay and Boddam on 31 October 1932 . Road transport was arranged for guests at the Cruden Bay hotel , from Ellon for the first summer season , and then from Aberdeen .
Carriages were transferred in to replace the older four @-@ wheelers , former North Eastern Railway vehicles in 1924 – 25 and fifty former Great Eastern Railway six @-@ wheelers between 1926 and 1929 for the Aberdeen suburban services . By 1936 more up to date Gresley bogie carriages were used on the primary trains . Optimism returned and traffic increased after 1933 , and a luxury rail land cruise , the " Northern Belle " , ran over former Great North lines . However , the Aberdeen subbies had been losing money for some time as a result of competition from the local buses , and from 5 April 1937 the local services between Aberdeen , Dyce and Culter were withdrawn and most of the intermediate stations closed .
The railways were again placed under government control on 1 September 1939 , and Britain was at war two days later . The Cruden Bay Hotel was used as an army hospital and the tramway ceased operating in 1941 . Handed back to the railway in 1945 , it never reopened . The Palace Hotel burnt down in 1941 . The Station Hotel was used as an admiralty administrative centre , and reopened in 1950 after refurbishment .
= = = British Railways = = =
Britain 's railways were nationalised on 1 January 1948 and the former Great North of Scotland Railway lines were placed under the control of the Scottish Region of British Railways . To reduce costs the Alford branch was closed to passengers on 2 January 1950 , followed by the Macduff Branch on 1 October 1951 .
The 1955 Modernisation Plan , known formally as the " Modernisation and Re @-@ Equipment of the British Railways " , was published in December 1954 , and with the aim of increasing speed and reliability the steam trains were replaced with electric and diesel traction . In 1958 a battery @-@ electric railcar was introduced on the Deeside Line and a diesel railbus on the Speyside Section . Diesel Multiple Units ( DMU ) took over services to Peterhead and Fraserburgh in 1959 and from 1960 cross @-@ country types were used on an accelerated Aberdeen to Inverness service that allowed 2 1 ⁄ 2 hours for four stops . By 1961 the only service still using steam locomotives was the branch from Tillynaught to Banff .
In 1963 Dr Beeching published his report " The Reshaping of British Railways " , which recommended closing the network 's least used stations and lines . Only the Aberdeen to Keith main line survived , albeit without its stopping services and the remaining former Great North lines closed to passengers . The Lossiemouth and Banff branch closed in 1964 and the following year the St Combs branch , line from Dyce to Peterhead and Fraserburgh and the Speyside section closed and local services to Inverurie were withdrawn . Attempts to save the Deeside section to Banchory failed and it closed in 1966 . On 6 May 1968 services were withdrawn on the Coast Line , the former Great North line via Craigellachie and the local services between Aberdeen and Elgin . The Beeching Report had recommended Inverurie and Insch stations for closure , but these were saved by the subsequent inquiry .
The goods service at individual stations was also withdrawn after Beeching 's report . A freightliner depot opened at Aberdeen in 1966 , allowing the Peterhead line to close completely on 7 September 1970 . In 1969 – 70 the line between Aberdeen and Keith was singled , with passing loops , the line to Fraserburgh closing completely in 1979 and that from Keith to Dufftown in 1985 . In the 1969 timetable there were early morning trains between Aberdeen and Inverurie , and five services a day between Aberdeen to Inverness , supplemented by two Aberdeen to Elgin services that by the late 1970s were running through to Inverness . The cross @-@ country DMUs were replaced in 1980 by diesel locomotives hauling Mark I compartment coaches , later Mark II open saloons . These were similarly replaced in the late 1980s and early 1990s by newer DMUs , first the Class 156 Super Sprinter and then Class 158 Express and Class 170 units .
= = = Legacy = = =
The Aberdeen to Inverness Line currently uses the former Great North of Scotland Railway line as far Keith with stations at Dyce , Inverurie , Insch , Huntly and Keith . Eleven trains a day run between Aberdeen and Inverness , taking about 2 1 ⁄ 4 hours , supplemented between Aberdeen and Inverurie by approximately the same number of local trains . In a project scheduled for completion in 2030 , the line is to be improved to allow a regular hourly Aberdeen to Inverness service , additional commuter trains into Inverness and Aberdeen and new stations at Kintore and Dalcross , near Inverness airport .
Heritage and tourist railways also use the former Great North of Scotland Railway alignment . The Keith and Dufftown Railway runs seasonal services over the 11 miles ( 18 km ) between Keith Town and Dufftown using Class 108 diesel multiple units . The Strathspey Railway operates seasonal services over the former Highland Railway route from Aviemore to Grantown @-@ on @-@ Spey via the joint Highland and Great North Boat of Garten station . The Royal Deeside Railway operates over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of former Deeside Railway at Milton of Crathes near Banchory during summer weekends and in December , and based at Alford railway station is the Alford Valley Railway , which seasonally operates a 3 ⁄ 4 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) narrow gauge railway .
Former alignments have been opened as long distance rail trails for pedestrians , cyclists and horses . The 53 @-@ mile ( 85 km ) Formartine and Buchan Way runs from Dyce to Maud before dividing to follow the two branches to Peterhead and Fraserburgh . The Deeside Way is open between Aberdeen and Kincardine O 'Neil and Aboyne and Ballater .
Nestrans ( The North East of Scotland Transport Partnership ) , the organization responsible for local transport strategy , consider that building new railways along these routes would not be beneficial at the moment but the alignments are protected from development . The Speyside Way , one of Scotland 's Long Distance Routes , mostly follows the route of the Speyside section between Craigellachie and Ballindalloch and Grantown and Nethy Bridge .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = = Locomotives = = =
= = = = Early locomotives = = = =
The first locomotives were 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tender engines , built by Wm Fairbairn in Manchester to the design of the locomotive superintendent Daniel Kinnear Clark . Twelve were ordered for the opening of the first line , seven passenger and five goods . They were all fitted with Clark 's patent smoke preventing system that improved fuel economy and painted green with black borders , and red buffer beams . There was no protection for the driver or fireman and braking was by wooden blocks on the four wheels of the tender . The railway opened with only five locomotives , and within days one had been seriously damaged in the collision at Kittybrewster and a second had a mechanical fault . Two more locomotives had arrived by the end of 1854 , and the order was complete by summer 1855 . Four more passenger locomotives were ordered in 1857 , weatherboards and sanding equipment had been fitted by 1860 , and cabs added in the 1880s . John Folds Ruthven replaced Clark in 1855 and an order was placed with Beyer , Peacock & Co. for two 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tank engines to bank trains on the line to Waterloo near Aberdeen harbour . After William Cowan became locomotive superintendent nine more locomotives arrived in 1859 – 61 . These were followed by nine 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s , also built by R. Stephenson & Co . , and delivered between 1862 and 1864 . Six more powerful 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives arrived from Neilsons in 1866 , and were fitted with a more modern bogie . Three passed to the London and North Eastern Railway after the 1923 Grouping , and No. 45 hauled a train at the Railway Centenary celebrations in 1925 before being scrapped .
In 1863 the Great North took over the operation of the Banffshire and Morayshire Railways and absorbed their locomotives . The Banffshire had four locomotives , two 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 tanks , named " Banff " and " Portsoy " , built by Hawthorns of Leith for the line 's opening in 1859 . The other two locomotives were 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 tender engines , one bought secondhand from the Scottish Central Railway , having been built in 1848 by the Vulcan Foundry in Warrington and named " Keith " , and a similar tender engine built by Hawthorns . The Morayshire Railway had started services in 1852 with two 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 engines designed by James Samuel and built by Neilsons . The locomotives had proved inadequate and were replaced by two larger 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tank engines . The Great North took over the operation of the Deeside Railway in 1866 . Its first two locomotives were 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 tank engines , built by Hawthorns and arrived in 1854 . No. 3 , a tender locomotive , was delivered in 1854 from Dodds & Son of Rotherham , but this had mechanical defects and was never satisfactory . Between 1857 and 1866 four 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 tender locomotives arrived from Hawthorns ; these were similar to the Banffshire 's Nos. 3 and 4 ; the Deeside also bought the Banffshire 's No. 4 in 1864 . One of these locomotives was given a large six @-@ wheeled tender to allow it to haul the Royal Trains from Aberdeen to Ballater without stopping . The tender locomotives were found to be unstable at high speeds were all withdrawn by 1880 .
The company 's financial difficulties after 1866 had precluded the purchasing of any more locomotives until six 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives were built in 1876 by Neilson 's , partly to replace the Deeside locomotives . These had larger boilers and fireboxes than previous locomotives and were the first to be built with cabs . The next twelve locomotives had rounded splashers over the trailing driving wheels , meaning the shape of the cab was different , but retained the brass dome on the firebox , copper capped chimney and had brass bands joining the firebox and boiler . After James Manson became locomotive superintendent in 1883 he introduced a more contemporary design of locomotive , with inside cylinders and doors on the side of cabs and without brass domes or copper chimneys . The first six were built by Kitson & Co in Leeds in 1884 , followed by three similar but lighter in 1885 . The railway had inherited most of its tank engines from the Deeside , Morayshire and Banffshire Railways and these needed replacing , so six arrived in 1884 and three slightly larger the following year . The first tank engines in the country to be fitted with doors on the cabs , these worked on the suburban services and one was fitted with a cowcatcher to work the St Combs Light Railway at Fraserburgh . In 1887 two locomotives were built at Kittybrewster works . Although there was only space for four locomotives in the cramped repair shops the board expected to save £ 300 to £ 400 by building the locomotives themselves . Nine express locomotives with six @-@ wheeled tenders were built by Kitsons in 1888 and these were followed by six more with eight @-@ wheeled tenders built by Stephenson & Co , one of which was successfully trialled in 1914 with a superheater . Most of Manson 's later locomotives were subsequently fitted with superheaters , the eight @-@ wheeled tenders being replaced in most cases with six @-@ wheeled tenders during the rebuild .
= = = = Class S and later = = = =
In 1890 Manson was replaced as locomotive superintendent by James Johnson , the son of Samuel W. Johnson , then locomotive superintendent at the Midland Railway . In 1893 Neilsons delivered six new 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tender locomotives that were more powerful any previous Great North locomotive and the first not to have Clark 's smoke prevention apparatus . Classified as Class S and known for rapid acceleration and sustained high speed , these were the blueprint for the later Great North tender locomotives . Manson had left a design for a 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4 tank locomotive and Johnson changed the firebox , boiler and value gear so they were the same as the Class S tender locomotives before ordering nine to work the Deeside Line . These arrived in 1893 and most were transferred to the Aberdeen suburban services in 1900 .
William Pickersgill replaced Johnson in 1894 , and between 1895 and 1898 twenty @-@ six new locomotives were purchased from Neilsons . Similar to Johnson 's Class S , they were recorded at speeds of 79 @.@ 66 miles per hour ( 128 @.@ 20 km / h ) and running the 26 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 42 @.@ 6 km ) from Kennethmont to Dyce in 23 minutes 46 seconds . A further order for ten was placed in 1899 , but train mileage had been reduced and five were sold to the South Eastern & Chatham Railway . Pickersgill saw the works move from Kittybrewster to Inverurie before Thomas Heywood took over in 1914 , three months before the outbreak of war . The railway took over the working of the Aberdeen harbour railway and in 1915 purchased four 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 tank locomotives from Manning Wardle . After the war , six more locomotives were built in 1920 by the North British Locomotive Company , and two locomotives the following year at Inverurie
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. Similar to the 1899 locomotives but with Robinson superheaters , these were given names . Heywood changed the livery during the war , and the traditional green being replaced by black lined with yellow and red .
On 1 January 1923 the Great North of Scotland became a part of the Scottish division of the London and North Eastern Railway ( LNER ) , who received a total of 122 locomotives , 100 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tender locomotives and 22 tank engines , all capable of being used on either passenger or goods trains . Forty @-@ four locomotives were still in service when the railway was nationalised in 1948 , and the last two Great North locomotives to be withdrawn were two of the Aberdeen harbour tanks in 1960 . No. 49 , Gordon Highlander was restored to Great North green in 1958 , although it had not previously carried the green livery as it appeared in Heywood 's lined black . It was used on special trains before becoming a static exhibit at the Glasgow Transport Museum in 1965 , and is currently on loan to the Scottish Railway Museum at Bo 'ness .
= = = Carriages = = =
The first carriages were 9 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) four @-@ wheelers , 21 feet 9 inches ( 6 @.@ 63 m ) long . Painted a dark brown with yellow lining and lettering , they had Newall 's chain brake and a seat for the guard on the roof . Two classes of accommodation were provided : the first class carriages were divided into three compartments each with six upholstered seats and lit by two oil lamps hung between the partitions . Third class passengers were seated on wooden benches in a carriage seating 40 passengers sharing one oil lamp . The Great North never owned any second class carriages . Built by Brown , Marshall & Co , only half the number of carriages ordered had arrived for the start of public services in 1854 . Later the guard 's seat was removed and longer vehicles with six wheels were built . Accommodation for third class passengers was improved in the 1880s and the seats were upholstered .
The Westinghouse air brake was trialled on carriages in the 1880s and this became standard in 1891 . As the Highland Railway used vacuum brakes , carriages used on the Aberdeen to Inverness were dual @-@ fitted . The livery changed in the late 1890s , when the upper half was painted cream and the lower purple lake , with gold lining and lettering . Corridor carriages , 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) long on six wheels , lit with electric lamps using Stone 's system and with both classes having access to a lavatory appeared in 1896 . Bogie corridor carriages , 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) long and weighing 25 long tons ( 25 t ) were built for the Aberdeen to Inverness express in 1898 with provision for vestibule connections . The Great North also had Royal Saloon carriage that , unusually for the Great North , was built with a clerestory roof . This was 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) long , lit by electric lamps and with steam heating , and divided into a first class compartment and an attendant 's coupe , which was fitted with a cooking stove . Later , shorter six @-@ wheeled and bogie compartment carriages were built for secondary services , and communication cords and steam heating were fitted in the early years of the twentieth century . No. 34 , a 6 @-@ wheel carriage built in the 1890s is preserved at the Embsay & Bolton Abbey Steam Railway as part of the Stately Trains collection .
In 1905 the Great North introduced two articulated steam railcars . The locomotive unit was mounted on four 3 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 09 m ) wheels , one pair driven and with the Cochran patent boiler that was common on stationary engines , but an unusual design for a locomotive . The saloon carriage accommodated 46 third class passengers on reversible lath @-@ and @-@ space seats and a position for the driver with controls using cables over the carriage roof . The cars were introduced on the Lossiemouth branch and the St Combs Light Railway , but when in motion there was considerable vibration that was uncomfortable for the passengers and caused problems for the steam engine . Before they were withdrawn in 1909 – 10 , one was tried on Deeside suburban services , but had insufficient accommodation and was unable to maintain the schedule .
= = Constituent railways = =
The Great North of Scotland Railway absorbed the following railways in 1866 :
Aberdeen and Turriff Railway had been the Banff , Macduff and Turriff Junction Railway prior to 1859 . The Great North supported the railway , operated the services from opening and was guarantor from 1862 .
Banff , Macduff and Turriff Extension Railway extended the Aberdeen and Turriff from Turriff . Services were extended by the Great North over the new line from opening .
Most of the Alford Valley Railway 's directors also served on the board of the Great North , who operated services from opening and was guarantor from 1862 .
Formartine and Buchan Railway was worked by the Great North from opening in 1861 , with services from Aberdeen . The Great North was guarantor from 1863 .
Inverury and Old Meldrum Junction Railway opened in 1856 , the line was leased to the Great North from 1858 .
Keith and Dufftown Railway was worked as an extension of the main line , services operated by the Great North from opening in 1862 .
Strathspey Railway was sponsored by the Great North , who operated services from opening .
These companies operated by the Great North in 1866 were merged later :
Banffshire Railway had been Banff , Portsoy and Strathisla Railway when it opened in 1859 , the Great North taking over the operation of services from 1863 and the company renamed . Amalgamation was authorised in an 1867 Act .
Deeside Railway leased from 1 September 1866 , merged 1 August 1875 .
Aboyne & Braemar Railway was the extension of the Deeside to Ballater , and was operated by the Great North from its opening on 17 October 1866 . Merged 31 January 1876 .
Morayshire Railway was opened in 1852 , worked by the Great North from 1863 when the extension to Craigellachie opened . The 1866 Act provided for the merging of the two companies when terms where agreed , and the companies were merged in 1880 .
= = = Books = = =
= Final Fantasy VII =
Final Fantasy VII is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation platform . Released in 1997 , it is the seventh installment in the Final Fantasy series and the first in the series to use 3D computer graphics , featuring fully rendered characters on pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It was also the first game in the main series to be released in Europe . The story follows Cloud Strife , a mercenary who joins the eco @-@ terrorist rebel organization AVALANCHE to stop the world @-@ controlling megacorporation Shinra from draining the life of the planet to use as an energy source . Cloud and his allies become involved in a larger world @-@ threatening conflict and face off against Sephiroth , the main antagonist .
Development of Final Fantasy VII began in 1994 . It was originally developed for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System , but was moved to the Nintendo 64 ; since the Nintendo 64 's cartridges lacked the required storage capacity for substantial prerendered movie footage , Square moved the game to the CD @-@ ROM based PlayStation . It was directed by Yoshinori Kitase , written by Kazushige Nojima and Kitase , and produced by Hironobu Sakaguchi . The music was composed by Final Fantasy veteran Nobuo Uematsu , while the series ' long @-@ time character designer , Yoshitaka Amano , was replaced by Tetsuya Nomura .
Helped by a large pre @-@ release promotional campaign , Final Fantasy VII was a critical and commercial success . It was released in 1997 for the Sony PlayStation , in 1998 for Windows , in 2009 on the PlayStation Network , in 2012 on PC Digital Download , and in 2013 on Steam . In 2014 , the game was released for Android and iPhone devices through the Japan @-@ only streaming service " Dive In " . On December 6 , 2014 , it was announced that Final Fantasy VII would be released on the PlayStation 4 , with upscaled graphics . It has continued to sell solidly , with more than 11 million copies sold by 2015 , making it the best @-@ selling title in the series . Final Fantasy VII has been praised for its graphics , gameplay , music and story . Criticism has primarily pertained to its English localization . The iOS version of Final Fantasy VII was released on August 19 , 2015 , adding touch controls , an auto @-@ save feature and the ability to disable random encounters . This was followed by the PlayStation 4 port with high speed mode finally releasing in December 2015 and on Android in July 2016 .
The game is acknowledged for having boosted the sales of PlayStation consoles and popularizing Japanese role @-@ playing video games outside Japan . It is widely considered to be one of the greatest games of all time . The game 's popularity has led to a series of prequels and sequels under the collective title Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Square Enix announced a high @-@ definition remake of the game at E3 2015 for the PlayStation 4 .
= = Gameplay = =
As with previous installments of the Final Fantasy series , Final Fantasy VII consists primarily of three major areas : an overworld map , field maps , and a battle screen . The overworld map is a 3D model , featuring a scaled @-@ down version of the game 's fictional world , across which the player travels between the game 's locations . As with preceding games in the series , the world map can be traversed by foot , on chocobos and in an airship or sea vessel ( in this case , a submarine and a plane used as a boat ) . It also includes an additional means of transportation — a buggy .
On field maps , characters are directed across realistically scaled environments , consisting of 2D pre @-@ rendered backgrounds which represent locations such as towns or forests . Initially , the player is restricted to the city of Midgar , but as the game progresses the entire world becomes accessible . Progression through the game 's storyline is largely developed by way of scripted sequences , although pre @-@ rendered cinematic cutscenes are also used .
= = = Battle system = = =
Battles , which either occur randomly on the field or are triggered by certain events , pit the player 's party against one or more enemies . Winning the battle by means of defeating all the enemies earns experience , gil , and items . However , if all party members are simultaneously KO 'd or are otherwise unable to battle ( such as by petrification ) , the game ends and the player must resume from their last save file . The battle screen is a 3D representation of an area , such as a building 's interior or an open grassland , in which the player commands the characters in battles against CPU @-@ controlled enemies . While characters are super deformed on maps , the character models are more realistic and normal @-@ scaled in combat . Final Fantasy VII is the first game in the series to have character models with fully rendered polygons , rather than 2D sprites . During battle sequences , the game uses the series ' traditional Active Time Battle ( ATB ) system first featured in Final Fantasy IV . Unlike previous games in the series , which allow 4 @-@ 5 playable characters to participate in battle , Final Fantasy VII only allows three characters per battle .
Final Fantasy VII 's skill system is built around the use of Materia — magical orbs composed of condensed Mako ( life energy from the Planet ) , that are placed in special slots on weapons and armor , allowing players to customize their party 's ability to use magic , summons , and special abilities . Materia is divided into five categories ; Green Magic Materia for performing offensive and defensive spells , Yellow Skill Materia which grants new abilities , Red Summon Materia , which lets the character summon powerful deities to aid in battle , Purple Support Materia which gives the equipped character stat boosts , and Blue Junction Materia , which enhances other Materia when placed in connecting slots ( for example , linking Fire Materia with All Materia allows the player to attack all enemies with the Fire spell simultaneously ) . However , most magic @-@ based Materia also lowers an equipped character 's physical attributes . Like the characters , Materia can level up with experience , opening up stronger abilities and functionality , with new Materia created once they reach the maximum level . Summon spells feature in the game , equippable as Materia , with elaborately animated attacks . A modified form of Final Fantasy VI 's " Desperation Attacks " appears in Final Fantasy VII as the " Limit Break . " Every playable character has a bar that gradually fills up as they suffer damage in battle . When the bar is completely filled , the character is able to unleash his or her Limit Break , a special attack which generally inflicts significantly more damage on enemies than normal attacks , or otherwise aids the party in battle . Unlike Materia , each character has their own unique set of Limit Breaks , which are divided into four levels of strength , although one character , Cait Sith , has only two levels .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game 's setting is similar to that of Final Fantasy VI insofar as it is a world with considerably more advanced technology than the first five games in the series . Overall , the game 's technology and society approximates that of an industrial or post @-@ industrial science fiction milieu . The world of Final Fantasy VII , referred to in the game as " The Planet " , but retroactively named " Gaia " , is composed of three main land masses . The eastern continent is home to the city of Midgar , an industrial metropolis that serves as the capital city and hosts the headquarters of the Shinra Electric Power Company , which operates as much of the world 's de facto government . Other locations on the eastern continent are Junon ( Shinra 's major military base ) , Fort Condor ( a fort with a huge condor covering up a Mako reactor on top of it ) , a Chocobo ranch , and Kalm ( a small town inspired by medieval Europe ) .
The western continent features the Gold Saucer ( an amusement park with Corel Prison below ) , Costa Del Sol ( a seaside resort ) , Gongaga ( a small town containing the remains of a destroyed Mako reactor ) , Nibelheim ( a town residing at the base of Mt . Nibel ) , Rocket Town ( the location of Shinra 's failed space rocket launch ) , and Cosmo Canyon . The tribe inhabiting Cosmo Canyon emphasize living in harmony with nature and dedicating themselves to the planet 's well @-@ being . Their settlement features an observatory and serves as a research facility for those who wish to participate in a philosophy known as the " Study of Planet Life " , a lifestyle that encourages deference for nature and teaches that the planet has a life and energy of its own .
Wutai , a village inspired by pre @-@ modern Japan and China , is located on a large island off the western continent . The northernmost continent is a heavily glaciated landmass , and its few settlements include Bone Village ( an excavation site ) , Icicle Inn ( a ski resort town ) , the mythical " City of the Ancients " , and the Northern Crater , where the game 's climax takes place . There are also underwater locations accessible only by submarine ; for example , a sunken Shinra plane transporter .
= = = Characters = = =
The nine main playable characters in Final Fantasy VII are Cloud Strife , an unsociable mercenary who claims to be a former 1st Class member of Shinra 's SOLDIER unit ; Barret Wallace , the leader of the anti @-@ Shinra rebel group AVALANCHE ; Tifa Lockhart , a martial artist and a member of AVALANCHE , also a childhood friend of Cloud 's ; Aerith Gainsborough , a flower merchant who has been pursued by Shinra 's special operations unit , the Turks , since childhood ; Red XIII , a wise lion @-@ like creature who was experimented on by Shinra scientists ; Cait Sith , a fortune @-@ telling robotic cat who rides an animated moogle doll ; Cid Highwind , a pilot whose dreams of being the first man in outer space were not realized ; Yuffie Kisaragi , a young ninja and a skillful thief ; and Vincent Valentine , a former member of Shinra 's Turks unit , who was experimented on 30 years prior to the start of the game . The game 's main antagonist is Sephiroth , a former member of SOLDIER who reappears several years after he was thought dead .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with Cloud Strife , working as a mercenary for hire , helping the eco terrorist group AVALANCHE in a raid against the Mako reactors surrounding the city of Midgar , which is governed by a company known as Shinra . Barret , the group 's leader , believes the Mako energy the reactors consume to be the planet 's lifeblood , and the reactors are killing the planet . Cloud 's childhood friend , Tifa , is also in the group . Although the first mission is successful , AVALANCHE is ambushed at the next reactor during a subsequent raid . When the reactor explodes , Cloud drops down into Midgar 's slums . He is found by Aerith ( aka Aeris ) , a girl he briefly met selling flowers after his first mission with AVALANCHE . Prompted by the arrival of the Turks , who have been sent to capture Aerith , Cloud agrees to act as her bodyguard and defends her from their assault . Meanwhile , Shinra learns the location of AVALANCHE 's hideout in Sector 7 and subsequently destroys it by dropping the upper plate of Sector 7 onto the slums , killing its population . The Turks also capture Aerith , who is revealed to be the last surviving " Cetra " , an ancient near @-@ dead tribe closely attuned with the planet . President Shinra and Professor Hojo believe Aerith is the key to finding the " Promised Land " , a mythical land of fertility they see as an abundant source of Mako . The remaining AVALANCHE members — Cloud , Barret and Tifa — infiltrate Shinra to rescue Aerith , in the process encountering a specimen simply labeled " Jenova " . Joined by Red XIII , a sentient tiger @-@ like creature on whom Hojo had been conducting experiments , the party rescues Aerith but is captured by the Turks while trying to escape and detained within the building . In the morning , they find their cells open and most of the personnel , including President Shinra , killed : the perpetrator appears to be Sephiroth , a legendary SOLDIER leader who was presumed dead several years ago.The group discovers that the Jenova specimen is also missing , presumed stolen by Sephiroth .
While the president 's son , Rufus Shinra , assumes control of the company , the party leaves Midgar and pursues Sephiroth across the planet . They are joined by Cait Sith , a cat @-@ robot secretly controlled by repentant Turk Reeve Tuesti ; Yuffie Kisaragi , a teenage ninja from Wutai ; Vincent Valentine , a former Turk ; and Cid Highwind , a chain @-@ smoking pilot . At a Cetra temple , the party encounters Sephiroth , who reveals his plan : if the world is significantly damaged , the Lifestream , made of pure Mako energy , will gather in an attempt to heal the wound . Sephiroth intends to use the legendary Black Materia to cast a spell called " Meteor " to cause a massive injury , enabling him to merge with the planet 's Mako energy and be reborn as a god . The party drives off Sephiroth , acquiring the Black Materia , but Sephiroth manipulates Cloud into giving him the Materia . While the party recovers from the encounter , Aerith sets off to stop Sephiroth on her own , following him to an ancient Cetra city . The party follows and finds Aerith praying to the planet for aid . Just as they reach her , Sephiroth kills her . Cloud and his allies track Sephiroth to the North Crater . During their journey , they find out that Jenova is an interstellar creature who crashed on the planet roughly two thousand years ago , intent on taking over completely . Attempting to defend itself , the planet created giant monsters called Weapons . While most humans fled , the Cetra managed to defeat Jenova and entomb its remains . A few decades before the present , the remains of Jenova were unearthed by Professor Gast , a researcher for Shinra . Mistaking Jenova for a Cetra , Gast attempted to clone Jenova , assisted by Hojo . Even though Gast abandoned the project , Hojo successfully managed to use his assistant 's unborn child for the experiment : the baby was Sephiroth . Approximately five years before the present day , while on a Shinra mission with Cloud to Cloud 's and Tifa 's hometown of Nibelheim , Sephiroth encountered Hojo 's failed test subjects and learned of his origins . Mistakenly believing that Jenova and he were Cetra , he was driven insane and destroyed Nibelheim as an act of vengeance on the normal human population . Cloud and Tifa confronted Sephiroth during the massacre , after which Sephiroth vanished , presumed dead until his reappearance in the present day .
When the party reaches the Northern Crater to confront Sephiroth for killing Aerith , they learn he is but one among many Jenova clones Hojo created from both animals and humans . Upon reaching Sephiroth , who has been killing and absorbing the Jenova clones to instantiate the " Reunion " of Jenova 's cells , Cloud is manipulated into delivering The Black Materia to a legless Sephiroth chimera ( all such apparitions being the shape @-@ shifter Jenova employing his spectre to achieve this goal ) . The act proves Cloud himself a Jenova clone and unwitting Reunion participant , evidence of which Sephiroth exhibits in memories of the Nibelheim incident featuring a black @-@ haired SOLDIER in Cloud 's place . Instantly Sephiroth summons Meteor , activating the planet 's Weapons , but he blinds them to his posing its prime threat , despite being physically right before their eyes ; the Weapons disperse in search of its source . The ensuing earthquake separates Cloud from his companions and he tumbles into the Lifestream . The rest of the party and the Turks that had followed them to the Crater escape on the airship , the Highwind , where the party members are placed under arrest . As Meteor approaches the planet , the Weapons turn on humanity in an attempt to return as much Mako energy to the Lifestream as possible to aid the planet . Shinra focuses its efforts on protecting humanity from the Weapons and attempting to destroy Meteor directly , which eventually costs the lives of the majority of Shinra 's personnel . Tifa , Barret and the others are sentenced to be executed , but escape . They find a catatonic Cloud at a hospital in a tropical resort , where he washed up following the events at the North Crater . Tifa stays behind to help Cloud recover while the rest of the party continue their fight against Shinra . An attack by the Weapons destroys the island , and Cloud and Tifa both fall into the Lifestream . There , Tifa helps Cloud reconstruct his memories and learns the truth about his past .
It is revealed that Cloud was not accepted into SOLDIER and that the SOLDIER in Sephiroth 's visions was Aerith 's first love and Cloud 's friend , Zack Fair . The two were present during the Nibelheim incident , with Cloud managing to critically wound Sephiroth , who only survived through Jenova 's cells : Zack and Cloud were severely wounded and later taken and used by Hojo to perfect his SOLDIER and Jenova experiments . Zack tried escaping with Cloud but was killed by Shinra soldiers . Cloud recovered , took Zack 's sword and made his way to Midgar : Cloud 's aspirations to SOLDIER and Zack 's memories and stories combined , with the help of the Jenova treatment , to create a false personality . Realizing and accepting his past , Cloud is able to recover . After Cloud and Tifa emerge from the Lifestream , the party regroup and learn that Aerith , in her final moments , was attempting to use the White Materia to cast the spell " Holy " , the only means of opposing Meteor . It turns out she was successful in casting the spell , but Sephiroth has been preventing its release . The group decides first to stop the rampage of the Weapons . Alongside this , the party confronts Hojo , revealed to be Sephiroth 's father , as the scientist attempts to aid his son by feeding Mako energy to him . After mutating himself with Jenova cells , he is killed in combat . After this , they launch their final assault on Sephiroth , who is defeated by Cloud after a series of battles . The party escapes from the crater as Holy is released . Holy attempts to block Meteor above Midgar , but Meteor has drawn too close for Holy to combat it alone . Just before Meteor 's impact , the Lifestream rises from the planet to aid Holy in destroying Meteor . Five hundred years later , Red XIII is seen with two cubs looking out over the ruins of Midgar , which are now covered in greenery , showing the planet has healed .
= = Development = =
Planning sessions for Final Fantasy VII began in 1994 after the release of Final Fantasy VI . At the time , the game was intended to be another 2D project for the Super NES . Series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi originally planned for the story to take place in New York in the year 1999 , and as such , the original script of Final Fantasy VII , which was written by Sakaguchi , was completely different from the finished product . Tetsuya Nomura recalled how Sakaguchi " wanted to do something like a detective story . " The first part of the story involved a " hot blooded " character named " Detective Joe " who was in pursuit of the main characters , after they had blown up the city of Midgar , which had already been developed for the story . The final scenario was written by Kazushige Nojima and Yoshinori Kitase , based on the story by Sakaguchi and Nomura . Masato Kato was brought into the project later and wrote three scenes for the game .
However , several of the staff
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order to support their freedom of speech ; he said that the sex industry is " always trying to preach freedom of speech [ so ] anyone in this industry who has a problem with [ JC 's Girls ' ] message is a fucking hypocrite . You can 't have it both ways . " Within a year of the organization 's founding , Veitch , Albee , and Huerter were maintaining Myspace pages that they used to offer support , counsel , and advice . By 2008 , the JC 's Girls website , which included a blog , was receiving around 15 @,@ 000 hits per day .
= = = Las Vegas chapter = = =
In 2008 , Veitch told Brown that she believed that the JC 's Girls ministry needed to move to Las Vegas , and he responded supportively . By 2008 , Veitch had moved to Las Vegas and based the new chapter of JC 's Girls at Central Christian Church in nearby Henderson , Nevada , leaving the leadership of the Riverside chapter to Albee . That year , Veitch collaborated with Annie Lobert , a former call girl working with Hookers for Jesus , an organization similar to JC 's Girls . The organizations were both represented at that year 's AVN Adult Entertainment Expo . The PussyCat Preacher , a documentary film about Veitch 's experiences starting JC 's Girls , was released that February . The following month , pornographic film actor Sophia Lynn left the sex industry after becoming a Christian ; she underwent more than a year of counselling with Veitch through JC 's Girls . Veitch had flown to Sioux Falls , South Dakota , to spend a weekend educating Celebrate Community Church about the sex industry . The church soon gave Lynn a job in its office , a scholarship to go to college , and a place to live . Lynn said , " I hope I don 't have to wake up from this . I feel like my life has been saved . "
= = = San Diego chapter = = =
In San Diego , Theresa Scher , a stripper and call girl , was looking for a way out of the sex industry when she watched a CNN interview with Albee about her work with JC 's Girls in Riverside . Scher contacted Albee , who allowed Scher to establish a new chapter of JC 's Girls in San Diego . Scher founded the chapter in 2007 with Sheri Brown , a former social worker . Brown had previously hated strippers , but , once she had accepted a job helping teenage mothers finish high school and the first four teens she worked with were strippers , she said that she developed " an overwhelming passion to reach out to these precious women in love and without condemnation . " She has described being sexually abused as a child and later being a teenage mother ; Brown found that both of these experiences helped her to relate to strippers , as many of the strippers she encountered also had those experiences .
The San Diego chapter of JC 's Girls is based at The Rock Church , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ member church with a majority of members under the age of 30 . In the first year , several strippers left the sex industry and began volunteering with the chapter . Many of the chapter 's members do not personally visit strip clubs but help in other ways . Scher said the former strippers were the most effective JC 's Girls volunteers because they understand from personal experience the situations of the women they are trying to help . By 2011 , members of the San Diego chapter of JC 's Girls were visiting strip clubs twice each month . They pray before , during , and after each visit and a team of other members pray for them from another location .
Carrie Prejean started volunteering with the San Diego chapter of JC 's Girls in 2008 and became Miss California USA the following year . At the Miss USA 2009 competition , Prejean became the subject of a controversy because of her response to a question about same @-@ sex marriage . Scher said that the controversy would not affect Prejean 's involvement with the organization and that the issue of same @-@ sex marriage was not relevant to the group 's activities . Prejean said that in volunteering with JC 's Girls , she encountered pornographic models who , through exploitation and abuse , had developed very low self @-@ esteem but who had regained a sense of their own dignity because of their interaction with JC 's Girls volunteers .
By 2009 , approximately 40 women were on the chapter 's active evangelism team , and they had given pink Bibles to most of the strippers in San Diego County . They paired these Bibles with other gifts including lip gloss , necklaces , and lotions in order to pique the strippers ' interest . In August 2010 , Brown went to Warsaw , Ohio , to briefly join forces with Anny Donewald , a former stripper and founder of Eve 's Angels , an organization similar to JC 's Girls . Together , Brown and Donewald negotiated a peace accord between women working at a strip club and members of a local church who had been picketing the club for four years . The strippers had been counter @-@ protesting by dancing in bikinis in front of the church during Sunday services while Tommy George , the club 's owner , played music from his car . Brown and Donewald spoke at the church , urging them to stop protesting at the strip club and saying , " It 's not our job to tell these women that it 's time to get out of there ... Just love them . Let the Holy Spirit draw them out . " Brown and Donewald also visited the strip club and spoke with the strippers , two of whom became Christians while continuing to work at the club . The peace accord received much publicity , but the church 's members , led by their pastor Bill Dunfee , resumed picketing once Brown had returned to San Diego . George and his club 's strippers returned to their counter @-@ protesting .
By 2011 , several of the strippers JC 's Girls members had spoken with in San Diego had begun attending a Bible study hosted by the organization and the chapter had helped one stripper leave the sex industry and gain unrelated employment . In March 2011 , the chapter sent a delegation to Adultcon at the Los Angeles Convention Center , where Scher and Brown spoke with conference attendees and offered them prayer . That July , Veitch resigned from JC 's Girls so she could spend more time with her family , handing the leadership of the organization to Scher and Brown . In June 2012 , Scher gave up her co @-@ leadership of the organization to focus on her family , leaving the leadership to Brown . By 2013 , the organization had established guidelines regulating the transition of women from the sex industry into participation in the evangelistic activities of JC 's Girls . The woman must consistently attend a Bible study for four months , read Francine Rivers ' book Redeeming Love , and be interviewed by the chapter 's leaders , who then decide whether the woman should join the organization 's outreach team . These guidelines were established because some women who had quickly gone from working in the sex industry to evangelizing with JC 's Girls soon left the organization and returned to the sex industry . Brown left JC 's Girls in April 2014 and Laura Bonde took over leadership of the organization .
= = Reception = =
When JC 's Girls first started receiving funds from Sandals Church in 2005 , some of the church 's members were displeased that their tithes and offerings were being given to strip clubs . In 2006 , Brown said that funding the activities of JC 's Girls was worthwhile because the sex industry " has been largely ignored by the evangelical church " and the budget allotted to JC 's Girls is small compared to the money made by the sex industry . Sandals Church members were also concerned that ministering to strippers would be ineffective . Brown responded by referring to Veitch 's conversion , suggesting that other strippers could have similar experiences . Terry Barone of the California Southern Baptist Convention asserted that JC 's Girls members " are doing what Jesus did ... He ministered to prostitutes and tax collectors . "
Brown said that the most common complaint that he received about JC 's Girls was " the way Heather Veitch looks ... her breasts are too big and she looks too much like a stripper " , a complaint to which he responded that " God can use any individual to change the world " . Veitch said in 2008 that Christians commonly say that JC 's Girls dress like sex workers , but she said that the look is intended to help women in the sex industry identify with the group . Annie Lobert of Hookers for Jesus , a similar group that collaborates with JC 's Girls , said around the same time that Christians make the same kind of comments about her and her ministry — " They say my T @-@ shirt is too tight " , said Lobert , " but , hey , when in Vegas , do as Vegas does " .
Controversy regarding his involvement with JC 's Girls threatened to lose Brown his church facility on the California Baptist University campus , but the church united in support of JC 's Girls and remained in the same location . Barone said that Baptists might find viewing the JC 's Girls website awkward , but that it was not intended for them . Stephen Clark of the Los Angeles Times called it " an edgy website [ with ] provocative appeals . " Sarah Sumner , author of Men and Women in the Church , said in Bill Day 's 2008 documentary film The Pussycat Preacher that some Christians might oppose the female @-@ led JC 's Girls because of 1 Timothy 2 : 12 , a Bible verse that can be interpreted as restricting positions of authority in church to men . Brown said elsewhere in the film that it made more sense for women to lead JC 's Girls " because a woman would be the most welcome in the industry " .
In its first year , JC 's Girls was criticized for allowing DiGiorgio to take glamour photographs of Veitch , Albee , and Huerter for their website . Veitch responded to this criticism with the assertion that " it is not a sin to be attractive or dress cute , " and that the photographs were intended to persuade women in the sex industry to dismiss the idea that Christianity is about " being locked up in a house with a Bible . " DiGiorgio said that JC 's Girls is correct in believing that many women in the sex industry need to be rescued from self @-@ destructive behavior , but he did not think that encouraging the women to become Christians would necessarily help them .
The Family Research Council , an American Christian lobbying organization , has endorsed JC 's Girls . Documentary filmmaker Bill Daly said that members of JC 's Girls are " fighting false glamour with real spiritual beauty . " In his 2013 book Evangelicals and the Arts in Fiction , writer John Weaver writes that science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein wrote about Evangelicals as being sexually repressed and eventually undergoing a sexual revolution . Weaver offers JC 's Girls and XXXchurch.com as evidence that Heinlein 's fiction is becoming a reality . By 2007 , adherents of UFO religion Raëlism had responded to JC 's Girls by forming " Raël 's Girls " , an organization with a similar outreach program but a very different message , encouraging sex workers to try to maximise their own sexual pleasure while serving clients .
In 2006 , a Baptist minister from San Bernardino , California criticized JC 's Girls for not explicitly encouraging women in the sex industry to quit . He commended Veitch " for her zeal and desire to reach the lost for Christ " , but asked , " How can you stay in the industry and have a relationship with God ? " , and quoted Matthew 6 : 24 , a Bible verse that states that a person cannot serve two masters . In response to the idea that strippers should quit their jobs before attending a church , Veitch said , " Do we ask gluttons to stop eating too much before they come to church ? " At the 2006 AVN Adult Entertainment Expo , photographer Michael Grecco photographed Veitch , Albee , and Huerter and included the image in his 2007 book Naked Ambition : An R Rated Look at an X Rated Industry . In the image caption , he called the trio a " devout Christian trinity " . Philip Sherwell of the Calgary Herald called the organization 's evangelism " America 's most unusual Christian outreach operation " . A journalist for UK newspaper The Observer compared JC 's Girls to XXXchurch.com , writing in 2006 that both of " these ministries are in some way reforming the church as well as their would @-@ be followers . "
= Ion Heliade Rădulescu =
Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade ( also known as Eliad or Eliade Rădulescu ; Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈi.on heliˈade rəduˈlesku ] ; January 6 , 1802 – April 27 , 1872 ) was a Wallachian @-@ born Romanian academic , Romantic and Classicist poet , essayist , memoirist , short story writer , newspaper editor and politician . A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian , he was also the author of books on linguistics and history . For much of his life , Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest , which he helped reopen . He was a founding member and first president of the Romanian Academy .
Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the first half of the 19th century , having first risen to prominence through his association with Gheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr 's drive for discontinuing education in Greek . Over the following decades , he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language , but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italian neologisms into the Romanian lexis . A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals , Heliade was among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution , after which he was forced to spend several years in exile . Adopting an original form of conservatism , which emphasized the role of the aristocratic boyars in Romanian history , he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empire and clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Heliade Rădulescu was born in Târgovişte , the son of Ilie Rădulescu , a wealthy proprietor who served as the leader of a patrol unit during the 1810s , and Eufrosina Danielopol , who had been educated in Greek . Three of his siblings died of bubonic plague before 1829 . Throughout his early youth , Ion was the focus of his parents ' affectionate supervision : early on , Ilie Rădulescu purchased a house once owned by the scholar Gheorghe Lazăr on the outskirts of Bucharest ( near Obor ) , as a gift for his son . At the time , the Rădulescus were owners of a large garden in the Bucharest area , nearby Herăstrău , as well as of estates in the vicinity of Făgăraş and Gârbovi .
After basic education in Greek with a tutor known as Alexe , Ion Heliade Rădulescu taught himself reading in Romanian Cyrillic ( reportedly by studying the Alexander Romance with the help of his father 's Oltenian servants ) . He subsequently became an avid reader of popular novels , especially during his 1813 sojourn in Gârbovi ( where he had been sent after other areas of the country came to be ravaged by Caragea 's plague ) . After 1813 , the teenaged Rădulescu was a pupil of the Orthodox monk Naum Râmniceanu ; in 1815 , he moved on to the Greek school at Schitu Măgureanu , in Bucharest , and , in 1818 , to the Saint Sava School , where he studied under Gheorghe Lazăr 's supervision .
Between his 1820 graduation and 1821 , when effects of the Wallachian uprising led to the School ceasing its activities , he was kept as Lazăr 's assistant teacher , tutoring in arithmetics and geometry . It was during those years that he adopted the surname Heliade ( also rendered Heliad , Eliad or Eliade ) , which , he later explained , was a Greek version of his patronymic , in turn stemming from the Romanian version of Elijah .
= = = Under Grigore Ghica = = =
In 1822 , after Gheorghe Lazăr had fallen ill , Heliade reopened Saint Sava and served as its main teacher ( initially , without any form of remuneration ) . He was later joined in this effort by other intellectuals of the day , such as Eufrosin Poteca , and , eventually , also opened an art class overseen by the Croat Carol Valştain . This re @-@ establishment came as a result of ordinances issued by Prince Grigore IV Ghica , who had just been assigned by the Ottoman Empire to the throne of Wallachia upon the disestablishment of Phanariote rule , encouraging the marginalization of ethnic Greeks who had assumed public office in previous decades . Thus , Prince Ghica had endorsed education in Romanian and , in one of his official firmans , defined teaching in Greek as " the foundation of evils " ( temelia răutăţilor ) .
During the late 1820s , Heliade became involved in cultural policies . In 1827 , he and Dinicu Golescu founded Soţietatea literară românească ( the Romanian Literary Society ) , which , through its program ( mapped out by Heliade himself ) , proposed Saint Sava 's transformation into a college , the opening of another such institution in Craiova , and the creation of schools in virtually all Wallachian localities . In addition , Soţietatea attempted to encourage the establishment of Romanian @-@ language newspapers , calling for an end to the state monopoly on printing presses . The grouping , headquartered on central Bucharest 's Podul Mogoşoaiei , benefited from Golescu 's experience abroad , and was soon joined by two future Princes , Gheorghe Bibescu and Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei . Its character was based on Freemasonry ; around that time , Heliade is known to have become a Freemason , as did a large section of his generation .
In 1828 , Heliade published his first work , an essay on Romanian grammar , in the Transylvanian city of Hermannstadt ( which was part of the Austrian Empire at the time ) , and , on April 20 , 1829 , began printing the Bucharest @-@ based paper Curierul Românesc . This was the most successful of several attempts to create a local newspaper , something Golescu first attempted in 1828 . Publishing articles in both Romanian and French , Curierul Românesc had , starting in 1836 , its own literary supplement , under the title of Curier de Ambe Sexe ; in print until 1847 , it notably published one of Heliade 's most famous poems , Zburătorul . Curierul Românesc was edited as a weekly , and later as a bimonthly , until 1839 , when it began to be issued three or four times a week . Its best @-@ known contributors were Heliade himself , Grigore Alexandrescu , Costache Negruzzi , Dimitrie Bolintineanu , Ioan Catina , Vasile Cârlova , and Iancu Văcărescu .
In 1823 , Heliade met Maria Alexandrescu , with whom he fell passionately in love , and whom he later married . By 1830 , the Heliades ' two children , a son named Virgiliu and a daughter named Virgilia , died in infancy ; subsequently , their marriage entered a long period of crisis , marked by Maria 's frequent outbursts of jealousy . Ion Heliade probably had a number of extramarital affairs : a Wallachian Militia officer named Zalic , who became known during the 1840s , is thought by some , including the literary critic George Călinescu , to have been the writer 's illegitimate son . Before the death of her first child , Maria Heliade welcomed into her house Grigore Alexandrescu , himself a celebrated writer , whom Ion suspected had become her lover . Consequently , the two authors became bitter rivals : Ion Heliade referred to Alexandrescu as " that ingrate " , and , in an 1838 letter to George Bariţ , downplayed his poetry and character ( believing that , in one of his fables , Alexandrescu had depicted himself as a nightingale , he commented that , in reality , he was " a piteous rook dressed in foreign feathers " ) . Despite these household conflicts , Maria Heliade gave birth to five other children , four daughters and one son ( Ion , born 1846 ) .
= = = Printer and court poet = = =
In October 1830 , together with his uncle Nicolae Rădulescu , he opened the first privately owned printing press in his country , operating on his property at Cişmeaua Mavrogheni , in Obor ( the land went by the name of Câmpul lui Eliad — " Eliad 's Field " , and housed several other large buildings ) . Among the first works he published was a collection of poems by Alphonse de Lamartine , translated by Heliade from French , and grouped together with some of his own poems . Later , he translated a textbook on meter and Louis @-@ Benjamin Francoeur 's standard manual of Arithmetics , as well as works by Enlightenment authors — Voltaire 's Mahomet , ou le fanatisme , and stories by Jean @-@ François Marmontel . They were followed , in 1839 , by a version of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's Julie , or the New Heloise .
Heliade began a career as a civil servant after the Postelnicie commissioned him to print the Official Bulletin , and later climbed through the official hierarchy , eventually serving as Clucer . This rise coincided with the establishment of the Regulamentul Organic regime , inaugurated , upon the end of the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1828 – 1829 , by an Imperial Russian administration under Pavel Kiselyov . When Kiselyov placed an order with Heliade for the printing of official documents , including the Regulament , the writer and his family were made prosperous by the sales . Nevertheless , Heliade maintained contacts with the faction of reformist boyars : in 1833 , together with Ion Câmpineanu , Iancu Văcărescu , Ioan Voinescu II , Constantin Aristia , Ştefan and Nicolae Golescu , as well as others , he founded the short @-@ lived Soţietatea Filarmonică ( the Philharmonic Society ) , which advanced a cultural agenda ( and was especially active in raising funds for the National Theater of Wallachia ) . Aside from its stated cultural goals , Soţietatea Filarmonică continued a covert political activity .
In 1834 , when Prince Alexandru II Ghica came to the throne , Heliade became one of his close collaborators , styling himself " court poet " . Several of the poems and discourses he authored during the period are written as panegyrics , and dedicated to Ghica , whom Heliade depicted as an ideal prototype of a monarch . As young reformists came into conflict with the prince , he kept his neutrality , arguing that all sides involved represented a privileged minority , and that the disturbances were equivalent to " the quarrel of wolves and the noise made by those in higher positions over the torn @-@ apart animal that is the peasant " . He was notably critical of the radical Mitică Filipescu , whom he satirized in the poem Căderea dracilor ( " The Demons ' Fall " ) , and later defined his own position with the words " I hate tyrants . I fear anarchy " .
It was also in 1834 that Heliade began teaching at the Soţietatea Filarmonică 's school ( alongside Aristia and the musician Ioan Andrei Wachmann ) , and published his first translations from Lord Byron ( in 1847 , he completed the translation of Byron 's Don Juan ) . The next year , he began printing Gazeta Teatrului Naţional ( official voice of the National Theater , published until 1836 ) , and translated Molière 's Amphitryon into Romanian . In 1839 , Heliade also translated Miguel de Cervantes ' Don Quixote from a French source . The first collection of his own prose and poetry works saw print in 1836 . Interested in the development of local art , he contributed a brochure on drawing and architecture in 1837 , and , during the same year , opened the first permanent exhibit in Wallachia ( featuring copies of Western paintings , portraits , and gypsum casts of various known sculptures ) .
By the early 1840s , Heliade began expanding on his notion that modern Romanian needed to emphasize its connections with other Romance languages through neologisms from Italian , and , to this goal , he published Paralelism între limba română şi italiană ( " Parallelism between the Romanian language and Italian " , 1840 ) and Paralelism între dialectele român şi italian sau forma ori gramatica acestor două dialecte ( " Parallelism between the Romanian and Italian Dialects or the Form or Grammar of These Two Dialects " , 1841 ) . The two books were followed by a compendium , Prescurtare de gramatica limbei româno @-@ italiene ( " Summary of the Grammar of the Romanian @-@ Italian Language " ) , and , in 1847 , by a comprehensive list of Romanian words that had originated in Slavic , Greek , Ottoman Turkish , Hungarian , and German ( see Romanian lexis ) . By 1846 , he was planning to begin work on a " universal library " , which was to include , among other books , the major the philosophical writings of , among others , Plato , Aristotle , Roger Bacon , René Descartes , Baruch Spinoza , John Locke , Gottfried Leibniz ,
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the ruler of Deira , with its centre at York , he became accepted as king of the northern Northumbrian province of Bernicia . Following his victory over the Northumbrians , Rædwald was not only king of the East Angles , but also the most powerful king amongst the rulers of the various English kingdoms , occupying the role which was later described by the term Bretwalda . He is thought by many to have been buried in the sumptuous ship burial at Sutton Hoo .
Eorpwald was the son of Rædwald by a wife whose name is not recorded . He had at least one brother , Rægenhere , and another sibling , Sigeberht , may also have been his brother . Rædwald used the letters R and E when naming two of his own sons , ( as did his own father when he and his younger brother Eni were named ) , which suggests that Eorpwald was the younger sibling and would only have become Rædwald 's heir after his elder brother Rægenhere was slain in battle in 616 . It is unclear whether , as Bede understood , Sigebert and Eorpwald were brothers , or whether they shared the same mother but not the same father , as was stated by the 12th century chronicler William of Malmesbury . According to the historian Barbara Yorke , Sigebert may have been a member of a different line of Wuffings who as his rival was forced into exile , in order to ensure that Eorpwald became king .
= = Accession and conversion to Christianity = =
Eorpwald was still a pagan when he became king of the East Angles , following the death of Rædwald in around 624 . D. P. Kirby maintains that Sigeberht fled from East Anglia to Gaul during the internal strife that followed Eorpwald 's accession and that the new king 's paganism created tension between Christian and pagan factions within the kingdom , which resulted in a reduction in his influence . In 627 , Edwin undertook the conversion of the peoples of Northumbria , Lindsey and East Anglia and at his prompting Eorpwald was , according to Bede , " persuaded to accept the Christian faith and sacraments " . It can be calculated that this event occurred in 627 , taking in account the years that Felix of Burgundy was known to have held the East Anglian bishopric . In contrast , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded that Eorpwald 's baptism took place during 632 : " Her wæs Eorpwald gefullod " , ( " Here Eorpwald was baptized " ) .
It is not known whether Eorpwald was baptised in East Anglia , Northumbria or Kent , but it is very likely that Edwin , now the senior ruler , was present as his sponsor . Higham suggests that because of the lack of proper facilities in East Anglia , it is likely that he was baptised by Paulinus at Edwin 's centre of authority in Northumbria . The manner of Eorpwald 's conversion indicated that he was a subordinate king and that Edwin was his overlord .
Following his baptism , Edwin 's Northumbrian priests were in a position to be able to suppress pagan practices in Eorpwald 's kingdom and convert the East Anglians . The conversion had the general political benefit of bringing the entire eastern seaboard from Northumbria to Kent , with the exception of Essex , under the dominion of Edwin and his Christian allies .
= = Death and sainthood = =
The conversion of Eorpwald 's kingdom did not result in the establishment of any ecclesiastical infrastructure , such as the establishment of a see within the kingdom . Bede reported that soon after his conversion , Eorpwald was slain ( occisus ) by a heathen ( uiro gentili ) named Ricberht and that after he was killed , the kingdom reverted to heathen rule ( in errore uersata est ) for three years .
Eorpwald was the first English king to be killed because of his Christian faith . The circumstances are not recorded , so that it is not known whether Ricberht was representative of an internal East Anglian opposition to Christian rule , or if he was an emissary from abroad wishing to diminish Edwin of Northumbria 's influence over the East Angles . The return of East Anglia to pagan rule does not necessarily mean that there was an overt struggle between the worship of the Anglo @-@ Saxon gods and the worship of Christ , but could express a reaction away from Christianity amongst the East Angles , prompted by Edwin 's rise to power and his subsequent dominance over their king . The ancestry of Ricberht is unknown and it is unclear as to whether he ever ruled after he killed Eorpwald , but in 630 or 631 , three years after Eorpwald 's assassination , Sigeberht returned from exile in Gaul and became king of the East Angles .
At Sutton Hoo ( near Woodbridge , in Suffolk ) is the site of two 6th @-@ 7th century Anglo @-@ Saxon cemeteries , where it is believed that members of the Eorpwald 's dynasty were entombed under large earth mounds . Several East Anglian kings , including Eorpwald , have been suggested as possible candidates for the occupant of the burial site under Mound 1 , discovered in 1939 . Martin Carver has speculated that historians could use regal lists and other sources of information to identify the occupants , whilst acknowledging that no material evidence exists to support the theory that Eorpwald or other members of his family are buried there . He has used Eorpwald 's relationship as the son of Rædwald to place him in either Mound 1 or 2 .
According to Fleming 's Complete History of the British Martyrs , published in 1904 , King Eorpwald was venerated as a saint and a martyr by the English Church . His feast day is not known .
= McDonald Ranch House =
The McDonald Ranch House , also known as Trinity Site , in the Oscura Mountains of Socorro County , New Mexico , was the location of assembly of the world 's first nuclear weapon . The active components of the Trinity test " gadget " , a plutonium Fat Man @-@ type bomb similar to that later dropped on Nagasaki , Japan , were assembled there on July 13 , 1945 . The completed bomb was winched up the test tower the following day and detonated on July 16 , 1945 as the Trinity nuclear test .
The McDonald Ranch House was built in 1913 by Franz Schmidt , a German immigrant , and acquired by the McDonald family in the 1930s . The ranch was vacated by the McDonald family under protest in 1942 , when the United States Army took over the land as part of the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range to use in training bomber crews during World War II .
The family hoped that the ranch would be returned after the war , but it was not , and in 1970 , the Army announced that it would be kept permanently . The McDonald Ranch House was empty and deteriorating until 1982 , when it was stabilized by the Army . In 1984 it was restored by the National Park Service to appear as it did on July 12 , 1945 . The site is now open to visitors once a year , on the first Saturday in April .
= = Early history = =
The George McDonald Ranch House sits within an 85 @-@ by @-@ 85 @-@ foot ( 26 by 26 m ) low stone wall . The house was built in 1913 by Franz Schmidt , a German immigrant , whose old house a mile away burned down in 1912 . An addition was constructed on the north side by the McDonald family , who had moved into area in the late 1870s or early 1880s , and acquired the ranch house in the 1930s .
The ranch house is a one @-@ story , 1 @,@ 750 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 163 m2 ) building . It is built of adobe , which was plastered and painted . An ice house is located on the west side , along with an underground cistern which stored rain water running off the roof . At one time , the north addition contained a toilet and bathtub , which drained into a septic tank northwest of the house . There is a large , divided water storage tank and a Chicago Aermotor windmill east of the house . The scientists and support people used the north tank as a swimming pool during the summer of 1945 . South of the windmill are the remains of a bunkhouse and a barn which was part garage . Further to the east are corrals and holding pens . The buildings and fixtures east of the house have been stabilized to prevent further deterioration .
The ranch was vacated by the McDonald family under protest in 1942 , when the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range took over the land to use in training bomber crews during World War II . Area lands were condemned and ranchers simply told to leave . The occupants were given the option of going to court or accepting a settlement , but had to leave in either case . The McDonalds chose to go to court , and were awarded about $ 60 @,@ 000 for their patented land .
= = Manhattan Project = =
The house stood empty until the Manhattan Project support personnel arrived in early 1945 . The northeast room ( the master bedroom ) was designated the assembly room . Workbenches and tables were installed . To keep dust and sand out of instruments and tools , the windows were covered with plastic . Tape was used to fasten the edges of the plastic and to seal doors and cracks in the walls .
The plutonium hemispheres for the pit of the Trinity nuclear test " gadget " ( bomb ) were delivered to the McDonald Ranch House on July 11 , 1945 . Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , the Deputy Director of the Manhattan Project , signed for them , and handed them over to Louis Slotin , the head of the Pit Assembly Team . The active components of the bomb were assembled in the assembly room on July 13 , 1945 , The bomb was winched up the test tower the following day . The Trinity test occurred on July 16 , 1945 . A plutonium Fat Man @-@ type bomb was detonated , similar to the bomb later dropped on Nagasaki .
The explosion only 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away blew most of the home 's windows out but did not significantly damage the structure ; years of rain water intrusion through the roof were responsible for decades of subsequent deterioration . The barn roof was bowed inward by the blast and some of its roofing was blown away ; it collapsed some time thereafter .
= = 1960s – 1980s = =
On December 21 , 1965 , the Trinity Site was declared a National Historic Landmark district , and , on October 15 , 1966 , the McDonald House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
The McDonalds had expected that the ranch would be returned after the war , but this did not occur . In the 1970s it was announced that the land would not be returned . Dave McDonald and his niece , Mary McDonald , staged an armed reoccupation of the ranch in protest in 1982 .
The house stood empty and deteriorating until 1982 . White Sands Missile Range commander United States Army Major General Niles J. Fulwyler , who had directed the restoration of the White Sands V @-@ 2 Launching Site , ordered the structure stabilized to prevent any further damage . Shortly after , Fulwyler acquired funding from the Department of Energy and the Army for the National Park Service to completely restore the house to the way it appeared on July 12 , 1945 . Work was completed in 1984 .
Fulwyler buried a 25 @-@ year time capsule describing the restoration . It was opened during an open house on October 3 , 2009 . Its artifacts are now in display inside the home . On the back of a photograph of himself Fulwyler wrote :
Greetings to you of 2009 . When I came to White Sands Missile Range in 1982 I took as my command project the restoration of the MacDonald Ranch House . It was my great privilege to be the catalyst for this restoration , ably assisted by Mr. Al Johnson , who died shortly after its dedication . This is a most historic structure , in a most historic area . I hope you and succeeding generations appreciate what we have done . Take care of it . It is part of our heritage .
= = Access = =
For many years the site was open on the first Saturday in April and October . Admission is free . There is a display on the Schmidt family in the house during each open house . In 2014 , the White Sands Missile Range announced that due to budgetary constraints , the site would only be open once a year , on the first Saturday in April . In 2015 , this decision was reversed , and two events were scheduled , in April and October .
= Tim Duncan =
Timothy Theodore " Tim " Duncan ( born April 25 , 1976 ) is an American retired professional basketball player who played his entire 19 @-@ year career with the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Widely considered to be the greatest power forward of all time , he is a five @-@ time NBA champion , two @-@ time NBA MVP , three @-@ time NBA Finals MVP , and NBA Rookie of the Year . He is also a 15 @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star and the only player ever to be selected to both the All @-@ NBA and All @-@ Defensive Teams in every one of his first 13 seasons .
Duncan started out as a swimmer and only began playing basketball in ninth grade after Hurricane Hugo destroyed the only Olympic @-@ sized pool on his home of Saint Croix , U.S. Virgin Islands . He soon became a standout for St. Dunstan 's Episcopal High School , and had an illustrious college career with the Wake Forest University Demon Deacons , winning the Naismith College Player of the Year , USBWA College Player of the Year and John Wooden awards in his final year . Duncan graduated from college before entering the 1997 NBA draft as the number one pick .
Off the court , Duncan is known for his quiet and unassuming ways , as well as his active philanthropy . He holds a degree in psychology and created the Tim Duncan Foundation to raise general health awareness and fund education and youth sports in various parts of the United States .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Duncan is the only son of Ione Duncan , a midwife , and William Duncan , a mason , and has two older sisters , Cheryl and Tricia . He was born and raised in Christiansted , a town on Saint Croix , one of the main islands composing the United States Virgin Islands . In school , Duncan was a bright pupil and dreamt of becoming an Olympic @-@ level swimmer like his sister Tricia . His parents were very supportive and Duncan excelled at swimming , becoming a teenage standout in the 50 , 100 and 400 meters freestyle and aiming to make the 1992 Olympic Games as a member of the United States Team .
When Hurricane Hugo destroyed the island 's only Olympic @-@ sized swimming pool in 1989 , Duncan was forced to swim in the ocean and he quickly lost his enthusiasm for swimming because of his fear of sharks . Duncan was dealt another emotional blow when his mother was diagnosed with breast cancer and died one day before his 14th birthday . In her last days , she made Duncan and his sisters promise to finish college with a degree , which would later explain Duncan 's refusal to leave college early . Duncan never swam competitively again , but was inspired by his brother @-@ in @-@ law to turn to basketball .
Duncan initially had difficulties adapting to the game he thought would help relieve his pain and frustration . Nancy Pomroy , the athletic director of the St. Croix Country Day School was quoted : " [ Duncan ] was so huge . So big and tall , but he was awfully awkward at the time . " He overcame this to become a standout for the St. Dunstan 's Episcopal High School , averaging 25 points per game as a senior . His play attracted the attention of several universities , despite having only picked up the game in ninth grade . Wake Forest University basketball coach Dave Odom in particular grew interested in Duncan after the 16 @-@ year @-@ old allegedly played NBA star Alonzo Mourning to a draw in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 pick @-@ up game . Odom was searching for a tall , physical player to play near the basket . Given the weak level of basketball in the Virgin Islands , Odom was wary about Duncan at first , especially after first meeting him and thinking him to be inattentive ; Duncan stared blankly at Odom for most of the conversation . However , after the first talk , Odom understood that this was just Duncan 's way of paying attention , and discovered that he was not only athletically talented , but also a quick learner . Eventually , despite scholarship offers by the University of Hartford , the University of Delaware and Providence College , Duncan joined Odom 's Wake Forest Demon Deacons .
= = = Wake Forest University ( 1993 – 1997 ) = = =
In the year before Duncan 's arrival at Wake Forest University , the Demon Deacons reached the Sweet 16 , but then lost main scorer Rodney Rogers , who entered the 1993 NBA draft . In the 1993 – 94 NCAA season , Coach Dave Odom was considering redshirting Duncan , but was forced to play him after fellow freshman big man Makhtar N 'Diaye was ruled out due to NCAA rules violations and eventually transferred to Michigan . Duncan struggled with early transition problems and was even held scoreless in his first college game , but as the year progressed , he and teammate Randolph Childress led the Deacons to a 20 – 11 win @-@ loss record . Duncan 's style of
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for . The previous meeting between the two teams occurred in 2012 , with the Saints winning 30 – 13 . As a result , offensively , the two teams were similar conceptually . For the Bears ' offense , a challenge exists in the Saints ' 3 – 4 defense , which ranked sixth in yards allowed at 304 @.@ 5 per game and fifth in points with 13 @.@ 8 . Additionally , Cameron Jordan and Junior Galette had four and three sacks , respectively , while seven other Saints had a combined total of 12 sacks . Also , Saints tight end Jimmy Graham , the defending NFC Player of the Month , had six touchdowns on the season , and was one touchdown away from tying Mike Ditka and Antonio Gates for the most touchdowns in the first five games by a tight end . Jeff Joniak writes that Soldier Field 's Kentucky bluegrass could also serve as an advantage for the Bears , as Drew Brees was 0 – 4 in Chicago , but those losses occurred in December and January , when the climate was much colder . In the last three meetings in Chicago , the Saints committed a total of nine turnovers ( 4 in the 2006 NFC Championship game , 3 in 2007 , and 2 in 2008 ) , which Joniak considered " may be the only thing slowing down the Saints . "
After the Bears punted , Garrett Hartley kicked a 47 @-@ yard field goal . On the ensuing possession , Malcolm Jenkins forced Jay Cutler to fumble , and Cameron Jordan recovered the loose ball and reached the Bears ' 6 @-@ yard line . After failing to score a touchdown , Hartley kicked a 19 @-@ yard field goal . In the second quarter , the Saints scored off Drew Brees ' two @-@ yard screen pass to Pierre Thomas to increase the lead to 13 points . On Chicago 's next drive , the offense traveled 70 yards within eight plays , which ended in Jay Cutler 's three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alshon Jeffery . The final score of the half was by Thomas , who caught a 25 @-@ yard pass from Brees . In the third quarter , after Hartley kicked a 36 @-@ yard field goal , the Bears traveled 71 yards to the Saints ' 5 @-@ yard line . However , a penalty on Kyle Long for being an ineligible downfield player , followed by three consecutive incomplete passes forced Robbie Gould to kick a 27 @-@ yard field goal . Early in the following quarter , Chicago reached New Orleans ' 25 @-@ yard line , but turned the ball over on downs after Cutler 's pass to Earl Bennett on 4th and 2 was dropped . On the Saints ' next drive , a neutral zone infraction penalty by Lance Briggs on 4th and 1 allowed Hartley to kick a 48 @-@ yard field goal to extend the Saints ' lead to 26 – 10 . However , the Bears attempted to rally , with Cutler throwing three consecutive passes to Jeffery , the final throw going 58 yards to the Saints ' 2 @-@ yard line , where Brandon Marshall scored . Matt Forté 's two @-@ point conversion allowed the Bears to narrow the gap to eight points , but the onside kick was recovered by the Saints . Although the Saints were forced to punt , with 21 seconds remaining , Cutler could only manage to throw a pass to Jeffery which reached the Bears ' 41 @-@ yard line , as time ran out , giving the Saints the 26 – 18 win . The win marked the first time the Saints defeated the Bears in an away game since 2002 , although that game occurred at Memorial Stadium in Champaign , Illinois .
Jeffery broke the franchise record for most receiving yards in franchise history with 218 , which surpassed Harlon Hill 's 214 yards against the San Francisco 49ers in 1954 . Meanwhile , Marshall was targeted only five times during the game ( 15 percent of targets on the Bears ) , the lowest since Marshall 's arrival in Chicago ; the Bears fell to 0 – 4 in games when Marshall 's target percentage is less than 20 percent .
= = = = Week 6 : vs. New York Giants = = = =
In week six , the Bears and the winless New York Giants met on Thursday night . The Bears and Giants had split the last four meetings since 2004 , with Chicago winning the first two in 2004 and 2006 , but losing in 2007 and 2010 ; they had also won the last four games between the teams at Soldier Field . Among the keys to victory for Chicago was to force turnovers , as the Giants led the league in giveaways with 20 , while the Bears were ranked second in forced turnovers with 14 . Additionally , the Giants had the worst third @-@ down offense , and averaged only 3 @.@ 3 yards per carry . Chicago also had to attack Eli Manning , who had 12 interceptions entering the game , and was sacked 15 times , the fourth @-@ most in the league ; Manning also held a 658 passer rating , one of the lowest in the NFL . However , the Bears ' pass defense allowed 278 @.@ 8 yards per game , which is about 65 yards greater than the previous season 's average . The Giants ' offense was also returning from a strong game the previous week against the Philadelphia Eagles after scoring three touchdowns and 383 yards .
On the third play from scrimmage , Zack Bowman intercepted Manning 's pass intended for Rueben Randle at New York 's 36 @-@ yard line and reached the 12 @-@ yard line , but Jay Cutler threw an incomplete pass to Brandon Marshall on fourth @-@ and @-@ two , giving the ball back to the Giants . On the eventual drive for the Giants , Tim Jennings intercepted Manning and scored the first touchdown of the night on a 48 @-@ yard interception return . The Giants eventually scored on Brandon Jacobs ' 4 @-@ yard run after an 80 @-@ yard drive . On the Bears ' next possession , Marshall scored on a 10 @-@ yard touchdown catch , which New York answered with Randle 's 37 @-@ yard touchdown reception . Afterwards , Marshall caught a 3 @-@ yard pass to increase the score to 21 – 14 , which was extended by Robbie Gould 's 40 @-@ yard field goal with two seconds remaining in the half . On the first possession of the second half , Gould scored on a 52 @-@ yarder , his twelfth @-@ consecutive 50 + -yard field goal , tying Viking Blair Walsh 's record . New York later engineered a 91 @-@ yard drive , which ended in Jacobs scoring on a 1 @-@ yard run . Jacobs ended the night with 106 rushing yards , his first 100 @-@ yard rushing game since week fourteen of 2011 . After getting the ball back , the Giants reached the Bears ' 35 @-@ yard line , but with 1 : 35 to go , Manning 's pass to Brandon Myers was overthrown , and was tipped off his fingers towards Jennings for Manning 's third interception of the night . The Bears ran out the clock to claim the victory , snap their two @-@ game losing streak and gave the Giants their first 0 – 6 start since 1976 .
The Bears recorded a season @-@ high 26 first downs , and didn 't allow a sack nor a turnover in a game for the first time since December 23 , 2007 against Green Bay .
= = = = Week 7 : at Washington Redskins = = = =
In week seven , the Bears traveled to Landover , Maryland 's FedExField to play the 1 – 4 Washington Redskins . Since 2001 , the Redskins had won five of the previous seven meetings , including the last four games . However , the Redskins were 0 – 2 at home in 2013 , and were hoping to avoid going 0 – 3 at home since 1998 . The Bears ' third @-@ ranked scoring offense was a potential factor against the Redskins ' defense , which allowed 395 @.@ 0 yards and 28 @.@ 6 points per game , two of the worst percentages in the league . On offense , Jeff Joniak writes that Chicago had to protect Jay Cutler and the ball , as Washington 's 3 – 4 defense led to 75 quarterback blitzes , eight sacks , two interceptions , and four touchdowns . On the defensive side , the Bears looked to contain Redskins quarterback Robert Griffin III and the read option . Additionally , the Redskins recorded 399 @.@ 2 yards per game , the fourth best in the NFL . In the special teams phase , the Bears ' 23 kick returns were a league @-@ high , which led to an NFL @-@ leading 24 @.@ 6 yard starting spot . Meanwhile , the Redskins struggled the previous week against the Dallas Cowboys , allowing Dwayne Harris to score on an 86 @-@ yard punt return , and allowing him to return a kickoff 90 yards ; they ranked last in the league in punt coverage with 19 @.@ 1 yards allowed per return and 28th in kickoff coverage with 26 @.@ 4 . In the punting game , Adam Podlesh showed improvement in his punting hang time , with five of 26 punts returned , the second @-@ fewest in the NFL . For Washington , punter Sav Rocca had the lowest gross and net averages in punting , and was one of seven punters to have a punt blocked in 2013 .
The Redskins struck first with Kai Forbath 's 38 @-@ yard field goal , which was answered by Robbie Gould 's 47 @-@ yarder . On Washington 's ensuing drive , Griffin was intercepted by Charles Tillman , who returned the pick to the Redskins ' 10 @-@ yard line , which set up Matt Forté 's two @-@ yard touchdown run . In the following quarter , Roy Helu scored on a 14 @-@ yard run to tie the game , and Washington pulled ahead after Brian Orakpo intercepted Cutler , scoring on the 29 @-@ yard return . Cutler later tore a groin muscle after getting sacked by Chris Baker , and Josh McCown took his role . Afterwards , Devin Hester returned a punt 81 yards for the touchdown , tying Deion Sanders ' record for the most return touchdowns all @-@ time with 19 . However , the Redskins ended the first half as the leader after Griffin threw a three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jordan Reed . On the Bears ' first drive of the second half , Gould missed a field goal wide right , but Chicago compensated for the miss with Forté 's 50 @-@ yard touchdown run . Washington ended the third quarter with Helu 's three @-@ yard touchdown run to lead 31 – 24 . On Chicago 's next drive , the Bears were forced to kick a field goal after blitzes rendered the Bears unable to score a touchdown . Afterwards , the Bears successfully converted an onside kick , but were offsides , and were forced to kick off . Forté scored again on a six @-@ yard run , which Griffin answered with a 45 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Aldrick Robinson . The Bears then pulled ahead with McCown 's seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett . With 3 : 57 left , the Redskins successfully reached the Bears ' three @-@ yard line , where Helu scored again with 45 seconds remaining . On the final play of the game , McCown was sacked by Barry Cofield and Ryan Kerrigan , ending the game with a 45 – 41 loss .
The game marked the first time in team history that the Bears have allowed 21 points or more in their first seven games , and the first time since 1969 that Chicago has allowed at least 40 points in two consecutive away games . Cutler was projected to be out for the next four weeks , with McCown serving as his replacement .
Statistics @-@ wise , Cutler struggled , completing 3 of 8 passes for 28 yards with one interception and an 8 @.@ 3 passer rating , while McCown completed 14 of 20 passes for 204 yards with one TD and a 119 @.@ 6 passer rating . On the ground , Forté became the first Bears running back since Rashan Salaam to score three rushing touchdowns in a game . On defense , James Anderson was the only Bear to record a sack .
= = = = Week 8 : Bye week = = = =
The Bears entered their bye week in third in the division behind Green Bay and Detroit . The team was attempting to recover from the injuries suffered by seven players in the previous week against the Redskins . Jay Cutler and Lance Briggs were projected to be out for four weeks , while Brandon Marshall , Alshon Jeffery , Charles Tillman , Major Wright and Blake Costanzo , the other five players hurt , used the bye to heal . Marc Trestman preferred to use the week to rest his players , stating , " I think we did a good thing by letting these guys rest . They came back with a lot of energy [ at practice Monday ] . There was very little rust in terms of executing and getting through the practice . " During Trestman 's tenure with the Montreal Alouettes , the Alouettes were 5 – 4 ( .556 ) in games after bye weeks , and 3 – 1 ( .750 ) in the postseason after byes . At practice on October 28 , rookie Khaseem Greene filled in for Briggs , and was expected to start against the Packers . Greene and fellow rookie Jon Bostic eventually started for the Bears against the Packers . Lorin Cox of Pro Football Central predicted the Bears would finish the second half of the season with a 4 – 5 record , and a final record of 8 – 8 .
= = = = Week 9 : at Green Bay Packers = = = =
Coming off their bye week , the Bears traveled to Lambeau Field to play the Green Bay Packers in the 189th meeting between the two rivals . The Bears had struggled regarding scoring against Green Bay in the last nine games between the two prior to 2013 , and including the 2010 NFC title game , had scored 127 points , an average of 14 @.@ 11 points . The two teams entered with among the top three scoring offenses , with Chicago and Green Bay ranked second and third , respectively , with 30 @.@ 4 and 30 @.@ 3 points per game , both of which rank behind the Denver Broncos . Among the weapons of the Packers offense that the Bears must attempt to hinder was the running game , as Green Bay 's rookie running back Eddie Lacy has recorded over 100 yards per game in the previous six during the season , along with quarterback Aaron Rodgers . One of Rodgers ' skills is passing balls longer than 20 yards , and was 16 of 32 on these attempts , which was tied with Russell Wilson of the Seattle Seahawks for the highest percentage in the league ; the Bears allowed 57 percent of opponents to throw for the aforementioned distance , the second @-@ worst score in the NFL . However , both teams ranked in the bottom five in the NFL in pass rush , with the Bears being in last with only nine sacks . For Chicago , Matt Forté had gained 533 yards along with averaging 4 @.@ 6 yards per run , while Josh McCown filled in for Jay Cutler . Since 2009 , Bears quarterbacks besides Cutler had thrown a combined eight touchdowns and 21 interceptions against the Packers ; in McCown 's last start in 2011 against the Packers , he threw for 242 yards , a touchdown and two interceptions in a 35 – 21 losing effort .
On the Packers ' first drive , Rodgers failed to recognize the Bears ' zone defense , having expected a man @-@ to @-@ man defense , and Shea McClellin escaped Don Barclay 's block and , along with Isaiah Frey , pulled Rodgers down , who landed on his shoulder and injured his left collarbone , and was replaced by Seneca Wallace for the remainder of the game . Afterwards , Mason Crosby kicked the 30 @-@ yard field goal to give the Packers the lead . On Chicago 's first drive , McCown escaped pressure from Mike Neal and threw towards Brandon Marshall for the 7 – 3 lead . Once the Packers got the ball back , Wallace 's pass for Jordy Nelson was tipped and intercepted by Julius Peppers , and was returned 14 yards to Green Bay 's 45 @-@ yard line , but after the Bears failed to convert on third down , Adam Podlesh 's punt was blocked by Jamari Lattimore . Eventually , James Starks ran 32 yards for the touchdown . However , the Bears traveled 60 yards on two plays , and Forté scored on the 1 @-@ yard run . The Bears ended the first half with Robbie Gould 's 24 @-@ yard field goal to expand the lead to 17 – 10 . In the third quarter , the Packers forced the Bears to punt , and Lacy ran 56 yards to the Bears ' 1 , and scored on the ensuing play . On the eventual kickoff , the Packers successfully attempted a surprise onside kick , which was recovered by Lattimore . Crosby kicked a 23 @-@ yarder on the drive . On the Bears ' next drive , McCown threw a six @-@ yard pass to Alshon Jeffery , whose size kept the ball from being knocked away by Davon House . After both teams exchanged punts in the fourth quarter , on the Bears ' next drive , began attempting to run out the clock . On 4th and 1 at the Bears ' 32 with 7 : 50 remaining , Forté ran three yards for the conversion and continuing the drive , which ended with Gould 's 27 @-@ yard field goal . The drive lasted 18 plays and took up 8 : 58 , leaving only 50 seconds remaining in the game . Despite a 15 @-@ yard pass by Wallace to Nelson , sacks by Corey Wootton and McClellin ended the game with a 27 – 20 victory for the Bears .
McCown ended the night completing 22 of 41 passes for 272 yards and two touchdowns , while Wallace completed 11 of 19 for 114 yards and an interception . The win marked the first time the Packers lost at home to an NFC North opponent since 2009 , and the first win for the Bears at Lambeau Field since 2007 .
= = = = Week 10 : vs. Detroit Lions = = = =
Week ten featured the Bears attempting to avoid suffering the first sweep by the Lions since 2007 , while also trying to claim the division lead ; the last time the two teams faced each other in a late @-@ season game for the division lead was in 1991 , which ended in a Chicago 20 – 10 win . However , the Bears had won the last five games against the Lions at Soldier Field . On November 7 , Marc Trestman announced that Jay Cutler has been cleared by doctors to return against Detroit , despite having been projected to be out for approximately four weeks . Against the Lions , Cutler was 7 – 2 , and won all four home games . On the offensive side , Jeff Joniak states that the Lions defensive line " are ferocious up the middle , they are physical , and they make you pay for poor technique , " but that " there is growing confidence that the Bears offense is a resilient one ; " the Bears had the fewest pre @-@ snap penalties in the league , and only one false start . The Bears could also seize the Lions ' cornerback corps , which struggled during the season , allowing 11 plays of 40 yards or more , along with 4 @.@ 7 yards per carry . Defensively , Sports Illustrated writers Chris Burke and Doug Farrar wrote the Bears must attempt to hinder Reggie Bush , and improve their performance from the previous week , when the Packers ' running game ran for 190 yards and two touchdowns . The Bears also had to prevent Calvin Johnson from excelling ; against the Dallas Cowboys , Johnson recorded 329 receiving yards .
Chicago scored first after Cutler 's 32 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Brandon Marshall capped a 65 @-@ yard drive that took just 2 : 23 . However , the Lions would travel 85 yards to tie on Matthew Stafford 's 5 @-@ yard pass to Kris Durham . In the following quarter , the Bears reached the Lions ' 4 @-@ yard line , but Cutler 's pass was tipped by Ndamukong Suh , and intercepted by DeAndre Levy in the endzone ; both teams would fail to score in the quarter . During the quarter , Cutler began showing signs of struggling due to an ankle injury . In the third quarter , the Lions would score on Stafford 's four @-@ yard touchdown to Johnson . Afterwards , the Bears were forced to settle for a 25 @-@ yard field goal , narrowing the gap to one
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of the expedition led by Grant , killing all but 11 , six of whom were taken prisoner . Five of the men escaped the Battle of Agua Dulce and joined Fannin who wanted to increase the defense force at Goliad .
= = = Battle of the Alamo : February 23 – March 6 , 1836 = = =
Neill was promoted to lieutenant colonel during his participation in the Siege of Béxar , and 10 days later Houston placed him in charge of the Texian garrison in the city . In January residents had begun evacuating ahead of Santa Anna 's approaching forces . Neill pleaded with Houston for replenishment of troops , supplies and weaponry . The departure of Texians who joined the Matamoros Expedition had left Neill with only about 100 men . At that point Houston viewed Béxar as a military liability and did not want Santa Anna 's advancing army gaining control of any remaining soldiers or artillery . He dispatched Bowie with instructions to remove the artillery , have the defenders abandon the Alamo mission and destroy it . Upon his January 19 arrival and subsequent discussions with Neill , Bowie decided the mission was the right place to stop the Mexican army in its tracks . He stayed and began to help Neill prepare for the coming attack . Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis arrived with reinforcements on February 3 . When Neill was given leave to attend to family matters on February 11 , Travis assumed command of the mission , and three days later he and Bowie agreed to a joint command . Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande on February 16 , and the Mexican army 's assault on the Alamo began February 23 . Captain Juan Seguín left the mission on February 25 , carrying a letter from Travis to Fannin at Goliad requesting more reinforcements . Santa Anna extended an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress ; a non @-@ combatant survivor , Enrique Esparza , said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer . In response to Travis ' February 24 letter To the People of Texas , 32 militia volunteers formed the Gonzales Ranging Company of Mounted Volunteers and arrived at the Alamo on February 29 .
If you execute your enemies , it saves you the trouble of having to forgive them .
= = Flight : March – April 1836 = =
= = = Houston begins forming his army = = =
As the closest settlement to San Antonio de Béxar , Gonzales was the rallying point for volunteers who responded to both the Travis letter from the Alamo and Houston 's recruitment pleas . Recently formed groups came from Austin and Washington counties and from the Colorado River area . Volunteers from Brazoria , Fort Bend and Matagorda counties organized after arriving in Gonzales . The Kentucky Rifle company under Newport , Kentucky business man Sidney Sherman had been aided by funding from Cincinnati , Ohio residents .
Alamo commandant Neill was in Gonzales purchasing supplies and recruiting reinforcements on March 6 . When Seguin learned en route that Fannin would be unable to reach the Alamo in time , he immediately began mustering an all @-@ Tejano company of scouts . His men combined with Lieutenant William Smith 's and volunteered to accompany Neill 's recruits . They encountered the Mexican army 18 miles ( 29 km ) from the Alamo on March 7 , and Neill 's men turned back while the Seguin @-@ Smith scouts moved forward . As the scouts neared the Alamo , they met only silence . Andrew Barcena and Anselmo Bergara from Seguin 's other detachment inside the Alamo showed up in Gonzales on March 11 , telling of their escape and delivering news of the slaughter . Their stories were discounted ; Houston , who had arrived that same day , denounced them as Mexican spies .
Smith and Seguin confirmed the fate of the mission upon their return . Houston dispatched orders to Fannin to abandon Goliad , blow up the Presidio La Bahía fortress , and retreat to Victoria , but Fannin delayed acting on those orders . Believing the approach of Urrea 's troops brought a greater urgency to local civilians , he sent 29 men under Captain Amon B. King to help evacuate nearby Refugio .
Houston promptly began organizing the troops at Gonzales into the First Regiment under Burleson who had arrived as part of the Mina volunteers . A second regiment would later be formed when the army grew large enough . As others began to arrive , individual volunteers not already in another company were put under Captain William Hestor Patton . Houston had 374 volunteers and their commanders in Gonzales on March 12 .
Santa Anna sent Susanna Dickinson with her infant daughter Angelina , Travis ' slave Joe , and Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte 's cook Ben to Gonzales , with dispatches written in English by Almonte to spread the news of the fall of the Alamo . Scouts Deaf Smith , Henry Karnes and Robert Eden Handy encountered the survivors 20 miles ( 32 km ) outside of Gonzales on March 13 . When Karnes returned with the news , almost immediately 25 volunteers deserted . Wailing filled the air when Dickinson and the others reached the town with their first @-@ hand accounts .
There was not a soul left among the citizens of Gonzales who had not lost a father , husband , brother or son ... That terrible massacre had , for a time , struck terror into every heart .
Although civilian evacuations had begun in January for the Gulf Coast and San Antonio de Béxar , the Texian military was either on the offensive or standing firm until the smaller Gulf Coast skirmishes happened in February . Houston was now facing a choice of whether to retreat to a safe place to train his new army , or to meet the enemy head @-@ on immediately . He was wary of trying to defend a fixed position – the debacle at the Alamo had shown that the new Texian government was unable to provide sufficient provisions or reinforcements .
= = = The burning of Gonzales = = =
Houston called for a Council of War . The officers voted that the families should be ordered to leave , and the troops would cover the retreat . By midnight , less than an hour after Dickinson had arrived , the combined army and civilian population began a frantic move eastward , leaving behind everything they could not immediately grab and transport . Much of the provisions and artillery were left behind , including two 24 @-@ pounder cannons . Houston ordered Salvador Flores along with a company of Juan Seguin 's men to form the rear guard to protect the fleeing families . Couriers were sent to other towns in Texas to warn that the Mexican army was advancing .
The retreat took place so quickly that many of the Texian scouts did not fully comprehend it until after the town was evacuated . Houston ordered Karnes to burn the town and everything in it so nothing would remain to benefit the Mexican troops . By dawn , the entire town was in ashes or flames .
Volunteers from San Felipe de Austin who had been organized under Captain John Bird on March 5 to reinforce the men at the Alamo had been en route to San Antonio de Béxar on March 13 when approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Gonzales they encountered fleeing citizens and a courier from Sam Houston . Told of the Alamo 's fall , Bird 's men offered assistance to the fleeing citizens and joined Houston 's army at Bartholomew D. McClure 's plantation on the evening of March 14 .
At Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos , the delegates to the convention learned of the Alamo 's fall on March 13 . The Republic 's new ad interim government was sworn in on March 17 , with a department overseeing military spy operations , and adjourned the same day . The government then fled to Groce 's Landing where they stayed for several days before moving on to Harrisburg on March 21 where they established temporary headquarters in the home of widow Jane Birdsall Harris .
King 's men at Refugio had taken refuge in Mission Nuestra Señora de la Rosario when they were subsequently attacked by Urrea 's forces . Fannin sent 120 reinforcements under William Ward , but the March 14 Battle of Refugio cost 15 Texian lives . Ward 's men escaped , but King 's men were captured and executed on March 16 .
= = = Colorado River crossings = = =
= = = = Burnam 's = = = =
Upon learning of the flight , Santa Anna sent General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma with 700 men to pursue Houston , and 600 men under General Eugenio Tolsa as reinforcements . Finding only burned remains at Gonzales , Sesma marched his army toward the Colorado River .
The Texian army camped March 15 – 18 on the Lavaca River property of Williamson Daniels where they were joined by combined forces under Joe Bennett and Captain Peyton R. Splane . Fleeing civilians accompanied Houston 's army turning north at the Navidad River as they crossed to the east side of the Colorado River at Burnam 's Crossing . The ferry and trading post , as well as the family home of Jesse Burnam , were all burned at Houston 's orders on March 17 to prevent Santa Anna 's army from making the same crossing .
= = = = Beason 's and DeWees = = = =
Beason 's Crossing was located where Columbus is today . DeWees Crossing was 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of Beason 's . From March 19 through March 26 , Houston split his forces between the two crossings . Additional Texian volunteer companies began arriving at both crossings , including three companies of Texas Rangers , the Liberty County Volunteers and the Nacogdoches Volunteers .
Sesma 's battalion of approximately 725 men and artillery camped on the opposite side of the Colorado , at a distance halfway between the two Texian camps . To prevent Sesma 's troops from using the William DeWees log cabin , Sherman ordered it burned . Three Mexican scouts from Sesma 's army were captured by Sherman 's men , and although Sherman argued for an attack on Sesma 's troops , Houston was not ready .
Fannin had begun evacuating Presidio La Bahía on March 19 . The estimated 320 troops were low on food and water , and the breakdown of a wagon allowed Urrea 's men to overtake them at Coleto Creek , ending in Fannin 's surrender on March 20 . Peter Kerr , who had served with Fannin and claimed to have been held prisoner , arrived at DeWees on March 25 . Houston announced Fannin 's surrender , but would later claim to have uncovered evidence that Kerr was a spy for the Mexicans .
The Texian army was a force of 810 volunteers and staff at this point , but few had any military training and experience . Faced with past desertions , discipline flaws , and individual indecisiveness of volunteers in training , Houston knew they were not yet ready to engage the Mexican army . Compounding the situation were the civilian refugees dependent upon the army for their protection . The news of Fannin 's capture , combined with his doubts about the readiness of the Texian army , led Houston to order a retreat on March 26 . Some of the troops viewed the decision as cowardice with Sesma sitting just on the other side of the Colorado , and several hundred men deserted .
... the only army in Texas is now present ... There are but few of us , and if we are beaten , the fate of Texas is sealed . The salvation of the country depends upon the first battle had with the enemy . For this reason , I intend to retreat , if I am obliged to go even to the banks of the Sabine .
= = = Brazos River training camp = = =
= = = = Groce 's Landing = = = =
Texian survivors of the Battle of Coleto Creek believed their surrender agreement with Urrea would , at worst , mean their deportation . Santa Anna , however , adhered to the 1835 Tornel Decree that stated the insurrection was an act of piracy fomented by the United States , and ordered their executions . Although he personally disagreed with the need to do so , Urrea carried out his commander 's orders on March 27 . Of the estimated 370 Texians being held , a few managed to escape the massacre . The remainder were shot , stabbed with bayonets and lances and clubbed with gun butts . Fannin was shot through the face and his gold watch stolen . The dead were cremated on a pyre .
It would be a week before word of the Goliad massacre reached Sam Houston . The retreating Texian army stopped at San Felipe de Austin on March 28 – 29 to stock up on food and supplies . Houston 's plan to move the army north to Groce 's Landing on the Brazos River was met with resistance from captains Wyly Martin and Moseley Baker , whose units balked at further retreat . Houston reassigned Martin 25 miles ( 40 km ) south to protect the Morton Ferry crossing at Fort Bend , and Baker was ordered to guard the river crossing at San Felipe de Austin .
News of approaching Mexican troops and Houston 's retreat caused panic among the population in the counties of Washington , Sabine , Shelby and San Augustine . Amid the confusion of fleeing residents of those counties , two volunteer groups under captains William Kimbro and Benjamin Bryant arrived to join Houston on March 29 . Kimbro was ordered to San Felipe de Austin to reinforce Baker 's troops , while Bryant 's men remained with the main army .
After an erroneous scouting report of approaching Mexican troops , Baker burned San Felipe de Austin to the ground on March 30 . When Baker claimed Houston had given him an order to do so , Houston denied it . Houston 's account was that the residents burned their own property to keep it out of the hands of the Mexican army . San Felipe de Austin 's residents did as those before them in escaping the Mexican army , and fled to the east .
During a two @-@ week period beginning March 31 , the Texian army camped on the west side of the Brazos River in Austin County , near Groce 's Landing ( also known as Groce 's Ferry ) . As Houston led his army north towards the landing , the unrelenting rainy weather swelled the Brazos and threatened flooding . Groce 's was transformed into a training camp for the troops . Major Edwin Morehouse arrived with a New York battalion of recruits who were immediately assigned to assist Wyly Martin at Fort Bend . Civilian men who were fleeing the Mexicans enlisted at Groce 's , and displaced civilian women in the camp helped the army 's efforts by sewing shirts for the soldiers .
Samuel G. Hardaway , a survivor of Major William Ward 's group who had escaped the Battle of Refugio and re @-@ joined Fannin at the Battle of Coleto , also managed to escape the Goliad massacre . As he fled Goliad , he was eventually joined by three other survivors , Joseph Andrews , James P. Trezevant and M. K. Moses . Spies for the Texian army discovered the four men and took them to Baker 's camp near San Felipe de Austin on April 2 . Several other survivors of the Goliad massacre were found on April 10 by Texian spies . Survivors Daniel Murphy , Thomas Kemp , Charles Shain , David Jones , William Brenan and Nat Hazen were taken to Houston at Groce 's Landing where they enlisted to fight with Houston 's army .
Houston learned of the Goliad massacre on April 3 . Unaware that Secretary of War Rusk was already en route to Groce 's with orders from President Burnet to halt the army 's retreat and engage the enemy , he relayed the Goliad news by letter to Rusk .
The enemy are laughing you to scorn . You must fight them . You must retreat no further . The country expects you to fight . The salvation of the country depends on your doing so .
Empowered to remove Houston from command and take over the army himself , Rusk instead assessed Houston 's plan of action as correct , after witnessing the training at Groce 's . Rusk and Houston formed the Second Regiment on April 8 to serve under Sherman , with Burleson retaining command of the First Regiment .
= = = = Yellowstone steamboat = = = =
The steamboat Yellowstone under the command of Captain John Eautaw Ross was impressed into service for the Provisional Army of Texas on April 2 , and initially ferried patients across the Brazos River when Dr. James Aeneas Phelps established a field hospital at Bernardo Plantation . Three days later , Santa Anna joined with Sesma 's troops , and had them build flatboats to cross the Brazos as the Mexicans sought to overtake and defeat the Texians . Wyly Martin reported on April 8 that Mexican forces had divided and were headed both east to Nacogdoches and southeast to Matagorda . Houston reinforced Baker 's post at San Felipe de Austin on April 9 , as Santa Anna continued moving southeast on April 10 .
The Texian army was transported by the Yellowstone over to the east side of the Brazos on April 12 , where they set up camp at the Bernardo Plantation . After walking 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Harrisburg , future president of the Republic Mirabeau B. Lamar arrived at Bernardo to enlist as a private in Houston 's army and suggested using the steamer for guerilla warfare .
Had it not been for its service , the enemy could never have been overtaken until they had reached the Sabine ... use of the boat enabled me to cross the Brazos and save Texas .
With Baker guarding the crossing at San Felipe de Austin , and Martin guarding the Morton Ferry crossing at Ford Bend , Santa Anna opted on April 12 to cross the Brazos halfway between at Thompson 's Ferry , with Sesma 's men and artillery crossing over the next day . The Mexican army attacked the steamer numerous times in an attempt to capture it , but Ross successfully used cotton bales to protect the steamer and its cargo , and was able to keep the Yellowstone away from Mexican control . Houston released the steamboat from service on April 14 , and it continued to Galveston .
= = = Burning of Harrisburg and the crucial crossroads = = =
The ad interim government departed Harrisburg on the steamboat Cayuga for New Washington ahead of Santa Anna 's April 15 arrival , thwarting his plans to eliminate the entire government of the Republic of Texas . Three printers still at work on the Telegraph and Texas Register told the Mexican army that everyone in the government had already left , and Santa Anna responded by having the printers arrested and the printing presses tossed into Buffalo Bayou . After days of looting and seeking out information about the government , Santa Anna ordered the town burned on April 18 . He later tried to place the blame for the destruction on Houston .
Before the Texian army left Bernardo Plantation , they welcomed the arrival of two cannons cast in November 1835 by Greenwood and Webb in Cincinnati , Ohio , funded entirely by the people of that city as a donation to the Texas Revolution . The idea had arisen as a suggestion from Robert F. Lytle , one of the businessmen who helped fund Sherman 's Kentucky Riflemen . Arriving in New Orleans after a lengthy trip from Ohio on the Mississippi River , the cannons were transported to the Gulf Coast aboard the Pennsylvania schooner . The cannons were nicknamed the " Twin Sisters " , perhaps in honor of the twins Elizabeth and Eleanor Rice traveling aboard the Pennsylvania , who were to present the cannons upon their arrival at Galveston in April 1836 . At Galveston , Leander Smith had the responsibility of transporting the cannons from Harrisburg to Bernardo Plantation in Waller County . Along the way , Smith recruited 35 men into the army . Lieutenant Colonel James Neill was put in charge of the cannons once they arrived in camp .
Martin and Baker abandoned the river crossings on April 14 and re @-@ joined Houston 's army which had marched from Bernardo to the Charles Donoho Plantation near present @-@ day Hempstead in Waller County . As news spread of the Mexican army 's movements , residents of Nacogdoches and San Augustine began to flee east towards the Sabine River . After refusals to continue with the army , Martin was ordered by Houston to accompany displaced families on their flight eastward . Hundreds of soldiers left the army to help their families . The main army parted from the refugees at this point , and acting Secretary of War David Thomas advised Houston to move southward to secure Galveston Bay . Houston , however , was getting conflicting advice from the cabinet members . President Burnet had sent Secretary of State Carson to Louisiana in hopes of getting the United States army and individual state militias involved in the Texas fight for independence . While he attempted to secure such involvement , Carson sent a dispatch to Houston on April 14 advising him to retreat all the way to the Louisiana @-@ Texas border on the Sabine River , and bide his time before engaging the Mexican army .
The Texian army camped west of present @-@ day Tomball on April 15 , at Sam McCarley 's homestead . They departed the next morning and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east reached a crucial crossroads . One road led east to Nacogdoches and eventually the Sabine River and Louisiana , while the other road led southeast to Harrisburg . The army was concerned that Houston would continue the eastward retreat . Although Houston discussed his decision with no one , he led the army down the southeast road . Rusk ordered that a small group of volunteers be split from the army to secure Robbins 's Ferry on the Trinity River . Houston 's troops stopped overnight on April 16 at the home of Matthew Burnet , and the next morning continued marching towards Harrisburg , 25 miles ( 40 km ) southeast .
With the refugee families being accorded a military escort eastward and Houston marching southeast , the retreat of the Provisional Army of Texas was over . On the march which would lead to San Jacinto , moving the heavy artillery across rain @-@ soaked terrain slowed down the army 's progress . The army had previously been assisted in moving the Twin Sisters with oxen borrowed from refugee Pamela Martin when she believed the army was fleeing towards Nacogdoches . When she learned the army was headed towards Harrisburg and a confrontation with the Mexican army , she reclaimed her oxen . The Texian army had expanded to twenty @-@ six companies by the time they reached Harrisburg on April 18 and saw the destruction Santa Anna had left behind .
= = = New Washington = = =
On orders of Santa Anna after the burning of Harrisburg , Almonte went in pursuit of the ad interim government at New Washington . During their flight the Republic officials switched from steamer to ferry to skiff . On the final leg of the trip , Almonte finally had them in his sights , but refused to fire after he saw Mrs. Burnet and her children on the skiff . In addition to letting the government get away one more time , Almonte 's spies had misread Houston 's troop movements and Santa Anna was told that the Texian army was still retreating eastward , this time through Lynchburg .
New Washington was looted and burned on April 20 by Mexican troops , and as many as 5 @,@ 000 civilians fled , either by boat or across land . Those attempting to cross the San Jacinto River were bottlenecked for three days , and the vicinity around the crossing transformed into a refugee camp . Burnet ordered government assistance all across Texas for fleeing families .
= = Aftermath = =
In a troop movement that took all night on a makeshift raft , the Texian army crossed Buffalo Bayou at Lynchburg April 19 with 930 soldiers , leaving behind 255 others as guards or for reasons of illness . The idea had been floated of leaving the Twin Sisters behind as protection , but Neill was adamant that the cannons be taken into the battle . In an April 20 skirmish the day before the main battle Neill was severely wounded , and George Hockley took command of the heavy artillery . Estimates of the Mexican army troop strength on the day of the main battle range from 1 @,@ 250 to 1 @,@ 500 .
The Texians attacked in the afternoon of April 21 while Santa Anna was still under the misconception that Houston was actually retreating . He had allowed his army time to relax and feed their horses , while he took a nap . When he was awakened by the attack , he immediately fled on horseback , but was later captured when Sergeant James Austin Sylvester found him hiding in the grass . Houston 's own account was that the battle lasted " about eighteen minutes " , before apprehending prisoners and confiscating armaments . When the Twin Sisters went up against the Mexican army 's Golden Standard cannon , they performed so well that Hockley 's unit was able to capture the Mexican cannon .
The Yellowstone saw war service for the Republic one more time on May 7 , when it transported Houston and his prisoner Santa Anna , along with the government Santa Anna tried to extinguish , to Galveston Island . From there , the government and Santa Anna traveled to Velasco for the signing of the treaties . Houston had suffered a serious wound during the battle , and on May 28 boarded the schooner Flora for medical treatment in New Orleans .
Not until news of the victory at San Jacinto spread did the refugees return to their homesteads and businesses , or whatever was left after the destruction caused by both armies . Throughout Texas , possessions had been abandoned and later looted . Businesses , homes and farms were wiped out by the devastation of war . Often there was nothing left to go back to , but those who went home began to pick up their lives and move forward . San Felipe de Austin never really recovered from its total destruction . The few people who returned there moved elsewhere , sooner or later . Secretary of War Rusk would later commend the women of Texas who held their families together during the flight , while their men volunteered to fight : " The men of Texas deserve much credit , but more was due the women . Armed men facing a foe could not but be brave ; but the women , with their little children around them , without means of defense or power to resist , faced danger and death with unflinching courage . "
= The Beginning or the End =
The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) is an American docudrama film about the development of the atomic bomb in World War II , directed by Norman Taurog , starring Brian Donlevy and Hume Cronyn , and released by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . The film dramatizes the creation of the atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project and the bombing of Hiroshima .
The film originated in October 1945 as a project of actress Donna Reed and her high school science teacher , Edward R. Tompkins , who was a chemist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory . Bob Considine wrote the treatment , which was sent to the MGM studio script writers . The title was supplied by President Harry S. Truman . At the time there was a legal requirement that permission be obtained to depict living well @-@ known public figures . Many refused , but others , such as J. Robert Oppenheimer , co @-@ operated . Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , was hired as a consultant for $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 121 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
Although the filmmakers put considerable effort into historical accuracy , particularly in details , the film is known for some key distortions of history . An entirely fictional sequence was added in which Truman agonizes over whether to authorize the attack ; anti @-@ aircraft shells are shown bursting around the Enola Gay on its bombing run over Hiroshima ; and it is said that leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima for ten days in advance of the mission warning the citizens of the forthcoming raid . The film received mixed reviews , and did not earn its money back .
= = Plot = =
In 1945 , physicist and atomic scientist Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer ( Hume Cronyn ) praises the discovery of atomic energy , but also warns of its dangers . American scientists such as Matt Cochran ( Tom Drake ) , working under the guidance of Dr. Enrico Fermi ( Joseph Calleia ) and Dr. Marré ( Victor Francen ) , have split the atom , and essentially beaten the Germans in the race to create an atomic bomb . With the assistance of Albert Einstein ( Ludwig Stössel ) , they inform President Franklin D. Roosevelt ( Godfrey Tearle ) that a monumental discovery has been made .
In 1941 , with the United States at war , Roosevelt authorizes up to two billion dollars for the Manhattan Project to develop an atomic bomb . In December 1942 , at the University of Chicago , under the watchful eyes of observers such as Colonel Jeff Nixon ( Robert Walker ) and international experts , scientists create the first chain reaction , under a stadium at the campus .
Nixon is assigned to General Leslie Groves ( Brian Donlevy ) , who is placed in charge of the project . Groves has to bring together the scientific , industrial and defense communities to build the atomic bomb . In 1945 , following the death of Roosevelt , the new president , Harry S. Truman ( Art Baker ) , continues to support the atomic project , now moved to Los Alamos , New Mexico . When refined uranium @-@ 235 is obtained , the first atomic bomb is built and tested successfully in the New Mexico desert . Facing stiff resistance in the Pacific War , Truman orders the use of the atomic bomb against Japan in July 1945 .
Cochran and Nixon are assigned to accompany the crew transporting the bomb to Tinian . While assembling the bomb , the scientist comes into contact with radioactive material and dies . The following day , on August 6 , 1945 , the Enola Gay , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber , drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima . After the mission , Nixon returns home to break the news of her husband 's death to Cochran 's wife .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The idea for The Beginning or the End originated in October 1945 with Donna Reed , a Hollywood actor , and her high school science teacher , Edward R. Tompkins , a chemist at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory . According to The Hollywood Reporter issues of December 1945 and January 1946 , MGM , Paramount and 20th Century Fox were all interested in making a film about the Manhattan Project . Paramount 's Hal B. Wallis was already working on his own version , titled Top Secret , but agreed to merge his project with MGM 's and hand over his story and research , offering to serve as an adviser on the MGM treatment in return for a fixed fee and a percentage of the box office gross .
The Beginning or the End had a number of working titles , including Atom Bomb , The Manhattan Project and Top Secret . Bob Considine was hired to produce a treatment , which he sent to the studio script writers . The script underwent a number of revisions , with Ayn Rand being one of the writers . Her contributions include the montage of Hitler 's conquests , a sequence in which a dying informant sends a message to Albert Einstein , and the sequence in which President Franklin Roosevelt authorizes the Manhattan Project . Other writers involved with the script were Robert Smith , Frank " Spig " Wead , Norman Krasna , David Hawkins , John Lee Mahin and Glenn Tryon . Producer Samuel Marx wrote the opening narration . Marx and Donna Reed 's husband Tony Owen met with President Harry S. Truman to secure his approval . At their meeting , Truman is reported to have said : " Gentlemen , make a motion picture . Tell the people of this nation that for them it is the beginning or the end , " thereby supplying the movie with its title .
H. T. Wensel from the National Bureau of Standards , Tompkins , and W. Bradford Shank from the Los Alamos National Laboratory acted as technical advisers . Relations between MGM and the scientists soon became strained , as the scientists began asking for multiple script changes , and Tompkins eventually resigned . Oppenheimer sent David Hawkins , a philosophy professor from the University of California to act as a mediator between Marx and the scientists . Although the original intention was that a substantial sum of money would be donated to scientists ' associations like the Federation of Atomic Scientists , in the end , no scientific organizations accepted any money . Tompkins received $ 100 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . At the time there was a legal requirement that permission be obtained to depict living well @-@ known public figures . Lise Meitner , Niels Bohr and Sir James Chadwick all refused to allow their names to be used in the The Beginning or the End , which Marx regarded as unfortunate , as it made the film 's Manhattan Project scenes look like an all @-@ American affair .
The loss of Bohr caused important sequences to be deleted . The script originally had Bohr , rescued from the Germans in Copenhagen , bring a shocked Oppenheimer news that the German nuclear weapon project was supplying expertise to its Japanese counterpart . A German U @-@ boat carrying a fictional scientist travels to Japan where he joins the Japanese project in Hiroshima . Vannevar Bush objected to the way the script depicted him as having doubts about whether the atomic bomb could be built in time or could fit into an aircraft . Bush insisted that he never had any doubts . The script was changed to soften this . In the film , when Bush tells Roosevelt that he has a top secret matter to discuss , the President 's dog Fala leaves the room .
Oppenheimer raised no objection to the sequence in the film in which he told Brigadier General Thomas Farrell that the odds of a runaway explosion destroying the planet were less than one in a million , although he let MGM know it never happened . The cultured Oppenheimer 's main concern was that the script was poor , with characters that were " stilted , lifeless , and without purpose or insight . "
Military technical advisers for The Beginning or the End included Colonel William A. Considine , Groves 's assistant in charge of in charge of Security and Public Relations , Major Glen W. Landreth , Major Paul Van Sloun and Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Sweeney , the pilot of Bockscar , the bomber that dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki . Scientists were alarmed by reports that the dashing actor Clark Gable was being considered for the role of Groves , but were relieved when Brian Donlevy was cast in the role , as he normally played a villain . Indeed , most of the cast were best known for film noir : Hume Cronyn for The Postman Always Rings Twice ; Joseph Calleia , for G
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ilda and Deadline at Dawn ; and Ludwig Stössel for Fritz Lang 's Cloak and Dagger . Groves 's cooperation was secured by hiring him as a primary consultant , for $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 121 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The portly Groves apparently had no objection to his portrayal by the slim and handsome Donlevy , except for the way in which he was shown bossing industrialists around . He had a scene in which he warned Roosevelt that the invasion of Japan would be opposed by Japanese nuclear weapons deleted .
Eleanor Roosevelt objected to the casting of Lionel Barrymore as her late husband , due to political remarks that Barrymore had made about the president in 1944 . Marx delayed Barrymore 's scenes while she had a chance to read and respond to a letter Barrymore sent her explaining that his remarks had been misinterpreted , but she was not placated , and Barrymore was replaced in the role by Godfrey Tearle . The War Department and the White House reviewed the script , and both asked for changes . The Army had a scene where an Army major made a pass at a girl deleted , as it felt that this was poor conduct for an officer .
The casual way that Truman and Groves were shown to decide to use the bomb , with Truman stating that " I think more of our American boys than I do of all our enemies " , while accurate , troubled Walter Lippmann , who felt that it could lead to foreigners being fearful of atomic weapons being in American hands . An entirely fictional sequence was therefore added in which Truman agonizes over whether to authorize the attack or not . In it Truman asserts that dropping the bomb will shorten the war , and a " year less of war will mean life for ... from 300 @,@ 000 to half a million of America 's finest youth " .
The motion picture censors asked for further cuts . Derogatory references to Mexicans were removed , as was an off @-@ color joke about the effects of exposure to radioactive substances ( " Is it true if you fool around with that stuff you don 't like girls anymore ? " " Not that I 've noticed " ) , and one about politics ( " I got it confidential − we 're makin ' the front ends of horses . We ship ' em to Washington to hook on to the other end . " )
Principal photography for The Beginning or the End began on April 29 , 1946 , and continued until July 25 with retakes beginning on August 9 , 1946 . The production premiered in Washington , D.C. on February 19 , 1947 , with the national release of the film following on March 7 , 1947 .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The filmmakers put considerable effort into historical accuracy , particularly in details such as military uniforms and the details of the Enola Gay and its crew . Nine of the actors who portrayed the Enola Gay crew were actual veterans of World War II . The technical details of atomic processes and the bomb 's design are wildly inaccurate by intention . In 1947 , these details were highly classified . One inaccuracy , independent of necessary military secrecy , is the portrayal of anti @-@ aircraft shells bursting around the aircraft on the bombing run , as the attack on Hiroshima was not opposed .
The film twice refers to specific leaflet drops on the target for ten days in advance of the mission warning the citizens of the forthcoming raid . " We 've been dropping warning leaflets on them for ten days now " , one crew member remarks , " That 's ten days more warning than they gave us before Pearl Harbor . " There was no leaflet specifically warning of an atomic attack . In his review in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , physicist Harrison Brown called this " the most horrible falsification of history " . Historians have debated whether any leaflets were dropped at all .
= = Reception = =
Although The Beginning or the End was the first film to depict the story of the atomic bomb , both critics and the public were confused by the attempt to merge real events in a docudrama form . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times commented , " ... despite its generally able reenactments , this film is so laced with sentiment of the silliest and most theatrical nature that much of its impressiveness is marred . " Variety described the film as a " portentous tale in broad strokes of masterful scripting and production " , and a " sum credit of everybody concerned that the documentary values are sufficiently there without becoming static " . In his Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists review , Harrison Brown considered the movie " poor " , with a romantic angle " insipid in the extreme " , but was most troubled by way scientific equipment was " over @-@ glamorized " in the film , which he felt gave " a completely false impression of how scientists work . " The review in Time was less positive , noting that , " even as entertainment ... the picture seldom rises above cheery imbecility . "
According to MGM records , The Beginning or the End was made on a budget of $ 2 @,@ 632 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 31 @,@ 939 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , but earned $ 1 @,@ 221 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 14 @,@ 817 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) in the United States and Canada and $ 721 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 8 @,@ 749 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) elsewhere , resulting in a loss to the studio of $ 1 @,@ 596 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 19 @,@ 367 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
= The Man from Jupiter =
" The Man from Jupiter " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American animated television series Archer . It originally aired on January 19 , 2012 , in the United States on FX . Sterling Archer ( H. Jon Benjamin ) is introduced to Burt Reynolds , who is involved in a relationship with his mother Malory Archer ( Jessica Walter ) . Sterling tries several attempts to end their relationship . Meanwhile , a group of Cuban hitmen set out to kill Sterling .
The episode was directed and written by series creator Adam Reed . Reynolds was announced as a guest star for the episode in October 2011 . He edited much of the episode 's script , after receiving it from Reed . " The Man from Jupiter " was well received by television commentators , who praised the episode 's cultural references , character development , and the storylines . Upon airing , it attracted 1 @.@ 309 million viewers and a 0 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It subsequently became the eleventh highest @-@ rated cable program of the day .
= = Plot = =
Sterling Archer ( H. Jon Benjamin ) drinks at a bar and after he unsuccessfully attempts to pick up a woman for sex , a man nearby laughs at Archer 's incident . When Sterling threatens him , the man easily subdues him . Sterling suddenly realizes that the man is his idol , Burt Reynolds . After gushing to Burt about how much of a fan he is , Archer learns that — much to his horror — Burt is dating his mother Malory Archer ( Jessica Walter ) . A shocked Sterling passes out in the establishment , and by the next day is seen with a black eye . Sterling assumes that it was an " involuntary reaction " .
Malory informs Sterling that a group of Cuban hitmen have established a warrant against him , which makes Sterling even more irate . Burt then calls Malory and asks her out to a movie premiere that night . Later that day , however , Malory gets a letter from Reynolds , saying that he is leaving her for a younger woman and moving back " to Tinseltown " . However , Lana Kane ( Aisha Tyler ) quickly figures out that the letter was written by Sterling himself ( citing how no star actor uses the term " Tinseltown " ) . She quickly figures out that Sterling visited Burt , knocking him out with knock @-@ out gas , and taking him to his apartment . Lana , along with Cyril Figgis and Ray Gillette ( Adam Reed ) , go to try to reason with Sterling . Once there , they encounter the Cuban hit squad , who believe Gillette is the real Sterling based on the recon photo they have ( taken during the events of " Honeypot " ) and a firefight begins . Meanwhile , Sterling holds Burt hostage , promising to never let him date his mother again , but he is interrupted by the firefight between the ISIS agents and the Cubans . As they drive off , Sterling prepares to go after them , but Burt says that Sterling won 't be able to catch up to them and that he can . Sterling agrees to a bet : If Burt can 't catch up to them , he will leave for Hollywood and never call Malory again , and if he does , he can be allowed to continue dating Malory .
Sterling agrees to this , which results in a hectic car chase that frightens Sterling some , despite Burt 's expert driving that allows him to achieve many Hollywood driving stunts . During this , Burt tells Sterling that he needs to stop thinking of Malory as just his mother and rather think of her as a person with emotional ( and sexual ) needs , and that he should think about her happiness and not his . This seems to sway Sterling and at that point , Burt has been able to catch up to the ISIS agents and the Cubans and saves the ISIS agents . With that , the group drives back to a heartbroken Malory . Sterling apologizes for writing the phony letter and Burt takes Malory on their date to the movie premiere .
= = Production = =
Burt Reynolds makes a guest appearance on " The Man from Jupiter " , as the love interest of Malory Archer . His guest appearance was formally announced in October 2011 . Prior to his appearance , Reynolds was referenced in several episodes of the series . Series creator Adam Reed opined : " I think the only person on the planet who 's a bigger fan of Burt Reynolds than me is Sterling Archer . Archer constantly tries to imitate Burt and always raves about Burt 's movies and all @-@ around awesomeness . So to have Burt recording voice @-@ overs for the show was just amazing . " After receiving the episode 's script from Reed , Reynolds made several edits ; while editing the script of the episode , Reynolds added a scene in which Sterling reveals that his career choice was largely influenced by his films . " We sent him the script beforehand and he noted the script up pretty good . But it was all to make it more self @-@ deprecating . " Reed , a fan of Reynolds , said that working with him was a great experience . " It was such a surreal experience being in the room with Burt Reynolds , my childhood hero , " he affirmed . " Just hearing him read the stuff that I wrote , it was pretty great . "
The episode title is a reference to the television series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. and the town of Jupiter , Florida , which is where Reynolds spent most of his childhood . Sterling proclaims that his career path was largely influenced by Reynolds ' film career , particularly his work in the musical film At Long Last Love ( 1975 ) and the spy cinema Operation C.I.A. ( 1965 ) . Reed stated , " Archer says [ that ] Operation C.I.A. is why [ he ] became a spy . And he 's [ Reynolds ] like , ' Really , I thought that movie sucked . ' " A sequence which features Sterling strapping Reynolds onto a handtruck reflects homage to the thriller film The Silence of the Lambs ( 1991 ) . The song " East Bound and Down " by Jerry Reed is presented in the episode , while Sterling makes several references to several American cinematic works from the 1970s . Jesse Carp of Cinema Blend wrote : " I should start by saying that this episode played particularly well for me because I ’ m a huge fan of 1970s American cinema — the good and the bad — so all of those references that Archer soon starts throwing at Reynolds , I 'm catching and loving every second of it . " " The Man from Jupiter " contains several scenes that are reminiscent to those in the action film Gator ( 1976 ) . Carp wrote that " it isn 't long before the Reynolds ' sweet talking and charisma mesmerizes Archer and soon the pair are talking plot possibilities for the last film in the Gator trilogy . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Man from Jupiter " was originally broadcast on January 19 , 2012 , in the United States on FX . Upon airing , it attained 1 @.@ 309 million viewers and a 0 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The installment became the eleventh high @-@ rated cable television program of the day , scoring higher than the documentary series The First 48 on A & E but obtaining lower ratings than the satirical television program The Daily Show on Comedy Central . " The Man from Jupiter " achieved record @-@ breaking demographic ratings ; it became the third @-@ most viewed cable telecast of all time amongst men in the 18 – 34 demographic , as well as key men in the 18 – 49 group . In comparison to the season two premiere , " Swiss Miss " , ratings in the 18 – 49 demographic during the first fifteen minutes vaulted 31 % to 689 @,@ 000 viewers . Although ratings showed similar increases during the second quarterly hour , ratings in the 18 – 49 demographic declined 21 % from the previous season premiere , translating to 220 @,@ 000 viewers . Overall , ratings amongst key adults in the 18 – 49 group declined 4 % from " Swiss Miss " to 950 @,@ 000 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Man from Jupiter " was widely lauded by television commentators . In his A- review , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club felt that the episode contained many great moments and felt that it was a strong opening for the season . VanDerWerff wrote : " Archer has always been a show I enjoyed more for the fast @-@ paced dialogue and weird office plots , but every so often , the show does something pretty awesome , even on what 's probably a fairly limited budget , and it turns out an action sequence that you just won 't see on most other animated shows . FX has usually chosen to open seasons with these big action episodes , for fairly obvious reasons , and this one has the added benefit of Burt Reynolds hanging out as another potential ratings bump . " VanDerWerff noted that the storyline between Sterling Archer and his mother Mallory Archer was the highlight of " The Man from Jupiter " ; " Archer 's so often at odds with her because he 's unable to see her as a person and not just his mother , as Reynolds expresses while roaring down the highway at dangerously high speeds . Until Archer accepts that Malory has needs — some of them sexual — he ’ s always going to be trapped in a weird , co @-@ dependent relationship with her . Archer isn 't a show that tries to shove tons and tons of deep character moments into its episodes , which makes it all the better when it does do so . The show usually nails those little moments , and this was no exception . " Creative Loafing journalist Scott Harrel asserted , " If the debut episode is any indication , you can expect another satisfying season from this intelligent , imaginative and button @-@ pushing mix of high and low humor . " Ross Bonaime of Paste issued the installment an 8 @.@ 8 out of ten rating , signifying a " commendable " rating . Bonaime affirmed that Reed adequately developed the characters , citing that " The Man from Jupiter " further established greater expectations for the series .
Carp evaluated the script as " impeccably written " , adding that " The Man from Jupiter " was a hilarious episode . Cites of adulation stemmed from the animation , which Carp described it as " likely the best you 'll see anywhere on television . " He wrote , " It 's just so unique the way they use state of the art 3D computer animation to create a retrofitted look . It takes them months to animate each episode and the hard work really pays off in the unique visuals of the show . " Writing for TV Fanatic , Eric Hochberger stated that " if this week combined with the mini @-@ series was any indication , we 're in for a damn strong season of Archer . "
Reynolds ' appearance was critically acclaimed . VanDerWerff professed that he was surprised that it was executed well , as he avouched that shows featuring guest appearances ruin the chemistry of the main cast . " Episodes with big special guest stars can often ruin the rhythm of the main gang , but I was surprised at how readily the show incorporated Reynolds into the storyline , to the point where he almost felt like an organic part of the ensemble , " avouched VanDerWerff . " The fact that he 's still dating Malory at the end of the episode implies that he might pop back in as the season proceeds , and I wouldn 't be adverse to that happening , where many special guest stars might make me roll my eyes in irritation . " He praised the chemistry between Reynolds and Benjamin , and commended Reynolds for having the will power to poke fun at himself . Carp echoed similar sentiments ; " H. Jon Benjamin alone is a voice @-@ over superstar [ ... ] but combined with Reynolds and the rest of the cast , that was some animated magic and a fantastic way to kick off the third season . " Bonaime thought that Reynolds was " fine with being self @-@ deprecating , and he gives some fantastic moments with Archer . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall enjoyed how Reynolds was utilized in " The Man from Jupiter " . " There are times when it can feel awkward when a show spends an episode sucking up to a very special guest star , but it worked here because so much of Archer 's personality — and so much of the show 's approach to action — feels inspired by all those movies Reynolds did in the ' 70s and early ' 80s when he was the biggest movie star in the world .
= 2007 ACC Championship Game =
The 2007 Dr. Pepper ACC Championship Game featured the Boston College Eagles and the Virginia Tech Hokies in a regular @-@ season college football game that determined the conference 's champion for the 2007 season . Virginia Tech defeated Boston College 30 – 16 to win the ACC football championship . The game , held at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , was a rematch of a regular @-@ season game that took place on October 25 , in Blacksburg , Virginia . In that game , Boston College , courtesy of a late @-@ game comeback by quarterback Matt Ryan , won 14 – 10 .
Following the loss , Virginia Tech won five straight games to win the Coastal Division of the ACC , while Boston College stumbled , losing two games before defeating the Clemson Tigers to win the Atlantic Division and representation in the Championship Game . Most pre @-@ game media coverage of the event cast the game as an opportunity for Virginia Tech to avenge its earlier loss . In addition , the winner of the game would be awarded an automatic bid to the Bowl Championship Series 2008 Orange Bowl game in Miami , Florida on January 3 , 2008 . Despite Boston College 's earlier win over Virginia Tech , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech by five points .
In the opening quarter of the game , the Eagles took a 7 – 0 lead on a 51 @-@ yard fumble return for a touchdown . The Eagles ' offense dominated the first half of the game statistically , but failed to add to its early lead until the second quarter , when a field goal made it 10 – 0 . Virginia Tech answered with a touchdown of their own , but Boston College responded with a seven @-@ play , 74 @-@ yard touchdown drive of its own . Then came perhaps the most pivotal play of the game . During the extra point kick following the Boston College touchdown , Virginia Tech 's Duane Brown blocked the kick , which was caught by the Hokies ' cornerback Brandon Flowers , who returned it 75 yards for a defensive two @-@ point conversion .
The play changed the momentum of the game . Virginia Tech added a tying touchdown before halftime , and after a scoreless third quarter , two Matt Ryan interceptions resulted in 14 points for Virginia Tech and a 30 – 16 Virginia Tech win . With the victory , the Hokies earned their second Atlantic Coast Conference football championship in four years and their first Orange Bowl bid since 1996 .
= = Background = =
The ACC Championship Game matches the winner of the Coastal and Atlantic Divisions of the Atlantic Coast Conference . A conference championship game was added in 2005 , as a result of the league 's expansion the previous year , adding former Big East members Miami , Virginia Tech , and Boston College . With the addition of Boston College , the ACC consisted of 12 teams , allowing it to hold a conference championship game under NCAA rules .
Florida State defeated Virginia Tech , 27 – 22 in the first ACC Championship game . The following year , the game , held in Jacksonville , Florida , pitted Wake Forest against Georgia Tech , with Wake Forest winning 9 – 6 . Before the 2007 season began , most sports writers and pollsters predicted that Florida State would win the Atlantic Division while Virginia Tech would win the Coastal Division , setting up a rematch of the 2005 ACC Championship Game .
In October , Florida State lost back @-@ to @-@ back ACC conference games to Wake Forest and Miami , eliminating them from contention for their division title . Boston College , which had finished second in the preseason Atlantic Division poll , was ranked No. 2 in the country after Florida State 's loss to Miami . Virginia Tech , which suffered a 48 – 7 defeat at the hands of then @-@ No. 2 LSU , nevertheless remained at the top of the Coastal Division standings as the Eagles passed the Seminoles for the Atlantic Division lead .
On October 25 , Boston College traveled to Blacksburg , Virginia , home of Virginia Tech , for a Thursday night game broadcast on ESPN . In heavy rain , Virginia Tech 's defense dominated for most of the game . As time ran down , however , Boston College quarterback Matt Ryan orchestrated two late @-@ game touchdown drives , scoring 14 points in the final 2 minutes to win 14 – 10 . The victory seemingly sealed Boston College 's route to a national championship game , while the loss potentially jeopardized Virginia Tech 's chances of being selected to play in the ACC Championship Game . Over the next two weeks , however , Boston College was upset by Florida State and Maryland . The Eagles rallied to win their final two games — against Miami and Clemson — to clinch the division title . Virginia Tech , meanwhile , was undefeated through the remainder of its schedule , including a division @-@ clinching win over its archrival , Virginia . This meant that the ACC Championship Game in Jacksonville would be a rematch between these two division champions .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the game , there was much media discussion of the future site of the game due to Jacksonville 's expiring contract to host the ACC Championship . The media also discussed whether Virginia Tech would be out for revenge against Boston College after its last @-@ second defeat in Blacksburg on October 25 . Despite its previous loss , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win the game , with most favoring the Hokies by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 points .
The game was the 15th contest between Boston College and Virginia Tech and was their second of the 2007 season . The first meeting , which took place in 1993 in the Big East conference , resulted in a 48 – 34 Boston College win . Between 1993 and 2003 , Boston College and Virginia Tech played annually as
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isotropically , is roughly 103 L ☉ . This luminosity is roughly one hundred million times stronger than the typical maser found in the Milky Way , and so the maser source in Arp 220 was called a megamaser . At this time , extragalactic water ( H2O ) masers were already known . In 1984 , water maser emission was discovered in NGC 4258 and NGC 1068 that was of comparable strength to the hydroxyl maser in Arp 220 , and are as such considered water megamasers .
Over the next decade , megamasers were also discovered for formaldehyde ( H2CO ) and methine ( CH ) . Galactic formaldehyde masers are relatively rare , and more formaldehyde megamasers are known than are galactic formaldehyde masers . Methine masers , on the other hand , are quite common in the Milky Way . Both types of megamaser were found in galaxies in which hydroxyl had been detected . Methine is seen in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption , while formaldehyde is found in galaxies with hydroxyl absorption as well as those with hydroxyl megamaser emission .
As of 2007 , 109 hydroxyl megamaser sources were known , up to a redshift of <formula> . Over 100 extragalactic water masers are known , and of these , 65 are bright enough to be considered megamasers .
= = General requirements = =
Regardless of the masing molecule , there are a few requirements that must be met for a strong maser source to exist . One requirement is a radio continuum background source to provide the radiation amplified by the maser , as all maser transitions take place at radio wavelengths . The masing molecule must have a pumping mechanism to create the population inversion , and sufficient density and path length for significant amplification to take place . These combine to constrain when and where megamaser emission for a given molecule will take place . The specific conditions for each molecule known to produce megamasers are different , as exemplified by the fact that there is no known galaxy that hosts both of the two most common megamaser species , hydroxyl and water . As such , the different molecules with known megamasers will be addressed individually .
= = Hydroxyl megamasers = =
Arp 220 hosts the first megamaser discovered , is the nearest ultraluminous infrared galaxy , and has been studied in great detail at many wavelengths . For this reason , it is the prototype of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies , and is often used as a guide for interpreting other hydroxyl megamasers and their hosts .
= = = Hosts and environment = = =
Hydroxyl megamasers are found in the nuclear region of a class of galaxies called luminous infrared galaxies ( LIRGs ) , with far infrared luminosities in excess of one hundred billion solar luminosities , or LFIR > 1011 L ☉ , and ultra @-@ luminous infrared galaxies ( ULIRGs ) , with LFIR > 1012 L ☉ are favored . These infrared luminosities are very large , but in many cases LIRGs are not particularly luminous in visible light . For instance , the ratio of infrared luminosity to luminosity in blue light is roughly 80 for Arp 220 , the first source in which a megamaser was observed .
The majority of the LIRGs show evidence of interaction with other galaxies or having recently experienced a galaxy merger , and the same holds true for the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers . Megamaser hosts are rich in molecular gas compared to spiral galaxies , with molecular hydrogen masses in excess of one billion solar masses , or H2 > 109 M ☉ . Mergers help funnel molecular gas to the nuclear region of the LIRG , producing high molecular densities and stimulating high star formation rates characteristic of LIRGs . The starlight in turn heats dust , which re @-@ radiates in the far infrared and produces the high LFIR observed in hydroxyl megamaser hosts . The dust temperatures derived from far infrared fluxes are warm relative to spirals , ranging from 40 – 90 K.
The far infrared luminosity and dust temperature of a LIRG both affect the likelihood of hosting an hydroxyl megamaser , through correlations between the dust temperature and far infrared luminosity , so it is unclear from observations alone what the role of each is in producing hydroxyl megamasers . LIRGs with warmer dust are more likely to host hydroxyl megamasers , as are ULIRGs , with LFIR > 1012 L ☉ . At least one out of three ULIRGs hosts an hydroxyl megamaser , as compared with roughly one out of six LIRGs . Early observations of hydroxyl megamasers indicated a correlation between the isotropic hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity , with LOH <formula> LFIR2 . As more hydroxyl megamasers were discovered , and care was taken to account for the Malmquist bias , this observed relationship was found to be flatter , with LOH <formula> LFIR1.2 <formula> 0 @.@ 1 .
Early spectral classification of the nuclei of the LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers indicated that the properties of LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers cannot be distinguished from the overall population of LIRGs . Roughly one third of megamaser hosts are classified as starburst galaxies , one quarter are classified as Seyfert 2 galaxies , and the remainder are classified as low @-@ ionization nuclear emission @-@ line regions , or LINERs . The optical properties of hydroxyl megamaser hosts and non @-@ hosts are not significantly different . Recent infrared observations using the Spitzer Space Telescope are , however , able to distinguish hydroxyl megamaser hosts galaxies from non @-@ masing LIRGs , as 10 – 25 % of hydroxyl megamaser hosts show evidence for an active galactic nucleus , compared to 50 – 95 % for non @-@ masing LIRGs .
The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers may be distinguished from the general population of LIRGs by their molecular gas content . The majority of molecular gas is molecular hydrogen , and typical hydroxyl megamaser hosts have molecular gas densities greater than 1000 cm − 3 . These densities are among the highest mean densities of molecular gas among LIRGs . The LIRGs that host hydroxyl megamasers also have high fractions of dense gas relative to typical LIRGs . The dense gas fraction is measured by the ratio of the luminosity produced by hydrogen cyanide ( HCN ) relative to the luminosity of carbon monoxide ( CO ) .
= = = Line characteristics = = =
The emission of hydroxyl megamasers occurs predominantly in the so @-@ called " main lines " at 1665 and 1667 MHz . The hydroxyl molecule also has two " satellite lines " that emit at 1612 and 1720 MHz , but few hydroxyl megamasers have had satellite lines detected . Emission in all known hydroxyl megamasers is stronger in the 1667 MHz line ; typical ratios of the flux in the 1667 MHz line to the 1665 MHz line , called the hyperfine ratio , range from a minimum of 2 to greater than 20 . For hydroxyl emitting in thermodynamic equilibrium , this ratio will range from 1 @.@ 8 to 1 , depending upon the optical depth , so line ratios greater than 2 are indicative of a population out of thermal equilibrium . This may be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers in star @-@ forming regions , where the 1665 MHz line is typically strongest , and hydroxyl masers around evolved stars , in which the 1612 MHz line is often strongest , and of the main lines , 1667 MHz emission is frequently stronger than 1612 MHz . The total width of emission at a given frequency is typically many hundreds of kilometers per second , and individual features that make up the total emission profile have widths ranging from tens to hundreds of kilometers per second . These may also be compared with galactic hydroxyl masers , which typically have linewidths of order a kilometer per second or narrower , and are spread over a velocity of a few to tens of kilometers per second .
The radiation amplified by hydroxyl masers is the radio continuum of its host . This continuum is primarily composed of synchrotron radiation produced by Type II supernovae . Amplification of this background is low , with amplification factors , or gains , ranging from a few percent to a few hundred percent , and sources with larger hyperfine ratios typically exhibiting larger gains . Sources with higher gains typically have narrower emission lines . This is expected if the pre @-@ gain linewidths are all roughly the same , as line centers are amplified more than the wings , leading to line narrowing .
A few hydroxyl megamasers , including Arp 220 , have been observed with very long baseline interferometry ( VLBI ) , which allows sources to be studied at higher angular resolution . VLBI observations indicate that hydroxyl megamaser emission is composed of two components , one diffuse and one compact . The diffuse component displays gains of less than a factor of one and linewidths of order hundreds of kilometers per second . These characteristics are similar to those seen with single dish observations of hydroxyl megamasers that are unable to resolve individual masing components . The compact components have high gains , ranging from tens to hundreds , high ratios of flux at 1667 MHz to flux at 1665 MHz , and linewidths are of order a few kilometers per second . These general features have been explained by a narrow circumnuclear ring of material from which the diffuse emission arises , and individual masing clouds with sizes of order one parsec that give rise to the compact emission . The hydroxyl masers observed in the Milky Way more closely resemble the compact hydroxyl megamaser components . There are , however , some regions of extended galactic maser emission from other molecules that resemble the diffuse component of hydroxyl megamasers .
= = = Pumping mechanism = = =
The observed relationship between the luminosity of the hydroxyl line and the far infrared suggests that hydroxyl megamasers are radiatively pumped . Initial VLBI measurements of nearby hydroxyl megamasers seemed to present a problem with this model for compact emission components of hydroxyl megamasers , as they required a very high fraction of infrared photons to be absorbed by hydroxyl and lead to a maser photon being emitted , making collisional excitation a more plausible pumping mechanism . However , a model of maser emission with a clumpy masing medium appear to be able to reproduce the observed properties of compact and diffuse hydroxyl emission . A recent detailed treatment finds that photons with a wavelength of 53 micrometres are the primary pump for main line maser emission , and applies to all hydroxyl masers . In order to provide enough photons at this wavelength , the interstellar dust that reprocesses stellar radiation to infrared wavelengths must have a temperature of at least 45 Kelvin . Recent observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope confirm this basic picture , but there are still some discrepancies between details of the model and observations of hydroxyl megamaser host galaxies such as the required dust opacity for megamaser emission .
= = = Applications = = =
Hydroxyl megamasers occur in the nuclear regions of LIRGs , and appear to be a marker in the stage of the formation of galaxies . As hydroxyl emission is not subject to extinction by interstellar dust in its host LIRG , hydroxyl masers may be useful probes of the conditions where star formation in LIRGs takes place . At redshifts of z ~ 2 , there are LIRG @-@ like galaxies more luminous than the ones in the nearby universe . The observed relationship between the hydroxyl luminosity and far infrared luminosity suggests that hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies may be tens to hundreds of times more luminous than observed hydroxyl megamasers . Detection of hydroxyl megamasers in such galaxies would allow precise determination of the redshift , and aid understanding of star formation in these objects .
The first detection of the Zeeman effect in another galaxy was made through observations of hydroxyl megamasers . The Zeeman effect is the splitting of a spectral line due to the presence of a magnetic field , and the size of the splitting is linearly proportional to the line @-@ of @-@ sight magnetic field strength . Zeeman splitting has been detected in five hydroxyl megamasers , and the typical strength of a detected field is of order a few milligauss , similar to the field strengths measured in galactic hydroxyl masers .
= = Water megamasers = =
Whereas hydroxyl megamasers seem to be fundamentally distinct in some ways from galactic hydroxyl masers , water megamasers do not seem to require conditions too dissimilar from galactic water masers . Water masers stronger than galactic water masers , some of which are strong enough to be classified " mega " masers , may be described by the same luminosity function as galactic water masers . Some extragalactic water masers occur in star forming regions , like galactic water masers , while stronger water masers are found in the circumnuclear regions around active galactic nuclei ( AGN ) . The isotropic luminosities of these span a range of order one to a few hundred L ☉ , and are found in nearby galaxies like Messier 51 ( 0 @.@ 8 L ☉ ) and more distant galaxies like NGC 4258 ( 120 L ☉ ) .
= = = Line characteristics and pumping mechanism = = =
Water maser emission is observed primarily at 22 GHz , due to a transition between rotational energy levels in the water molecule . The upper state is at an energy corresponding to 643 Kelvin about the ground state , and populating this upper maser level requires number densities of molecular hydrogen of order 108 cm − 3 or greater and temperatures of at least 300 Kelvin . The water molecule comes into thermal equilibrium at molecular hydrogen number densities of roughly 1011 cm − 3 , so this places an upper limit on the number density in a water masing region . Water masers emission has been successfully modeling by masers occurring behind shock waves propagating through dense regions in the interstellar medium . These shocks produce the high number densities and temperatures ( relative to typical conditions in the interstellar medium ) required for maser emission , and are successful in explaining observed masers .
= = = Applications = = =
Water megamasers may be used to provide accurate distance determinations to distant galaxies . Assuming a Keplerian orbit , measuring the centripetal acceleration and velocity of water maser spots yields the physical diameter subtended by the maser spots . By then comparing the physical radius to the angular diameter measured on the sky , the distance to the maser may be determined . This method is effective with water megamasers because they occur in a small region around an AGN , and have narrow linewidths . This method of measuring distances is being used to provide an independent measure of the Hubble constant that does not rely upon use of standard candles . The method is limited , however , by the small number of water megamasers known at distances within the Hubble flow . This distance measurement also provides a measurement of the mass of the central object , which in this case is a supermassive black hole . Black hole mass measurements using water megamasers is the most accurate method of mass determination for black holes in galaxies other than the Milky Way . The black hole masses that are measured are consistent with the M @-@ sigma relation , an empirical correlation between stellar velocity dispersion in galactic bulges and the mass of the central supermassive black hole .
= Earnings management =
Earnings management , in accounting , is the act of intentionally influencing the process of financial reporting to obtain some private gain . Earnings management involves the alteration of financial reports to mislead stakeholders about the organization 's underlying performance , or to " influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers . "
Earnings management has a negative effect on earnings quality , and may weaken the credibility of financial reporting . Furthermore , in a 1998 speech Securities and Exchange Commission chairman Arthur Levitt called earnings management " widespread " . Despite its pervasiveness , the complexity of accounting rules can make earnings management difficult for individual investors to detect .
= = Occurrence and response by regulators = =
Earnings management is believed to be widespread . A 1990 report on earnings management situations stated that " short @-@ term earnings are being managed in many , if not all companies " , and in a 1998 speech , Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) chairman Arthur Levitt called earnings management a " widespread , but too little @-@ challenged custom " . In a 2013 essay , Ray Ball , while opining that accounting research was not reliably documenting earnings management , wrote : " Of course earnings management goes on . [ ... ] People have been tried and convicted . "
The SEC has criticized earnings management as having adverse consequences for financial reporting , and for masking " the true consequences of management 's decisions " . It has called on standard @-@ setters to make changes to accounting standards to improve financial statement transparency , and has called for increased oversight over the financial reporting process . The SEC has also pressed charges against the management of firms involved in fraudulent earnings management .
= = Motivations and methods = =
Earnings management involves the manipulation of company earnings towards a pre @-@ determined target . This target can be motivated by a preference for more stable earnings , in which case management is said to be carrying out income smoothing . Opportunistic income smoothing can in turn signal lower risk and increase a firm 's market value . Other possible motivations for earnings management include the need to maintain the levels of certain accounting ratios due to debt covenants , and the pressure to maintain increasing earnings and to beat analyst targets .
Earnings management may involve exploiting opportunities to make accounting decisions that change the earnings figure reported on the financial statements . Accounting decisions can in turn affect earnings because they can influence the timing of transactions and the estimates used in financial reporting . For example , a comparatively small change in the estimates for uncollectible accounts can have a significant effect on net income , and a company using last @-@ in , first @-@ out accounting for inventories can increase net income in times of rising prices by delaying purchases to future periods .
= = Detecting earnings management = =
Earnings management may be difficult for individual investors to detect due to the complexity of accounting rules , although accounting researchers have proposed several methods . For example , research has shown that firms with large accruals and weak governance structures are more likely to be engaging in earnings management . More recent research suggested that linguistics @-@ based methods can detect financial manipulation , for example studies in 2012 found that whether a subsequent irregularity or deceptive restatement occurred is related to the linguistics used by top management in earnings conference calls .
= Adenanthos cuneatus =
Adenanthos cuneatus , also known as coastal jugflower , flame bush , bridle bush and sweat bush , is a shrub of the family Proteaceae native to the south coast of Western Australia . The French naturalist Jacques Labillardière originally described it in 1805 . Within the genus Adenanthos , it lies in the section Adenanthos and is most closely related to A. stictus . A. cuneatus has hybridized with four other species of Adenanthos . Growing to 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and wide , it is erect to prostrate in habit , with wedge @-@ shaped lobed leaves covered in fine silvery hair . The single red flowers are insignificant , and appear all year , though especially in late spring . The reddish new growth occurs over the summer .
It is sensitive to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , hence requiring a sandy soil and good drainage to grow in cultivation , its natural habitat of sandy soils in heathland being an example . Its pollinators include bees , honey possum , silvereye and honeyeaters , particularly the western spinebill . A. cuneatus is grown in gardens in Australia and the western United States , and a dwarf and prostrate form are commercially available .
= = Description = =
Adenanthos cuneatus grows as an erect , spreading or prostrate shrub to 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and wide . It has a woody base , known as a lignotuber , from which it can resprout after bushfire . The wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) leaves are on short petioles , and are 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) wide , with 3 to 5 ( and occasionally up to 7 ) rounded ' teeth ' or lobes at the ends . New growth is red and slightly translucent . It glows bright red against the light , especially when the sun is low in the sky . New growth is mainly seen in summer , and the leaves in general are covered with fine , silvery hair . Occurring throughout the year but more often from August to November , the insignificant single flowers are a dull red in colour and measure around 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long . The pollen is triangular in shape and measures 31 – 44 µm ( 0 @.@ 0012 – 0 @.@ 0017 in ) in length , averaging around 34 µm ( 0 @.@ 0013 in ) .
The species is similar in many ways to its close relative A. stictus . The most obvious difference is in habit : the multi @-@ stemmed , lignotuberous A. cuneatus rarely grows over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) in height , whereas A. stictus is a taller single @-@ stemmed non @-@ lignotuberous shrub that commonly reaches 5 m ( 16 ft 5 in ) in height . Leaves are similar , but the lobes at the leaf apex are regular and crenate ( rounded ) in A. cuneatus , but irregular and dentate ( toothed ) in A. stictus . Also , new growth does not have a red flush in A. stictus , and juvenile leaves of A. stictus are usually much larger than adult leaves , a difference not seen in A. cuneatus . The flowers of the two species are very similar , differing only subtly in dimension , colour and indumentum .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and naming = = =
Although the precise time and location of its discovery are unknown , Jacques Labillardière , botanist to an expedition under Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux , which anchored in Esperance Bay on the south coast of Western Australia on 9 December 1792 , most likely collected the first known botanical specimen of Adenanthos cuneatus on 16 December while searching the area between Observatory Point and Pink Lake for the zoologist Claude Riche , who had gone ashore two days earlier and failed to return . Following an unsuccessful search the following day , several senior members of the expedition were convinced that Riche must have perished of thirst or at the hands of the Australian Aborigines and counselled d 'Entrecasteaux to sail without him . However , Labillardière convinced d 'Entrecasteaux to search for another day , and was rewarded not only with the recovery of Riche , but also with the collection of several highly significant botanical specimens , including the first specimens of Anigozanthos ( Kangaroo Paw ) and Nuytsia floribunda ( West Australian Christmas Tree ) and , as aforementioned , A. cuneatus .
Thirteen years passed before Labillardière published a formal description of A. cuneatus , and in the meantime several further collections were made : Scottish botanist Robert Brown collected a specimen on 30 December 1801 , during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound ; and , fourteen months later , Jean @-@ Baptiste Leschenault de La Tour , botanist to Nicolas Baudin 's voyage of exploration , and " gardener 's boy " Antoine Guichenot collected more specimens therein . The official account of Baudin 's expedition contain notes from Leschenault on vegetation :
" Sur les bords de la mer , croissent , en grande abondance , l 'adenanthos cuneata , l 'adenanthos sericea au feuillage velouté , et une espèce du même genre dont les feuilles sont arrondies . "
( " On the seashore , grows , in great abundance , Adenanthos cuneata , the softer @-@ leaved Adenanthos sericea , and a species of the same genus with rounded leaves . " )
Labillardière eventually published the genus Adenanthos , along with A. cuneatus and two other species , in his 1805 Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen . He chose the specific name cuneata in reference to the leaves of this species , which are cuneate ( triangular ) . This name has feminine gender , consistent with the gender assigned by Labillardière to the genus . He did not designate which of the three published species was to serve as the type species of Adenanthos , but Irish botanist E. Charles Nelson has since chosen A. cuneatus as lectotype for the genus , since the holotype of A. cuneatus bears an annotation showing the derivation of the genus name , and because Labillardière 's description of it is the most detailed of the three , and is referred to by the other descriptions .
= = = Synonymy = = =
In 1809 , Richard Salisbury , writing under Joseph Knight 's name in the controversial On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , published the name Adenanthes [ sic ] flabellifolia , listing A. cuneata as a synonym . As no type specimen was given , and no specimen annotated by Knight could be found , this was treated as a nomenclatural synonym of A. cuneata and was therefore rejected on the principle of priority .
Also synonymised with this species is Adenanthos crenata , published by Carl Ludwig Willdenow 's in Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel 's 1825 16th edition of Systema Vegetabilium . Willdenow published both A. cuneata and A. crenata , giving them different descriptions but designating the same type specimen for both . Thus A. crenata was rejected under the principle of priority , and is now regarded as a nomenclatural synonym of A. cuneatus .
= = = Infrageneric placement = = =
In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Adenanthos in Volume 5 of his landmark " Flora Australiensis " .
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efforts and the short distance to land , 30 people perished with the ship , according to reports . Vasa sank in full view of a crowd of hundreds , if not thousands , of mostly ordinary Stockholmers who had come to see the great ship set sail . The crowd included foreign ambassadors , in effect spies of Gustavus Adolphus ' allies and enemies , who also witnessed the catastrophe .
= = = Inquest = = =
The Council sent a letter to the king the day after the loss , telling him of the sinking , but it took over two weeks to reach him in Poland . " Imprudence and negligence " must have been the cause , he wrote angrily in his reply , demanding in no uncertain terms that the guilty parties be punished . Captain Söfring Hansson , who survived the disaster , was immediately taken for questioning . Under initial interrogation , he swore that the guns had been properly secured and that the crew was sober . A full inquest before a tribunal of members of the Privy Council and Admiralty took place at the Royal Palace on 5 September 1628 . Each of the surviving officers was questioned as was the supervising shipwright and a number of expert witnesses . Also present at the inquest was the Admiral of the Realm , Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm . The object of the inquest was as much or more to find a scapegoat as to find out why the ship had sunk . Whoever the committee might find guilty for the fiasco would face a severe penalty .
Surviving crew members were questioned one by one about the handling of the ship at the time of the disaster . Was it rigged properly for the wind ? Was the crew sober ? Was the ballast properly stowed ? Were the guns properly secured ? However , no one was prepared to take the blame . Crewmen and contractors formed two camps ; each tried to blame the other , and everyone swore he had done his duty without fault and it was during the inquest that the details of the stability demonstration were revealed .
Next , attention was directed to the shipbuilders . " Why did you build the ship so narrow , so badly and without enough bottom that it capsized ? " the prosecutor asked the shipwright Jacobsson . Jacobsson stated that he built the ship as directed by Henrik Hybertsson ( long since dead and buried ) , who in turn had followed the specification approved by the king . Jacobsson had in fact widened the ship by 1 foot 5 inches ( c . 42 cm ) after taking over responsibility for the construction , but construction of the ship was too far advanced to allow further widening .
In the end , no guilty party could be found . The answer Arendt de Groote gave when asked by the court why the ship sank was " Only God knows " . Gustavus Adolphus had approved all measurements and armaments , and the ship was built according to the instructions and loaded with the number of guns specified . In the end , no one was punished or found guilty for negligence , and the blame effectively fell on Henrik Hybertsson .
= = Vasa as a wreck = =
Less than three days after the disaster , a contract was signed for the ship to be raised . However , those efforts were unsuccessful . The earliest attempts at raising Vasa by English engineer Ian Bulmer , resulted in righting the ship but also got it more securely stuck in the mud and was most likely one of the biggest impediments to the earliest attempts at recovery . Salvaging technology in the early 17th century was much more primitive than today , but the recovery of ships used roughly the same principles as were used to raise Vasa more than 300 years later . Two ships or hulks were placed parallel to either side above the wreck , and ropes attached to several anchors were sent down and hooked to the ship . The two hulks were filled with as much water as was safe , the ropes tightened , and the water pumped out . The sunken ship then rose with the ships on the surface and could be towed to shallower waters . The process was then repeated until the entire ship was successfully raised above water level . Even if the underwater weight of Vasa was not great , the mud in which it had settled made it sit more secure on the bottom and required considerable lifting power to overcome . More than 30 years after the ship 's sinking , in 1663 – 1665 , Albreckt von Treileben and Andreas Peckell mounted an effort to recover the valuable guns . With a simple diving bell , the team of Swedish and Finnish divers retrieved more than 50 of them .
Such activity waned when it became clear that the ship could not be raised by the technology of the time . However , Vasa did not fall completely into obscurity after the recovery of the guns . The ship was mentioned in several histories of Sweden and the Swedish Navy , and the location of the wreck appeared on harbor charts of Stockholm in the 19th century . In 1844 , the navy officer Anton Ludwig Fahnehjelm turned in a request for salvaging rights to the ship , claiming he had located it . Fahnehjelm was an inventor who designed an early form of light diving suit and had previously been involved in other salvage operations . There were dives made on the wreck in 1895 – 1896 , and a commercial salvage company applied for a permit to raise or salvage the wreck in 1920 , but this was turned down . In 1999 , a witness also claimed that his father , a petty officer in the Swedish navy , had taken part in diving exercises on Vasa in the years before World War I. There is no evidence that anyone visited the wreck site after this until the beginning of the modern Vasa project .
= = = Deterioration = = =
In the 333 years that Vasa lay on the bottom of Stockholm harbor ( called Stockholms ström , " the Stream " , in Swedish ) , the ship and its contents were subject to several destructive forces , first among which were decomposition and erosion . Among the first things to decompose were the thousands of iron bolts that held the beakhead and much of the sterncastle together , and this included all of the ship 's wooden sculptures . Almost all of the iron on the ship rusted away within a few years of the sinking , and only large objects , such as anchors , or items made of cast iron , such as cannonballs , survived . Organic materials fared better in the anaerobic conditions , and so wood , cloth and leather are often in very good condition , but objects exposed to the currents were eroded by the sediment in the water , so that some are barely recognizable . Objects which fell off the hull into the mud after the nails corroded through were well protected , so that many of the sculptures still retain areas of paint and gilding . Of the human remains , most of the soft tissue was quickly consumed by bacteria , fish and crustaceans , leaving only the bones , which were often held together only by clothing , although in one case , hair , nails and brain tissue survived .
The parts of the hull held together by joinery and wooden treenails remained intact for as much as two centuries , suffering gradual erosion of surfaces exposed to the water , unless they were disturbed by outside forces . Eventually the entire sterncastle , the high , aft portion of the ship that housed the officers ' quarters and held up the transom , gradually collapsed into the mud with all the decorative sculptures . The quarter galleries , which were merely nailed to the sides of the sterncastle , collapsed fairly quickly and were found lying almost directly below their original locations .
Human activity was the most destructive factor , as the initial salvage efforts , the recovery of the guns , and the final salvage in the 20th century all left their marks . Peckell and Treileben broke up and removed much of the planking of the weather deck to get to the cannons on the decks below . Peckell reported that he had recovered 30 cartloads of wood from the ship ; these might have included not just planking and structural details but also some of the sculptures which today are missing , such as the life @-@ size Roman warrior near the bow and the sculpture of Septimius Severus that adorned the port side of the beakhead . Since Vasa lay in a busy shipping channel , ships occasionally dropped anchor over the ship , and one large anchor demolished most of the upper sterncastle , probably in the 19th century . Construction work in Stockholm harbor usually results in blasting of bedrock , and the resulting tons of rubble were often dumped in the harbor ; some of this landed on the ship , causing further damage to the stern and the upper deck .
= = = Vasa rediscovered = = =
In the early 1950s , amateur archaeologist Anders Franzén considered the possibility of recovering wrecks from the cold brackish waters of the Baltic because , he reasoned , they were free from the shipworm Teredo navalis , which usually destroys submerged wood rapidly in warmer , saltier seas . By 1953 , he was actively searching for Vasa , using a dragline and coring device to locate and test possible targets on the bottom of the harbor . He initially searched the southern side of the harbor , near Tegelviken , but in the winter of 1955 – 1956 he discovered documents in the national archives which provided better information on the location of the wreck . He also received the results of soundings made in his target area which revealed a suspicious lump on the bottom just off the island of Beckholmen . Together with the navy 's chief salvage diver , Per Edvin Fälting , he spent the summer of 1956 carefully searching the waters just off the Gustav V drydock . On 25 August , they found a large object , and the coring device returned plugs of black oak , timber that had been underwater so long that it had turned black . The navy sent a diving team to the site in September , and Fälting was able to report climbing up the side of a large wooden ship with two rows of gunports – Vasa had been found .
The Vasa Committee was established to investigate the possibility of raising and preserving the ship , and Franzén persuaded the navy , the National Heritage Board , the National Maritime Museum and a large private salvage company , the Neptune Company , to back the project . They began exploratory dives in the fall of 1956 and discussed how the ship might be raised .
= = = Recovery = = =
A number of possible recovery methods were proposed , including filling the ship with ping @-@ pong balls and freezing it in a block of ice , but the method chosen by the Vasa Board ( which succeeded the Vasa Committee ) was essentially the same one attempted immediately after the sinking . Divers spent two years digging six tunnels under the ship for steel cable slings , which were taken to a pair of lifting pontoons at the surface . The work under the ship was extremely dangerous , requiring the divers to cut tunnels through the clay with high @-@ pressure water jets and suck up the resulting slurry with a dredge , all while working in total darkness with hundreds of tons of mud @-@ filled ship overhead . A persisting risk was that the wreck could shift or settle deeper into the mud while a diver was working in a tunnel , trapping him underneath the wreckage . The almost vertical sections of the tunnels near the side of the hull could also potentially collapse and bury a diver inside . Despite the dangerous conditions , more than 1 @,@ 300 dives were made in the salvage operation without any serious accidents .
Each time the pontoons were pumped full , the cables tightened and the pontoons were pumped out , the ship was brought a meter closer to the surface . In a series of 18 lifts in August and September 1959 , the ship was moved from depth of 32 meters ( 105 ft ) to 16 meters ( 52 ft ) in the more sheltered area of Kastellholmsviken , where divers could work more safely to prepare for the final lift . Over the course of a year and a half , a small team of commercial divers cleared debris and mud from the upper decks to lighten the ship , and made the hull as watertight as possible . The gun ports were closed by means of temporary lids , a temporary replacement of the collapsed sterncastle was constructed , and many of the holes from the iron bolts that had rusted away were plugged . The final lift began on 8 April 1961 , and on the morning of 24 April , Vasa was ready to return to the world for the first time in 333 years . Press from all over the world , television cameras , 400 invited guests on barges and boats , and thousands of spectators on shore watched as the first timbers broke the surface . The ship was then emptied of water and mud and towed to the Gustav V dry dock on Beckholmen , where the ship was floated on its own keel onto a concrete pontoon , on which the hull still stands .
From the end of 1961 to December 1988 , Vasa was housed in a temporary facility called Wasavarvet ( " The Vasa Shipyard " ) , which included exhibit space as well as the activities centred on the ship . A building was erected over the ship on its pontoon , but it was very cramped , making conservation work awkward . Visitors could view the ship from just two levels , and the maximum viewing distance was in most places only a couple of meters , which made it difficult for viewers to get an overall view of the ship . In 1981 , the Swedish government decided that a permanent building was to be constructed , and a design competition was organized . The winning design , by the Swedish architects Månsson and Dahlbäck , called for a large hall over the ship in a polygonal , industrial style . Ground was broken in 1987 , and Vasa was towed into the half @-@ finished Vasa Museum in December 1988 . The museum was officially opened to the public in 1990 .
= = Archaeology = =
Vasa posed an unprecedented challenge for archaeologists . Never before had a four @-@ story structure with most of its original contents largely undisturbed been available for excavation . The conditions under which the team had to work added to the difficulties . The ship had to be kept wet in order that it not dry out and crack before it could be properly conserved . Digging had to be performed under a constant drizzle of water and in a sludge @-@ covered mud that could be more than one meter ( approximately three feet ) deep . In order to establish find locations , the hull was divided into several sections demarcated by the many structural beams , the decking and by a line drawn along the center of the ship from stern to bow . For the most part , the decks were excavated individually , though at times work progressed on more than one deck level simultaneously .
= = = Finds = = =
Vasa had four preserved decks : the upper and lower gun decks , the hold and the orlop . Because of the constraints of preparing the ship for conservation , the archaeologists had to work quickly , in 13 @-@ hour shifts during the first week of excavation . The upper gun deck was greatly disturbed by the various salvage projects between 1628 and 1961 , and it contained not only material that had fallen down from the rigging and upper deck , but also more than three centuries of harbor refuse . The decks below were progressively less disturbed . The gundecks contained not just gun carriages , the three surviving cannons , and other objects of a military nature , but were also where most of the personal possessions of the sailors had been stored at the time of the sinking . These included a wide range of loose finds , and also chests and casks with spare clothing and shoes , tools and materials for mending , money ( in the form of low @-@ denomination copper coins ) , privately purchased provisions , and all of the everyday objects needed for life at sea . Most of the finds are of wood , testifying not only to the simple life on board , but to the generally unsophisticated state of Swedish material culture in the early 17th century . The lower decks were primarily used for storage , and so the hold was filled with barrels of provisions and gunpowder , coils of anchor cable , iron shot for the guns , and the personal possessions of some of the officers . On the orlop , a small compartment contained six of the ship 's ten sails , rigging spares and the working parts for the ship 's pumps . Another compartment contained the possessions of the ship 's carpenter , including a large tool chest .
After the ship itself had been salvaged and excavated , the site of the loss was excavated thoroughly during 1963 – 1967 . This produced many items of rigging tackle as well as structural timbers that had fallen off , particularly from the beakhead and sterncastle . Most of the sculptures that had decorated the exterior of the hull were also found in the mud , along with the ship 's anchors and the skeletons of at least four people . The last object to be brought up was the nearly 12 @-@ meter @-@ long longboat , called esping in Swedish , found lying parallel to the ship and believed to have been towed by Vasa when she sank .
Many of the more recent objects contaminating the site were disregarded when the finds were registered , but some were the remains of the 1660s salvage efforts and others had their own stories to tell . Among the best known of these was a statue of 20th @-@ century Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi , which was placed on the ship as a prank by students of Helsinki University of Technology the night before the final lift .
= = Causes of sinking = =
Vasa sank because it had very little initial stability , which can be thought of as resistance to heeling over under the force of wind or waves acting on the hull . The reason for this is that the distribution of mass in the hull structure and the ballast , guns , provisions , and other objects loaded on board puts too much weight too high in the ship . The center of gravity is too high , and so it takes very little force to make the ship heel over , and there is not enough righting moment , force trying to make the ship return to an upright position . The reason that the ship has such a high center of gravity is not due to the guns . These weighed little over 60 tons , or about 5 % of the total displacement of the loaded ship . This is relatively low weight and should be bearable in a ship this size . The problem is in the hull construction itself . The part of the hull above the waterline is too high and too heavily built in relation to the amount of hull in the water . The headroom in the decks is higher than necessary for crewmen who were , on average , only 1 @.@ 67 meters ( 5 feet 5 ½ inches ) tall , and thus the weight of the decks and the guns they carry is higher above the water
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power struggle between the sons of William the Conqueror following his death in 1087 . The victor , William II Rufus , granted the city to a royal physician , John of Tours , who became Bishop of Wells and Abbot of Bath . Shortly after his consecration John bought Bath Abbey 's grounds from the king , as well as the city of Bath itself . Whether John paid Rufus for the city or whether he was given it as a gift by the king is unclear . The abbey had recently lost its abbot , Ælfsige , and according to Domesday Book was the owner of large estates in and near the city ; it was likely the abbey 's wealth that attracted John to take over the monastery . By acquiring Bath , John also acquired the mint that was in the city . In 1090 he transferred the seat , or administration , of the bishopric to Bath Abbey , probably in an attempt to increase the revenues of his see . Bath was a rich abbey , and Wells had always been a poor diocese . By taking over the abbey , John increased his episcopal revenues . William of Malmesbury portrays the moving of the episcopal seat as motivated by a desire for the lands of the abbey , but it was part of a pattern at the time of moving cathedral seats from small villages to larger towns . When John moved his episcopal seat , he also took over the abbey of Bath as his cathedral chapter , turning his diocese into a bishopric served by monks instead of the canons at Wells who had previously served the diocese . John rebuilt the monastic church at Bath , which had been damaged during one of Robert de Mowbray 's rebellions . Permission was given to move the see of Somerset from Wells – a comparatively small settlement – to the then walled city of Bath .
When this was effected in 1090 , John became the first Bishop of Bath , and St Peter 's was raised to cathedral status . As the roles of bishop and abbot had been combined , the monastery became a priory , run by its prior . With the elevation of the abbey to cathedral status , it was felt that a larger , more up @-@ to @-@ date building was required . John of Tours planned a new cathedral on a grand scale , dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul , but only the ambulatory was complete when he died in December 1122 . He was buried in the cathedral . The most renowned scholar monk based in the abbey was Adelard of Bath ; after his various travels he was back in the monastery by 1106 .
The half @-@ finished cathedral was devastated by fire in 1137 , but work continued under Godfrey , the new bishop , until about 1156 ; the completed building was approximately 330 feet ( 101 m ) long . It was consecrated while Robert of Bath was bishop . The specific date is not known however it was between 1148 and 1161 .
In 1197 , Reginald Fitz Jocelin 's successor , Savaric FitzGeldewin , with the approval of Pope Celestine III , officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey , but the monks there would not accept their new Bishop of Glastonbury and the title of Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury was used until the Glastonbury claim was abandoned in 1219 . Savaric 's successor , Jocelin of Wells , again moved the bishop 's seat to Bath Abbey , with the title Bishop of Bath . Following his death the monks of Bath unsuccessfully attempted to regain authority over Wells . There were 40 monks on the roll in 1206 .
Joint cathedral status was awarded by Pope Innocent IV to Bath and Wells in 1245 . Roger of Salisbury was appointed the first Bishop of Bath and Wells , having been Bishop of Bath for a year previously . Later bishops preferred Wells , the canons of which had successfully petitioned various popes down the years for Wells to regain cathedral status . Bath Cathedral gradually fell into disrepair . In 1485 the priory had 22 monks . When Oliver King , Bishop of Bath and Wells 1495 – 1503 , visited Bath in 1499 he was shocked to find this famous church in ruins . He also described lax discipline , idleness and a group of monks " all too eager to succumb to the temptations of the flesh " .
King took a year to consider what action to take , before writing to the Prior of Bath in October 1500 to explain that a large amount of the priory income would be dedicated to rebuilding the cathedral . There are several stories that , on a visit to Bath , King had a dream in which he " saw the Heavenly Host on high with angels ascending and descending by ladder " which is now represented on the west front of the cathedral . However this interpretation , which first appeared in the writings of John Harington , around 100 years after it was supposed to have happened , has been challenged .
Robert and William Vertue , the king 's masons were commissioned , promising to build the finest vault in England , promising " there shall be none so goodely neither in England nor France " . Their design incorporated the surviving Norman crossing wall and arches . They appointed Thomas Lynne to supervise work on site and work probably began the following spring . Oliver King planned a smaller church , covering the area of the Norman nave only . He did not live to see the result , but the restoration of the cathedral was completed just a few years before the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539 .
= = = Reformation and subsequent decline = = =
Prior Holloway surrendered Bath Priory to the crown in January 1539 . It was sold to Humphry Colles of Taunton . The church was stripped of lead , iron and glass and left to decay . Colles sold it to Matthew Colthurst of Wardour Castle in 1543 . His son Edmund Colthurst gave the roofless remains of the building to the corporation of Bath in 1572 . The corporation had difficulty finding private funds for its restoration .
In 1574 , Queen Elizabeth I promoted the restoration of the church , to serve as the grand parish church of Bath . She ordered that a national fund should be set up to finance the work , and in 1583 decreed that it should become the parish church of Bath . James Montague , the Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1608 – 1616 , paid £ 1 @,@ 000 for a new nave roof of timber lath construction ; according to the inscription on his tomb , this was prompted after seeking shelter in the roofless nave during a thunderstorm . He is buried in an alabaster tomb in the north aisle .
= = = Modern renaissance = = =
During the 1820s and 1830s buildings , including houses , shops and taverns which were very close to or actually touching the walls of the abbey were demolished and the interior remodelled by George Phillips Manners who was the Bath City Architect . Manners erected flying buttresses to the exterior of the nave and added pinnacles to the turrets .
Major restoration work was carried out by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the 1860s , funded by the rector , Charles Kemble . The work included the installation of fan vaulting in the nave , which was not merely a fanciful aesthetic addition but a completion of the original design . Oliver King had arranged for the vaulting of the choir , to a design by William and Robert Vertue . There are clues in the stonework that King intended the vaulting to continue into the nave , but that this plan was abandoned , probably for reasons of cost . In addition a stone screen between the choir and nave was removed . Scott 's work was completed by his pupil Thomas Graham Jackson in the 1890s including work on the west front .
Work carried out in the 20th and 21st centuries included full cleaning of the stonework and the reconstruction of the pipe organ by Klais Orgelbau of Bonn . The stonework of the west front had been subject to natural erosion therefore a process of lime @-@ based conservation was carried out during the 1990s by Nimbus Conservation under the guidance of Professor Robert Baker who had previously worked on the west front of Wells Cathedral . Some of the damage to sculptures had been made worse by the use of Portland cement by previous work carried out in the Victorian era . A statue of St Phillip was beyond repair and was removed and replaced with a modern statue by Laurence Tindall .
= = Architecture = =
The new church is not a typical example of the Perpendicular form of Gothic architecture ; the low aisles and nave arcades and the very tall clerestory present the opposite balance to that which was usual in perpendicular churches . As this building was to serve as a monastic church , it was built to a cruciform plan , which had become relatively rare in parish churches of the time . The interior contains fine fan vaulting by Robert and William Vertue , who designed similar vaulting for the Henry VII chapel , at Westminster Abbey . The building has 52 windows , occupying about 80 % of the wall space , giving the interior an impression of lightness , and reflecting the different attitudes towards churchmanship shown by the clergy of the time and those of the 12th century .
The cruciform abbey is built of Bath stone , which gives the exterior its yellow colour . It is an atypical example of the Perpendicular form of Gothic architecture , with low aisles and nave arcades and a tall clerestory . The walls and roofs are supported by buttresses and surmounted by battlements , pinnacles and pierced parapets , many of which were added by George Manners during his 1
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830 's restorations .
The nave , which has five bays , is 211 feet ( 64 m ) long and 35 feet ( 11 m ) wide to the pillars and rises to 75 feet ( 23 m ) , with the whole church being 225 feet ( 69 m ) long and 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide .
The west front , which was originally constructed in 1520 , has a large arched window and detailed carvings . Above the window are carvings of angels and to either side long stone ladders with angels climbing up them . Apart from the story mentioned above connecting it with Oliver King , Bishop of Bath and Wells 1495 – 1503 this is a direct reference to the dream of the prophet Jacob mentioned in the Bible and commonly called Jacobs Ladder .
Below the window a battlemented parapet supports a statue and beneath this , on either side of the door , are statues of St Peter and St Paul . Restoration work in the late 20th century involved cleaning with electronically controlled intermittent water sprays and ammonium carbonate poultices . One of the figures which had lost its head and shoulders was replaced . The sculptures on the West front have been interpreted as representing " spiritual ascent through the virtue of humility and descent through the vice of pride " and Christ as the Man of Sorrow and the Antichrist . During the 1990s a major restoration and cleaning work were carried out on the exterior stonework , returning it to the yellow colour hidden under centuries of dirt .
= = = Windows = = =
The building has 52 windows , occupying about 80 percent of the wall space . The east end has a square @-@ framed window of seven lights . It includes a depiction of the nativity made by Clayton and Bell in 1872 , and was presented to the church by the Bath Literary Club .
The window of the Four Evangelists over the northwest door is a memorial to Charles Empson , who died in 1861 .
In 2010 a stained glass window was uncovered in the abbey vaults . The design around the window is by William Burges .
= = = Tower = = =
The two @-@ stage central tower is not square but oblong in plan . It has two bell openings on each side and four polygonal turret pinnacles . The tower is 161 feet ( 49 m ) high , and is accessed by a staircase of 212 steps .
= = = = Bells = = = =
In 1700 the old ring of six bells was replaced by a new ring of eight . All but the tenor still survive . In 1770 two lighter bells were added to create the first ring of ten bells in the diocese . The tenor was recast in 1870 . The abbey 's tower is now home to a ring of ten bells , which are – unusually – hung so that the order of the bells from highest to lowest runs anti @-@ clockwise around the ringing chamber . The tenor weighs 33 cwt ( 3 @,@ 721 lb or 1 @,@ 688 kg ) . Bath is a noted centre of change ringing in the West Country .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior fan vaulting ceiling , originally installed by Robert and William Vertue , was restored by Sir George Gilbert Scott between 1864 and 1874 . The fan vaulting provides structural stability by distributing the weight of the roof down ribs that transfer the force into the supporting columns via the flying buttresses .
Scott 's work in the 1870s included the installation of large gas chandeliers made by the Coventry metalworker Francis Skidmore . They were converted to electricity in 1979 . Other new features included a new pulpit and seating . A marble altarpiece from General George Wade in the sanctuary was removed and replaced with a decorative reredos .
In the 1920s Thomas Graham Jackson redesigned the Norman Chapel into a War Memorial Chapel , now Gethsemane Chapel , and added a cloister . New quire screens were installed in 2004 , partly to improve the acoustics , topped with 12 carved angels playing musical instruments .
= = = = Monuments = = = =
Within the abbey are 617 wall memorials and 847 floor stones . They include those dedicated to Beau Nash , Admiral Arthur Phillip ( first Governor of the colony of New South Wales , which became part of Australia after federation in 1901 ) , James Montague ( Bishop of Bath and Wells ) , Lady Waller ( wife of William Waller , a Roundhead military leader in the English Civil War ) , Elizabeth Grieve ( wife of James Grieve , physician to Elizabeth , Empress of Russia ) , Sir William Baker , John Sibthorp , Richard Hussey Bickerton , William Hoare , Richard Bickerton and US Senator William Bingham . Many of the monuments in the churchyard were carved between 1770 and 1860 by Reeves of Bath . War memorials include those commemorating the First Anglo @-@ Afghan War ( 1841 – 42 ) , the First World War ( 1914 – 18 ) , and the Second World War ( 1939 – 45 ) . The most recent memorial was installed in 1958 to commemorate Isaac Pitman , the developer of Pitman shorthand , who died in 1897 .
= = = = Main organ = = = =
The first mention of an organ in the abbey dates to 1634 , but nothing is known of that instrument . The first properly recorded organ in Bath Abbey was built by Abraham Jordan in 1708 . It was modified in 1718 and 1739 by Jordan 's son . The specification recorded in 1800 was one of twenty stops spread over three manuals . The compasses of the manuals were extended , one and a half octaves of pedals were added and the instrument renovated in 1802 by John Holland ; further repairs were effected by Flight & Robson in 1826 . This instrument was removed first to the Bishop 's Palace at Wells in 1836 , then to St Mary 's Church , Yatton , where it was subsequently rebuilt and extensively modified .
The abbey 's next organ was built in 1836 by John Smith of Bristol , to a specification of thirty stops over three manuals and pedals . This instrument was rebuilt on a new gallery in the North Transept by William Hill & Son of London in 1868 , to a specification of forty stops spread over four manuals and pedals , although the Solo department , which would have brought the total to well over forty , was not completed . It was mostly removed to the Church of St Peter & St Paul , Cromer in 1896 , the remainder being kept for incorporation in the new abbey organ .
A new organ was supplied to the abbey in 1895 by Norman and Beard of Norwich . It had 52 stops spread over four manuals and pedals , and stood divided on two steel beams in the North and South crossing arches , with the console standing on the floor next to the north @-@ west pier of the crossing . New cases were to be provided to designs by Brian Oliver of Bath , but were never executed . Norman & Beard re @-@ erected it in a new case designed by Sir Thomas Jackson in the North Transept in 1914 , with the addition of two stops to the Pedal . It was again rebuilt by them in 1930 , and then by Hill , Norman and Beard in 1948 , which brought the number of stops to 58 . In 1972 this was increased to a total of 65 speaking stops . The Positive division , with its separate case behind the console , was installed at the same time . Problems caused by the tonal scheme 's lack of coherence – the 1895 pipework contrasting sharply with that of 1972 – and with reliability , caused by the wide variety of different types of key actions , all difficult to access , led to the decision to have the instrument rebuilt yet again .
The organ was totally reconstructed in 1997 by Klais Orgelbau of Bonn , retaining the existing instrument as far as was possible and restoring it largely to its 1895 condition , although the Positive division was kept . The instrument as it now stands has 63 speaking stops over four manuals and pedals , and is built largely on the Werkprinzip principle of organ layout : the case is only one department deep , except for parts of the Pedal sited at the back rather than the sides of the case . New 75 percent tin front pipes were made and the case completed with back , side walls and roof . Pierced panelling executed by Derek Riley of Lyndale Woodcarving in Saxmundham , Suffolk , was provided to allow sound egress from the bottom of the case . The old console has been retained but thoroughly rebuilt with modern accessories and all @-@ new manuals . Twenty @-@ two of the organ 's 83 ranks contain some pipework from the 1868 instrument . Four ranks are made up entirely of 1868 pipework , and 21 contain 1895 pipework . Only two ranks are entirely of 1895 . Forty @-@ eight ranks contain some new pipework , 34 of which are entirely new . Old wind pressures have been used wherever possible . The old wind reservoirs have also been restored rather than replaced . The instrument has tracker key action on the manuals , with electrically assisted tracker action to the pedals . The stop action is electric throughout .
= = = = Continuo organ = = = =
A four @-@ stop continuo organ was built for the abbey in 1999 by Northampton @-@ based organ builder Kenneth Tickell . The instrument , contained in a case of dark oak , is portable , and can be tuned to three pitches : A = 440 Hz ( modern concert pitch ) , A = 415 Hz and A = 465 Hz . Iit is also possible to tune at A = 430 . A lever pedal can reduce the stops sounding to only the 8 ' stop and , when released , returns the organ to the registration in use before it was depressed .
= = Choir = =
The abbey has sections for boys , girls , men and children ( the Melody Makers ) . As well as singing at the abbey , they also tour to cathedrals in the UK and Europe . The choir has broadcast Choral Evensong on BBC Radio 3 , and has made several recordings . It performed at the Three Tenors concert for the opening of the Thermae Bath Spa . The abbey is also used as a venue for visiting choirs and , from its inception in 1947 , the City of Bath Bach Choir .
The choirs of Bath Abbey sung the 2015 Christmas Service live on BBC One .
= = Heritage Vaults Museum = =
The Bath Abbey Heritage Vaults Museum is located in the restored 18th @-@ century cellars , and features artifacts and exhibits about the abbey 's history . Displays include the different buildings on the site and their uses , the abbey 's impact on the community , the construction , architecture and sculptures of the buildings , artifacts and sculptures , and the role of the abbey in present times . The museum opened in 1994 , but is currently closed for redevelopment .
= = Burials = =
William Bingham ( 1752 – 1804 )
Wolfran Cornewall ( 1658 – 1720 )
Thomas Robert Malthus ( 1766 – 1834 )
James Montague ( c.1568 – 1618 )
John Sibthorp ( 1758 – 1796 )
= Route 54 ( Delaware – Maryland ) =
Delaware Route 54 ( DE 54 ) and Maryland Route 54 ( MD 54 ) are adjoining state highways in the U.S. states of Delaware and Maryland . Route 54 runs 41 @.@ 84 mi ( 67 @.@ 33 km ) from MD 313 in Mardela Springs , Maryland east to DE 1 in Fenwick Island , Delaware . In addition to two segments in which the highway is completely in Delaware and two segments in which the highway is completely in Maryland , Route 54 follows the Delaware / Maryland state line between the twin towns of Delmar , Maryland and Delmar , Delaware and the highway 's intersection with MD 353 and DE 26 . One section of the state line portion of Route 54 is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) while three sections of the highway that follow the state line are maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .
Route 54 was first numbered in two segments in Wicomico County , Maryland in the late 1930s . MD 467 was assigned to the segment around Mardela Springs while MD 455 was assigned to the state line road near Delmar . The Delaware portions of the highway remained unnumbered until the late 1960s , when DelDOT briefly assigned DE 32 to the highway along the southern edge of Sussex County before designating it DE 54 . The Maryland State Roads Commission ( now MDSHA ) immediately reciprocated by designating its portions MD 54 . Route 54 east of Selbyville has become an important route for seasonal beach traffic headed to and from Fenwick Island and Ocean City , with suburban development lining the road between DE 20 and the eastern terminus . DelDOT has signed DE 54 Alternate ( DE 54 Alt . ) as an alternate route to the beaches . Improvements have been made to the route west of Fenwick Island , including building a causeway to reduce flooding and adding a center left @-@ turn lane .
= = Route description = =
Route 54 begins at an intersection with MD 313 in Mardela Springs in Wicomico County , Maryland . MD 313 heads north from the intersection as Sharptown Road and west as a short continuation of Delmar Road west to MD 313 's terminus with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) ( Ocean Gateway ) . Route 54 heads east as two @-@ lane undivided Delmar Road , paralleling Barren Creek on the north toward the Delaware state line . After passing the stone marker indicating the intersection of the Transpeninsular Line with the southern end of the Mason – Dixon Line , the highway enters the southwest corner of Sussex County , Delaware , where it intersects Columbia Road . Route 54 continues east until Old Racetrack Road , where the highway turns southeast toward the state line . At the intersection with Waller Road , the state highway begins to follow the state line , with Sussex County , Delaware on the north side of the road and Wicomico County , Maryland on the south , and MDSHA maintenance begins . Route 54 immediately enters the twin towns of Delmar , Delaware and Delmar , Maryland and the highway 's name changes to State Street . The highway crosses Norfolk Southern Railway 's Delmarva Secondary track south of Highball Signal and meets MD 675 ( Bi State Boulevard ) , the old alignment of US 13 , in the center of the towns . Route 54 continues east to modern US 13 , which is known as Sussex Highway in Delaware and Ocean Highway in Maryland . At US 13 , the highway leaves Delmar and DelDOT assumes maintenance for the highway .
Route 54 continues east from US 13 as Line Road through farmland and scattered residences along the state line . At Brittingham Road , maintenance jurisdiction returns to MDSHA . Around the intersection with Whitesville Road , Route 54 dips into Maryland for a short distance , then returns to following the state line until the intersection with MD 353 ( Gumboro Road ) and DE 26 ( Millsboro Highway ) . At that intersection , Route 54 turns northeast and joins DE 26 in a concurrency . From this point , the highway remains in Delaware . A short distance north of the state line , DE 30 ( Whitesville Road ) joins the concurrency . In Gumboro , DE 26 and DE 30 continue north while Route 54 turns east onto Cypress Road . Route 54 crosses Bald Cypress Branch and the Pocomoke River , then passes through the Great Cypress Swamp . After crossing the swamp , the highway intersects US 113 on the west edge of Selby
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in a ceremony at Rodale Park in Trexlertown , Pennsylvania . The event was held on June 8 , 1996 , during the U.S. Olympic Cycling Team Trials .
In July 2014 , ESPN announced the premiere of a new 30 for 30 film titled Slaying the Badger which centers on LeMond and his former teammate Hinault at the 1986 Tour de France . The film is based on the book of the same name by Richard Moore and premiered July 22 , 2014 on ESPN .
= = Business interests = =
Greg LeMond was a pioneer in the use of carbon fiber bicycle frames in European professional road cycling , and his Tour de France win in 1986 ahead of Bernard Hinault was the first for a carbon @-@ framed bicycle . Ironically , given the rivalry that existed at the time between the American and his French teammate , LeMond rode a " Bernard Hinault " Signature Model Look prototype that year . LeMond also won the 1989 Tour de France , the 1989 World Championship , and his final Tour de France in 1990 on carbon fiber frames . These bicycle frames featured " Greg LeMond " branding .
= = = LeMond Cycles = = =
In 1990 , LeMond founded LeMond Bicycles to develop machines for himself that would also be marketed and sold to the public . The following year , searching for an equipment edge for Team Z at the 1991 Tour de France , LeMond concluded an exclusive licensing agreement between his company and Carbonframes , Inc . , to access the latter 's advanced composites technology . While LeMond briefly led the 1991 Tour overall , riding his Carbonframes @-@ produced " Greg LeMond " bicycle , the company eventually faltered , something LeMond blamed on " under @-@ capitalization " and poor management by his father . Carbonframes and LeMond Cycles " parted amiably two years later . " In 1995 , with his company allegedly nearly bankrupt , LeMond reached a licensing @-@ agreement with Trek Bicycle Corporation , according to which the Wisconsin @-@ based company would manufacture and distribute bicycles designed with LeMond that would be sold under the " LeMond Bicycles " brand . LeMond would later claim that going into business with Trek " destroyed " his relationship with his father . The lucrative partnership , which generated revenue for Trek in excess of $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 USD , would be renewed several times over the course of 13 years , but it ultimately ended in acrimony after LeMond 's relationship with Trek deteriorated over his staunch anti @-@ doping advocacy .
The two parties first found themselves at odds in July 2001 , after LeMond expressed public concern over the relationship between Italian doping doctor Michele Ferrari and Trek 's star athlete , Lance Armstrong . " When I heard he was working with Michele Ferrari , I was devastated , " LeMond was quoted as saying of Armstrong . " If Lance is clean , it is the greatest comeback in the history of sports . If he isn 't , it would be the greatest fraud . "
Trek 's president John Burke pressured LeMond to apologize , claiming , " Greg 's public comments hurt the LeMond brand and the Trek brand . " Burke allegedly justified his demand for an apology by advising that , " As a contractual partner , he [ LeMond ] could criticize doping only generally – not point his finger at specific athletes , particularly one that happens to be the company 's main cash cow . "
In April 2008 , Trek announced that it was dropping LeMond Bicycles from its product line and would sue to sever the licensing agreement . It quickly emerged that in March 2008 , LeMond had filed a complaint against Trek for breach of contract , claiming that they had not made a " best efforts " attempt to sell his bicycles , as well as describing attempts to ' silence ' him about doping , including incidents in 2001 and 2004 . His complaint included statistics detailing slow sales in some markets , including the fact that between September 2001 and June 2007 , Trek only sold $ 10 @,@ 393 worth of LeMond bikes in France , a country in which LeMond was both famous and popular .
As promised , Trek counter @-@ sued and stopped producing bicycles under the LeMond brand . After nearly two years of litigation , in February 2010 , LeMond reached an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement with Trek in their breach @-@ of @-@ contract dispute , the terms of which were confidential . The settlement permitted the case to be dismissed with prejudice , meaning , " neither side can produce the same claims against one another in a future lawsuit . " And although settlement terms were not disclosed , LeMond reportedly obtained full control over the LeMond Bicycles name , while Trek made a donation of $ 200 @,@ 000 USD to the charity 1in6 , of which LeMond was a founding member of the board of directors .
= = = LeMond Fitness / Revolution = = =
In 2002 , LeMond , Bernie Boglioli and others founded LeMond Fitness , Inc . " to help individuals achieve their fitness and performance goals and train more effectively . " The company 's primary business is the development and manufacture of bicycle trainers and indoor exercise bikes for consumers in the United States and internationally . LeMond himself serves as Chairman of the Board , and , according to company sources , " is integrally involved in the development and design of our products and programs . " In 2012 , Hoist Fitness negotiated to purchase an interest in the company and announced plans to move its headquarters to Hoist 's offices in San Diego , CA . In late 2012 , Greg LeMond purchased the LeMond Revolution from Hoist , relaunching with a new management team in Minneapolis . He also formed LeMond LLC to introduce a suite of brands in late 2013 , early 2014 . Professional cycling 's Garmin @-@ Sharp team recently renewed its sponsorship with LeMond to use its Revolution trainers for another three seasons . The team has won several stages of the Tour de France , plus the general classification of the 2012 Giro d 'Italia .
= = = Partnership with Time = = =
At the Interbike trade show in September 2013 LeMond announced that he was returning to the business of bicycle manufacture and sales by partnering with French company Time . The new line began with a series of commemorative designed bicycles , to be followed with road , cyclocross , and gravel @-@ road models . LeMond purchased Time Sport USA , the US distributor for the company . He will be responsible for US distribution of the company 's line of frames , bikes , and components . Said LeMond : " I 'm really excited to be back in the bike industry . "
= = = Real estate = = =
In 2002 LeMond joined with his parents @-@ in @-@ law David and Sacia Morris , friend Michael Snow and J.P. Morgan & Co. fund manager Jorge Jasson to invest in the exclusive Yellowstone Club , a Big Sky , Montana private ski and golf community founded by timber baron Tim Blixseth and his wife Edra . Each of the five partners paid Blixseth $ 750 @,@ 000 for one percent shares in the exclusive resort . LeMond also purchased several building lots and maintained a property at the resort . Four years later LeMond and partners sued Blixseth in 2006 following reports of a Credit Suisse loan to the resort of $ 375 million from which Blixseth reportedly took $ 209 million in a disputed partial payout for his ownership stake . The Credit Suisse loan was based on a $ 1 @.@ 16 billion Cushman & Wakefield valuation of the resort , for which LeMond and partners each sought $ 11 @.@ 6 million for their one @-@ percent shares . In 2007 , LeMond settled his suit with the Blixseths for $ 39 million ; however , he and his partners remained creditors as the Blixseths defaulted on a $ 20 million payment ( after having already paid the group $ 18 million ) , followed by their divorce and the bankruptcy of the Club in 2009 .
= = = Restaurants = = =
LeMond became a restaurateur in August 1990 , when , in partnership with his wife and her parents , he opened Scott Kee 's Tour de France on France Avenue in the Minneapolis suburb of Edina , Minnesota . LeMond described the restaurant , which was named for its chef ( LeMond 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , as " a dream of five years come true . " Explaining the origin of the concept , LeMond said , " Kathy and I have eaten at the finest establishments in France , Italy and Belgium . Our favorites have always been small places , family @-@ owned . " LeMond also partnered in several Bruegger 's bagel bakery @-@ café franchises .
= = Broadcasting = =
In 2014 , LeMond joined Eurosport as a pundit for the channel 's cycling coverage , providing analysis at Paris – Roubaix , the Giro d 'Italia and the Tour de France , and hosting his own monthly programme LeMond of Cycling .
= = Anti @-@ doping stance and controversies = =
LeMond is a longtime vocal opponent of performance @-@ enhancing drug use . He first spoke on @-@ record against doping in cycling after winning the 1989 Tour de France . LeMond received intense criticism in 2001 when he publicly expressed doubts about the legitimacy of Lance Armstrong 's Tour success after learning of his relationship with Dr. Michele Ferrari . His outspokenness placed him in the center of the anti @-@ doping controversy .
LeMond has consistently questioned the relationship between riders and unethical sports doctors like Ferrari , and has pointed out that doping products ultimately victimize the professional cyclists who make use of them . Said LeMond : " When I speak out about doping people could translate it and think it was about the riders . Actually I feel like I am an advocate for the riders . I look at them as being treated like lab rats that are test vehicles for the doctors . The doctors , the management , the officials , they 're the ones that have corrupted riders . The riders are the only ones that pay the price . "
LeMond 's most notable conflicts have been with fellow Tour riders Lance Armstrong and Floyd Landis . He has also been critical of Alberto Contador , the UCI , and its former president , Pat McQuaid . In December 2012 , LeMond claimed that a change needed to be made at the head of leadership for the UCI , and stated if called upon he would be willing to take the position himself if necessary to lead cycling out of the mire of doping . Said LeMond : " It is now or never to act . After the earthquake caused by the Armstrong case another chance will not arise . I am willing to invest to make this institution more democratic , transparent and look for the best candidate in the longer term . "
McQuaid rejected LeMond 's call for new leadership and was dismissive of LeMond . " Ultimately McQuaid was defeated in his bid for a third term by British Cycling president Brian Cookson at the September 2013 UCI Congress in Florence , Italy . Lemond had supported Cookson in the UCI Presidential battle .
= = Personal life = =
LeMond grew up living an active , outdoor life . Hiking , hunting , skiing and flyfishing were boyhood pastimes . The ranch country of the Sierra Nevada mountain range lent itself to such pursuits . A hyperactive youngster , LeMond believes these outdoor activities helped keep him out of trouble . " I was a boy who just could not sit still . I had trouble focusing in school . Parents and educators then did not have the skill set to diagnose and cope with what we know now was a classic case of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) . ADHD certainly was not the frequently medicated childhood disease it is today . My triumph over the symptoms was found atop two thin tires over many dusty miles . " Said LeMond : " That 's one of the traits . It 's the inability to sit down [ and listen ] to something you are not really interested in and absorb it . If they are interested in it , people with ADD excel in really good ways . When I got into cycling I would say the sport itself took a fog off my brain . I was able to absorb stuff I read . It changed my life . "
LeMond is married to his wife Kathy ( previously Kathy Morris ) and together they have three children : sons Geoffrey and Scott , and daughter Simone . LeMond and his wife live in Medina , Minnesota . Since his retirement , LeMond has become increasingly involved in philanthropic efforts relating to causes that have affected him personally ( including ADHD and sexual abuse ) , and he and Kathy both sit on the board of the non @-@ profit 1in6 .
LeMond is an avid outdoor enthusiast and fly angler , and in 1991 – while still racing full @-@ time – he made the world @-@ record fly fishing catch of a four @-@ pound smallmouth bass on a reel with a four @-@ pound tippet . The record was certified by the National Freshwater Fishing Hall of Fame in Hayward , Wisconsin . The catch exceeded the then @-@ previous record of three pounds , six ounces made on the same size tippet back in 1986 . LeMond confessed , " I always pack my fly fishing equipment when I travel to bike events . I fish every chance I get . "
After retiring from pro cycling , LeMond competed in Formula Ford 2000 series auto racing . He is also a motivational speaker and was the guest speaker for Sumitomo Drive Technologies ' International Sales Meeting in Cancun , Mexico on May 2 , 2008 . LeMond narrated an award @-@ winning documentary for Adventures for the Cure that same year .
On July 16 , 2007 , LeMond rode the L 'Étape du Tour cyclosportive with his son , and found it to be a defining moment in his post @-@ competition life . " I had the time of my life " , he said , despite getting " 650th place " and being " impressed that I even finished " . LeMond continued , " I decided that day that nobody 's going to keep me from cycling , not Trek , not Armstrong , not Verbruggen , not anybody . " At the time , LeMond was alluding to a series of public and private disputes related to his anti @-@ doping advocacy that hampered his enjoyment of cycling . Especially significant was LeMond 's appearance as a USADA witness in the Floyd Landis doping case . There , on the eve of LeMond 's testimony in May 2007 , Landis ' business manager called and threatened to disclose publicly that LeMond was the victim of childhood sexual abuse , should he appear in court as scheduled the following day . Undeterred , LeMond took the stand and testified , before admitting to the world that he had been molested .
Several weeks later , LeMond and his wife Kathy gave an extensive interview to Paul Kimmage of The Sunday Times . LeMond provided additional details concerning the circumstances of his 2001 apology to Armstrong , stating that Trek , the longtime manufacturer and distributor of LeMond Racing Cycles , had threatened to end the relationship at the behest of Armstrong . He described the two years following the forced apology as the worst in his life , marked by self @-@ destructive behavior that ultimately led him to disclose his sexual abuse to his wife and seek help . LeMond also described how being a victim of molestation had impacted both his racing career and his life since .
In September 2007 , Greg LeMond became a founding board member of the non @-@ profit organization 1in6.org , whose mission is " to help men who have had unwanted or abusive sexual experiences in childhood live healthy , happy lives " .
LeMond was in a car crash on the morning of January 30 , 2013 . He was driving through wintery and icy conditions to his dentist in Wayzata , Minnesota , when he lost control of his car . LeMond suffered a concussion and was left with no memory of the incident . According to Associated Press , a Plymouth police report says LeMond left the road , hit a fence and shrubs , and then hit an embankment before ending up in the backyard of a home . LeMond may have lost consciousness before the accident , according to his wife Kathy , and he suffered a compression fracture in his back and would have to wear a brace for three months . The accident curtailed LeMond 's public appearances in the first half of 2013 , but he made a full recovery .
= = Career achievements = =
= = = Major results = = =
= = = Grand Tour and World Championship overall results timeline = = =
= = = Awards = = =
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year : 1989
Jesse Owens International Trophy : 1991
Korbel Lifetime Achievement Award : 1992
= The Purple Piano Project =
" The Purple Piano Project " is the premiere episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ fifth overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , directed by Eric Stoltz , and first aired on September 20 , 2011 on Fox in the United States . It features the start of a new school year at McKinley High , and for its glee club , New Directions . Members of the club have left , and a recruitment drive is launched to bring the numbers back up . Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) , Kurt Hummel 's ( Chris Colfer ) boyfriend , transfers from Dalton Academy to McKinley High , and Mercedes Jones gets a new boyfriend . Sue Sylvester is running for Congress .
The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews , with favorable notice being taken of the renewed focus on the core characters , though there was a lack of overall enthusiasm from several reviewers . The subplot with Kurt and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , and its introduction of Harmony ( Lindsay Pearce )
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of the season and left the Browns as the only unbeaten and untied team in the AAFC . After the game , Yankees coach Ray Flaherty criticized his team for losing to a " Podunk team with a high school coach " . The threat of bad weather kept attendance down , but the gross ticket receipts of $ 138 @,@ 673 still marked the third @-@ best take for a professional football game in history .
= = = Week 5 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The Browns won their fifth game in a row against the Brooklyn Dodgers , 26 – 7 . Halfback Don Greenwood scored two touchdowns , one in the first quarter and another in the second . Tommy Colella added a third touchdown in the final quarter on a four @-@ yard rush . Groza added a field goal and made all of his extra points , bringing his season scoring total to 38 and his string of consecutive extra points without a miss to 17 . Edgar " Special Delivery " Jones intercepted a pass thrown by Dodgers quarterback Glenn Dobbs , and Lou Saban intercepted two more . Both of Saban 's interceptions led to Browns scores . The Browns ' defense held the Dodgers to just 37 yards of rushing . Bob Steuber , a Browns halfback , suffered a rib injury in the game and was expected to be out for two weeks .
= = = Week 6 : vs. New York Yankees = = =
The Browns won their second matchup against the Yankees 7 – 0 amid a heavy downpour . The weather kept attendance to 34 @,@ 252 , but raised Cleveland 's season attendance total over 300 @,@ 000 people including its preseason game at the Akron Rubber Bowl . The only score of the game came in the third quarter , when quarterback Otto Graham passed to Dante Lavelli for a 33 @-@ yard touchdown . Cleveland won despite being outplayed by the Yankees statistically . The Yankees had 10 first downs to the Browns ' five , and had 237 yards of total offense to just 67 yards for the Browns . Cleveland was held to just 24 yards of rushing , and Marion Motley , the team 's star fullback , rushed for minus eight yards in six attempts . The Yankees threatened to tie the game at the end of the fourth quarter , driving to the Cleveland 16 @-@ yard line . New York 's pass attempts failed , however , giving the Browns the victory . It was Cleveland 's sixth win in a row .
= = = Week 7 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
The Browns next beat the Los Angeles Dons 31 – 14 in Cleveland to extend their winning streak to seven games . The crowd of 71 @,@ 134 people who attended the game on a sunny October day was a professional football record . Cleveland got off to a slow start , falling behind 7 – 3 at halftime . The Browns ' only score in the first half came on a 49 @-@ yard Lou Groza field goal , then the fourth @-@ longest kick in professional football history . A flurry of scoring at the end of the third quarter and in the fourth quarter , however , won Cleveland the game . Otto Graham passed 36 yards to end Dante Lavelli and then ran in a touchdown with less than three minutes left in the third . It was the first of four touchdowns in 14 minutes of play . Fullback Marion Motley ran in two touchdowns in the fourth quarter , one of them a 68 @-@ yard run that tied an AAFC record for a rush from scrimmage . The Browns won despite a strong ground attack by the Dons , who gained 274 yards of rushing . The Dons had 21 first downs compared to Cleveland 's 10 . Groza made all of his extra point attempts , extending his streak to 22 in a row .
= = = Week 8 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
The Browns suffered their first defeat of the season at the hands of the San Francisco 49ers before a crowd of 70 @,@ 385 in Cleveland . The 49ers led throughout the game , helped by three touchdown passes from left @-@ handed quarterback Frankie Albert . Albert 's main target was Alyn Beals , a former Santa Clara University star who caught two of his passes for touchdowns . Kicker Joe Vetrano added to the 49ers lead with a pair of field goals in the first half . Don Greenwood ran for a Browns touchdown in the second quarter , but the extra point was botched . The snap was high and went into kicker Lou Groza 's arms . He tried to run with the ball but suffered a back injury when he was tackled short of the end zone . Cliff Lewis was also injured in the second quarter , twisting his knee badly . He was taken to a hospital . The Browns ran only 24 offensive plays in the first half , and the 49ers were ahead by 14 points by halftime . Despite losing 34 – 20 , the Browns matched the 49ers statistically , with 338 total yards to San Francisco 's 357 . Marion Motley , who had been the AAFC 's leading rusher before the game , was held to 22 yards .
= = = Week 9 : vs. Los Angeles Dons = = =
Cleveland next lost its second straight game , against the Los Angeles Dons in Los Angeles . The Dons opened the scoring on the first play from scrimmage after the Browns kicked off . Chuck Fenenbock ran the ball 75 yards for a touchdown . Cleveland came back to build a 16 – 7 lead at halftime , but Groza missed his first extra point in 24 tries after Bill Lund ran for a touchdown in the second quarter . The missed extra point proved to be the difference in the game . Los Angeles went back on top in the fourth quarter with a Dale Gentry run for a touchdown and a field goal by Joe Aquirre with just 18 seconds left and won by one point , 17 – 16 . A fumble by Browns halfback Ray Terrell at the Los Angeles 35 @-@ yard line in the fourth quarter gave the Dons the ball and led to Aquirre 's game @-@ winning field goal . Cleveland 's running game stalled for the second game in a row ; the team gained only 43 yards rushing . Bill Willis , the Browns ' defensive star , sat out the entire game with a strep infection . Two other Browns players , Bob Steuber and Alex Kapter , suffered leg injuries and were helped off the field .
= = = Week 10 : vs. San Francisco 49ers = = =
The Browns won their rematch with San Francisco 14 – 7 two weeks after losing to the 49ers at home . Cleveland rebounded from two poor rushing games . Runs by halfback Bill Lund and fullback Marion Motley set up touchdowns in the first half . Lund had a series of successful carries that set up the first touchdown in the first quarter , a short pass to Dante Lavelli from Otto Graham . Motley 's 64 @-@ yard run in the second quarter was followed by a three @-@ yard touchdown run by Gaylon Smith . Lund , however , turned his ankle in the first quarter and did not return to the game . Motley also suffered a pulled leg muscle in the second quarter and played sparingly thereafter . The 49ers came back in the fourth quarter with strong rushing from fullback Norm Standlee and Earle Parsons . Frankie Albert scored the team 's lone touchdown on a one @-@ yard run . San Francisco threatened to tie the game , reaching the Cleveland 19 @-@ yard line with five minutes to play , but the Browns defense stood firm and stopped the advance . The win put the Browns two games ahead of the 49ers in the AAFC 's western conference with four games to play .
= = = Week 11 : vs. Chicago Rockets = = =
Cleveland beat the Rockets 51 – 14 at home before a crowd of 60 @,@ 457 , the fourth time during the season that attendance at Cleveland Stadium surpassed 60 @,@ 000 people . The Browns led from start to finish , and Lavelli and Speedie had two touchdown receptions each . Graham 's four touchdown passes helped the Browns reach an AAFC scoring record . Bud Schwenk made his first appearance in the fourth quarter of the game , substituting for Graham as the game turned into a blowout . He threw for a fifth touchdown , a 20 @-@ yard pass to Bill Lund . Edgar Jones added to Cleveland 's scoring with a touchdown run in the first quarter , and center Frank Gatski scored the team 's final touchdown in the fourth quarter after intercepting a pass and running it back 36 yards . It was the only touchdown of Gatski 's 12 @-@ year career . Groza made a 51 @-@ yard field goal , the longest of the year in either the National Football League or AAFC , and kicked through six of the team 's seven extra points . The seventh extra point was blocked , only the second time he missed a conversion in 33 tries . The Rockets managed two touchdowns , the first by Elroy Hirsch on an 81 @-@ yard drive in the second quarter and the second on a 76 @-@ yard punt return in the third quarter .
= = = Week 12 : vs. Buffalo Bisons = = =
Cleveland clinched first place in the AAFC 's western division and earned a spot in the championship game by beating the Bisons 42 – 17 . The Browns fell behind 10 – 7 in the first quarter , but subsequently scored 35 unanswered points . Edgar Jones scored two touchdowns , while Motley ran 76 yards for another score . Al Akins and Bud Schwenk had their only touchdowns of the season , playing in the fourth quarter after the Browns amassed a large lead . Despite the Browns ' large margin of victory , the game was evenly matched ; Cleveland 's scores came mostly on breakaway plays . The Bisons had 19 first downs , nine more than the Browns , although the Browns out @-@ gained the Bisons with 455 total yards . The game was marred by numerous penalties against both teams for unnecessary roughness , and the Bisons ' kicker Lou Zontini and Browns halfback Ray Terrell were ejected after getting into a fight at midfield in the second quarter . A total of 37 @,@ 054 people attended the game , the lowest figure for a Browns home game at that point in the season .
= = = Week 13 : vs. Miami Seahawks = = =
Despite traveling without key players Marion Motley and Bill Willis because of Florida 's segregation laws , Cleveland beat Miami in a shutout for the second time in the season , winning 34 – 0 . Fueled by the ire the entire team felt because of leaving friends behind , Otto Graham opened the scoring with a 37 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown and the Browns never looked back . Three other Browns players – Edgar Jones , Gaylon Smith and Gene Fekete – ran for touchdowns . Fekete 's touchdown was the only one of his short professional career . Groza kicked two field goals , giving him 12 on the season and tying the all @-@ time professional record set in 1926 by Paddy Driscoll . Cleveland led Miami in all phases of the game , amassing 159 yards rushing to Miami 's eight and 233 yards of total offense . Miami gained a total of 46 yards rushing and passing . As the Browns prepared to face the Dodgers in the last game of the regular season , they looked ahead to a matchup in the AAFC championship in Cleveland on December 22 with the New York Yankees , the winners the eastern division .
= = = Week 14 : vs. Brooklyn Dodgers = = =
The last game of the Browns ' regular season was a 66 – 14 win over the Dodgers . Nine different Cleveland players scored touchdowns in the game . The Browns ' point total set an AAFC scoring record . Groza kicked a field goal to reach 13 for the season , exceeding Driscoll 's all @-@ time record . He also kicked four extra points , bringing his total for the season to 45 and beating the previous professional record of 42 . Groza , however , injured his left ankle in the third quarter while making a tackle and had to be carried off the field . Substituting for Groza , Chet Adams kicked through five more extra points . Otto Graham played less than half of the game as Cleveland built a large lead , and Cliff Lewis and Bud Schwenk substituted for him in the second half . The Browns ended the game with several injured players at key positions . In addition to Groza , halfbacks Ray Terrell , Don Greenwood and Al Akins had to sit out because of injuries . The win gave Cleveland a 12 – 2 record as they prepared to face the Yankees in the championship game .
= = Final standings = =
= = AAFC championship = =
A week before the championship game , three Browns players were arrested after a confrontation with Cleveland police . Team captain Jim Daniell , end Mac Speedie , tackle Lou Rymkus and halfback Edgar Jones were drinking and waiting for Speedie 's wife to arrive on a flight from Utah . They dropped Jones off and came up behind a police car that was blocking their way . Daniell , who was driving the car , honked the horn , and an argument ensued that ended with the arrest of all three men . Daniell was booked on public intoxication , and Speedie and Rymkus were charged with creating a disturbance . Paul Brown fired Daniell after the incident , saying he had " a special obligation to be exemplary in his behavior " because he was the team captain .
The first @-@ ever AAFC championship took place on December 22 , 1946 at Cleveland Stadium before a crowd of 41 @,@ 181 . Temperatures were in the 30s , which contributed to the low attendance numbers compared to other Browns home games , but the championship game drew more people than all but three NFL championship games up to that point . The Yankees were in close competition with the Browns as the AAFC 's leading team , and finished the season by winning seven of their last eight games . The Browns and Yankees had different styles of play : while the Browns used a T formation offense , the Yankees had a single @-@ wing formation . New York 's roster included Spec Sanders , who led the AAFC with 709 yards of rushing and 12 touchdowns .
The championship game was largely a defensive battle with little scoring from either team . New York scored the game 's first points in the first quarter on a 21 @-@ yard field goal by Harvey Johnson , but the Browns went into the lead in the second quarter when Marion Motley ran for a touchdown after a 70 @-@ yard drive . The Yankees retook the lead in the third quarter , marching 80 yards down the field for a Sanders touchdown . Cleveland reached the New York 18 @-@ yard line at the end of the third , but the drive stalled and Lou Groza missed a short field goal , his third failed attempt of the game . Groza had suffered a sprained left ankle , and Chet Adams substituted for him . Adams , however , missed another field goal in the fourth quarter . The Browns took the lead again in the fourth quarter when Graham passed to Lavelli for a 16 @-@ yard touchdown . Groza came back in and kicked the extra point , giving Cleveland a 14 – 9 advantage with 4 : 31 to play in the game . Sanders returned the ensuing kickoff 35 yards , and the Yankees started the drive at the Browns ' 45 @-@ yard line . The Yankees appeared poised for a comeback , but Graham intercepted a pass on a third down and Cleveland was almost able to run out the clock . Time expired after a Tommy Colella punt and one short Yankees completion .
Graham had 213 yards of passing in the championship game . Lavelli registered 87 receiving yards , and Speedie had 71 . Motley was the team 's leading rusher , with 98 yards on 13 carries . Cleveland 's defense was able to hold Sanders and New York quarterback Ace Parker in check . Parker had only 81 yards of passing , and Sanders ran for just 55 yards .
= = Season leaders = =
Graham had an average of 10 @.@ 5 yards per passing attempt , the second @-@ most in history at the time . He had a passer rating of 112 @.@ 1 , setting a single @-@ season record not exceeded until Joe Montana eclipsed it in 1989 . Motley finished the season with 601 yards rushing , the fourth most in the AAFC . Edgar Jones was the league 's fifth @-@ most @-@ prolific rusher , gaining 539 yards . Greenwood had six rushing touchdowns , tying for the league lead . Lavelli tied for first place in receptions , with 40 , and led the league in receiving yards , with 843 . His eight receiving touchdowns gave him second place in the league . Speedie , meanwhile , led all receivers in yards per reception , with 23 @.@ 5 . On defense , Colella led the AAFC with 10 interceptions ; as a team , the Browns were the league 's interception leaders by a large margin , with 41 . The Browns had 67 total defensive takeaways , a professional football record that still stands . Groza scored the most field goals and extra points and set a professional football record for a kicker by scoring 84 points . He was the first @-@ ever kicker to make two field goals from beyond 50 yards in a season . A number of Browns players were named to sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro teams , including Motley , Speedie , Lavelli , Willis and Mike Scarry .
= Where We Land =
Where We Land is the first studio album by Australian Idol 2006 winner Damien Leith . It was released by Sony BMG in Australia on 18 August 2007 , and in Ireland on 28 September 2007 . Leith produced the album for seven months and created the album entirely with acoustic songs . He wrote or co @-@ wrote nine of the twelve songs , collaborating with Alex Lloyd and his music director Paul Gray ( Wa Wa Nee ) in a few songs . All of his original songs were inspired by his friends and family . Leith included two cover songs in the album , Fleetwood Mac 's " Songbird " from the album Rumours and the traditional Irish song " Danny Boy " . Where We Land received mostly average reviews from critics . It debuted in the Australian Albums Chart at number @-@ one and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . The album spawned the singles " 22 Steps " , " All I Want Is You " and " Not Just For The Weekend " . Leith embarked on a national tour across Australia to promote the album in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
Damien Leith stated how his debut studio album wanted to pan out : " I didn 't really want to do anybody else 's songs ... I just wanted this album to be mine " . Immediately after Australian Idol concluded , he convinced the producers of the show to break from protocol by giving him longer time to record the album . The protocol was that the Australian Idol winners had only one week after the competition ended to record their first album . He decided to work on his first studio album for the next few months . Leith was aware of the little success of the previous two Idol winners , Casey Donovan and Kate DeAraugo , so he decided to turn something more palpable than the previous winners by producing an album of original songs . He comments , " I suppose the main thing for me was trying to establish myself as a songwriter out of it because that 's something that hasn 't really been promoted in the past . " He was determined to create as much original material as possible for the album , and create songs that truly represent who he was . He also wanted the themes in the lyrics to not only be personal , but broad enough so that listeners can relate to them .
= = Production and recording = =
Leith remarked that recording the album was an exciting but nerve @-@ racking experience . He recorded his music at Sony BMG 's recording studio in East Sydney . His producers already had in mind what kind of album they want to produce for Leith . He , however wanted his album to be totally acoustic . Knowing that he was well known by the Australian public as the new Australian Idol , he knew that it was risky to produce an acoustic based album because it was very different from the records produced by the previous Idol contestants , as many of their records predominantly featured up @-@ beat pop songs . He noted that the music he was making could make the album harder to sell commercially .
As a result , he and his producers spent the time to work on the songs which would appeal to a broader audience . Leith did this by holding onto several elements in his music that people had enjoyed on Australian Idol . However , he still wanted to show new elements to the album , so he held on some elements of acoustic music . Leith comments ,
" We didn 't want to be too acoustic , or too rocky . I 've been conscious of the people who bought The Winner 's Journey , but also conscious about grabbing a new audience as well ... I think this album 's got all those kind of Winner 's Journey elements – the falsetto and the emotional thing . But it 's got a lot of me in it too . "
Damien Leith was also conscious of the lyrics we wrote . He added a few emotional ballads which contained strong lyrics , but had left out the songs he thought were too depressing .
Leith spent seven months of recording and writing and worked with Bryon Jones , James Roche and Ross Fraser . Initially , he wanted the album to be released in March , but it was pushed back to August , partly due to the prolonged success of The Winner 's Journey and partly because of the large amount of songs they had to cull .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
The songs he wrote were inspired by his family and friends . A few of the songs explored the themes of love and fulfilment . " Not Just for the Weekend " was a song he wrote after the birth of his second son , Jagger . The song " Beautiful " is a love song written to his wife Eileen . Other songs in the album explored much darker themes . " Blew It All Away " is a heartfelt song about the suicide of a friend , which happened shortly after another friend died from cancer . Another song , " Alone " was inspired from a friend who was struggling after his father 's death . " Shine Like the Sun " is about a friend in Ireland who was experiencing a rough relationship .
Leith wrote or co @-@ wrote a total of nine tracks out of the twelve in the album . Incidentally , the first single and the opening track " 22 Steps " was a song he did not write ; it was written by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Andy Stochansky . Another non @-@ original track Leith recorded was a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Songbird " from their album Rumours . This song holds special meaning for Leith , as his sister sang this song during his and Eileen 's wedding . Leith collaborated with Australian writers in a few songs , including Alex Lloyd who co @-@ wrote with Leith the songs " Beautiful " and " Blew It All Away " . They also wrote four other songs which they did not include in the album because they were too alternative . His musical director Paul Gray of Wa Wa Nee co @-@ wrote the track " Alone " . He left out his debut single " Night of My Life " , originally written for his win on Idol , because he could not relate to the lyrics in his everyday life , only within the context of the show . Sony BMG added a raw bonus track , the traditional Irish song " Danny Boy " which Leith did a one @-@ take recording of for a fan . Initially , Leith was hesitant to include it in the album because it was so
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raw .
Damien Leith chose to name the album Where We Land as it described all the things that happened to him in the past year individually and professionally , and also illustrated his journey to Australia in various ways .
= = Album and single releases = =
Where We Land was officially released on 18 August 2007 in Australia . Beforehand , the first single of the album , " 22 Steps " was released to Australian radio on 22 June 2007 , with a physical release on 21 July . Another track also included in Where We Land was " I Still Miss Us " , which was a bonus track with the release of " 22 Steps " only available in the Australian iTunes Store . The music video for " 22 Steps " premiered on rage on 22 June . The second single , " All I Want Is You " , was released as a non @-@ commercial single ; its music video debuted on rage on 19 October .
Where We Land was later released in Ireland on 28 September 2007 . On 17 November 2007 , a limited special Christmas edition of Where We Land was released in Australia which included a second disc with five bonus tracks , including an original track " This Christmas " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the week beginning on 27 August 2007 , Where We Land debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number one . The album was certified gold status in its first week of release and sold 12 @,@ 760 copies , 4 @,@ 939 more than the second highest selling album of the week , which was The Dutchess by Fergie . This feat follows his previous live album The Winner 's Journey which was at number @-@ one earlier in the year in January . He is also the first Australian Idol winner to achieve two consecutive number @-@ one albums . The album dropped to number @-@ two in its second week on the charts , replaced by Paul Potts ' One Chance . In its third week , Where We Land it was certified platinum status and moved down to number @-@ four . It dropped outside the top ten in the following week on the Australian charts .
Where We Land debuted on the Irish Albums Chart at number 43 on the week after its release in Ireland , remaining in the Top 75 for a second week , before falling off the chart the week after .
= = Charts and certification = =
= = Critical reception = =
Responses from critics have given mostly average reviews of the album . Polly Coufos from The Sunday Times considers Damien Leith as " the most complete artist Australian Idol has yet uncovered " . Coufos rated the album 3 @.@ 5 stars , and comments that " Leith uses that heavenly falsetto as often as possible without making himself appear a one @-@ trick pony " . Coufos , however says that the two cover songs , " Songbird " and " Danny Boy " are an " unnecessary hedging of bets " . Andrew Murfett from The Age notices the album 's different arrangement from the previous Idol debuts and considers it to be better than those , but says that the album still contains too many ballad songs . Murfett remarks " Songbird " as a good choice for a cover song . Lauren Katulka from ' Oz Music Scene ' compliments Leith 's songwriting and composing , and says that Where We Land " is a great indication of the potential of Australia 's revamped Idol franchise " . Lucy Tyler from the Sydney Anglican Network says that though the album is well @-@ produced ; it is unbalanced and bland , and " its lack of variety means that it gives listeners little to think about " . Tyler notes that Where We Land focuses on the melancholic aspects of life and remarks that " Leith appears to have forgotten that life can sometimes be happy , too " .
= = Promotion = =
Damien Leith made several appearances in the week after Where We Land was released . On 19 August 2007 , Leith performed songs from the album at the Warringah Mall Center Stage in Brookvale , and on 23 August , he performed songs at the Robina Town Centre in Robina , Queensland . He made a guest appearance on 26 August on Rove and performed live on 30 August on Australian Idol . He again made a special guest appearance on Australian Idol on 7 October , singing " All I Want Is You " .
Leith is currently embarking on a national Where We Land tour across Australia from 1 to 24 November 2007 , touring in various venues located specifically in Sydney , Canberra , Brisbane , Melbourne , the Central Coast , Newcastle , Wollongong and Hobart . He is performing the tracks from the album as well as several of his classic performances from Australian Idol . It was announced on 28 September that the tour was extended to include the other major cities of Australia ; Adelaide and Perth .
= = Track listing = =
" 22 Steps " ( Andy Stochansky , Ian LeFeuvre ) – 3 : 35
" All I Want Is You " ( Damien Leith ) – 3 : 16
" Beautiful " ( Leith , Alex Wasiliev ) ; 3 : 43
" Shine Like the Sun " ( Leith ) – 4 : 10
" I Still Miss Us " ( Leith , Bryon Jones ) – 4 : 17
" The Long Way Back " ( Leith ) – 3 : 30
" Not Just for the Weekend " ( Leith ) – 3 : 48
" Songbird " ( cover version ) ( Christine McVie ) – 4 : 17
" Blew It All Away " ( Leith , Wasiliev ) – 3 : 21
" Alone " ( Leith , Paul Gray ) – 3 : 51
" Cold Cold Heart " ( Leith ) – 3 : 52
" Danny Boy " ( Bonus Track ) ( cover version ) ( Frederick Weatherly ) – 3 : 31
Christmas edition bonus tracks
" I 'll Be Home for Christmas " ( Buck Ram , Kim Gannon , Walter Kent ) – 3 : 13
" The Christmas Song " ( Mel Tormé , Robert Wells ) – 3 : 21
" This Christmas " ( Damien Leith , Eileen Stapleton ) – 3 : 35
" O Holy Night " ( Adolphe Adam ) – 2 : 44
" Silent Night " ( Josef Mohr ) – 2 : 09
B @-@ Sides from singles
" Who You Are " " 22 Steps " single "
" Song For Jarvis " " 22 Steps " single
" Come To Me " " Night of My Life "
" Sky " The Winner 's Journey
= = Personnel = =
Damien Leith – vocals , guitar , arranger
Matt Cornell – bass
Dave Leslie – guitar
James Roche – bass , piano , strings , keyboards , programmer , producer , mixer
Irwin Thomas – guitar
David Champion – manager
Daniel Clinch – engineer
James Cooper – art director , designer , photographer , illustrator
Ross Fraser – A & R
Amy Kelly – design producer & illustrator
Christopher Morris – photographer
Martin Pullan – mastering engineer
= Tony Parker =
William Anthony " Tony " Parker Jr . ( born 17 May 1982 ) is a French professional basketball player for the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . The son of a professional basketball player , Parker played for two years in the French basketball league before entering the 2001 NBA draft . He was selected by the San Antonio Spurs with the 28th overall pick in the draft and quickly became their starting point guard . Parker has helped the Spurs win four NBA championships in 2003 , 2005 , 2007 and 2014 .
Employing his pace and high field goal percentage to great effect , Parker has been named to six NBA All @-@ Star games , three All @-@ NBA Second Teams , and an All @-@ NBA Third Team . He was also the 2007 NBA Finals MVP .
Playing for the France national basketball team , Parker was named as the EuroBasket 2013 MVP following his team 's victory over Lithuania ( 80 – 66 ) in the gold medal game . The point guard finished as the tournament 's top scorer with 19 points per game . In 2015 he became the all @-@ time leading scorer in the EuroBasket competition .
Parker is also a music artist with his own music album , TP . He married actress Eva Longoria on 7 July 2007 . In November 2010 , both parties filed for divorce .
= = Early life = =
Parker was born in Bruges , Belgium , but raised in France . His father , Tony Parker Sr. , an African American , played basketball at Loyola University Chicago as well as professionally overseas . His mother , Pamela Firestone , is a Dutch model . Parker enjoyed close relationships with his brothers and they would often attend their father 's basketball games together . At first , Parker was more interested in soccer , but after watching the evolution of Michael Jordan into a global basketball superstar during summer trips to his father 's native city of Chicago , he changed his mind . Moreover , Parker 's two younger brothers were also heavily involved in basketball ; T.J. and Pierre would go on to play basketball at college and professional levels . As Parker built his skill , his lack of size ( notwithstanding a growth spurt at 15 ) decided his position on @-@ court . He played the point guard position , recognizing that his speed and agility made this position ideal for him . He was eventually talent @-@ spotted and asked to attend the INSEP in Paris . After playing in the French amateur leagues for two seasons , Parker turned professional and signed with Paris Basket Racing in 1999 .
In the summer of 2000 , Parker was invited to the Nike Hoop Summit in Indianapolis . There , in front of professional scouts and college coaches , he competed against the likes of future NBA players Darius Miles , Zach Randolph and Omar Cook . In a contest between the American and European All @-@ Stars , Parker recorded 20 points , seven assists , four rebounds and two steals . The Frenchman 's performance prompted a recruiting war among several colleges , including UCLA and Georgia Tech , who were on the verge of persuading Parker to join them . However , Parker decided to forgo the NCAA and to remain in France ; he spent the next year with Paris Basket Racing in the French League before entering the 2001 NBA draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Antonio Spurs = = =
= = = = First championship = = = =
Before the 2001 NBA draft , Parker was invited to the San Antonio Spurs ' summer camp . Parker 's first experiences were daunting ; coach Gregg Popovich had him play against Spurs scout and ex @-@ NBA player Lance Blanks . Parker was so overwhelmed by Blank 's tough and physical defense that Popovich was ready to send him away after just 10 minutes . But after seeing a " best of " mix tape of Parker 's best plays , Popovich decided to invite Parker a second time . This time , Parker made a better impression against Blanks ; the Frenchman later described Blanks as a " one @-@ man wrecking crew " . But while Popovich decided that Parker was worth the gamble , the Spurs still had to hope that other teams would not pick Parker during the draft . As it happened , Parker 's name was barely mentioned in the pre @-@ draft predictions and the point guard was drafted 28th overall by the Spurs on draft day .
After initially playing backup to Antonio Daniels , Parker became a starter and made 77 regular @-@ season appearances in his rookie season , averaging 9 @.@ 2 points , 4 @.@ 3 assists and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds in 29 @.@ 4 minutes per game . When he played against the Los Angeles Clippers on 30 November 2001 , he became the third French player to play in an NBA game , after Tariq Abdul @-@ Wahad and Jerome Moiso . Parker increased the Spurs ' game tempo , getting his teammates better looks at the basket whenever he was involved in transition offense . He could also hit open jump shots , and this created greater space for the big men on the team , Tim Duncan and David Robinson . By the end of the season , the rookie led San Antonio in assists and steals , and was named to the All @-@ Rookie First Team for 2001 – 02 , becoming the first foreign @-@ born guard to earn the honor . Although the Spurs were eliminated during the playoffs , Parker 's performances did not go unnoticed .
In 2002 – 03 , Parker played in all 82 regular @-@ season games as San Antonio 's starting point guard on a team that was largely revamped from previous years . He improved his regular season statistics significantly , averaging 15 @.@ 5 points per game ( ppg ) , 5 @.@ 3 assists per game ( apg ) and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game ( rpg ) . Parker 's role as the team 's playmaker was reflected in his leading the team in assists on 49 occasions . During the 2003 NBA All @-@ Star Weekend , Parker represented the Sophomores in the Got Milk ? Rookie Challenge , and also participated in the inaugural 989 Sports Skills Challenge . In the post season , the Spurs , led by Tim Duncan , defeated the New Jersey Nets 4 – 2 in the finals , and Parker earned his first NBA championship ring . Despite the victory , Parker struggled with inconsistent play throughout the playoffs , and was often substituted for the more experienced guards Steve Kerr and Speedy Claxton late in the games . Throughout the season , Parker also felt that he was often criticized too harshly by coach Popovich ; in retrospect , coach Popovich admitted he was critical of his young playmaker , stating he wanted Parker to build a thick skin and mature sooner than his peers .
= = = = Second championship = = = =
Despite winning a championship with the Spurs , doubts lingered over Parker 's future . The Spurs had attempted and failed to acquire New Jersey Nets ' Jason Kidd , but Parker told coach Popovich that he wanted to be San Antonio 's starting point guard and he was ready to work hard to become a great player . Parker played well during the regular season , recording 14 @.@ 7 ppg , 5 @.@ 5 apg and 3 @.@ 2 rpg . However , the Spurs were defeated by perennial rivals Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference semi @-@ finals in the 2004 NBA Playoffs , and the favorites were denied back @-@ to @-@ back titles .
During the 2004 – 05 season , Parker recorded improved regular season statistics , tallying 16 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 1 apg and a career @-@ high 3 @.@ 7 rpg . He was also ranked 13th in the league in total assists , and was third among point guards in field goal percentage . The Spurs were strong in the playoffs , and Parker was instrumental in the victories over the Denver Nuggets , Seattle SuperSonics and Phoenix Suns . However , Parker struggled in the Finals series against the Detroit Pistons . Spurs colleagues Manu Ginóbili and Brent Barry often took over playmaking duties as Parker was unable to perform as well as he did in the regular season . Pitted against ex @-@ Finals MVP and All @-@ Defensive Team member Chauncey Billups , Parker 's jump shot became inconsistent , and his trademark drives to the hoop were often smothered by the defensively strong Pistons frontcourt anchored by four @-@ time NBA Defensive Player of the Year Ben Wallace . Nevertheless , with the combination of Tim Duncan 's consistent performances , the emergence of Argentine star Ginóbili , clutch shooting by Robert Horry and Parker operating as playmaker , the Spurs won their third ever NBA championship by defeating the defending champions 4 – 3 in the 2005 NBA Finals .
= = = = Third championship = = = =
Parker was selected for the first time in his career an NBA All @-@ Star for the 2005 – 06 season as he managed 18 @.@ 9 ppg and an impressive .548 in field goal percentage . Parker 's scoring average was even higher than Duncan 's , and his form propelled the Spurs to a 63 – 19 win – loss record and qualification for the 2006 NBA Playoffs . However , the top @-@ seeded Spurs were again unable to win back @-@ to @-@ back titles as they were eliminated in the second round by the Dallas Mavericks .
On 14 February 2007 , after delivering consistent numbers in the first half of the 2006 – 07 season , Parker was selected to play in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game as a reserve guard . With Parker operating as the starting point guard in the 2006 – 07 season , the Spurs qualified for the 2007 NBA Playoffs and finished second in the Southwest Division . In the Western Conference Semifinals , the Spurs met the Phoenix Suns led by two @-@ time and reigning NBA MVP Steve Nash . In the match @-@ up versus the best point guard of his generation , Parker used his speed to score an easy layup , or hit with his improved mid @-@ range jump shot . Suns coach Mike D 'Antoni even used All @-@ Defensive Team forward Shawn Marion to cover Parker , but the Frenchman used the pick and roll to beat his much bigger counterpart . After eliminating the Suns , the Spurs defeated the Utah Jazz 4 – 1 to win the Western Conference Finals . Parker and the Spurs went on to face the Cleveland Cavaliers and swept them 4 – 0 to win the 2007 NBA Finals . In this series , Parker consistently outplayed his Cavaliers counterparts Daniel Gibson and All @-@ Defensive Team member Larry Hughes and scored a series @-@ high 24 @.@ 5 points , accompanied by a high field goal percentage of 56 @.@ 8 % and of 57 @.@ 1 % from three @-@ point range . For his performances , he was named the 2007 NBA Finals MVP , becoming the first European @-@ born player to receive the award .
= = = = Falling short = = = =
In the 2007 – 08 regular season , Parker recorded similar averages as the previous two seasons for points and rebounds , and slightly increased his assists per game average . The Spurs finished third in the Western Conference and faced the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 2008 NBA Playoffs . For the third time in four years , San Antonio prevailed over Phoenix ; Parker had an outstanding first round series , averaging nearly 30 points and 7 assists a game . In the next round against Chris Paul 's New Orleans Hornets , the Spurs dropped the first two road games before responding with a strong win in the third game . In that game , Parker recorded a double @-@ double with 31 points and 11 assists . The experienced Spurs took seven games to defeat the Hornets , but were unable to get past arch @-@ rivals Los Angeles Lakers in the Conference Finals , and the Spurs once again failed to capture back @-@ to @-@ back NBA championships .
San Antonio got off to a rocky start in their 2008 – 09 NBA season , losing the first three contests . In their fourth game against the Minnesota Timberwolves , however , Parker scored a career @-@ high 55 points to lead the Spurs to their first victory of the campaign . The Spurs recovered soon enough , and approached the All @-@ Star break ranked second in the Conference . With Parker averaging a career @-@ high in points per game , he was named as a reserve for the 2009 All @-@ Star game . The Spurs were without influential shooting guard Ginóbili for much for the season , and greater responsibility fell on Parker 's shoulders . He helped lead the team to a 54 – 28 record and the third seed for the playoffs , In Game 4 of the first round against Dallas , Parker matched George Gervin 's franchise playoff record for points in a half with 31 . However , the Spurs were put on the back pedal from the start and eventually lost 4 – 1 , bowing out of the playoffs in the first round for the first time since 2000 . Parker 's 28 @.@ 6 points and 4 @.@ 2 rebounds per game broke his previous playoffs career @-@ best averages of 22 @.@ 4 points and 3 @.@ 7 rebounds . On 13 May 2009 , he was named to the All @-@ NBA Third Team .
During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Parker helped the Spurs reach the best record in the West for the second straight season ; the team tied the Chicago Bulls for the best overall record in the league . On 4 February 2012 , Parker became the all @-@ time assist leader of the franchise with 4 @,@ 477 , surpassing Avery Johnson , while adding 42 points in a victory against Oklahoma City Thunder . The Spurs secured their 13th straight 50 win season despite the lockout ( a new NBA record ) , and Parker received his fourth All @-@ Star nod . He finished fifth in MVP award voting , receiving four first @-@ place votes . Late in the season , the Spurs signed Parker 's longtime friend Boris Diaw , who was claimed off waivers from the Charlotte Bobcats , to add energy to the Spurs . In the 2012 NBA Playoffs , Parker averaged 20 @.@ 1 points and 6 @.@ 8 assists as the Spurs swept through the first two rounds , defeating the Utah Jazz and the Los Angeles Clippers . In the Western Conference Finals the Spurs faced the young Oklahoma City Thunder . After winning Game 1 and Game 2 , 101 – 98 and 120 – 111 respectively , and taking a 2 – 0 series lead , the Spurs lost four consecutive games , thus losing the series 4 – 2 .
In their second game of the 2012 – 13 season , the Spurs faced the Thunder in a rematch of the previous Western Conference Finals , and Parker hit a game @-@ winner to secure a win for the Spurs . On 10 December 2012 , Parker got his first career triple @-@ double after 825 regular season games against the Houston Rockets in overtime with 27 points , 12 rebounds , and 12 assists . He was the 4th player in NBA history to have gone 800 games or more into their career before their first triple @-@ double , joining Karl Malone ( 860 ) , Patrick Ewing ( 834 ) , and Cedric Maxwell ( 824 ) . Parker was named Western Conference Player of the Month for the month of January 2013 for leading the Spurs to a 12 – 3 record , and the best record in the NBA . He averaged 21 @.@ 9 points per game and 7 @.@ 9 assists per game that month while shooting 56 @.@ 3 % from the field . He became the first Spurs player to receive the honor since Tim Duncan in April 2002 . On May 21 , 2013 , Parker recorded a career high 18 assists to go with 15 points in the Spurs ' Western Conference finals game 2 victory over the Memphis Grizzlies .
In game 1 of the 2013 NBA Finals against the defending champion Miami Heat , Parker hit a clutch jump shot off the glass with 5 @.@ 2 seconds remaining in the game , securing a 92 – 88 victory for San Antonio . In Game 6 , Parker hit a clutch game @-@ tying 3 pointer with 1 : 27 remaining in regulation , but the Spurs lost the game in overtime . The Spurs eventually lost the series in seven games .
= = = = Fourth championship = = = =
On May 2014 , thanks to a win in the first game of the Western Conference Finals against Oklahoma City Thunder , Tony Parker alongside Manu Ginobili and Tim Duncan tied the record for most wins in Playoffs History by a trio of players playing together ; record held by LA Lakers trio of Magic Johnson , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Michael Cooper at 110 wins . The Spurs went on to beat the Thunder in six games and advance to the NBA Finals for the second straight year . San Antonio would once again face the Miami Heat and would win the 2014 NBA Finals in five games . This victory gave Parker his fourth championship and the fifth championship to the Spurs .
= = = = Chasing the fifth championship = = = =
On August 1 , 2014 , Parker signed a three @-@ year , $ 43 @.@ 3 million contract extension with the Spurs . The Spurs finished the 2014 @-@ 15 NBA season 55 – 27 , but lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Los Angeles Clippers in seven games . Parker struggled in the playoffs due to injury and averaged 10 @.@ 9 points a game on 36 % shooting .
Before the 2015 – 16 NBA season , San Antonio acquired All @-@ Star power forward LaMarcus Aldridge . With the emergence of Kawhi Leonard and stellar play from Aldridge , the Spurs won a franchise record 67 games . Parker averaged 11 @.@ 9 points for the season . That was the lowest point average since his rookie season .
= = = ASVEL = = =
During the 2011 NBA lockout , Parker signed with ASVEL , the team in which he owns a stake . However , unlike other players who signed lucrative contract overseas during the lockout , Parker opted to play in his home country for minimum wage . Parker , who in the summer had received a four @-@ year contract extension from the Spurs worth over $ 50 million , received only $ 2 @,@ 000 per month from ASVEL . He also paid his own insurance , which reportedly cost $ 250 @,@ 000 for three months .
= = International career = =
Parker played for France 's Junior National Teams at the 1997 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 16 Championship , both the 1998 and 2000 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championships , and the 2002 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship . He was elected the Most Valuable Player of the 2000 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 18 Championship , when France captured the gold medal , as he averaged 14 @.@ 4 points and 2 @.@ 5 assists per game . Parker averaged 25 @.@ 8 points , 6 @.@ 8 assists , and 6 @.@ 8 steals per game at the 2002 FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship . With the French senior national team , Parker has played in the 2001 , 2003 , 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 and 2013 FIBA EuroBaskets .
France won the bronze medal in the 2005 FIBA EuroBasket , by defeating the Spanish national team 98 – 68 in the bronze medal game . As the captain of the French national team since 2003 , Parker was slated to lead France at the 2006 FIBA World Championship , but he was unable to play after breaking a finger when he caught his hand in the jersey of a Brazilian national team player in France 's final warm up for the tournament . During the EuroBasket 2007 , Parker averaged 20 @.@ 1 points per game and 2 @.@ 8 assists per game in nine tournament games , but France was defeated in the quarter @-@ finals by the Russian national team . He passed the 2010 FIBA World Championship to recover fully from some injuries he had during the 2009 – 10 NBA season . Parker returned to the team in 2011 , and France reached the finals of the 2011 EuroBasket , losing to Spain . Parker also joined the team for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In 2013 , Parker and the French national team won the 2013 FIBA EuroBasket tournament .
Playing for France in EuroBasket 2015 , in a group game against Poland , Parker scored his 1032nd point , in doing so overtaking Nikos Galis as the all @-@ time highest scorer in the history of the Eurobasket competition .
During the Olympic Qualifying Tournament in Manila , Philippines , in July 2016 , Parker announced his intention to retire from international competition after the 2016 Summer Olympics .
= = = International stats = = =
= = Player profile = =
Standing at 6 feet 2 inches tall ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and weighing 185 pounds ( 84 kg ) , Parker plays the point
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pton , Christchurch and Carisbrooke castles , whilst continuing to hold onto Bedford . After the death of King John in 1216 the war turned against the rebel barons and the royalist faction , including Falkes , was able to restore his son , the young Henry III to power in England .
After the war , Falkes made Bedford Castle his headquarters and he expanded it considerably , resulting in what David Baker has described as a " major refortification " . Falkes destroyed the neighbouring churches of St Paul 's and St Cuthbert 's to make space for a new bailey , reusing the stone for the castle . The exact form of the castle after this expansion remains uncertain . The castle appears to have been quadrangular , with the western edge running along the rear of the modern High Street and the northern edge running along the modern roads of Ram Yard and Castle Lane . The castle had a new barbican ; an outer and an inner bailey , with the inner bailey in the south @-@ east corner , protected by an internal ditch and a stone @-@ lined palisade ; further stone lined ditches lay around the castle ; and a new keep was built on the motte . Brown suspects that the new keep was probably a shell keep with a tower , similar to those built at Launceston or Bungay . The stone @-@ lined palisades and ditches built at Bedford were very unusual in England - their closest equivalent are those found at Skenfrith Castle . The castle had a postern watergate facing towards the river , and a great hall within the inner bailey in the middle , at least 13 m ( 43 feet ) wide and 40 m ( 131 feet ) long . There was possibly a large stone gatehouse positioned on the outer bailey wall . A mound in the north @-@ east corner of the castle probably supported a large tower .
= = = = Siege of 1224 = = = =
Henry III decided that Bedford Castle should be returned to its original owner , William de Beauchamp , and became increasingly frustrated with Falkes ' refusal to do so ; matters came to a head when Falkes ' castellans imprisoned Henry of Braybrooke , a royal judge who was hearing law cases against Falkes . When Falkes refused to release the judge , Henry mobilised an army , supported by the Church in the form of Stephen Langton , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and advanced to Bedford . Falkes had left the castle , along with around eighty men , in charge of his brother , William de Breauté , who refused to surrender it to the king . Falkes was probably hoping that if the castle held on long enough , his efforts to convince Pope Honorius III to intervene against Henry would succeed . The Archbishop excommunicated William and the siege began .
The siege of Bedford Castle required huge resources . Siege engines were brought from Lincoln , Northampton and Oxfordshire , while carpenters built others on site using timber from Northamptonshire ; ropes from London , Cambridge and Southampton ; hides from Northampton and tallow from London . Labourers from across Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire were gathered by the relevant sheriffs , and miners from Hereford and the Forest of Dean . Crossbow bolts were ordered from a depot at Corfe Castle and from the provinces ; 43 @,@ 300 crossbow bolts are known to have been ordered by the king . Local trees were cut down , and stone quarrying begun to provide ammunition for siege engines . Tents and pavilions for the king were sent from London , along with supplies of luxury foods and wine for the king . In total , Henry 's wage bill for the siege came to £ 1 @,@ 311 ; it is uncertain exactly how large Henry 's army was , but potentially there were between 1 @,@ 600 and 2 @,@ 700 men present at any one time . To support the siege , Langton instructed his bishops to mobilise one man from every 24 hectares ( 60 acres ) of land they owned and levied a special tax on the churches ' estates .
With these resources , Henry erected a number of siege engines around the castle ; one probable trebuchet and two mangonels were set up to the east of the castle ; two mangonels were placed on the west side , to attack the keep , and one mangonel on both the north and south sides . Two siege @-@ castles were established to observe the occupants of the castle . William was confident , however , that either his brother would return and relieve the siege , or that the pope would intervene , and held on despite the artillery attacks . The losses in the royal army began to mount ; chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall suggests that seven knights , and over 200 soldiers and labourers were killed as the siege dragged on .
Bedford Castle finally fell through a sequence of four attacks . Royal forces first captured the barbican and then stormed the outer bailey , seizing most of the castle 's supplies but taking considerable losses . Miners , operating under the protection of a " cat " , then gained access to the inner bailey by collapsing part of the wall . Finally , on 14 August , the miners attacked the keep itself , lighting a fire under the walls , cracking the stone and filling the building with smoke . The female members of the household , including Falkes ' wife , and Henry de Braybrooke were released , the royal standard was raised over the tower , and the next day William and the garrison surrendered .
A discussion ensued about the fate of the garrison ; near contemporary accounts suggest that the prisoners asked the Archbishop for assistance , but that this was declined . Henry then had all the male members of the garrison hanged , except for three knights who agreed to join the military order of the Knights Templar . Three days after the fall of Bedford Castle , the Pope wrote a letter demanding that Henry cease his campaign against Falkes , but this intervention had occurred far too late to be of use . Alexander de Stavenby , the Bishop of Coventry , convinced Falkes to surrender after the fall of the castle ; he handed over his remaining castles at Plympton and Storgursey and was absolved by Langton , going into exile shortly afterwards . Historian R. Brown has noted that the 1224 siege of Bedford Castle was remarkable in that the castle 's garrison was able to hold out against " the concentrated military resources of the whole kingdom " for an impressive eight weeks . David Carpenter argues that the fall of Bedford castle " concluded the triumph of central government " over the previously uncontrollable forces of the local barons .
= = = Later history ( 13 – 19th centuries ) = = =
After the siege Henry III ordered the castle to be dismantled and labourers filled in the ditches and halved the height of the stone walls . William de Beauchamp was forbidden to rebuild the castle , and instead built an unfortified house in the inner bailey . St Paul 's and St Cuthbert 's churches were rebuilt in 1224 using stone from the castle . The sudden availability of cheap stone led to the repaving of many of the town streets in Bedford in 1224 . Local tradition suggests that the first stone bridge at Bedford , the Great Bridge , was built using stone from the castle . By 1361 the castle site was described as " a void plot of old enclosed by walls " and seems to have been derelict for most of the medieval period . The antiquarian John Leland visited the site in the 16th century , and noted that the castle was " now clean down " . The early 17th century mapmaker John Speed produced a map of Bedford in 1611 , showing the motte and a fragment of bailey wall still standing on an otherwise vacant site .
At the outbreak of the English Civil War , Bedford sided with Parliament ; the town was temporarily captured by Prince Rupert of the Rhine in 1643 and the castle was refortified for the duration of the war . A probable wooden fort and prison were built on the remains of the motte and defended by a hundred @-@ man garrison . After the war the motte became used as a bowling green until the 19th century . In 1804 the north @-@ east tower of the castle was turned into a hexagonal building for the local militia unit . Bedford began to spread eastwards in the late 19th century and the castle baileys became desirable property for housing ; in 1851 the last parts of the barbican were destroyed to make way for the construction of cottages .
= = = Modern period ( 20 – 21st centuries ) = = =
Today only the base of the motte survives at Bedford Castle , 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 feet ) high and 49 m ( 161 feet ) wide at the top , and is a scheduled monument . Archaeological work has been conducted to develop a better understanding of the history of the castle , although excavations are difficult because of the urban nature of the site . Excavations between 1969 and 1972 established the broad form of the castle ; this was supplemented by further work in 1995 – 6 and another phase of excavations in 2007 . Following the 2007 investigations , an archaeological park was built on part of the castle site between 2007 and 2009 , forming the centre of a mixed @-@ use development of restaurants and apartments . The park incorporated one of the castle 's lime kilns , first rediscovered in 1973 , and the foundations of a hall discovered at the castle .
= Neil Goldschmidt =
Neil Edward Goldschmidt ( born June 16 , 1940 ) is an American businessman and Democratic politician from the state of Oregon who held local , state and federal offices over three decades . After serving as the governor of Oregon , Goldschmidt is widely considered the most influential figure in the state 's politics , both as an elected public official and as a lobbyist and policy consultant . His legacy and career were severely damaged by revelations that he had a sexual relationship with a young teenage girl during his first term as mayor of Portland .
Goldschmidt was elected to the Portland City Council in 1970 and then as mayor of Portland in 1972 , becoming the youngest mayor of any major American city . He promoted the revitalization of Downtown Portland and was influential on Portland @-@ area transportation policy , particularly with the abandonment of the Mount Hood Freeway and the establishment of the MAX Light Rail . He was appointed U.S. Secretary of Transportation by President Jimmy Carter in 1979 ; in that capacity he worked to revive the ailing automobile industry and to deregulate several industries . He served until the end of Carter 's presidency in 1981 and then served as a senior executive with Nike for several years .
He was elected the 33rd governor of Oregon in 1986 , serving a single term . He faced significant challenges , particularly a rising anti @-@ tax movement ( leading to 1990 's Measure 5 ) and a doubling of the state 's prison population . He worked across party lines to reduce regulation and to repair the state 's infrastructure . During his term , Oregon emerged from nearly eight years of recession . His reforms to the State Accident Insurance Fund ( SAIF ) , a state @-@ chartered worker 's compensation insurance company were heralded at the time , but drew strong criticism in later years .
Despite his popularity , Goldschmidt left office after only one term , becoming an influential and controversial lobbyist . Over the next dozen years or so , he was criticized by editorial boards and Oregonians for several of the causes he supported , including backing the forestry corporation , Weyerhaeuser in its hostile takeover of Oregon 's Willamette Industries and his advocacy for a private investment firm in its attempt to take over Portland General Electric , a local utility company . In 2003 , Governor Ted Kulongoski appointed him to the Oregon Board of Higher Education , a position he resigned after admitting he had a sexual relationship with a minor girl 30 years earlier .
= = Early life = =
Goldschmidt was born in Eugene , in Oregon 's Willamette Valley , on June 16 , 1940 , to Lester H. Goldschmidt and Annette Levin . He graduated from South Eugene High School . He later attended the University of Oregon , also in Eugene . He served as student body president at the school before graduating in 1963 with a Bachelor 's degree in political science .
He served as an intern for U.S. Senator Maurine Neuberger in 1964 in Washington , D.C. While there , he was recruited by New York Congressman Allard K. Lowenstein to do voter registration in Mississippi 's 1964 Freedom Summer civil rights campaign . Goldschmidt married Margaret Wood in 1965 . They had two children , Joshua and Rebecca , and divorced in 1990 . Goldschmidt earned a law degree from the University of California , Berkeley in 1967 . From 1967 to 1970 he worked as a legal aid lawyer in Portland , Oregon .
= = Political career = =
In 1970 , Neil Goldschmidt entered politics in Oregon . This began three decades of being in the public eye in the state , serving as mayor of Oregon 's most populous city and as the state 's governor . In between he served in the Cabinet of President Jimmy Carter .
= = = Portland City Commissioner and Mayor = = =
Goldschmidt won a seat on the Portland City Council in 1970 . As City Commissioner ( 1971 – 1973 ) and later as Mayor of Portland ( 1973 – 1979 ) , Goldschmidt participated in the revitalization of the downtown section of that city . He led a freeway revolt against the unpopular Mount Hood Freeway , building consensus among labor unions and other powerful entities to divert Federal funds initially earmarked for the freeway to other projects , ultimately expanding the federal funds brought to the region to include the MAX Light Rail line and the Portland Transit Mall . He is widely credited with opening up the city 's government to neighborhood activists and minorities , appointing women and African @-@ Americans in a City Hall that had been dominated by an " old @-@ boy network . " During his mayoral campaign , he questioned the benefit of expanding the city 's police force , preferring to direct resources to crime prevention . According to Nigel Jaquiss , a reporter for Willamette Week , for thirty years he was " Oregon 's most successful and charismatic leader . "
In 1973 , Governor Tom McCall appointed Goldschmidt to what would be known as the Governor 's Task Force , which was tasked with exploring regional transportation solutions . Goldschmidt served alongside notable leaders : Glenn Jackson , chair of the board of Portland Power and Light and chair of the Oregon Transportation Commission , was considered the state 's leading power broker on transportation issues ; and Gerard Drummond , a prominent lawyer and lobbyist , was president of Tri @-@ Met 's board of directors . The task force considered an unpopular deal that would have funded the construction of the Mount Hood Freeway , which would have bisected southeast Portland . The deal , which would have been 90 % funded by the Federal Highway Administration , was rescinded , with first the Multnomah County Commission and , later , Portland City Council reversing their positions and advising against it . Goldschmidt was initially opposed to diverting funds to light rail , instead favoring busways and more suitable local road projects ; as the 1981 deadline to reallocate the funds approached , however , light rail became a more attractive prospect . By a process not clearly documented , light rail was included in the final plan . All federal money initially intended for the Mount Hood Freeway ultimately went to other road projects , but the total amount was doubled and the first leg of MAX light rail was approved and ultimately completed in 1986 .
= = = U.S. Secretary of Transportation = = =
Goldschmidt became the sixth U.S. Secretary of Transportation in 1979 . His recess appointment by President Jimmy Carter came on July 27 of that year , as part of a midterm restructuring of the Carter administration 's cabinet positions . The United States Senate confirmed his appointment on September 21 , and he was sworn in on September 24 . In this position , Goldschmidt was known for his work to revive the auto industry , and efforts to deregulate the airline , trucking and railroad industries .
A newcomer to the Carter administration and to national politics , Goldschmidt traded not only on his experience in transportation planning , but on his political acumen as well ; following Carter 's unsuccessful bid for re @-@ election , Goldschmidt expressed doubts about the Democratic Party 's future if it couldn 't learn to cultivate political allies more effectively . Goldschmidt 's time in Washington , DC , informed his own understanding of politics , as well . He remained in office through the remainder of the Carter administration . In late 1979 , Republican presidential hopeful John B. Anderson called for Goldschmidt 's resignation , and members of the United States Senate Banking Committee later chastised him , for having suggested that he would withhold transportation funds from municipalities , such as Chicago and Philadelphia , whose mayors supported Ted Kennedy in his primary election bid against Carter . Goldschmidt resigned at the conclusion of Carter 's term on January 20 , 1981 .
Between positions in public office , Goldschmidt was a Nike executive during the 1980s , serving as international Vice President and then as president of Nike Canada . He was considered as a potential chair of the Democratic National Committee in 1984 .
= = = Governor of Oregon = = =
In June 1985 Goldschmidt announced his candidacy for Oregon Governor . His name familiarity and access to large donations through his business and political ties made him the Democratic front runner . He easily defeated Oregon State Senator Edward N. Fadeley in the May 1986 Democratic primary . Goldschmidt defeated Republican Secretary of State Norma Paulus in the 1986 general election 52 % to 48 % , succeeding two @-@ term Republican Governor Vic Atiyeh , becoming the state 's 33rd governor .
Goldschmidt 's policy for economic development brought together Democratic liberals and Republican business leaders . His personal focus was on children 's rights , poverty and crime , but the challenge of meeting increasing needs with a decreasing budget overshadowed his tenure . An anti @-@ tax movement took hold during his term , passing the landmark Measure 5 in 1990 , which restricted the generation of revenue by property tax . He was credited with leading " The Oregon Comeback , " bringing the state out of nearly eight years of recession , through regulatory reform and repair of the state 's infrastructure .
Goldschmidt oversaw a major expansion of the state 's prison system . In May 1987 , he hired Michael Francke to modernize the state 's prisons , which an investigator had described as overcrowded and operated as " independent fiefdoms . " Francke was charged with supervising a plan to add over 1000 new beds to the prison system . Francke was murdered in the Department of Corrections parking lot in 1989 .
In 1990 , Goldschmidt brokered agreements between business , labor and insurance interests that changed the state 's workers ' compensation regulations . Workers ' compensation has been a contentious issue in Oregon for some time , as the state @-@ run State Accident Insurance Fund ( SAIF ) insures approximately 35 % of the workforce . The legislature passed a law as a result . The changes were considered to benefit the insurance industry and business interests , at the expense of claimants , who were required to establish more extensively that their employers were responsible for injuries . The issue was contentious for some time , involving lawsuits and various efforts to modify the law . In 2000 , Governor John Kitzhaber attempted to reform the system again . This led to a new law in the 2001 Legislature , which was complicated by an Oregon Supreme Court ruling that occurred during deliberations .
Goldschmidt 's Children 's Agenda was important in Oregon with its community initiatives . In 1991 , he helped create the Oregon Children 's Foundation , as well as the Start Making A Reader Today ( SMART ) literacy program , which puts 10 @,@ 000 volunteers into Oregon schools to read to children .
Goldschmidt declined to run for re @-@ election in 1990 , despite the widely held perception that he could have been easily re @-@ elected ; at the time , he cited marital difficulties . Bernie Giusto , who was Goldschmidt 's driver at the start of his term and later became Multnomah County Sheriff , was widely rumored to be romantically involved with Goldschmidt 's wife Margie ( and would later date her openly after they divorced ) .
Goldschmidt had hoped at one time to serve two terms , noting that most of predecessor Tom McCall 's accomplishments came during his second term . In his farewell address to the City Club of Portland , he stated : " After only four years , everything is left undone . Nothing is finished . "
= = = After leaving elected office = = =
Goldschmidt founded a law and consulting firm , Neil Goldschmidt , Inc . , in Portland in 1991 , four days after leaving office as governor . His clients have included Schnitzer Investment , Nike , PacifiCorp , Paul Allen , Bechtel Enterprises ( a subsidiary of Bechtel Corporation ) , and SAIF .
Even out of elected office , he was widely considered the most powerful political figure in the state for many years . His influence extended all over the state and the nation . As a member of the Oregon Health & Science University board , Goldschmidt was an early advocate of the controversial Portland Aerial Tram , which connected the research hospital to real estate projects by his longtime associates Homer Williams and Irving Levin near land whose owners Goldschmidt later represented . He stayed active in Portland as well , advocating an expansion of the Park Blocks ( a strip of open park space cutting through downtown Portland . ) Goldschmidt assisted in the deal that led to the construction of TriMet 's MAX Red Line to Portland International Airport that opened in 2001 . He also started the Start Making a Reader Today ( SMART ) volunteer program in Oregon schools .
Goldschmidt drew criticism in recent years for some of his business activities . In 2002 , he lobbied business and political leaders to support Weyerhaeuser in its hostile takeover of Willamette Industries , Inc . , then the only Fortune 500 company headquartered in Portland . In early 2004 , he backed a purchase of Portland General Electric ( PGE ) by Texas Pacific Group which , though never consummated , put on hold city and county studies to acquire PGE by condemnation . Criticism of Goldschmidt 's business activities peaked when , on November 13 , 2003 , Governor Ted Kulongoski nominated him to the Oregon State Board of Higher Education .
Goldschmidt 's appointment was initially expected to meet with little opposition . Several state senators , however , voiced concerns about Goldschmidt 's involvement with SAIF and possible improprieties in the dealings he and his wife had with Texas Pacific . Senator Vicki Walker , in particular , emerged as an outspoken critic of Goldschmidt . The increased scrutiny on Goldschmidt 's career , including reporters ' difficulties accessing records from his time as governor , ultimately led to the revelation of an illegal sexual relationship with a minor girl , which had occurred decades before , during his time as Mayor of Portland . These revelations ended Goldschmidt 's extensive career at the center of Oregon politics and policymaking .
= = Revelation of sexual abuse = =
In May 2004 , a rapid series of events resulted in Goldschmidt 's confession to a sexual relationship with a young teenage girl in the 1970s ; the quick demise of his political career , including resignations from several prominent organizations ; and the transfer of his many documents from the privately run Oregon Historical Society to the state @-@ run Oregon State Archives .
On May 6 , under pressure from Willamette Week , Goldschmidt publicly announced that he had engaged in a sexual relationship with a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl ( the victim later indicated she was 13 ) for an extended period during his first term as Mayor of Portland . Sex with a person under 16 years of age constitutes third degree rape under Oregon law , a felony punishable by up to five years in prison . By the time the relationship had become public , however , the statute of limitations had expired , making Goldschmidt immune from any prosecution over the matter .
Under Oregon law , Goldschmidt would have been required to register as a sex offender , had he been convicted of the crime of third degree rape . The fact that the registration law didn 't pass until 1997 , after the illicit sexual relationship ended , would not have exempted him from registration . Oregon case law has determined that the registration of offenders whose acts were committed prior to the passage of the law does not violate either Oregon ’ s Constitution or the United States Constitution ’ s prohibition on ex post facto laws .
Goldschmidt 's confessional letter was published on the front page of The Oregonian . It differed from the Willamette Week 's account , most notably in the length of the relationship ( " nearly a year " according to Goldschmidt , but three years according to Willamette Week ) and in Goldschmidt 's use of the term " affair " to characterize it . The Oregonian was criticized for its coverage and use of the term " affair . " Writers and editors at The Oregonian acknowledged mistakes in their handling of the story , but denied that a desire to protect Goldschmidt motivated the mistakes . The Willamette Week article , written by Nigel Jaquiss , was awarded the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for investigative reporting .
In his initial negotiations with Willamette Week , Goldschmidt agreed to resign his positions with the Texas Pacific Group and the Board of Higher Education , which he did . His decision in 1990 not to run for a second term as governor , long the subject of speculation , was finally explained . Further developments revealed that Goldschmidt was assisted by businessman Robert K. Burtchaell in keeping his molestation of the girl a secret . In return , Goldschmidt gave his support to Burtchaell 's ( unsuccessful ) bid to extend a lease for a houseboat moorage on the Willamette River .
Goldschmidt 's rabbi made an appeal in The Oregonian for forgiveness . Although Goldschmidt could no longer be prosecuted for the offense , the Oregon State Bar began an investigation into the matter . Goldschmidt submitted a Form B resignation , which was received by the bar on May 13 , where he says that he is aware that he would not be eligible for readmission .
Following complaints from local media over limited access to Goldschmidt 's public papers stored at the Oregon Historical Society ( OHS ) , the state archivist announced May 29 that Goldschmidt would seize the 256 boxes of documents to guarantee public access as defined in a state law passed in 1973 . That law required that public access to such records be maintained , but did not specify where the records be kept . Following Goldschmidt 's decision to put the documents in the care of the OHS , the state legislature passed a law requiring future governors to leave their documents in the state archives . Many records were published on the state archives ' Web site in early 2005 .
The scandal has affected numerous people and organizations associated with Goldschmidt . Many people have been accused of knowing of the crime , but failing to act accordingly . Debby Kennedy , who worked for Goldschmidt while he was governor , recalled , " I just can 't tell you how many rumors there were about him then . " Multnomah County Sheriff Bernie Giusto , who admitted knowing about the abuse , announced his early retirement in February 2008 .
On March 7 , 2011 , the Oregon Senate President and Speaker of the House released a statement that Goldschmidt 's Governor 's portrait had been removed from the walls of the State Capital building in Salem and put into storage , out of respect for his victim .
= = Articles by Goldschmidt = =
Goldschmidt , Neil . " The U.S. Automobile Industry , 1980 . Report to the president from the secretary of transportation " , United States Department of Transportation , January 1981 .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( January 21 , 1981 ) . " The Last Hurrah " . The Washington Post .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( March 25 , 1990 ) . " As Highways Crumble , Bush Stumbles " . The New York Times .
Goldschmidt , Neil ( May 7 , 2004 ) . " Statement by Neil Goldschmidt " . The Oregonian . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 07 @-@ 03 .
= Sam Oldham =
Sam Joshua Oldham ( born 17 February 1993 ) is an English artistic gymnast who represents Great Britain . He was part of the British men 's team at the 2012 Summer Olympics that won bronze in the team competition . He is also a three @-@ time junior European champion and won individual horizontal bar gold at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore .
= = Personal life = =
Sam Oldham was born on 17 February 1993 to Bob and Dawn Oldham . Oldham currently lives in Keyworth , Nottinghamshire , England with his parents and three siblings .
Sam 's first school was Crossdale Drive Primary School in Keyworth . Oldham then attended Rushcliffe School in West Bridgford before leaving the institution at 14 to be home @-@ taught so he could focus on training .
Oldham first started in gymnastics at the age of seven on the recommendation of his teacher , but was also a talented footballer . Oldham played in the Notts County F.C. Centre of Excellence as a forward until the club closed it down . Despite receiving offers from Nottingham Forest F.C. and Derby County F.C. , Oldham chose to focus on gymnastics . Oldham 's father and grandfather were both footballers , and his younger brother currently plays in the Nottingham Forest youth setup .
Oldham is a Manchester United F.C. fan and considers Vitaly Scherbo to be the gymnast he would most like to compete against , for the latter 's performance winning six golds at the 1992 Summer Olympics .
= = Career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
Oldham left Rushcliffe School and moved to Huntingdon at the age of 14 to train with the 2008 Summer Olympics @-@ bound gymnasts , where he lodged with the family of fellow gymnast Cameron MacKenzie . His other training partners included eventual pommel horse bronze medallist Louis Smith . Smith later thanked Oldham for being his training partner leading up to Beijing .
At the European Gymnastics Championships in Lausanne , Switzerland in 2008 , where he was the youngest member of the British team , Oldham broke his wrist during his floor routine . However , he managed to complete his routine one @-@ handed and helped the British team to gold in the junior team event . Late in 2008 , a Castle Donington @-@ based company agreed to sponsor Oldham up to the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Oldham was named to the British team for the 2009 Australian Youth Olympic Festival , where he won team gold . Later that year , he was selected to be in the British delegation to the European Youth Olympic Festival in Tampere , Finland , where he won two golds in the pommel horse and parallel bars events . Oldham was named BBC East Midlands ' Junior Sports Personality of the Year in 2009 for his performances in Tampere and for sweeping all seven golds available at the English national championships .
At the 2010 European Gymnastics Championships in Birmingham , England , Oldham won three gold medals , becoming European junior champion in the team all @-@ around , the horizontal bar , and the individual all @-@ around . By winning the individual all @-@ around , Oldham secured qualification to represent Great Britain at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore .
In Singapore , Oldham qualified second overall for the all @-@ around competition and made the finals in four other events – the floor , pommel horse , parallel bars , and horizontal bar .
Oldham was in the silver medal position in the all @-@ around final when he suffered a fall from the horizontal bar , his final apparatus , thus finishing fifth . However , he recovered from the setback to win silver in the pommel horse event , missing out on gold by 0 @.@ 25 points . Oldham subsequently followed that by winning gold in the horizontal bar event , on the same apparatus in which he had suffered his fall during the all @-@ around competition . Despite going first out of the eight finalists , Oldham 's score of 14 @.@ 375 points held out throughout and was enough for gold .
After the Games , Oldham 's coach Paul Hall described Oldham as having a chance of making the British team for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , while Smith called Oldham is an " amazing talent " and British head gymnastics coach Andre Popov predicted Oldham will " absolutely " become Olympic champion .
Oldham considered trying for the 2010 Commonwealth Games team . However , according to Oldham , this plan was shelved when he was selected to the British senior team for the 2010 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships .
For his performances in 2010 , Oldham was shortlisted for the BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year Award , and for Junior Sportsperson of the Year Award at the Nottinghamshire Sports Awards , the latter of which he won .
= = = Senior career = = =
Oldham was named as Great Britain 's reserve gymnast to participate at the 2010 senior world championships in Rotterdam . He was the youngest member of the British men 's team . The British team qualified for the final and finished seventh in the team all @-@ around , although Oldham did not ultimately take part in the competition . In 2011 , Oldham was included along with Samuel Hunter , Daniel Purvis , Theo Seager , Louis Smith and Kristian Thomas in the British squad travelling to Berlin , Germany for the 2011 European Men 's Artistic Gymnastics Championships from 6 to 10 April , again as the youngest member of the delegation representing Great Britain . Oldham qualified as the second reserve for the parallel bars final and in fourth place for the final on the horizontal bar . He came fourth in the horizontal bar final , which was his first major senior final .
Oldham was to have been part of the British squad at the London Prepares series gymnastics Olympic qualifier in January 2012 , but missed out after breaking his collarbone before the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships in October 2011 , and further injuring himself during that competition . Without Oldham , the British team secured qualification to the gymnastics events at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Despite his injury setback , Oldham ended the first year of his senior career by winning all @-@ around silver at the British national championships , which doubled as the final selection trial for the Olympic Games . Oldham attributed his performance , which he said was " better than I could ever have hoped for " and was good enough to see him named to the British squad for the Olympics over Daniel Keatings , to the trials being the final chance to impress the Olympic selectors after his injury layoff .
At 19 , Oldham was the youngest member to be named to the British team for gymnastics at the 2012 Summer Olympics , which won a bronze medal in the men 's team all @-@ around final at the North Greenwich Arena on 30 July .
On 19 – 25 May 2014 , at the 2014 European Championships in Sofia . Oldham along with his teammates ( Daniel Keatings , Daniel Purvis , Max Whitlock , Kristian Thomas ) won Team Great Britain the silver medal behind Russia with a total score of 262 @.@ 087 points . In event finals , Oldham won the silver medal in high bar ( 14 @.@ 866 ) behind 2012 Olympic champion Epke Zonderland .
= Battle of North Walsham =
The Battle of North Walsham was a mediaeval battle fought on 25 or 26 June 1381 , near the town of North Walsham in the English county of Norfolk , in which a large group of rebellious local peasants was confronted by the heavily armed forces of Henry le Despenser , Bishop of Norwich . The battle is significant for being the last occurrence of any major resistance during the English Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
Despenser succeeded in suppressing the rebellion that broke out throughout East Anglia that summer . His force at first consisted of his own retinue , but men flocked to him . He moved across East Anglia towards Norwich and then onwards to North Walsham to deal with the rebels , led by Geoffrey Litster , the so @-@ called ' King of the Commons ' . At North Walsham the
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rebels were decisively defeated by Despenser 's men . Mediaeval chroniclers differ in their accounts of exactly what happened at North Walsham . After the battle , Litster was captured and executed by Despenser , but the fate of most of his rebel army is not known for certain .
= = Background = =
The Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 was a major rebellion that spread throughout mediaeval England during the summer of that year . Its causes are complex . The drop in population caused by the Black Death , which arrived in England in 1348 , resulted in an acute labour shortage and consequently , higher wages . The Statute of Labourers ( 1351 ) was a law enacted during the first parliament of Edward III , to make labour laws and their intended enforcement more precise and detailed , and also to allow the government to control wages . It had the effect of making life more difficult for peasants , but more profitable for the wealthy landowners . Further discontent erupted from the behaviour of those nobles who ruled on behalf of the boy @-@ king Richard II , and also from the position of the church ; as many priests were ill @-@ educated , and the bishops and abbots themselves were landowners , it was generally hated by the common people . Feelings were stirred up by rebellious priests such as John Ball , who criticised the church wherever the common people flocked to him to listen to his words .
The Revolt began in Essex , following the introduction of a succession of highly unpopular poll taxes levied against the English population . In 1377 the expense of the Hundred Years ' War had caused the government to introduce a poll tax of four pence . By 1380 this had tripled , but as many refused to pay , revenues dropped . The imposition of a third poll tax in 1381 prompted unrest in Essex and Kent , which then spread all over England . According to the Anonimalle Chronicle , the ' evil actions ' of the commons in both Essex and Kent were ' because of the exceptionally severe tenths and fifteenths and other subsidies lightly conceded in parliaments and extortionately levied from the poor people ' . Most serious of all were events that occurred in London on 13 – 15 June . During the summer , rebels from Kent and Essex marched to London and , once admitted to the city , managed to capture the Tower of London . King Richard , who had promised to agree to all the demands of the peasants , met the rebels outside the city , where the peasants ' leader , Wat Tyler , was killed and the rebellion was ended . Once they were defeated it became clear to the rebels that they had failed to gain Richard 's support . Whilst the king was at Waltham , in Essex , a proclamation was issued condemning the rebels and denying that he had ever approved of their actions . At Waltham , Richard refused to ratify the promises he made , as he believed they had been extorted by force , adding , " Villeins ye are still , and villeins ye shall remain " , and threatening vengeance upon those who had rebelled .
The rebellions in Essex , Kent and London spread to many other English counties . In Norfolk , the rebellion started on 14 June , when a group of rebels from Suffolk reached the county , and spread westwards towards the Fens and north @-@ eastwards towards Norwich and Yarmouth . As in other parts of the country there was widespread unrest , during which property and official documents were destroyed and several individuals were summarily executed .
= = The leaders = =
Henry le Despenser ( c . 1341 – 1406 ) was an English nobleman who in his early life had been a soldier in Italy , and who in 1370 became Bishop of Norwich . He obtained a reputation as the ' Fighting Bishop ' after playing his part in suppressing the Norfolk rebels during the Peasants ' Revolt , and later embarking on an ill @-@ fated enterprise for Pope Urban VI , who in 1382 employed him to lead a crusade in Flanders against the supporters of the anti @-@ pope Clement VII . For his defeat at the siege of Ypres ( 1383 ) , Despenser was impeached in Parliament , attainted and deprived of his lands . He later regained his lands and favour with king Richard II of England . In 1399 Henry Bolingbroke landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire and the military campaign that followed resulted in Richard 's abdication . Despenser remained true to Richard : he was subsequently imprisoned , but was afterwards reconciled with the new king . Henry le Despenser died in his diocese at North Elmham in 1406 .
Little is known of Geoffrey Litster ( also named by mediaeval chroniclers as Iohanne Lyttestere and Jekke Litster ) , a moderately wealthy dyer from the village of Felmingham in Norfolk . He is first recorded in the returns made by the collectors of the 1379 poll tax in Norfolk . As peasants , he and his men would have been both untrained and unequipped to fight Despenser 's fully armed and trained force . Geoffrey Litster was captured after the battle and executed soon afterwards at North Walsham .
= = Events in Norfolk before the battle = =
During the summer of 1381 , insurrection spread from the south @-@ east of the country to other parts of England , including the diocese of Norwich , where the rebellion lasted less than a fortnight . On 14 June a group of rebels reached Thetford , and from there the revolt spread over south @-@ western Norfolk towards the Fens . At the same time the rebels , led by Geoffrey Litster , moved across the north @-@ eastern part of the county and tried to raise support throughout the local area . Over the next few days , the rebels converged on Norwich , Lynn and Swaffham . Norwich , then one of the largest and most important cities in the realm , was taken and occupied by Litster and his followers , who caused considerable damage to the property and possessions of anyone they perceived as an enemy ( such as poll tax collectors and important officials ) once they managed to enter the city . The Norwich rebels then travelled to Yarmouth , destroying legal records and landowners ' possessions , while other insurgents moving across north @-@ east Norfolk destroyed court rolls and taxation documents . There were numerous incidents of pillage and extortion across the whole county .
The Anonimalle Chronicle gives a clear account of the unrest in East Anglia . On hearing of the rebellion , Henry le Despenser acted swiftly , moving through Cambridgeshire , Suffolk and Norfolk from his home in Burley , Rutland . His armed force initially consisted of his personal retinue , but ultimately became a much larger force consisting of many knights and other men who had previously not dared to confront the rebels . According to the historian Edgar Powell , Henry Dispenser undertook the task of dealing with the revolt in his diocese and punishing the rebels . He was involved in crushing rebellions at Peterborough and elsewhere , before moving on to suppress the revolts in Cambridge . The authorities were alerted to the call in Norfolk for men to join the revolt in the name of Litster . On 17 June the rebels from the north and east of the county assembled on Mousehold Heath , outside Norwich : shortly afterwards , Sir Robert Salle , who had come out of the city to speak with the commons , was killed . According to Thomas Walsingham , the knight died soon after he was ' knocked on the head by a rustic who was one of his own serfs ' . The rebels then entered Norwich and wreaked havoc , destroying property and killing several prominent citizens . Other houses and church properties within the county ( such as at Yarmouth ) were attacked by the rebels at this time .
Geoffrey Litster was at Thorpe Market on 21 June and by the next day Despenser had reached nearby Felmingham . Hearing that the rebels were close , Despenser travelled the short distance from Felmingham to North Walsham Heath , where he encountered Litster and his men .
= = The battle and its aftermath = =
There are no eye witness accounts of the battle that was fought at North Walsham on 25 or 26 June 1381 . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham related that there was a fierce engagement at North Walsham Heath , south of the town , in which " the warlike Bishop " led a successful attack on the rebels ' entrenched position . The Escheators ' Inquisitions for the period that name Litster also included the names of rebels from North Walsham who were killed , giving strong evidence that the rebels suffered a severe defeat . According to Thomas Walsingham , the rebels were routed as they fled through woodland and cut down as they were found . Writing in the 19th century , Walter Rye quoted a local man , " They dew say a 'mazin ' lot of men are buried in that pightle . " The local belief that the parish church at North Walsham was the scene of a bloodbath after the battle cannot be substantiated using historical documents .
According to The Book of Illustrious Henries , written by the 15th @-@ century historian John Capgrave , very little fighting took place . The chronicler related that , " But by the good management of the bishop , and of other men who had assembled there , the whole people surrendered , rejoicing that they might withdraw in peace . Jack Litster himself , leaping over a wall , hid himself in a corn @-@ field " .
Inevitably the rebels ' ' king ' was found . Walsingham and Capgrave agree that after Geoffrey Litster 's capture , he was taken to North Walsham and was there drawn , hung and quartered . According to Capgrave 's chronicle , " The traitor was sought and found ; he was captured and beheaded ; and , divided into four parts , he was sent through the country to Norwich , Yarmouth , and Lynn , and to the site of his mansion ; that rebels and insurgents against the peace might learn by what end they will finish their career " . Walsingham wrote an account of the mercy shown by the bishop to Litster during his execution : " After hearing his confession and absolving him by virtue of his office , he followed him to the gallows , showing , although he had overcome him , a deed of kindness and piety , for he supported his head lest it should be bruised by the ground when he was being drawn to the hanging " .
Litster 's widow Agnes was later pursued by the authorities and was made to settle his outstanding debts ( for the sum of 33 shillings and nine pence ) .
= = Commemoration of the battle = =
The site of the battle is one of only five battlefields in Norfolk that are recognised by Norfolk County Council . The battle was commemorated by three mediaeval stone crosses : one is on private land ; another ( now a stump ) was relocated by North Walsham Urban District Council in 1932 and can be found near the roadside by the town 's water towers ; the third cross was moved and used as a parish boundary marker . It is situated on Toff ’ s Loke , off Norwich Road .
A sculpture in the Memorial Park , North Walsham , carved in 1999 by Mark Goldsworthy from the trunk of a 120 @-@ year @-@ old oak tree , commemorates the 1381 battle .
North Walsham 's town sign contains a mosaic depicting the Peasants ' Revolt .
= Get Away From My Mom =
" Get Away From My Mom " is the pilot episode of the American animated sitcom Home Movies . It originally aired on United Paramount Network on April 26 , 1999 . In the episode , eight @-@ year @-@ old Brendon Small discovers that his mother , Paula , is set to have a date with Brendon 's soccer coach , the lazy , profane alcoholic John McGuirk . Brendon resents McGuirk for this and expresses his outrage throughout the episode . The date goes terribly and McGuirk and Paula decide to not pursue a relationship . Meanwhile , Brendon and his friends Melissa and Jason film a new movie about a rogue police officer .
The episode used retroscripting , a process by which the actors completely improvised all their dialogue lines , the first time this technique was used for an animated television production . Certain script material , however , was provided by series co @-@ founder Loren Bouchard , who also directed the episode . The pilot also utilized the " Squigglevision " style of animation which was used to produce the show for the entirety of its first season . In its original broadcast , " Get Away From My Mom " received a 1 @.@ 4 / 2 Nielsen Rating , the lowest UPN had ever received in that time slot . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , particularly pertaining to its employment of improvisation .
= = Plot = =
After soccer practice , eight @-@ year @-@ old aspiring filmmaker Brendon Small shows his mother Paula a self @-@ made trailer for his upcoming film , The Dark Side of the Law , a crime film about a rogue police detective . Paula expresses indifference to the production . At breakfast the next morning , Paula informs Brendon she plans to go on a date that night with Brendon 's soccer coach , John McGuirk , much to Brendon 's chagrin . Brendon seeks advice from his friend Melissa and her father Erik , but they are unable to advise him as they are late for a violin recital .
When McGuirk shows up at Brendon 's house for the date that night , Brendon tries to scare him off by acting as if he is his son , but it proves unsuccessful . During the date , Paula becomes agitated at McGuirk 's inappropriate , boring subject matter , and she becomes drunk in order to entertain herself . Meanwhile , Brendon , Melissa , and their friend Jason film a scene from The Dark Side of the Law in Brendon 's basement , where Brendon 's character is in a French prison , confronted by his mother , played by Melissa . They stop filming when Jason 's nose starts running , and he demonstrates how he can move the mucus up and down to their disgust .
At soccer practice the next day , Brendon — still upset with his mother 's decision to date his coach — is uncooperative and chastises McGuirk for dating his mother , accusing him of desires to engage in a relationship with all the soccer players ' mothers . While being driven home by Erik , Brendon asks Erik to fight McGuirk as revenge , but Erik denies his request and suggests he take his mind off the topic by playing a car game . Eventually , Brendon decides to apologize to McGuirk for his behavior , and the two reconcile . Later , McGuirk and Paula decide over the phone to end their relationship , a decision Brendon overhears using three @-@ way calling .
At the next soccer game , Brendon 's team plays poorly , and an opposing player injures Brendon , which causes McGu
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ridges ( like fingerprints ) , and is connected to the palm by a fine , 2 mm – high , hairless strip . However , only the male has a horny spur that overlays this scent gland . The spur develops with age through the accumulation of secretions from an underlying gland that may connect through the skin through as many as a thousand minuscule ducts . The males also have brachial ( arm ) glands on the axillary surface of their shoulders ( near the armpit ) . The brachial gland is larger than the antebrachial gland , covered in short hair around the periphery , and has a naked crescent @-@ shaped orifice near the center . The gland secretes a foul @-@ smelling , brown , sticky substance . The brachial gland is barely developed if present at all in females . Both genders also have apocrine and sebaceous glands in their genital or perianal regions , which are covered in fur .
Its fingers are slender , padded , mostly lacking webbing , and semi @-@ dexterous with flat , human @-@ like nails . The thumb is both short and widely separated from the other fingers . Despite being set at a right angle to the palm , the thumb is not opposable since the ball of the joint is fixed in place . As with all strepsirrhines , the hand is ectaxonic ( the axis passes through the fourth digit ) rather than mesaxonic ( the axis passing through the third digit ) as seen in monkeys and apes . The fourth digit is the longest , and only slightly longer than the second digit . Likewise , the fifth digit is only slightly longer than the second . The palms are long and leathery , and like other primates , they have dermal ridges to improve grip . The feet are semi @-@ digitigrade and more specialized than the hands . The big toe is opposable and is smaller than the big toe of other lemurs , which are more arboreal . The second toe is short , has a small terminal pad , and has a toilet @-@ claw ( sometimes referred to as a grooming claw ) specialized for personal grooming , specifically to rake through fur that is unreachable by the mouth . The toilet @-@ claw is a trait shared among nearly all living strepsirrhine primates . Unlike other lemurs , the ring @-@ tailed lemur 's heel is not covered by fur .
= = = Dentition = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur has a dentition of 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2
= 36 , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors , one canine tooth , three premolars , and three molar teeth . Its deciduous dentition is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 × 2 =
24 . The permanent teeth erupt in the following order : m 1 / 1 ( first molars ) , i 2 / 2 ( first incisors ) , i 3 / 3 ( second incisors ) , C1 ( upper canines ) , m 2 / 2 ( second molars ) , c1 ( lower canines ) , m 3 / 3 ( third molars ) , p 4 / 4 ( third premolars ) , p 3 / 3 ( second premolars ) , p 2 / 2 ( first premolars ) .
Its lower incisors ( i1 and i2 ) are long , narrow , and finely spaced while pointing almost straight forward in the mouth ( procumbent ) . Together with the incisor @-@ shaped ( incisiform ) lower canines ( c1 ) , which are slightly larger and also procumbent , form a structure called a toothcomb , a trait unique to nearly all strepsirrhine primates . The toothcomb is used during oral grooming , which involves licking and tooth @-@ scraping . It may also be used for grasping small fruits , removing leaves from the stem when eating , and possibly scraping sap and gum from tree bark . The toothcomb is kept clean using a sublingual organ — a thin , flat , fibrous plate that covers a large part of the base of the tongue . The first lower premolar ( p2 ) following the toothcomb is shaped like a canine ( caniniform ) and occludes the upper canine , essentially filling the role of the incisiform lower canine . There is also a diastema ( gap ) between the second and third premolars ( p2 and p3 ) .
The upper incisors are small , with the first incisors ( I1 ) space widely from each other , yet closely to the second incisors ( I2 ) . Both are compressed buccolingually ( between the cheek and the tongue ) . The upper canines ( C1 ) are long , have a broad base , and curve down and back ( recurved ) . The upper canines exhibit slight sexual dimorphism , with males exhibiting slightly larger canines than females . Both sexes use them in combat by slashing with them . There is a small diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar ( P2 ) , which is smaller and more caniniform than the other premolars . Unlike other lemurs , the first two upper molars ( M1 and M2 ) have prominent lingual cingulae , yet do not have a protostyle .
= = Ecology = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is diurnal and semi @-@ terrestrial . It is the most terrestrial of lemur species , spending as much as 33 % of its time on the ground . However it is still considerably arboreal , spending 23 % of its time in the mid @-@ level canopy , 25 % in the upper @-@ level canopy , 6 % in the emergent layer and 13 % in small bushes . Troop travel is 70 % terrestrial .
Troop size , home range , and population density vary by region and food availability . Troops typically range in size from 6 to 25 , although troops with over 30 individuals have been recorded . The average troop contains 13 to 15 individuals . Home range size varies between 6 and 35 hectares ( 15 and 86 acres ) . Troops of the ring @-@ tailed lemur will maintain a territory , but overlap is often high . When encounters occur , they are agonistic , or hostile in nature . A troop will usually occupy the same part of its range for three or four days before moving . When it does move , the average traveling distance is 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Population density ranges from 100 individuals per 1 km2 ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) in dry forests to 250 – 600 individuals per km2 in gallery and secondary forests .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur has both native and introduced predators . Native predators include the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , the Madagascar harrier @-@ hawk ( Polyboroides radiatus ) , the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) and the Madagascar ground boa ( Boa madagascariensis ) . Introduced predators include the small Indian civet ( Viverricula indica ) , the domestic cat and the domestic dog .
= = = Geographic range and habitat = = =
Endemic to southern and southwestern Madagascar , the ring @-@ tailed lemur ranges further into highland areas than other lemurs . It inhabits deciduous forests , dry scrub , montane humid forests , and gallery forests ( forests along riverbanks ) . It strongly favors gallery forests , but such forests have now been cleared from much of Madagascar in order to create pasture for livestock . Depending on location , temperatures within its geographic range can vary from − 12 ° C ( 10 ° F ) at Andringitra Massif to 48 ° C ( 118 ° F ) in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve .
This species is found as far east as Tôlanaro , inland towards the mountains of Andringitra on the southeastern plateau , among the spiny forests of the southern part of the island , and north along the west coast to the town of Belo sur Mer . Historically , the northern limits of its range in the west extended to the Morondava River near Morondava . It can still be found in Kirindy Mitea National Park , just south of Morondava , though at very low densities . It does not occur in Kirindy Forest Reserve , north of Morondava . Its distribution throughout the rest of its range is very spotty , with population densities varying widely .
The ring @-@ tailed lemur can be easily seen in five national parks in Madagascar : Andohahela National Park , Andringitra National Park , Isalo National Park , Tsimanampetsotse National Park , and Zombitse @-@ Vohibasia National Park . It can also be found in Beza @-@ Mahafaly Special Reserve , Kalambatritra Special Reserve , Pic d 'Ivohibe Special Reserve , Amboasary Sud , Berenty Private Reserve , Anja Community Reserve , and marginally at Kirindy Mitea National Park . Unprotected forests that the species has been reported in include Ankoba , Ankodida , Anjatsikolo , Anbatotsilongolongo , Mahazoarivo , Masiabiby , and Mikea .
Within the protected regions it is known to inhabit , the ring @-@ tailed lemur is sympatric ( shares its range ) with as many as 24 species of lemur , covering every living genus except Allocebus , Indri , and Varecia . Historically , the species used to be sympatric with the critically endangered southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur ( Varecia variegata editorum ) , which was once found at Andringitra National Park ; however , no sightings of the ruffed lemur have been reported in recent years .
In western Madagascar , sympatric ring @-@ tailed lemurs and red @-@ fronted lemurs ( Eulemur rufifrons ) have been studied together . Little interaction takes place between the two species . While the diets of the two species overlap , they eat in different proportions since the ring @-@ tailed lemur has a more varied diet and spends more time on the ground .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Diet = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is an opportunistic omnivore primarily eating fruits and leaves , particularly those of the tamarind tree ( Tamarindus indica ) , known natively as kily . When available , tamarind makes up as much as 50 % of the diet , especially during the dry , winter season . The ring @-@ tailed lemur eats from as many as three dozen different plant species , and its diet includes flowers , herbs , bark and sap . It has been observed eating decayed wood , earth , spider webs , insect cocoons , arthropods ( spiders , caterpillars , cicadas and grasshoppers ) and small vertebrates ( birds and chameleons ) . During the dry season it becomes increasingly opportunistic .
= = = Social systems = = =
Troops are classified as multi @-@ male groups , with a matriline as the core group . As with most lemurs , females socially dominate males in all circumstances , including feeding priority . Dominance is enforced by lunging , chasing , cuffing , grabbing and biting . Young females do not always inherit their mother 's rank and young males leave the troop between three and five years of age . Both sexes have separate dominance hierarchies ; females have a distinct hierarchy while male rank is correlated with age . Each troop has one to three central , high @-@ ranking adult males who interact with females more than other group males and lead the troop procession with high @-@ ranking females . Recently transferred males , old males or young adult males that have not yet left their natal group are often lower ranking . Staying at the periphery of the group they tend to be marginalized from group activity .
For males , social structure changes can be seasonal . During the six @-@ month period between December and May a few males immigrate between groups . Established males transfer on average every 3 @.@ 5 years , although young males may transfer approximately every 1 @.@ 4 years . Group fission occurs when groups get too large and resources become scarce .
In the mornings the ring @-@ tailed lemur sunbathes to warm itself . It faces the sun sitting in what is frequently described as a " sun @-@ worshipping " posture or lotus position . However , it sits with its legs extended outward , not cross @-@ legged , and will often support itself on nearby branches . Sunning is often a group activity , particularly during the cold mornings . At night , troops will split into sleeping parties huddling closely together to keep warm .
Despite being quadrupedal the ring @-@ tailed lemur can rear up and balance on its hind legs , usually for aggressive displays . When threatened the ring @-@ tailed lemur may jump in the air and strike out with its short nails and sharp upper canine teeth in a behaviour termed jump fighting . This is extremely rare outside of the breeding season when tensions are high and competition for mates is intense . Other aggressive behaviours include a threat @-@ stare , used to intimidate or start a fight , and a submissive gesture known as pulled @-@ back lips .
Border disputes with rival troops occur occasionally and it is the dominant female 's responsibility to defend the troop 's home range . Agonistic encounters include staring , lunging approaches and occasional physical aggression , and conclude with troop members retreating toward the center of the home range .
= = = = Olfactory communication = = = =
Olfactory communication is critically important for strepsirrhines like the ring @-@ tailed lemur . Males and females scent mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands . The ring @-@ tailed lemur will perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces , grasping the highest point with its feet while it applies its scent . Use of scent marking varies by age , sex and social status . Male lemurs use their antebrachial and brachial glands to demarcate territories and maintain intragroup dominance hierarchies . The thorny spur that overlays the antebrachial gland on each wrist is scraped against tree trunks to create grooves anointed with their scent . This is known as spur @-@ marking .
In displays of aggression , males engage in a social display behaviour called stink fighting , which involves impregnating their tails with secretions from the antebrachial and brachial glands and waving the scented tail at male rivals .
Ring @-@ tailed lemurs have also been shown to mark using urine . Behaviorally , there is a difference between regular urination , where the tail is slightly raised and a stream of urine is produced , and the urine marking behavior , where the tail is held up in display and only a few drops of urine are used . The urine @-@ marking behavior is typically used by females to mark territory , and has been observed primarily at the edges of the troop 's territory and in areas where other troops may frequent . The urine marking behavior also is most frequent during the mating season , and may play a role in reproductive communication between groups .
= = = = Auditory communication = = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is one of the most vocal primates and has a complex array of distinct vocalizations used to maintain group cohesion during foraging and alert group members to the presence of a predator . Calls range from simple to complex . An example of a simple call is the purr ( listen ) , which expresses contentment . A complex call is the sequence of clicks , close @-@ mouth click series ( CMCS ) , open @-@ mouth click series ( OMCS ) and yaps ( listen ) used during predator mobbing . Some calls have variants and undergo transitions between variants , such as an infant " whit " ( distress call ) transitioning from one variant to another ( listen ) .
The most commonly heard vocalizations are the moan ( listen ) ( low @-@ to @-@ moderate arousal , group cohesion ) , early @-@ high wail ( listen ) ( moderate @-@ to @-@ high arousal , group cohesion ) , and clicks ( listen ) ( " location marker " to draw attention ) .
= = = Breeding and reproduction = = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is polygynandrous , although the dominant male in the troop typically breeds with more females than other males . Fighting is most common during the breeding season . A receptive female may initiate mating by presenting her backside , lifting her tail and looking at the desired male over her shoulder . Males may inspect the female 's genitals to determine receptiveness . Females typically mate within their troop , but may seek outside males .
The breeding season runs from mid @-@ April to mid @-@ May . Estrus lasts 4 to 6 hours , and females mate with multiple males during this period . Within a troop , females stagger their receptivity so that each female comes into season on a different day during the breeding season , reducing competition for male attention . Gestation lasts for about 135 days , and parturition occurs in September or occasionally October . In the wild , one offspring is the norm , although twins may occur . Ring @-@ tailed lemur infants have a birth weight of 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) and are carried ventrally ( on the chest ) for the first 1 to 2 weeks , then dorsally ( on the back ) .
The young lemurs begin to eat solid food after two months and are fully weaned after five months . Sexual maturity is reached between 2 @.@ 5 and 3 years . Male involvement in infant rearing is limited , although the entire troop , regardless of age or sex , can be seen caring for the young . Alloparenting between troop females has been reported . Kidnapping by females and infanticide by males also occur occasionally . Due to harsh environmental conditions , predation and accidents such as falls , infant mortality can be as high as 50 % within the first year and as few as 30 % may reach adulthood . The longest @-@ lived ring @-@ tailed lemur in the wild was a female at the Berenty Reserve who lived for 20 years . In the wild , females rarely live past the age of 16 , whereas the life expectancy of males is not known due to their social structure . The longest @-@ lived male was reported to be 15 years old . The maximum lifespan reported in captivity was 27 years .
= = = Cognitive abilities and tool use = = =
Historically , the studies of learning and cognition in non @-@ human primates have focused on simians ( monkeys and apes ) , while strepsirrhine primates , such as the ring @-@ tailed lemur and its allies , have been overlooked and popularly dismissed as unintelligent . A couple of factors stemming from early experiments have played a role in the development of this assumption . First , the experimental design of older tests may have favored the natural behavior and ecology of simians over that of strepsirrhines , making the experimental tasks inappropriate for lemurs . For example , simians are known for their manipulative play with non @-@ food objects , whereas lemurs are only known to manipulate non @-@ food objects in captivity . This behaviour is usually connected with food association . Also , lemurs are known to displace objects with their nose or mouth more so than with their hands . Therefore , an experiment requiring a lemur to manipulate an object without prior training would favor simians over strepsirrhines . Second , individual ring @-@ tailed lemurs accustomed to living in a troop may not respond well to isolation for laboratory testing . Past studies have reported hysterical behaviour in such scenarios .
The notion that lemurs are unintelligent has been perpetuated by the view that the neocortex ratio ( as a measure of brain size ) indicates intelligence . In fact , primatologist Alison Jolly noted early in her academic career that some lemur species
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zones of the reserve and ecotourism benefits the local people .
Outside of its diminishing habitat and other threats , the ring @-@ tailed lemur reproduces readily and has fared well in captivity . For this reason , along with its popularity , it has become the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide , with more than 2500 in captivity as of 2009 . It is also the most common of all captive primates . Ex situ facilities actively involved in the conservation of the ring @-@ tailed lemur include the Duke Lemur Center in Durham , NC , the Lemur Conservation Foundation in Myakka City , FL and the Madagascar Fauna Group headquartered at the Saint Louis Zoo . Due to the high success of captive breeding , reintroduction is a possibility if wild populations were to crash . Although experimental releases have met success on St. Catherines Island in Georgia , demonstrating that captive lemurs can readily adapt to their environment and exhibit a full range of natural behaviors , captive release is not currently being considered .
Ring @-@ tailed lemur populations can also benefit from drought intervention , due to the availability of watering troughs and introduced fruit trees , as seen at the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar . However , these interventions are not always seen favorably , since natural population fluctuations are not permitted . The species is thought to have evolved its high fecundity due to its harsh environment .
= = Cultural references = =
The ring @-@ tailed lemur is known locally in Malagasy as maky ( pronounced [ ˈmakʲi ̥ ] , and spelled maki in French ) or hira ( pronounced [ ˈhirə ] or colloquially [ ˈir ] ) . Being the most widely recognized endemic primate on the island , it has been selected as the symbol for Madagascar National Parks ( formerly known as ANGAP ) . The Maki brand , which started by selling T @-@ shirts in Madagascar and now sells clothing across the Indian Ocean islands , is named after this lemur due to its popularity , despite the fact that the company 's logo portrays the face of a sifaka and its name uses the French spelling .
The first mention of the ring @-@ tailed lemur in Western literature came in 1625 when English traveler and writer Samuel Purchas described them as being comparable in size to a monkey and having a fox @-@ like long tail with black and white rings .
It has been popularized in Western culture by the Animal Planet television series Lemur Street , as well as by the character King Julien in the animated Madagascar film and TV franchise . The ring @-@ tailed lemur was also the focus of the 1996 Nature documentary A Lemur 's Tale , which was filmed at the Berenty Reserve and followed a troop of lemurs . The troop included a special infant named Sapphire , who was nearly albino , with white fur , bright blue eyes , and the characteristic ringed tail .
This species also played a role in the 1997 comedy film Fierce Creatures , starring John Cleese , who has a passion for lemurs . Cleese later hosted the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild : Operation Lemur with John Cleese , which tracked the progress of a reintroduction of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs back into the Betampona Reserve in Madagascar . The project had been partly funded by Cleese 's donation of the proceeds from the London premier of Fierce Creatures .
= Stereotype threat =
Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group . Since its introduction into the academic literature , stereotype threat has become one of the most widely studied topics in the field of social psychology . Stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of individuals who belong to negatively stereotyped groups . If negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific group , group members are likely to become anxious about their performance , which may hinder their ability to perform at their maximum level . For example , stereotype threat can lower the intellectual performance of African Americans taking the SAT test used for college entrance in the United States , due to the stereotype that African Americans are less intelligent than other groups . Importantly , the individual does not need to subscribe to the stereotype for it to be activated . The specific mechanism through which anxiety ( induced by the activation of the stereotype ) decreases performance is by depleting working memory ( especially the phonological aspects of the working memory system ) .
Stereotype threat is a potential contributing factor to long @-@ standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance . It may occur whenever an individual 's performance might confirm a negative stereotype because stereotype threat is thought to arise from a particular situation , rather than from an individual 's personality traits or characteristics . Since most people have at least one social identity which is negatively stereotyped , most people are vulnerable to stereotype threat if they encounter a situation in which the stereotype is relevant . Situational factors that increase stereotype threat can include the difficulty of the task , the belief that the task measures their abilities , and the relevance of the stereotype to the task . Individuals show higher degrees of stereotype threat on tasks they wish to perform well on and when they identify strongly with the stereotyped group . These effects are also increased when they expect discrimination due to their identification with a negatively stereotyped group . Repeated experiences of stereotype threat can lead to a vicious circle of diminished confidence , poor performance , and loss of interest in the relevant area of achievement .
Proponents of stereotype threat have been criticized for exaggerating its importance as an explanation of real @-@ world performance gaps and misrepresenting evidence as more conclusive than it is . One review has voiced concerns that the effect has been over @-@ estimated and that the field suffers from publication bias .
The opposite of stereotype threat is stereotype boost , which is when people perform better than they otherwise would have , because of exposure to positive stereotypes about their social group . A variant of stereotype boost is stereotype lift , which is people achieving better performance because of exposure to negative stereotypes about other social groups .
= = Original study = =
In 1995 , Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson performed the first experiments demonstrating that stereotype threat can undermine intellectual performance . They had African @-@ American and European @-@ American college students take a difficult verbal portion of the Graduate Record Examination test . As would be expected based on national averages , the African @-@ American students did not perform as well on the test . Steele and Aronson split students into three groups : stereotype @-@ threat ( in which the test was described as being " diagnostic of intellectual ability " ) , non @-@ stereotype threat ( in which the test was described as " a laboratory problem @-@ solving task that was nondiagnostic of ability " ) , and a third condition ( in which the test was again described as nondiagnostic of ability , but participants were asked to view the difficult test as a challenge ) . All three groups received the same test .
Adjusted for previous SAT scores , subjects in the non @-@ diagnostic @-@ challenge condition performed significantly better than those in the non @-@ diagnostic @-@ only condition and those in the diagnostic condition . In the first experiment , the race @-@ by @-@ condition interaction was marginally significant . However , the second study reported in the same paper found a significant interaction effect of race and condition . This suggested that placement in the diagnostic condition significantly impacted African Americans compared with European Americans .
Steele and Aronson concluded that changing the instructions on the test could reduce African @-@ American students ' concern about confirming a negative stereotype about their group . Supporting this conclusion , they found that African @-@ American students who regarded the test as a measure of intelligence had more thoughts related to negative stereotypes of their group . Steele and Aronson measured this through a word completion task . They found that African Americans who thought the test measured intelligence were more likely to complete word fragments using words associated with relevant negative stereotypes ( e.g. , completing " _ _ mb " as " dumb " rather than as " numb " ) .
= = Further empirical studies = =
More than 300 published papers show the effects of stereotype threat on performance in a variety of domains . The strength of the stereotype threat that occurs depends on how the task is framed . If a task is framed to be neutral , stereotype threat is not likely to occur ; however , if tasks are framed in terms of active stereotypes , participants are likely to perform worse on the task . For example , a study on chess players revealed that female players performed more poorly than expected when they were told they would be playing against a male opponent . In contrast , women who were told that their opponent was female performed as would be predicted by past ratings of performance . Female participants who were made aware of the stereotype of females performing worse at chess than males performed worse in their chess games .
Researchers Vishal Gupta , Daniel Turban , and Nachiket Bhawe extended stereotype threat research to entrepreneurship , a traditionally male @-@ stereotyped profession . Their study revealed that stereotype threat can depress women 's entrepreneurial intentions while boosting men 's intentions . However , when entrepreneurship is presented as a gender @-@ neutral profession , men and women express a similar level of interest in becoming entrepreneurs . Another experiment involved a golf game which was described as a test of " natural athletic ability " or of " sports intelligence . " When it was described as a test of athletic ability , European @-@ American students performed worse , but when the description mentioned intelligence , African @-@ American students performed worse .
Other studies have demonstrated how stereotype threat can negatively affect the performance of European Americans in athletic situations as well as the performance of men who are being tested on their social sensitivity . Although the framing of a task can produce stereotype threat in most individuals , certain individuals appear to be more likely to experience stereotype threat than others . Individuals who highly identify with a particular group appear to be more vulnerable to experiencing stereotype threat than individuals who do not identify strongly with the stereotyped group .
The mere presence of other people can evoke stereotype threat . In one experiment , women who took a mathematics exam along with two other women got 70 % of the answers right , whereas women who took the same exam in the presence of two men got an average score of 55 % .
The goal of a study conducted by Desert , Preaux , and Jund in 2009 was to see if children from lower socioeconomic groups are affected by stereotype threat . The study compared children that were 6 – 7 years old with children that were 8 – 9 years old from multiple elementary schools . These children were presented with the Raven 's Matrices test , which is an intellectual ability test . Separate groups of children were given directions in an evaluative way and other groups were given directions in a non @-@ evaluative way . The " evaluative " group received instructions that are usually given with the Raven Matrices test , while the " non @-@ evaluative " group was given directions which made it seem as if the children were simply playing a game . The results showed that third graders performed better on the test than the first graders did , which was expected . However , the lower socioeconomic status children did worse on the test when they received directions in an evaluative way than the higher socioeconomic status children did when they received directions in an evaluative way . These results suggested that the framing of the directions given to the children may have a greater effect on performance than socioeconomic status . This was shown by the differences in performance based on which type of instructions they received . This information can be useful in classroom settings to help improve the performance of students of lower socioeconomic status .
There have been studies on the effects of stereotype threat based on age . A study was done on 99 senior citizens ranging in age from 60 – 75 years . These seniors were given multiple tests on certain factors and categories such as memory and physical abilities , and were also asked to evaluate how physically fit they believe themselves to be . Additionally , they were asked to read articles that contained both positive and negative outlooks about seniors , and they watched someone reading the same articles . The goal of this study was to see if priming the participants before the tests would affect performance . The results showed that the control group performed better than those that were primed with either negative or positive words prior to the tests . The control group seemed to feel more confident in their abilities than the other two groups .
= = Stereotype lift and stereotype boost = =
Stereotype threat concerns how stereotype cues can harm performance . However , in certain situations , stereotype activation can also lead to performance enhancement through stereotype lift or stereotype boost . Stereotype lift increases performance when people are exposed to negative stereotypes about another group . This enhanced performance has been attributed to increases in self @-@ efficacy and decreases in self @-@ doubt as a result of negative outgroup stereotypes . Stereotype boost suggests that positive stereotypes may enhance performance . Stereotype boost occurs when a positive aspect of an individual 's social identity is made salient in an identity @-@ relevant domain . Although stereotype boost is similar to stereotype lift in enhancing performance , stereotype lift is the result of a negative outgroup stereotype , whereas stereotype boost occurs due to activation of a positive ingroup stereotype .
Consistent with the positive racial stereotype concerning their superior quantitative skills , Asian American women performed better on a math test when their Asian identity was primed compared to a control condition where no social identity was primed . Conversely , these participants did worse on the math test when instead their gender identity — which is associated with stereotypes of inferior quantitative skills — was made salient , which is consistent with stereotype threat .
= = Mechanisms = =
Although numerous studies demonstrate the effects of stereotype threat on performance , questions remain as to the specific cognitive factors that underlie these effects . Steele and Aronson originally speculated that attempts to suppress stereotype @-@ related thoughts lead to anxiety and the narrowing of attention . This could contribute to the observed deficits in performance . In 2008 , Toni Schmader , Michael Johns , and Chad Forbes published an integrated model of stereotype threat that focused on three interrelated factors :
stress arousal ;
performance monitoring , which narrows attention ; and ,
efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions .
Schmader et al. suggest that these three factors summarize the pattern of evidence that has been accumulated by past experiments on stereotype threat . For example , stereotype threat has been shown to disrupt working memory and executive function , increase arousal , increase self @-@ consciousness about one 's performance , and cause individuals to try to suppress negative thoughts as well as negative emotions such as anxiety . People have a limited amount of cognitive resources available . When a large portion of these resources are spent focusing on anxiety and performance pressure , the individual is likely to perform worse on the task at hand .
A number of studies looking at physiological and neurological responses support Schmader and colleagues ' integrated model of the processes that produce stereotype threat . Supporting an explanation in terms of stress arousal , one study found that African Americans under stereotype threat exhibit larger increases in arterial blood pressure . One study found increased cardiovascular activation amongst women who watched a video in which men outnumbered women at a math and science conference . Other studies have similarly found that individuals under stereotype threat display increased heart rates . Stereotype threat may also activate a neuroendocrine stress response , as measured by increased levels of cortisol while under threat . The physiological reactions that are induced by stereotype threat can often be subconscious , and can distract and interrupt cognitive focus from the task .
With regard to performance monitoring and vigilance , studies of brain activity have supported the idea that stereotype threat increases both of these processes . Forbes and colleagues recorded electroencephalogram ( EEG ) signals that measure electrical activity along the scalp , and found that individuals experiencing stereotype threat were more vigilant for performance @-@ related stimuli .
Another study used functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) to investigate brain activity associated with stereotype threat . The researchers found that women experiencing stereotype threat while taking a math test showed heightened activation in the ventral stream of the anterior cingulate cortex ( ACC ) , a neural region thought to be associated with social and emotional processing . Wraga and colleagues found that women under stereotype threat showed increased activation in the ventral ACC and that the amount of this activation predicted performance decrements on the task . When individuals were made aware of performance @-@ related stimuli , they were more likely to experience stereotype threat .
A study conducted by Boucher , Rydell , Loo , and Rydell has shown that stereotype threat not only affects performance , but can also affect the ability to learn new information . In the study , undergraduate men and women had a session of learning followed by an assessment of what they learned . Some participants were given information intended to induce stereotype threat , and some of these participants were later given " gender fair " information , which it was predicted would reduce or remove stereotype threat . As a result , participants were split into four separate conditions : control group , stereotype threat only , stereotype threat removed before learning , and stereotype threat removed after learning . The results of the study showed that the women who were presented with the " gender fair " information performed better on the math related test than the women who were not presented with this information . This study also showed that it was more beneficial to women for the " gender fair " information to be presented prior to learning rather than after learning . These results suggest that eliminating stereotype threat prior to taking mathematical tests can help women perform better , and that eliminating stereotype threat prior to mathematical learning can help women learn better .
= = Factors that affect threat perception = =
= = = Prototypicality = = =
Prototypicality is the degree to which an individual fits the prototype of a group they could be categorized within . Prototypicality relates to threat perception in that the more prototypical an individual looks , specifically focusing on blacks , the more others who associate blacks with they stereotype of dangerousness will perceive them as threatening . Prototypic black targets display physical traits stereotypically associated with Blacks ( broad nose , large lips , coarse hair , darker skin tone ) . Prototypicality affected prejudice ; it was shown to impact judgments about an individual 's characteristics . For example , a study by Ma & Corell ( 2011 ) showed that individuals are more biased and prejudiced against more prototypic black targets than less prototypic targets .
In daily life , individuals are more likely to encounter white people as the default race within the United States as opposed to Black individuals . When encountering atypical whites ( white people with features associated with Blackness ) , individuals ultimately settle on a White response ( the general response to typical white targets is to decide not to shoot quicker and more frequently than in trials with black targets ) , in contrast to encountering Blacks with atypical features where Black cues appear to be more dominant and elicit a Black ( to decide to shoot quicker and more frequently than trials with white targets ) due to a misplaced threat perception . Lay people are more racially biased , on average , than trained individuals such as police officers . Prototypicality is shown to moderate racial bias which has been shown to
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experiences with animatronics throughout various productions but I saw this company Spectral Motion . They did the Hellboy movies and I just loved it . " Wirkola added : " I come from Norway where we can ’ t afford CGI . But this is a fantastical world of witches and trolls and I wanted to ground the movie where I could . The blood should look real . " Janssen , however , despite Wirkola 's warnings , " was not entirely prepared for how involved and long that was going to be " and " actually wanted to burn the prosthetic make @-@ up by the end of the movie . " She recalled being " so overwhelmed by what this prosthetic business was all about " , saying : " Acting has been so specific for me and what I 've learned - eyes , facial expressions , all of that stuff - and with something like this , you 're robbed of all of this . Or I could no [ longer ] rely on things I 've done in the past . It was different and frustrating at times because I had this circus of people around me in case something became unglued . " Muriel and the other principal witches were prepared by Mike Elizalde 's Spectral Motion , who also created and handled the animatronic troll . Jon Farhat was the visual effects supervisor and aerial second unit director .
Conceptual design and production studio Picture Mill collaborated with Wirkola and Messick to create the title and opening credits sequence telling some of the early adventures of Hansel and Gretel as they grew up to become famous witch hunters . It was created with Stereo3D Toolbox through a combination of hand @-@ drawn illustrations , practical fire effects and CGI animation . The digital color correction was supervised by Stefan Sonnenfeld .
Janssen said the film is " definitely played with a bit of a wink and doesn 't take itself too seriously . " Wirkola himself described it as " a little more grounded " and action @-@ centered than Dead Snow . He recalled that he has tried to downplay comedy elements : " If you go too far , it can turn into a spoof almost ... We shot a lot more than what is in the movie of course and it ’ s just balancing it when you ’ re cutting . " Speaking of graphic violence , he said that " the first version we tested was for sure the most extreme . Some stuff stayed in , some stuff got cut out . " By August 2012 , Paramount was reportedly test screening two versions of the film , rated R and PG @-@ 13 , and the R @-@ rated cut received the positive feedback . Wirkola said , " I was afraid . I actually made sure they could never cut it to PG @-@ 13 ... We always knew it was going to be R. " McKay said that Paramount 's Adam Goodman " was perceptive enough to see the same thing and got behind it as well . " Wirkola said , " The pre @-@ production and shooting went very smooth , but the post @-@ production was very new to me and how they do things here with testing and the studio . " He said about the test screenings in particular : " I can see why they do it – there ’ s a lot of money involved and they want it to hit as broad as possible . But I think it ’ s a flawed process , I really do . " McKay said that Paramount executives might nevertheless regret the film 's R rating .
= = Music = =
Hans Zimmer worked on Witch Hunters as an executive music producer . Icelandic composer Atli Örvarsson ( co @-@ author of Zimmer 's score for Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End ) created the film score . Örvarsson had previously scored Season of the Witch so initially he was " a bit apprehensive " to work on another witchcraft film but was " too fond of the story to say no and found Tommy Wirkola 's take on the subject matter to be very refreshing . " Örvarsson found it easier to collaborate with Wirkola due to their shared Nordic heritage and said that their discussions about the music for the film " might have had some of the most cold and dark humor of any Hollywood music meetings . "
The film 's soundtrack , Hansel & Gretel Witch Hunters - Music from the Motion Picture , was released in MP3 format by Paramount Music on January 22 , 2013 . A physical soundtrack album was released on January 29 , 2013 from La @-@ La Land Records . The song " Bundy " by Norwegian rock band Animal Alpha is used during the film 's end credits , but is not included on the film 's soundtrack .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Initially slated for a March 2 , 2012 release , the film was pushed by Paramount Pictures to a ten @-@ month delay for January 11 , 2013 . Co @-@ producer Kevin Messick later said : " We ’ d finished it but we were still discussing adding a coda scene , which we were able to shoot . And there was always the consideration that Jeremy [ Renner ] had Avengers and Bourne coming out . So the studio made a wise strategic move in finding a good release date for us . " Wirkola said that " the main reason is because they wanted to wait on Jeremy . He was cast before Mission : Impossible , Bourne and The Avengers . They wanted to wait until after those . I was , of course , disappointed then , but actually it helped because we came in under budget " and so the delay enabled him to re @-@ add and shoot an additional scene that is set in the desert and which was cut from his original screenplay . The first trailer for the film was released on September 5 , 2012 .
The film was again delayed by two weeks to January 25 , 2013 in the United States and Canada . A statement from Paramount suggested that the film was delayed to enable it to be released in IMAX 3D format . In early January 2013 , illegal copies of the film were discovered in a major anti @-@ piracy bust . Prior to its North American premiere , Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters was first released in Russia on January 17 , followed by the releases in Indonesia and the Philippines on January 23 , and in several nations across Latin America and South @-@ East Asia on January 24 . On the same day ( January 25 ) it was also released in more countries of Latin America , with the other parts of the world following between January 31 and mid @-@ March 2013 . The film was also released in the motion effects theaters using 4DX and D @-@ Box motion enhancement technologies . In Mexico , it was the first feature film to be shown in Cinemex 's new X4D Motion EFX theater format , provided by MediaMation .
= = = Home media = = =
The " extreme version " home release was announced by Wirkola to feature more comedy and " more guts and blood and gore , stuff that didn 't make the [ theatrical ] cut . " Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters was released by Paramount Home Media Distribution on June 11 in its original theatrical cut and a longer , unrated cut " with never @-@ before @-@ seen footage that was too intense for theaters " . It is available in the versions : either a double Blu @-@ ray edition ( the 1080p AVC video and the 6 @-@ channel Dolby TrueHD audio ) or a triple Blu @-@ ray 3D / Blu @-@ ray / DVD limited edition , both coming with an UltraViolet digital copy and three behind @-@ the @-@ scenes special features : " Reinventing Hansel & Gretel " ( 15 : 41m ) , " The Witching Hours " ( 9 : 01m ) and " Meet Edward the Troll " ( 5 : 25m ) . In addition , just the theatrical cut of the film will be made available on a single DVD . The unrated version is 10 minutes longer ( 98 minutes long ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Los Angeles Times predicted the film would become a " box @-@ office bull 's @-@ eye , with pre @-@ release audience surveys indicating an expected $ 30 million for the opening weekend in the United States . One week prior to the U.S. release , the film opened to a " huge " $ 8 @.@ 6 million in Russia ( the all @-@ time 50th best opening in Russia / CIS ) , which made its international prospects look good , according to Yahoo ! News . Entertainment Weekly predicted the film would " likely top the chart in its debut weekend " with $ 17 million ; similarly , MovieWeb predicted $ 17 @.@ 5 million . Paramount said they counted on $ 20 million . Speaking on January 31 , Wirkola claimed the film had so far " opened in 19 territories and went to number one in 18 of them . " The U.S. initial midnight screening at selected theaters made an estimated $ 500 @,@ 000 , a " so @-@ so result " . The film took the top position on its first day 's screening at 3 @,@ 373 locations across the country , earning an estimated $ 6 million and suggesting a three @-@ day total of $ 15 – 17 million , according to various estimates .
The film topped the weekend 's North American box office with $ 19 million , the first day 's under performance blamed on bad weather on the U.S. East Coast . In addition , it earned $ 25 million in several other territories where it had already been released ( representing about 40 % of the international market ) . However , it held well during its box office run , dropping only 52 % in its second weekend and 39 % in its third and fourth . American audiences gave it a " B " CinemaScore grade . On March 19 , Reuters reported that while the film " was no blockbuster in the United States " , it was much better received in other countries for a $ 205 @.@ 9 million total haul to date , including $ 24 @.@ 1 million in Brazil , $ 19 million in Russia , $ 14 million in Mexico and $ 12 @.@ 8 million in Germany . The film 's theatrical run ended on April 25 , with a total gross of $ 225 @.@ 7 million including $ 55 @.@ 7 million domestically .
Overall , Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters was Paramount 's fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 , following new graphic novel and franchise entries : World War Z , Star Trek Into Darkness , and G.I. Joe : Retaliation , respectively . It is estimated that , following published production costs , marketing and advertising fees , and the percentage of overseas revenue that was lost by the domestic studio , similar fantasy reboots such as Snow White and the Huntsman , Mirror , Mirror , Jack the Giant Slayer , Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter , and I , Frankenstein fail to match the total studio winnings for Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters , which makes it one of the most financially successful films of the fantasy @-@ reboot genre , despite having the smallest estimated budget and lowest Metascore of the recent entries .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters was initially met with largely negative critical reviews , with a 15 % approval rating and an average rating of 4 / 10 from the 126 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes . The website 's critical consensus states : " Alternately bloody and silly , Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters fails as both a fantasy adventure and as a parody of same . " Metacritic rates the film at 21 out of 100 , based on 24 reviews . According to CBS , " critics have not been too kind to these witch @-@ hunting siblings . Several reviewers have blasted the film for its thin story , deliberate anachronisms , and lack of funny dialogue . " Messick commented : " We expected that . It ’ s an easy target ! It ’ s a genre film . " Renner said : " We knew this was never going to be a movie for the critics . I 'm just hoping that people go along and can have some fun with it . It 's pure escapism . " McKay said he " sort took the critical reviews as almost kind of lazy , when they said it wasn 't any good . It 's just from a distance you could tell certain critics were just going to write it off immediately . " The film was one of the top seven contenders for the 2014 Academy Award in the category Best Make @-@ Up and Hairstyling , but failed to receive a nomination .
Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote " this convoluted hybrid of fairy tale and fantasy / action / comedy / horror aims for campy fun , but comes off tedious and blood @-@ spattered . " Andrew Barker of Variety called the film " inconsistently acted , and somehow both underwritten and overplotted , " and while the action is " frequent and competently staged , " it might feel too repetitive " as yet another witch is ripped apart limb from limb , sending yet another wave of viscera sluicing toward the camera . " Similarly , Stephanie Merry of The Washington Post wrote that " after a while it ’ s easy to become numb to the repulsive sights and bored by action that once seemed intense and exciting " in this " rarely funny spoof that ’ s heavy on bone @-@ crushing and blood @-@ gushing , " giving it one @-@ and @-@ half star out of four . Steven Farber of The Hollywood Reporter also wrote a scathing review , saying that while " Wirkola makes the most of the 3D technology " , " the film is too fanciful to be truly revolting " for its gore effects and " despite its few wry jokes , the script is awfully thin . " Roger Moore of The Charlotte Observer gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , writing that Wirkola " focuses on the fights and flings all manner of viscera at the 3 @-@ D camera as limbs are whacked off and heads and torsos explode . Less attention was paid to the story , and the dialogue is a tad over @-@ reliant on the random f @-@ word to land a laugh . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film zero out of four stars , writing that " nothing makes a whole lot of sense in this incoherent movie , whose director ’ s philosophy seems to be : When in doubt , cut somebody ’ s head off . " Kat Murphy of MSN gave it one star out of four , comparing this " big @-@ budget faux fairy tale about skanky witches " to a " downscale video game for dull @-@ eyed teens happy to lap up lame wisecracks and lots of gore . " According to Vulture 's Bilge Ebiri , " if the similarly situated Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter took itself too seriously , the problem with Hansel & Gretel is that it doesn ’ t quite take itself seriously enough . " Keith Staskiewicz of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C- , calling it " an intermittently fun , but overexcited and predictable mish @-@ mash . " Alicia Malone of IGN rated it a 4 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating " there are a few funny moments , but overall Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters is too similar to many films we ’ ve seen before . " Calum Marsh of Slant Magazine lambasted the film 's " sub @-@ Tim Burton aesthetic " and wrote that " the result suggests A Knight 's Tale as penned by Seth MacFarlane , " giving it zero out of four stars . Scott A. Gray of Exclaim ! praised some elements of the film , such as " lush and colourful art design that recalls a Guillermo Del Toro production , sound creature makeup and special effects , decently choreographed action scenes and a pair of leads who do their damnedest to sell the limp script " , giving it a score of 4 / 10 . Chris Knight of The Vancouver Sun called it a " mess of a fairy tale " , expecting " a wiccan outcry at the film ’ s depiction — nay , endorsement — of the torture of witch @-@ folk . " Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail gave it one star out of four , concerned how it " has an alarming number of females being strung up , burned , shot , decapitated and eviscerated . "
Some reception of the film , however , was much more positive , in particular by reviewers for horror outlets . Michael Gingold of Fangoria gave it two @-@ and @-@ half out of four skulls , while Jonathan Barkan of Bloody Disgusting gave it four out of five skulls , stating it " isn ’ t a movie meant to scare or make you think but it is one of the most entertaining and enjoyable movies of its kind that I ’ ve seen in years . " Scott Weinberg of FEARnet wrote that " aside from some very clunky editorial missteps in the film 's second half , there 's a good deal of wit , enthusiasm , energy , and amusing attitude to be found in the dumb @-@ yet @-@ self @-@ aware Hansel & Gretel : Witch Hunters , " all while noting that he is " not the type to act snobbish around a ridiculous film that obviously knows it 's ridiculous . " According to Ryan Larson of Shock Till You Drop , the film " is a mixed bag " but " fortunately , the lows don ’ t appear as often as you would think , " and , " if taken at face value , Hansel & Gretel is well worth the view . " William Bibbiani of CraveOnline , who criticized the film 's inadequately " limp " marketing campaign , found the movie itself " inherently stupid " but in a good way , " played with humor , ultraviolence and anachronistic fetish . " Cinema Blend 's Sean O 'Connell stated that the film is " often mean and nasty , but that 's really its saving grace . " Peter Paras of E ! recommended this " super violent , pretty funny flick " for how it " revels in the mayhem " . Tom Russo of The Boston Globe , giving the film three out of five stars , called it a " splattery fanboy fun . Preposterous , clearly , but fun . " Jonathon Natsis of Filmink wrote : " Hansel and Gretel is not a ' film ' . It 's a ' movie ' , in all its unabashed , excitable glory ... big on blood @-@ soaked entertainment and low on pretension . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave it four out of five stars , stating : " This has all the elements of a classic action flick , and it 's destined for cult status . Welcome to the most fun movie of 2013 . " DVD Talk 's Jamie S. Rich summed up : " Is Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters a good movie ? Probably not . At least not in any way that is defensible by regular critical standards . Is it a hell of a good time ? Absolutely so . Unabashedly so . That 's all it wants to be . "
Neil Geinzlinger of The New York Times wrote that " it may not stay in the public eye long because this movie is probably not going to put up Twilight @-@ like numbers , " adding that " the script doesn 't give them enough of the witty lines that can elevate these types of movies to must @-@ see status , which is odd , since the producers include Will Ferrell . " Vince Horiuchi of The Salt Lake Tribune suggested that this film should have been made 30 years ago by Sam Raimi and starring Bruce Campbell , while instead " the Hansel and Gretel we ’ re left with runs out of its magic potion far too early to let us enjoy its wicked possibilities . " A more positive comparison to Raimi and Campbell 's Army of Darkness was made by Pete Vonder Haar of the Houston Press , who gave it three out of five " witch hazels " and wrote : " I 'm not sure if witches are the next vampires / zombies , or if the hinted @-@ at franchise potential has any legs , but this was a perfectly vulgar way to spend 90 minutes . " Tim Grierson of Screen International wrote that Hansel and Gretel " works best as an unapologetic B @-@ movie action flick " and " feels like a first film in a franchise that ’ s meant to set up the main characters and conflicts , which
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creating direct relations between the Government of India and the larger princely states , superseding political agents . A more ambitious aim was a scheme of federation contained in the Government of India Act 1935 , which envisaged the princely states and British India being united under a federal government . This scheme came close to success , but was abandoned in 1939 as a result of the outbreak of the Second World War . As a result , in the 1940s the relationship between the princely states and the crown remained regulated by the principle of paramountcy and by the various treaties between the British crown and the states .
Neither paramountcy nor the subsidiary alliances could continue after Indian independence . The British took the view that because they had been established directly between the British crown and the princely states , they could not be transferred to the newly independent dominions of India and Pakistan . At the same time , the alliances imposed obligations on Britain that it was not prepared to continue to carry out , such as the obligation to maintain troops in India for the defence of the princely states . The British government therefore decided that paramountcy , together with all treaties between them and the princely states , would come to an end upon the British departure from India .
= = Reasons for integration = =
The termination of paramountcy would have in principle meant that all rights that flowed from the states ' relationship with the British crown would return to them , leaving them free to negotiate relationships with the new states of India and Pakistan " on a basis of complete freedom " . Early British plans for the transfer of power , such as the offer produced by the Cripps Mission , recognised the possibility that some princely states might choose to stand out of independent India . This was unacceptable to the Indian National Congress , which regarded the independence of princely states as a denial of the course of Indian history , and consequently regarded this scheme as a " Balkanisation " of India . The Congress had traditionally been less active in the princely states because of their limited resources which restricted their ability to organise there and their focus on the goal of independence from the British , and because Congress leaders , in particular Mohandas Gandhi , were sympathetic to the more progressive princes as examples of the capacity of Indians to rule themselves . This changed in the 1930s as a result of the federation scheme contained in the Government of India Act 1935 and the rise of socialist Congress leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan , and the Congress began to actively engage with popular political and labour activity in the princely states . By 1939 , the Congress ' official stance was that the states must enter independent India , on the same terms and with the same autonomy as the provinces of British India , and with their people granted responsible government . As a result , it insisted on the incorporation of the princely states into India in its negotiations with British , but the British took the view that this was not in their power to grant .
A few British leaders , particularly Lord Mountbatten , the last British viceroy of India , were also uncomfortable with breaking links between independent India and the princely states . The development of trade , commerce and communications during the 19th and 20th centuries had bound the princely states to the British India through a complex network of interests . Agreements relating to railways , customs , irrigation , use of ports , and other similar agreements would get terminated , posing a serious threat to the economic life of the subcontinent . Mountbatten was also persuaded by the argument of Indian officials such as V. P. Menon that the integration of the princely states into independent India would , to some extent , assuage the wounds of partition . The result was that Mountbatten personally favoured and worked towards the accession of princely states to India following the transfer of power , as proposed by the Congress .
= = Accepting integration = =
= = = The princes ' position = = =
The rulers of the princely states were not uniformly enthusiastic about integrating their domains into independent India . Some , such as the kings of Bikaner and Jawhar , were motivated to join India out of ideological and patriotic considerations , but others insisted that they had the right to join either India or Pakistan , to remain independent , or form a union of their own . Bhopal , Travancore and Hyderabad announced that they did not intend to join either dominion . Hyderabad went as far as to appoint trade representatives in European countries and commencing negotiations with the Portuguese to lease or buy Goa to give it access to the sea , and Travancore pointed to the strategic importance to western countries of its thorium reserves while asking for recognition . Some states proposed a subcontinent @-@ wide confederation of princely states , as a third entity in addition to India and Pakistan . Bhopal attempted to build an alliance between the princely states and the Muslim League to counter the pressure being put on rulers by the Congress .
A number of factors contributed to the collapse of this initial resistance and to nearly all non @-@ Muslim majority princely states agreeing to accede to India . An important factor was the lack of unity among the princes . The smaller states did not trust the larger states to protect their interests , and many Hindu rulers did not trust Muslim princes , in particular Hamidullah Khan , the Nawab of Bhopal and a leading proponent of independence , whom they viewed as an agent for Pakistan . Others , believing integration to be inevitable , sought to build bridges with the Congress , hoping thereby to gain a say in shaping the final settlement . The resultant inability to present a united front or agree on a common position significantly reduced their bargaining power in negotiations with the Congress . The decision by the Muslim League to stay out of the Constituent Assembly was also fatal to the princes ' plan to build an alliance with it to counter the Congress , and attempts to boycott the Constituent Assembly altogether failed on 28 April 1947 , when the states of Baroda , Bikaner , Cochin , Gwalior , Jaipur , Jodhpur , Patiala and Rewa took their seats in the Assembly .
Many princes were also pressured by popular sentiment favouring integration with India , which meant their plans for independence had little support from their subjects . The Maharaja of Travancore , for example , definitively abandoned his plans for independence after the attempted assassination of his dewan , Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer . In a few states , the chief ministers or dewans played a significant role in convincing the princes to accede to India . The key factors that led the states to accept integration into India were , however , the efforts of Lord Mountbatten , Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon . The latter two were respectively the political and administrative heads of the States Department , which was in charge of relations with the princely states .
= = = Mountbatten 's role = = =
Mountbatten believed that securing the states ' accession to India was crucial to reaching a negotiated settlement with the Congress for the transfer of power . As a relative of the British King , he was trusted by most of the princes and was a personal friend of many , especially the Nawab of Bhopal , Hamidullah Khan . The princes also believed that he would be in a position to ensure the independent India adhered to any terms that might be agreed upon , because Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Patel had asked him to become the first Governor General of the Dominion of India .
Mountbatten used his influence with the princes to push them towards accession . He declared that the British Government would not grant dominion status to any of the princely states , nor would it accept them into the British Commonwealth , which meant that the states would sever all connections with the British crown unless they joined either India or Pakistan . He pointed out that the Indian subcontinent was one economic entity , and that the states would suffer most if the link were broken . He also pointed to the difficulties that princes would face maintaining order in the face of threats such as the rise of communal violence and communist movements .
Mountbatten stressed that he would act as the trustee of the princes ' commitment , as he would be serving as India 's head of state well into 1948 . He engaged in a personal dialogue with reluctant princes , such as the Nawab of Bhopal , who he asked through a confidential letter to sign the Instrument of Accession making Bhopal part of India , which Mountbatten would keep locked up in his safe . It would be handed to the States Department on 15 August only if the Nawab did not change his mind before then , which he was free to do . The Nawab agreed , and did not renege over the deal .
At the time , several princes complained that they were being betrayed by Britain , who they regarded as an ally , and Sir Conrad Corfield resigned his position as head of the Political Department in protest at Mountbatten 's policies . Mountbatten 's policies were also criticised by the opposition Conservative Party . Winston Churchill compared the language used by the Indian government with that used by Adolf Hitler before the invasion of Austria . Modern historians such as Lumby and Moore , however , take the view that Mountbatten played a crucial role in ensuring that the princely states agreed to accede to India .
= = = Pressure and diplomacy = = =
By far the most significant factor that led to the princes ' decision to accede to India was the policy of the Congress and , in particular , of Patel and Menon . The Congress ' stated position was that the princely states were not sovereign entities , and as such could not opt to be independent notwithstanding the end of paramountcy . The princely states must therefore accede to either India or Pakistan . In July 1946 , Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India . In January 1947 , he said that independent India would not accept the divine right of kings , and in May 1947 , he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state . Other Congress leaders , such as C. Rajagopalachari , argued that as paramountcy " came into being as a fact and not by agreement " , it would necessarily pass to the government of independent India , as the successor of the British .
Patel and Menon , who were charged with the actual job of negotiating with the princes , took a more conciliatory approach than Nehru . The official policy statement of the Government of India made by Patel on 5 July 1947 made no threats . Instead , it emphasised the unity of India and the common interests of the princes and independent India , reassured them about the Congress ' intentions , and invited them to join independent India " to make laws sitting together as friends than to make treaties as aliens " . He reiterated that the States Department would not attempt to establish a relationship of domination over the princely states . Unlike the Political Department of the British Government , it would not be an instrument of paramountcy , but a medium whereby business could be conducted between the states and India as equals .
= = = Instruments of accession = = =
Patel and Menon backed up their diplomatic efforts by producing treaties that were designed to be attractive to rulers of princely states . Two key documents were produced . The first was the Standstill Agreement , which confirmed the continuance of the pre @-@ existing agreements and administrative practices . The second was the Instrument of Accession , by which the ruler of the princely state in question agreed to the accession of his kingdom to independent India , granting the latter control over specified subject matters . The nature of the subject matters varied depending on the acceding state . The states which had internal autonomy under the British signed an Instrument of Accession which only ceded three subjects to the government of India — defence , external affairs , and communications , each defined in accordance with List 1 to Schedule VII of the Government of India Act 1935 . Rulers of states which were in effect estates or talukas , where substantial administrative powers were exercised by the Crown , signed a different Instrument of Accession , which vested all residuary powers and jurisdiction in the Government of India . Rulers of states which had an intermediate status signed a third type of Instrument , which preserved the degree of power they had under the British .
The Instruments of Accession implemented a number of other safeguards . Clause 7 provided that the princes would not be bound to the Indian constitution as and when it was drafted . Clause 8 guaranteed their autonomy in all areas that were not ceded to the Government of India . This was supplemented by a number of promises . Rulers who agreed to accede would receive guarantees that their extra @-@ territorial rights , such as immunity from prosecution in Indian courts and exemption from customs duty , would be protected , that they would be allowed to democratise slowly , that none of the eighteen major states would be forced to merge , and that they would remain eligible for British honours and decorations . In discussions , Lord Mountbatten reinforced the statements of Patel and Menon by emphasising that the documents gave the princes all the " practical independence " they needed . Mountbatten , Patel and Menon also sought to give princes the impression that if they did not accept the terms put to them then , they might subsequently need to accede on substantially less favourable terms . The Standstill Agreement was also used as a negotiating tool , as the States Department categorically ruled out signing a Standstill Agreement with princely states that did not sign an Instrument of Accession .
= = The accession process = =
The limited scope of the Instruments of Accession and the promise of a wide @-@ ranging autonomy and the other guarantees they offered , gave sufficient comfort to many rulers , who saw this as the best deal they could strike given the lack of support from the British , and popular internal pressures . Between May 1947 and the transfer of power on 15 August 1947 , the vast majority of states signed Instruments of Accession . A few , however , held out . Some simply delayed signing the Instrument of Accession . Piploda , a small state in central India , did not accede until March 1948 . The biggest problems , however , arose with a few border states , such as Jodhpur , which tried to negotiate better deals with Pakistan , with Junagadh , which actually did accede to Pakistan , and with Hyderabad and Kashmir , which declared that they intended to remain independent .
= = = Border states = = =
The ruler of Jodhpur , Hanwant Singh , was antipathetic to the Congress , and did not see much future in India for him or the lifestyle he wished to lead . Along with the ruler of Jaisalmer , he entered into negotiations with Muhammad Ali Jinnah , who was the designated head of state for Pakistan . Jinnah was keen to attract some of the larger border states , hoping thereby to attract other Rajput states to Pakistan and compensate for the loss of half of Bengal and Punjab . He offered to permit Jodhpur and Jaisalmer to accede to Pakistan on any terms they chose , giving their rulers blank sheets of paper and asking them to write down their terms , which he would sign . Jaisalmer refused , arguing that it would be difficult for him to side with Muslims against Hindus in the event of communal problems . Hanwant Singh came close to signing . However , the atmosphere in Jodhpur was in general hostile to accession to Pakistan . Mountbatten also pointed out that the accession of a predominantly Hindu state to Pakistan would violate the principle of the two @-@ nation theory on which Partition was based , and was likely to cause communal violence in the State . Hanwant Singh was persuaded by these arguments , and somewhat reluctantly agreed to accede to India .
= = = Junagadh = = =
Although the states were in theory free to choose whether they wished to accede to India or Pakistan , Mountbatten had pointed out that " geographic compulsions " meant that most of them must choose India . In effect , he took the position that only the states that shared a border with Pakistan could choose to accede to it .
The Nawab of Junagadh , a princely state located on the south @-@ western end of Gujarat and having no common border with Pakistan , chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten 's views , arguing that it could be reached from Pakistan by sea . The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh — Mangrol and Babariawad — reacted to this by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India . In response , the Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states . The rulers of neighbouring states reacted angrily , sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and appealed to the Government of India for assistance . A group of Junagadhi people , led by Samaldas Gandhi , formed a government @-@ in @-@ exile , the Aarzi Hukumat ( " temporary government " ) .
India believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan , the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat would worsen , and refused to accept the accession . The government pointed out that the state was 80 % Hindu , and called for a plebiscite to decide the question of accession . Simultaneously , they cut off supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh , severed air and postal links , sent troops to the frontier , and reoccupied the principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had acceded to India . Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite , subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops , a condition India rejected . On 26 October , the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian troops . On 7 November , Junagadh 's court , facing collapse , invited the Government of India to take over the State '
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s administration . The Government of India agreed . A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948 , which went almost unanimously in favour of accession to India .
= = = Jammu and Kashmir = = =
At the time of the transfer of power , the state of Jammu and Kashmir ( widely called " Kashmir " ) was ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh , a Hindu , although the state itself had a Muslim majority . Hari Singh was equally hesitant about acceding to either India or Pakistan , as either would have provoked adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom . He signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and proposed one with India as well , but announced that Kashmir intended to remain independent . However , his rule was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah , the popular leader of Kashmir 's largest political party , the National Conference , who demanded his abdication .
Pakistan , attempting to force the issue of Kashmir 's accession , cut off supplies and transport links . The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition had also severed transport links with India , meaning that Kashmir 's only links with the two dominions was by air . Rumours about atrocities against the Muslim population of Poonch by the Maharajah 's forces caused the outbreak of civil unrest . Shortly thereafter , Pathan tribesmen from the North @-@ West Frontier Province of Pakistan crossed the border and entered Kashmir . The invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar . The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India , asking for military assistance . India required the signing of an Instrument of Accession and setting up an interim government headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return . The Maharaja complied , but Nehru declared that it would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite , although there was no legal requirement to seek such confirmation .
Indian troops secured Jammu , Srinagar and the valley itself during the First Kashmir War , but the intense fighting flagged with the onset of winter , which made much of the state impassable . Prime Minister Nehru , recognising the degree of international attention brought to bear on the dispute , declared a ceasefire and sought UN arbitration , arguing that India would otherwise have to invade Pakistan itself , in view of its failure to stop the tribal incursions . The plebiscite was never held , and on 26 January 1950 , the Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir , but with special provisions made for the state . India did not , however , secure administrative control over all of Kashmir . The northern and western portions of Kashmir came under Pakistan 's control in 1947 , and are today Pakistan @-@ administered Kashmir . In the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War , China occupied Aksai Chin , the north @-@ eastern region bordering Ladakh , which it continues to control and administer .
= = = Hyderabad = = =
Hyderabad was a landlocked state that stretched over 82 @,@ 000 square miles ( over 212 @,@ 000 square kilometres ) in southeastern India . While 87 % of its 17 million people were Hindu , its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a Muslim , and its politics were dominated by a Muslim elite . The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad @-@ ul @-@ Muslimeen , a powerful pro @-@ Nizam Muslim party , insisted Hyderabad remain independent and stand on an equal footing to India and Pakistan . Accordingly , the Nizam in June 1947 issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of power , his state would be resuming independence . The Government of India rejected the firman , terming it a " legalistic claim of doubtful validity " . It argued that the strategic location of Hyderabad , which lay astride the main lines of communication between northern and southern India , meant it could easily be used by " foreign interests " to threaten India , and that in consequence , the issue involved national @-@ security concerns . It also pointed out that the state 's people , history and location made it unquestionably Indian , and that its own " common interests " therefore mandated its integration into India .
The Nizam was prepared to enter into a limited treaty with India , which gave Hyderabad safeguards not provided for in the standard Instrument of Accession , such as a provision guaranteeing Hyderabad 's neutrality in the event of a conflict between India and Pakistan . India rejected this proposal , arguing that other states would demand similar concessions . A temporary Standstill Agreement was signed as a stopgap measure , even though Hyderabad had not yet agreed to accede to India . By December 1947 , however , India was accusing Hyderabad of repeatedly violating the Agreement , while the Nizam alleged that India was blockading his state , a charge India denied .
The Nizam was also beset by the Telangana Rebellion , led by communists , which started in 1946 as a peasant revolt against feudal elements ; and one which the Nizam was not able to subjugate . The situation deteriorated further in 1948 . The Razakars ( " volunteers " ) , a militia affiliated to the Ittehad @-@ ul @-@ Muslimeen and set up under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi , assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu populace , and began intensifying its activities and was accused of attempting to intimidate villages . The Hyderabad State Congress Party , affiliated to the Indian National Congress , launched a political agitation . Matters were made worse by communist groups , which had originally supported the Congress but now switched sides and began attacking Congress groups . Attempts by Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed and , in August , the Nizam , claiming that he feared an imminent invasion , attempted to approach the UN Security Council and the International Court of Justice . Patel now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed to continue its independence , the prestige of the Government would be tarnished and then neither Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm .
On 13 September , the Indian Army was sent into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds that the law and order situation there threatened the peace of South India . The troops met little resistance by the Razakars and between 13 and 18 September took complete control of the state . The operation led to massive communal violence with estimates ranging from the official one of 27 @,@ 000 @-@ 40 @,@ 000 to scholarly ones of 200 @,@ 000 or more . The Nizam was retained as the head of state in the same manner as the other princes who acceded to India . He thereupon disavowed the complaints that had been made to the UN and , despite vehement protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from other countries , the Security Council did not deal further with the question , and Hyderabad was absorbed into India .
= = Completing integration = =
The Instruments of Accession were limited , transferring control of only three matters to India , and would by themselves have produced a rather loose federation , with significant differences in administration and governance across the various states . Full political integration , in contrast , would require a process whereby the political actors in the various states were " persuaded to shift their loyalties , expectations , and political activities towards a new center " , namely , the Republic of India . This was not an easy task . While some princely states such as Mysore had legislative systems of governance that were based on a broad franchise and not significantly different from those of British India , in others , political decision @-@ making took place in small , limited aristocratic circles and governance was , as a result , at best paternalistic and at worst the result of courtly intrigue . Having secured the accession of the princely states , the Government of India between 1948 and 1950 turned to the task of welding the states and the former British provinces into one polity under a single republican constitution .
= = = Fast @-@ track integration = = =
The first step in this process , carried out between 1947 and 1949 , was to merge the smaller states that were not seen by the Government of India to be viable administrative units either into neighbouring provinces , or with other princely states to create a " princely union " . This policy was contentious , since it involved the dissolution of the very states whose existence India had only recently guaranteed in the Instruments of Accession . Patel and Menon emphasised that without integration , the economies of states would collapse , and anarchy would arise if the princes were unable to provide democracy and govern properly . They pointed out that many of the smaller states were very small and lacked resources to sustain their economies and support their growing populations . Many also imposed tax rules and other restrictions that impeded free trade , and which had to be dismantled in a united India .
Given that merger involved the breach of guarantees personally given by Mountbatten , initially Patel and Nehru intended to wait until after his term as Governor @-@ General ended . An adivasi uprising in Orissa in late 1947 , however , forced their hand . In December 1947 , princes from the Eastern India Agency and Chhattisgarh Agency were summoned to an all @-@ night meeting with Menon , where they were persuaded to sign Merger Agreements integrating their states into Orissa , the Central Provinces and Bihar with effect from 1 January 1948 . Later that year , 66 states in Gujarat and the Deccan were merged into Bombay , including the large states of Kolhapur and Baroda . Other small states were merged into Madras , East Punjab , West Bengal , the United Provinces and Assam . Not all states that signed Merger Agreements were integrated into provinces , however . Thirty states of the former Punjab Hill States Agency which lay near the international border and had signed Merger Agreements were integrated into Himachal Pradesh , a distinct entity which was administered directly by the centre as a Chief Commissioner 's Province , for reasons of security .
The Merger Agreements required rulers to cede " full and exclusive jurisdiction and powers for and in relation to governance " of their state to the Dominion of India . In return for their agreement to entirely cede their states , it gave princes a large number of guarantees . Princes would receive an annual payment from the Indian government in the form of a privy purse as compensation for the surrender of their powers and the dissolution of their states . While state property would be taken over , their private property would be protected , as would all personal privileges , dignities and titles . Succession was also guaranteed according to custom . In addition , the provincial administration was obliged to take on the staff of the princely states with guarantees of equal pay and treatment .
Although the Merger Agreements were principally intended for smaller , non @-@ viable states , they were also applied to a few larger states . Kutch in western India , and Tripura and Manipur in Northeast India , all of which lay along international borders , were also asked to sign Merger Agreements , despite being larger states , following which they became Chief Commissioners ' Provinces . Bhopal , whose ruler was proud of the efficiency of his administration and feared that it would lose its identity if merged with the Maratha states that were its neighbours , also became a directly administered Chief Commissioner 's Province , as did Bilaspur , much of which was likely to be flooded on completion of the Bhakra dam .
= = = Four @-@ step integration = = =
= = = = Merger = = = =
The bulk of the larger states , and some groups of small states , were integrated through a different , four @-@ step process . The first step in this process was to convince groups of large states to combine to form a " princely union " through the execution by their rulers of Covenants of Merger . Under the Covenants of Merger , all rulers lost their ruling powers , save one who became the Rajpramukh of the new union . The other rulers were associated with two bodies — the council of rulers , whose members were the rulers of salute states , and a presidium , one or more of whose members were elected by the rulers of non @-@ salute states , with the rest elected by the council . The Rajpramukh and his deputy Uprajpramukh were chosen by the council from among the members of the presidium . The Covenants made provision for the creation of a constituent assembly for the new union which would be charged with framing its constitution . In return for agreeing to the extinction of their states as discrete entities , the rulers were given a privy purse and guarantees similar to those provided under the Merger Agreements .
Through this process , Patel obtained the unification of 222 states in the Kathiawar peninsula of his native Gujarat into the princely union of Saurashtra in January 1948 , with six more states joining the union the following year . Madhya Bharat emerged on 28 May 1948 from a union of Gwalior , Indore and eighteen smaller states . In Punjab , the Patiala and East Punjab States Union was formed on 15 July 1948 from Patiala , Kapurthala , Jind , Nabha , Faridkot , Malerkotla , Nalargarh , and Kalsia . The United State of Rajasthan was formed as the result of a series of mergers , the last of which was completed on 15 May 1949 . Travancore and Cochin were merged in the middle of 1949 to form the princely union of Travancore @-@ Cochin . The only princely states which signed neither Covenants of Merger nor Merger Agreements were Kashmir , Mysore and Hyderabad .
= = = = Democratisation = = = =
Merging the administrative machineries of each state and integrating them into one political and administrative entity was not easy , particularly as many of the merged states had a history of rivalry . In the former Central India Agency , whose princely states had initially been merged into a princely union called Vindhya Pradesh , the rivalry between two groups of states became so bad that the Government of India persuaded the rulers to sign a Merger Agreement abrogating the old Covenants of Merger , and took direct control of the state as a Chief Commissioner 's State . As such , the mergers did not meet the expectations of the Government of India or the States Department . In December 1947 , Menon suggested requiring the rulers of states to take " practical steps towards the establishment of popular government " . The States Department accepted his suggestion , and implemented it through a special covenant signed by the rajpramukhs of the merged princely unions , binding them to act as constitutional monarchs . This meant that their powers were de facto no different from those of the Governors of the former British provinces , thus giving the people of their territories the same measure of responsible government as the people of the rest of India .
The result of this process has been described as being , in effect , an assertion of paramountcy by the Government of India over the states in a more pervasive form . While this contradicted the British statement that paramountcy would lapse on the transfer of power , the Congress position had always been that independent India would inherit the position of being the paramount power .
= = = = Centralisation and constitutionalisation = = = =
Democratisation still left open one important distinction between the former princely states and the former British provinces , namely , that since the princely states had signed limited Instruments of Accession covering only three subjects , they were insulated from government policies in other areas . The Congress viewed this as hampering its ability to frame policies that brought about social justice and national development . Consequently , they sought to secure to the central government the same degree of powers over the former princely states as it had over the former British provinces . In May 1948 , at the initiative of V. P. Menon , a meeting was held in Delhi between the Rajpramukhs of the princely unions and the States Department , at the end of which the Rajpramukhs signed new Instruments of Accession which gave the Government of India the power to pass laws in respect of all matters that fell within the seventh schedule of the Government of India Act 1935 . Subsequently , each of the princely unions , as well as Mysore and Hyderabad , agreed to adopt the Constitution of India as the constitution of that state , thus ensuring that they were placed in exactly the same legal position vis @-@ à @-@ vis the central government as the former British provinces . The only exception was Kashmir , whose relationship with India continued to be governed by the original Instrument of Accession , and the constitution produced by the state 's Constituent Assembly .
The Constitution of India classified the constituent units of India into three classes — Part A , B , and C states . The former British provinces , together with the princely states that had been merged into them , were the Part A states . The princely unions , plus Mysore and Hyderabad , were the Part B states . The former Chief Commissioners ' Provinces and other centrally administered areas , except the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , were the Part C states . The only practical difference between the Part A states and the Part B states was that the constitutional heads of the Part B states were the Rajpramukhs appointed under the terms of the Covenants of Merger , rather than Governors appointed by the central government . In addition , Constitution gave the central government a significant range of powers over the former princely states , providing amongst other things that " their governance shall be under the general control of , and comply with such particular directions , if any , as may from time to time be given by , the President " . Apart from that , the form of government in both was identical .
= = = = Reorganisation = = = =
The distinction between Part A and Part B states was only intended to last for a brief , transitional period . In 1956 , the States Reorganisation Act reorganised the former British provinces and princely states on the basis of language . Simultaneously , the Seventh Amendment to the Constitution removed the distinction between Part A and Part B states , both of which were now treated only as " states " , with Part C states being renamed " union territories " . The Rajpramukhs lost their authority , and were replaced as the constitutional heads of state by Governors , who were appointed by the central government . These changes finally brought the princely order to an end . In both legal and practical terms , the territories that had been part of the princely states were now fully integrated into India and did not differ in any way from those that had been part of British India . The personal privileges of the princes — the privy purse , the exemption from customs duty , and customary dignities — survived , only to be abolished in 1971 .
= = Post @-@ integration issues = =
= = = The princes = = =
Although the progressive integration of the princely states into India was largely peaceful , not all princes were happy with the outcome . Many had expected the Instruments of Accession to be permanent , and were unhappy about losing the autonomy and the guaranteed continued existence of their states they had expected to gain . Some felt uneasy about the disappearance of states that generations of their family had controlled , while others were unhappy about the disappearance of administrative structures they had worked hard to build up and which they believed to be efficient . The majority , however , despite the " strain and tension " of adapting to life as private citizens , were content to retire on the generous pension provided by the privy purse . Several took advantage of their eligibility to hold public offices under the central government . The Maharaja of Bhavnagar , Col. Krishna Kumarasingh Bhavasingh Gohil , for example , became the Governor of Madras State , and several others were appointed to diplomatic posts overseas .
= = = Colonial enclaves = = =
The integration of the princely states raised the question of the future of the remaining colonial enclaves in India . At independence , the regions of Pondicherry , Karikal , Yanam , Mahe and Chandernagore were still colonies of France , and Daman and Diu , Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa remained colonies of Portugal . An agreement between France and India in 1948 provided for an election in France 's remaining Indian possessions to choose their political future . A plebiscite held in Chandernagore on 19 June 1949 resulted in a vote of 7 @,@ 463 to 114 in favour of being integrated with India . It was ceded to India on a de facto basis on 14 August 1949 and de jure on 2 May 1950 . In the other enclaves , however , the pro @-@ French camp , led by Edouard Goubert , used the administrative machinery to suppress the pro @-@ merger groups . Popular discontent rose , and in 1954 demonstrations in Yanam and Mahe resulted in pro @-@ merger groups assuming power . A referendum in Pondicherry and Karaikal in October 1954 resulted in a vote in favour of merger , and on 1 November 1954 , de facto control over all four enclaves was transferred to the Republic of India . A treaty of cession was signed in May 1956 , and following ratification by the French National Assembly in May 1962 , de jure control of the enclaves was also transferred .
Portugal , in contrast , resisted diplomatic solutions . It viewed its continued possession of its Indian enclaves as a matter of national pride and , in 1951 , it amended its constitution to convert its possessions in India into Portuguese provinces . In July 1954 , an uprising in Dadra and Nagar Haveli threw off Portuguese rule . The Portuguese attempted to send forces from Daman to reoccupy the enclaves , but were prevented from doing so by Indian troops . Portugal initiated proceedings before the International Court of Justice to compel India to allow its troops access to the enclave , but the Court rejected its complaint in 1960 , holding that India was within its rights in denying Portugal military access . In 1961 , the Constitution of India was amended to incorporate Dadra and Nagar Haveli into India as a Union Territory .
Goa , Daman and Diu remained an outstanding issue . On 15 August 1955 , five thousand non @-@ violent demonstrators marched against the Portuguese at the border , and were met with gunfire , killing 22 . In December 1960 , the United Nations General Assembly rejected Portugal 's contention that its overseas possessions were provinces , and formally listed them as " non @-@ self @-@ governing territories " . Although Nehru continued to favour a negotiated solution , the Portuguese suppression of a revolt in Angola in 1961 radicalised Indian public opinion , and increased the pressure on the Government of India to take military action . African leaders , too , put pressure on Nehru to take action in Goa , which they argued would save Africa from further horrors . On 18 December 1961 , following the collapse of an American attempt to find a negotiated solution , the Indian Army entered Portuguese India and defeated the Portuguese garrisons there . The Portuguese took the matter to the Security Council but a resolution calling on India to withdraw its troops immediately was defeated by the USSR 's veto . Portugal surrendered on 19 December . This take @-@ over ended the last of the European colonies in India . Goa was incorporated into India as a centrally administered union territory and , in 1987 , became a state .
= = = Sikkim = = =
Three princely states bordering India — Nepal , Bhutan and Sikkim — were not integrated into the Republic of India in the period between 1947 and 1950 . Nepal had been recognised by the British and the Government of India as being de jure independent . Bhutan had in the British period been considered a protectorate outside the international frontier of India . The Government of India entered into a treaty with Bhutan in 1949 continuing this arrangement , and providing that Bhutan would abide by the advice of the Government of India in the conduct of its external affairs .
Historically , Sikkim was a British dependency , with a status similar to that of the other princely states , and was therefore considered to be within the frontiers of India in the colonial period . On independence , however , the Chogyal of Sikkim resisted full integration into India . Given the region 's strategic importance to India , the Government of India signed first a Standstill Agreement and then in 1950 a full treaty with the Chogyal of Sikkim which in effect made it a protectorate which was no longer part of India . India had responsibility for defence , external affairs and communications , and ultimate responsibility for law and order , but Sikkim was otherwise given full internal autonomy . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Chogyal Palden Thondup Namgyal , supported by the minority Bhutia and Lepcha upper classes , attempted to negotiate greater powers , particularly over external affairs , to give Sikkim more of an international personality . These policies were opposed by Kazi Lhendup Dorji and the Sikkim State Congress , who represented the ethnic Nepali middle classes and took a more pro @-@ Indian view .
In April 1973 , anti @-@ Chogyal agitation broke out and protestors demanded popular elections . The Sikkim police were unable to control the demonstrations , and Dorji asked India to exercise its responsibility for law and order and intervene . India facilitated negotiations between the Chogyal and Dorji , and produced an agreement , which envisaged the reduction of the Chogyal to the role of a constitutional monarch and the holding of elections based on a new ethnic power @-@ sharing formula . The Chogyal 's opponents won an overwhelming victory , and a new Constitution was drafted providing for Sikkim to be associated with the Republic of India . On 10 April 1975 , the Sikkim Assembly passed a resolution calling for the state to be fully integrated into India . This resolution was endorsed by 97 % of the vote in a referendum held on 14 April 1975 , following which the Indian Government amended the constitution to admit Sikkim into India as its 22nd state .
= = = Secessionism and sub @-@ nationalism = = =
While the majority of princely states absorbed into India have been fully integrated , a few outstanding issues remain . The most prominent of these is in relation to Kashmir , where a violent secessionist insurgency has been raging since the late 1980s .
Some academics suggest that the insurgency in Kashmir is at least partly a result of the manner in which it was integrated into India . Kashmir , uniquely amongst princely states , was not required to sign either a Merger Agreement or a revised Instrument of Accession giving India control over a larger number of issues than the three originally provided for . Instead , the power to make laws relating to Kashmir was granted to the Government of India by Article 5 of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir and was , under Article 370 of the Constitution of India , somewhat more restricted than in relation to other states . Widmalm argues that during the 1980s , a number of Kashmiri youth began to feel that the Indian government was increasingly interfering in the politics of Jammu and Kashmir . The elections of 1987 caused them to lose faith in the political process and begin the violent insurgency which is still ongoing . Similarly , Ganguly suggests that the policies of the Indian government towards Kashmir meant that the state , unlike other parts of India , never developed the solid political institutions associated with a modern multi @-@ ethnic democracy . As a result , the growing dissatisfaction with the status quo felt by an increasingly politically aware youth was expressed through non @-@ political channels which Pakistan , seeking to weaken India 's hold over Kashmir , transformed into an active insurgency .
Separatist movements also exist in two other former princely states located in Northeast India — Tripura and Manipur . These separatist movements are generally treated by scholars as being part of the broader problem of insurgencies in North @-@ east India , rather being a result of specific problems in integrating the princely states into India , as the Kashmir problem is and , in particular , to reflect the failure of the Government of India to adequately address the aspirations of tribal groups in the Northeast , or to tackle the tensions arising from the immigration of people from other parts of India to the north @-@ eastern areas .
The integration of former princely states with other provinces to form new states has also given rise to some issues . The Telangana region , comprising the Telugu @-@ speaking districts of the former Hyderabad State , were in many ways different from the Telugu @-@ speaking areas of British India with which they were merged . In recognition of these differences , the States Reorganisation Commission originally recommended that Telangana be created as a separate state , rather than as part of a broader Telugu @-@ speaking entity . This recommendation was rejected by the Government of India , and Telangana was merged into Andhra Pradesh . The result was the emergence in the 1960s of a movement demanding a separate Telangana state . The demand has been accepted by the Union Government , leading to formation of Telangana as the 29th state of India in June 2014 . A similar movement , although less strong , exists in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra , which consists of the former Nagpur state and the Berar region of the former Hyderabad state .
= = Critical perspectives on the process of integration = =
The integration process repeatedly brought Indian and Pakistani leaders into conflict . During negotiations , Jinnah , representing the Muslim League , strongly supported the right of the princely states to remain independent , joining neither India nor Pakistan , an attitude which was diametrically opposed to the stance taken by Nehru and the Congress and which was reflected in Pakistan 's support of Hyderabad 's bid to stay independent . Post @-@ partition , the Government of Pakistan accused India of hypocrisy on the ground that there was little difference between the accession of the ruler of Junagadh to Pakistan — which India refused to recognise — and the accession of the Maharajah of Kashmir to India , and for several years refused to recognise the legality of India 's incorporation of Junagadh , treating it as de jure Pakistani territory .
Different theories have been proposed to explain the designs of Indian and Pakistani leaders in this period . Rajmohan Gandhi postulates that an ideal deal working in the mind of Patel was that if Muhammad Ali Jinnah let India have Junagadh and Hyderabad , Patel would not object to Kashmir acceding to Pakistan . In his book Patel : A Life , Gandhi asserts that Jinnah sought to engage the questions of Junagadh and Hyderabad in the same battle . It is suggested that he wanted India to ask for a plebiscite in Junagadh and Hyderabad , knowing thus that the principle then would have to be applied to Kashmir , where the Muslim @-@ majority would , he believed , vote for Pakistan . A speech by Patel at the Bahauddin College in Junagadh following the latter 's take @-@ over , where he said that " we would agree to Kashmir if they agreed to Hyderabad " , suggests that he may have been amenable to this idea . Although Patel 's opinions were not India 's policy , nor were they shared by Nehru , both leaders were angered at Jinnah 's courting the princes of Jodhpur , Bhopal and Indore , leading them to take a harder stance on a possible deal with Pakistan .
Modern historians have also re @-@ examined the role of the States Department and Lord Mountbatten during the accession process . Ian Copland argues that the Congress leaders did not intend the settlement contained in the Instruments of Accession to be permanent even when they were signed , and at all times privately contemplated a complete integration of the sort that ensued between 1948 and
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in Irish heraldry even after he was promoted from Norroy and Ulster to Clarenceux . After the Director of the National Library of Ireland was made the Chief Herald of Ireland , Brooke @-@ Little wrote to the Daily Telegraph of the importance of maintaining a strong tradition of heraldic and genealogical expertise in the Irish Office of Arms .
When Sir Colin Cole retired from the office of Garter king of Arms in 1992 , Brooke @-@ Little was a leading candidate to replace him . This is the highest heraldic office in England ; Garter is chairman of the Chapter of the College of Arms , as well as the King of Arms of the Order of the Garter . Due to his convivial life style , though , Brooke @-@ Little was not well suited to the managerial responsibilities of the office of Garter . Instead , the honour went to Sir Conrad Swan . On 19 June 1995 , Brooke @-@ Little was appointed to the office of Clarenceux King of Arms following the death of Sir Anthony Wagner . This is the senior of the two provincial Kings of Arms and the holder of the office has jurisdiction over England and Wales south of the Trent . The heralds had traditionally been appointed " for life on good behaviour " , but Brooke @-@ Little became Clarenceux shortly after compulsory retirement at age 70 was introduced , and he had to leave after only two years in this post . He ended his heraldic career without ever having attained the office of Garter King of Arms , or being honoured with a knighthood .
In addition to his duties as a professional herald , Brooke @-@ Little held three administrative positions at the College of Arms . From 1974 until 1982 , he served as Registrar , with responsibility to enter all new grants and confirmations of arms into the College records . Brooke @-@ Little 's signature can be found on the reverse of the letters patent for every grant made during this period . In addition , he served as the College 's librarian from 1974 until 1994 and the treasurer of the College of Arms from 1978 until 1995 . He was also the director of the Heralds ' Museum at the Tower of London from 1991 to 1997 ; this museum is no longer operating . Although Brooke @-@ Little enjoyed prominence as a professional officer of arms and as an author on heraldic subjects , his role in founding the Heraldry Society , and in guiding the society and editing its journal for many years , was perhaps his greatest contribution to the science of heraldry .
= = Other heraldic work = =
= = = Arms = = =
In 1952 , as John Brooke @-@ Little was entering the world of heraldry as a Gold Staff Officer , he began exploring the origins of his own arms . His family had been using the arms Azure , six lioncels rampant gules , but some research proved that the Brooke @-@ Littles had no right to these arms . John worked to apply for a grant on behalf of his father . When asked for input , his father noted that the lions previously used were improper and that he thought unicorns would be a good replacement . Red gouttes ( droplets ) alluded to the family 's former holding of the Manor of Slaughterford . The arms were granted to Raymond Brooke @-@ Little on 5 March 1952 . John quartered these arms with those of his mother , Constance Egan . The whole shield of arms is blazoned Quarterly : I and IV , argent , goutté de sang three unicorns ' heads erased sable armed and crined or langued azure ( Brooke @-@ Little ) ; II and III , azure , two dolphins haurient and addorsed or , the eyes gules , between four shamrocks slipped or . The crest is blazoned a demi @-@ unicorn rampant erased sable , armed , crined and unguled or , langued azure and collared gobony or and gules , with a chain or reflexed over the back and attached with a ring or . At the same time , the motto of Recte Aut Nil ( meaning ' correctly or not at all ' ) was granted , as well as John Brooke @-@ Little 's well @-@ used badge , blazoned a triquetra or interlaced by an annulet argent .
= = = The Heraldry Society = = =
In 1947 , a twenty @-@ year @-@ old Brooke @-@ Little founded the Society of Heraldic Antiquaries , which was renamed the Heraldry Society in 1950 . It was incorporated in 1956 and is now a registered charity . The principal object of the society is to extend interest in and knowledge of heraldry , genealogy , precedence , and related disciplines . Brooke @-@ Little served its chairman for fifty years . In 1997 , as he was ending his career as an officer of arms , he changed roles in the Society to become its president . He served in this role until his death . Brooke @-@ Little also served as the Honorary Editor of the society 's scholarly journal , the Coat of Arms . From the first publication of the journal until the middle of 1965 , his mother , Constance Egan , served as the managing editor of the Coat of Arms , though Brooke @-@ Little always had a guiding influence on the publication . It was not until 2005 that Brooke @-@ Little finally handed complete control of the journal to two young heralds : Peter O 'Donaghue , Bluemantle Pursuivant , and Clive Cheesman , Rouge Dragon Pursuivant .
= = = The White Lion Society = = =
Brooke @-@ Little was integral to the foundation of the White Lion Society . In 1984 , at a meeting of the Heraldry Society , it was suggested to Brooke @-@ Little , then Norroy and Ulster King of Arms , that it would be appropriate to found a " Society of Friends " of the College of Arms . Brooke @-@ Little explained that the late Wilfrid Scott @-@ Giles , Fitzalan Pursuivant , had previously suggested the same idea , proposing the name of the ' White Lion Society ' after the heraldic supporters of the College of Arms , which are two white lions ( alluding to the supporters of the Mowbray arms which the Earl Marshal inherited from his ancestors ) . Brooke @-@ Little put the idea before the Chapter of the College shortly after and with its approval , the Society came into being in 1986 .
= = Honours and appointments = =
Brooke @-@ Little garnered many honours and awards during his time of service to the Crown . He was appointed a 4th Class Member of the Royal Victorian Order ( an honour now known as Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order ) in 1969 for his services at the Investiture of the Prince of Wales . This was followed by a promotion to Commander of the Royal Victorian Order at the 1984 New Year Honours Though most Kings of Arms up to that time were knighted , that honour was never given to him . The closest that he came was in 1975 when he was made a Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem , the British revival of the ancient Knights Hospitaller of Saint John .
Brooke @-@ Little was an Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies and a Chevalier of the Order of the Fleur de Lys . He was Master of the Scriveners ' Company from 1985 until 1986 , Chairman of the Harleian Society , and President of the English Language Literary Trust for eleven years from 1985 until 1996 . His heraldic involvement carried over as a trustee of the Royal Air Force Heraldry Trust and an advisor on heraldry to the National Trust from 1983 until his death .
In addition to his honours in Britain , Brooke @-@ Little also served as Chancellor of the British Association of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta from 1973 to 1977 . He was first admitted to the Order as a Knight of Magistral Grace , and would eventually hold the rank of Knight Grand Cross of Grace and Devotion . He was also honoured with the Order of Merito Melitense in 1964 and was made a Knight Grand Cross of Grace of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George . In addition to these honours , he held the Cruz Distinguida ( 1st class ) de San Raimundo de Penafort .
= = Published works = =
Brooke @-@ Little was the author or editor of at least ten books including :
Boutell 's Heraldry ( editor of the editions from 1963 to 1983 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7232 @-@ 3093 @-@ 5 ) .
Royal Arms
Royal London ( Pitkin , 1953 , ASIN B0000CIJW3 )
The University City of Oxford ( Pitkin , 1955 , ASIN B0000CJ3SY )
Knights of the Middle Ages ( Evelyn , 1966 , ASIN B0000CN6TZ )
An Heraldic Alphabet ( Macdonald , 1973 , ISBN 0 @-@ 356 @-@ 08112 @-@ 5 ; Robson , 1998 , ISBN 1 @-@ 86105 @-@ 077 @-@ 1 , ISBN 0 @-@ 86051 @-@ 320 @-@ 3 )
Beasts in Heraldry ( 1974 )
The British Monarchy in Colour ( Blandford , 1976 , ISBN 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 0774 @-@ 7 )
Royal Heraldry : Beasts and Badges of Britain ( Pilgrim Press , 1977 , ISBN 0 @-@ 900594 @-@ 37 @-@ 3 )
Royal Ceremonies of State ( Country Life , 1980 , ISBN 0 @-@ 600 @-@ 37628 @-@ 1 )
Fox Davies ' Complete Guide to Heraldry ( revised edition , ISBN 0 @-@ 7232 @-@ 2096 @-@ 4 )
= Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway =
The Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway is a parkway located in the town of Lake George , New York . The road is 5 @.@ 88 miles ( 9 @.@ 46 km ) long , starting at the U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and New York State Route 9N ( NY 9N ) concurrency and ending at the peak of Prospect Mountain . Although the road is designated as New York State Route 917A , an unsigned reference route , by the New York State Department of Transportation , all maintenance on the roadway is performed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation .
= = Route description = =
The parkway begins at an intersection with Routes 9 and 9N ( Canada Street ) in the town of Lake George . The parkway passes through a gate , heading up the base of Prospect Mountain . The route is very scenic , with trees on both sides of the road . Route 917A parallels Birch Ave . , a street in Lake George . Soon after , the parkway passes over Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 , named the Adirondack Northway ) . The road expands to several lanes after the Northway , coming to a tollbooth . After the toll booth , the parkway begins to head up the mountain . With large heavy , stabilized rocks on both sides of the road , used as a guard rail to prevent danger ( such as running off of the road ) , the parkway curves around the mountain , intersecting with several specialized scenic overlooks . The road curves around the several peaks of Prospect Mountain , coming to an end at the main peak at 5 @.@ 88 miles ( 9 @.@ 46 km ) , where a 100 @-@ mile ( 161 km ) view can be seen . The furthest that can be seen are the Green Mountains in Vermont and the White Mountains in New Hampshire .
= = History = =
Prospect Mountain originally had to use an incline railway car to access the house at the top where people could dance and eat . Construction on the railway began in January 1895 and cost $ 120 @,@ 000 total . Construction was finished six months later , with the railway opening on June 15 , 1895 . After failing financially , the railway system ceased operation in 1903 . The area was bought and soon donated to the State of New York . The nearby hiking trail that heads up towards the mountaintop is part of the old railway .
In 1932 , the building at the top of the mountain burned down and was replaced by a steel fire tower . For 30 years , people studied what to do with the land , which was owned by the state , and in 1954 , New York Governor Tom Dewey signed legislation to build a highway up the mountain . Twelve years later , in 1966 , then @-@ Governor Nelson Rockefeller made funds available for the highway . The Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway was opened in 1969 , dedicated to war veterans and providing access to the 2 @,@ 021 @-@ foot ( 616 m ) summit with a 100 @-@ mile ( 161 km ) view at its peak .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lake George , Warren County .
= Gamma @-@ ray burst =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts ( GRBs ) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies . They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe . Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours . After an initial flash of gamma rays , a longer @-@ lived " afterglow " is usually emitted at longer wavelengths ( X @-@ ray , ultraviolet , optical , infrared , microwave and radio ) .
The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is believed to be released during a supernova or hypernova as a rapidly rotating , high @-@ mass star collapses to form a neutron star , quark star , or black hole . A subclass of GRBs ( the " short " bursts ) appear to originate from a different process : the merger of binary neutron stars . The cause of the precursor burst observed in some of these short events may be due to the development of a resonance between the crust and core of such stars as a result of the massive tidal forces experienced in the seconds leading up to their collision , causing the entire crust of the star to shatter .
The sources of most GRBs are billions of light years away from Earth , implying that the explosions are both extremely energetic ( a typical burst releases as much energy in a few seconds as the Sun will in its entire 10 @-@ billion @-@ year lifetime ) and extremely rare ( a few per galaxy per million years ) . All observed GRBs have originated from outside the Milky Way galaxy , although a related class of phenomena , soft gamma repeater flares , are associated with magnetars within the Milky Way . It has been hypothesized that a gamma @-@ ray burst in the Milky Way , pointing directly towards the Earth , could cause a mass extinction event .
GRBs were first detected in 1967 by the Vela satellites , a series of satellites designed to detect covert nuclear weapons tests . Hundreds of theoretical models were proposed to explain these bursts in the years following their discovery , such as collisions between comets and neutron stars . Little information was available to verify these models until the 1997 detection of the first X @-@ ray and optical afterglows and direct measurement of their redshifts using optical spectroscopy , and thus their distances and energy outputs . These discoveries , and subsequent studies of the galaxies and supernovae associated with the bursts , clarified the distance and luminosity of GRBs . These facts definitively placed them in distant galaxies and also connected long GRBs with the explosion of massive stars , the only possible source for the energy outputs observed .
= = History = =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts were first observed in the late 1960s by the U.S. Vela satellites , which were built to detect gamma radiation pulses emitted by nuclear weapons tested in space . The United States suspected that the USSR might attempt to conduct secret nuclear tests after signing the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 . On July 2 , 1967 , at 14 : 19 UTC , the Vela 4 and Vela 3 satellites detected a flash of gamma radiation unlike any known nuclear weapons signature . Uncertain what had happened but not considering the matter particularly urgent , the team at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory , led by Ray Klebesadel , filed the data away for investigation . As additional Vela satellites were launched with better instruments , the Los Alamos team continued to find inexplicable gamma @-@ ray bursts in their data . By analyzing the different arrival times of the bursts as detected by different satellites , the team was able to determine rough estimates for the sky positions of sixteen bursts and definitively rule out a terrestrial or solar origin . The discovery was declassified and published in 1973 as an Astrophysical Journal article entitled " Observations of Gamma @-@ Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin " .
Many theories were advanced to explain
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pointed towards the direction from which the burst had originated , it detected fading X @-@ ray emission . The William Herschel Telescope identified a fading optical counterpart 20 hours after the burst . Once the GRB faded , deep imaging was able to identify a faint , distant host galaxy at the location of the GRB as pinpointed by the optical afterglow .
Because of the very faint luminosity of this galaxy , its exact distance was not measured for several years . Well before then , another major breakthrough occurred with the next event registered by BeppoSAX , GRB 970508 . This event was localized within four hours of its discovery , allowing research teams to begin making observations much sooner than any previous burst . The spectrum of the object revealed a redshift of z = 0 @.@ 835 , placing the burst at a distance of roughly 6 billion light years from Earth . This was the first accurate determination of the distance to a GRB , and together with the discovery of the host galaxy of 970228 proved that GRBs occur in extremely distant galaxies . Within a few months , the controversy about the distance scale ended : GRBs were extragalactic events originating within faint galaxies at enormous distances . The following year , GRB 980425 was followed within a day by a coincident bright supernova ( SN 1998bw ) , indicating a clear connection between GRBs and the deaths of very massive stars . This burst provided the first strong clue about the nature of the systems that produce GRBs .
BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and CGRO ( with BATSE ) was deorbited in 2000 . However , the revolution in the study of gamma @-@ ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs , especially in the earliest moments following the explosion . The first such mission , HETE @-@ 2 , launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006 , providing most of the major discoveries during this period . One of the most successful space missions to date , Swift , was launched in 2004 and as of 2016 is still operational . Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on @-@ board X @-@ ray and optical telescopes , which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe afterglow emission following a burst . More recently , the Fermi mission was launched carrying the Gamma @-@ Ray Burst Monitor , which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year , some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi 's Large Area Telescope . Meanwhile , on the ground , numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the Gamma @-@ ray Burst Coordinates Network . This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB , often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma @-@ ray emission itself is still ongoing .
New developments over the past few years include the recognition of short gamma @-@ ray bursts as a separate class ( likely due to merging neutron stars and not associated with supernovae ) , the discovery of extended , erratic flaring activity at X @-@ ray wavelengths lasting for many minutes after most GRBs , and the discovery of the most luminous ( GRB 080319B ) and the former most distant ( GRB 090423 ) objects in the universe . The most distant known GRB , GRB 090429B , is now the most distant known object in the universe .
= = Classification = =
The light curves of gamma @-@ ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex . No two gamma @-@ ray burst light curves are identical , with large variation observed in almost every property : the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes , there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses , and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading . Some bursts are preceded by a " precursor " event , a weak burst that is then followed ( after seconds to minutes of no emission at all ) by the much more intense " true " bursting episode . The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns .
Although some light curves can be roughly reproduced using certain simplified models , little progress has been made in understanding the full diversity observed . Many classification schemes have been proposed , but these are often based solely on differences in the appearance of light curves and may not always reflect a true physical difference in the progenitors of the explosions . However , plots of the distribution of the observed duration for a large number of gamma @-@ ray bursts show a clear bimodality , suggesting the existence of two separate populations : a " short " population with an average duration of about 0 @.@ 3 seconds and a " long " population with an average duration of about 30 seconds . Both distributions are very broad with a significant overlap region in which the identity of a given event is not clear from duration alone . Additional classes beyond this two @-@ tiered system have been proposed on both observational and theoretical grounds .
= = = Short gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
Events with a duration of less than about two seconds are classified as short gamma @-@ ray bursts . These account for about 30 % of gamma @-@ ray bursts , but until 2005 , no afterglow had been successfully detected from any short event and little was known about their origins . Since then , several dozen short gamma @-@ ray burst afterglows have been detected and localized , several of which are associated with regions of little or no star formation , such as large elliptical galaxies and the central regions of large galaxy clusters . This rules out a link to massive stars , confirming that short events are physically distinct from long events . In addition , there has been no association with supernovae .
The true nature of these objects ( or even whether the current classification scheme is accurate ) remains unknown , although the leading hypothesis is that they originate from the mergers of binary neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole . Such mergers might also be expected to produce kilonovae , and evidence for a kilonova associated with GRB 130603B has been seen . The mean duration of these events of 0 @.@ 2 seconds suggests a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms ; less than 0 @.@ 2 light @-@ seconds ( about 37 @,@ 000 miles — four times the Earth 's diameter ) . This further suggests a very compact object as the source . The observation of minutes to hours of X @-@ ray flashes after a short gamma @-@ ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds , followed by some hours of lesser energy events , as remaining fragments of tidally disrupted neutron star material ( no longer neutronium ) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole , over a longer period of time . A small fraction of short gamma @-@ ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from soft gamma repeaters in nearby galaxies .
= = = Long gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
Most observed events ( 70 % ) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma @-@ ray bursts . Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows , they have been studied in much greater detail than their short counterparts . Almost every well @-@ studied long gamma @-@ ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation , and in many cases to a core @-@ collapse supernova as well , unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars . Long GRB afterglow observations , at high redshift , are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star @-@ forming regions .
= = = Ultra @-@ long gamma @-@ ray bursts = = =
These events are at the tail end of the long GRB duration distribution , lasting more than 10 @,@ 000 seconds . They have been proposed to form a separate class , possibly the result of the collapse of a blue supergiant star . Only a small number have been identified to date , their primary characteristic being their gamma ray emission duration . So far , the known and well established ultra long GRBs are GRB 091024A , GRB 101225A , and GRB 111209A . A recent study , on the other hand , shows that the existing evidence for a separate ultra @-@ long GRB population with a new type of progenitor is inconclusive , and further multi @-@ wavelength observations are needed to draw a firmer conclusion .
= = Energetics and beaming = =
Gamma @-@ ray bursts are very bright as observed from Earth despite their typically immense distances . An average long GRB has a bolometric flux comparable to a bright star of our galaxy despite a distance of billions of light years ( compared to a few tens of light years for most visible stars ) . Most of this energy is released in gamma rays , although some GRBs have extremely luminous optical counterparts as well . GRB 080319B , for example , was accompanied by an optical counterpart that peaked at a visible magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 , comparable to that of the dimmest naked @-@ eye stars despite the burst 's distance of 7 @.@ 5 billion light years . This combination of brightness and distance implies an extremely energetic source . Assuming the gamma @-@ ray explosion to be spherical , the energy output of GRB 080319B would be within a factor of two of the rest @-@ mass energy of the Sun ( the energy which would be released were the Sun to be converted entirely into radiation ) .
No known process in the universe can produce this much energy in such a short time . Rather , gamma @-@ ray bursts are thought to be highly focused explosions , with most of the explosion energy collimated into a narrow jet traveling at speeds exceeding 99 @.@ 995 % of the speed of light . The approximate angular width of the jet ( that is , the degree of spread of the beam ) can be estimated directly by observing the achromatic " jet breaks " in afterglow light curves : a time after which the slowly decaying afterglow begins to fade rapidly as the jet slows and can no longer beam its radiation as effectively . Observations suggest significant variation in the jet angle from between 2 and 20 degrees .
Because their energy is strongly focused , the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected . When a gamma @-@ ray burst is pointed towards Earth , the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically . When this effect is taken into account , typical gamma @-@ ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 1044 J , or about 1 / 2000 of a Solar mass ( M ☉ ) energy equivalent — which is still many times the mass @-@ energy equivalent of the Earth ( about 5 @.@ 5 × 1041 J ) . This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib / c supernova and within the range of theoretical models . Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs . Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic .
Short ( time duration ) GRBs appear to come from a lower @-@ redshift ( i.e. less distant ) population and are less luminous than long GRBs . The degree of beaming in short bursts has not been accurately measured , but as a population they are likely less collimated than long GRBs or possibly not collimated at all in some cases .
= = Progenitors = =
Because of the immense distances of most gamma @-@ ray burst sources from Earth , identification of the progenitors , the systems that produce these explosions , is particularly challenging . The association of some long GRBs with supernovae and the fact that their host galaxies are rapidly star @-@ forming offer very strong evidence that long gamma @-@ ray bursts are associated with massive stars . The most widely accepted mechanism for the origin of long @-@ duration GRBs is the collapsar model , in which the core of an extremely massive , low @-@ metallicity , rapidly rotating star collapses into a black hole in the final stages of its evolution . Matter near the star 's core rains down towards the center and swirls into a high @-@ density accretion disk . The infall of this material into a black hole drives a pair of relativistic jets out along the rotational axis , which pummel through the stellar envelope and eventually break through the stellar surface and radiate as gamma rays . Some alternative models replace the black hole with a newly formed magnetar , although most other aspects of the model ( the collapse of the core of a massive star and the formation of relativistic jets ) are the same .
The closest analogs within the Milky Way galaxy of the stars producing long gamma @-@ ray bursts are likely the Wolf – Rayet stars , extremely hot and massive stars which have shed most or all of their hydrogen due to radiation pressure . Eta Carinae and WR 104 have been cited as possible future gamma @-@ ray burst progenitors . It is unclear if any star in the Milky Way has the appropriate characteristics to produce a gamma @-@ ray burst .
The massive @-@ star model probably does not explain all types of gamma @-@ ray burst . There is strong evidence that some short @-@ duration gamma @-@ ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and where no massive stars are present , such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos . The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma @-@ ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars . According to this model , the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other due to the release of energy via gravitational radiation until the neutron stars suddenly rip each other apart due to tidal forces and collapse into a single black hole . The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy , analogous to the collapsar model . Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma @-@ ray bursts , including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole , the accretion @-@ induced collapse of a neutron star , or the evaporation of primordial black holes .
An alternative explanation proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg is that in the course of a gravitational collapse and in reaching the event horizon of a black hole , all matter disintegrates into a burst of gamma radiation .
= = = Tidal disruption events = = =
This new class of GRB @-@ like events was first discovered through the detection of GRB 110328A by the Swift Gamma @-@ Ray Burst Mission on 28 March 2011 . This event had a gamma @-@ ray duration of about 2 days , much longer than even ultra @-@ long GRBs , and was detected in X @-@ rays for many months . It occurred at the center of a small elliptical galaxy at redshift z = 0 @.@ 3534 . There is an ongoing debate as to whether the explosion was the result of stellar collapse or a tidal disruption event accompanied by a relativistic jet , although the latter explanation has become widely favoured .
A tidal disruption event of this sort is when a star interacts with a supermassive black hole shredding the star , and in some cases creating a relativistic jet which produces bright emission of gamma ray radiation . The event GRB 110328A ( also denoted Swift J1644 + 57 ) was initially argued to be produced by the disruption of main sequence star by a black hole of several million times the mass of the Sun , although it has subsequently been argued that the disruption of a white dwarf by a black hole of mass about 10 thousand times the Sun may be more likely .
= = Emission mechanisms = =
The means by which gamma @-@ ray bursts convert energy into radiation remains poorly understood , and as of 2010 there was still no generally accepted model for how this process occurs . Any successful model of GRB emission must explain the physical process for generating gamma @-@ ray emission that matches the observed diversity of light curves , spectra , and other characteristics . Particularly challenging is the need to explain the very high efficiencies that are inferred from some explosions : some gamma @-@ ray bursts may convert as much as half ( or more ) of the explosion energy into gamma @-@ rays . Early observations of the bright optical counterparts to GRB 990123 and to GRB 080319B , whose optical light curves were extrapolations of the gamma @-@ ray light spectra , have suggested that
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Mephisto , resulting in several adjustments to the timeline , such as the resurrection of Harry Osborn , the erasure of Parker 's marriage , and the return of his traditional tools and powers .
That storyline came at the behest of editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada , who said , " Peter being single is an intrinsic part of the very foundation of the world of Spider @-@ Man " . It caused unusual public friction between Quesada and writer J. Michael Straczynski , who " told Joe that I was going to take my name off the last two issues of the [ story ] arc " but was talked out of doing so . At issue with Straczynski 's climax to the arc , Quesada said , was
... that we didn 't receive the story and methodology to the resolution that we were all expecting . What made that very problematic is that we had four writers and artists well underway on [ the sequel arc ] " Brand New Day " that were expecting and needed " One More Day " to end in the way that we had all agreed it would . ... The fact that we had to ask for the story to move back to its original intent understandably made Joe upset and caused some major delays and page increases in the series . Also , the science that Joe was going to apply to the retcon of the marriage would have made over 30 years of Spider @-@ Man books worthless , because they never would have had happened . ... [ I ] t would have reset way too many things outside of the Spider @-@ Man titles . We just couldn 't go there ....
Following the " reboot " , Parker 's identity was no longer known to the general public ; however , he revealed it to other superheroes. and others have deduced it . Parker 's Aunt May marries J. Jonah Jameson 's father , Jay Jameson . Parker became an employee of the think @-@ tank Horizon Labs . In issue # 700 , the dying supervillain Doctor Octopus swaps bodies with Parker , who remains as a presence in Doctor Octopus 's mind , prompting a two @-@ year storyline in the series The Superior Spider @-@ Man in which Peter Parker is absent and Doctor Octopus is Spider @-@ Man . Peter eventually regains control of his body . Following Peter Parker 's return , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was relaunched in April 2014 . In December 2014 , following the Death of Wolverine comic book , Spider @-@ Man became the new headmaster of the Jean Grey School and began appearing more prominently in X @-@ Men stories , taking Wolverine 's role in the comic Wolverine and the X @-@ Men .
= = Personality = =
As one contemporaneous journalist observed , " Spider @-@ Man has a terrible identity problem , a marked inferiority complex , and a fear of women . He is anti @-@ social , [ sic ] castration @-@ ridden , racked with Oedipal guilt , and accident @-@ prone ... [ a ] functioning neurotic " . Agonizing over his choices , always attempting to do right , he is nonetheless viewed with suspicion by the authorities , who seem unsure as to whether he is a helpful vigilante or a clever criminal .
Notes cultural historian Bradford W. Wright ,
Spider @-@ Man 's plight was to be misunderstood and persecuted by the very public that he swore to protect . In the first issue of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , J. Jonah Jameson , publisher of the Daily Bugle , launches an editorial campaign against the " Spider @-@ Man menace . " The resulting negative publicity exacerbates popular suspicions about the mysterious Spider @-@ Man and makes it impossible for him to earn any more money by performing . Eventually , the bad press leads the authorities to brand him an outlaw . Ironically , Peter finally lands a job as a photographer for Jameson 's Daily Bugle .
The mid @-@ 1960s stories reflected the political tensions of the time , as early 1960s Marvel stories had often dealt with the Cold War and Communism . As Wright observes ,
From his high @-@ school beginnings to his entry into college life , Spider @-@ Man remained the superhero most relevant to the world of young people . Fittingly , then , his comic book also contained some of the earliest references to the politics of young people . In 1968 , in the wake of actual militant student demonstrations at Columbia University , Peter Parker finds himself in the midst of similar unrest at his Empire State University .... Peter has to reconcile his natural sympathy for the students with his assumed obligation to combat lawlessness as Spider @-@ Man . As a law @-@ upholding liberal , he finds himself caught between militant leftism and angry conservatives .
= = Powers , skills , and equipment = =
A bite from a radioactive spider triggers mutations in Peter Parker 's body , granting him superpowers . In the original Lee @-@ Ditko stories , Spider @-@ Man has the ability to cling to walls , superhuman strength , a sixth sense ( " spider @-@ sense " ) that alerts him to danger , perfect balance and equilibrium , as well as superhuman speed and agility . The character was originally conceived by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko as intellectually gifted , but later writers have depicted his intellect at genius level . Academically brilliant , Parker has expertise in the fields of applied science , chemistry , physics , biology , engineering , mathematics , and mechanics . With his talents , he sews his own costume to conceal his identity , and he constructs many devices that complement his powers , most notably mechanical web @-@ shooters . This mechanism ejects an advanced adhesive , releasing web @-@ fluid in a variety of configurations , including a single rope @-@ like strand to swing from , a net to snare or bind enemies , and a simple glob to foul machinery or blind an opponent . He can also weave the web material into simple forms like a shield , a spherical protection or hemispherical barrier , a club , or a hang @-@ glider wing . Other equipment include spider @-@ tracers ( spider @-@ shaped adhesive homing beacons keyed to his own spider @-@ sense ) , a light beacon which can either be used as a flashlight or project a " Spider @-@ Signal " design , and a specially modified camera that can take pictures automatically .
= = Other versions = =
Due to Spider @-@ Man 's popularity in the mainstream Marvel Universe , publishers have been able to introduce different variations of Spider @-@ Man outside of mainstream comics as well as reimagined stories in many other multiversed spinoffs such as Ultimate Spider @-@ Man , Spider @-@ Man 2099 , and Spider @-@ Man : India . Marvel has also made its own parodies of Spider @-@ Man in comics such as Not Brand Echh , which was published in the late 1960s and featured such characters as Peter Pooper alias Spidey @-@ Man , and Peter Porker , the Spectacular Spider @-@ Ham , who appeared in the 1980s . The fictional character has also inspired a number of deratives such as a manga version of Spider @-@ Man drawn by Japanese artist Ryoichi Ikegami as well as Hideshi Hino 's The Bug Boy , which has been cited as inspired by Spider @-@ Man . Also the French comic Télé @-@ Junior , which published strips based on popular TV series , produced original Spider @-@ Man adventures in the late 1970s ; artists included Gérald Forton , who later moved to America and worked for Marvel .
= = Supporting characters = =
Spider @-@ Man has had a large range of supporting characters introduced in the comics that are essential in the issues and storylines that star him . After his parents died , Peter Parker was raised by his loving aunt , May Parker , and his uncle and father figure , Ben Parker . After Uncle Ben is murdered by a burglar , Aunt May is virtually Peter 's only family , and she and Peter are very close .
J. Jonah Jameson is depicted as the publisher of the Daily Bugle and is Peter Parker 's boss and as a harsh critic of Spider @-@ Man , always saying negative things about the superhero in the newspaper . Despite his role as Jameson 's publishing editor and confidant Robbie Robertson is always depicted as a supporter of both Peter Parker and Spider @-@ Man .
Eugene " Flash " Thompson is commonly depicted as Parker 's high school tormentor and bully , but in later comic issues he becomes a friend to Peter . Meanwhile , Harry Osborn , son of Norman Osborn , is most commonly recognized as Peter 's best friend but has also been depicted sometimes as his rival in the comics .
Peter Parker 's romantic interests range between his first crush , the fellow high @-@ school student Liz Allan , to having his first date with Betty Brant , the secretary to the Daily Bugle newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson . After his breakup with Betty Brant , Parker eventually falls in love with his college girlfriend Gwen Stacy , daughter of New York City Police Department detective captain George Stacy , both of whom are later killed by supervillain enemies of Spider @-@ Man . Mary Jane Watson eventually became Peter 's best friend and then his wife . Felicia Hardy , the Black Cat , is a reformed cat burglar who had been Spider @-@ Man 's girlfriend and partner at one point .
= = = Enemies = = =
Writers and artists over the years have established a rogues gallery of supervillains to face Spider @-@ Man . In comics and in other media . As with the hero , the majority of the villains ' powers originate with scientific accidents or the misuse of scientific technology , and many have animal @-@ themed costumes or powers . Examples are listed down below in the ordering of their original chronological appearance : Note : Alter ego characters who are the most high profile in the supervillain alias but others have shared that supervillain name are in bold . Indicates a group team .
= = = = Archenemies = = = =
Unlike a lot of well known rivalries in comics book depictions . Spider @-@ Man is cited to have more than one archenemy and it can
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ardine would mean Machida will be awarded with a title shot . Jackson won the fight via unanimous decision , but torn ligaments in his jaw forced the former champion out of the bout . Instead , Machida will challenge Evans for the UFC Light Heavyweight Championship at UFC 98 . Jackson will retain his title shot against the winner of that match upon returning from injury . Following the loss to Machida , Thiago Silva was scheduled to return to action against former champion Forrest Griffin at UFC 101 , but his opponent was later changed to Keith Jardine .
Karo Parisyan 's next fight was to be against American Kickboxing Academy 's Josh Koscheck at UFC 98 . However , due to Parisyan 's nine @-@ month suspension from the NSAC for a failed drug test due to painkillers , the future of this fight is uncertain .
= = Results = =
= = Bonus awards = =
The UFC awarded some fighters $ 65 @,@ 000 bonuses for their performance .
Fights of the Night : Clay Guida vs. Nate Diaz and John Howard vs. Chris Wilson
Knockout of the Night : Lyoto Machida
Submission of the Night : Not awarded as no matches ended by submission
= = Reported payout = =
The following is the reported payout to the fighters as reported to the Nevada State Athletic Commission . It does not include sponsor money or " locker room " bonuses often given by the UFC .
George St @-@ Pierre ( $ 400 @,@ 000 – includes $ 200 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . B.J. Penn ( $ 125 @,@ 000 )
Lyoto Machida ( $ 120 @,@ 000 – includes $ 60 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Thiago Silva ( $ 29 @,@ 000 )
Jon Jones ( $ 14 @,@ 000 – includes $ 7 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Stephan Bonnar ( $ 22 @,@ 000 )
Karo Parisyan ( $ 80 @,@ 000 – includes $ 40 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Dong Hyun Kim ( $ 26 @,@ 000 )
Clay Guida ( $ 40 @,@ 000 – includes $ 20 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Nate Diaz ( $ 20 @,@ 000 )
Jon Fitch ( $ 68 @,@ 000 – includes $ 34 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Akihiro Gono ( $ 28 @,@ 000 )
Thiago Tavares ( $ 26 @,@ 000 – includes $ 13 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Manny Gamburyan ( $ 14 @,@ 000 )
John Howard ( $ 6 @,@ 000 – includes $ 3 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Chris Wilson ( $ 15 @,@ 000 )
Dan Cramer ( $ 16 @,@ 000 – includes $ 8 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Matt Arroyo ( $ 8 @,@ 000 )
Jake O 'Brien ( $ 22 @,@ 000 – includes $ 11 @,@ 000 win bonus ) def . Christian Wellisch ( $ 12 @,@ 000 )
= Tropical Storm Arlene ( 2011 ) =
Tropical Storm Arlene , the first named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season , brought blustery conditions to much of eastern Mexico in late June to early July 2012 . Arlene originated from an Atlantic tropical wave , which crossed the Yucatán Peninsula before emerging over warm waters in the Bay of Campeche . Despite moderate wind shear , the disturbance strengthened and developed a surface circulation , prompting the National Hurricane Center to declare it a tropical storm on June 28 . Arlene remained vigorous for most of its existence ; the storm peaked in intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on June 30 , just before making landfall on the coast of Veracruz . Crossing the mountains of eastern Mexico , Arlene weakened to a depression before dissipating early on July 1 .
The precursor disturbance to Arlene brought significant rainfall to parts of Central America , killing three people and triggering widespread flooding and landslides . Throughout Mexico , prolonged rains from Arlene and subsequent flooding affected hundreds of homes and several roads , causing many residents to seek shelter . At the height of the storm , power was lost to 285 @,@ 000 homes . At least 22 people in Mexico were killed by Arlene . Elsewhere , rainfall from the storm alleviated ongoing drought conditions in southern Texas and Florida .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Arlene can be traced to a distinct tropical wave , embedded within an area of deep atmospheric moisture , that emerged off the coast of Africa on June 13 , 2011 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic for several days , reaching the western Caribbean Sea in late June . By June 24 , it began interacting with the extension of a monsoon trough in the region , generating broad cyclonic flow and scattered convection in conjunction with an upper trough to its northwest . The amplified wave slowly proceeded west @-@ northwestward along Central America , bringing heavy rainfall to the area . Initially , the disturbance 's development was impeded by the trough aloft and adjacent land , though the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis over the Bay of Campeche , coupled with abating wind shear . On June 26 , the disturbance moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula , emerging into the bay the next day as it produced a surface low . Despite moderate shear , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system revealed that a closed wind circulation had formed at sea level . Thunderstorm activity became more concentrated , and the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Arlene at midnight June 29 , after the cyclone 's surface winds increased to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) about 280 mi ( 450 km ) south @-@ southeast of Tampico , Tamaulipas .
Over the following hours , deep convection increased around the broad storm , though its circulation center continued to lack in organization . Arlene curved to the west in response to a ridge of high pressure to its north and northwest . As the shear over the region further decreased , the large storm began to strengthen gradually , developing spiral convective bands closer to its center . Although forecast models supported intensification to hurricane status , significant development was compromised by a lack of distinguishable central features . On June 30 , just before Arlene made landfall , Dvorak satellite estimates indicated the storm had reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) while accelerating off the coast of Veracruz . Arlene moved ashore near Cabo Rojo as a strong tropical storm by 09 : 00 UTC , with the severest winds confined to the north of the center .
Farther inland , Arlene turned to the west @-@ southwest along the building ridge . The storm decreased in strength upon doing so ; its mid- and low @-@ level circulations became increasingly decoupled , with the latter turning elongated and ill @-@ defined . Early on July 1 , the NHC downgraded Arlene to a tropical depression , and the cyclone dissipated over the high terrain of the Sierra Madre Mountains shortly thereafter . Arlene 's remnants continued to produce heavy precipitation over central Mexico , and with high air pressures offshore a tight pressure gradient generated a strong easterly breeze along the country 's Pacific coastlines .
= = Preparations = =
Due to the threat of heavy rainfall from Arlene 's precursor , authorities issued a green alert in Honduras for 13 departments on the afternoon of June 24 , which remained in effect for 72 hours . In El Salvador , the departments of La Unión , Ahuachapán , and Sonsonate were put under green alerts on June 26 after rains persisted over the region . Across the Yucatán Peninsula , officials and emergency workers braced for heavy rains as the system developed . Marine and fishing operations were suspended , while schools in Benito Juárez were closed on June 28 .
In response to Arlene 's formation , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for coastal areas from Barra de Nautla northward to Bahia Algodones on June 29 . Later that day , a hurricane watch was put into effect for the area extending from Tuxpan to La Cruz , after the storm showed signs of strengthening . They were both extended shortly after , with the watch then reaching to Barra de Nautla and the warning further southward to Palma Sola , though the latter was simultaneously discontinued for areas to the north of La Pesca . Prior to landfall , the Mexican Social Security Institute ( IMSS ) activated a contingency plan for risk zones in the states of Veracruz and Tamaulipas . Emergency crews and medical teams were subsequently dispatched to the area in order to supply medical care to possible victims and manage power plant water pumps in case of flooding . An alert was declared for Pemex — a major oil company within the storm 's projected path — in consideration of possible impact to refineries and other facilities .
Over 50 temporary shelters were made available in flood @-@ prone areas across various municipalities in Veracruz . Authorities in Tamaulipas prepared five shelters and mobilized of 10 emergency teams to evacuate up to 20 @,@ 000 people in anticipation of adverse weather conditions . In Hidalgo , 250 shelters were opened and emergency workers were dispatched as a safety measure . At the risk of flash flooding , public storm shelters were made available in parts of Oaxaca .
= = Impact = =
= = = Central America = = =
For several days , the precursor disturbance to Arlene dropped significant amounts of rain along coastal Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula . In Honduras , floods killed one person and collapsed a major bridge near the Goascorán River , leaving about 600 families isolated from surrounding areas . Elsewhere in the country , a rockslide occurred along a road to San José de Colinas , and several rivers overflowed due to the effects of the storm . In neighboring El Salvador , maximum rainfall amounts totaled 8 @.@ 34 in ( 212 mm ) . Two people drowned in San Miguel , while 25 others were displaced in La Unión due to the floods . Scattered moderate showers also affected several parts of Nicaragua , triggering mudslides and overflowing a river in Cuapa . Along the riverside , 30 homes suffered inundations and 94 people evacuated the area .
= = = Mexico = = =
Tropical Storm Arlene and its remnants produced hours of prolonged rainfall over much of northeastern and south @-@ central Mexico . Widespread floods and landslides impacted multiple states , prompting evacuations and causing copious damage to property and infrastructure . At the height of the storm , about 285 @,@ 000 households lost power throughout Mexico , though service was quickly restored to 210 @,@ 000 homes . Schools remained closed in the morning throughout Hidalgo , as well as in parts of San Luis Potosí , Guerrero , Puebla , and Oaxaca . Throughout the country , Arlene resulted in 22 confirmed fatalities and left one person missing .
= = = = La Huasteca Region = = = =
Arlene brought strong thunderstorms and showers to much of eastern Mexico , with gale @-@ force winds along adjacent coastlines . Upon landfall in Veracruz , Arlene produced wind speeds to 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) and up to 9 @.@ 11 in ( 231 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall . The winds and rain uprooted trees and caused extensive flooding , prompting at least 1 @,@ 786 people throughout the state to evacuate their homes . A total of 67 landslides took place in the state ; one such landslide collapsed two houses in Tlalnelhuayocan , killing one inhabitant and injuring 10 others . Mudslides and rockfall also uprooted trees and damaged eight cars in Banerilla , though no injuries were linked to the incident . In Tihuatlán , a rescue worker was killed during the passage of the storm . Overall , Arlene affected 3 @,@ 358 residences across 50 municipalities in Veracruz ; about 2 @,@ 000 homes were damaged in El Higo . Continued downpours brought on the overflow of 28 rivers , as well as the isolation of 116 communities statewide . Other effects in Veracruz included considerable infrastructural failure , localized land subsidence , and three damaged schools in Coacoatzintla . The costs of road reconstructions totaled Mex $ 126 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) . In response to the devastation , the government declared a state of emergency for 65 percent of the state ; by July 5 , 62 municipalities remained under alert .
Heavy rains fell over Taumalipas , with 348 @.@ 8 mm measured along the Tamesí River . Widespread flooding forced some 400 families to evacuate throughout the state ; 70 trapped families in El Mante had to be rescued from their flooded homes . At the height of the storm , high @-@ voltage electrocutions due to downed power lines caused two deaths in the municipalities of Tampico and Reynosa while critically injuring two workers in Matamoros . By July 4 , two more deaths were reported in the state , though their causes remain unspecified . Approximately 40 @,@ 000 residents suffered property damage to their homes . A state of emergency was declared in the municipalities of Tampico , Ciudad Madero , Altamira , and González in light of the damage . Broken drains and sewers in the storm 's wake increased the risk of cholera through contaminated water . Damage estimates in Tamaulipas exceeded Mex $ 67 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 8 million ) . In neighboring San Luis Potosí , Arlene dropped 12 @.@ 18 in ( 309 @.@ 4 mm ) of rain and claimed the lives of five people , two due to drownings . Landslides left dozens of communities isolated , and more than 600 residents fled from flooded areas , particularly in Ciudad Valles , Tamazunchale , El Naranjo , and Xilitla .
Farther inland , in Hidalgo , about 100 families required evacuation across the municipalities of Tlanchinol and Orizatlán due to heavy rain , with 7 @.@ 09 in ( 180 @.@ 1 mm ) recorded in the latter . The rainfall triggered more than 80 landslides statewide , and two were killed in a rockslide near the town of Jacala . Swollen rivers in El Arenal and Huejutla caused two drownings . Total damage from Arlene reached Mex $ 2 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 207 @.@ 4 million ) across Hidalgo . In response , the state government allocated a total Mex $ 17 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 45 million ) for rehabilitation works . Downpours in the state of Puebla triggered landslides that cut off roads to traffic . Toppled trees struck a home in the municipality of Zihuateutla , killing its inhabitant . In Tlacotepec municipality , a girl was left missing after falling into a rushing stream ; by July 4 , officials confirmed she had drowned . After hours of prolonged rainfall , concerns arose over the potential overflow of a dam in the municipality of Tlatlauquitepec . Three houses sustained damage in Eloxochitlán as a consequence of excessively saturated soils , and another collapsed in Atempan . Elsewhere in Puebla , mud and flood waters reached 1 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) in a school after a nearby river overflowed .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
Upon moving ashore near Quintana Roo , the system spread cloudiness and precipitation across much of the Yucatán Peninsula , resulting in widespread flooding . In southern Mexico , Chiapas received rainfall amounts of 9 @.@ 3 in ( 237 mm ) in Tapachula and Soconusco over a 36 @-@ hour time span . Floods , landslides , and strong winds damaged more than 450 homes in the state . Emergency workers evacuated about 150 families after two rivers in the region reached dangerous water levels . In the wake of Arlene , one fatality was confirmed in Chiapas . Rainfall in Oaxaca inflicted damage to multiple roads and collapsed one bridge ; communication was lost with over 12 @,@ 000 people from Mixe – Zapotec communities . The storm 's remnants caused a landslide that overturned a taxi , killing one of its nine passengers . Weather conditions in Michoacán — which was still recovering from the impact of Pacific Hurricane Beatriz — deteriorated significantly ; 1 @,@ 600 homes sustained additional damage , while damaged roads and bridges secluded multiple coastal communities in Aquila . In Guerrero , three people were killed in traffic accidents due to inclement weather . Torrential rainfall throughout the state flooded 210 homes and left one person missing , with some uprooted trees and rockfall occurring along mountainous areas .
= = = United States = = =
In Florida , moisture tracing behind Arlene produced showers , alleviating ongoing extreme drought conditions in the state . The National Weather Service warned for the potential of flooding rains in the drought @-@ stricken region of southern Texas . Officials in Cameron County ordered the preparation of sandbags , as well as the inspection of water pumps and vehicles to deal with floodwaters . In Hidalgo County , the storm spawned a weak tornado that damaged roofs , toppled vehicles , and injured one person prior to moving into Mexico .
= Cento vergilianus de laudibus Christi =
Cento vergilianus de laudibus Christi ( Latin : [ kʰɛn.toː vɛr.ɡɪl.ɪ.aː.nʊs deː lau ̯ .dɪ.bʊs kʰrs.tiː ] ; A Virgilian Cento Concerning the Glory of Christ ) , also known as De laudibus Christi and Cento Probae , is the title of a fourth century AD poem of the Roman Empire . It was arranged by Faltonia Betitia Proba c . AD 350 – 360 following the author 's conversion to Christianity .
A cento is a poetical work wholly composed of verses or passages taken from other authors , disposed in a new form or order . Reworking verses extracted from the works of Virgil , one of the greatest poets of Latin literature , Proba 's poem details several stories from the Old and New Testament of the Christian Bible , with the crux of the work focusing on the story of Jesus Christ .
The impetus for its creation is unknown , although several hypotheses have been put forward , namely that Proba was trying to circumvent a law put in place by the Roman Emperor Julian that forbade Christians from teaching classical Greek and Latin literature which they themselves did not believe in , or that Proba was responding to and rebutting the rather unflattering and demonizing descriptions of Jesus put forth by Julian in his works Caesares and Contra Galilaeos . The work was circulated heavily , although it was deemed apocryphal by Pope Gelasius I. Furthermore , many scholars believe that St. Jerome disliked the work . However , the likes of Isidore of Seville , Petrarch , and Giovanni Boccaccio praised Proba . In the 19th and 20th centuries , the work was criticized for being of poor quality , but recently , scholars have taken a renewed interest in it .
= = Origin and style = =
Faltonia Betitia Proba , the cento 's author , was born around AD 322 . Proba was married to Clodius Celsinus Adelphius , who was a prefect of Rome in AD 351 . Proba was a noted poet , and her first work ( which is now lost ) was called the Constantini bellum adversus Magnentium ; this poem dealt with the war between Roman Emperor Constantius II and the usurper Magnentius . At some point in her life , Proba converted from paganism to Christianity . De laudibus Christi , was written following her conversion , probably sometime c.AD 350 – 360 , and was an attempt by the poet to “ turn away from battle and slayings in order to write holy things . ”
The majority of the work takes the form of a Virgilian cento , or a patchwork of verses extracted from several works of the Roman poet Virgil ( although the work 's proemium and invocation section is composed of several original lines of Latin , in addition to lines borrowed from or alluding to Virgil , the Silver Age poet Lucan , and the 4th century poet Juvencus ) . This creative choice on the part of Proba seems to have been made for two reasons . First , Virgil was an extremely influential poet , having been commissioned by the first Roman emperor Caesar Augustus to write the epic poem the Aeneid . Virgil ’ s influence was felt well in to late antiquity , and was imitated by others , such as Juvencus and Prudentius . The respect that was given to Virgil eventually manifested in the form of the aforementioned centos , which reached their acme in the fourth century AD . Second , Virgil was often appropriated by Christian authors , due to a popular interpretation of his fourth Eclogue , which many believed to be a prophecy concerning the birth of Jesus .
= = Contents = =
The cento 's 694 lines are divided into a proemium with invocation ( lines 1 – 55 ) , episodes from the Old Testament ( Genesis , lines 56 – 318 ; Exodus , lines
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of " how brilliant God is " on an other " essential " album . Pitchfork Media 's Neil Lieberman found some of the ballads tedious and the melodies " cheesy " . Citing " Lost Ones " and " Superstar " as highlights , Village Voice reviewer Robert Christgau deemed it the " PC record of the year " , featuring exceptionally understated production and skillful rapping but also inconsistent lyrics , average singing , and superfluous skits . He appreciated the " knowledge [ and ] moral authority " of Hill 's perspective and values , although he lamented her appraisal of God on record . In the Los Angeles Times , Soren Baker believed Hill was more effective as a critical rapper than a singer on the more emotional songs , where her voice was " too thin to carry such heavy subject matter " .
= = Tour = =
Initially , there was no immediate tour planned due to the album not needing the promotion , and Hill was pregnant again with a child due in September 1998 . Her first live performances of the songs were at Saturday Night Live and the Billboard Music Awards . In January 1999 , Hill recruited a band and began rehearsals for what would become The Miseducation Tour . As soon as the tour was announced , tickets immediately sold out .
The tour began at Budokan in Tokyo on January 21 , 1999 . Hill performed there again the following night , and played at two other Tokyo venues in the following week . One week later , she flew to London for her performance at the Brixton Academy on February 8 , 1999 . With 20 US dates total , the American part of the tour , which featured Outkast as the opening act , started on February 18 in Detroit , and ended on April 1 , 1999 , at Hill 's hometown , Newark , New Jersey . She began the tour 's 14 @-@ date European leg on May 13 , when she performed at the Oslo Spektrum in Norway , closing on June 2 at the Manchester Arena in England . She then returned to Japan , where the tour was completed .
Hill did not want an extensive tour because of obligations to her family and the difficulties she experienced touring with the Fugees in 1996 , which she found desensitizing and isolating . According to Hill biographer Chris Nickson in 1999 , " there was the possibility of more dates being added ... but it was unlikely that Lauryn would be willing to make the tour more grueling and draining . She 'd come to know that there was much more to life than a career . "
= = Lawsuit = =
Though The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was largely a collaborative work between Hill and a group of musicians known as New Ark ( Vada Nobles , Rasheem Pugh , Tejumold and Johari Newton ) , there was " label pressure to do the Prince thing , " wherein all tracks would be credited as " written and produced by " the artist with little outside help . While recording the album , when Hill was asked about providing contracts or documentation to the musicians , she replied : " We all love each other . This ain 't about documents . This is blessed . "
In 1998 , New Ark filed a 50 @-@ page lawsuit against Hill , her management and her record label , stating that Hill " used their songs and production skills , but failed to properly credit them for the work . " The musicians claimed to be the primary songwriters on two tracks , and major contributors on several others , though Gordon Williams , the album 's mixer and engineer , described the project as a " powerfully personal effort by Hill ... It was definitely her vision . " In response to the lawsuit , Hill claimed that New Ark took advantage of her success . New Ark requested partial writing credits , and monetary reimbursement . The suit was eventually settled out of court in February 2001 for a reported $ 5 million .
= = Accolades = =
At the end of 1998 , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was voted the second best record of the year in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published in The Village Voice . Hill was nominated ten times for the 1999 Grammy Awards , making her the first woman to ever be nominated that many times in one year . She won five Grammys , including awards in the Best New Artist , Best R & B Song , Best Female R & B Vocal Performance , and Best R & B Album categories . The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill also won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year , making it the first hip hop record to ever receive that award . Hill set a new record in the industry , as she also became the first woman to win five Grammys in one night . It also earned her nominations at the NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Female Artist , Outstanding Album , and Outstanding Song ( " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " ) . At the Billboard Music Awards , the record won in the R & B Album of the Year category , while " Doo Wop " won Best R & B / Urban New Artist Clip , and at the 1999 American Music Awards , Hill won the award for Best New Soul / R & B artist . She also won a Soul Train award and received a nomination for Best International Female Solo Artist at the Brit Awards .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill has since appeared on a number of lists ranking the greatest albums ever ; according to Acclaimed Music , it is the 154th most ranked record on critics ' all @-@ time lists .
= = Legacy = =
With The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill 's success , Hill became a national media icon , as magazines ranging from Time to Esquire to Teen People vied to place her on their front covers . In a February 8 , 1999 , Time cover @-@ story , Hill was credited for helping fully assimilate hip hop into mainstream music , making her the first hip hop artist to ever appear on the magazine 's front cover . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the record at number 314 in the magazine 's " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " list , its entry reading , " Hill took Seventies soul and made it boom and signify to the hip @-@ hop generation on her solo debut . " Jon Caramanica , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called it " as earnest , unpretentious , and pleasantly sloppy an album as any woman of the hip @-@ hop generation has ever made " , and said that , by appealing to a wide spectrum of listeners with hip hop filtered through a " womanist lens " , the album propelled Hill to superstardom " of epic proportions " and " the focal point at hip @-@ hop 's crossover into the mainstream . " Music journalist Peter Shapiro cited it as " the ultimate cross @-@ over album of the hip @-@ hop era . "
Along with Erykah Badu 's 1997 debut Baduizm , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was also an important release in the neo soul music scene . According to Ebony magazine , it brought the neo soul genre to the forefront of popular music , and became the genre 's most critically acclaimed and popular album . According to the Encyclopedia of African American Music ( 2010 ) , " some tracks are based more in hip hop soul than neo soul , but the record is filled with live musicians and layered harmonies , and therefore it is a trendsetting record that connects modern hip hop , R & B , and classic soul music together , creating groundwork for what followed it in the neo soul genre . " On its fifteenth anniversary , American rapper Nas reviewed the album for XXL giving it the publication 's highest rating . He viewed it as a model for artists of all genres to follow and " a timeless record , pure music ... It represents the time period — a serious moment in Black music , when young artists were taking charge and breaking through doors . " In 2015 , The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the Library of Congress and selected for inclusion in the National Recording Registry .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Instrumentalists = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = = Vocalists = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Mendy Rudolph =
Marvin " Mendy " Rudolph ( March 8 , 1926 – July 4 , 1979 ) was an American professional basketball referee in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for 22 years , from 1953 to 1975 . Regarded as one of the greatest officials in NBA history , Rudolph officiated 2 @,@ 112 NBA games ( a record held at retirement ) and was the first league referee to work 2 @,@ 000 games . He was also selected to referee eight NBA All @-@ Star Games and made 22 consecutive NBA Finals appearances .
Following his career as a referee , he was a color commentator for CBS Sports 's coverage of the NBA on CBS for two seasons from 1975 to 1977 and he appeared in a television advertisement for Miller Lite . He was a member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Class of 2007 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , Rudolph was raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania . His father , Harry Rudolph , was a prominent basketball referee and baseball umpire . Mendy Rudolph played basketball as a child and eventually chose the same profession as his father . Upon graduating from James M. Coughlin High School , he began officiating basketball games at the Wilkes @-@ Barre Jewish Community Center and later worked scholastic games . At age 20 , he was recruited to referee games alongside his father , who served as Eastern Professional Basketball League ( Eastern League ) President from 1956 to 1970 . During his career in the Eastern League , he officiated his first Eastern League President 's Cup championship series in 1948 and was selected as a referee in at least one game in every President 's Cup playoff and championship series between 1949 and 1953 . At the same time , he also served in the United States Air Force during the Korean War .
Rudolph was married twice during his life . His first marriage was to his childhood sweetheart and together they raised three children . But the relationship became troubled and eventually ended . In 1961 , Mendy Rudolph met Susan , a receptionist at the WGN office in New York City , while both worked for the station . At the time , Rudolph worked at WGN as an additional job outside of officiating , which was common among referees from his era . Mendy and Susan Rudolph were married in 1973 . Two years later , their first child , Jennifer Rudolph , was born .
= = = Gambling problem = = =
Throughout his life , Rudolph suffered from a gambling problem and was labeled a " compulsive gambler " . He would often spend his leisure time placing bets at race tracks and Las Vegas , Nevada and Puerto Rico casinos . At that time , NBA referees were allowed to gamble , but this practice has since been prohibited . As he incurred gambling losses , Rudolph was once offered by a Las Vegas gambler to erase his outstanding debt by participating in point shaving . However , he refused to accept the offer and said to his wife , " It goes against all my principles . I love the game too much , respect it too much . I couldn 't do it to you . I couldn 't do it to the memory of my father , and I couldn 't do it to myself . If I have to go into bankruptcy , something I 'd hate to do , I 'd do it , " according to in a 1992 New York Times interview with Susan Rudolph . Rudolph had cashed in his $ 60 @,@ 000 pension fund to pay debts and he still owed an additional $ 100 @,@ 000 . While he refused to seek professional help , Rudolph cut back on his gambling habit later in his life .
= = NBA officiating career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Rudolph was recommended by Eddie Gottlieb , coach and owner of the NBA 's Philadelphia Warriors at the time , to then @-@ NBA commissioner Maurice Podoloff , after observing Rudolph officiate an exhibition game . Rudolph was hired by the NBA in February 1953 , midway through the 1952 – 53 NBA season and he became the youngest official in the league . In his early years with the NBA , Rudolph quickly became an established official as he worked playoff games within his first two years in the league .
= = = Memorable NBA Finals games = = =
Rudolph officiated the 1955 NBA Finals between the Syracuse Nationals and Fort Wayne Pistons , which was notable for its actions by fans , fights between players , and attacks on referees . Game 3 of the series , played in Indianapolis , Indiana , was interrupted by a fan who threw a chair on the floor and ran on the court to protest calls made by Rudolph and referee Arnie Heft . Six years later , he made history by officiating the entire 1961 NBA Finals between the Boston Celtics and St. Louis Hawks with his colleague Earl Strom .
Rudolph and Strom officiated another notable game in the 1964 NBA Finals . In Game 5 of the championship series , Wilt Chamberlain , playing for the San Francisco Warriors , knocked out Clyde Lovellette of the Boston Celtics with a punch . Celtics head coach Red Auerbach stormed onto the court and demanded that Chamberlain be thrown out of the game . The latter told Auerbach if he did not " shut up " , he would be knocked down to the floor with Lovellette . Auerbach countered the threat , " Why don 't you pick on somebody your own size . " Rudolph intervened the discussion and told Auerbach , " Red , do you have any other seven @-@ footers who 'd like to volunteer ? "
= = = Head of officials = = =
As his career progressed in the league , Rudolph took on responsibilities beyond officiating . In 1966 , he was named referee @-@ in @-@ chief and worked alongside Dolph Schayes , who was hired as the league 's supervisor of officials that year to replace Sid Borgia . In this position , he oversaw areas that pertained to referee mechanics , techniques , and rule interpretations . It was in this role that he authored the NBA Official ’ s Manual and Case Book .
While he served as head of officials , the NBA lost four veteran officials — Norm Drucker , Joe Gushue , Earl Strom , and John Vanak to the rival American Basketball Association ( ABA ) in 1969 over salary and benefits . At the time of transaction , Rudolph told Strom , " ( Deputy Commissioner ) Carl [ Scheer ] , ( NBA Commissioner ) Walter [ Kennedy ] , and I were prepared to offer you guys the greatest contract in the history of pro basketball . "
By the early 1970s , Rudolph successfully encouraged the league to adopt a plain gray referee uniform over the traditional " zebra " shirt to de @-@ emphasize the presence of officials in games .
= = = Final years = = =
By 1975 , Rudolph 's health condition began to deteriorate and he was forced to retire after suffering a blood clot in his lung during a 1975 NBA playoff game between the Buffalo Braves and Washington Bullets , played April 25 , 1975 . In his final game , he had to be carried off the court . On November 9 , 1975 , Rudolph officially ended his career as a referee in the NBA , in which he officiated more games ( 2 @,@ 113 ) than any official in league history at the time . Earl Strom later broke Rudolph ’ s record and officiated over 2 @,@ 400 games in his 30 @-@ year career .
= = Post @-@ officiating career = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
Following his officiating career , Rudolph transitioned to a career in broadcasting . During the 1975 @-@ 76 and 1976 @-@ 77 NBA seasons , he worked as a television analyst for CBS Sports covering The NBA on CBS . During his first season , he was paired with Brent Musburger and Rick Barry for the 1976 NBA Finals . This championship series was most memorable for a triple @-@ overtime Game 5 , which has been labeled the " greatest game " in NBA history . In this game , Celtic John Havlicek made an apparent game @-@ winning field goal at the conclusion of the second overtime . The game clock had expired , but Rudolph , along with Musburger and Barry , noted that the shot was made with two seconds remaining . Referee Richie Powers , however , decided that one second remained in the second overtime period .
= = = Television commercial = = =
In 1976 , Rudolph was featured in a Miller Brewing Company television advertisement along with then @-@ Celtics head coach Tom Heinsohn to promote Miller Lite 's " Tastes Great , Less Filling " advertising campaign . Rudolph and Heinsohn debated whether Miller Lite was less filling or tastes great in a bar room scene . After Heinsohn refused to agree that Lite was , first and foremost , less filling , Rudolph threw his thumb in the air and screamed , " You 're out of the bar . " This advertisement popularized Miller 's campaign slogan and the campaign was named eighth best of the 20th century by Advertising Age in 1999 .
= = Legacy = =
Rudolph died on July 4 , 1979 from a heart attack in New York City . Mendy and Susan Rudolph were standing outside a movie theatre entrance when Mendy collapsed . After unsuccessful attempts at mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth resuscitation , he was taken to a hospital where he died an hour after arrival . At the time of his death , then @-@ NBA Commissioner Larry O 'Brien said of Rudolph , " Mendy 's contributions to the integrity of pro basketball are legendary . " Officials wore a patch with Rudolph 's uniform number , 5 , on their sleeves the following season after his death , the 1979 @-@ 80 NBA season , to honor him . No other official in the NBA has worn this number to the present day .
Known for his charisma , personality , and iconic stature on the court , Rudolph symbolized NBA officiating during the early years of the NBA to fans of professional basketball and became the most recognizable official during the NBA 's first four decades . Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe said of Rudolph , " If any man other than Red Auerbach ever earned the title of NBA institution , it was certainly Mendy Rudolph . " Upon retirement , he set a precedent for the
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standards that future referees are judged . Early in his officiating career , Joe Crawford ( later hired by the NBA in 1977 ) attended games that Rudolph worked in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania and studied his style and approach . Earl Strom credited Rudolph for being an influence on the development of his career in the NBA . In his autobiography , Calling the Shots , Strom described Rudolph as " one of the most prominent referees because of his style , courage , and judgment . He had excellent judgment . He made the call regardless of the pressure , whom it involved , or where it was . " Strom later told The New York Times that " Mendy Rudolph was simply the greatest referee of all time . "
Strom was also an advocate to get Rudolph enshrined into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . On April 2 , 2007 , Rudolph was announced as one of the seven members of the Basketball Hall of Fame 's Class of 2007 to be enshrined in September 2007 , twenty @-@ eight years after his death . It was reported that the length of time for Rudolph to become elected was the result of his gambling lifestyle . He became the thirteenth referee to be inducted into the Hall of Fame .
= Commutative property =
In mathematics , a binary operation is commutative if changing the order of the operands does not change the result . It is a fundamental property of many binary operations , and many mathematical proofs depend on it . Most familiar as the name of the property that says " 3 + 4
= 4 + 3 " or " 2 × 5 =
5 × 2 " , the property can also be used in more advanced settings . The name is needed because there are operations , such as division and subtraction , that do not have it ( for example , " 3 − 5 ≠ 5 − 3 " ) , such operations are not commutative , or noncommutative operations . The idea that simple operations , such as multiplication and addition of numbers , are commutative was for many years implicitly assumed and the property was not named until the 19th century when mathematics started to become formalized .
= = Common uses = =
The commutative property ( or commutative law ) is a property generally associated with binary operations and functions . If the commutative property holds for a pair of elements under a certain binary operation then the two elements are said to commute under that operation .
= = Mathematical definitions = =
The term " commutative " is used in several related senses .
= = Examples = =
= = = Commutative operations in everyday life = = =
Putting on socks resembles a commutative operation since which sock is put on first is unimportant . Either way , the result ( having both socks on ) , is the same . In contrast , putting on underwear and trousers is not commutative .
The commutativity of addition is observed when paying for an item with cash . Regardless of the order the bills are handed over in , they always give the same total .
= = = Commutative operations in mathematics = = =
Two well @-@ known examples of commutative binary operations :
The addition of real numbers is commutative , since
<formula>
For example 4 + 5
= 5 + 4 , since both expressions equal 9 .
The multiplication of real numbers is commutative , since
<formula>
For example , 3 × 5 =
5 × 3 , since both expressions equal 15 .
Some binary truth functions are also commutative , since the truth tables for the functions are the same when one changes the order of the operands .
For example , the logical biconditional function p ↔ q is equivalent to q ↔ p . This function is also written as p IFF q , or as p ≡ q , or as Epq .
The last form is an example of the most concise notation in the article on truth functions , which lists the sixteen possible binary truth functions of which eight are commutative : Vpq
= Vqp ; Apq ( OR ) =
Aqp ; Dpq ( NAND )
= Dqp ; Epq ( IFF ) =
Eqp ; Jpq
= Jqp ; Kpq ( AND ) =
Kqp ; Xpq ( NOR )
= Xqp ; Opq =
Oqp .
Further examples of commutative binary operations include addition and multiplication of complex numbers , addition and scalar multiplication of vectors , and intersection and union of sets .
= = = Noncommutative operations in everyday life = = =
Concatenation , the act of joining character strings together , is a noncommutative operation . For example ,
<formula>
Washing and drying clothes resembles a noncommutative operation ; washing and then drying produces a markedly different result to drying and then washing .
Rotating a book 90 ° around a vertical axis then 90 ° around a horizontal axis produces a different orientation than when the rotations are performed in the opposite order .
The twists of the Rubik 's Cube are noncommutative . This can be studied using group theory .
Also thought processes are noncommutative : A person asked a question ( A ) and then a question ( B ) may give different answers to each question than a person asked first ( B ) and then ( A ) , because asking a question may change the person 's state of mind .
= = = Noncommutative operations in mathematics = = =
Some non @-@ commutative binary operations :
= = History and etymology = =
Records of the implicit use of the commutative property go back to ancient times . The Egyptians used the commutative property of multiplication to simplify computing products . Euclid is known to have assumed the commutative property of multiplication in his book Elements . Formal uses of the commutative property arose in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , when mathematicians began to work on a theory of functions . Today the commutative property is a well known and basic property used in most branches of mathematics .
The first recorded use of the term commutative was in a memoir by François Servois in 1814 , which used the word commutatives when describing functions that have what is now called the commutative property . The word is a combination of the French word commuter meaning " to substitute or switch " and the suffix -ative meaning " tending to " so the word literally means " tending to substitute or switch . " The term then appeared in English in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1844 .
= = Propositional logic = =
= = = Rule of replacement = = =
In truth @-@ functional propositional logic , commutation , or commutativity refer to two valid rules of replacement . The rules allow one to transpose propositional variables within logical expressions in logical proofs . The rules are :
<formula>
and
<formula>
where " <formula> " is a metalogical symbol representing " can be replaced in a proof with . "
= = = Truth functional connectives = = =
Commutativity is a property of some logical connectives of truth functional propositional logic . The following logical equivalences demonstrate that commutativity is a property of particular connectives . The following are truth @-@ functional tautologies .
Commutativity of conjunction
<formula>
Commutativity of disjunction
<formula>
Commutativity of implication ( also called the law of permutation )
<formula>
Commutativity of equivalence ( also called the complete commutative law of equivalence )
<formula>
= = Set theory = =
In group and set theory , many algebraic structures are called commutative when certain operands satisfy the commutative property . In higher branches of mathematics , such as analysis and linear algebra the commutativity of well @-@ known operations ( such as addition and multiplication on real and complex numbers ) is often used ( or implicitly assumed ) in proofs .
= = Mathematical structures and commutativity = =
A commutative semigroup is a set endowed with a total , associative and commutative operation .
If the operation additionally has an identity element , we have a commutative monoid
An abelian group , or commutative group is a group whose group operation is commutative .
A commutative ring is a ring whose multiplication is commutative . ( Addition in a ring is always commutative . )
In a field both addition and multiplication are commutative .
= = Related properties = =
= = = Associativity = = =
The associative property is closely related to the commutative property . The associative property of an expression containing two or more occurrences of the same operator states that the order operations are performed in does not affect the final result , as long as the order of terms doesn 't change . In contrast , the commutative property states that the order of the terms does not affect the final result .
Most commutative operations encountered in practice are also associative . However , commutativity does not imply associativity . A counterexample is the function
<formula>
which is clearly commutative ( interchanging x and y does not affect the result ) , but it is not associative ( since , for example , <formula> but <formula> ) . More such examples may be found in Commutative non @-@ associative magmas .
= = = Symmetry = = =
Some forms of symmetry can be directly linked to commutativity . When a commutative operator is written as a binary function then the resulting function is symmetric across the line y
= x . As an example , if we let a function f represent addition ( a commutative operation ) so that f ( x , y ) =
x + y then f is a symmetric function , which can be seen in the image on the right .
For relations , a symmetric relation is analogous to a commutative operation , in that if a relation R is symmetric , then <formula> .
= = Non @-@ commuting operators in quantum mechanics = =
In quantum mechanics as formulated by Schrödinger , physical variables are represented by linear operators such as x ( meaning multiply by x ) , and <formula> . These two operators do not commute as may be seen by considering the effect of their compositions <formula> and <formula> ( also called products of operators ) on a one @-@ dimensional wave function <formula> :
<formula>
According to the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg , if the two operators representing a pair of variables do not commute , then that pair of variables are mutually complementary , which means they cannot be simultaneously measured or known precisely . For example , the position and the linear momentum in the x @-@ direction of a particle are represented respectively by the operators <formula> and <formula> ( where <formula> is the reduced Planck constant ) . This is the same example except for the constant <formula> , so again the operators do not commute and the physical meaning is that the position and linear momentum in a given direction are complementary .
= = = Books = = =
Axler , Sheldon ( 1997 ) . Linear Algebra Done Right , 2e . Springer . ISBN 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 98258 @-@ 2 .
Abstract algebra theory . Covers commutativity in that context . Uses property throughout book .
Copi , Irving M. ; Cohen , Carl ( 2005 ) . Introduction to Logic . Prentice Hall .
Gallian , Joseph ( 2006 ) . Contemporary Abstract Algebra , 6e . Boston , Mass . : Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 51471 @-@ 6 .
Linear algebra theory . Explains commutativity in chapter 1 , uses it throughout .
Goodman , Frederick ( 2003 ) . Algebra : Abstract and Concrete , Stressing Symmetry , 2e . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 067342 @-@ 0 .
Abstract algebra theory . Uses commutativity property throughout book .
Hurley , Patrick ( 1991 ) . A Concise Introduction to Logic 4th edition . Wadsworth Publishing .
= = = Articles = = =
http : / / web.archive.org / web / 20070713072942 / http : / / www.ethnomath.org / resources / lumpkin1997.pdf Lumpkin , B. ( 1997 ) . The Mathematical Legacy Of Ancient Egypt - A Response To Robert Palter . Unpublished manuscript .
Article describing the mathematical ability of ancient civilizations .
Robins , R. Gay , and Charles C. D. Shute . 1987 . The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus : An Ancient Egyptian Text . London : British Museum Publications Limited . ISBN 0 @-@ 7141 @-@ 0944 @-@ 4
Translation and interpretation of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus .
= = = Online resources = = =
Hazewinkel , Michiel , ed . ( 2001 ) , " Commutativity " , Encyclopedia of Mathematics , Springer , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55608 @-@ 010 @-@ 4
Krowne , Aaron , Commutative at PlanetMath.org. , Accessed 8 August 2007 .
Definition of commutativity and examples of commutative operations
Weisstein , Eric W. , " Commute " , MathWorld . , Accessed 8 August 2007 .
Explanation of the term commute
Yark . Examples of non @-@ commutative operations at PlanetMath.org. , Accessed 8 August 2007
Examples proving some noncommutative operations
O 'Conner , J J and Robertson , E F. MacTutor history of real numbers , Accessed 8 August 2007
Article giving the history of the real numbers
Cabillón , Julio and Miller , Jeff . Earliest Known Uses Of Mathematical Terms , Accessed 22 November 2008
Page covering the earliest uses of mathematical terms
O 'Conner , J J and Robertson , E F. MacTutor biography of François Servois , Accessed 8 August 2007
Biography of Francois Servois , who first used the term
= Bon Voyage ( Kumi Koda album ) =
Bon Voyage is the eleventh studio album by Japanese recording artist Kumi Koda . It was released on February 26 , 2014 by Rhythm Zone . Bon Voyage is Koda 's first album since her 2012 Japonesque , and her longest album in production since her 2008 studio album Kingdom . The album 's production was handled by several music producers , such as Joseph Lawrence , Toby Gad , T @-@ Sk , Mats Lie Skare , Figge Bosstrom , Tommy Henriksen , Badur Haberg , and Clarabell . It also features guest appearances from Sean Paul and OVDS . Five different formats were released to promote the album : a standalone CD , a CD and DVD bundle , a CD and Blu @-@ ray bundle , a fan package featuring a live DVD , and a digital release in Japan .
Upon the album 's release , it was met with favourable reviews from music critics . Critics highlight individual songs for their production and composition , and commended the singles . Bon Voyage became Koda 's seventh studio album to reach the top spot on Japan 's Oricon Albums Chart , but her first album to not ship over 100 @,@ 000 units in that region . Because of this , it became her first studio album to fail to achieve a certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Three singles and one EP were released from the album . Koda promoted the album through her 2014 Bon Voyage concert tour .
= = Development and composition = =
Bon Voyage is Koda 's first album since her 2012 Japonesque . It is also her longest album in production since her 2008 studio album Kingdom , both of which spanned a total of two years . For the album , Koda 's record label Rhythm Zone and its parent company Avex Trax hired several producers , such as Joseph Lawrence , Toby Gad , T @-@ Sk , Mats Lie Skare , Figge Bosstrom , Tommy Henriksen , Badur Haberg , and Clarabell . Producers such as Henriksen and Bosstrom have collaborated with Koda in the past with her albums Kingdom and Universe ( 2010 ) . Bon Voyage is Koda 's second album to be handled primarily with Western producers and composers ; Koda 's first album handled by Western producers was Japonesque . Western producers and composers carried on working with Koda on her next studio album Walk of My Life ( 2015 ) .
Bon Voyage is a J @-@ pop album with numerous elements of country rock , pop , R & B , electronic dance music , and reggae . It is Koda 's first album to emphasize full English language songs ; in total , Bon Voyage features nine English , five bilingual ( Japanese / English ) , and two Japanese tracks . Each song from the album is co @-@ written by Koda , including the English , Japanese and interlude tracks . The album includes two interlude tracks ; " Introduction : Bon Voyage " and " Interlude : Bon Voyage " , both boasting electronic music and sirens noises . EDM elements are used in tracks " Show Me Your Holla " , " Crank tha Bass " ( featuring OVDS ) , " LOL " , " Go to the Top " , " Dreaming On " , and " U Know " . " Loaded " , which features Jamaican rapper and musician Sean Paul , incorporates elements of reggae and dancehall music , as does the following tracks " Winner Girls " and " On Your Side " . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Shot Discs reviewed the singles " Go to the Top " and " Koishikute " , and identified musical elements of electronic dance , dubstep , and 8 @-@ bit music in the former , and a pop ballad melody in the latter . Koda 's summer EP Summer Trip featured " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " , and Hiraga noted elements of country rock in the former , and R & B in the latter track .
= = Release and packaging = =
Bon Voyage was released on February 26 , 2014 by Rhythm Zone and Avex Taiwan in five different formats . The stand @-@ alone CD featured the sixteen tracks in a cardboard slipcase , with first press editions including a glossy sticker of Koda . The CD and DVD bundle featured the sixteen tracks and a bonus DVD , including the music videos for : " Show Me Your Holla " , " LOL " , " Dreaming Now ! " , " Touch Down " , " Lalalalala " , and " Koishikute " . The DVD also included the making videos for " Show Me Your Holla " and " LOL " . The CD and Blu @-@ ray bundle includes the same tracks and videos from the CD and DVD bundle , but features a hologram sticker , one postercard , and a slipcase . A special edition was released on Koda 's website , entitled the " Fan Club Edition " . This format features the original CD , and a DVD featuring live performances from Koda 's Fanclub Live Tour in 2013 . The format was housed in an A5 @-@ sized digipak . The final format is the digital release , which was released only in Japan . This is Koda 's only studio album not to be released worldwide .
Visually based on cruise ship members , the five Bon Voyage cover sleeves feature different images all photographed by Kazuyoshi Shimomura . The CD cardboard sleeve has Koda squatting and holding onto a cruise ship steering wheel ; the jewel case has Koda holding a life buoy . The CD and DVD cardboard sleeve has a close @-@ up shot of Koda wearing a captain 's uniform ; the jewel case has Koda posing on top of a life buoy . The Blu @-@ ray cardboard sleeve and jewel case has Koda posing with a pair of binoculars , while the Fan Club edition has a close @-@ up of Koda sitting down holding a cruise ship steering wheel . The digital release uses the CD and DVD close @-@ up shot . The booklet and photo shoot were designed by members of United Lounge Tokyo , and each booklet from the five format features different images of Koda .
= = Critical reception = =
Bon Voyage received favourable reviews from music critics . A reviewer from CD Journal was positive towards the album , commending the song 's production and " danceable " material . The reviewer complimented how Koda " transformed " her previous look from Japonesque into a more " Westernized " adaptation . The reviewer highlighted " Go to the Top " and the " pop ballad gem " " Koishikute " as the album 's best tracks . A reviewer from Amazon.co.jp was positive towards the album 's musical variety , labelling it " Koda flow " . The reviewer also complimented how the " entertainment factor " was " jam @-@ packed " into the album . Japako Music ’ s Kirsty H. gave the album a positive review , saying that it " shows Koda Kumi 's experiences perfectly " . Kirsty praised Koda 's " personal songs " and the album 's musical variation . On the album ’ s overall sound , she wrote the following : " The album overall is very good and catchy and clearly shows how mature and experienced Koda Kumi is . All of the songs are catchy and this makes the album all the more fun to listen to ” . Jaylee and Zero from GK : AD , a sub @-@ site from JPopJRocks.com , awarded the album a B- , calling the dance tracks gems and praising a majority of the album 's ballads . Zero highlighted " Imagine " as the album 's best track . However , they both were critical toward the composition of the second half of the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
Bon Voyage debuted at number one on both the Japanese Daily and Weekly Oricon Albums Chart , with over 46 @,@ 000 units sold in its first week . It became Koda 's sixth studio album to reach the top spot , but became her lowest first week sales since her debut album Affection ( 2002 ) . It fell to 21 in its second week , shifting over 5 @,@ 000 units . The album stayed in the top 100 for four weeks , and the overall top 300 for twelve weeks . As of January 2016 , Bon Voyage has sold an estimated 59 @,@ 499 units , making it her first album to not sell over the 100 @,@ 000 limit . Because of this , it failed to achieve a certification by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . It was her lowest selling studio album at the time , until her next album Walk Of My Life sold less by May 2015 ( with 50 @,@ 000 units ) . Bon Voyage reached number five on Japan 's Billboard Top Albums Sales .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Go to the Top " was released as the album 's lead single on October 24 , 2012 . The song was used as the opening theme song for the Âge – developed anime series Muv @-@ Luv Alternative : Total Eclipse . Upon its release , it garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's composition , lyrical content , and Koda 's vocal delivery . Minor criticism was towards the song 's musical elements of 8 @-@ bit music . " Go to the Top " was successful in Japan , peaking at number one on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart , Koda 's eighth number one single . It also reached number 10 on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for the single was shot in Tokyo by Tomoe Nakano ; it features an animated Koda flying a large robot in a racing circuit with another racer .
" Koishikute " was released as the album 's second single on December 26 , 2012 . Upon its release , it garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's composition , lyrical content , and Koda 's vocal delivery ; critics had highlighted it as an album stand out , and labelled it a " gem " . The single suffered in physical sales in Japan , reaching number seven on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and selling over 23 @,@ 000 units . It remains Koda 's lowest selling single since " Hot Stuff " in 2005 . However , the song was certified gold by RIAJ for digital sales of 100 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for the single was shot in Tokyo by Ryuji Seki ; it features Koda singing the song in a subway and in a small room .
Summer Trip was released as the album 's third single and first extended play single on July 31 , 2013 . The EP consists of four interlude tracks , two album tracks : " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " , and an unreleased track " Is This Trap ? " . Upon its release , Summer Trip received garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the tracks individually for its composition and its song writing . Summer Trip debuted at number six on the Japanese Singles Chart , and sold over 20 @,@ 000 units . " Lalalalala " charted on Japan 's Hot 100 at number 23 . This is Koda 's lowest selling EP to date , surpassing Gossip Candy ( 2010 ) which sold over 84 @,@ 000 units . Music videos for " Lalalalala " and " Touch Down " were shot in Venice Beach , California .
" Dreaming Now ! " was released as the album 's fourth and final single on November 13 , 2013 , which was the same day as Koda 's 30th birthday . The song was written by Koda in
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Screenplay at the Writers Guild of America Awards , while Leto 's performance won a range of awards from critics groups , including the New York Film Critics Circle and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association . The National Board of Review named Dallas Buyers Club one of the top ten independent films of 2013 .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The characters of Rayon and Dr. Eve Saks were fictional ; the writers had interviewed transgender AIDS patients , activists , and doctors for the film and combined these stories to create the two composite supporting roles . However , Woodroof did lose all his friends after they found out he was HIV @-@ positive . In his interviews with Borten , Woodroof implied that this , along with interactions with gay people living with AIDS through the buyers club , led to a rethinking of his apparent anti @-@ gay sentiments and changed his views on gay people . Other people who knew him said that he did not harbor anti @-@ gay sentiments and was himself bisexual . Also , while a rodeo enthusiast , he never rode any bulls himself . Although the film shows Woodroof diagnosed in 1985 , he told Borten that a doctor had informed him he might have had the disease well before that ; Woodroof believed that he may have been infected in 1981 , something that was briefly alluded to in a flashback in the film .
While Woodroof was known for outlandish behavior , according to those who knew him , both the film and McConaughey made him rougher than he actually was ; The Dallas Morning News has reported that Woodroof was " outrageous , but not confrontational " and that people who knew him felt that his portrayal as " rampantly homophobic " early in the film was inaccurate . The real Woodroof also had a sister and a daughter who were not approached by the writers and were left out of the script to make the film more of a character study .
= = = Drug treatments = = =
The film implies that the drug and vitamin regime promoted by Woodroof was safer and more effective than the drugs being issued in hospitals and tested by the FDA at the time , but this has been criticized by numerous observers . Daniel D 'Addario , in an article in Salon , suggests that " the film 's take is perilously close to endorsing pseudoscience . "
Woodroof frequently declares that the drug AZT ( azidothymidine ) is ineffective and counter @-@ productive , yet years later it is still prescribed to patients with AIDS , albeit at a much lower dose ( hinted at in the film ) . Medical historian Jonathan Engel , who wrote " The Epidemic : A History of AIDS , " states that AZT was in fact a relatively effective for the period , consistently prolonging lives for a year at a time when AIDS had a 100 % mortality rate . Journalist David France , who directed the documentary “ How to Survive a Plague , ” suggested that AZT was actually " the first element of a cocktail of drugs that ended the era of AIDS @-@ as @-@ death sentence . " Initial attempts to use high doses of AZT proved to be no more effective than smaller doses , but HIV / AIDS activist Peter Staley ( who was consulted by the filmmakers ) believes this was not the result of any conspiracy - initially medical researchers had to guess what dose would be effective and they feared a low dose would be ineffective . Eventually , researchers realized that AZT was ineffective in the long term because the HIV virus mutated and became resistant to the treatment . By the mid @-@ 1990s , David Ho and other researchers found AZT was quite effective when used in conjunction with two other anti @-@ virals , which decreased the chances of virus developing resistance to any one drug .
The treatments that Woodroof did promote were less @-@ effective at best , or at worst , dangerous . According to Staley , Woodroof became a proponent of Peptide T , a treatment which " never panned out . It 's a useless therapy , and it never got approved , and nobody uses it today , but the film implies that it helped him . " DDC , also promoted by Woodroof , did prove to be an effective antiviral treatment , but it also proved to have worse side effects than AZT , with the potential to cause irreversible nerve damage in some cases . As a result , it was only used by doctors for a relatively short time . A third treatment promoted by Woodroof , called Compound Q ( Trichosanthin ) , was specifically linked to two deaths during trials , and therefore , was not used by doctors thereafter . Most " buyers clubs " stopped providing it as well , but Woodroof continued to dispense it , part of the reason for Woodroof 's conflict with the FDA .
= = Copyright enforcement by the film 's makers = =
= = = Australia = = =
Makers of Dallas Buyers Club have attempted to aggressively enforce their copyrights by serving discovery orders on Australian internet service providers ( ISPs ) . iiNet , one of the ISPs served with a discovery application , stated it has " serious concerns " that the film 's makers will look to intimidate subscribers . Steve Dalby , iiNet 's chief regulatory officer , said : " We are concerned that our customers will be unfairly targeted to settle claims out of court using a practice called ' speculative invoicing ' " . Information of up to 4 @,@ 700 subscribers were being sought for allegedly downloading the film before its box office release .
In April 2015 , an Australian federal judge , Justice Nye Perram ruled that ISPs must hand over contact information related to the IP addresses associated with sharing the movie .
In August 2015 the Australian Federal Court refused the application for film makers of Dallas Buyers Club to force ISPs to hand over the details of their customers . The courts found that the contents of the letter , proposed by the film makers to contact downloaders with , were more demanding than deemed appropriate . The letter was found to ask for such details as salary and other films that were downloaded .
In December 2015 , Justice Perram dismissed the Dallas Buyers Club LLC case against iiNet entirely unless an appeal were filed by February 11 , 2016 . The judge remarked upon DBC 's attempts to claim costs for a worldwide non @-@ exclusive distribution agreement , concluding that " DBC ’ s contention was wholly unrealistic ; indeed , I went so far as to describe it as ‘ surreal ’ . Perram also required posting a $ 600 @,@ 000 bond to the court should the suit proceed . "
= = = Singapore = = =
Dallas Buyer Club LLC successfully obtained a court order against two major ISPs Starhub and M1 to reveal customers who have allegedly downloaded illegal copies of the movie . In April 2015 , Samuel Seow Law Corporation represented the owners in sending demand letters to more than 500 subscribers asking for a written offer of damages and costs . A few days later , Singtel was also issued a court order to reveal 150 of its subscribers for alleged illegal downloading . President Harish Pillay and Vice @-@ President Professor Ang Peng Hwa of the Singapore Internet Society ( ISOC ) Chapter stated , that " threatening subscribers won 't stop piracy " . This is the second reported instance of a major legal action taken by a media company against individuals in Singapore for alleged illegal downloading since Odex 's actions against file @-@ sharing in 2007 .
= = = United States = = =
Beginning in 2014 , Voltage Pictures filed nearly 150 multi @-@ defendant " John Doe " lawsuits against internet users identified only by their IP addresses , alleging illegal downloading of the film . Despite statutory damages claims of $ 150 @,@ 000 , users reported settling claims with the film maker for $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 8 @,@ 000 .
= Perovskia atriplicifolia =
Perovskia atriplicifolia ( / pəˈrɒvskiə ætrɪplɪsɪˈfoʊliə / ) , commonly called Russian sage , is a flowering herbaceous perennial plant and subshrub . Although not a member of Salvia , the genus of other plants commonly called sage , it is closely related to them . It has an upright habit , typically reaching 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m tall ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , with square stems and grey @-@ green leaves that yield a distinctive odor when crushed . It is best known for its flowers . Its flowering season extends from mid @-@ summer to late October , with blue to violet blossoms arranged into showy , branched panicles .
Native to the steppes and hills of southwestern and central Asia . Successful over a wide range of climate and soil conditions , it has since become popular and widely planted . Several cultivars have been developed , differing primarily in leaf shape and overall height ; ' Blue Spire ' is the most common . This variation has been widely used in gardens and landscaping . P. atriplicifolia was the Perennial Plant Association 's 1995 Plant of the Year , and the ' Blue Spire ' cultivar received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society .
The species has a long history of use in traditional medicine in its native range , where it is employed as a treatment for a variety of ailments . This has led to the investigation of its phytochemistry . Its flowers can be eaten in salads or crushed for dyemaking , and the plant has been considered for potential use in the phytoremediation of contaminated soil .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia was described by George Bentham in 1848 , based on a specimen collected by William Griffith in Afghanistan , now preserved at the Kew Gardens herbarium as the species 's holotype . The specific epithet atriplicifolia means " with leaves like Atriplex " , referring to its similarity to saltbush . Commonly known as Russian sage , P. atriplicifolia is neither native to Russia nor a member of Salvia , the genus generally referred to as sage .
A Chinese population was described as a separate species in 1987 and given the name Perovskia pamirica , but has since been considered synonymous with P. atriplicifolia .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
Within the family Lamiaceae , the large genus Salvia had long been believed monophyletic , based on the structure of its stamina . Several smaller genera , including Dorystaechas , Perovskia , and Meriandra were also included in tribe Mentheae , but were thought more distantly related . In 2004 , a molecular phylogenetics study based on two cpDNA genes ( rbcL and trnL @-@ F ) demonstrated that Salvia is not monophyletic , but comprises three identifiable clades . Clade I is more closely related to Perovskia than to other members of Salvia .
P. atriplicifolia has been the subject of subsequent studies seeking to clarify the relationships within Mentheae . Further research combined palynological analysis of pollen grains with rbcL sequencing to provide additional support for the relationship between Perovskia and Salvia clade I. It also distinguished between P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides , while confirming their close relationship . A subsequent multigene study ( four cpDNA markers and two nrDNA markers ) redrew parts of the Mentheae cladogram , making Rosmarinus a sister group to Perovskia .
= = = Cultivars = = =
Several cultivars of P. atriplicifolia have been developed . They are primarily distinguished by the height of mature plants and the depth of the leaf @-@ margin incisions . Many of these cultivars , especially those with deeply incised leaves , may actually be hybrids of P. atriplicifolia and P. abrotanoides . In that context , some may be referred to by the hybrid name P. × hybrida .
The most common cultivar , ' Blue Spire ' , is among those suspected of being a hybrid . It was selected from German plantings by the British Notcutts Nurseries , and first exhibited in 1961 . ' Blue Spire ' grows to approximately 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) , and has large , darker blue flowers . In 1993 , it received the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
'Filigran ' reaches a height of 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 3 in ) ; this tall , sturdy cultivar 's name is German for filigree , in reference to its lacy , fern @-@ like foliage . ' Little Spire ' is shorter , with a mature height of only 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft 0 in ) . ' Longin ' is similar in height to ' Blue Spire ' but more upright . Allan Armitage established the late @-@ flowering cultivar ' Mystery of Knightshayes ' from a plant at Knightshayes Court . Other cultivars include ' Blue Haze ' , ' Blue Mist ' , ' Hybrida ' ( also called ' Superba ' ) , ' Lace ' , ' Lisslit ' , ' Rocketman ' , and ' WALPPB ' .
= = Description = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia is a deciduous perennial subshrub with an erect to spreading habit . Superficially , it resembles a much larger version of lavender . Multiple branches arise from a shared rootstalk , growing to a height of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 m ( 1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 11 in ) , with occasional specimens reaching 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . The mature plant may be 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m across ( 2 ft 0 in – 3 ft 11 in ) . The rigid stems are square in cross @-@ section , and are covered by an indumentum formed by stellate , or star @-@ shaped , trichomes and oil droplets . Especially during autumn , these hairs give the stems a silvery appearance .
The grayish @-@ green leaves are arranged in opposite pairs , and attached to the stems by a short petiole . They are generally 3 – 5 cm long ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 @-@ inch ) and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 cm wide ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ) , although narrower in some populations . The overall leaf shape is oblate , a rounded shape longer than it is wide , to lanceolate , shaped like the head of a lance . They are pinnatipartite , with a deeply incised leaf margin that may be either wavy or sharp @-@ toothed ; even within a single community of P. atriplicifolia , there can be considerable variation in the details of leaf shape . Leaves near the top of branches may merge into bracts . The foliage is aromatic , especially when crushed , with a fragrance described as sage @-@ like , a blend of sage and lavender , or like turpentine .
The flowering season of P. atriplicifolia can be as long as June through October , although populations in some parts of its range , such as China , may bloom in a much more restricted period . The inflorescence is a showy panicle , 30 – 38 cm long ( 12 – 15 in ) , with many branches . Each of these branches is a raceme , with the individual flowers arranged in pairs called verticillasters . Each flower 's calyx is purple , densely covered in white or purple hairs , and about 4 mm long ( 0 @.@ 16 @-@ inch ) . The corolla is tube @-@ shaped , formed from a four @-@ lobed upper lip and a slightly shorter lower lip ; the blue or violet blue petals are about 1 cm long . The style has been reported in both an exserted — extending beyond the flower 's tube — form and one contained within the flower ; all known examples of P. atriplicifolia in cultivation have exserted styles . Gardening author Neil Soderstrom describes the appearance of the flowers from a distance as " like a fine haze or fog " .
Fruits develop about a month after flowering , and consist of dark brown oval nutlets , about 2 mm × 1 mm ( 2 ⁄ 25 by 1 ⁄ 25 inch ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
Nine species of Perovskia are recognized . P. abrotanoides shares much of the range of P. atriplicifolia , but is distinguished by its bipinnate leaves . Hybrids between these two species may occur naturally . Restricted to Turkestan in its native range , P. scrophularifolia is less upright ; some forms have white flowers . The flowers of P. scabiosifolia are yellow .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
Widely distributed across Asia in its native range , Perovskia atriplicifolia grows in western China , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Iran , Turkey , and parts of eastern Europe . It is found in steppes and on hillsides , and grows at higher elevations in mountainous regions , including the Himalayas . It has been recorded at 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) of altitude in the Karakoram . In Pakistan 's Quetta district , it is often found in association with the grass Chrysopogon aucheri , and may serve as an indicator species for soils with low calcium carbonate and chloride availability . The harsh habitats preferred by P. atriplicifolia are comparable to the sagebrush steppe of North America .
In parts of its range , such as the Harboi , these steppe ecosystems are employed as rangeland for grazing animals such as sheep and goats , although this forage is generally of poor nutritional quality . P. atriplicifolia can serve as an important source of phosphorus and zinc , despite being high in poorly @-@ digested material such as neutral detergent fiber and lignin .
= = Cultivation = =
Following its introduction to the United Kingdom in 1904 , the Irish gardener and author William Robinson was immediately taken with the plant , which he described as being " worth a place in the choicest garden for its graceful habit and long season of beauty . " The Royal Horticultural Society records the establishment of cultivars beginning with P. ' Hybrida ' , selected at a Hampshire nursery in the 1930s . By the late 1980s and early 1990s , P. atriplicifolia had gained widespread popularity , and in 1995 , it was selected as the Perennial Plant Association 's Plant of the Year .
= = = Planting and care = = =
P. atriplicifolia is a perennial plant suitable for a wide range of conditions . The species prefers full sun . Specimens planted in partially shaded locations tend to spread or flop , although this behavior can be controlled somewhat by pinching young shoots or by providing a strong @-@ standing accompaniment that the plant can drape itself around for support . Flowers bloom only on new growth . Plants trimmed to 15 – 61 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 24 @.@ 0 in ) in early spring provide the best subsequent growth and flowering .
Tolerant of both heat and cold , it is grown in North America in United States Department of Agriculture hardiness zones three through nine , although some cultivars may be better suited than others to extremes of temperature . It is successfully grown from the southwestern United States , north and east across much of the country , and across the Canadian border into Ontario and Quebec . In the coldest of these areas , it may require considerable protection to survive the winter . In the United Kingdom , the Royal Horticultural Society has assigned it hardiness rating H4 , indicating that it tolerates temperatures as low as − 10 to − 5 ° C ( 14 to 23 ° F ) , hardy in most of the country through typical winters .
It also tolerates a variety of soil conditions . Although young specimens perform best when planted in a mixture of peat and either sand or perlite , P. atriplicifolia can thrive in sandy , chalky , or loamy soil , or heavy clay soil with sufficient drainage . It can endure a wide range of soil pH , as well as exposure to salty conditions near oceans . Its deep @-@ feeding taproot makes it especially drought tolerant ; for this reason it has seen wide use for xeriscaping in the Intermountain West . Overwatering and over @-@ fertilization can damage its roots and lead to a rapid decline in health . P. atriplicifolia is otherwise generally free from plant pathogens . In cultivation , it is also rarely selected as forage by grazing animals , and so is considered both a deer @-@ resistant and rabbit @-@ resistant plant .
= = = Landscaping = = =
Popular landscaping authors , including Gertrude Jekyll and Russell Page , have praised P. atriplicifolia for its usefulness in gardens and landscaping features . It is most commonly planted as an accent feature , such as an " island " in an expanse of lawn , but it can also be used as filler within a larger landscaping feature , or to enhance areas where the existing natural appearance is retained . Gardening author Troy Marden describes P. atriplicifolia as having a " see @-@ through " quality that is ideal for borders . Some experts suggest groups of three plants provide the best landscape appearance . It is also suitable for container gardening .
It attracts bees , birds , and butterflies , and contributes color to gardens — both the blue of its late @-@ season flowers , and the silvery colors of its winter stalks .
= = = Propagation = = =
P. atriplicifolia is frequently propagated by cuttings . Because its woody crown is resistant to division , softwood cuttings are taken from shoots near the base , generally in late spring . Hardwood cuttings selected in mid @-@ to @-@ late summer also provide a viable propagation technique . The plant is also grown from seed in cultivation . Such seeds require exposure to cold for 30 – 160 days to germinate , and seed @-@ raised specimens may not preserve the characteristics of named cultivars . In the commercial greenhouse or nursery setting , P. atriplicifolia 's relatively large size and rapid growth can adversely affect quality or make plants more difficult and expensive to transport ; the use of plant growth regulators such as chlormequat chloride and daminozide may be more cost @-@ effective than large @-@ scale pruning .
Some members of the Lamiaceae can spread unchecked and become invasive plants . Planting of P. atriplicifolia near wild lands has been discouraged by some gardening guides out of concern for its potential to spread , but it is not considered invasive , and has been suggested as a substitute for purple loosestrife for this reason .
= = Uses = =
Perovskia atriplicifolia has a long history of use in traditional medicine , especially as an antipyretic . It has also been employed as an antiparasitic and analgesic in Tibet , and smoked elsewhere as a euphoriant . In Balochistan , Pakistan , a decoction of the plant 's leaves and flowers has been considered an anti @-@ diabetic medication and a treatment for dysentery .
In addition to its use in folk medicine , P. atriplicifolia is sometimes used in Russia to flavor a vodka @-@ based cocktail . Its flowers are eaten in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan , including Kashmir , adding a sweet flavor to salads ; they can also be crushed to yield a blue colorant that can be employed in cosmetics or as a textile dye . This species is considered a candidate for use in phytoremediation because of its rapid growth , tolerance for harsh conditions , and ability to accumulate toxic heavy metals from polluted soil .
= = = Phytochemistry = = =
Because of its extensive ethnomedical tradition , the phytochemistry of P. atriplicifolia has been the topic of several studies . Analysis of the plant 's essential oil has identified over two dozen compounds , although the compounds detected and their relative prevalence have not been consistent . Most analyses have identified various monoterpenes and monoterpenoids as the dominant components , such as carene , eucalyptol , limonene , γ @-@ terpinene , and ( + ) -β @-@ thujone , although the essential oil of a sample from the Orto Botanico dell 'Università di Torino had camphor as its most prevalent component . Other monoterpenes , camphene , α @-@ pinene , and β @-@ pinene are also present , as are sesquiterpenes such as γ @-@ cadinene , δ @-@ cadinene , trans @-@ caryophyllene , and α @-@ humulene . Several terpenoid alcohols — borneol , cedrol , and menthol — have been extracted from P. atriplicifolia , as have caffeic acid and ferulic acid . More complex compounds have been isolated , some of which were first identified in this manner , including perovskatone ; the glycosides atriplisides A and B ; and atricins A and B , a pair of triterpenes that are similar to oleanane .
The essential oil has displayed antimicrobial properties in vitro , and can function as a biopesticide , especially regarding Tropidion castaneum beetles and Camponotus maculatus carpenter ants . Several terpenoids isolated from P. atriplicifolia have been investigated for potential inhibitory effects on the hepatitis B virus . Its traditional use as an anti @-@ inflammatory has been attributed to the ability of the lignan ( + ) -taxiresinol and five other compounds to act as leukotriene antagonists . The isorinic acid derivative perovskoate may also contribute to an anti @-@ inflammatory effect as an arachidonate 5 @-@ lipoxygenase inhibitor . Interaction with opioid and cannabinoid receptors has been proposed as the mechanism of traditionally reported analgesic effects .
= Lisa 's Pony =
" Lisa 's Pony " is the eighth episode of the third season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 7 , 1991 . In this episode , Homer goes drinking at Moe 's Tavern instead of buying a new reed for Lisa 's saxophone , resulting in her flopping at the school talent show . Desperate to win back his daughter 's love , Homer gives Lisa the one thing she has always wanted : a pony . Homer struggles with two jobs to cover the cost of sheltering and feeding the pony . Lisa , upon seeing what Homer must go through to pay for the pony , decides to give it away .
The episode was written by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , and directed by Carlos Baeza . Lunchlady Doris , a recurring character on The Simpsons , made her first appearance on the show in this episode . " Lisa 's Pony " features cultural references to films such as The Godfather and 2001 : A Space Odyssey and the comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 8 and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Lisa is participating in a school talent show and is in need of a new saxophone reed as the one she owns is broken . She calls Homer , who agrees to buy one before heading to the show . However , he decides to visit Moe 's Tavern first , and when he arrives at the music shop , it has closed down for the night . Dejected , Homer goes back to Moe 's where the music shop owner is enjoying a drink . Moe helps him convince the man to re @-@ open his store . Homer is happy that he remembered exactly which reed he needs to get ; however , he then forgets which instrument Lisa plays . After going through many of the instruments in the store , Homer finally remembers that Lisa plays the saxophone and rushes to the school . However , he is too late , arriving in time to hear Lisa humiliate herself by butchering the song she chose to play . After that , she wants nothing to do with Homer , refusing to forgive him . Going through family videos , Homer realizes the extent of how much she hates him for every time he has ignored her in the past because he was either too busy watching TV or dealing with Bart 's shenanigans .
Marge encourages Homer to mend his relationship with Lisa by spending time with her . This is unsuccessful , and Homer worries he 'll go fruity doing activities suited to little girls ( evident when Bart and Milhouse made him a laughingstock ) . He gets the idea to buy her the pony she 's always wanted . Marge is aghast and warns Homer against using the easy way out in purchasing a pony because they cannot afford it . He decides to purchase a pony regardless of Marge 's feelings . To afford the pony , he applies for a loan through the Power Plant Credit Union . Mr. Burns personally reviews the loan , and approves it only after determining that
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of enumeration varies inconsistently : no . 201 is listed as 2001 , 220 is listed as 20020 . Additionally , there is a group of songs incorrectly altered to 300s . The second table , on folios 5v @-@ 8r , has no heading but is an alphabetical grouping of songs where in each letter the songs are listed sequentially . This list was apparently compiled after the manuscript was completed and includes all songs except nos . 314 @-@ 317 . It is written by the same hand as the enumerator of songs 177 @-@ 266 in " The Cattalogue . "
The manuscript as currently bound ( the date accompanying the binding information on the inside rear cover is stamped Dec. 6 , 1944 ) has some songs out of sequence ( nos . 331 @-@ 340 ) , surrounded by no . 311 and 312 .
= = Dating = =
The date of 1659 ( from Gamble 's inscription on 1v ) has been a source of puzzlement to those who have studied the manuscript . Willa McClung Evans , consulting Edward Heawood 's study of watermarks ( used to date paper ) , noted the watermark , a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis , was of undetermined origin , but was also used in Fuller 's " Holy State " of 1652 , and Denis Petau " History of the World " of 1659 . Charles W. Hughes believed the book was begun around the turn of the 17th century - a hypothesis rejected by Jorgens who notes that it contains works by Henry Lawes , born in 1596 . Hughes believed the terminal date was at least 1660 , as some of the songs refer to Charles II who assumed the throne in 1660 . Duckles noted that the earliest lyrics were from England 's Helicon ( 1600 ) and Davison 's Poetical Rhapsody ( 1602 ) . Duckles felt that 1659 is close to the terminal date , noting that no songs had been added after the Commonwealth period , and no younger composers were included in the collection .
= = Provenance = =
Though writers disagree on details of the handwriting ( see the section on handwriting below ) , they all agree that the handwriting of the latter portion of Drexel 4257 is probably that of John Gamble , given that there is a concentration of his work in that part of the manuscript . This suggests that the book was begun by someone else ( whom Lynn Hulse recognized as Thomas Jordan ; see below ) . Duckles surmised that Gamble came into possession of the book in 1642 – 43 when the musicians of the Royal Chapel were dispersed as a result of the English Civil War . Although Gamble lost most of his possessions in a fire in 1666 , this book appears to have survived . He made out his will on June 30 , 1680 in which he bequeathed his grandson ( also named John Gamble ) all his books of music .
After Gamble 's death in 1687 , nothing is known of the manuscript for over 150 years . The first published reference to it comes in 1846 , where it is mentioned in volume 19 of the Percy Society 's Early English Poetry , Ballads , and Popular Literature of the Middle Ages as being in the possession of one of the editors of the series , Edward Francis Rimbault . An organist and musicologist , Rimbault took a keen interest in English music and voraciously collected rare books , scores , and valuable manuscripts . Upon his death , his extensive and valuable library was auctioned by Sotheby 's over the course of five days . The Rimbault auction catalog entry for the Gamble manuscript reads :
A collection of upwards of 300 songs by Wilson , Lawes , Johnson , Gamble , and other English composers , containing also the autograph inscription , " John Gamble his book , Amen . 1659 Anno Domini "
Hughes quotes a contemporaneous report of the hammer price and comment : " Thirteen guineas , for America . " The reference was to the Philadelphia @-@ born financier Joseph W. Drexel who had already amassed a large music library and purchased about 300 lots from the Rimbault auction . Upon Drexel 's death , he bequeathed his music library to The Lenox Library . When the Lenox Library merged with the Astor Library to become the New York Public Library , the Drexel Collection became the basis for one of its founding units , the Music Division . Today , Drexel 4257 is part of the Drexel Collection in the Music Division , now located at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center .
= = Organization = =
Duckles noted that there are subsidiary groups organized by composer : Henry Lawes ( nos . 26 @-@ 36 ) , William Webb ( nos . 160 @-@ 166 ) , Robert Smith ( nos . 237 @-@ 238 ) , Thomas Brewer ( nos . 244 @-@ 245 ) , Robert Johnson ( nos . 108 @-@ 109 ) , and John Gamble ( nos . 292 @-@ 319 ) . Similarly is the group of three songs set by John Wilson for Richard Brome 's play " The Northern Lass " ( nos . 45 , 46 , and 47 ) .
The first 47 songs are love lyrics by poets of the Jacobean Court including Ben Jonson , William Shakespeare , Robert Herrick , Thomas Carew , John Suckling , Beaumont and Fletcher . After no . 47 a new spirit is suggested by song no . 48 " You madcapps of England that merry will make , " a lusty drinking song that indicates a political shift after 1640 . Deliberate segregation is in evidence between songs nos . 48 and 80 , where there are a series of 32 ballads and popular songs , in contrast to the art lyrics of the first few songs . There is a brief return to the elevated nature in songs nos . 154 @-@ 76 . Thereafter , popular and sophisticated songs are mixed .
= = Handwriting = =
Hughes and Duckles both believed that the manuscript was written by at least two individuals . Hughes characterized the first hand as a " neater , older hand " dating from either at the end of the 16th century or beginning of the 17th century ( a date disputed by subsequent writers - see above ) . The second hand copied the newer songs ( including some by Gamble ) and were written in a more careless hand . Hughes believed that this evidence suggested that the manuscript was begun by an unidentified person and was continued by John Gamble himself commencing with song no . 177 .
Following Hughes 's view , Duckles also believed the manuscript was written in two hands . In his view , the first hand wrote the titles for songs nos . 1 @-@ 176 of the Cattalogue , and the second hand , probably that of Gamble himself , wrote of nos . 177 @-@ 266 ( leaving space left to accommodate future additions ) as well as the alphabetical index . Duckles described the writing style of Hand 1 as favoring " round , compact letter forms , vertical alignment , calligraphic flourishes on capitals and heavy down strokes , " when writing with a broad pen . Duckles admits that Hand 1 has " two forms " : " When the hand writes with a finer quill , the letter forms are more loosely connected , the flourishes a little more pronounced , and there is a slight inclination to the right . " Hand no . 2 has a " pronounced slant to the right , letter forms are thin and elongated and the pen is a fine one . " Duckles observed that hand no . 2 participated slightly in the preparation of part 1 ( nos . 1 @-@ 176 ) with only six songs , but all of the text incipits . Likes Hughes , Duckles also felt that Hand 2 is probably that of Gamble .
Duckles hypothesized that the first hand might have been that of Ambrose Beeland , with whom Gamble apprenticed and is believed to have been his teacher . Lynn Hulse refutes this , saying that the handwriting does not match existing Beeland manuscripts .
Jorgens disagreed with both Hughes and Duckles and saw three different hands . Based on the two tables of contents , Jorgens surmised that all three copyists had access to the book at one time . She characterized the first hand as " firm , bold but well @-@ controlled secretary hand , " the second hand as " looser and somewhat lighter secretary hand " beginning with song no . 38 , and a third hand , " rougher , slanted , inclined towards the Italian style " that begins with song no . 46 . All three roughly equal ; by no . 177 the first two have dropped out . Hand Three has entered all of Gamble 's songs and is probably his . It also has entered text incipits . Since these incipits do not correspond with other known songs , they are probably the work of Gamble .
Hulse identified the first hand of the Gamble manuscript is probably that of poet Thomas Jordan ( ca . 1612 – 1685 ) , the same hand as manuscript PwV18 in the University of Nottingham , as well as other Jordan manuscripts in Harvard University and Bodleian Library . Hulse showed that Jordan and Gamble were involved in the same London circle of theatre musicians and composers for many years , culminating in Jordan 's preface for Gamble 's A Defence for Musick published in 1659 . She identifies songs nos . 4 , 16 , 32 , 45 , 47 , 99 , 154 , 155 , 169 , 170 , 175 , 176 and the text incipit of 96 as being copied by Jordan .
= = Politics = =
The lyrics to a number of songs have references to contemporary politics and events . " Since Itt hath bin lately inacted high Treason " ( no . 313 ) carries a strong suggestion of reaction to contemporary British history . One song , " Beat on , proud billows , " was known to have been written by Roger L 'Estrange while he was imprisoned in Newgate Prison during Oliver Cromwell 's rule ( 1645 – 1648 ) .
Some songs express regret for a better past . " Listen iolly gentlemen Listen & be merry " ( no . 63 ) praises the reign of Charles I ( indirectly criticizing the then @-@ current regime ) . The lyric of " Reioyce all England " contrasts the 13th @-@ century hero Guy of Warwick with current rulers . One song alludes to the marital difficulties between Charles II and his Portuguese wife , Catherine of Braganza . Another example of distrust of foreigners can be seen in the lyric " Harke harke Ile tell you news from the Cort ... all ye french ... now are all sent back to France . " Charles II also figures in " God bless our noble king , " which comically describes the king 's progress from Whitehall to St Paul 's Cathedral .
" You madcaps of England " describes frivolous English soldiers at the Siege of La Rochelle , including characters named " Wentworth " ( referring to Thomas Wentworth , 1st Earl of Strafford ) and " Murrey " ( referring to Robert Moray ) . Other names mentioned include : Wilmot , Weston , George Symon , Steadlinge , Hugh Pollerd , and " Game " possibly John Gamble .
Some songs reveal prejudice against Puritans . No. 92 , " " Cock Lorrell inuited ye diuell his gestt , " concerns Cock Lavorel , known as a rogue and highway robber , as friends with the devil . " The purelings of the Citty " ( no . 70 ) is an exception , praising a Protestant service .
Duckles took note of the bold lyrics to song no . 73 :
Ye giddy poets that purloin
from sea and land the greatest store
to deck her ffading wenches fine ,
what would you do with such a whore ?
Duckles clarified the meaning : " The outspoken vulgarity was not necessarily result of personal taste but a reflection of Royalist protest against Puritan morality , intended to shock the taste of Parliamentarians . "
= = Topical or literary content = =
Hughes argued that , unlike a textbook compilation of exemplars , Drexel 4257 shows a variety of good and mediocre poetry . Most songs deal with love , and range from flowery rhetoric to frank accounts of love @-@ making . A few , however , deal with topical matters . There are two songs related to Christmas : " Beate upp a dromm " depicts feasters in a mock battle with the cold in which the feasters win , and " Christmas is my name ffar have I gone " was a popular ballad which appeared in a number of 17th @-@ century sources . In this song , the personification of Christmas comes from far away to discover that his friends and other residents have deserted the country in favor of the city . The song concludes with a lament that universal welcome is gone because the Protestants and Puritans disassociate themselves from Christmas . Similarly ( with fewer political overtones ) , the song " Ladies you loose yor time " expresses preference for city life over that of the country .
The song " Oh yt mine eyes " , a graphic meditation on the Crucifixion of Jesus , is the only song in the collection to deal with a religious subject .
The song " Nor loue nor fate dare I " by John Wilson bears the inscription " composed for the comedy The Northern Lass " . Although this is the only song that the manuscript indicates is from a drama , at least 26 songs have texts from dramas or masques , attesting to Gamble 's association with the theatre .
The songs composed by Gamble are best characterized as drolls . Drolls were collections of " cavalier wit , much of it trivial , repetitious and derivative , but at the same time containing some work of genuine literary value . Their tone was seldom dignified , often frankly sexual , and characterized by a persistent undertone of anti @-@ Puritan feeling . " Similar examples can be found in the work of Ben Jonson , Thomas Carew and John Suckling .
= = Musical content and style = =
Hughes cursorily observed that Drexel 4257 contains no naturals — sharps are used to cancel flats , and flats are used to cancel sharps . He noted that technical blunders such as parallel fifths and octaves are to be found as well as other kinds of mistakes .
Duckles 's dissertation explores the transition from the lute song , representing an older style of composition appropriate to the waning of Renaissance music , to the continuo song , reflecting newer Baroque music practice . It 's not always an easy form of composition to assess : lutes were not always used for songs , and sometimes were used even after ascendancy of the continuo song . General characteristics of the lute song are smooth , flowing , and restrained lines , while the continuo song is more vigorous , abrupt and discontinuous . The harmonies in lute songs are an outgrowth of their melodic lines , while in continuo songs they define the structure . Lute songs tend to be loose and melismatic with frequent repetitions of verse fragments , while continuo songs are more closely tied to the rhythm of the text . Dissonance and chromaticism are used sparingly in lute songs while continuo songs show increasing use of chromaticism for more dramatic rather than pictorial underscoring . Generally , English composers were more concerned with capturing verbal rhythms than producing dramatic effects . ( Hughes noted that Restoration lyrics typified Baroque figures of speech in their use of florid lyrics . ) Use of these techniques in England indicate their adoption from Italy , where they were first used . Previously , it had been thought that English composers either didn 't know about them , or weren 't interested . But a comparison of Drexel 4257 with another of Gamble 's books in the British Library , Additional 11608 , where some of the songs appear in an embellished form , indicate that British composers and singers did occasionally adopt a more florid style .
Duckles examined the song " If Loue loues truth then woemen doe not loue " by Thomas Campion which appears as no . 10 of Drexel 4257 and was also published in Campion 's Third Book of Ayres from about 1617 . Campion was generally a conservative composer . In the version present in Drexel 4257 , the melody is slightly altered to provide greater sensitivity to the declamatory text , so that the speed of the verse accelerates naturally , an alteration which Duckles finds an improvement over the original . Many songs are recitative @-@ like . In some of these songs , the bar is enlarged as it approaches the cadence , suggesting a ballad singer who briefly pauses to catch his breath . The hemiola a consistent practice in English music of this time .
Many songs are 6 / 4 meter , while some suggest that they are adaptations from violin tunes . Yet , the barline does not always reflect the verbal rhythm . In comparing the song " Ballowe my babe lye still and sleepe " , no . 46 of Drexel 4257 , with the version that appears in Elizabeth Roger 's Virginal Book , Duckles notes that the ( earlier ) virginal version is in duple meter with no trace of hemiolas , while the version in the Gamble manuscript has them , suggesting a modernization of an older song . Another example of continuo style is " Like Hermitt poore in pensiue place obscure " ( no . 15 ) , a lyric attributed to Sir Walter Raleigh and dating from 1591 . In comparing Alfonso Ferrabosco 's setting from his Ayres of 1609 to one by Nicolas Lanier in Drexel 4257 , Duckles admits the possibility that Lanier 's may have been inspired by that of Ferrabosco . But the musical characteristics of the Lanier setting , including simplicity of texture , distinct phrases , use of an échappée , and the suggestion of a rhythmic motif through use of a recurring pattern of eighth notes , point to contemporary text setting techniques . The song " Drowsie sun , why dostt thou stay " by Thomas Brewer ( no . 253 ) shows expressive false relations and harmonic word painting , foreshadowing later developments in British sacred music . Brewer 's songs are among the earliest examples of the Italian pathetic style in English music and represent the mature style of continuo song . Devices such as an octave leap look away from lute song to continuo song .
Not all songs with recitative @-@ like musical lines indicate modernism.There are dance songs that contain elements of an ostinato bass , passamezzo antico and the romanesca — all characteristics of Renaissance rather than Baroque periods . Several tunes and texts are of 16th @-@ century origin had long been in the repertoire , among them : " Greensleeves , " " O mistress mine , " and " Back and sides go bare . " With these exceptions , the earliest songs date from Jacobean period . A comparison with anthologies published by John Playford in 1652 , 1653 and 1659 indicates particular songs were popular . That selections were copied into the book attests to their popularity even after tastes had changed due to the Restoration . Similarly , the song " I went from England into ffrance , " a satirical narrative , refers to the song " John Dory , " indicating that song 's continued popularity . ( It had appeared in Thomas Ravenscroft 's " Deuteromelia " of 1609 , though probably dates earlier ) . " When ye Chill Charockoe blowes " is a song containing both declamatory and tuneful styles . It is a drinking song , whose erratic harmony suggests frequent cadences , and whose angular melody which " moves with great vigor , " This is in contradistinction to the lute song that emphasized continuous flow and smooth melodic motion .
Duckles identifies two styles of songs of the collection : " The declamatory air " ( reflecting modern style ) , and " the tuneful air " ( reflecting the older style , a vestige of Renaissance musical practice ) . The tuneful air could be composed based on a preexisting tune or a tune intended to be a dance form . In examining lyric forms , Duckles identified the ballad as one type of lute song . The ballads found in Drexel 4257 are all of a sophisticated type in which satire and parody are important elements . The ballad as simple narrative or topical ballad are not represented .
Warning that one must be wary of the fluid nature of musical genres , Duckles categorized the following songs from Drexel 4257 as ballads : 46 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 70 , 74 , 76 , 79 , 92 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 123 , 131 , 142 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 186 , 214 , 271 , 272 .
Duckles identified these songs as being in the declamatory style : 4 , 12 , 15 , 20 , 22 , 26 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 83 , 89 , 108 , 132 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 164 , 168 , 172 , 182 , 188 , 198 , 206 , 238 , 239 , 240 , 243 , 247 , 249 , 253 , 256 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 269 , 274 , 277 , 280 , 284 , 285 , 292 , 299 , 306 , 311 , 315 , 316 , 317 , 323 , 326 .
Duckles observes that by 1651 , the transition from the lute song to the continuo song was complete . Printed versions of songs can not be entirely trusted to represent what was sung , since , in order to keep engraving costs manageable , they would economize on written vocal embellishments . That 's why manuscript sources are crucial to our understanding of transition to Baroque vocal styles . Duckles concludes by warning that those who study early 17th century lyric poetry must do so in conjunction with their intended musical settings , since words and music are inseparable .
= = Significance = =
In his dissertation , Duckles summed up Gamble and his manuscript :
There seems to be little doubt but that Gamble 's fame will rest upon his work as a compiler of an important song collection , not on his work as a composer . As a musician he was distinctly second @-@ rate , but one can appreciate him as a man with a keen sense of the musical currents ( page 138 ) of his time , an opportunist , who knew what the public wanted and how to turn public taste to his own professional uses ... By shrewdness and wit he managed to establish a place for himself in the rough @-@ and @-@ tumble world of mid @-@ 17th century music . His songs were soon forgotten , but in his " Commonplace book , " compiled without any thought for posterity , he succeeded in presenting one of the most valuable sources we have of the musical taste and musical thought of his time . It is for this reason that an obscure court musician of some 300 years ago remains very much alive in the minds of students of English music history .
= = List of songs = =
This table is based on the table of contents listed in Jorgens , supplemented with composer , lyricist attributions and other remarks from Duckles 1953 .
= = Facsimile = =
A facsimile of the manuscript was published as Drexel Ms. 4257 : John Gamble , " His booke , amen 1659 " , in English Song ,
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th century = = =
While the Swan River Colony was established as a " free settlement " ( unlike the penal colonies on the east coast ) , by the 1840s demand for cheap labour overcame an early reluctance , and the colony agreed to accept some convicts from Britain . The arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected , as a sailing ship that had been sent ahead had been blown off @-@ course . The colony 's Round House jail was full , so the 75 convicts had to be left on the ship until a temporary prison was built . Comptroller General of Convicts Edward Henderson looked for a place to build a permanent convict establishment , and ultimately settled on the current site , on a hill overlooking Fremantle .
The design for Fremantle Prison was based on the Pentonville Prison in Britain , but with diagonal cell blocks replaced with a four @-@ storey linear structure , which would be the longest , tallest prison cell block in the southern hemisphere . Construction began in 1851 , and work rapidly progressed following the arrival of the Royal Engineers later that year . They trained convicts to work with limestone , which was quarried on @-@ site . The first priority was the construction of accommodation for Henderson and the prison warders , to relieve the expense of paying for private lodging .
The prison walls were constructed between 1853 and 1855 , while the gatehouse and associated entry complex was built in 1854 and 1855 . Construction of the southern half of the Main Cell Block began in 1853 and was finished in 1855 , with prisoners transferred from the temporary prison on 1 June 1855 . Construction of the northern wing followed . The Crimean War saw the Royal Engineers recalled , leaving only one of their number , Henry Wray , to oversee the building 's construction , which was completed by the end of 1859 .
During Western Australia 's convict era , the prison was known as the Convict Establishment , and was used for prisoners transported from Britain . Longer term locally @-@ sentenced prisoners were also held there from 1858 , at a cost to the colonial government . In 1868 , penal transportation to Western Australia ceased , and the number of convicts in the colony gradually declined , down to 83 in the mid @-@ 1880s . Due to the great expense of sending these convicts back to Britain , the authorities there negotiated with the colonial government to relinquish jurisdiction over them , as well as the prison complex – demolition was considered too expensive . Early negotiations had broken down , but were restarted in August 1883 . After one and a half years , a compromise was reached , and the transfer was finalised on 31 March 1886 .
Once the prison came under the control of the colonial government , it was renamed Fremantle Prison . All prisoners in Perth Gaol were transferred to Fremantle , and from 1887 female prisoners were also imprisoned there , in their own separate section . The Western Australian gold rushes of the 1890s resulted in strong economic growth , and a massive increase in population : doubling from almost 50 @,@ 000 in 1891 to more than 100 @,@ 000 by 1895 , and to 184 @,@ 000 by 1901 . This influx included desperate , dishonest people , from elsewhere in Australia and overseas , and Fremantle Prison was soon overcrowded .
The 1890s also saw a growing public unease with the treatment of prisoners . In September 1898 a Royal Commission was established by the Governor of Western Australia to investigate the colony 's penal system . The commission heard evidence from almost 240 witnesses , including a range of prisoners . Three reports were made between December 1898 and June 1899 , dealing with the most recognisable and prominent issues including classification , sentencing , punishments , and diet . In particular , they considered the philosophy of the prison system – the causes of crime , as well as the types of punishments and their justifications – and in light of this , the practicality of various reform proposals .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Within a year of the enquiry , almost 100 cells had been enlarged by knocking down the inner wall between two cells , and a classification system was introduced . Internal walls were constructed in the main block , creating four separate divisions . Following the urgings of the prison Superintendent George and various official enquiries , new workshops were built to provide increased useful employment for prisoners . Five spaces were designed for tailors , bookbinders , shoemakers , mat makers and painters .
New regulations for prison officers were published in the Government Gazette in 1902 , and a new Prisons Act was passed in 1903 . While in theory the passing of the Act should have resulted in significant prison reform , this did not eventuate . The legislation left much of the changes to executive regulation , at the discretion of the governor , and was described by the media as a feeble document .
New Division , completed in 1907 and occupied in 1908 , resulted from the 1899 Commissioners ' report recommending a modified version of the separate system . The new division was similar in design to Henderson 's 1850s structure , but was constructed in an L @-@ shape , was only three stories tall , and had electric lighting . It also differed in its use from the main cell block . Unlike occupants of the earlier building , prisoners remained continuously in their cells except when exercising in separate yards , watched panopticon @-@ style by a warder in a central tower .
In 1911 another Royal Commission investigation into Fremantle Prison recommended closing the facility . Its report was ignored by the state government , which was more concerned with building infrastructure such as roads and schools than the plight of its prisoners . However , there was a rapid change in prison policy , with the appointment of a superintendent , Hugh Hann , who had recent English and colonial experience , and the election of a Labor government with members interested in penal reform . One immediate result was the dismantling of the separate system at Fremantle Prison and the demolition of the separate exercise yards in 1912 .
Fremantle Prison was partially used as a military prison during both world wars – for the detention of military personnel , as well as an internment centre . From 1940 until 1946 , it was one of more than 50 military prisons across Australia holding a combined total of more than 12 @,@ 000 enemy aliens and prisoners of war . Fremantle accommodated up to 400 military prisoners and up to 160 civilian prisoners by October 1945 . The World War II takeover necessitated the commissioning of Barton 's Mill Prison in 1942 .
= = = 20th century reform = = =
Prison outstations were established as part of the reforms in the 20th century , and to reduce the overcrowding at Fremantle . Pardelup Prison Farm opened in 1927 , near Mount Barker , while Barton 's Mill , though planned to be a temporary measure , remained open as a prison after World War II . Significant reform to Western Australia 's prison system did not begin until the 1960s , lagging behind those which occurred elsewhere in Australia and the world after World War II . Seven new prisons were opened between 1960 and 1971 , and in 1970 , female prisoners and staff were moved from Fremantle to the new Bandyup Women 's Prison . New legislation regarding probation , parole , and convicted drunkards was also introduced , which provided alternatives to imprisonment . With these new arrangements , and more variety in prisons and prison types , a classification board was set up in 1963 to assess prisoners .
The appointment of Colin Campbell as comptroller general in 1966 fostered substantial changes within Fremantle Prison itself . One of his first changes was to clear the classification committee 's backlog of prisoners awaiting assessment . Campbell also established an officer training school , as well as an assessment centre to evaluate new prisoners . Work release and community service programs were also introduced , along with training programs , social workers and welfare officers . Within the midst of Campbell 's reforms , the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections in 1971 , restructured , and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department .
In 1972 a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate mistreatment of and discrimination against Aboriginal prisoners . Its 1973 report found that there was not " any appreciable discrimination " , however , racial stereotypes are present throughout the report , and the testimony of Aboriginal prisoners was considered unreliable . The report also made recommendations regarding various aspects of prison life , including additional , independent , trained welfare officers .
William Kidston succeeded Campbell in 1977 , and oversaw a shift in policy from " paternalistic rehabilitation " of prisoners to merely providing opportunities for rehabilitation . A new Prisons Act was passed in 1981 , which updated the 1903 Act with modern philosophies and practices . This act was , however , slanted towards prisoner management and safety , and the department was at the same time renamed the Prisons Department once more , to emphasise imprisonment as its primary responsibility . Ian Hill became Director of the Prisons Department in 1983 , and reorganised the department several times , striving for increased efficiency . Whilst the changes of the 1980s were effective throughout most of Western Australia 's prison system , the culture of Fremantle Prison was resistant to change . Growing prisoner discontent eventually culminated in the 1988 prison riot , investigated by an official enquiry later that year .
= = = Closure and subsequent use = = =
The state government made the decision to decommission Fremantle Prison in 1983 , but it remained in operation until 30 November 1991 . Prisoners were moved to a new metropolitan maximum security prison at Casuarina . There were divergent views in the community over the site 's future , whether it should be preserved or redeveloped . The ultimate decision was for conservation of the prison , but allowing for the buildings to be adapted for reuse by the community .
The Fremantle Prison Trust was established in 1992 to advise the Minister for Works on the management of the site . Various new uses were found for different parts of the prison , including wedding services in the chapels , the Coastal Business Centre in New Division , and the Fremantle Children 's Literature Centre in the hospital ; the prison also became a tourist attraction . A private company , the Fremantle Prison Guardians , organised the tourist operation for ten years under contract , until the end of 2001 ; subsequently , the state government took control . A hostel providing short @-@ stay accommodation in the Women 's Prison opened in May 2015 .
= = Staff and prisoners = =
= = = Administration = = =
Western Australia 's first comptroller general of convicts , Edmund Henderson , administered the convict establishment for thirteen years . The primary responsibilities of the comptroller general were to " direct convict labour and be responsible for convict discipline " . With the transfer of Fremantle Prison to the colonial government in 1886 , the role of the comptroller was replaced by that of the sheriff , responsible for all of the prisons in the colony . The position of comptroller general was recreated , with duties split off from the sheriff 's office , in early 1911 . In 1971 , the Prisons Department was renamed the Department of Corrections , restructured , and the position of comptroller general was replaced with director of the department . While the comptroller , sheriff , or director was responsible for the overall convict or prison system , largely centred around Fremantle Prison , the responsibility of the prison itself lay with the superintendent .
= = = Officers = = =
On convict ships , the convicts were guarded by pensioner guards , who were soldiers awarded pensions for their service in areas such as China , Crimea , and Afghanistan . Some remained in the military , but many opted to stay in the colony as settlers , having brought their wives and children with them . The pensioner guards were expected to help deal with any incidents of unrest at the prison .
Fremantle Prison 's officers were known as warders until the early 20th century . They lived in specially built terrace houses within walking distance of the prison , and their lives were just as regimented as the prisoners . In the 1890s warders still had stringent living and working conditions , including ten- to twelve @-@ hour working days . Due to a high turnover rate , many had little knowledge of either official policies or unofficial rules and traditions . The warder 's role , previously unwritten , only became clearly defined in 1902 . As well as guarding against escapes and enforcing discipline , they oversaw prisoner work and instructed inmates in trades . The warders were also supposed to be moral role models for prisoners , while maintaining a formal , distant , relationship .
The prison officer 's role in the 20th century did not change much , with the job still entailing a boredom @-@ inducing daily routine focused on security . Officer training became a priority under Campbell 's administration , from the late 1960s . Training courses were set up for staff inductions and promotions , and seminars were started for senior officers . The most significant change in this period , however , was that prison officers achieved representation through the Western Australian Prison Officers ' Union . The strength of the union was based on the ability to almost cripple the prison system through strike action , first taken in 1975 .
= = = Prisoners = = =
Convicts were introduced into Western Australia for three main purposes : inexpensive labour , additional labour , and an injection of British government spending into the local economy . During the initial years of transportation , convicts were generally young , from a rural background , and of good character , having only committed minor offences – potential future colonists , after their sentence had been served . By the 1860s the majority were older , more serious offenders from urban areas , including political prisoners considered to be " difficult and dangerous " . Following the transfer of Fremantle Prison to local control in 1886 , it became Western Australia 's primary prison . In the late 1880s and 1890s the number of inmates swelled dramatically . This increase predominantly comprised prisoners serving shorter sentences of under three months . The number of inmates in 1897 was 379 , and Inspector of Prisons James Roe viewed the prison as " inconveniently full " .
Despite a large expansion of the prison system , the problem of overcrowding remained throughout the 20th century , as did Western Australia 's high incarceration rate relative to the rest of Australia . The nature of prisoners changed , with three times the proportion of 16- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds in 1984 compared to 1898 , and a growing over @-@ representation of Aboriginal prisoners to nearly half the incarcerated population . Sentences also increased in length , such that in 1984 more than 80 % of inmates were serving more than a year . In the 1970s and 1980s , there was an increasing number of people committed for violent crimes , but still a minority of the population . Both staff and prisoners , however , perceived a notable increase in violence during these years , coinciding with the rise of illegal drugs in prison , and of sentences for drug @-@ related offences .
= = Prison operation = =
= = = Routine = = =
In the Convict Establishment of 1855 , the day began with the wakeup bell at 4 : 30 am , and the officers and prisoners assembled in the parade ground at 5 : 25 am . Prisoners were sent to work before and after breakfast ( in their cells ) , before assembling for muster at midday . This was followed by dinner in the exercise yard or the work site , and more work throughout the afternoon , until supper at 6 : 00 pm in the cells . Night officers took over at 7 : 15 pm . The transfer of the Convict Establishment to the colonially @-@ run Fremantle Prison saw little change , and no new regulations .
A similar routine , but with fewer working hours , is described in the 1930s :
The following routine is observed by those who go to Fremantle Jail : — 6 @.@ 15 am . , warning bell ; prisoners rise and fold beds . 6 @.@ 30 @.@ officers muster and unlock cells . 7 @.@ 0 . [ sic ] breakfast , which lasts 15 minutes , after which men assemble in their respective exercise yards . 7 @.@ 55 , parade for work . 11 @.@ 45 , parade for dinner , after which men are in yard until 1 pm , parade for work ; 4 @.@ 45 parade for tea . 5 @.@ 30 @.@ muster ; all cells , etc . , locked for the night . 7 @.@ 55 @.@ warning bell ; prisoners to bed . 8 @.@ 0 , [ sic ] lights out except as provided for in reformatory regulations .
Not much had changed by the 1960s . The day began with a waking bell at 6 : 45 am . After a prisoner count , they moved into the yard until 7 : 30 , when they collected breakfast and headed back to their cells . The 8 : 00 bell signaled a parade , and then the start of work , which lasted until 11 : 15 . They ate a meal , locked in their cells until 12 : 20 pm , followed by some time in the yards . At 1 : 00 there was another parade , and another session of work which lasted to 4 : 15 . Another meal was collected , and prisoners were locked away in their cells overnight . The lights stayed on until 9 : 30 pm . On the weekends the routine featured no work , and included a film played for the prisoners .
= = = Diet = = =
Prisoners ate meals in their cells , from the early years of the prison through to its closure in 1991 . Bread from the prison bakehouse was included in every meal in the convict era . It was served with black tea for breakfast , and with either tea or cocoa in the evening . The main meal , called dinner , was in the middle of the day , and also featured soup , meat , and vegetables . By the 1890s food was still very limited in variety , with few vegetables . Porridge was given for breakfast , usually too fluid or overly solid , and the general standard of the prison 's food was quite low , particularly in 1897 and 1898 . However , the quality soon improved , as noted by the 1898 Royal Commission , which recommended decreasing rations to reduce costs .
In the 1960s , food preparation was overseen by a qualified chef , who also trained prisoners . The diet consisted of quality food , but " without trimmings " . Breakfast was porridge , with a third of a pint of milk , a hot drink ( tea , unless the prisoner bought coffee or cocoa ) , and either Vegemite , honey , or margarine , depending on the week . Lunch and dinner had more variation . Both meals consisted of a meat dish – corned beef , sausages , or mince pie – as well as mashed potato and cabbage , although there was occasionally a roast dinner . Meat , vegetables and bread were still a prominent part of the diet in 1991 .
= = = Labour = = =
As well as being used to build the prison itself , convict labour , with convicts in chain gangs , was used for other public works in the Fremantle and surrounding Perth area , including The Causeway , Perth Town Hall and Stirling Highway . The work undertaken by a convict depended on their behaviour and demeanour . Upon arrival to Western Australia , convicts were kept within the prison for a period of observation . If found to have a reasonable disposition , the convict would be sent to work , in a gang under the control of a warder . Typical activities included " quarrying , filling swamps , burning lime , constructing public buildings , roads and jetties " around Fremantle and Perth .
After some time , they might be sent to work on road or other projects away from these main settlements . Continued good behaviour could see the convict granted a ticket @-@ of @-@ leave , allowing private employment in a specified district of the colony , and eventually a Conditional Pardon , allowing most freedoms , except for returning to England . A Certificate of Freedom would only be granted at the end of a sentence . Misbehaviour would result in demotion through these levels of work , including returning to convict status within the prison . Re @-@ offenders and captured escapees , after corporal punishment and time in solitary confinement , would be placed on a chain gang undertaking hard labour , typically on roads near Fremantle .
Outside work , mostly on public infrastructure , continued beyond the convict era , but gradually declined due to discipline concerns , the rise of trade unions that saw such work as " a threat to free labour " , and an increasing emphasis on work as rehabilitation rather than punishment . By 1911 outside work had all but ceased , but could not adequately be replaced by employment within the prison walls ; a lack of suitable work plagued the prison throughout its lifetime . Work in the 19th century consisted of cooking , washing clothes , cleaning the prison , tailoring , bootmaking , and printing . However , demand exceeded the availability of such work – increasingly so in the later years of the 19th century – so prisoners were also given activities with no practical value other than keeping them occupied . These included breaking stones , operating a water pump , and oakum picking . Even with these extra activities , by 1899 , 60 to 70 men were employed at the pump , each doing only a few minutes work per hour , and occupied the rest of the time with recreation such as draughts .
New workshops built in 1901 allowed prisoners to work in bootmaking and tailoring , and from 1904 , printing . Only a small fraction of prisoners were allocated to the workshops – 35 out of an average of 279 prisoners in 1902 . In 1908 , there were still few men employed in the workshops , 20 in tailoring , 15 in bootmaking , and 12 in mat making , with only half of these working at a time , and little improvement by the 1911 Royal Commission . The 20th century saw little change in the work prisoners did . There were similar workshops , with the addition of metal work , and similar jobs around the prison complex , including in the laundry , in the kitchen , and cleaning the prison . In 1984 , 90 % of prisoners were reported to be employed , either full @-@ time or part @-@ time . The meaningfulness of the work was nominal , as work was viewed as " a management option rather than [ for ] production " , but security concerns and discipline restricted the rehabilitative value of the work , and limited much of the work to jobs non @-@ existent outside of prison .
= = = Punishments = = =
In the convict era , particularly during Hampton 's term as governor , misbehaving prisoners were punished with flogging , solitary confinement , and working in chain gangs at gunpoint . Particularly difficult prisoners were put to work hand pumping groundwater into the prison 's reservoir . Known as cranking , it was especially despised by the prisoners . Staff disliked giving the lashings – in 1851 , out of a total of 400 lashings ordered , 150 were remitted as the superintendent could not find anyone to undertake the task . The role was so disliked that inducements were offered , including extra pay or improved lodgings .
By the 1880s , punishments also included a restricted diet of bread and water ( for a short time span ) , time in irons , and a lengthening of a prisoner 's sentence by a visiting magistrate . The cat o ' nine tails , which had been used since the early days of the prison , was abolished during the post @-@ 1911 Royal Commission reforms . Other reforms in this period saw the number of punishments inflicted decrease from 184 in 1913 to 57 in 1914 , and 35 in 1915 .
Flogging was discontinued in the 1940s , with the last incident occurring in 1943 . From that decade , punishments were decided by the superintendent after hearing the case against a prisoner , or by a magistrate for grievous violations . Lesser transgressions could result in solitary confinement , or restriction from visitors , education , and concerts ; serious offences were punishable by the cancellation of any remission earned and a bread @-@ and @-@ water diet , normally over a two @-@ week period .
= = = Executions = = =
As soon as Fremantle Prison came under local control in 1886 , a refractory block with gallows was planned . It was completed in 1888 , and first used in 1889 to execute a convicted murderer , Jimmy Long , a Malayan . The gallows room was the only lawful place of execution in Western Australia between 1888 and 1984 . At least 43 men and one woman were hanged in this period . Martha Rendell was the only woman to be hanged at the prison , in 1909 . The last person to be
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] recalls vintage Walt Disney , both in substance and in the style of hand animation . " Rick Lyman of Knight Ridder News Services said in his review : " Any movie — even an animated one — that has characters with names such as Funshine Bear , Love @-@ a @-@ lot Bear , and Lotsa Heart Elephant is obviously going to rank quite high on the cute meter . And this one sends the needle right off the chart . You 've never seen such cuteness . " Adele Freedman also gave it a positive review , commenting : " [ It ] has a lot going for it if you can tolerate the Bears . " Edward Jones of Virginia 's The Free Lance @-@ Star praised it , but stated that " More comedy would have helped broaden [ its ] appeal to older youngsters . " The Deseret News of Utah gave it three stars out of four ( a " Good " grade ) with this comment : " Sticky sweet , but a nice message . "
Michael Blowen began his review of the film by stating that " [ it ] satisfies the primary obligation of a bedtime story — before it 's half over the children will be fast asleep . " He added that " this sugar @-@ coated trifle could only satisfy the most ardent Care Bears fan " , and that " the characters themselves lack definition " . The Arkansas Democrat @-@ Gazette said , " Who except a callous scrooge would carp about the fact that The Care Bears Movie espouses a psychopop philosophy of ' sharing our feelings ' that seems drawn straight from the pages on one of those insufferable self @-@ motivation tomes ? No one , that 's who . " In the words of The Washington Post reviewer Paul Attanasio , " The best cartoons recognize the dark side of kids , their penchant for violence , their fearful fantasies . [ This movie ] just patronizes them . It even has a child chortling , ' Aren 't parents great ! ' Well , they are and they aren 't , and kids know that . "
The animation in the film received mixed reviews as well . Adele Freedman praised the style and backgrounds , and called the special effects " stunning " . Likewise , John Stanley wrote that " The style is cartoonish and cute " in his 1988 film guide , Revenge of the Creature Features . While complimenting it as " a harmless film diversion " , Stephen Hunter said that " the movie has the lustrous , glossy look of the very best in children 's book illustrations " . " On the other hand , " he added , " the producers obviously couldn 't afford an expensive [ multiplane ] camera , the staple of the Disney product , and so the scenes have a depressing flatness to them . And the backgrounds , so brilliantly developed in Disney , tend to be blurry and hastily done . " Jim Moorhead of Florida 's The Evening Independent said , " [ Nelvana 's ] animation is not the best . Far from it . Everything 's in pastels , fine details are largely missing , mouth movements are minimal and the motions of the figures are scarcely better than some of those awful Saturday morning cartoons on TV . " The staff at Variety magazine stated that the " style ... tends towards a primer reading level . " Halliwell 's Film Guide called it " sluggishly animated and narrated " . As with the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , The New York Times ' Janet Maslin found that the quality paled in comparison to Disney features ( in this case , 1940 's Pinocchio ) .
The Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon ( in his 1989 book Enchanted Drawings : The History of Animation ) , and Michael Janusonis of Rhode Island 's Providence Journal , faulted the plot . The Evening Independent 's Moorhead and Jim Davidson of the Pittsburgh Press noticed at least two parallel storylines in the film , one of which involved the magician Nicholas . The National Coalition on Television Violence counted at least 20 acts of violence throughout the picture .
Critics questioned its purpose as a feature @-@ length advertisement for Care Bears merchandise ; among them were Charles Solomon , Paul Attanasio , The Morning Call of Pennsylvania , and Bill Cosford of The Miami Herald . The Boca Raton News ' Skip Sheffield commented , " I couldn 't help being bothered by the blatant commercialism of this whole venture . " The British magazine Films and Filming remarked : " The purpose of the film is presumably to sell more toys as it unashamedly pushes the message that without at least one Care Bear around life can be very lonely . " Stoffman observed , " one of the youngest target audiences of any animated movie " , as did the Halliwell 's staff ; film critic Leonard Maltin ( in his Movie Guide ) ; and Henry Herx ( in his Family Guide to Movies on Video ) .
The 1986 International Film Guide called it " an elementary piece of animation lacking colour and character , with not much humour , quite lacking in charm , and indifferently scored " . Maltin gave it two stars out of four in his Movie Guide ; similarly , the Gale Group publication , VideoHound 's Golden Movie Retriever , gave it two bones out of four in its 1997 edition . According to Derek Owen of Time Out 's Film Guide , " Adults forced to accompany three @-@ year @-@ olds to the movie would have had a little moment of satisfaction when the time came to shovel the Care Bears toys out of the house into landfill sites . "
The mixed reception carried on in the years ahead : in her 1995 book Inside Kidvid , Loretta MacAlpine said of the film and its subsequent follow @-@ ups , " If you can hack the sugarcoated attitudes of this group of cuddly bears , more power to you ! There 's nothing insidious about the Care Bears , but their overbearing sweetness may not appeal to all viewers . " She cautioned parents of the merchandising aspect behind the tapes . Dave Gathman of Illinois ' Courier @-@ News wrote in 1998 , " One Care Bears Movie ... can give all G @-@ rated entertainment a bad name . " In 2003 the Erie Times @-@ News acknowledged its financial success , but commented on its " lack of a creative title " . Animation expert Jerry Beck wrote in his 2005 book , The Animated Movie Guide , " It 's a simple , serviceable adventure with several standout sequences . ... There 's no doubt about it , this is a children 's film aimed at the under @-@ seven crowd . But it 's one of the better animated children 's films produced during this period . "
= = = Allusions = = =
In his Christian Science Monitor review , David Sterritt observed that The Care Bears Movie was mostly influenced by The Sorcerer 's Apprentice , a 1797 poem by German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , along with " a trace of H. P. Lovecraft " that probably wasn 't intended " . He went on to say , " I also noticed a subtle sexism at work . Why must it be the little girl [ Kim ] who dreams of being a nurse and the little boy [ Jason ] of being a jet pilot — and not the other way around , to stimulate young imaginations instead of echoing past patterns ? " Blowen wrote that the two children both get turned " from cynics to idealists " . Joe Fox of Ontario 's The Windsor Star , and Stephen Hunter , compared the Bears ' home of Care @-@ a @-@ lot to King Arthur 's mythical castle of Camelot ; Blowen commented that in this place , " altruism is king " . Hunter noted that " the celestial physics are left vague " , concerning Kim and Jason 's trip from Care @-@ a @-@ lot to the Forest of Feelings . Critics compared at least two aspects of the film to Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs : the Spirit received similarities to the Magic Mirror and the Wicked Queen , but Charles Solomon felt that the Bears lacked the individual qualities of the Dwarfs . Solomon noted that in animated features of that era , villains such as the Spirit " lacked motivation — if the viewer accepts their evil intentions , it 's only because he 's been told to " . According to Tom Ogden ( in his 1997 book Wizards and Sorcerers : From Abracabadra to Zoroaster ) , the Bears ' Stare against the Spirit serves as a kind of white magic . " Such a non @-@ violent solution , " wrote Bruce Bailey in The Montreal Gazette , " should sit well with peace lobbyists " . According to a 2005 article in The Times of London , an Internet reviewer called The Care Bears Movie " a fine example of Christian socialism " .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 1985 Genie Awards in its native Canada , The Care Bears Movie won the Golden Reel Award for being the country 's highest @-@ grossing film of the year . Ron Cohen , president of the Academy of Canadian Cinema and Television , presented the award to producers Hirsh , Loubert , and Smith . John Sebastian 's " Nobody Cares Like a Bear " received a Genie nomination for Best Original Song ; his performance was part of CBC 's live telecast of the ceremony on March 20 , 1986 . The film received a Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Family Animation Series or Special " , but lost to the CBS series The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show . During its 21st annual award ceremony on October 17 , 1985 , Nashville 's performance rights organization SESAC honoured Woodward and Bird for their songwriting efforts .
= = Legacy = =
In the words of Jerry Beck , " [ The Care Bears Movie 's ] box @-@ office gross signalled to Hollywood a renewed interest in animated features , albeit for children . This is something The Secret of NIMH tried to accomplish but failed to do . " A plethora of children 's and family film entertainment followed in its wake , such as Sesame Street Presents Follow That Bird from Warner Bros. , and a re @-@ issue of Universal Studios ' E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . Atlantic Releasing joined this movement by establishing Clubhouse Pictures , which showed G @-@ rated films during 1986 . Nelvana 's film helped to bring back matinee engagements to prominence across North America .
Mentioning The Care Bears Movie as " the most recent example " , Charles Solomon brought up the subject of feature @-@ length toy adaptations in an April 1985 interview on Los Angeles ' KUSC @-@ FM . He spoke to Warner Bros. animator Chuck Jones , who replied : " I feel that it 's proper — after all , that 's the way Alice in Wonderland was written : the dolls were all made first , then they made the picture about the dolls , right ? " In July 1985 Sarah Stiansen of United Press International ( UPI ) called The Care Bears Movie " another licensing innovation for TCFC " , following the department 's previous endeavours . UPI 's Vernon Scott ( in 1985 ) , and Bruce A. Austin ( in his 1989 book Immediate Seating ) , observed how the merchandising arrived in advance of the film 's release . In forthcoming years , several media adaptations based on established toy lines would follow a similar marketing tactic . Examples included films based on Hasbro 's Transformers ( in 1986 and 2007 ) and My Little Pony ; features with Tonka 's Gobots ( Battle of the Rock Lords ) and Pound Puppies ( Legend of Big Paw ) ; and a television series and feature with Hallmark 's Rainbow Brite . The Care Bears Movie was parodied in " At the Movies " , a 1991 episode of Nickelodeon and Klasky Csupo 's animated series Rugrats . In that episode , the Pickles family goes to see The Land Without Smiles , starring the Dummi Bears ( who are patterned after the Care Bears ) .
= = Follow @-@ ups = =
After the release of The Care Bears Movie , DIC Entertainment produced a syndicated 11 @-@ episode television series featuring the title characters . Another series , Nelvana 's The Care Bears Family , premiered on ABC in the US and Canada 's Global in September 1986 , and was subsequently broadcast in 140 countries . Nelvana followed the first film with another two theatrical instalments , Care Bears Movie II : A New Generation ( 1986 ) and The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland ( 1987 ) ; neither made as much of a critical or commercial impact . A New Generation , released by Columbia Pictures , made over US $ 8 @.@ 5 million in North America and US $ 12 million worldwide . Adventure in Wonderland was self @-@ financed by Nelvana and released by Cineplex Odeon Films , and grossed US $ 2 @.@ 608 million domestically ; with worldwide earnings of US $ 6 million , it barely recovered its costs . Because of this , Michael Hirsh later declared , " It was just one sequel too many . " The Bears returned for one more animated production , Care Bears Nutcracker Suite , which debuted on video and television in December 1988 . The franchise 's next feature film , 2004 's Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot , also premiered on video ( via Lionsgate and Family Home Entertainment ) .
= Battle of Posada =
The Battle of Posada ( November 9 , 1330 – November 12 , 1330 ) was fought between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I Robert of Hungary .
The small Wallachian army led by Basarab , formed of cavalry and foot archers , as well as local peasants , managed to ambush and defeat the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Hungarian army , in a mountainous region near the border between Oltenia and Severin .
The battle resulted in a major Wallachian victory and disaster for Charles Robert , becoming a turning point in the politics of Hungary , which had to abandon its hopes of extending the kingdom to the Black Sea . For Wallachia , the victory meant an increase in morale and the further evolution of the independent state .
= = Background = =
Some historians claim that the Cumans aided the Wallachians in the battle . In 1324 , Wallachia was a vassal of Hungary , and Robert referred to Basarab as " our Transalpine Voivode " .
The war started with encouragement from the Voivode of Transylvania and a certain Dionisie , who later bore the title Ban of Severin . In 1330 , Robert captured the long disputed Wallachian citadel of Severin and handed it to the Transylvanian Voivode .
Basarab sent envoys who asked for the hostilities to cease , and in return offered to pay 7 @,@ 000 marks in silver , submit the fortress of Severin to Robert , and send his own son as hostage . According to the Viennese Illuminated Chronicle , a contemporary account , Robert said about Basarab : " He is the shepherd of my sheep , and I will take him out of his mountains , dragging him by his beard . " Another account writes that Robert said that : "
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Regia Aeronautica attacked Wajir , one of No. 237 Squadron 's forward airstrips , damaging two Rhodesian aircraft .
Italian forces entered British Somaliland from Abyssinia on 4 August 1940 , overcame the garrison at Hargeisa , and advanced north @-@ east towards the capital Berbera . The British force , including a platoon of 43 Rhodesians in the 2nd Battalion of the Black Watch , took up positions on six hills overlooking the only road towards Berbera and engaged the Italians at the Battle of Tug Argan . Amid heavy fighting , the Italians gradually made gains and by 14 August had almost pocketed the Commonwealth forces . The British retreated to Berbera between 15 and 17 August , the Rhodesians making up the left flank of the rearguard , and by 18 August had evacuated by sea . The Italians took the city and completed their conquest of British Somaliland a day later .
No. 237 Squadron embarked on reconnaissance flights and supported ground assaults on Italian desert outposts during July and August 1940 . Two British brigades from West Africa arrived to reinforce Kenya 's northern frontier in early July — the partly Rhodesian @-@ officered Nigeria Regiment joined the front at Malindi and Garissa , while a battalion of the Gold Coast Regiment , also with Rhodesian commanders attached , relieved the KAR at Wajir . The British forces in East Africa adopted the doctrine of " mobile defence " that was already being used in the Western Desert in North Africa — units embarked on long , constant patrols to guard wells and deny water supplies to the Italians . The British evacuated their north forward position at Buna in September 1940 , and expected an attack on Wajir soon after , but the Italians never attempted an assault . Boosted considerably by the arrival of three South African brigades during the last months of 1940 , the Commonwealth forces in Kenya had expanded to three divisions by the end of the year . No. 237 Squadron was relieved by South African airmen and redeployed to the Sudan in September .
Rebasing at Khartoum , No. 237 Squadron undertook regular reconnaissance , dive @-@ bombing and strafing sorties during October and November 1940 . Meanwhile , the Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery arrived in Kenya in October and , following a period of training , received 2 @-@ pounder guns and joined the front at Garissa around the turn of the new year . No. 237 Squadron was partially re @-@ equipped during January 1941 , receiving some Westland Lysander Mk IIs , but most of the squadron continued operating Hardys .
The British forces in Kenya under General Alan Cunningham , including Rhodesian officers and NCOs in the King 's African Rifles and the Nigeria and Gold Coast Regiments , as well as the South African 1st Infantry Division , advanced into Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland during late January and February 1941 , starting with the occupation of the ports of Kismayo and Mogadishu . The Italians retreated to the interior . No. 237 Squadron meanwhile provided air support to the 4th and 5th Indian Divisions during Lieutenant @-@ General William Platt 's offensive into Eritrea from the Sudan , attacking ground targets and engaging Italian fighters . One of the Rhodesian Hardys was shot down near Keren on 7 February with the loss of both airman aboard ; two days later five Italian fighters attacked a group of grounded Rhodesian aircraft at Agordat in western Eritrea , and wrecked two Hardys and two Lysanders .
Platt 's advance into Eritrea was checked during the seven @-@ week Battle of Keren ( February – April 1941 ) , during which No. 237 Squadron observed Italian positions and took part in bombing raids . After the Italians retreated and surrendered , the Rhodesian squadron moved forward to Asmara on 6 April , whence it embarked on bombing sorties on the port of Massawa . The same day , the Italian garrison in the Abyssinian capital Addis Ababa surrendered to the 11th ( East Africa ) Division , including many Rhodesians . The forces of Platt and Cunningham converged and surrounded the remainder of the Italian forces , commanded by the Italian viceroy the Duke of Aosta , at the mountain stronghold of Amba Alagi . The viceroy surrendered on 18 May 1941 , effectively ending the war in East Africa . No. 237 Squadron and the Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery thereupon moved up to Egypt to join the war in the Western Desert . Some Italian garrisons continued to fight — the last surrendered only following the Battle of Gondar in November 1941 . Until this time the partly Rhodesian @-@ commanded Nigeria and Gold Coast Regiments remained in Abyssinia , patrolling and rounding up scattered Italian units . Around 250 officers and 1 @,@ 000 other ranks from Southern Rhodesia remained in Kenya until mid @-@ 1943 .
= = = North Africa = = =
In North Africa , Rhodesians in the 11th Hussars , 2nd Leicesters , 1st Cheshires and other regiments contributed to Operation Compass between December 1940 and February 1941 as part of the Western Desert Force under Major @-@ General Richard O 'Connor , fighting at Sidi Barrani , Bardia , Beda Fomm and elsewhere . This offensive was extremely successful , with the Allies suffering very few casualties — around 700 killed and 2 @,@ 300 wounded and missing — while capturing the strategic port Tobruk , over 100 @,@ 000 Italian soldiers and most of Cyrenaica . The Germans reacted by despatching the Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel to shore up the Italian forces . Rommel led a strong counter @-@ offensive in March – April 1941 that forced a general Allied withdrawal towards Egypt . German and Italian forces surrounded Tobruk but failed to take the largely Australian @-@ garrisoned city , leading to the lengthy Siege of Tobruk .
The Rhodesian contingents in the 11th Hussars , Leicesters , Buffs , Argylls , Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , Durham Light Infantry and Sherwood Foresters were transferred en masse to Kenya in February 1941 to join the new Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Regiment , which served in East Africa over the following year . The Rhodesians in the 1st Cheshires moved with that regiment to Malta the same month . The Rhodesian Signallers were withdrawn to Cairo to form a section handling high @-@ speed communications between Middle East Command and General Headquarters in England . The 2nd Black Watch , with its Rhodesian contingent , took part in the unsuccessful Allied defence of Crete in May – June 1941 , then joined the garrison at Tobruk in August 1941 . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron was re @-@ equipped with Hawker Hurricanes the following month .
Rhodesians made up an integral component of the Long Range Desert Group ( LRDG ) , a mechanised reconnaissance and raiding unit formed in North Africa in 1940 to operate behind enemy lines . Initially made up of New Zealanders , the unit 's first British and Rhodesian members joined in November 1940 . It was reorganised several times over the next year as it expanded and by the end of 1941 there were two Rhodesian patrols : S1 and S2 Patrols , B Squadron . Each vehicle bore a Rhodesian place @-@ name starting with " S " on the bonnet , such as " salisbury " or " sabi " . From April 1941 the LRDG was based at Kufra in south @-@ eastern Libya . The Rhodesians were posted to Bir Harash , about 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) to the north @-@ east of Kufra , to patrol , hold the Zighen Gap and guard against a possible Axis attack from the north . For the next four months they lived in near @-@ total isolation from the outside world , an exception coming in July 1941 when they and a group of airmen from No. 237 Squadron celebrated Rhodes Day together in the middle of the Cyrenaican desert .
In November 1941 the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Cunningham , launched Operation Crusader in an attempt to relieve Tobruk . The British XXX Corps , led by the 7th Armoured Division ( " the Desert Rats " ) with its Rhodesian platoons , would form the main body of attack , advancing west from Mersa Matruh , then sweeping around in a north @-@ westerly direction towards Tobruk . The XIII Corps would concurrently advance north @-@ west and cut off Axis forces on the coast at Sollum and Bardia . When signalled the Tobruk garrison would break out and move south @-@ east towards the advancing Allied forces . The operation was largely successful for the Allies , and the siege was broken . The Rhodesians of the LRDG took part in raids on Axis rear areas during the operation , ambushing Axis convoys , destroying Axis aircraft and pulling down telegraph poles and wires .
From late 1941 the LRDG co @-@ operated closely with the newly formed Special Air Service ( SAS ) , which also included some Rhodesians . The Rhodesian LRDG patrols transported and supported SAS troops during operations behind Axis lines . The LRDG also maintained a constant " Road Watch " along the Via Balbia on the north coast of Libya , along which almost all Axis road traffic from Tripoli , the main Libyan port , had to travel east . The LRDG set up a watch post about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) east of the Italian Marble Arch monument , and teams of two men each recorded Axis vehicle and troop movements in shifts throughout the day and night . This information was relayed back to the British commanders in Cairo .
Rommel advanced east from January 1942 , and won a major victory over the Eighth Army , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Neil Ritchie , at the Battle of Gazala in May – June 1942 . The Axis soon thereafter captured Tobruk . During the Axis victory at the " Retma Box " — part of the British @-@ devised system whereby isolated , strongly fortified " boxes " , each manned by a brigade group , formed the front line — and the subsequent Allied retreat , the Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery lost five men killed , nine wounded and two missing ; 37 were captured . Rommel 's advance was stalled in July by the Eighth Army , now headed by General Claude Auchinleck , at the First Battle of El Alamein in western Egypt . Two months later the Rhodesians of the LRDG took part in Operation Bigamy ( aka Operation Snowdrop ) , an unsuccessful attempt by the SAS and LRDG to raid Benghazi harbour . The SAS raiding force , headed by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel David Stirling , was discovered by an Italian reconnaissance unit , prompting Stirling to turn back to Kufra . The Rhodesians , meanwhile , were led into impassable country by a local guide , and swiftly retreated after being attacked by German bombers .
Southern Rhodesian pilots played a part in the siege of Malta during 1942 . John Plagis , a Rhodesian airman of Greek ancestry , joined the multinational group of Allied airmen defending the strategically important island in late March and on 1 April achieved four aerial victories in an afternoon , thereby becoming the siege 's first Spitfire flying ace . By the time of his withdrawal in July he had been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross twice . The British finally delivered vital supplies to Malta on 15 August with Operation Pedestal .
Back in Salisbury , the Southern Rhodesian government was coming under pressure from Britain to put its armed forces under the purview of a regional command . Huggins decided in late October 1942 to join a unified Southern African Command headed by South Africa 's Jan Smuts . This choice was motivated by a combination of strategic concerns and geopolitical manoeuvring . Apart from considering South Africa a more appropriate partner in geographical , logistical and cultural terms , Huggins feared that the alternative — joining the British East Africa Command — might detract from the autonomous nature of Southern Rhodesia 's war effort , with possible constitutional implications . A shift in the deployment of the colony 's troops duly occurred . For the rest of the war the majority of Rhodesian servicemen went into the field integrated into South African formations , prominently the 6th Armoured Division .
= = = El Alamein = = =
The decisive victory of Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Montgomery 's Eighth Army over the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October – November 1942 turned the tide of the North African war strongly in favour of the Allies , and did much to revive Allied morale . The Rhodesians of the KRRC took part in the battle as part of the 7th Armoured Division under the XIII Corps , forming part of the initial thrust in the southern sector .
The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery under Major Guy Savory also fought at El Alamein , supporting the Australian 9th Division as part of the XXX Corps . The fighting around " Thompson 's Post " between 1 and 3 November was some of the fiercest Rhodesians took part in during the war . Hoping to knock out the Allied anti @-@ tank guns before counter @-@ attacking , the Germans concentrated intense artillery fire on the Australian and Rhodesian guns before advancing 12 Panzer IV tanks towards the weakest point of the Australian line . The Australian six @-@ pounders had been largely disabled by the bombardment but most of the Rhodesian guns remained operational . The Rhodesian gunners disabled two Panzers and seriously damaged two more , compelling an Axis retreat , and held their position until being relieved on 3 November . One Rhodesian officer and seven other ranks were killed and more than double that number were wounded . For his actions at Thompson 's Post , Sergeant J A Hotchin received the Distinguished Conduct Medal ; Lieutenants R J Bawden and H R C Callon won the Military Cross and Trooper P Vorster the Military Medal .
The KRRC Rhodesians were in the forefront of the Allied column pursuing the retreating Axis forces after El Alamein , advancing through Tobruk , Gazala and Benghazi before reaching El Agheila on 24 November 1942 . They patrolled around the Axis right flank until being withdrawn to Timimi in December . Tripoli fell to the Eighth Army on 23 January 1943 , and six days later Allied forces reached Tunisia 's south @-@ eastern frontier , where Italian and German forces manned the Mareth Line , a series of fortifications built by the French in the 1930s .
= = = Tunisia = = =
The Mareth Line constituted one of two fronts in the Tunisia Campaign , the second being to the north @-@ west , where the British First Army and American II Corps , firmly established in formerly Vichy @-@ held Morocco and Algeria following Operation Torch in November 1942 , were gradually pushing the Axis forces under Hans @-@ Jürgen von Arnim back towards Tunis . After von Arnim won a decisive victory over the Americans at the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid in mid @-@ February 1943 , destroying over 100 US tanks , the Eighteenth Army Group was formed under the British General Harold Alexander to co @-@ ordinate the actions of the Allied forces on both Tunisian fronts .
The Eighth Army under Montgomery spent February at Medinine in south @-@ eastern Tunisia . Expecting an imminent attack by the Axis , the Eighth Army mustered every anti @-@ tank gun it could from Egypt and Libya . The 102nd ( Northumberland Hussars ) Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , including the Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery under Major Savory , duly advanced west from Benghazi and reached the front on 5 March 1943 . The Germans and Italians assaulted Medinine the next day , but failed to make much progress and abandoned their attack by the evening . The Rhodesian gunners , held in reserve , did not take part in the engagement but were attacked from the air . The Rhodesians of the KRRC , now under the 7th Motor Brigade , moved up from Libya during early March . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , which had spent 1942 and the first months of 1943 in Iran and Iraq , returned to North Africa the same month , with the future Prime Minister Ian Smith in its ranks as a Hurricane pilot .
Montgomery launched his major assault on the Mareth Line , Operation Pugilist , on 16 March . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery , operating with the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , took part . The Allies advanced at first but the weather and terrain prevented the tanks and guns from moving forward , allowing the 15th Panzer Division to counter @-@ attack successfully . A flanking movement by the 2nd New Zealand Division around the right of the German forces , through the Tebaga Gap , compelled an Axis withdrawal on 27 March . The Rhodesian anti @-@ tank gunners fought their last action in Africa at Enfidaville , 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south of Tunis , on 20 April . The KRRC Rhodesians meanwhile took part in a long outflanking march which brought them to El Arousse , 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) south @-@ west of Tunis , the next day . British armour entered Tunis on 7 May 1943 . The Axis forces in North Africa — over 220 @,@ 000 Germans and Italians , including 26 generals — surrendered a week later .
By time Tunis had fallen , few Rhodesians remained with the First or Eighth Armies ; most were transferring to the South African 6th Armoured Division , then in Egypt , or making their way home on leave . Out of the 300 Southern Rhodesians who had joined the KRRC in Egypt , only three officers and 109 other ranks remained at the end of the Tunisian Campaign . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery retraced many of the movements it had taken during the campaign as it returned to Egypt . " Left for Matruh at 0830 hours today , " one Rhodesian gunner wrote . " Camped at night on the identical spot where we camped in June 1941 . It gave me a queer feeling to look back and think how many of us are missing . "
= = = Dodecanese = = =
Southern Rhodesia was represented in the Dodecanese Campaign of September – November 1943 by the Long Range Desert Group , which was withdrawn from the North African front in March 1943 . After retraining for mountain operations in Lebanon , the LRDG moved in late September to the Dodecanese island of Kalymnos , north @-@ west of Kos and south @-@ east of Leros , off the coast of south @-@ west Turkey . In the fall @-@ out from the armistice between Italy and the Allies , which had been concluded in the first week of
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September , the Allies were attempting to capture the Dodecanese so the islands could be used as bases against the German @-@ occupied Balkans . Most of the Italian forces had changed sides ; the LRDG found itself in an infantry role , acting as a mobile reserve for Italian troops .
The Germans swiftly mobilised to expel the Allied forces and launched heavy air assaults on Kos and Leros . Without fighter support , the islands ' defence was soon precarious ; the LRDG and the rest of the troops on Kalymnos were withdrawn to Leros on 4 October after the Germans won the Battle of Kos . German air assaults on Leros intensified during late October , and at dawn on 12 November 1943 the Germans attacked Leros by sea and air . During the ensuing Battle of Leros , the LRDG Rhodesians at Point 320 , commanded by Rhodesian Captain J R Olivey , spiked their position 's guns and withdrew before counter @-@ attacking and retaking the point the next day . They held that position for three more days , during which they learned that the Germans were winning the battle . On 16 November , Olivey decided that holding the point any longer was pointless and ordered his men to split up , escape by any means possible and re @-@ assemble in Cairo . Over half of the unit reached Egypt .
= = = Italy = = =
The largest concentration of Southern Rhodesian troops in the Italian Campaign of 1943 – 45 was the group of about 1 @,@ 400 , mainly from the Southern Rhodesian Reconnaissance Regiment , spread across the South African 6th Armoured Division . The 11th South African Armoured Brigade , one of the 6th Division 's two main components , was made up of Prince Alfred 's Guard , the Pretoria Regiment ( Princess Alice 's Own ) and the Special Service Battalion , each of which had a Rhodesian squadron of Sherman tanks . The other , the 12th South African Motorised Brigade , comprised infantry — the Witwatersrand Rifles , the Natal Carbineers and the Cape Town Highlanders , the last of which had a large Rhodesian contingent . There were also two Rhodesian artillery batteries — the original Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery and a newer unit of Rhodesian field gunners . After a year 's training in Egypt , the division sailed to Italy in April 1944 , landing towards the end of the month at Taranto . No. 237 Squadron , now flying Spitfires , rebased to Corsica the same month to operate over Italy and southern France .
The 6th Division moved north @-@ west from Taranto to take its place as part of the Eighth Army alongside the US Fifth Army . It took part in the fourth and final Allied assault of the Battle of Monte Cassino in the second and third weeks of May 1944 , helping to force the Germans out , and thereafter advanced north @-@ west up the Liri valley to join the Allied forces at Anzio and advance onwards to Rome . After wiping out a small German force about 50 km ( 31 mi ) east of the Italian capital on 3 June , the 6th Division advanced north and captured the town of Paliano , then doubled back to the south @-@ west and moved on Rome , which was reached on the morning of 6 June . A Squadron , Pretoria Regiment — that unit 's squadron of Rhodesian tanks — entered the city as part of the division 's vanguard .
The German commander Albert Kesselring fought a stubborn delaying action , gradually withdrawing his armies north with three Allied columns in pursuit , the 6th Armoured Division leading the most westerly spearhead of the Eighth Army in the centre . The mountainous terrain and the effective use of anti @-@ tank weapons by the retreating Germans made the Allies ' superiority in armour less decisive and slowed the Allied advance north to the banks of the Arno between June and August 1944 , during which time the Rhodesian tank squadrons took part in Allied victories at Castellana , Bagnoregio and Chiusi .
By the end of August 1944 the German forces in Italy had formed the Gothic Line along the Apennine Mountains , and the 6th Division had come under the command of the US Fifth Army . The difficulty of using tanks in the mountains led to the Rhodesians of Prince Alfred 's Guard temporarily adopting an infantry role , using dismounted tank machine @-@ guns to support the Natal Carabineers during the fighting for Pistoia during early September . The Southern Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery meanwhile converted partially from guns to 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortars . The South Africans and Rhodesians met with fierce resistance from the 16th SS Panzer Grenadier Division , but helped push the Germans northwards towards the Reno river .
Hoping to repel Allied advances towards Bologna , the Germans took up positions on Monte Stanco overlooking the main roads towards the city . Two Allied assaults on the mountain — one by an Indian battalion , the other by the Royal Natal Carabineers — were repulsed . A third , larger attack at dawn on 13 October provided the Rhodesian Company of the Cape Town Highlanders with some of the fiercest combat they encountered in Italy . Advancing up the slope on the Allied right flank while being fired on from two directions , they suffered heavy casualties but achieved their objective and held it . Both Rhodesian artillery batteries provided support during the assault .
When the line stabilised in November 1944 , the portion occupied by the 6th Armoured Division extended for 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) along the heights over the Reno River . The Rhodesians of the Cape Town Highlanders patrolled nightly around the village of Casigno for the next three months . Some of the tank crews , including the Rhodesians of the Special Service Battalion , were temporarily reassigned to infantry duties to assist in these patrols . Many of the Rhodesians had never seen snow before , but on the whole they adapted well , taking up winter sports such as skiing during time off duty . The Rhodesians of the Special Service Battalion received new , more heavily armed tanks in November – December 1944 . In February 1945 the 6th Division was relieved by the American 1st Armoured Division and moved to Lucca , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) north of Pisa , for rest and reorganisation . The Rhodesian Anti @-@ Tank Battery was refitted with M10 tank destroyers . The Spitfires of No. 237 Squadron , meanwhile , took part in assaults on German transport in the Po Valley around Parma and Modena .
= = = Balkans and Greece = = =
After the Battle of Leros , New Zealand withdrew its squadron from the Long Range Desert Group , compelling the LRDG to reorganise itself into two squadrons of eight patrols each . A Squadron was composed of Rhodesians and B Squadron comprised British troops and a squadron of signallers ; around 80 of the officers and men were from Southern Rhodesia . The group was reassigned from the Middle East Command to the Central Mediterranean Force in early 1944 , and deployed to the Gargano peninsula in south @-@ eastern Italy , where a new LRDG headquarters was set up near the seaside town of Rodi . Britain hoped to compel the Germans to commit as many divisions as possible to south @-@ eastern Europe so they could not be used on the more important fronts closer to Germany . In June 1944 the LRDG was assigned to operate on the western coast of Yugoslavia , with orders to set up observation posts , report the movements of German ships and undertake minor raids .
The successes of Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslav partisans in Dalmatia led the Allies to despatch small patrols into Yugoslavia and Albania to contact partisan leaders and arrange co @-@ operation with the Allied air forces . Several Rhodesian patrols from the LRDG were selected to undertake such missions during August and September 1944 . Yugoslav partisans subsequently indicated targets for Allied bombing missions , with some success . From September , members of the LRDG 's Rhodesian squadron under Captain Olivey undertook advanced reconnaissance in the Peloponnese peninsula of southern Greece . Landing at Katakolo , they made their way inland to Corinth and , along with the British 4th Parachute Battalion , entered Athens as the Germans departed in November . The Rhodesians of the LRDG spent November and December helping Greek forces to garrison an Athens orphanage against supporters of the communist Greek People 's Liberation Army . Four Rhodesians were killed .
The LRDG returned to Yugoslavia in February 1945 , operating around Istria and Dalmatia , where Germany still held portions of the mainland and certain strategic islands . The Germans had heavily mined the southern Adriatic and were attempting to cover their shipping by moving only by night , close to shore , and heaving to during the day under camouflage nets . The LRDG was tasked to patrol the coast , find the ships and report their locations to the air force for bombing . This it did with success . It remained in Yugoslavia for the rest of the war .
The heightened vigilance of the German garrison as the war entered its final phase made these operations especially hazardous , particularly as they were often attempted at extremely close quarters . On several occasions Rhodesian patrols only narrowly escaped discovery . During one action , two Rhodesian patrols catered for the possibility that Germans might be listening to their transmissions by communicating in Shona , an African language . The LRDG 's last actions of the war , in April and May 1945 , were to help Tito 's partisans capture German @-@ held islands off Dalmatia .
= = = Spring 1945 offensive in Italy = = =
Kesselring 's forces in Italy retained their formidable defensive positions in the northern Apennines in March 1945 . The 6th Division rejoined the line in early April , shortly before the Allies launched their spring 1945 offensive , Operation Grapeshot . The units including Rhodesians took up positions opposite Monte Sole , Monte Abelle and Monte Caprara . The Rhodesian 25 @-@ pounder guns were posted slightly forward of their former positions , and B ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , Prince Alfred 's Guard , moved to Grizzana . The Special Service Battalion provided armoured support to the 13th South African Motorised Brigade .
The South Africans and Rhodesians launched a two @-@ pronged assault on the German positions over the road to Bologna at 22 : 30 on 15 April 1945 . The Cape Town Highlanders ' advance up the steep cliffs of Monte Sole was obstructed by a German minefield that guarded the peak . The Rhodesian officer commanding the leading platoon , Second Lieutenant G B Mollett , took a section of men and dashed through the minefield to the summit ; for this he later received the Distinguished Service Order . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting on Monte Sole continued until dawn , when the Germans withdrew . The Witwatersrand Rifles meanwhile took Monte Caprara . The Cape Town Highlanders took Monte Abelle late on 16 April , advancing under heavy artillery fire to the summit before clearing it of Germans . The regiment lost 31 killed and 76 wounded during these actions , including three Rhodesians killed and three wounded .
This victory contributed to a general Allied breakthrough in the area , and by 19 April , the 6th Division 's armour was moving towards Lombardy and Venetia as part of the Fifth Army 's vanguard . American and Polish troops entered Bologna on 21 April . The South Africans and Rhodesians advanced north @-@ west towards the Panaro river . The Special Service Battalion 's Rhodesian squadron , moving forward alongside the Cape Town Highlanders , and the Rhodesians of Prince Alfred 's Guard took part in numerous engagements with the retreating German rearguard , and suffered several fatalities .
The 6th Division crossed the Po near Ostiglia on 25 April and , after resupplying for a week , began a speedy advance towards Venice , aiming to cut off the retreat of elements of the German Fourteenth Army . The South Africans and Rhodesians advanced through Nogara and Cerea , crossed the Adige early on 29 April , and then made for Treviso , 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of Venice . The retreating German forces were by this time in such disarray that , during its advance from the Po , the 11th South African Armoured Brigade took prisoners from eight German divisions . On 30 April , the 6th Division joined up with British and American forces south of Treviso , and cut off the Germans ' last escape route from Italy .
The German forces in Italy surrendered unconditionally on 2 May 1945 , while the 6th Division was moving north @-@ west ; at the time of the announcement it was near Milan . Twelve days later the 6th Division held a victory parade of its 1 @,@ 200 guns , tanks and other vehicles at Monza racetrack , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Milan . The Rhodesians separated from their vehicles after the parade , then spent May and June 1945 as occupation troops in Lombardy before returning home .
= = Britain , Norway and western Europe = =
Southern Rhodesia 's fighting contributions in Britain and western Europe were primarily in the air , as part of the much larger Allied forces . Rhodesian pilots and Allied airmen trained in the colony 's flying schools participated in the defence of Britain throughout the war , as well as in the strategic bombing of Germany and other operations . Rhodesia provided the only RAF flying ace of the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 , Squadron Leader Caesar Hull . Later that year " The Few " , the Allied airmen of the Battle of Britain , included three pilots of Southern Rhodesian birth — Hull , Pilot Officer John Chomley and Flight Lieutenant John Holderness — of whom two , Hull and Chomley , lost their lives .
Two of the RAF 's three Rhodesian squadrons , Nos. 44 and 266 , operated from England during the war . No. 266 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , a fighter squadron based in Cambridgeshire for most of the duration , was initially only nominally Rhodesian , being manned by a mixture of British and Commonwealth personnel , but it received more airmen from the colony gradually and was virtually all Rhodesian by August 1941 . Initially flying Spitfires , it switched to Typhoons in early 1942 . It took as its motto the Sindebele word Hlabezulu ( " Stabber of Skies " ) and first went into action over Dunkirk on 2 June 1940 , after which it fought in the Battle of Britain . The squadron 's duties thereafter included patrolling , protecting convoys , sweeping around northern France and the Belgian and Dutch coasts , and escorting bombing raids over France and the Rhine .
No. 44 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron , based in Lincolnshire on the east coast , was a heavy bomber unit , and part of No. 5 Group in RAF Bomber Command 's front line . Unlike the other two squadrons designated as " Rhodesian " , No. 44 Squadron never had a Rhodesian majority , despite efforts to so populate it . Initially equipped with Hampdens , it became the first RAF squadron to convert to Lancasters at the end of 1941 . It played a prominent part in the attack on the MAN diesel factory at Augsburg in April 1942 . In March 1943 No. 44 Squadron took part in the Allied bombing of cities in northern Italy , including Genoa and Milan , as well as targets in Germany such as Wilhelmshaven , Cologne and Berlin .
From early 1944 , No. 266 Squadron took part in ground attack operations over the Channel and northern France , operating from RAF Harrowbeer in Devon . The squadron also escorted Allied bombers embarking on or returning from raids , protecting them from German fighters . Larger petrol tanks were fitted to the Typhoons to increase their range . In May 1944 the squadron was visited by the Prime Minister , who had been knighted and was now Sir Godfrey Huggins . Over the next month , in preparation for the imminent Allied invasion of Normandy , the Rhodesian aircraft took on a fighter @-@ bomber role , flying sorties across the channel twice a day and participating in the bombing of bridges , roads , railways and the like .
Apart from the Southern Rhodesian airmen serving with the RAF in Britain , the colony was sparsely represented in the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 ( " D @-@ Day " ) . Several men from the colony served aboard cruisers and destroyers that engaged the German shore batteries . A small number of Southern Rhodesians parachuted into Normandy with the 6th Airborne Division during Operation Tonga , and some took part in the amphibious landings . No. 266 Squadron was part of the Allied force that flew over the beaches during the first landings , supporting the infantry . Later that day it took part in sorties to assist the paratroopers holding the bridgeheads north of Caen .
No. 266 Squadron , which remained 95 % Rhodesian at the start of 1945 , thereafter provided air support to the advancing Allied armies through France , the Low Countries and finally Germany . Through most of the European winter months it was based in Antwerp . In late March 1945 the Rhodesian fighters formed part of the force tasked with protecting the descending Allied paratroopers during Field @-@ Marshal Montgomery 's crossing of the Rhine . During April the squadron operated over Hanover and the northern Netherlands . No. 44 Squadron , meanwhile , embarked on bombing raids on targets as far away as Gdynia and Königsberg in East Prussia , as well as towns and cities closer to Berlin such as Dresden , Emden and Leipzig . Its last bombing operation was a raid on the Berghof , Hitler 's residence , near Berchtesgaden in Bavaria on 25 April 1945 . After Germany surrendered on 7 May , ending the war in Europe , No. 44 Squadron was one of many units selected to evacuate British prisoners of war home from the continent .
= = Burma = =
Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to the Burma Campaign in terms of manpower was made by the Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) , a regiment of black troops led by white officers that joined the front at the end of 1944 . The colony also made a significant contribution to the Commonwealth forces ' command element in Burma , providing white officers and NCOs to the 81st ( West Africa ) , 82nd ( West Africa ) and 11th ( East Africa ) Divisions , made up of units from Nigeria , the Gold Coast , the Gambia , Sierra Leone , Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika , Nyasaland , Northern Rhodesia and the Congo . Almost every African battalion in Burma had white Rhodesian officers and NCOs attached ; some were over 70 % Rhodesian @-@ led .
Modelled on the Rhodesia Native Regiment of World War I , the RAR was formed in May 1940 under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel F J Wane , who the black soldiers nicknamed msoro @-@ we @-@ gomo ( " top of the mountain " ) . Most volunteers for the regiment came from Mashonaland , much to the surprise of the white recruiters , who had expected Matabeleland , with stronger martial traditions , to provide more men . Originally comprising one battalion , the RAR expanded to two battalions in late 1943 to accommodate a rush of new recruits following the news that the 1st Battalion was being deployed overseas . Steps to organise two further battalions of black Southern Rhodesians were abandoned because of the conviction of the colony 's overall military commander , Brigadier E R Day , that it was important " to preserve a fair balance " between black and white troops , and that raising the men would take too long in any case .
1RAR trained in Kenya from December 1943 to September 1944 , when it transferred to Ceylon and became part of the 22nd ( East Africa ) Infantry Brigade alongside the 1st KAR and the 3rd Northern Rhodesia Regiment . In December 1944 , after three months ' training for jungle warfare , 1RAR and the other two components of the brigade joined the Burma Campaign at Chittagong under the command of the 15th Indian Corps . The brigade spent about three months supporting the 25th Indian Division in north @-@ western Burma , advancing through the Mayu peninsula during January 1945 and taking part in the latter stages of the Battle of Ramree Island , landing on the island on 14 February . 1RAR fortified positions at Myinbin , Kyaukkale and Mayin but did not contact Japanese forces .
A widespread belief developed among Japanese troops in Burma that the British Army 's African soldiers were cannibals , partly because of deliberate disinformation spread by the black troops themselves as they travelled around the country . While entirely unfounded , the notion " that we Africans eat people " , as one RAR soldier put it , had a fearsome psychological effect ; men of 1RAR reported Japanese soldiers picking up their comrades ' bodies in the midst of battle and running away .
In March 1945 the 22nd Brigade was ordered south to Dalaba where it became part of the 82nd ( West Africa ) Division , which had been tasked with clearing the Taungup area of Japanese troops . The 22nd Brigade was deployed as a flank guard , sweeping down the Tanlwe Chaung before hooking around to the Taungup Chaung and ultimately the road to Prome ; this move was intended to cut Japanese units to the north off from the Irrawaddy Delta to the south , where most of the key battles were being fought . 1RAR patrolled the area during March and April 1945 and was involved in several contacts . On 20 April it assembled at a point overlooking Tanlwe Chaung , where it was shelled by Japanese artillery and mortars dug in atop two high features to the south . On the morning of 26 April , after a few days of patrols , 1RAR took the lead in what became the Battle of Tanlwe Chaung ; after about half an hour of bombing , strafing and artillery bombardment of the Japanese positions , elements of A and D Companies , 1RAR charged up the slopes and routed much of the Japanese garrison before taking both hills . Seven RAR men were killed in the action and 22 were wounded , mostly from D Company ; an officer was also injured . An officer of the RAR recalled the battles of April 1945 around Taungup and Tanlwe Chaung as extremely intense :
1RAR spent most of May 1945 building quarters and training before marching the 110 km ( 68 mi ) to Prome in late June ; from here they went another 25 km ( 16 mi ) by truck to Gyobingauk . The monsoon conditions took a dreadful toll on operations , making logistics particularly difficult and slow — men found themselves either found themselves knee @-@ deep in mud or slipping around on the surface . From early July 1945 1RAR patrolled around Gyobingauk , repeatedly engaging parties of Japanese and forcing them into the hills . Even after the Japanese commanders in Burma surrendered unconditionally , the Allied troops had to continue patrolling to handle Japanese stragglers who either did know of this or did not believe it . After the Japanese forces in South @-@ East Asia formally surrendered at Singapore on 12 September 1945 , active Allied operations in the region were greatly diminished . 1RAR spent about half a year guarding Japanese prisoners in Burma before leaving for home in March 1946 . They arrived back in Salisbury on 10 May .
= = Southern Rhodesians in other theatres = =
In addition to the main deployments , Southern Rhodesian servicemen served in other theatres of the war . Rhodesian sailors in the Royal , South African and Merchant Navies crewed ships in many parts of the world , including the Indian Ocean , the Arctic and the Pacific . No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron operated in Iran and Iraq in 1942 – 43 , guarding oil wells and pipelines and supporting the British Tenth Army .
Closer to home , Southern Rhodesian military surveyors contributed to the preliminary planning work for the Allied invasion of Madagascar in May 1942 , and landed at Diego Suarez with the invading forces . They remained there long after the Vichy French garrison agreed to an armistice at Ambalavao on 6 November 1942 — the last Rhodesian left the island in October 1943 .
= = Home front = =
= = = Rhodesian Air Training Group = = =
The colony 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme is described in J F MacDonald 's War History of Southern Rhodesia as " undoubtedly Southern Rhodesia 's greatest single contribution to the Allied victory " , an assertion corroborated by Robert Blake in his 1977 History of Rhodesia . The Rhodesian Air Training Group ( RATG ) under Air Vice @-@ Marshal Sir C W Meredith eventually operated 11 aerodromes , requiring a huge national effort to build , maintain and staff — at the scheme 's peak more than a fifth of the white population was involved . This judicious management of skills and resources allowed the territory to make a much larger contribution to the Allied war effort than if it had simply sent all its manpower into the field .
Southern Rhodesia was regarded as an ideal location for air training for a number of reasons . It was far from the hostilities , firmly pro @-@ British and had excellent weather throughout the year . The British Air Ministry resolved to outsource training to the colony amid some urgency in late 1939 after EATS took a long time to get going in Canada . The RATG was the last EATS group to be formed , but the first to start training airmen ; it also turned out fully qualified pilots before any of the others , doing so for the first time in November 1940 .
The programme originally called only for an initial training wing and six schools , but this was expanded to eight flying schools and a school for bomb aimers , navigators and air gunners . There were two air firing and bombing ranges . Six reserve landing grounds were constructed for landing and take @-@ off instruction to prevent congestion on the main airstrips . Later in the war , a dedicated air station was designated for the training of instructors . Small administrative units were established in South Africa at Cape Town , Durban and Port Elizabeth to handle incoming equipment and arrivals and departures of personnel .
The complete pilot 's course initially lasted six months , split into two months each of elementary , intermediate and advanced instruction . Ground subjects were also taught and each trainee had to fly at least 150 hours to qualify . By the end of the war each period had been shortened by a week to speed up the output of trained pilots .
The trainees were mostly British , but came from all over the world . " The diversity of nationalities under training was surprising and impressive , " reported one officer . " British , South African , New Zealand , Australian , Canadian , American , men from Yugoslavia , Greece , Free France , Poland , Czechoslovakia , Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika , Fiji Isles , Malta . " " [ Southern Rhodesia 's ] part in the Commonwealth Air Training Scheme has been outstandingly fine , " Sir James Ross of the British Air Ministry reported in 1942 . " I say this from knowledge and without qualification . ... I know how gratefully the Air Staff in London reckon on the unfailingly regular flow of well @-@ trained pilots and observers , course after course , month after month . "
= = = Home service = = =
The Rhodesian African Rifles were based at Borrowdale in north @-@ east Salisbury between 1940 and 1943 . Apart from a contingent sent south to Durban to guard Italian prisoners on their way to Rhodesia , the regiment 's main role was garrison duties within the colony . The Rhodesian Air Askari Corps , a unit of black volunteer troops under white command , guarded the air bases and also provided manpower for non @-@ armed labour . The perceived possibly that Japan might attempt an invasion of southern Africa via Madagascar led to the consolidation of a few hundred rural whites into the Southern Rhodesia Commando , a part @-@ time cadre intended as the basis for a guerrilla @-@ style resistance movement , from 1942 .
The mobilisation of white British South Africa Police officers for military service led to black male and white female constables taking on higher responsibilities . The BSAP recruited more black patrolmen to accommodate the growth of the urban black population during the war , going from 1 @,@ 067 black and 547 white personnel in 1937 to 1 @,@ 572 blacks and 401 whites in 1945 . This " Africanisation " led to higher appreciation for black constables among senior policemen and the public . The police remained rigidly segregated , but black constables received uniforms more similar to those of their white counterparts , and the nominal distinction between the BSAP " proper " and the British South Africa Native Police — the " force within the force " black personnel were traditionally regarded as members of — was abolished .
= = = = Women = = = =
White Southern Rhodesian women served in the war with auxiliary female units , in far greater numbers than in World War I. The Southern Rhodesian government set up three women 's services : the Women 's Auxilitary Volunteers ( WAV ) , the Women 's Auxiliary Air Service ( WAAS ) , the Women 's Auxiliary Military Service ( WAMS ) and the Women 's Auxiliary Police Service ( WAPS ) . Most Southern Rhodesian servicewomen served domestically within these organisations , while some went to East Africa with the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry .
The WAV , run by the Ministry of Defence , recruited and trained female personnel for the WAAS and the WAMS , which respectively came under the Air and Defence Ministries . According to the official statement announcing their formation , the services ' purpose was " to substitute women for men wherever necessary and practicable throughout the military and air forces within Southern Rhodesia . "
Recruitment for the women 's services began in June 1941 . Most volunteers were married women , many of them the wives of military men . The air and military services both offered a wide variety of positions . In addition to jobs as typists , clerks , caterers and the like
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north Africa , the dusky crag martin P. concolor of southern Asia and the Eurasian crag martin P. rupestris . The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific name fuligula means " sooty @-@ throated " , from Latin fuligo " soot " and gula " throat " .
The three Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct open mud nests and therefore belong to the last group . Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo , but a DNA analysis showed that a coherent enlarged Hirundo genus should contain all the mud @-@ builder genera . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the DNA research suggested that if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies differing in plumage shade or size , although the differences are clinal , and races interbreed where their ranges meet . The small , pale former subspecies ( obsoleta , peroplasta , perpallida , presaharica , spatzi , arabica and buchanani ) found in the mountains of North Africa , the Arabian peninsula and southwest Asia are now normally split as a separate species , the pale crag martin , following German ornithologist Jean Cabanis , who first formally described these birds , but the changes in size and colour are continuous , and the forms often intergrade where they meet , so the evidence for separate species is not strong . The southern forms of the rock martin can weigh more than twice as much as the smallest northern subspecies of pale crag martin . The average weight for P. f. fusciventris is 22 @.@ 4 g ( 0 @.@ 79 oz ) against 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) for P. o. obsoleta . The robust , large @-@ billed southernmost forms ( P. f. fuligula , P. f. pretoriae , and P. f. anderssoni ) are sufficiently different from dark , fine @-@ billed P. f. fusciventris that the latter could also be regarded as a potentially different species . However , Rhodesian ornithologist Michael Irwin collected specimens from southern Zimbabwe ( then Rhodesia ) which were dark above like P. f. fusciventris and rich reddish below like P. f. fuligula . This led him to suggest that the two groups had previously been isolated , but were probably hybridising following secondary contact .
= = Description = =
The rock martin of the nominate subspecies P. f. fuligula is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with earth @-@ brown upperparts and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . It has a cinnamon chin , throat , upper breast and underwing coverts , with the rest of the underparts being a similar brown to the upperparts . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are similar in appearance , but juveniles have pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The other subspecies differ from the nominate form as detailed above .
The rock martin 's flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and it is more acrobatic than the larger Eurasian crag martin . It is a quiet bird ; the song is a muffled twitter , and other calls include a trrt resembling the call of the common house martin , a nasal vick , and a high pitched twee contact call .
The rock martin is much drabber than most African swallows , and confusion is unlikely except with other crag martins or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . The pale crag martin is smaller , paler and greyer than its southern relative . Although only slightly larger than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , the rock martin is more robust , has white tail spots , and lacks a breast band . It is paler on the throat , breast and underwings than the all @-@ dark form of the brown @-@ throated sand martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The rock martin breeds in suitable habitat in Africa north to Nigeria , Chad and Ethiopia . It is largely resident apart from local movements or a descent to lower altitudes after breeding . This species has been recorded as a vagrant in Gabon , and its status in Congo is uncertain .
The natural breeding habitat is hilly or mountainous country with cliffs , gorges and caves up to 3 @,@ 700 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , but this martin also breeds in lowlands , especially if rocks or buildings are available , and may be found far from water . It readily uses man @-@ made structures as a substitute for natural precipices .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Rock martin pairs often nest alone , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form with up to 40 pairs . These martins aggressively defend their nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . Breeding dates vary geographically and with local weather conditions . Two broods are common , and three have been raised in a season . Breeding mainly August to September . The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with soft dry grass or sometimes feathers . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or bowl @-@ shaped like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years .
The clutch is usually two or three buff @-@ white eggs blotched with sepia or grey @-@ brown particularly at the wide end . The average egg size in South Africa was 20 @.@ 8 x 14 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 82 x 0 @.@ 56 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 17 g ( 0 @.@ 077 oz ) . Both adults incubate the eggs for 16 – 19 days prior to hatching and feed the chicks about ten times an hour until they fledge and for several days after they can fly . The fledging time can vary from 22 – 24 days to 25 – 30 days , though the latter estimates probably take into account fledged young returning to the nest for food .
= = = Feeding = = =
The rock martin feeds mainly on insects caught in flight , although it will occasionally feed on the ground . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills and feed close to the nesting territory . At other times , they may hunt low over open ground . The insects caught depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes and other flies , Hymenoptera , ants and beetles . This martin often feeds alone , but sizeable groups may gather at grass fires to feast on the fleeing insects , and outside the breeding season flocks of up to 300 may form where food is abundant . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
A study of nine bird species including four hirundines showed that the more young there are in a nest , the more frequent are the parents ' feeding visits , but the visits do not increase in proportion to the number of young . On average a solitary nestling therefore gets more food than a member of a pair or of a trio . Since the nestling period is not prolonged in proportion to the drop in feeding rate , an individual fledgling from a larger brood is likely to weigh less when it leaves the nest . However , a subspecies of the rock martin ( P. f. fusciventris ) was an anomaly in respect of both feeding rate and nestling time . There was no difference in parental feeding rate for members of a pair and members of a trio , but the nestling period averaged 1 @.@ 5 days longer for trios than pairs .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Some falcons have the speed and agility to catch swallows and martins in flight , and rock martins may be hunted by species such as the peregrine falcon , Taita falcon , African hobby and wintering Eurasian hobby . Rock martins often share their nesting sites with little swifts , which sometimes forcibly take over the martin 's nests . In 1975 , one of the first findings of the tick Argas ( A. ) africolumbae was in a nest of Ptyonoprogne f. fusciventris in Kenya , at that time the martin was described under its synonym Ptyonoprogne fuligula rufigula ( Fischer & Reichenow ) .
= = Status = =
The rock martin has a very large range of 9 @.@ 5 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 7 million sq mi ) . The total population is unknown , but the bird is described as generally common , although scarce in Botswana and Namibia . The population is thought to be stable , mainly due to the absence of evidence of any declines or substantial threats . Its large range and presumably high numbers mean that the rock martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List .
= Maynard James Keenan =
Maynard James Keenan ( born James Herbert Keenan ; April 17 , 1964 ) , often referred to by his initials MJK , is an American musician , record producer , winemaker , and actor , best known as the vocalist for Grammy Award @-@ winning progressive metal band Tool . He is originally from Ohio , but spent his high school and college years in Michigan . After serving in the United States Army in the early 1980s , he attended Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids . He moved to Los Angeles , California in 1988 to pursue a career in interior design and set construction . Shortly thereafter , he formed the band Tool with Adam Jones .
Keenan is also the lead singer of A Perfect Circle . In 2003 , he created Puscifer as a side project and has subsequently released three studio albums . Since rising to fame , Keenan has been noted as being a recluse ; however , he does emerge to support charitable causes .
In addition to his music career , he has performed improvisational sketch comedy and ventured into acting . He currently owns Merkin Vineyards and the associated winery , Caduceus Cellars , and also partly owns Stronghold Vineyards , all of which are located in Arizona , where he lives . Among other business ventures , he is a partner in the Los Angeles restaurant Cobras & Matadors , and also owns an organic produce market in Cornville , Arizona , which features a food court and a tasting room for his wines .
= = Early life = =
James Keenan was born into a Southern Baptist family in Ravenna , Ohio , on April 17 , 1964 , the only child of Judith Marie ( née Dougherty ; November 22 , 1943 , Bedford , Ohio - June 18 , 2003 , Dover , Ohio ) and Michael Loren Keenan ( born March 4 , 1946 , Ohio ) . When his parents divorced in 1968 , his father , a high school wrestling coach , moved to Scottville , Michigan and Keenan would only see him about once a year for the next 12 years . His mother remarried , bringing Keenan into an " intolerant and unworldly household , " where his intelligence and creative expression would be stifled . His mother suffered a paralyzing cerebral aneurysm in 1976 , when Maynard was 11 , which would later serve as the inspiration for creative works such as Tool 's " Jimmy " and " Wings for Marie " as well as A Perfect Circle 's " Judith " . A few years later , she persuaded Keenan to live with his father in Michigan . Keenan considers this " the best move [ he ] ever made . " Maynard graduated in the class of 1982 at Mason County Central High School in Scottville , where he was a member of the wrestling team . His father was one of the coaches for the team and left coaching at the same time Maynard graduated in 1982 .
Inspired by Bill Murray 's performance in the 1981 comedy film Stripes , Keenan joined the United States Army , with the intention of having the G.I. Bill fund his dream of attending art school ( Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids , MI ) . By this point , he had lived in Ohio , Michigan , New Jersey , New York , Oklahoma , Kansas , and Texas . He initially served in the Army as a forward observer before studying at the United States Military Academy Preparatory School ( West Point Prep School ) from 1983 to 1984 . In addition to completing a rigorous math and English curriculum , he wrestled , ran on the cross country team and sang in the glee club . It was during his time in the military that he adopted the sobriquet " Maynard " on a whim . He was distinguished in basic and advanced training , but declined an appointment to West Point and instead chose to pursue a music career because of his disillusionment with his colleagues ' values and because he knew West Point would not tolerate his dissidence .
Upon completing his term of enlistment , he studied art at Kendall College of Art and Design in Grand Rapids , Michigan . In 1988 , he relocated to Los Angeles where his love of animals led him to practice interior design for pet stores , before he was quickly fired and began working in set construction . During the 1980s , Keenan played bass guitar for TexA.N.S. and sang for Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty , both independent bands .
= = Music career = =
= = = Early bands = = =
Before Tool , Keenan performed in Children of the Anachronistic Dynasty for a few years , during which he formed the foundation for the song " Sober . " He also ( with future Tool bandmate Danny Carey ) performed live and recorded with Green Jellÿ between 1990 and 1993 , performing backup vocals ( as the voice of the " 1st Pig " ) on the band 's hit song " The Three Little Pigs " on their debut album , and appearing in the music video for " Slave Boy " on the band 's follow up LP .
= = = Tool = = =
After moving to Los Angeles , Keenan met Adam Jones who had heard him singing on a demo in college . Impressed with Keenan 's vocals , Jones suggested that they form a band . Although reluctant at first , Keenan agreed and , in 1990 , Tool was formed . Fronted by Keenan , the eventual lineup included guitarist Jones ; his neighbor , drummer Danny Carey ; and bassist Paul D 'Amour , who would later be replaced by Justin Chancellor .
Tool signed to Zoo Entertainment in November 1991 and released the Opiate EP the following year . To support this release , the band toured with Fishbone and Rage Against the Machine .
Shortly thereafter , Tool released their 1993 debut album , Undertow , in the United States . It was certified gold after just eight months , and platinum less than a year later . In 1994 , the band released their single " Prison Sex " with a corresponding music video created and directed by Jones . The video was deemed " too graphic and offensive " , and was withdrawn by MTV after a few airings due to " a symbolic dealing with the sensitive subject of child abuse " .
In October 1996 , the band released their second studio album , Ænima . The album was certified gold in ten weeks , achieved double platinum in ten months , and won the Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1998 . After the release of the album , Tool began a prolonged legal battle with their label , Volcano Records ( formerly Zoo Records ) , over contract violations . Following this legal battle , which resulted in a new three @-@ record deal , the members of Tool decided to take some time off . During the hiatus , Keenan went under the alias " Gaylord C. " while collaborating with Tim Alexander of Primus and Mike Bordin of Faith No More on " Choked " , a track on the 1997 drumming compilation Flyin ' Traps .
The band members were outspokenly critical of peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks , due to the negative financial impact on artists dependent on success in record sales . During an interview with NY Rock in 2000 , Keenan stated , " I think there are a lot of other industries out there that might deserve being destroyed . The ones who get hurt by MP3s are not so much companies or the business , but the artists , people who are trying to write songs . "
Five years after the release of Ænima , Tool announced a new album , Systema Encéphale , with a 12 @-@ song tracklist in January 2001 . A month later , the band revealed that the new album was actually titled Lateralus and that the previous announcement had been a ruse . The album was released in May 2001 to positive reviews . Known for his " dark , intelligent , compelling , and unexpected lyrical twists " , Keenan was acclaimed for his songwriting on the album , in which he " doesn 't cross the line from darkness to ugliness ... as often as he has in the past " . In an interview with NY Rock , Keenan explained , " Everything we release with Tool is inspired by our music . It doesn 't matter if it is a video or if its lyrics . The lyrics for " Schism " are nothing more than my interpretation of the music . " The album became a worldwide success , reaching No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart in its debut week , and Tool received their second Grammy Award for the best metal performance of 2001 for " Schism " . In 2002 , Keenan recorded a song called " Fallen " with Thirty Seconds to Mars that was released on the band 's self @-@ titled debut album .
Fifteen years after the band 's formation , Tool had acquired what Dan Epstein of Revolver described as a devoted " cult " following , and in May 2006 the band released 10 @,@ 000 Days , an album in which Keenan sang about more personal issues in contrast to previous attempts to inspire change . His mother , who inspired the song " jimmy " on Ænima , also served as the inspiration for " Jambi " , and the two @-@ part song " Wings for Marie " and " 10 @,@ 000 Days ( Wings for Marie , Pt 2 ) " , which deals with her 2003 death after 27 years , or around 10 @,@ 000 days , of suffering . The album sold 564 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week in the U.S. and was No. 1 on the Billboard 200 charts . However , 10 @,@ 000 Days was received less favorably by critics than its predecessor Lateralus had been .
Following 10 @,@ 000 Days , Tool has one album remaining to fulfill the obligation of its record contract . Though
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y black and blue and sunbursts of orange and yellow " . Though declaring that Tron : Legacy was " eye @-@ popping " , San Francisco Chronicle 's Amy Biancolli asserted that the special effects were " spectacular " — albeit cheesy . A columnist for The Wall Street Journal , Joe Morgenstern denounced the producers ' emphasis on technological advancements , which he felt could have been used for other means such as drama . To the New York Post 's Kyle Smith , there were many moments where he " shed [ his ] customary phlegmatic equilibrium and [ ... ] thought : Hey , this is really exciting ! "
The performances of various cast members was frequently mentioned in the critiques . Michael Sheen 's portrayal of Castor was particularly acclaimed by commentators , who — because of his flamboyance — drew parallels to the English singer @-@ songwriter David Bowie , as well as fictional characters such as A Clockwork Orange ( 1971 ) lead character Alex . Dargis , Debruge , Puig , and Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer were among the journalists to praise his acting : Dargis ascribed Sheen 's exceptional performance to a seemingly " uninteresting " cast . To Philadelphia Daily News film critic Gary Thompson , the film became humorous with the scenes involving Castor . Star Tribune critic Colin Covert believed that Sheen 's campy antics was the " too brief " highlight of Tron : Legacy . With other cast members — particularly Garrett Hedlund , Olivia Wilde , and Jeff Bridges — commentary reflected diverse attitudes . The film received " a little boost from " Wilde , according to Rickey . The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris called Hedlund a " dud stud " ; " None of what he sees impresses , " he elaborated . " The feeling is mutual . At an alleged cost of $ 200 million , that ’ s some yawn . If he can ’ t be thrilled , why should we ? " To Salon commentator Andrew O 'Hehir , even Bridges — an individual he regarded as " one of America 's most beloved and distinctive " actors — was " weird and complicated " rather than being the " sentimental and alluring " portrayer in the original Tron .
Critics were divided with the character development and the storylines in Tron : Legacy . Writing for The New Yorker , Bruce Jones commented that the audience didn 't connect with the characters , as they were lacking emotion and substance . " Disney may be looking for a merchandising bonanza with this long @-@ gestating sequel to the groundbreaking 1982 film , " remarked Jones , " but someone in the corporate offices forgot to add any human interest to its action @-@ heavy script . " Likewise , USA Today journalist Claudia Puig found Tron : Legacy to resonate with " nonsensical " and " unimaginative , even obfuscating " dialogue , and that " most of the story just doesn 't scan " . As Dana Stevens from Slate summed up , " Tron : Legacy is the kind of sensory @-@ onslaught blockbuster that tends to put me to sleep , the way babies will nap to block out overwhelming stimuli . I confess I may have snoozed through one or two climactic battles only to be startled awake by an incoming neon Frisbee . " Although he proclaimed the plot of Tron : Legacy and its predecessor to be spotty , Ian Buckwater of NPR was lenient of the latter film due to its youth @-@ friendly nature . In contrast to negative responses , Michelle Alexander of Eclipse adored the plot of Tron : Legacy , a reaction that was paralleled by Rossiter Drake from 7x7 , who wrote that it was " buoyed " by its " sometimes convoluted , yet hard to resist " story . Metro 's Larushka Ivan @-@ Zadeh complained about the underdeveloped plot , saying " In 2010 , issues surrounding the immersive nature of gaming and all @-@ consuming power of modern technology are more pertinent than ever , so it 's frustrating the script does nothing with them . " However , she conceded that " it 's the best 3D flick since Avatar and a super @-@ groovy soundtrack by Daft Punk nonetheless makes for an awesome watch " .
= = = Box office = = =
Leading up to the release , various commercial analysts predicted that Tron : Legacy would gross $ 40 – $ 50 million during its opening weekend , a figure that Los Angeles Times commentator Ben Fritz wrote would to be " solid but not spectacular " . Although the studio hoped to attract a broad audience , the film primarily appealed to men : " Women appear to be more hesitant about the science @-@ fiction sequel " , wrote Fritz . Jay Fernandez of The Hollywood Reporter felt that the disproportionate audience would be problematic for the films long term box office prospects . Writing for Box Office Mojo , Brandon Gray attributed pre @-@ release hype to “ unwarranted blockbuster expectations from fanboys ” , given the original Tron was considered a box office failure when it was released , and the film 's cult fandom " amounted to a niche " .
In North America , the film earned $ 43 @.@ 6 million during the course of its opening weekend . On its opening day , it grossed $ 17 @.@ 6 million , including $ 3 @.@ 6 million during midnight showings from 2 @,@ 000 theaters , 29 % of which were IMAX screenings , and went on to claim the top spot for the weekend , ahead of Yogi Bear and How Do You Know . Tron : Legacy grossed roughly $ 68 million during its first week , and surpassed $ 100 million on its 12th day in release .
In international markets , Tron : Legacy grossed $ 23 million on its opening weekend , averaging $ 6 @,@ 000 per theater . According to Disney , 65 % of foreign grosses originated from five key markets ; Japan , Australia , Brazil , United Kingdom , and Spain . The film performed the best in Japan , where it took $ 4.7M from 350 theaters . Australia ( $ 3.4M ) , the United Kingdom ( $ 3.2M ) , Brazil ( $ 1.9M ) , and Spain ( $ 1.9M ) . By the following week , Tron : Legacy obtained $ 65 @.@ 5 million from foreign markets , bringing total grosses to $ 153 @.@ 8 million . At the end of its theatrical run , Tron : Legacy had grossed $ 400 @,@ 062 @,@ 763 ; $ 172 @,@ 062 @,@ 763 in North America , and $ 228 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in other countries .
= = = Accolades = = =
Tron : Legacy received an award for " Best Original Score " from the Austin Film Critics Association . The film was also nominated for " Excellence in Production Design for a Fantasy Film " by the Art Directors Guild , and for " Sound Editing " by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . The film made the final shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , although it did not receive a nomination .
= = Halted sequel and other media = =
= = = Halted sequel = = =
Steven Lisberger stated on October 28 , 2010 , before the film 's release , that a sequel was in planning and that Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis , screenwriters for Tron : Legacy , were in the early stages of producing a script for the new film . Perry Nemiroff of Cinema Blend speculated that Tron 3 could be the first installment in a new trilogy . On January 13 , 2011 , Ain 't It Cool News reported that the film was close to having its sequel announced as part of Disney 's plan for Tron 's future . On January 21 , 2011 , Tron @-@ Sector reported an unsourced rumor that a sequel to Tron : Legacy had been green @-@ lit and a teaser trailer would debut on the DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc releases of Tron and Tron : Legacy . Harry Knowles reported on the teaser , calling it a " DVD Extra " and noting that it had been filmed before Thanksgiving ( i.e. before November 2010 ) . On April 8 , 2011 , director Joseph Kosinski talked about the sequel : " We 're working on the story right now . Once we get a script we 're all really happy with , we 'll take it to the powers that be and see if we can go back to the grid . I think we will pick up with where Tron : Legacy left off with Sam and Quorra in the real world and what does that mean and the possibilities it opens up for the next chapter . It 's that relationship between the two of them that 's the next step . " On March 31 , Kosinski said that the film 's script was expected to be finished in two weeks and its working title is Tr3n .
On June 7 , 2011 , it was reported that screenwriter David DiGilio ( Eight Below ) had been hired to draft a script for the sequel to Tron : Legacy . Legacy screenwriters Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis were initially slated to return , but were forced to drop out due to their ongoing work in developing the ABC television series Once Upon a Time . It is currently unspecified whether or not Legacy director Joseph Kosinski will return to direct the sequel . On March 8 , 2012 , Bruce Boxleitner suggested that a sequel to Tron : Legacy could begin filming as early as 2014 , after Kosinski finished his film Oblivion . On June 4 , 2012 , Horowitz and Kitsis confirmed they were developing a sequel , and the character of Quorra would be returning for the film , as well as a cameo in Tron : Uprising . On December 5 , 2012 , Jesse Wigutow was hired to rewrite the script for the film . This was later followed by the confirmation that Bruce Boxleitner and Garrett Hedlund would return for the third film .
In September 2013 , Kosinski said : " The TRON sequel is still in early stages , it ’ s still in the script stage . So I can ’ t say if and when that would go into production but the fundamental idea of the movie is something I ’ m very excited about , it delivers on the ideas that we set up in Legacy , especially at the end in the last five minutes , so that one is a work in progress . "
On January 15 , 2014 , Bruce Boxleitner stated in an interview : " All I know is , they don ’ t tell me anything , but they want to do it I would say probably the end of this year , for 2015 maybe , " Boxleitner said . " They don ’ t have any dates but I ’ m thinking from the scuttlebutt I ’ m hearing that ’ s it , but I don ’ t know anything for sure other than they do have a script they love , they 're still tweaking . " The film may also take place more in the real world than in the past according to the recent interview : " That ’ s what I ’ m told , but you didn ’ t hear me say that , " Boxleitner joked . " I think it ’ s going to be a lot about taking the company back because if you remember Sam Flynn says to Alan at the end , just before he rides his bike off into the sunrise with Quorra , says , ‘ We ’ re going to take the company back . ’ That ’ s not the end of the movie . That ’ s the beginning of the next one . That ’ s foreshadowing . And you don ’ t get Cillian Murphy to do an unscripted cameo " and " I got a feeling Eddie Dillinger Jr . ’ s going to be as bad as his dad was . "
In March 2015 , it was revealed that Disney has greenlit the third film with Hedlund reprising his role as Sam and Kosinski returning to direct the sequel . Wilde was revealed in April to be returning as Quorra . Filming was expected to start in Vancouver in October 2015 . However , in May 2015 , The Hollywood Reporter stated that Walt Disney Studios had chosen not to continue with a third installment , which was confirmed by Wilde the following month . In the end of July , Boxleitner stated he frequently heard about the pre @-@ production of Tron 3 while shooting Cedar Cove in Vancouver , and was disappointed to hear about the cancellation . While expressing the opinion that Disney decided to " play it safe " and explore other properties [ i.e. Star Wars ] , Boxleitner said that this broke his interest in continuing with the franchise , as " it 's been too up and down for me . I would rather not just keep going . I don ’ t want to repeat my career anymore . " However , in September 2015 , Hedlund stated that he was told that the third Tron film was not " totally dead " , but jokingly suggested that it could be released 30 years later , referencing the near 30 @-@ year gap between the first film and Legacy .
= = = Television = = =
Tron : Uprising , a spin @-@ off animated series , premiered June 7 , 2012 on the Disney XD network across the United States . Tron : Legacy 's writers Adam Horowitz and Eddie Kitsis revealed that the series tells the story of what happened in the Grid in between the films . Voice actors for the animation include Bruce Boxleitner as Tron , Elijah Wood , Lance Henriksen , Mandy Moore , Emmanuelle Chriqui , Paul Reubens , Nate Corddry and Olivia Wilde , who reprises her role as Quorra .
= = = Manga = = =
A manga version of Tron : Legacy was released by Earth Star Entertainment in Japan on June 30 , 2011 .
= Hurricane Alex ( 2016 ) =
Hurricane Alex was the first Atlantic hurricane in January since Alice in 1955 , and the first to form in the month since 1938 . Alex originated as an extratropical cyclone near the Bahamas on January 7 , 2016 . The system initially traveled northeast , passing Bermuda on January 8 , before turning southeast . It subsequently deepened and acquired hurricane @-@ force winds by January 10 . Slight weakening took place thereafter , and the system eventually turned east and northeast as it acquired tropical characteristics . On January 13 , it developed into a subtropical cyclone well south of the Azores , becoming the first tropical or subtropical system during January in the North Atlantic since an unnamed storm in 1978 . As it turned north @-@ northeast , Alex transitioned into a full @-@ fledged tropical cyclone on January 14 and became a hurricane . The storm peaked as a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) . After weakening slightly , Alex made landfall on Terceira Island as a tropical storm the next day . Concurrently , Alex began transitioning back into an extratropical cyclone ; it completed this cycle hours after moving away from the Azores . The system ultimately merged with another extratropical cyclone over the Labrador Sea on January 17 .
The hurricane prompted the issuance of hurricane and tropical storm warnings for the Azores and the closure of schools and businesses . Alex ultimately brought gusty winds and heavy rain to the archipelago , causing generally minor damage . One person died from a heart attack when the inclement weather prevented a helicopter from transporting them to a hospital .
= = Background = =
As currently defined , the Atlantic hurricane season lasts from June 1 to November 30 , the period in which tropical cyclones are most likely to develop across the basin . Occasionally , systems develop outside the season , most frequently in May or December . Activity in January is considered extremely rare , with only five other known instances since 1851 : an unnamed hurricane in 1938 , an unnamed tropical storm in 1951 , Hurricane Alice in 1954 – 55 , an unnamed storm in 1978 , and Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 – 06 . Since Alice originated in December 1954 , Alex is only the second hurricane to develop solely within January , after the 1938 storm . When Alex made landfall on Terceira as a strong tropical storm this marked only the second time that an Atlantic tropical cyclone has made landfall in January , with the other being Hurricane Alice of 1955 which made landfall on Saint Martin and Saba . In addition to forming well outside of hurricane season , Alex developed unusually far north and east , becoming only the second hurricane to form north of 30 ° N and east of 30 ° W.
Unrelated to Alex , Hurricane Pali developed over the Central Pacific in early January , and persisted through the formation of Alex . This marked the first known occurrence of simultaneous January tropical cyclones between the two basins .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Alex originated in a non @-@ tropical weather disturbance that developed over Cuba and the Bahamas on January 6 , 2016 . Moving northeast ahead of the subtropical jet stream , the system acquired a surface vortex the following day . Initial conditions , including strong wind shear , low sea surface temperatures , and dry air , inhibited formation of a tropical cyclone as the storm moved northeast toward Bermuda . The large system featured gale @-@ force winds , with maximum sustained winds of 60 – 65 mph ( 95 – 100 km / h ) . On January 8 , the system passed about 75 mi ( 120 km ) north of Bermuda , bringing strong winds and heavy rain to the islands . On January 9 , the system turned east and later southeast , entering a region slightly more favorable for subtropical development . Hurricane @-@ force winds developed around the core of the cyclone the following day , though convective activity near the center remained sparse . The storm 's separation from the jet stream , similar to a cut @-@ off low , allowed it to move southeast and gradually acquire tropical characteristics . Slight weakening took place on January 11 . Convection began increasing around the storm 's center on January 12 , by which time it was situated 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 770 km ) southwest of the Azores .
Frontal features associated with the storm dissipated on January 13 and banding features around the defined low increased in coverage and depth . Though relatively shallow , owing to the seasonally low level of the tropopause , convection was deemed deep enough for the system to be classified a subtropical storm at 21 : 00 UTC . Accordingly , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assigned the name Alex to the storm . Upon its classification , Alex was situated 785 mi ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) south @-@ southwest of the Azores . Situated to the east of a shortwave trough , Alex traveled northeast and gradually turned more to the north , steered by broad cyclonic flow over the central Atlantic . An eye feature soon appeared , marking intensification , within a complex of several banding features . The 20 mi ( 25 km ) wide feature cleared out early on January 14 and was surrounded by a ring of − 75 ° F ( − 60 ° C ) cloud tops . The storm remained situated under a cold @-@ core low , though the development of upper @-@ level outflow indicated the system was becoming increasingly tropical . Despite moving over 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) waters , Alex continued to deepen and transitioned into a full @-@ fledged tropical cyclone by 09 : 00 UTC . The transition was enabled by colder @-@ than @-@ average upper @-@ tropospheric temperatures which created greater instability than would otherwise be expected .
Upon transitioning into a tropical cyclone , satellite intensity estimates — using the Dvorak technique — indicated Alex achieved hurricane strength . Forecasters at the NHC estimated maximum winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) ; this made it a Category 1 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale and constituted the storm 's peak intensity . As Alex moved north toward the Azores , decreasing sea surface temperatures and increasing wind shear caused it to weaken late on January 14 and into January 15 . The hurricane 's eyewall opened up and its convective structure decayed , indicating the start of its transition back into an extratropical cyclone . Becoming increasingly tilted with height due to shear , Alex weakened to a tropical storm before making landfall over Terceira Island at 13 : 15 UTC with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Hours later the system completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone , with its circulation becoming more elongated and the radius of maximum winds expanding significantly . Furthermore , the overall structure became more " comma shaped " , a feature of frontal systems . Consequently , the NHC issued its last advisory on Alex . Turning northwest , the system deepened slightly as it approached Greenland and re @-@ acquired hurricane @-@ force winds on January 17 . Alex soon merged with another extratropical cyclone over the Labrador Sea , marking its dissipation .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Bermuda = = =
The precursor to Alex brought gale @-@ force winds and heavy rain to Bermuda on January 8 . Gusts to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) disrupted air travel , downed trees , and left sporadic power outages , while waves as high as 20 ft ( 6 m ) necessitated small craft advisories for the islands . Ferry services to and from Cavello Bay , Dockyard , Belmont , Hodsdon ’ s Ferry , and Lower Ferry were suspended . During the three days in which the system impacted the territory , 1 @.@ 33 in ( 34 mm ) of rain fell at Bermuda International Airport .
= = = Azores = = =
Upon Alex 's classification as a hurricane on January 14 , the Azores Meteorological Service issued a hurricane warning for the islands of Faial , Pico , São Jorge , Graciosa , and Terceira . They also issued a tropical storm warning for São Miguel and Santa Maria . A red alert — the highest stage for meteorological warnings — was declared for central and eastern islands . Homeowners protected doors and windows with plywood and sandbags in anticipation of damaging winds and flooding . Officials closed schools and administrative buildings for the duration of the hurricane on January 15 . SATA Air Açores cancelled 33 domestic and international flights for the morning of January 15 , stranding more than 700 passengers . The hurricane and tropical storm warnings were discontinued after Alex 's passage on January 15 .
The first hurricane to impact the Azores since Hurricane Gordon in 2012 , Alex brought heavy rain and gusty winds to the archipelago . It is the only known hurricane to track within 230 mi ( 370 km ) of the Azores outside of August and September . Rainfall totals reached 4 @.@ 04 in ( 103 mm ) in Lagoa , São Miguel , and 3 @.@ 71 in ( 94 mm ) in Angra do Heroísmo , Terceira . Wind gusts exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) on Santa Maria Island and peaked at 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) in Ponta Delgada , São Miguel . The strong winds brought down trees , inflicted damage on some roofs , and triggered scattered power outages . Additionally , minor flooding was observed . Six homes in Ponta Delgada sustained flood damage and another had its roof destroyed . Landslides occurred across parts of the central islands , though they caused only limited damage . The overall effects of the storm were less than initially feared . The hurricane indirectly led to one death — the person suffered a heart attack unrelated to the storm — when an Island Health Unit helicopter was unable to take off due to turbulent conditions .
= Sunday , Cruddy Sunday =
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1999 , just after Super Bowl XXXIII and the premiere of Family Guy . In the episode , while buying new tires for his car , Homer meets a travel agent called Wally Kogen . After becoming friends , Kogen offers Homer a free bus ride to the Super Bowl , as long as he can find enough people to fill Kogen 's bus . Several people , including Bart , tag along what soon becomes a problematic trip . Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa set out to find the missing parts of " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " , a celebrity @-@ endorsed craft kit .
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was directed by Steven Dean Moore and written by George Meyer , Brian Scully , Mike Scully and Tom Martin , the first credit Martin received for the series . Mike Scully jokingly said that the episode was " thrown together [ ... ] without thought or structure " by the writers . For the subplot , the writers tried to come up with the " most boring thing " Lisa and Marge could do to pass time . The episode features several guest @-@ stars , including comedian Fred Willard , country singer Dolly Parton , Fox CEO Rupert Murdoch , sports commentators Pat Summerall and John Madden , and former American football players Troy Aikman , Rosey Grier and Dan Marino . All guest @-@ stars played themselves , except for Willard who portrayed Kogen . The episode pokes fun at folk singer Burl Ives , former United States president Bill Clinton as well as the series ' fans ,
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among other things .
In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewers , making it the tenth most watched program of the week as well as the second most watched scripted program on the network the night it aired . The episode was released on home video for the first time in 2004 , and in 2007 , the episode was again released as part of the DVD set The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season . Following its broadcast , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
After its original broadcast , however , a scene in the episode involving a fictitious , sexually suggestive Super Bowl commercial for the Catholic Church became a subject of controversy . The scene garnered scrutiny from the American Catholic anti @-@ defamation and civil rights organization The Catholic League , whose members sent hundreds of angry letters to the Fox network , demanding any mention of Catholicism in the episode be excised . In September the same year , when the episode was supposed to repeat , the Catholic League asked Fox if they could censor the scene , which the network agreed to . The network 's decision was criticized by journalists and staff members . The censored version of the episode is still in syndication .
= = Plot = =
When Bart , Lisa and the students of Springfield Elementary go on a field trip to the post office , Bart gets a coupon book as a souvenir , which he gives to Homer as a birthday present . Homer uses one of his coupons at a tire business on a free wheel balancing , and is told by the " customer care specialist " that his car will not take a balance , and that he will need four new tires because they cannot legally let customers drive off with faulty tires . Homer reluctantly accepts , and meets Wally Kogen , a travel agent . They go to Moe 's for a beer , watching a special on the Super Bowl . Wally says his travel agency has a charter bus going to the game and suggests to Homer that he can fill the bus and ride for free . They ask Moe to come to the Super Bowl and he agrees , as do other prominent men of Springfield .
Homer and Bart go to the Super Bowl with their posse at Miami 's Pro Player Stadium on the charter bus and arrive for pre @-@ game festivities . Expecting to get in the game , they are stopped when they are told that the tickers Wally had bought were counterfeit . However , Bart notices a rack of costumes meant for the halftime show , and Homer use it to knock over security and rush inside . However , stadium security quickly catches them , and they are locked up in the stadium jail where the group vents their frustration by kicking Homer in the buttocks one @-@ by @-@ one . They are freed when Kogen 's friend Dolly Parton uses her extra @-@ strength makeup remover to dissolve the lock and release them . As they are freed , they run into a skybox suite and get a view of the game , until the skybox 's owner Rupert Murdoch arrives and confronts them . Homer 's posse flee to the field , chased by Murdoch 's security , until they get lost in the sea of victorious players . The group ends up in the locker room where they share the celebration , and everyone has a Super Bowl ring on one of their hands at game 's end .
Meanwhile , Marge and Lisa try to find their own activity at home . They use the crafting kit , " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " , until they realize that the product was shoddy because the feet were not included . Despite the kit being from 1967 , Marge decides to call the help @-@ line number listed on the box . Surprisingly , she is greeted with the voice of Price — who assures her that his grandson Jody will bring the missing feet to them . Lisa expresses surprise , believing the actor to be dead . The episode ends with John Madden and Pat Summerall analyzing the events of the episode . Despite endorsing Kogen and the subplot , they are infuriated by a Super Bowl episode guest starring Parton that does not feature " any football or singing " . Madden declares the episode a slap to the show 's fanbase , who he says have taken " so much nonsense " from the franchise . They eventually leave on a bus driven by Price , which " doesn 't make a lick of sense " according to Madden .
= = Production = =
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was directed by Steven Dean Moore and co @-@ written by former staff writers Tom Martin , George Meyer , Brian Scully and executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1999 , right after Super Bowl XXXIII and the premiere of Family Guy . " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was the first episode that Martin received a writing credit for , and in the DVD audio commentary for the episode , he stated that he " loved " writing the episode . The writing process for the episode was " kind of unusual " , since the writers " threw it [ the episode ] together " without , Scully quipped , thinking of " things such as thought and structure " . A scene in the episode shows Homer buying new tires for his car . The scene was written by Brian Scully , who had been scammed by a Firestone Tire and Rubber Company dealer . The episode 's subplot was the result of the Simpsons writers trying to find activities for Marge and Lisa to participate in while Bart and Homer were at the Super Bowl . According to Martin , the writers were trying to come up with " the most boring thing " Marge and Lisa could do to pass time . After hearing cast member Dan Castellaneta 's impression of Vincent Price , the writer 's found the impression to be so funny that they based the subplot on the fictional crafts set " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " .
In a scene in the episode , Homer and Kogen are in Moe 's tavern , discussing their favourite football teams with Moe . When Moe mentions that his favourite team is the Atlanta Falcons , he holds a glass in front of his mouth , obscuring his lip movements . He then passes the same glass to Homer , who does the same . Originally , the characters would be saying something else , however , because the staff wanted the episode to be " current " , new dialogue was recorded for the scene . Because there was no time to animate the scene from scratch , the staff simply made the characters hold a glass in front of their mouths while saying their lines . This technique was also used in reference to the ongoing impeachment scandal , as when the characters mention that the President and First Lady will be there , they cover their mouths when calling them by name . The song that plays during the bus trip to the Super Bowl was performed by NRBQ . The episode also features British rock band Blur 's " Song 2 " , which plays during the " race " to the stadium .
The episode features American comedian Fred Willard as Wally Kogen . Scully stated that , for many years , the Simpsons staff had wanted Willard to guest @-@ star in an episode , and that they had been looking for a character for Willard to portray . Scully also stated that Willard was " great fun " to have on the show . Wally Kogen 's name is taken from two former writers on The Simpsons ; the character 's first name , Wally , is taken from Wallace Wolodarsky , and the character 's last name , Kogen , is taken from Jay Kogen . The episode also features former football players Rosey Grier , Troy Aikman and Dan Marino as themselves . Scully stated that , when athletes guest @-@ star in television shows , their performances are " not always the greatest " , however , he asserted , Aikman , Grier and Marino were all " really funny " and " did a great job " . Country singer Dolly Parton guest @-@ starred as herself as well . Scully stated that he was " shocked " by how short Parton was , however he added that she was " very nice " and " thrilled " to be in the episode . Also featured in the episode is Rupert Murdoch , creator of the Fox Broadcasting Company . Originally , the writers wanted Murdoch to be portrayed by cast member Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer among other characters in the series . However , after a while , the writers decided to ask if Murdoch would guest @-@ star as himself . Scully comments that the writers were " impressed " that Murdoch would introduce himself as a " billionaire tyrant " in the episode .
The episode pokes fun at the dwindling popularity of Bill Clinton 's presidency at the time . In their list 15 Simpsons Moments That Perfectly Captured Their Eras , Genevieve Koski , Josh Modell , Noel Murray , Sean O 'Neal , Kyle Ryan , and Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club wrote " By the time this episode aired [ ... ] , the nation had endured more than a year of the Lewinsky scandal . The episode debuted a month after the House impeached Clinton , but less than two weeks before the Senate 's impeach / acquit vote , so an air of uncertainty lingered over an otherwise lightweight episode about Homer organizing a Super Bowl trip . " In a scene in the episode , Clinton calls to congratulate the Super Bowl victors from the Oval Office , but is distracted by Al Gore measuring a window . As Scully recalls , at the time , the Simpsons writers were confident Gore would win the 2000 presidential election , which eventually was marginally , and controversially , won by George W. Bush .
The episode also comments on the series ' fanbase . Near the end of the episode , Madden and Summerall provide the following analysis :
In his book Leaving Springfield , John Alberti writes about the exchange : " This conversation begins with conventional football game patter used to comment on the episode , but then takes an abrupt turn when Madden realizes , in spite of the humor , that the episode did not live up to expectations ( which he has not originally noticed ) . "
The episode title is a reference to the film Sunday Bloody Sunday ( 1971 ) , and perhaps the U2 song of the same name . The couch gag is a reference to James Cameron 's 1997 film Titanic . The beginning of the episode shows Bart 's grade visiting a post office . Their tour guide is modeled after American actor and folk singer Burl Ives , whom director Moore is a fan of . " Vincent Price 's Egg Magic " is a parody on celebrity @-@ endorsed craft kits which were popular during the 1960s and which , according to Meyer , do not exist anymore . The decision to have Price endorse an egg crafts product is based on Price 's role as Egghead in the 1960s ' series Batman . The sequence featuring a man called Rudy being refused entry to the group 's bus because he is " too small to go to the Super Bowl " is a reference to the 1993 film Rudy about football player Rudy Ruettiger . Dolly Parton says she will be joined by actor Rob Lowe and dance group Stomp for her performance during the Super Bowl halftime show , while the Super Bowl features a booth called " Take a Leak with NFL Greats " ; the players shown participating are Ricky Watters and Jim Plunkett .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and re @-@ releases = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 31 , 1999 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " received an 11 @.@ 6 rating , meaning it was seen by approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewers . It finished in 10th place in the ratings for the week of January 25 – 31 , 1999 , making it the second most watched scripted program on Fox , after the premiere of Family Guy . On September 14 , 2004 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " , along with the season 1 episode " Homer 's Night Out " , the season 11 episode " The Mansion Family " and the season 13 episode " Homer the Moe " , were released on a DVD set called The Simpsons – Gone Wild . On August 7 , 2007 , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " was again released as part of The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Tom Martin , Matt Selman and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
= = = Controversy = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
The beginning of the episode 's third act shows Marge and Lisa watching a Super Bowl commercial . In his book The gospel according to the Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky described the commercial :
The scene was inspired by real @-@ life Super Bowl commercials in which , according to Scully , " you don 't know what the product is " because there is " so much going on " in Super Bowl commercials . It was also based on the music video for the American rock band ZZ Top 's 1983 song " Legs " . Although they had come up with the commercial 's premise , they were not sure of what its tagline would be . Eventually , Martin , one of the episode writers , suggested " The Catholic Church ... we 've made a few changes . " It got the biggest laugh from the other writers and was subsequently included in the episode .
The scene garnered scrutiny from members of The Catholic League , a self @-@ appointed organization that is not , despite its name , affiliated with the Catholic Church . The league had criticized The Simpsons ' depiction of Catholicism before , namely in the episode " Lisa Gets an " A " " , which aired the year before . The scene included an exchange between Bart and Marge that the League felt was hurtful to Catholics . William A. Donohue , the president of the league , wrote Fox a letter asking them to explain why the dialogue was in the show . After failing to receive an answer several times , Donohue was at last given a reply written by Thomas Chavez , manager for broadcast standards and practices . The league were not satisfied with Chavez ' answer . After " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " aired , the Catholic League issued an article in their news magazine Catalyst . In it , they mentioned the scene in " Lisa Gets an " A " " , and wrote that The Simpsons had " struck again , big time " with the Super Bowl commercial in " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " . They wrote that they had sent a complaint to Chavez regarding the scene , and encouraged others to do the same ; " We wrote to Mr. Chavez again , but we also told him that he ’ d be hearing from you , too . So don ’ t disappoint us . "
= = = = Censorship = = = =
Following the episode 's broadcast , the Fox network received several angry letters and emails from concerned Catholics , who were uneasy with the commercial scene . According to Scully , the letters were worded the same , and all started with " My family and I have always enjoyed The Simpsons , until last night ... " Nevertheless , the letters provoked a reaction from The Simpsons staff , and in an interview , Scully said , " We got a couple of hundred letters , and it was very obvious from reading a majority of them that [ the Catholic letter writers ] had not seen the show . Some of them were from third @-@ graders , all saying the same thing : ' Please don 't make fun of my religion . ' Which we all know third @-@ graders are very adamant about . "
Several months later , the Catholic League contacted Fox again , asking that the word " Catholic " be excised from the voice @-@ over when the episode repeated in September 1999 on the network , as well as in its subsequent syndicated airings . The network agreed , and Roland MacFarland , Fox 's vice president of broadcast standards , ordered Scully to cut the word from the episode or eliminate all reference to religion . Scully refused , and after a long argument , MacFarland offered to replace the protesting denomination with a Protestant substitute – Methodist , Presbyterians or Baptists . Scully then asked MacFarland " What would be the difference changing it to another religion , and wouldn 't that just be offending a different group of people ? " , to which MacFarland replied that Fox had already had trouble with the Catholics earlier that season .
Following the complaints , Fox removed any mention of Catholicism from the scene , resulting in the line " The church ... " Scully was reportedly furious with Fox 's actions . In an interview in Los Angeles Times , Scully said , " people can say hurtful things to each other about their weight , their race , their intelligence , their sexual preference , and that all seems up for grabs , but when you get into religion , some people get very nervous . " Marisa Guthrie of Boston Herald also criticized the network , describing it as " caving in " to the Catholic League 's protests . She wrote , " Hollywood has always been gun shy of controversy , but recent displays of self @-@ censorship on the part of entertainment industry executives make us cringe [ ... ] Granted Catholics , as a group have endured an ample amount of bashing , but The Simpsons is an equal opportunity offender . " Howard Rosenberg , a writer for the Los Angeles Times , criticized Fox 's actions as well . He argued that the network had a biased opinion towards Catholicism and that , had the scene mentioned a different religion , it would have been accepted . He also wrote , " Given its famous flaunting of sleaze and death @-@ defying motorcycle leaps , the big news here is that Fox has standards . Its latest production is Censors Who Kill Jokes . "
In an issue of Catalyst , the Catholic League responded to Rosenberg 's article . They argued that Rosenberg was biased against Catholics , in that he was content with the series lampooning Catholicism , but not other religions . They wrote , " all along we have been told by Fox that none of our complaints were valid because none of the material was truly offensive . But now we have a Fox executive producer disingenuously giving away his hand by protesting why it should be okay to offend another group of people with the same material he initially said wasn ’ t offensive to Catholics ! And isn ’ t it striking that Rosenberg is upset with the fact that the double standard — which now , for the first time works positively for Catholics — is a real problem . Never do we remember Rosenberg protesting the double standard that allows ' artists ' to dump on Catholics while protecting most other segments of society from their assaults . " The League also complimented the members ' participation , writing , " It only goes to prove what can be done when Catholics get actively involved . "
The controversy surrounding the scene has since been referenced in later episodes of the series . While the censored version of " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " is still in syndication , it was left uncensored on its release on The Simpsons – The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Following its broadcast , " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " received mostly positive reviews from critics . In his review of the The Simpsons – Gone Wild DVD set , David Packard of DVD Verdict wrote : " This episode has always been one of my favorites , and while the following episode [ " The Mansion Family " ] is a nice inclusion as well , this episode is the best on the disc . The hilarious gags come at a slam @-@ bang pace , and they 're occasionally edgy . " He especially liked the set @-@ piece in the post office , as well as the Super Bowl commercial . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide called the episode " A thoroughly enjoyable romp through what happens when a bunch of lads go for a Sunday out at the ball game . " They enjoyed the guest @-@ stars , writing " both Dolly Parton and , bizarrely , Rupert Murdoch – spice things up nicely " , however they were most fond of Fred Willard as Wally Kogen . " A shame he doesn 't join our regulars " , they wrote . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode is " funny , " and Ian Jane of DVD Talk found the episode
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received over 5 @,@ 000 questions from the public on the subject from 2007 , some asking whether they should kill themselves , their children or their pets . In May 2012 , an Ipsos poll of 16 @,@ 000 adults in 21 countries found that 8 percent had experienced fear or anxiety over the possibility of the world ending in December 2012 , while an average of 10 percent agreed with the statement " the Mayan calendar , which some say ' ends ' in 2012 , marks the end of the world " , with responses as high as 20 percent in China , 13 percent in Russia , Turkey , Japan and Korea , and 12 percent in the United States . At least one suicide was directly linked to fear of a 2012 apocalypse , with others anecdotally reported . Jared Lee Loughner , the perpetrator of the 2011 Tucson shooting , followed 2012 @-@ related predictions . A panel of scientists questioned on the topic at a plenary session at the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contended that the Internet played a substantial role in allowing this doomsday date to gain more traction than previous similar panics .
= = = Europe = = =
Beginning in 2000 , the small French village of Bugarach , population 189 , began receiving visits from " esoterics " — mystic believers who had concluded that the local mountain , Pic de Bugarach , was the ideal location to weather the transformative events of 2012 . In 2011 , the local mayor , Jean @-@ Pierre Delord , began voicing fears to the international press that the small town would be overwhelmed by an influx of thousands of visitors in 2012 , even suggesting he might call in the army . " We 've seen a huge rise in visitors " , Delord told The Independent in March 2012 . " Already this year more than 20 @,@ 000 people have climbed right to the top , and last year we had 10 @,@ 000 hikers , which was a significant rise on the previous 12 months . They think Pic de Bugarach is ' un garage à ovnis ' [ a garage for UFOs ] . The villagers are exasperated : the exaggerated importance of something which they see as completely removed from reality is bewildering . After 21 December , this will surely return to normal . " In December 2012 , the French government placed 100 police and firefighters around both Bugarach and Pic de Bugarach , limiting access to potential visitors . Ultimately , only about 1 @,@ 000 visitors appeared at the height of the " event " . Two raves were foiled , 12 people had to be turned away from the peak , and 5 people were arrested for carrying weapons . Jean @-@ Pierre Delord was criticised by members of the community for failing to take advantage of the media attention and promote the region .
The Turkish village of Şirince , near Ephesus , expected to receive over 60 @,@ 000 visitors on 21 December 2012 , as New Age mystics believed its " positive energy " would aid in weathering the catastrophe . Only a fraction of that number actually arrived , with a substantial component being police and journalists , and the expected windfall failed to materialise .
Similarly , the pyramid @-@ like mountain of Rtanj , in the Serbian Carpathians , attracted much apocalyptic attention , as many believed an artificial pyramid structure buried within it would emit a powerful force shield on the day , protecting those within it . Hotels around the base received up to 500 bookings a piece for rooms .
In Russia , inmates of a women 's prison experienced " a collective mass psychosis " in the weeks leading up to the supposed doomsday , while residents of a factory town near Moscow reportedly emptied a supermarket of matches , candles , food and other supplies . The Minister of Emergency Situations declared in response that according to " methods of monitoring what is occurring on the planet Earth , " there would be no apocalypse in December . When asked when the world would end in a press conference , Russian President Vladimir Putin said , " In about 4 @.@ 5 billion years . "
In December 2012 , Vatican astronomer Rev José Funes wrote in the Vatican newspaper L 'Osservatore Romano that apocalyptic theories around 2012 were " not even worth discussing " .
= = = Asia = = =
In China , up to one thousand members of the Christian cult Almighty God were arrested after claiming that the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 marked the end of the world , and that it was time to overthrow Communism . Shoppers were reported to be hoarding supplies of candles in anticipation of coming darkness , while online retailer Taobao sold tickets to board Noah 's Ark to customers . Bookings for wedding ceremonies on 21 December 2012 were saturated in several cities . On 14 December 2012 , a man in Henan province attacked and wounded twenty @-@ three children with a knife . Authorities suspected the man had been " influenced " by the prediction of the upcoming apocalypse . Academics in China attributed the widespread belief in the 2012 doomsday in their country to a lack of scientific literacy and a mistrust of the government @-@ controlled media .
On 6 December 2012 , Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard delivered a hoax speech for the radio station triple J in which she declared " My dear remaining fellow Australians ; the end of the world is coming . Whether the final blow comes from flesh @-@ eating zombies , demonic hell @-@ beasts or from the total triumph of K @-@ Pop , if you know one thing about me it is this - I will always fight for you to the very end . " Radio announcer Neil Mitchell described the hoax as " immature " and pondered whether it demeaned her office .
= = = Mexico and Central America = = =
Those Mesoamerican countries that once formed part of the Maya civilization , Mexico , Guatemala , Honduras , and El Salvador , all organized festivities to commemorate the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 at the largest Maya sites . On 21 December 2011 , the Maya town of Tapachula in Chiapas activated an eight @-@ foot digital clock counting down the days until the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 . On 21 December 2012 , major events took place at Chichén Itzá in Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala . In El Salvador , the largest event was held at Tazumal , and in Honduras , at Copán . In all of these archaeological sites , Maya rituals were held at dawn led by shamans and Maya priests .
On the final day of b 'ak 'tun 13 , residents of Yucatán and other regions formerly dominated by the ancient Maya celebrated what they saw as the dawn of a new , better era . According to official figures from Mexico 's National Institute of Anthropology and History ( INAH ) , about 50 @,@ 000 people visited Mexican archaeological sites on 21 December 2012 . Of those , 10 @,@ 000 visited Chichén Itzá in Yucatán , 9 @,@ 900 visited Tulum in Quintana Roo , and 8 @,@ 000 visited Palenque in Chiapas . An additional 10 @,@ 000 people visited Teotihuacan near Mexico City , which is not a Maya site . The main ceremony in Chichén Itzá was held at dawn in the plaza of the Temple of Kukulkán , one of the principal symbols of Maya culture . The archaeological site was opened two hours early to receive thousands of tourists , mostly foreigners who came to participate in events scheduled for the end of b 'ak 'tun 13 .
The fire ceremony at Tikal was held at dawn in the main plaza of the Temple of the Great Jaguar . The ceremony was led by Guatemalan and foreign priests . The President of Guatemala , Otto Pérez , and of Costa Rica , Laura Chinchilla , participated in the event as special guests . During the ceremony the priests asked for unity , peace and the end of discrimination and racism , with the hope that the start of a new cycle will be a " new dawn " . About 3 @,@ 000 people participated in the event .
Most of these events were organized by agencies of the Mexican and Central American governments , and their respective tourism industries expected to attract thousands of visitors . Mexico is visited by about 22 million foreigners in a typical year . However , in 2012 , the national tourism agency expected to attract 52 million visitors just to the regions of Chiapas , Yucatán , Quintana Roo , Tabasco and Campeche . A Maya activist group in Guatemala , Oxlaljuj Ajpop , objected to the commercialization of the date . A spokesman from the Conference of Maya Ministers commented that for them the Tikal ceremony is not a show for tourists but something spiritual and personal . The secretary of the Great Council of Ancestral Authorities commented that living Maya felt they were excluded from the activities in Tikal . This group held a parallel ceremony , and complained that the date has been used for commercial gain . In addition , before the main Tikal ceremony , about 200 Maya protested the celebration because they felt excluded . Most modern Maya were indifferent to the ceremonies , and the small number of people still practising ancient rites held solemn , more private ceremonies .
Osvaldo Gomez , a technical advisor to the Tikal site , complained that many visitors during the celebration had illegally climbed the stairs of the Temple of the Masks , causing " irreparable " damage .
= = = South America = = =
In Brazil , Décio Colla , the Mayor of the City of São Francisco de Paula , Rio Grande do Sul , mobilized the population to prepare for the end of the world by stocking up on food and supplies . In the city of Corguinho , in the Mato Grosso do Sul , a colony was built for survivors of the expected tragedy . In Alto Paraíso de Goiás , the hotels also made specific reservations for prophetic dates . On 11 October 2012 , in the Brazilian city of Teresina , police interrupted what was believed to have been an attempted mass suicide by up to one hundred members of a cult headed by self @-@ proclaimed prophet Luis Pereira dos Santos , who predicted the end of the world on the feast day of Our Lady of Aparecida . Santos was subsequently arrested .
In Bolivia , President Evo Morales participated in Quechua and Aymara rituals , organized with government support , to commemorate the Southern solstice that took place in Isla del Sol , in the southern part of Lake Titicaca . During the event , Morales proclaimed the beginning of " Pachakuti " , meaning the world 's wake up to a culture of life and the beginning of the end to wild capitalism , and he proposed to dismantle the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank .
On 21 December 2012 , the Uritorco in Córdoba , Argentina was closed , as a mass suicide there had been proposed on Facebook .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , sales of private underground blast shelters increased noticeably after 2009 , with many construction companies ' advertisements calling attention to the 2012 apocalypse . In Michigan , schools were closed for the Christmas holidays two days early , in part because rumours of the 2012 apocalypse were raising fears of repeat shootings similar to that at Sandy Hook . American reality TV stars Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt revealed that they had spent most of their $ 10 million of accumulated earnings by 2010 because they believed the world would end in 2012 .
= = Cultural influence = =
The 2012 phenomenon was discussed or referenced in several media . Several TV documentaries , as well as some contemporary fictional references to the year 2012 , referred to 21 December as the day of a cataclysmic event .
The UFO conspiracy TV series The X @-@ Files cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth and mentioned the Mayan calendar " stopping " on this date . The History Channel aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories , such as Decoding the Past ( 2005 – 2007 ) , 2012 , End of Days ( 2006 ) , Last Days on Earth ( 2006 ) , Seven Signs of the Apocalypse ( 2009 ) , and Nostradamus 2012 ( 2008 ) . The Discovery Channel also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009 , suggesting that massive solar storms , magnetic pole reversal , earthquakes , supervolcanoes , and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012 . In 2012 , the National Geographic Channel launched a show called Doomsday Preppers , a documentary series about survivalists preparing for various cataclysms , including the 2012 doomsday .
Hundreds of books were published on the topic . The bestselling book of 2009 , Dan Brown 's The Lost Symbol , featured a coded mock email number ( 2456282 @.@ 5 ) that decoded to the Julian date for 21 December 2012 .
In cinema , the 2009 disaster film 2012 was inspired by the phenomenon , and advance promotion prior to its release included a stealth marketing campaign in which TV spots and websites from the fictional " Institute for Human Continuity " called on people to prepare for the end of the world . As these promotions did not mention the film itself , many viewers believed them to be real and contacted astronomers in panic . Although the campaign was heavily criticized , the film became one of the most successful of its year , grossing nearly $ 770 million worldwide . An article in The Daily Telegraph attributed the widespread fear of the 2012 phenomenon in China to the film , which was a smash hit in that country because it depicted the Chinese building " survival arks " . Lars von Trier 's 2011 film Melancholia featured a plot in which a planet emerges from behind the Sun on a collision course with Earth . Announcing his company 's purchase of the film , the head of Magnolia Pictures said in a press release , " As the 2012 apocalypse is upon us , it is time to prepare for a cinematic last supper " .
The phenomenon also inspired several rock and pop music hits . As early as 1997 , " A Certain Shade of Green " by Incubus referred to the mystical belief that a shift in perception would arrive in 2012 ( " Are you gonna stand around till 2012 A.D. ? / What are you waiting for , a certain shade of green ? " ) . More recent hits include " 2012 ( It Ain 't the End ) " ( 2010 ) performed by Jay Sean and " Till the World Ends " ( 2011 ) performed by Britney Spears . Towards mid @-@ December 2012 , an internet hoax related to South Korean singer Psy being one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse was widely circulated around social media platforms . The hoax purported that once Psy 's " Gangnam Style " YouTube video amassed a billion views , the world would end . Indian composer A. R. Rahman , known for Slumdog Millionaire , released his single " Infinite Love " to " instill faith and optimism in people " prior to the predicted doomsday .
A number of brands ran commercials tied to the 2012 apocalypse in the months and days leading to the date . In February 2012 , American automotive company GM aired an advertisement during the annual Super Bowl football game in which a group of friends drove Chevrolet Silverados through the ruins of human civilization following the 2012 apocalypse , while on 17 December 2012 , Jell @-@ O ran an ad saying that offering Jell @-@ O to the Mayan gods would appease them into sparing the world . John Verret , Professor of Advertising at Boston University , questioned the utility of tying large sums of money to such a unique and short @-@ term event .
= Mission House ( Stockbridge , Massachusetts ) =
The Mission House is an historic house located at 19 Main Street , Stockbridge , Massachusetts . It was built between 1739 and 1742 by a Christian missionary to the local Mahicans . It is a National Historic Landmark , designated in 1968 as a rare surviving example of a colonial mission house . It is now owned and operated as a nonprofit museum by the Trustees of Reservations .
The town of Stockbridge was established in the late 1730s as a mission community to the Mahicans . John Sergeant was the first missionary , formally beginning his service in 1735 . His first house , built in the valley where the Indians lived , has not survived ; this house was built in the white community on the hill above the town following his marriage in 1739 . It remained in the Sergeant family until the 1870s , and survived Gilded Age developments of the late 19th century .
In the 1920s the house was purchased by Mabel Choate , owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate , and moved down into the valley . She and landscape designer Fletcher Steele restored the building , furnished it with 18th century pieces , and designed gardens to Steele 's vision of what a colonial landscape might have been . Choate opened the house as a museum in 1930 , and donated it ( and eventually Naumkeag as well ) to the Trustees of Reservations , who operate both properties as museums .
= = Background = =
Before the arrival of British colonists , the area that is now southern Berkshire County , Massachusetts was inhabited by communities of the Mahican tribal confederation . The population of these communities changed over the 17th century as war ( sometimes with European settlers and sometimes with the neighboring Iroquois ) , disease , and migration made them smaller and more diverse . By the 1720s they had sold off most of their tribal lands , and lived in relative peace in two remaining tracts of land on the Housatonic River .
Beginning in the late 1720s the Mahicans became a point of interest to British missionary organizations , because they were seen as potential conversion targets and to counter the possibility of influence on them from Roman Catholic New France . This effort was managed in New England by a commission headed by the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , Jonathan Belcher . Belcher suggested in 1730 that the province lay out a town in the Mahican lands , and that London missionary groups pay for a mission there . Funds were allocated for this effort in 1733 .
In 1734 Massachusetts residents in the Northampton area met to organize the mission . John Sergeant , a recent graduate of Yale College , agreed to take on the task , and spent some time that fall among the Mahicans . After negotiations involving Governor Belcher and Mahican leaders , it was agreed in 1735 that a mission would be established , and Sergeant was ordained to serve as a minister among them . He immediately moved to the Mahican lands and began preaching to and baptizing them .
In 1736 a township of six square miles ( 16 km2 ) was formally granted to the Mahicans by the Province of Massachusetts Bay , which would be incorporated in 1739 as Stockbridge . Included in the grant were provisions that the minister and schoolteacher receive land grants , and that four English families settle the area , in part to set an example of Christian living for the natives . John Sergeant built a modest frontier house in the township , and the Indian village grew around this area , which included a meeting house used as a church and school .
= = House history = =
In 1739 Sergeant married Abigail Williams , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old daughter of one of Stockbridge 's English settlers . She wanted to live outside the village , so Sergeant had a new house , the subject of this article , built on Prospect Hill , overlooking the village . The date of its construction is uncertain : Sergeant received the land in 1739 after Stockbridge 's incorporation , and the house is known to have been built by 1742 .
The Sergeants lived there until his death in 1749 . Abigail remarried and eventually moved out of the house , but it remained in the family . She returned to it after her second husband 's death , living with her son 's family until her own death in 1791 . Jonathan Edwards , a minister who rose to fame during the First Great Awakening , succeeded Sergeant as missionary to the Mahicans ( who also became known as " Stockbridge Indians " and " Mohicans " ) , but occupied the first house Sergeant built . That house has not survived , but its site is now marked by a sundial near 23 Main Street .
Sergeant 's second house remained in the family until 1879 , when the property was sold to David Dudley Field , Jr . , a New York lawyer . Field amassed an estate of some 115 acres ( 47 ha ) , on which he built a large summer house ; the mission house he rented out for several summers to friends . It subsequently fell into disrepair , and was rescued in the 1920s by Mabel Choate , the daughter of New York lawyer Joseph Hodges Choate and owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate , who sought to establish it as a museum in memory of her parents .
Sometime around 1926 , Choate purchased the mission house . The house was then disassembled , and its pieces carefully numbered . In 1927 she purchased the lot at 19 Main Street where the house now stands , formerly the site of the Stockbridge Casino ; the casino building she sold for $ 1 , and it was moved to its present location east of town , where it serves as the home of the Berkshire Theatre Festival . In 1928 the house was reconstructed at its present location under the guidance of landscape designer Fletcher Steele . The property on which it originally stood is now the site of the Roman Catholic National Shrine of The Divine Mercy .
The house 's gardens were created between 1928 – 1932 by Steele ( who was also responsible for significant work on Naumkeag 's gardens ) . The house was furnished under Choate 's guidance with pieces appropriate to the Sergeant period , and opened as a museum in 1930 . She donated the house and surrounding property to the Trustees of Reservations in 1948 , and bequeathed it part of her collection .
Included in Choate 's bequest to the museum was a two @-@ volume Bible that had been given to the Mahicans in 1745 by Francis Ayscough . Choate had in the 1930s convinced the elders of the Stockbridge @-@ Munsee tribe ( successors to the Mahicans ) to sell her the Bible for display in the museum . Tribe members objected to the sale after it took place , but no action was taken , and the Bible 's location was lost to the tribe until it was spotted by tribal members in the museum in 1975 . Following negotiations , the Trustees of Reservations returned the Bible to the tribe in 1991 .
= = House and gardens = =
The mission house now stands on a lot approximately 0 @.@ 4 acres ( 0 @.@ 16 ha ) in size . The layout of the house is a standard Georgian center @-@ hall plan , with fireplaced rooms ( a parlor to the left , and kitchen to the right ) on either side of a central hall , which has a stairway to the second floor . Behind the parlor is an office space where Sergeant would have met with Indians . A diversion from the typical Georgian plan is the presence of a second entrance on the right side of the house , and a narrow hallway running from that entrance to the office . This made it possible for Sergeant 's Indian visitors to reach his office without passing through the front of the house . The front door is adorned with a remarkably well @-@ preserved specimen of a Connecticut River valley front door pediment .
The property features several outbuildings , generally dating from the time of the restoration . A small one @-@ room frame building in the southwest corner serves as a visitor center . Behind the house is a long one @-@ story building that houses museum exhibits , as well as a storage and utility area . It is connected to the house itself by a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) grape arbor . Northeast of the house is a large barn @-@ like building housing function facilities and a caretaker 's apartment .
The gardens and outbuildings of the property were designed to Fletcher Steele 's vision of what colonial garden should be . He drew on ideas seen in the gardens of George Washington 's estate at Mount Vernon to design a property where " a hundred forms of industry were carried on " . Rows of vegetables , fruit trees , and bushes , were lined with flowers for aesthetic appeal , and spaces for carved out that he envisioned would have been used for performing outdoor work such as chopping wood , churning butter , and preparing preserves . Echoing statements made in his Design of a Little Garden , published just a few years earlier , Steele laid out the outbuildings in such a way to provide the homeowners a private retreat .
The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968 , and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . It contains a collection of eighteenth @-@ century American furniture and decorative arts . It is open to the public on summer weekends or by appointment .
= Donner Party =
The Donner Party ( sometimes called the Donner @-@ Reed Party ) was a group of American pioneers led by George Donner and James F. Reed who set out for California in a wagon train in May 1846 . They were delayed by a series of mishaps and mistakes , and spent the winter of 1846 – 47 snowbound in the Sierra Nevada . Some of the pioneers resorted to cannibalism to survive .
The journey west usually took between four and six months , but the Donner Party was slowed by following a new route called Hastings Cutoff , which crossed Utah 's Wasatch Mountains and Great Salt Lake Desert . The rugged terrain and difficulties encountered while traveling along the Humboldt River in present @-@ day Nevada resulted in the loss of many cattle and wagons and splits within the group .
By the beginning of November 1846 , the settlers had reached the Sierra Nevada where they became trapped by an early , heavy snowfall near Truckee ( now Donner ) Lake , high in the mountains . Their food supplies ran extremely low and , in mid @-@ December , some of the group set out on foot to obtain help . Rescuers from California attempted to reach the settlers , but the first relief party did not arrive until the middle of February 1847 , almost four months after the wagon train became trapped . Of the 87 members of the party , 48 survived to reach California , many of them having eaten the dead for survival .
Historians have described the episode as one of the most bizarre and spectacular tragedies in Californian history and western @-@ US migration .
= = Background = =
During the 1840s , the United States saw a dramatic increase in pioneers , people who left their homes in the east to settle in Oregon and California . Some , such as Patrick Breen , saw California as a place where they would be free to live in a fully Catholic culture , but many were inspired by the idea of Manifest Destiny , a philosophy which asserted that the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans belonged to Americans and they should settle it . Most wagon trains followed the Oregon Trail route from Independence , Missouri to the Continental Divide , traveling at about 15 miles ( 24 km ) a day on a journey that usually took between four and six months . The trail generally followed rivers to South Pass , a mountain pass in Wyoming , which was relatively easy for wagons to negotiate . From there , wagon trains had a choice of routes to their destination .
Lansford W. Hastings , an early immigrant , went to California in 1842 and saw the promise of the undeveloped country . To encourage settlers , he published The Emigrants ' Guide to Oregon and California . He described a direct route across the Great Basin which would bring emigrants through the Wasatch Mountains and across the Great Salt Lake Desert . Hastings had not traveled any part of his proposed shortcut until early 1846 on a trip from California to Fort Bridger . The fort was a scant supply station run by Jim Bridger and his partner Pierre Louis Vasquez in Blacks Fork , Wyoming . Hastings stayed at the fort to persuade travelers to turn south on his route . As of 1846 , Hastings was the second of two men documented to have crossed the southern part of the Great Salt Lake Desert and neither had been accompanied by wagons .
The most difficult part of the journey to California was the last 100 miles ( 160 km ) across the Sierra Nevada . This mountain range contains 500 distinct peaks over 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) high , and because of their height and proximity to the Pacific Ocean they receive more snow than most other ranges in North America . The eastern side of the range is also extremely steep . After leaving Missouri to cross the vast wilderness to Oregon or California , timing was crucial to ensure that wagon trains would not be bogged down by mud created by spring rains , nor by massive snowdrifts in the mountains from September onwards , and also that their horses and oxen would have enough spring grass to eat .
= = Families = =
In the spring of 1846 , almost 500 wagons headed west from Independence . At the rear of the train , a group of nine wagons containing 32 members of the Reed and Donner families and their employees left on May 12 . George Donner , born in North Carolina , had gradually moved west to Kentucky , Indiana , and Illinois , with a one @-@ year sojourn to Texas . In early 1846 , he was about 60 years old . With him were his 44 @-@ year @-@ old wife Tamsen and their three daughters Frances ( 6 ) , Georgia ( 4 ) , and Eliza ( 3 ) , and George 's daughters from a previous marriage : Elitha ( 14 ) and Leanna ( 12 ) . George 's younger brother Jacob ( aged 56 ) also joined the party with his wife Elizabeth ( 45 ) , teenaged stepsons Solomon Hook ( 14 ) and William Hook ( 12 ) , and five children : George ( 9 ) , Mary ( 7 ) , Isaac ( 6 ) , Lewis ( 4 ) , and Samuel ( 1 ) . Also traveling with the Donner brothers were teamsters Hiram O. Miller ( 29 ) , Samuel Shoemaker ( 25 ) , Noah James ( 16 ) , Charles Burger ( 30 ) , John Denton ( 28 ) , and Augustus Spitzer ( 30 ) .
James F. Reed , a 45 @-@ year @-@ old native of present @-@ day Northern Ireland , had settled in Illinois in 1831 . He was accompanied by his wife Margret ( 32 ) , step @-@ daughter Virginia ( 13 ) , daughter Martha Jane " Patty " ( 8 ) , sons James and Thomas ( 5 and 3 ) , and Sarah Keyes , Margret Reed 's 70 @-@ year @-@ old mother , who was in the advanced stages of consumption and died on May 28 ; she was buried by the side of the trail . In addition to leaving financial worries behind , Reed hoped that California 's climate would help Margret , who had long suffered from ill health . The Reeds hired three men to drive the ox teams : Milford ( Milt ) Elliot ( 28 ) , James Smith ( 25 ) , and Walter Herron ( 25 ) . Baylis Williams ( 24 ) went along as handyman and his sister Eliza ( 25 ) as the family 's cook .
Within a week of leaving Independence , the Reeds and Donners joined up with a group of 50 wagons nominally led by William H. Russell . By June 16 , the company had traveled 450 miles ( 720 km ) , with 200 miles ( 320 km ) to go before Fort Laramie , Wyoming . They had been delayed by rain and a rising river , but Tamsen Donner wrote to a friend in Springfield , " indeed , if I do not experience something far worse than I have yet done , I shall say the trouble is all in getting started . " Young Virginia Reed recalled years later that , during the first part of the trip , she was " perfectly happy .
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is 's sister 's husband served on the corporate board . In another decision , Landis struck down a challenge to the Interstate Commerce Commission 's ( ICC ) jurisdiction over rebating , a practice banned by the Elkins Act of 1903 in which railroads and favored customers agreed that the customers would pay less than the posted tariff , which by law was to be the same for all shippers . Landis 's decision allowed the ICC to take action against railroads which gave rebates .
= = = Standard Oil ( 1905 – 1909 ) = = =
By the first decade of the 20th century , a number of business entities had formed themselves into trusts , which dominated their industries . Trusts often sought to purchase or otherwise neutralize their competitors , allowing the conglomerates to raise prices to high levels . In 1890 , Congress had passed the Sherman Anti @-@ Trust Act , but it was not until the Theodore Roosevelt administration ( 1901 – 1909 ) that serious efforts were made to break up or control the trusts . The dominant force in the oil industry was Standard Oil , controlled by John D. Rockefeller . Modern @-@ day Exxon , Mobil , Atlantic Richfield , Chevron , Sohio , Amoco and Continental Oil all trace their ancestry to various parts of Standard Oil .
In March 1906 , Commissioner of Corporations James Rudolph Garfield submitted a report to President Roosevelt , alleging large @-@ scale rebating in Standard Oil shipments . Federal prosecutors in several states and territories sought indictments against components of the Standard Oil Trust . On June 28 , 1906 , Standard Oil of Indiana was indicted on 6 @,@ 428 counts of violation of the Elkins Act for accepting rebates on shipments on the Chicago & Alton Railroad . The case was assigned to Landis .
Trial on the 1 @,@ 903 counts that survived pretrial motions began on March 4 , 1907 . The fact that rebates had been given was not contested ; what was at issue was whether Standard Oil knew the railroad 's posted rates , and if it had a duty to enquire if it did not . Landis charged the jury that it " was the duty of the defendant diligently in good faith to get from the Chicago & Alton ... the lawful rate " . The jury found Standard Oil guilty on all 1 @,@ 903 counts .
The maximum fine that Landis could impose was $ 29 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 . To aid the judge in determining the sentence , Landis issued a subpoena for Rockefeller to testify as to Standard Oil 's assets . The tycoon had often evaded subpoenas , not having testified in court since 1888 . Deputy United States marshals visited Rockefeller 's several homes , as well as the estates of his friends , in the hope of finding him . After several days , Rockefeller was found at his lawyer 's estate , Taconic Farm in northwestern Massachusetts , and was served with the subpoena . The tycoon duly came to Landis 's Chicago courtroom , making his way through a mob anxious to see the proceedings . Rockefeller 's actual testimony , proffered after the judge made him wait through several cases and witnesses , proved to be anticlimactic , as he professed almost no knowledge of Standard Oil 's corporate structure or assets .
On August 3 , 1907 , Landis pronounced sentence . He fined Standard Oil the maximum penalty , $ 29 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 , the largest fine imposed on a corporation to that point . The corporation quickly appealed ; in the meantime , Landis was lionized as a hero . According to Pietrusza , " much of the nation could hardly believe a federal judge had finally cracked down on a trust — and cracked down hard " . President Roosevelt , when he heard the sentence , reportedly stated , " That 's bully . " Rockefeller was playing golf in Cleveland when he was brought a telegram containing the news . Rockefeller calmly informed his golfing partners of the amount of the fine , and proceeded to shoot a personal record score , later stating , " Judge Landis will be dead a long time before this fine is paid . " He proved correct ; the verdict and sentence were reversed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit on July 22 , 1908 . In January 1909 , the Supreme Court refused to hear the case , and in a new trial before another judge ( Landis recused himself ) , Standard Oil was acquitted .
= = = Federal League and Baby Iraene cases ( 1909 – 1917 ) = = =
A lifelong baseball fan , Landis often slipped away from the courthouse for a White Sox or Cubs game . In 1914 , the two existing major leagues were challenged by a new league , the Federal League . In 1915 , the upstart league brought suit against the existing leagues and owners under the Sherman Act and the case was assigned to Landis . Baseball owners feared that the reserve clause , which forced players to sign new contracts only with their former team , and the 10 @-@ day clause , which allowed teams ( but not players ) to terminate player contracts on ten days notice , would be struck down by Landis .
Landis held hearings in late January 1915 , and newspapers expected a quick decision , certainly before spring training began in March . During the hearings , Landis admonished the parties , " Both sides must understand that any blows at the thing called baseball would be regarded by this court as a blow to a national institution " . When the National League 's chief counsel , future Senator George Wharton Pepper referred to the activities of baseball players on the field as " labor " , Landis interrupted him : " As a result of 30 years of observation , I am shocked because you call playing baseball ' labor . ' " Landis reserved judgment , and the parties waited for his ruling . Spring training passed , as did the entire regular season and the World Series . In December 1915 , still with no word from Landis , the parties reached a settlement , and the Federal League disbanded . Landis made no public statement as to the reasons for his failure to rule , though he told close friends that he had been certain the parties would reach a settlement sooner or later . Most observers thought that Landis waited because he did not want to rule against the two established leagues and their contracts .
In 1916 , Landis presided over the " Ryan Baby " or " Baby Iraene " case . The recent widow of a prominent Chicago banker , Anna Dollie Ledgerwood Matters , had brought a baby girl home from a visit to Canada and claimed that the child was her late husband 's posthumous heir . Matters had left an estate of $ 250 @,@ 000 . However , a shop girl from Ontario , Margaret Ryan , claimed the baby was hers , and brought a writ of habeas corpus in Landis 's court . Ryan stated that she had given birth to the girl in an Ottawa hospital , but had been told her baby had died . In the era before blood and DNA testing , Landis relied on witness testimony and awarded the child to Ryan . The case brought comparisons between Landis and King Solomon , who had judged a similar case . Landis was reversed by the Supreme Court , which held he had no jurisdiction in the matter . A Canadian court later awarded the child to Ryan .
Although Landis was an autocrat in the courtroom , he was less so at home . In a 1916 interview , he stated ,
Every member of this family does exactly what he or she wants to do . Each one is his or her supreme court . Everything for the common good of the family is decided according to the wishes of the whole family . Each one knows what is right and each one can do whatever he thinks is best . It is purely democratic .
= = = Wartime cases ( 1917 – 1919 ) = = =
In early 1917 , Landis considered leaving the bench and returning to private practice — though he greatly enjoyed being a judge , the salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 was considerably lower than what he could make as an attorney . The entry of the United States into World War I in April ended Landis 's determination to resign ; a firm supporter of the war effort , he felt he could best serve the country by remaining on the bench . Despite this decision and his age , fifty , Landis wrote to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker , asking him to take him into the service and send him to France , where the war was raging . Baker urged Landis to make speeches in support of the war instead , which he did . The judge 's son , Reed , had already served briefly in the Illinois National Guard ; when war came he became a pilot and eventually became an ace .
Landis 's disdain for draft dodgers and other opponents of the war was evident in July 1917 , when he presided over the trials of some 120 men , mostly foreign @-@ born Socialists , who had resisted the draft and rioted in Rockford , Illinois . According to Pietrusza , Landis " was frequently brutal in his remarks " to the defendants , interrogating them on their beliefs . Landis tried the case in Rockford , and found all guilty , sentencing all but three to a year and a day in jail , the maximum sentence . The prisoners were ordered to register for the draft after serving their sentences — except 37 , whom he ordered deported .
On September 5 , 1917 , federal officers raided the national headquarters , in Chicago , of the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW , sometimes " Wobblies " ) , as well as 48 of the union 's halls across the nation . The union had opposed the war and urged members and others to refuse conscription into the armed forces . On September 28 , 166 IWW leaders , including union head Big Bill Haywood were indicted in the Northern District of Illinois ; their cases were assigned to Landis . Some 40 of the indicted men could not be found ; a few others had charges dismissed against them . Ultimately , Landis presided over a trial against 113 defendants , the largest federal criminal trial to that point .
The trial began on April 1 , 1918 . Landis quickly dismissed charges against a dozen defendants , including one A.C. Christ , who showed up in newly @-@ obtained Army uniform . Jury selection occupied a month . Journalist John Reed attended the trial , and wrote of his impressions of Landis :
Small on the huge bench sits a wasted man with untidy white hair , an emaciated face in which two burning eyes are set like jewels , parchment @-@ like skin split by a crack for a mouth ; the face of Andrew Jackson three years dead ... Upon this man has devolved the historic role of trying the Social Revolution . He is doing it like a gentleman . In many ways a most unusual trial . When the judge enters the court @-@ room after recess , no one rises — he himself has abolished the pompous formality . He sits without robes , in an ordinary business suit , and often leaves the bench to come down and perch on the step of the jury box . By his personal orders , spittoons are placed by the prisoners ' seats ... and as for the prisoners themselves , they are permitted to take off their coats , move around , read newspapers . It takes some human understanding for a Judge to fly in the face of judicial ritual as much as that .
Haywood biographer Melvyn Dubofsky wrote that Landis " exercised judicial objectivity and restraint for five long months " . Baseball historian Harold Seymour stated that " [ o ] n the whole , Landis conducted the trial with restraint , despite his reputation as a foe of all radical groups . " Landis dismissed charges against an elderly defendant who was in obvious pain as he testified , and allowed the release of a number of prisoners on bail or on their own recognizances .
On August 17 , 1918 , following the closing argument for the prosecution ( the defendants waived argument ) , Landis instructed the jury . The lead defense counsel objected to the wording of the jury charge several times , but Haywood believed it to have been fair . After 65 minutes , the jury returned with guilty verdicts for all of the remaining accused , much to their shock ; they had believed that Landis 's charge pointed towards their acquittal . When the defendants returned to court on August 29 , Landis listened with patience to the defendants ' final pleas . For the sentencing , according to Richard Cahan in his history of Chicago 's district court , " mild @-@ mannered Landis returned a changed man " . Although two defendants received only ten days in jail , all others received at least a year and a day , and Haywood and fourteen others received twenty years . A number of defendants , including Haywood , obtained bail during the appeal ; even before Haywood 's appeals were exhausted , he jumped bail and took ship for the Soviet Union . The labor leader hung a portrait of Landis in his Moscow apartment , and when Haywood died in 1928 , he was interred near John Reed ( who had died of illness in Moscow after the Bolshevik Revolution ) in the Kremlin Wall — they remain the only two Americans so honored . President Calvin Coolidge commuted the sentences of the remaining incarcerated defendants in 1923 , much to the disgust of Landis , who issued an angry statement . After leaving his judgeship , Landis referred to the defendants in the Haywood case as " scum " , " filth " , and " slimy rats " .
Landis hoped that the Kaiser , Wilhelm II would be captured and tried in his court ; he wanted to indict the Kaiser for the murder of a Chicagoan who lost his life on the RMS Lusitania in 1915 . The State Department notified Landis that extradition treaties did not permit the rendition of the Kaiser , who fled into exile in the Netherlands as the war concluded . Nevertheless , in a speech , Landis demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm , his six sons , and 5 @,@ 000 German military leaders " be lined up against a wall and shot down in justice to the world and to Germany " .
Even with the armistice in November 1918 , the war @-@ related trials continued . The Socialist Party of America , like the IWW , had opposed the war , and had also been raided by federal authorities . Seven Socialist Party leaders , including Victor Berger , who was elected to Congress in November 1918 , were indicted for alleged anti @-@ war activities . The defendants were charged under the Espionage Act of 1917 , which made it illegal " to utter , print , write , or publish any disloyal , profane , scurrilous or abusive language " about the armed forces , the flag , the Constitution , or democracy . The defendants , who were mostly of German birth or descent , moved for a change of venue away from Landis 's courtroom , alleging that Landis had stated on November 1 , 1918 that " [ i ] f anybody has said anything about the Germans that is worse than I have said , I would like to hear it so I could use it myself . " Landis , however , examined the transcript of the trial in which the statement was supposedly made , failed to find it , declared the affidavit in support of the motion " perjurious " , and denied the motion . While the jury was being selected , Berger was indicted on additional espionage charges for supposedly violating the law during an earlier , unsuccessful political campaign . At the conclusion of the case , Landis took an hour to dramatically charge the jury , emphasizing the secretive nature of conspiracies and pointing at the jury box as he noted , " the country was then at war " . At one point , Landis leapt out of his seat , twirled his chair around , then sat on its arm . Later in his charge , he lay prone upon the bench . The jury took less than a day to convict Congressman @-@ elect Berger and his four remaining codefendants . Landis sentenced each defendant to twenty years in federal prison . Landis denied the defendants bail pending appeal ; but they quickly obtained it from an appellate court judge . The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals declined to rule on the case itself , sending it on to the Supreme Court , which on January 31 , 1921 overturned the convictions and sentences by a 6 – 3 vote , holding that Landis should have stepped aside once he was satisfied that the affidavit was legally sufficient , leaving it for another judge to decide whether it was actually true . Landis refused to comment on the Supreme Court 's decision , which ordered a new trial . In 1922 , charges against the defendants were dropped by the government .
= = = Building trades award , controversy , and resignation ( 1920 – 1922 ) = = =
The postwar period saw considerable deflation ; the shortage of labor and materials during the war had led to much higher wages and prices , and in the postwar economic readjustment , wages were cut heavily . In Chicago , employers in the building trades attempted a 20 % wage cut ; when this was rejected by the unions , a lockout followed . Both sides agreed to submit the matter to a neutral arbitrator , and settled on Landis , who agreed to take the case in June 1921 . By this time , Landis was Commissioner of Baseball , and still a federal judge . In September , Landis issued his report , cutting wages by an average of 12 @.@ 5 % . To improve productivity , he also struck restrictions on machinery which saved labor , established a standardized overtime rate , and resolved jurisdictional conflicts between unions . The labor organizations were not completely satisfied , but Landis 's reforms were adopted in many places across the country and were credited with reviving the building industry .
Criticism of Landis having both the judicial and baseball positions began almost as soon as his baseball appointment was announced in November 1920 . On February 2 , 1921 , lame duck Congressman Benjamin F. Welty ( Democrat @-@ Ohio ) offered a resolution calling for Landis 's impeachment . On February 11 , Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer opined that there was no legal impediment to Landis holding both jobs . On February 14 , the House Judiciary Committee voted 24 – 1 to investigate Landis . Reed Landis later stated , " [ n ] one of the other congressmen wanted Father impeached but they did want him to come down and defend himself because they knew what a show it would be . "
Although Welty 's departure from office on March 4 , 1921 began a lull in criticism of Landis , in April , the judge made a controversial decision in the case of Francis J. Carey , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old bank teller , who had pleaded guilty to embezzling $ 96 @,@ 500 . Carey , the sole support of his widowed mother and unmarried sisters , gained Landis 's sympathy . He accused the bank of underpaying Carey , and sent the youth home with his mother . Two members of the Senate objected to Landis 's actions , and the New York Post compared Carey with Les Misérables 's Jean Valjean , noting " [ b ] etween a loaf of bread [ Valjean was incarcerated for stealing one ] and $ 96 @,@ 500 there is a difference . " A bill barring outside employment by federal judges had been introduced by Landis 's foes , but had expired with the end of the congressional session in March ; his opponents tried again in July , and the bill failed in the Senate on a tie vote . On September 1 , 1921 , the American Bar Association , a trade group of lawyers , passed a resolution of censure against Landis .
By the end of 1921 , the controversy was dying down , and Landis felt that he could resign without looking pressured . On February 18 , 1922 , he announced his resignation as judge effective March 1 , stating , " There are not enough hours in the day for all these activities " . In his final case , he fined two theatre owners for evading the federal amusement tax . One owner had refused to make restitution before sentencing ; he was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 . The owner who had tried to make his shortfall good was fined one cent .
= = Commissioner ( 1920 – 1944 ) = =
= = = Appointment = = =
= = = = Black Sox scandal = = = =
By 1919 , the influence of gamblers on baseball had been a problem for several years . Historian Paul Gardner wrote ,
Baseball had for some time been living uneasily in the knowledge that bribes were being offered by gamblers , and that some players were accepting them . The players knew it was going on , and the owners knew it was going on . But more important , the players knew that the owners knew — and they knew the owners were doing nothing about it for fear of a scandal that might damage organized baseball . Under such conditions it quite obviously did not pay to be honest .
The 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds was much anticipated , as the nation attempted to return to normalcy in the postwar period . Baseball had seen a surge of popularity during the 1919 season , which set several attendance records . The powerful White Sox , with their superstar batter " Shoeless Joe " Jackson and star pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Claude " Lefty " Williams , were believed likely to defeat the less @-@ well @-@ regarded Reds . To the surprise of many , the Reds defeated the White Sox , five games to three ( during 1919 – 1921 , the World Series was a best @-@ of @-@ nine affair ) .
Rumors that the series was fixed began to circulate after gambling odds against the Reds winning dropped sharply before the series began , and gained more credibility after the White Sox lost four of the first five games . Cincinnati lost the next two games , and speculation began that the Reds were losing on purpose to extend the series and increase gate revenues . However , Cincinnati won Game Eight , 10 – 5 , to end the series , as Williams lost his third game ( Cicotte lost the other two ) . After the series , according to Gene Carney , who wrote a book about the scandal , " there was more than the usual complaining from those who had bet big on the Sox and lost " .
The issue of the 1919 Series came to the public eye again in September 1920 , when , after allegations that a game between the Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies on August 31 had been fixed , a grand jury was empaneled in state court in Chicago to investigate baseball gambling . Additional news came from Philadelphia , where gambler Billy Maharg stated that he had worked with former boxer Abe Attell and New York gambler Arnold Rothstein to get the White Sox to throw the 1919 Series . Cicotte and Jackson were called before the grand jury , where they gave statements incriminating themselves and six teammates : Williams , first baseman Chick Gandil , shortstop Swede Risberg , third baseman Buck Weaver , center fielder Happy Felsch and reserve infielder Fred McMullin . Williams and Felsch were also called before the grand jury and incriminated themselves and their teammates . Through late September , the 1920 American League season had been one of the most exciting on record , with the White Sox , Cleveland Indians , and New York Yankees dueling for the league lead . By September 28 , the Yankees were close to elimination , but the White Sox and Indians were within percentage points of each other . On that day , however , the eight players , seven of whom were still on the White Sox , were indicted . They were immediately suspended by White Sox owner Charles Comiskey . The Indians were able to pull ahead and win the pennant , taking the American League championship by two games over Chicago .
= = = = Search for a commissioner = = = =
Baseball had been governed by a three @-@ man National Commission , consisting of American League President Ban Johnson , National League President John Heydler and Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann . In January 1920 , Herrmann left office at the request of other club owners , leaving the Commission effectively deadlocked between Johnson and Heydler . A number of club owners , disliking one or both league presidents , preferred a single commissioner to rule over the game , but were willing to see the National Commission continue if Herrmann was replaced by someone who would provide strong leadership . Landis 's name was mentioned in the press for this role , and the influential baseball newspaper The Sporting News sought his appointment .
Another proposal , known as the " Lasker Plan " after Albert Lasker , a shareholder in the Chicago Cubs who had proposed it , was for a three @-@ man commission to govern the game , drawn from outside baseball . On September 30 , 1920 , with the Black Sox scandal exposed , National League President Heydler began to advocate for the Lasker Plan , and by the following day , four major league teams had supported him . Among the names discussed in the press for membership on the new commission were Landis , former Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo , former President William Howard Taft , and General John J. Pershing .
The start of the 1920 World Series on October 5 distracted the public from baseball 's woes for a time , but discussions continued behind the scenes . By mid @-@ October , 11 of the 16 team owners ( all eight from the National League and the owners of the American League Yankees , White Sox and Boston Red Sox ) were demanding the end of the National Commission and the appointment of a three @-@ man commission whose members would have no financial interest in baseball . Heydler stated his views on baseball 's requirements :
We want a man as chairman who will rule with an iron hand ... Baseball has lacked a hand like that for years . It needs it now worse than ever . Therefore , it is our object to appoint a big man to lead the new commission .
On November 8 , the owners of the eight National League and three American League teams which supported the Lasker Plan met and unanimously selected Landis as head of the proposed commission . The American League clubs that supported the plan threatened to move to the National League , away from Johnson , who opposed the plan . Johnson had hoped that the minor leagues would support his position ; when they did not , he and the " Loyal Five " teams agreed to the Lasker Plan . In the discussions among the owners that followed , they decided that Landis would be the only commissioner – no associate members would be elected . On November 12 , the team owners came to Landis 's courtroom to approach him . Landis was trying a bribery case ; when he heard noise in the back of the courtroom from the owners , he gaveled them to silence . He made them wait 45 minutes while he completed his docket , then met with them in his chambers .
The judge heard out the owners ; after expressing initial reluctance , he took the job for seven years at a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 , on condition he could remain on the federal bench . During Landis 's time serving as both judge and commissioner , he allowed a $ 7 @,@ 500 reduction in his salary as commissioner , to reflect his pay as judge . The appointment of Landis was met with acclaim in the press . A tentative agreement was signed by the parties a month later — an agreement which itemized Landis 's powers over baseball , and which was drafted by the judge . The owners were still reeling from the perception that baseball was crooked , and accepted the agreement virtually without dissent . Under the terms of the contract , Landis could not be dismissed by the team owners , have his pay reduced , or even be criticized by them in public . He also had nearly unlimited authority over every person employed in the major or minor leagues , from owners to batboys . The owners waived any recourse to the courts to contest Landis 's will . Humorist Will Rogers stated , " [ D ] on 't kid yourself that that old judicial bird isn 't going to make those baseball birds walk the chalkline " . Player and manager Leo Durocher later stated , " The legend has been spread that the owners hired the Judge off the federal bench . Don 't you believe it . They got him right out of Dickens . "
= = = Establishing control = = =
= = = = Banning the Black Sox = = = =
On January 30 , 1921 , Landis , speaking at an Illinois church , warned :
Now that I am in baseball , just watch the game I play . If I catch any crook in baseball , the rest of his life is going to be a pretty hot one . I 'll go to any means and to anything possible to see that he gets a real penalty for his offense .
The criminal case against the Black Sox defendants suffered unexpected setbacks , with evidence vanishing , including some of the incriminating statements made to the grand jury . The prosecution was forced to dismiss the original indictments , and bring new charges against seven of the ballplayers ( McMullin was not charged again ) . Frustrated by the delays , Landis placed all eight on an " ineligible list " , banning them from major and minor league baseball . Comiskey supported Landis by giving the seven who remained under contract to the White Sox their unconditional release . Public sentiment was heavily against the ballplayers , and when Jackson , Williams , Felsch , and Weaver played in a semi @-@ pro game , The Sporting News mocked the 3 @,@ 000 attendees , " Just Like Nuts Go to See a Murderer " .
The criminal trial of the Black Sox indictees began in early July 1921 . Despite what Robert C. Cottrell , in his book on the scandal , terms " the mysterious loss of evidence " , the prosecution was determined to pursue the case , demanding five @-@ year prison terms for the ballplayers for defrauding the public by throwing the World Series . On August 2 , 1921 , the jury returned not guilty verdicts against all defendants , leading to happy pandemonium in the courtroom , joined by the courtroom bailiffs , with even the trial judge , Hugo Friend , looking visibly pleased . The players and jury then repaired to an Italian restaurant and partied well into the night .
The jubilation proved short @-@ lived . On August 3 , Landis issued a statement :
Regardless of the verdict of juries , no player that throws a ball game ; no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ball game ; no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing ball games are planned and discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it , will ever play professional baseball . Of course , I don 't know that any of these men will apply for reinstatement , but if they do , the above are at least a few of
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@-@ Play in 2010 .
In her thirty @-@ year career , Roberts had published almost 200 novels . Vision in White was one of ten Roberts novels published in 2009 , including five new releases and five reprints . When it was released on April 28 , 2009 , its cover premiered the use of a special logo to differentiate her new releases from reprints of her past works .
The novel marked Roberts ' return to contemporary romance . The new series revolved around a wedding planning enterprise run by four childhood friends . This first story featured the developing relationship between wedding photographer Mackensie " Mac " Elliot and English professor Carter Maguire . Like several other Roberts novels , Vision In White explored how a protagonist balanced a successful career with a dysfunctional family environment . Although the hero is a fairly typical representation of the romance novel archetype of the professor , the novel is slightly unusual for a romance in that the hero must convince the heroine to take a chance on love .
= = Background = =
Nora Roberts is a prolific author of romance and futuristic suspense novels . From 1979 through 2008 , almost 200 of her novels were published . On average , she completed a book every 45 days . She does not outline the novels in advance or create character biographies , preferring to develop the plot as she goes .
According to Publishers Weekly , three of the top @-@ ten bestselling mass market paperbacks of 2008 were Roberts novels . Her new releases focused primarily on paranormal and fantasy romance . In 2009 , Roberts returned to the traditional contemporary romance subgenre with Vision in White . The novel was the first in her Bride Quartet , which also included Bed of Roses , Savor the Moment , and Happy Ever After . Each novel in the series focuses on the love story of a different founder of Vows , a fictional wedding planning business .
Vision in White was released by Berkley Books on April 28 , 2009 . The novel was one of ten Roberts books released that year . Five of the releases were paperback reprints of books previously issued . Three were new hardcovers , including two published under the pseudonym J. D. Robb . Vision in White and its sequel , Bed of Roses , were released in trade paperback . To help readers differentiate the new releases from the reprints , the covers of the two trade paperbacks included a medallion with the initials NR .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the relationship of photographer Mackensie " Mac " Elliot and English teacher Carter Maguire . Mac and her childhood friends Parker , Emma , and Laurel are the founders of Vows , a fictional wedding planning company in Connecticut . While accompanying his sister to a planning session at Vows , Carter renews his acquaintance with Mac , and confesses that he had been infatuated with her since high school . She is intrigued by his honesty and earnestness and decides to embark on a casual fling with him .
After seeing her parents ' numerous failed marriages , Mac does not trust the idea of commitment . Her determination to avoid emotional intimacy is reinforced as she struggles against her mother 's continued tactics of emotional manipulation .
Their relationship progresses slowly through the book . Each protagonist receives much advice from a large circle of friends and family . With the support of her friends and Carter , Mac develops the courage to stand up to her mother . By the end of the novel , she realizes that she does not have to relive her parents ' mistakes , and chooses to embrace her love for Carter .
= = Analysis = =
The four novels of the Bride Quartet share a strong emphasis on sisterhood . The heroines of the books bonded as children and have become sisters by choice . Throughout the series , they provide mutual support and acceptance of each other 's quirks . Focused on their careers , the heroines have little time for outside relationships , and they rely heavily on each other for comfort , help , and distractions . A similar theme is seen in several of Roberts ' other works ; her In Death series , written as J. D. Robb , has a heroine who has created a family from female friends and colleagues .
According to critic Betsy Prioleau , Vision In White 's hero is a typical representation of one of the eight archetypes of a romance hero : the professor . Several scenes in the novel show him teaching students or in parent @-@ teacher conferences . Like most intellectual romance heroes , Carter is a " sober good guy " , and the heroine is attracted to him primarily for his mind . In an unusual twist for a romance novel , however , the hero is the character who is ready for a commitment but must help the heroine overcome her fears . After seeing her mother divorce four husbands and discard countless boyfriends , Mac prefers to avoid emotional intimacy rather than risk the relationship splintering . Carter provides reassurance that their relationship is built on a solid foundation .
Critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass calls Vision In White a story of the New Woman , with a strong heroine who is extremely proud of her significant career accomplishments . Roberts uses the heroine 's choices of how to pose or spotlight her photography clients as pointed ways of celebrating both monogamy and " unconventional views of femininity " . In one scene , Mac convinces a heavily pregnant woman to pose nude , despite her feelings of awkwardness ; through the resulting photos , the client comes to believe that she is actually beautiful . In another poke at traditional stereotypes , Mac photographs a bride and groom posing together on a horse , evoking the metaphor of a knight coming to rescue the princess — but the couple are equals .
Roberts contrasts Mac 's competence in business matters with her difficulties in dealing with an extremely dysfunctional family , a theme Roberts had previously used in the Chesapeake Bay Series ( Rising Tides , Sea Swept , and Inner Harbor ) and the Calhoun Series . In Visions in White , the family difficulties are caused by the heroine 's mother , who is essentially a cross between the mothers in Carolina Moon and Tribute . Roberts shows that , as a result of her family 's dysfunction , Mac has chosen to distance herself from deeper emotions . The camera allows Mac to interact with other people 's happiness and lives without having to fully participate ; as the book progresses , she gradually develops the courage to come out of her shell and fully participate in life .
The use of the wedding industry is , per Snodgrass , " a wry reprise of Roberts ' career in fictional matchmaking " . The novel celebrates the joy of a traditional wedding ceremony , including the playful ceremonies arranged by children playing dress @-@ up . Roberts ' treatment of these themes " validates the dress @-@ up game of playing bride as both fantasy and a stabilizing preface on women 's devotion to mate and family " . Roberts included significant detail on the wedding planning industry , which Snodgrass posits is meant to highlight and celebrate the success the female characters had at niche marketing .
= = Reception = =
Jill M. Smith in Romantic Times gave the novel four out of five stars , labeling it a " wonderful and cozy read " . A Publishers Weekly review highlighted the " gentle humor and likable cast " and predicted that readers would be eager to follow the characters through the rest of the series . In Booklist , John Charles called the novel " thoroughly charming " and lauded the deep characterization and " sharp , clever writing " that combined to celebrate " friendship and love " .
In a survey of readers , Snodgrass found mixed opinions . Many were delighted to see Roberts return to traditional contemporary romances , minus the elements of fantasy and magic that had woven through her more recent novels . Some praised the tight bonds of sisterhood that Roberts created for the four founders of Vows , but other readers complained that the character voices were too similar . A vocal minority pointed out similarities between this novel and Roberts ' Calhoun series .
By February 2010 , Vision In White and Bed of Roses had sold a combined 1 million print copies . Over 100 @,@ 000 copies of Vision in White were sold in Canada alone between May and October 2009 . The novel spent 32 weeks on the USA Today bestseller list , peaking at number 3 . It was number 1 on the New York Times Bestseller List for trade paperback fiction for two weeks . It was the first of Roberts ' novels to be a bestseller in trade paperback format .
= = Computer game = =
Within months of the novel 's release , computer gaming company I @-@ Play began developing a downloadable casual @-@ play game based on the story . Roberts ' input was limited to approval of the graphics and the game 's interpretation of the story line . The game followed the general plot of the novel , from the perspective of the heroine . More than 40 different locations from the book were featured , including Mac 's office and Carter 's kitchen . There were hidden @-@ object tasks and several mini @-@ games featuring wedding @-@ related activities , such as cake decorating and floral arranging . Roberts was pleased with the final product , remarking that " to have a story translated into a game like this , it 's tremendous fun for me . It 's my initial vision , but I enjoy seeing how , when you translate it into that other medium , how somebody else 's vision manages to affect it but keep the core of the story . " The game was released in February 2010 . According to Roberts ' website , game sales did not match the developer 's expectations , and plans for sequels to the game were cancelled .
= Three Sisters ( Oregon ) =
The Three Sisters are a complex volcano of three volcanic peaks of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Oregon . Each exceeding 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) in elevation , they are the third , fourth , and fifth highest peaks in the state of Oregon , and are located in the Three Sisters Wilderness , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of the nearest town of Sisters . Diverse species of flora and fauna inhabit the area on and around the mountains , which is subject to frequent snowfall , occasional rain , and extreme temperature differences between seasons . The mountains , particularly South Sister , are popular for climbing and scrambling .
Although they are often grouped together and seen as one unit , the three mountains evolved under differing geologic situations , and the petrologic composition of each mountain can vary significantly . Whereas North Sister is extinct and Middle Sister is dormant , South Sister last erupted about 2 @,@ 000 years ago and still could erupt , threatening life within the region . After satellite imagery detected tectonic uplifting near South Sister in 2000 , the United States Geological Survey made plans to improve monitoring in the immediate area .
= = Geography and geology = =
The Three Sisters are located on the boundaries of Lane and Deschutes counties and the Willamette and Deschutes national forests in the U.S. state of Oregon , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of the nearest town of Sisters . The three peaks , the third , fourth , and fifth highest peaks in Oregon , have 15 named glaciers among them , nearly half of the 35 named glaciers in Oregon . The Sisters were named Faith , Hope , and Charity by early settlers , but " these names have not prevailed " , and instead they are named North Sister , Middle Sister , and South Sister .
A complex volcano that extends for 20 miles ( 32 km ) , the Three Sisters are located at latitude 44 @.@ 103 ° N and longitude 121 @.@ 768 ° W. Part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range , the volcanoes formed during separate time periods from several varieties of magma , and the amount of rhyolite found in the lava of the younger two mountains is unusual relative to nearby volcanoes . Like other Cascade volcanoes , the Three Sisters were fed by magma chambers produced by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the western edge of the North American Plate . They were also affected by the changing atmosphere of the Pleistocene epoch , a geologic period during which an Ice Age occurred where glaciers ate away at mountains as they retreated . Specifically , Three Sisters join several other volcanoes in the eastern segment of the Cascade Range known as the High Cascades , which trends from north – south .
The Three Sisters form the centerpiece of a region of closely grouped volcanic peaks , an exception to the typical 40 @-@ to @-@ 60 @-@ mile ( 64 to 97 km ) spacing between volcanoes elsewhere in the Cascades . These nearby peaks include Belknap Crater , Mount Washington , Black Butte , and Three Fingered Jack to the north , and Broken Top and Mount Bachelor to the south . The region was active in the Pleistocene epoch , with eruptions between 700 @,@ 000 and 170 @,@ 000 years ago from an explosively active complex known as the Tumalo volcanic center . Basaltic lava flows from North Sister overlay the newest Tumalo pyroclastic deposits , placing the age of North Sister , the eldest , at less than 170 @,@ 000 years .
= = Wilderness and climate = =
The Three Sisters Wilderness covers an area of 281 @,@ 190 acres ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 9 km2 ) , making it the second largest wilderness area in Oregon . Created by the U.S. Congress in 1964 , it borders the Mount Washington Wilderness to the north and shares a southern edge with the Waldo Lake Wilderness . The Three Sisters Wilderness includes 260 miles ( 420 km ) of trails , in addition to many forests , lakes , waterfalls , and streams , such as the source of Whychus Creek . More specifically , the Three Sisters and Broken Top account for about a third of the Three Sisters Wilderness — an area known as the Alpine Crest Region . Rising from about 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to 10 @,@ 358 feet ( 3 @,@ 157 m ) in elevation , it features the wilderness area 's most @-@ frequented glaciers , lakes , and meadows .
Weather in the area varies because of separation created by the mountain barrier . The west is wetter and the east is drier , and precipitation increases with elevation . The moisture , falling mostly as winter snow , originates from warm air pockets over the Pacific Ocean and cools as it ascends the mountains . In the western section , precipitation ranges from 80 to 125 inches ( 200 to 320 cm ) annually , varying from 40 to 80 inches ( 100 to 200 cm ) in the east . Temperature extremes reach 80 to 90 ° F ( 27 to 32 ° C ) in summers and − 20 to − 30 ° F ( − 29 to − 34 ° C ) during the winters .
In the wilderness , part of the National Wilderness Preservation System , motor vehicles and means of transport are prohibited . These include bicycles , wagons , motorboats , and helicopters . From Memorial Day to October 31 , permits are required for entry to the wilderness .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
While Douglas fir and ponderosa pine trees predominate in the western and eastern parts of the Cascades , respectively , flora in the Three Sisters Wilderness also consists of lodgepole pine , Pacific silver fir , subalpine fir , western hemlock , western white pine , Englemann spruce , and western redcedar . White fir , once a common species in the area , has declined due to recent blights of mountain pine beetle . At higher altitudes , alpine meadows are common , and they feature the following flowers : lupine , red Indian paintbrush , heather , arnica , larkspur , sunflowers , columbines , and many other genera . Also common at high altitudes are mountain hemlock and whitebark pine trees .
The local fauna of the Three Sisters includes fish such as brook and rainbow trout , birds such as blue and ruffed grouse , and larger species like the Columbian black @-@ tailed deer , mule deer , Roosevelt elk , and American black bear . In addition to predator bobcats , cougars , and coyotes , raccoons , martens , weasels , and American minks live throughout the Three Sisters area .
= = Peaks = =
= = = North Sister = = =
North Sister , also known as " Faith , " is the oldest and most eroded of the three , with towering rock pinnacles and glaciers . A stratovolcano atop an ancient shield volcano named Little Brother , North Sister is 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) wide . Consisting primarily of basaltic andesite , it is more mafic ( rich in magnesium and iron ) than the other two volcanoes . Its deposits are rich in palagonite and red and black cinders , and grow progressively more iron @-@ rich with decreasing age . North Sister 's lava flows demonstrate similar composition throughout its eruptive history , which lasted for a long period of time . Estimates place the volcano 's last eruption at more than 100 @,@ 000 years ago , so the volcano is considered extinct . The North Sister possesses more dikes than any similar Cascade peak , and many dikes were pushed aside by the intrusion of a 980 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) -wide plug dome that now forms the mountain 's summits of Prouty Peak and the South Horn . The remainder of the peak is chiefly loose debris held in place by the dike system .
North Sister has not erupted since the late Pleistocene . Extensive erosion exposed the volcanic edifice , including magma pathways such as dikes and sills . At one point , the volcano stood more than 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) in elevation , but this erosion claimed a quarter to a third of its original volume .
= = = Middle Sister = = =
Middle Sister also known as " Hope , " is a stratovolcano consisting primarily of basalt , but it also has erupted andesite , dacite , and rhyodacite . The smallest and most poorly @-@ studied of the trio , it is also the middle in age , its most recent flows dating to 14 @,@ 000 years ago , making them slightly older than South Sister 's . These flows , thick and rich in dacite , extended from the northern and southern sides . They stand in contrast to older , andesitic lava remains which reach as far as 4 @.@ 35 miles ( 7 @.@ 00 km ) from the volcano 's base .
The mountain has a cone shape that lost its eastern side to glaciation , but its western portion remains near @-@ intact . The Hayden and Diller glaciers continue to cut into the east face , while the Renfrew Glacier sits on the northwestern slope . The large but retreating Collier Glacier descends along the north side of Middle Sister , cutting into North Sister 's west side . Erosion from Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation exposed a plug near the center of Middle Sister .
= = = South Sister = = =
South Sister , also known as " Charity , " is the youngest and tallest volcano of the trio . Its eruptive products range from basaltic andesite to rhyolite and rhyodacite . It is a stratovolcano overlying an older shield structure , no more than 50 @,@ 000 years old , which last erupted about 2 @,@ 000 years ago . The first such episode , termed the Rock Mesa eruptive cycle , first spread tephra from flank vents from the south and southwest flanks , followed by a thick rhyolite lava flow . The second cycle , the Devils Hill eruptive cycle , was similar in result , but was caused by the intrusion of a dike of new silicic magma that erupted from about 20 vents on the southeast side and from a smaller line on the north side .
Unlike its sister peaks , South Sister has an uneroded summit crater about 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) in diameter that holds a small crater lake known as Teardrop Pool , the highest lake in Oregon . The slopes of South Sister have a number of small glaciers , including the Lewis , Clark , Lost Creek and Prouty glaciers near the crater rim .
= = Climbing and recreation = =
The Three Sisters are a popular climbing destination for hikers and mountaineers . The United States Forest Service requires permits for use from Memorial Day until the beginning of September , and dogs must be kept on leashes on the Green Lakes , Moraine Lakes , South Sister , Soda Creek , Todd Lake , and Crater Ditch trails from July 15 through September 15 . Horses are prohibited , and ice axes are required during the winter climbing season for safety reasons .
Due to extensive erosion , which causes rockfall , North Sister is the most dangerous climb of the three volcanic peaks . However , one of its peaks , Little Brother , can be scrambled . The first recorded ascent of North Sister was made by six people , including Oregon politicians George Lemuel Woods and James McBride , in 1857 , according to a story published in Overland Monthly in 1870 . Today , the common trail lasts 11 miles ( 18 km ) round @-@ trip , gaining 3 @,@ 165 feet ( 965 m ) in elevation and lasting about 6 – 7 hours for the average climber . After passing through forest , lava flows , and meadows , from the summit scramblers can see various cinder cones as well as North Sister and nearby volcanoes .
Middle Sister can also be scrambled , for a round @-@ trip of 16 @.@ 4 miles ( 26 @.@ 4 km ) and an elevation gain of 4 @,@ 757 feet ( 1 @,@ 450 m ) . The trip lasts about 12 hours , beginning with a route through dense forest and ending on Middle Sister 's southern summit . In addition to views of North Sister , the summit offers sights of South Sister , Hayden Glacier , and other Cascade Volcanoes including Mount Hood .
The standard climbing route up the south ridge of South Sister runs for 12 @.@ 6 miles ( 20 @.@ 3 km ) round @-@ trip , and rises from 5 @,@ 446 feet ( 1 @,@ 660 m ) at the trailhead to 10 @,@ 358 feet ( 3 @,@ 157 m ) at its summit . Traveling over cinder cones , domes , and lava flows , the hike does not become demanding until the last mile as it ascends to the summit . In his book Into the Wild , Jon Krakauer notes that his first climb of South Sister with his father inspired him to pursue mountaineering . Popular starting points are the Green Lakes and Devils Lake trailheads . Although this path does not require any technical skills or much in the way of mountaineering knowledge , many environmental dangers remain the same , and rescue operations are common during the climbing season .
= = Recent history and potential hazards = =
Neither North nor Middle Sister is likely to resume volcanic activity , while South Sister could become active . If South Sister were to erupt , it would pose a threat to nearby life . The proximal danger zone extends from 1 @.@ 24 to 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 00 to 9 @.@ 66 km ) from the volcano 's summits . Tephra would accumulate to 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 51 mm ) in the city of Bend , and lahars ( volcanically induced mudflows ) and pyroclastic flows would run down the flanks of the mountain , threatening any life in their paths .
South Sister was found to be potentially active when in 2000 , satellite imagery showed a deforming tectonic uplift 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of the mountain . The ground began to bulge in late 1997 , when magma started to pool about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) underground . Scientists were concerned that the volcano was awakening . A map at the Lava Lands Visitor Center of the Newberry National Volcanic Monument south of Bend shows the extent of the uplift , which reaches a maximum of 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . In 2004 an earthquake swarm occurred with an epicenter in the area of uplift , and the hundreds of small earthquakes subsided after several days . By 2007 the uplift had slowed somewhat , though the area was still considered potentially active . In February 2013 , scientists determined that the uplift had slowed to a rate of about 0 @.@ 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) per year , compared to up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) per year in the early 2000s . Because of the uplift at South Sister , the United States Geological Survey planned to increase monitoring of the Three Sisters and their vicinity by installing a global positioning system ( GPS ) receiver , sampling airborne and ground @-@ based gases , and adding seismometers .
= 1950 Australian National Airways Douglas DC @-@ 4 crash =
On 26 June 1950 , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 Skymaster aircraft departed from Perth , Western Australia for an eight @-@ hour flight to Adelaide , South Australia . It crashed 18 minutes after take @-@ off , 32 nautical miles ( 59 km ) from Perth Airport . All but one of the 29 occupants were killed in the accident and the sole survivor died six days later . It was the worst civil aviation accident in Australia .
As the aircraft flew eastwards over the outer suburbs of Perth numerous witnesses observed that it was flying at a lower altitude than usual for the daily Skymaster services , and at least one of the engines was running roughly and backfiring at regular intervals . In the minutes before it crashed , witnesses heard a number of different engine noises – sometimes operating normally , sometimes all engine noise ceased , only to be replaced by a very loud , high @-@ pitched scream . When the wrecked engines were examined many weeks after the accident a significant amount of corrosion product was found in the fuel system within two of the engines . After a preliminary investigation , Investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation believed the water responsible for the corrosion was also responsible for rough running of at least one engine , and ultimately temporary loss of power from all engines on at least one occasion . The Investigators did not find a likely source for the water .
All but one of the 29 occupants on board the aircraft died , either from multiple injuries and burns , or from incineration . One elderly male passenger survived the crash . The first rescuers at the crash site found him wandering about , dazed and distressed . He suffered serious burns and was admitted to hospital where he died six days later .
The accident became the subject of an Inquiry chaired by a Supreme Court judge . In the absence of evidence indicating the source of any water in the fuel , the Inquiry dismissed the submission that water was responsible for the accident . The Inquiry did not determine the cause of the accident but it made recommendations to enhance the safety of aircraft operations .
= = The flight = =
Photo Frank Leyden 1948 ( NLA )
The aircraft was the Amana , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 @-@ 1009 registered VH @-@ ANA and the flagship of the Australian National Airways fleet . It flew for the first time on 28 January 1946 and was flown to Australia on 9 February 1946 .
The Amana departed from Perth Airport at 9 : 55 pm for the 8 @-@ hour flight to Adelaide . On board were 24 passengers , 3 pilots and two air hostesses .
A radio report was received from the Amana at 10 : 00 pm advising it was on course and climbing to 9 @,@ 000 feet . Nothing more was heard from the aircraft . As it flew east over the outer suburbs of Perth numerous people on the ground observed that it was flying unusually low , and heard at least one of its engines running roughly and backfiring repeatedly . Amana crashed at about 10 : 13 pm .
= = Crash = =
A number of residents on farming properties to the west of York heard a large aircraft flying low over the area . The aircraft seemed to be in trouble because the noise from the engines was changing significantly . At times the engines seemed to be operating normally but on at least one occasion all engine noise ceased for a brief time and then returned as a very loud , high @-@ pitched noise . One resident reported that when all engine noise ceased he could hear a rushing sound until the scream from the engines returned . Several residents reported seeing a bright flash of white light in the distance , followed by a loud crashing and scraping noise . Those closest to the crash could then see the yellow glow of a major fire .
Ten minutes after the Amana set course for Adelaide , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 operated by Trans Australia Airlines became airborne at Perth , also heading for Adelaide . As the TAA aircraft set course for Adelaide , the captain , Douglas MacDonald , saw a vivid white flash on the horizon in precisely the direction in which he was heading . It lasted about six seconds , long enough for him to draw it to the attention of the two other crew members . Eight minutes later
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, the TAA aircraft passed over a band of fire on the ground . MacDonald estimated the fire was 28 nautical miles ( 52 km ) east of Perth Airport . As MacDonald approached Cunderdin , he was aware the Amana , flying about ten minutes ahead of him , had not yet radioed its position report at Cunderdin . He became concerned that the vivid white flash and the ground fire might indicate some tragedy had befallen the Amana so he advised Air Traffic Control about his observations . Air Traffic Control was also concerned about the Amana 's failure to report at Cunderdin so on hearing MacDonald 's observations of the vivid white flash and the ground fire they activated emergency procedures . They asked MacDonald to fly back to the fire and determine its position . MacDonald did so and advised Air Traffic Control of bearings from the fire to York and Northam , the towns nearest the crash site .
= = Search and rescue = =
Frank McNamara ( 62 ) , an apiarist , and Geoff Inkpen ( 25 ) , a young farmer , heard the sound of a big aircraft in serious trouble , flying low nearby . McNamara described the noise from the engines as " terrifying " . They investigated and saw the bright light of a flash fire . McNamara sent his two teenage sons in his utility truck to York to alert the police . McNamara and Inkpen then set out on foot in the direction of the fire . As there was bright moonlight , they were able to hurry through the bush . After about half an hour , they came upon a scene of devastation . They were astonished to find an elderly man in a dazed state wandering around the burning wreckage . He gave his name and explained that he had been a passenger on a large aircraft . He had survived the crash despite being badly burned . No one else was found alive .
In response to notification from Air Traffic Control , three ambulances from Perth were despatched in the direction of the crash site , known to be somewhere between Chidlow and York . The crash site was several miles from the road so the ambulance crews travelled eastwards all the way to York without sighting a fire . The crews were eventually guided back along the main road and then along a dirt road that enabled them to drive to within three or four miles of the crash site . The crews then took their first @-@ aid boxes and set out on foot .
Frank McNamara made a bed of leaves for the survivor and built a fire to help keep him as warm and comfortable as possible . McNamara stayed with the survivor while Inkpen went to summon help . After several hours , ambulance crews arrived and administered first @-@ aid and morphia . Rescue workers constructed a stretcher using saplings , bandages and overcoats . They covered the survivor with an overcoat and carried him for two hours to cover about two miles through thickly wooded country to McNamara 's utility truck , which then carried him and his rescuers to a waiting ambulance .
Frank McNamara and Geoff Inkpen were publicly thanked by the Minister for Civil Aviation for the great assistance they rendered to the rescue effort throughout the night . In a public letter to Frank McNamara , the minister acknowledged the unrelenting effort of McNamara and his sons under extremely difficult conditions . He also acknowledged McNamara 's care of the survivor and regretted that McNamara was not rewarded by seeing the survivor recover . In a public letter to Geoff Inkpen , the Minister expressed his deep appreciation for Inkpen 's actions on the night of the crash . During World War II , Inkpen had served in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a navigator and the minister acknowledged that , in peacetime , Inkpen had continued to uphold " the fine traditions " of the RAAF .
= = Fate of those onboard = =
The survivor was Edgar Forwood , 67 @-@ year @-@ old Managing @-@ Director of Forwood Down and Company Ltd . , a South Australian engineering company . He was the oldest person on board the flight , and probably the most experienced air traveller . He was interviewed by police in hospital in Perth , but was not aware of much detail about the final minutes of the flight . He said there was no sign of fire prior to the crash and no announcement to passengers to fasten their seat belts . He died six days after the crash and was buried at the North Road cemetery in Adelaide , his home town .
Investigators believed the aircraft captain survived for a short time after the crash . His body was a short distance away from his seat and both were a few metres ahead of the wreckage where they had been thrown after the nose of the aircraft was split open in the impact with a large tree . The seat belt had not broken , but it had been undone . The captain 's tunic was pulled up over his head as though to protect his face from the heat of the nearby inferno . Investigators believed he survived the crash and undid his seat belt to drag himself away from the fire . His body was not burnt , but autopsy showed both his legs were broken and he died from a fractured skull .
Postmortem examinations were performed on the 28 victims of the crash . The two co @-@ pilots died from multiple injuries . Twenty @-@ three passengers and the two air hostesses were found to have died from multiple injuries and burns , or incineration . Only 12 of the 28 victims could be formally identified . The remaining 16 victims were either unrecognisable or identifiable and were buried in a mass grave at Perth 's Karrakatta cemetery .
= = Passengers = =
On its fatal flight the Amana was carrying 24 passengers , including 2 infants . All except Edgar Forwood died in the crash or the ensuing inferno . Passengers included :
Five Polish immigrants ( including an infant ) , previously of the Northam Migration Camp , travelling to Adelaide .
The Anglican Bishop of the Riverina , Bishop Charles Murray .
The Anglican Dean of Newcastle , the Very Reverend Norman Blow .
Victor Anquetil , an executive of Charles Read Limited in Melbourne .
Stan Baker , an employee of Ampol Petroleum Company . In 1931 Mr Baker was booked to fly on the fatal flight of the Southern Cloud but finally travelled by train instead .
Kenneth Douglas , the managing director of Winterbottom Motor Company .
Douglas Engler , secretary of the Pioneer Bus Company .
Vincent Finnigan , a world authority on diesel @-@ electric locomotives and electric traction .
Six other male passengers , four other female passengers and an infant .
= = Investigation = =
Three investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation began work at the crash scene the day after the accident . They found the Amana had crashed in a heavily timbered area on the Inkpen family property Berry Brow , on the easterly track between Perth airport and Kalgoorlie , at a point where the elevation was about 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) above sea level . The aircraft struck the tops of tall gum trees while descending at an angle of about 15 ° below horizontal . Its speed at impact was estimated at 250 miles per hour ( 400 km / h ) . It crashed through large trees , breaking them off as if they were matchsticks , before impacting the ground violently and gouging a long , wide furrow . The left wing was torn away from the fuselage and then the aircraft broke up and burst into flames . Only the rear fuselage with the fin and rudder were not affected by fire . The wreckage trail was about 280 yards ( 260 m ) long and 35 yards ( 32 m ) wide . At the time of impact the Amana 's left wing was lower than its right , suggesting it may have been turning left . It was heading north , not east towards Cunderdin . Investigators speculated that the crew may have been turning with the intention of returning to Perth airport ; or they may have been preparing for a crash @-@ landing in a large clear area to the north of the crash site .
Possibly as a result of rough @-@ running of one or more of its engines , the Amana was observed flying over Perth 's outer @-@ eastern suburbs at an unusually low altitude . No witness report was received from anyone along the next 16 nautical miles ( 30 km ) of the Amana 's track from Perth 's outer suburbs to within 5 nautical miles ( 9 km ) of the crash site . In the minute before it crashed , eight witnesses heard a large aeroplane in distress and reported unusual engine noise , including engine noise ceasing on at least one occasion , followed by the sudden return of very loud engine noise . This suggested that , on at least one occasion , none of the engines were producing power , followed by a resumption of power on some of the engines . The investigation team concluded that the Amana failed to reach its assigned altitude of 9 @,@ 000 feet , and that it experienced intermittent engine problems of such severity that all engine power was lost on at least one occasion . Without power and with only one of its propellers feathered , a Douglas DC @-@ 4 loses altitude at a great rate , possibly as fast as 100 feet per second ( 6 @,@ 000 feet per minute ) .
Engines and propellers numbers 1 to 3 suffered substantial damage in the crash , but engine and propeller number 4 suffered much less damage . The investigators determined that at the time of impact , propellers 1 , 2 and 3 were turning normally and their engines were producing power but propeller number 4 was feathered and its engine was not operating . There was also some evidence that action was taken by the crew to unfeather propeller number 4 in the moments before impact . None of the engines contained evidence of any internal failure prior to impact . All the magnetos were tested and the results indicated normal ignition was available to all engines up to the time of impact .
Engine number 4 suffered only minor , external damage . It was dismantled by the investigation team in an attempt to determine why it might have been shut down by the crew . A substantial amount of corrosion product was found in the passages of the fuel flow meter on engine number 4 . Western Australia 's Deputy Mineralogist identified the corrosion product as magnesium hydroxide . This is a corrosion product formed by reaction of magnesium and water , suggesting the fuel passages had been filled with water in the months between the crash and the detailed examination of the engine . Charles Gibbs , an engine specialist employed by the Department of Civil Aviation , estimated at least 45 cubic centimetres of water must have been involved . Rain falling on the crash site before engine number 4 was removed could not account for this much water in the fuel passages . Gibbs first examined the fuel system of engine number 4 and discovered the corrosion about two months after the accident . He conducted a test on an identical flow meter and found that after he left water in the fuel flow passages for approximately 8 weeks a similar amount of corrosion product developed . This suggested the rough running heard by witnesses on the ground may have been caused by water in the fuel reaching engine number 4 . The steel rotor in the fuel pump of engine number 1 was slightly corroded but the fuel systems of engines 2 and 3 showed no evidence of corrosion . Investigators formed the opinion that the rough running heard by witnesses on the ground , and the crew 's decision to shut down engine number 4 and feather its propeller , may have been related to water in the fuel reaching that engine . Similarly , the intermittent loss of power on all engines in the final minutes of the flight may indicate that all engines were receiving fuel contaminated with water .
The only abnormality found in all four engines was the vapour vent float in the fuel strainer chamber of the carburettors . The floats had been crushed by extreme fuel pressure . Inquiries were made to the engine manufacturer and other civil aviation authorities but none had prior experience of vapour vent floats collapsing . Tests on carburettors were also carried out in Australia by the Aeronautical Research Laboratories but without finding any suitable explanation . Whether the floats were crushed in flight or in the crash could not be determined , but even if it had occurred in flight it would not have affected operation of the engines .
The earliest reports from the crash site speculated that the Amana was already on fire when it struck the tops of trees because those trees , and pieces of the aircraft 's left wing torn off in the impact with them , showed signs of scorching . Several eyewitnesses reported seeing flames in the sky before the aircraft struck the ground . Department of Civil Aviation investigators discounted this speculation because only one of the Amana 's push @-@ button engine fire extinguishers had activated and this had most likely occurred during the crash or the fire .
Australian National Airways ( ANA ) ground staff in Sydney checked the Amana 's fuel tanks for the presence of water prior to its first departure on 26 June . They found none . The Amana was subsequently re @-@ fuelled in Melbourne and Adelaide but no check of the fuel tanks was made on these occasions . After being re @-@ fuelled in Perth immediately prior to the fatal flight , the fuel filters in all 4 engines and the fuel drain serving the cross @-@ feed pipe in the wing centre @-@ section were all checked for the presence of water . The fuel tanks themselves were not checked , partly because , on the night of 26 June , the ground staff were " pressed for time " because one despatch engineer was absent due to illness .
ANA was of the opinion that if a small amount of water entered a fuel tank during refuelling it would only reach the drain cocks when the aircraft was in level flight so it could not be detected immediately after re @-@ fuelling . For 15 years ANA had operated in the knowledge that the only satisfactory time to check fuel tanks for the presence of water was prior to the first flight of the day , after the aircraft had been stationary overnight . Throughout this time ANA checked fuel tanks for the presence of water prior to the first flight of the day .
Prior to its final flight , the Amana received 1 @,@ 756 US gallons ( 6 @,@ 650 L ) of fuel from a tanker operated by the Vacuum Oil Company . The tanker had been checked for the presence of water in the morning and again at 6 : 30 pm , about 2 hours prior to re @-@ fuelling the Amana . It had also supplied fuel to 3 de Havilland Dove aircraft , none of which suffered any engine problems or were found to have water in the fuel .
The Department of Civil Aviation performed tests on parts of the DC @-@ 4 fuel system . Tests on the engine fuel system showed that when the engine boost pump was operating , a vortex formed in the engine fuel tank . If a small amount of water was present , this vortex held the water in suspension and prevented it from entering the engine . The tests also showed that when the boost pump was turned off , the vortex dissipated and any water would soon find its way into the engine . Investigators believed this might explain why all engines were operating normally during the takeoff but at least one engine began to run roughly around the time the engine boost pumps would be turned off .
= = Inquiry = =
The Minister for Civil Aviation , Thomas White , appointed Justice William Simpson of the ACT Supreme Court to conduct an Air Court of Inquiry into the crash of the Amana . The Inquiry opened in Perth on 7 February 1951 . Justice Simpson was assisted by two assessors – Captain J.W. Bennett , a pilot with British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines ; and Mr D.B. Hudson , an aeronautical engineer with Qantas Empire Airways . The Commonwealth Crown Solicitor was represented by L.D. Seaton and B. Simpson . Australian National Airways was represented by George Pape . The Department of Civil Aviation was represented by Henry Winneke . The Air Pilots ' Association was represented by Francis Burt . The Inquiry sat in Perth for 12 days ; heard evidence from 67 witnesses and concluded on Tuesday 20 February .
Western Australia 's Deputy Mineralogist gave evidence that he had identified magnesium hydroxide , a corrosion product , in fuel passages in one of Amana 's engines . Counsel for the Department of Civil Aviation explained that evidence gathered during investigation of the crash indicated water in some of the fuel on board Amana was responsible for the corrosion products found in engines numbers 1 and 4 ; for the rough running of an engine heard by a number of witnesses ; and for the intermittent failure of all engines , leading to the aircraft descending to ground level . The Inquiry heard evidence from the Department of Civil Aviation 's Acting Chief Inspector of Air Accidents , C.A.J. Lum , a former RAAF Douglas Dakota pilot , who described his personal experience of a flight in 1946 in which all fuel tanks were checked for the presence of water prior to take @-@ off and the flight proceeded normally for 20 minutes until both engines began running roughly . Lum returned to the aerodrome and checked again for water in the tanks , this time finding a significant amount of water . Counsel for the Vacuum Oil Co. explained that it was almost impossible for water to be introduced to an aircraft during refuelling , and vigorously rejected the theory that water in the fuel contributed to the crash .
Counsel for the Commonwealth Crown Solicitor presented evidence that the Amana was on fire before it first struck trees . Counsel for the widow of one of the victims suggested the crash may have been caused by the elevator trim tab jamming in the diving position .
In April 1951 Justice Simpson advised the Minister for Civil Aviation that new evidence had become available . The Minister gave permission for the Inquiry to be re @-@ opened . The Inquiry re @-@ opened in Melbourne on 4 June 1951 . The Department of Civil Aviation had recently completed tests on the DC @-@ 4 fuel system . The tests showed that when an engine boost pump was operating , a vortex in the engine fuel tank prevented water from entering the engine . The tests also showed that when the boost pump was turned off , any water would soon find its way into the engine . The Department of Civil Aviation believed this might explain why all engines were operating normally during the takeoff but at least one engine began to run roughly around the time the engine boost pumps would be turned off . However , Justice Simpson stated that the re @-@ opened Inquiry served only to confirm his view that the Amana 's loss of power was not due to water in the fuel .
Justice Simpson 's report was tabled in the House of Representatives on 28 June 1951 by the new Minister for Civil Aviation , Larry Anthony . The Inquiry found that the Amana suffered total loss of engine power on at least one occasion , followed by rapid loss of height until it struck the ground . However , the evidence did not allow the court to determine the cause of the total loss of engine power . Consequently , the court was unable to determine the cause of the accident . Simpson stated he was satisfied water had not been introduced into the Amana 's fuel system in Sydney , Melbourne , Adelaide or Perth .
The Inquiry uncovered two deviations from the Air Navigation Regulations although it did not consider these deviations contributed to the accident :
ANA was not in the practice of performing a fuel @-@ drain check immediately after each re @-@ fuelling , as required by Air Navigation Orders .
On the fatal flight , 8 @,@ 545 feet of photographic film were carried as cargo . Air Navigation Orders specified that a maximum of 3 @,@ 000 feet of photographic film may be carried .
The Inquiry also uncovered three irregularities in the safety regulation of civil aviation in Australia although none of these irregularities contributed to the accident . Justice Simpson 's report contained recommendations to deal with the irregularities :
fuel companies that supply fuel to aircraft should be required to check every compartment in a tanker wagon for the presence of water each time fuel in the tanker wagon is replenished .
when fuel was being drained from an aircraft 's tanks to check for the presence of impurities , the sample should be collected in a transparent vessel to allow more reliable identification of any water that might be present .
when pilots who regularly fly four @-@ engine aeroplanes perform 6 @-@ monthly checks for renewal of their commercial pilot licences , the check should be carried out in a four @-@ engine aeroplane rather than in a two @-@ engine aeroplane as was the common practice .
During the House of Representatives debate on the report , the Minister , Larry Anthony , stated that he had already asked fuel companies to check their tanker wagons for the presence of water after each replenishment , and the relevant Air Navigation Order would be amended to require fuel to be drained into transparent containers . He stated that his Department did not intend to amend the relevant Air Navigation Order to require pilots of four @-@ engine aeroplanes to perform the periodic checks in a four @-@ engine aeroplane because it considered it was more challenging to fly with one engine inoperative in a two @-@ engine aeroplane than in a four @-@ engine aeroplane .
= = Subsequent speculation about cause of the crash = =
Investigators from the Department of Civil Aviation believed water in some of the fuel tanks of VH @-@ ANA was responsible for rough running of one or more of the engines ; and this ultimately led to intermittent failure of all the engines . The Inquiry led by Mr Justice Simpson found no evidence that there was significant water in the fuel tanks . No radio call was received from Amana to indicate the nature of any problem , or even that the crew was aware of a problem . The Inquiry concluded without determining the cause of the crash .
In the weeks and months after conclusion of the Inquiry one possible explanation of the crash began to circulate among employees of ANA . This possibility began with one piece of evidence uncovered by the Inquiry during cross @-@ examination of ANA 's ground staff . It was reported that after sunrise the morning after the crash the one @-@ gallon container used to check Amana 's fuel filters was found empty and lying on its side on the apron a short distance from where Amana had been parked . The Inquiry attached no significance to this evidence and did not explore it further .
Employees of ANA believed the container had last been used to drain fuel from the cross @-@ feed drain cock , the fuel cock that serves the pipe in the wing centre @-@ section for cross @-@ feeding of fuel from tanks in one wing to engines in the other wing . Moments after this procedure commenced , the staff member was advised of a telephone call from his wife and he went to answer the telephone . With the cross @-@ feed selector valves closed , little fuel ran out when the drain cock was opened . Some employees believed that because no fuel was running out neither the staff member nor anyone else noticed the drain cock was still open . Due either to the wind or the slipstream from Amana 's propellers as it began to taxi prior to take @-@ off , the almost @-@ empty container was blown over and rolled some distance along the apron where it was found the next morning .
Some employees of ANA speculated that approximately ten minutes after take @-@ off the crew of Amana were aware of the seriousness of rough running on number 4 engine so decided to shut it down . Company procedures specified that if an operational problem occurred prior to reaching Kalgoorlie , 290 nautical miles ( 540 km ) east of Perth , the aircraft was to return to Perth ; but if a problem occurred after reaching Kalgoorlie the flight could continue to Adelaide . The Douglas DC @-@ 4 was capable of flying from Perth to Adelaide with one engine inoperative . The crew of Amana on the fatal flight might have decided to wait until past Kalgoorlie before making a radio call to report one engine had been shut down , and then continue to Adelaide . To manage fuel usage and balance the weight of fuel across the wing , the crew might have selected some of the operating engines to draw fuel from number 4 tank . The DC @-@ 4 had a complex fuel selection system and , either deliberately or inadvertently , all operating engines might have been connected to number 4 tank . If the drain cock in the cross @-@ feed pipe was still open to the atmosphere , air would be drawn into the pipe , causing an interruption of fuel supply to the engines , all engines to stop operating and their propellers to move to fine pitch . When the crew realised engines 1 , 2 and 3 had all suddenly failed and that cross @-@ feeding of fuel was the source of the problem they would have changed the fuel selections and restored fuel to the engines , causing the sudden screaming noise heard by witnesses as the engines burst back into life with their propellers in fine pitch . Amana had been flying at lower altitude than usual so there was inadequate height for the crew to arrest the high rate of descent before the aircraft struck high ground on the Inkpen family property . ( At the Air Court of Inquiry , George Pape , representing ANA , described as " fantastic " any suggestion that the crew of the Amana would be cross @-@ feeding fuel from one wing to the engines on the other wing at such an early stage of the flight . )
The Flight Superintendent and the Technical Superintendent of ANA simulated some of these events during a test flight in another DC @-@ 4 . They were satisfied that the time intervals between events were compatible with the likely sequence of events leading to the crash of the Amana , and that it was a plausible explanation of the accident . However , on legal advice this possible explanation of the crash was not made public . Two accidents involving Douglas DC @-@ 4s , one approaching Dublin Airport , Ireland , in 1961 and another approaching Stockport Airport , Manchester , United Kingdom , in 1967 were attributed to interruption of fuel supply when engines were supplied from the cross @-@ feed system which was open to an empty fuel tank , allowing air to be drawn into the cross @-@ feed pipe .
= = Memorials = =
After the accident , souvenir hunters proved to be such a problem that the owners of Berry Brow kept all gates locked . Geoff Inkpen stated that after completion of an Inquiry a bulldozer would be used to dig a ditch at the crash site and what remained of the Amana would be buried .
A small memorial to the loss of the Amana , its passengers and crew , has been created in the aeronautical museum in the town of Beverley , 29 miles ( 47 km ) south @-@ east of the crash site . The memorial includes the nose undercarriage from the Amana . A memorial plaque was erected in the main street of Beverley on 26 June 2001 , the fifty @-@ first anniversary of the crash .
= = Aftermath = =
Australian National Airways ( ANA ) never recovered from the crash of the Amana . Since the beginning of 1945 , 77 people had been killed in accidents in aircraft operated by ANA . In late 1948 , ANA suffered 4 crashes in 4 months . The loss of ANA 's reputation as a safe airline , together with the unblemished safety record and growing commercial success of its rival Trans Australia Airlines , sent ANA into decline . In 1957 ANA was taken over by Ansett Transport Industries Limited and merged with Ansett Airways to form the domestic airline Ansett @-@ ANA .
= Burnside Fountain =
The Burnside Fountain is a non @-@ functioning drinking fountain at the southeast corner of Worcester Common in Worcester , Massachusetts . It consists of two parts , a pink granite basin , and a bronze statue of a young boy riding a sea turtle . The basin was designed by architect Henry Bacon , who later designed the Lincoln Memorial in Washington , D.C. , and the figure was created by sculptor Charles Y. Harvey . Harvey committed suicide before finishing the sculpture , and Sherry Fry completed the bronze . The Burnside Fountain was commissioned in 1905 by the city of Worcester after Harriet F. Burnside bequeathed US $ 5 @,@ 000 to create a fountain to provide fresh water for people , horses and dogs , in the memory of her father , a prominent lawyer . The fountain was installed in 1912 in Central Square , then moved in 1969 to its current location on Worcester Common . In 1970 the statue was stolen , and was re @-@ installed two years later . An attempted theft occurred in 2004 .
The bronze is officially named Boy with a Turtle but is known to locals as Turtle Boy . Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester , much in the same way the Manneken Pis is for Brussels . The Burnside Fountain 's popularity is derived mostly from viewers ' incorrect interpretation of the statue . Over its 100 @-@ year existence , it has been referenced in stories and songs , as well as having a music contest and a microbrew named after it .
= = Description = =
The Burnside Fountain is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall , and consists of two parts , the basin and the sculpture . The pink granite basin is rectangular and has four large bowls , two on either end , carved into its top . These bowls were originally designed as water troughs for horses , and a smaller , lower , bowl located on the rear of the fountain was designed for dogs .
The bronze sculpture sits on a circular base in the middle of the basin . The sculpture is officially known as Boy with a Turtle , as its figure is of a young boy , in the nude , riding a sea turtle . In 1986 the Worcester municipal parks and recreation department described the statue with the sentence , " The boy holding the turtle , his hair flying , a sly smile on his face , is charming and disarming . "
= = Background = =
Samuel Burnside was a prominent lawyer in Worcester who studied law at Dartmouth College in the early 1800s . Burnside had three daughters , Sophia , Harriet , and Elizabeth , who went on to be called by Frederick Clifton Pierce " the most notable figures in the life of Worcester . " The notability of the three daughters was due in part to the prestige and wealth Samuel Burnside had accrued as Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas . Both before and after Samuel Burnside 's death on July 25 , 1850 , his three daughters were known for charitable works , having donated public gardens and a library to the city of Worcester . One daughter 's most well @-@ known donation to the city came in the form of a bequest in her will . In 1904 , Harriet Burnside died and left $ 5 @,@ 000 in her will to the city of Worcester to build a fountain as a memorial to her father .
= = History = =
When Burnside bequeathed the money for the fountain , she asked that it be designed for use as a drinking trough for horses and also for dogs . The commission was originally intended for Daniel Chester French , but , according to a paper by Zelotes W. Coombs , French turned down the commission due to " pressure of other engagements , however ... he did supervise the work . " French assigned the design of the basin to Henry Bacon , who would later work with French on the Lincoln Memorial . The sculpture was assigned to Charles Y. Harvey , a graduate of the American Academy in Rome , who had worked with Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens on the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial in Boston
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1890 to the K1 class .
= = Operational assessment and preservation = =
For location details and current status of the preserved ( rebuilt ) locomotive , see : List of K and K1 class locomotives .
Sir Nigel Gresley 's independent report on the K and K1 classes during the mainline stability trials stated that they were well designed , mechanically reliable and capable of hauling expresses at high speeds on well @-@ maintained track , which meant that they could have been useful additions to the Southern Railway 's suburban commuter fleet . However , they were undoubtedly prone to rough riding and instability , and not only on the poorest quality tracks . The restricted water capacity also limited their use outside the Southern Railway 's Central section . The impending electrification of the Brighton Main Line , scheduled for 1932 also meant that fewer duties suitable for heavy passenger tank locomotives would be available in the 1930s . The lack of a suitable role for both classes was considered when the decision was made to rebuild them as U / U1 tender engines following the Sevenoaks disaster . In rebuilt form they continued to operate until the 1960s , and were capable of attaining speeds in excess of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) with a greater degree of stability .
One K class rebuild has survived : No . A806 River Torridge – converted to U class No. 1806 – was rescued from Woodham Brothers scrap yard in Barry , Vale of Glamorgan , South Wales in October 1976 for use on the Watercress Line . It was restored to ex @-@ British Railways condition as No. 31806 . In August 2014 , the locomotive entered service with the Swanage Railway .
= Golden Age of Trucking Museum =
The Golden Age of Trucking Museum is a defunct trucking museum in Middlebury , Connecticut , United States . Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera , it was non @-@ profit organization dedicated to trucking that focused on trucks of the 1950s . The museum was dedicated on September 23 , 2002 and housed in a 32 @,@ 000 square foot building . It featured a collection of historic and antique vehicles including the first registered car in Connecticut , a 1928 Pierce @-@ Arrow Motor Car Company dump truck . Among the trucks in the museum were Mack Trucks , GMC and Autocar Company trucks , including a 1963 Mack B61 motivated Guerrera to found the museum . The Golden Age of Trucking Museum also featured a collection of toy trucks , hats , state license plates and images relating to trucking . Throughout its entire operation , the museum ran a deficit and it closed after a 2009 fund raising campaign failed . The museum 's final day of operation was on July 20 , 2010 . The economic impact of the museums closure was expected to be low , but according to Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe. the Golden Age of Trucking Museum made its mark on the auto world .
= = History = =
Founded in 1998 by Richard and Frances Guerrera , the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to trucking . The Guerreras owned and operated R.J. Guerrera , a liquid transportation trucking company . Originally , a collection of trucks were restored and stored in barns and garages throughout Connecticut . The Golden Age of Trucking Museum was opened to bring the collection under a single roof . After the property for the museum was purchased in July 1998 , Richard Guerrera was diagnosed with cancer . In June 1999 , he was transported to the site for an unofficial groundbreaking event . Richard Guerrera died a month later and the facility was completed in 2002 . The museum was designed by Francis Guerrera 's son @-@ in @-@ law , a general contractor . On September 23 , 2002 , the museum was formally opened with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony in the complete 32 @,@ 000 square foot building .
The museum never was able to sustain itself through its visitors and it ran a deficit throughout its entire operation ; the museums operating costs that were covered by Frances Guerrera . In 2009 , a $ 100 @,@ 000 funding raising campaign was undertaken , but it only resulted in a total of $ 20 @,@ 000 being raised prior to July 2010 . On July 6 , 2010 , the board of directors came to the conclusion to close the museum . The museum 's final day was on July 20 , 2010 and also featured a gathering of antique cars in a " Cruise Night " event .
= = Collection = =
The Golden Age of Trucking Museum featured a collection of historic trucks , cars and other items related to the trucking operation , with a special focus on trucking in the 1950s . Many of the historic vehicles on display were noted for their rarity or otherwise unique quality . These include the first registered car in Connecticut , a 1902 Merry Oldsmobile , and a 1928 Pierce @-@ Arrow Motor Car Company five @-@ to @-@ seven ton dump truck , one of only 55 Pierce @-@ Arrow trucks produced . The displays included a 1916 Mack Paddy Wagon , a 1929 Diamond T truck , a 1931 Ford Model AA Service Car , a 1936 Ford Roadster Deluxe and a Model T Ford Tank Truck . A 1953 Fageol moving van with original owner 's banner was located near some surreys and carriages . Other early period vehicles on display included a 1912 Autocar two @-@ cylinder transit bus , a 1914 Trumbull , a 1915 Barker , and a 1917 Republic Model 10 1 @-@ ton express and a 1920 3 ½ ton Model AC Mack .
Trucks of the 1930s and 1940s included a 1937 Ford tow truck , a 1940 Dodge VK , a 1940 Mack FN , a 1941 Federal Model 25K and a 1942 Dodge WC @-@ 21 . The 1950s ' vehicles were represented by a 1952 Diamond T 950RSa , 1955 IH DFC405 and a 1955 GMC Model 860 . Later vehicles included two Autocar Company trucks , a 1962 DC75T and a 1974 DC9364 10 @-@ wheel dump truck . The 1963 Mack B61 was of special importance to the founder Richard Guerrera who acquired the truck with the purchase of a local company , Oil Transport . Guerrera sold the truck and reacquired the same vehicle in 1985 to restore it . This Mack B61 was described as the " impetus " for the museum . Also on display was a 1996 Volvo prototype truck cab .
Other items on display included " Bumpers " , a dog sculpture made of Mack Truck bumpers and a collection of toy trucks , hats , state license plates and images relating to trucking . The museum also included an exhibit featuring kerosene lamps . According to Stephen Wood , the kerosene lamps might have come from the defunct Kerosene Lamp Museum . Also on display was Stephen Guman 's Guinness World Record breaking Popsicle stick structure , made of 396 @,@ 000 sticks .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its operation , the Golden Age of Trucking Museum was one of two trucking museums in Connecticut . Steven Frischling of the Boston Globe wrote , " It may seem strange that two trucking museums would be located in the same state , but [ t ] he Haul of Fame truck museum and [ t ] he Golden Age of Trucking Museum make their individual marks on the auto world . " The economic impact of the museum 's closure was not expected to be large according to John Cookson , co @-@ chairman of Economic and Industrial Development Commission . Janet Serra , the director for the Western Connecticut Convention and Visitor 's Bureau , said the effect of closure would not be immediate , but noted it could impact tourism and area hotels .
= SAS ( software ) =
SAS ( Statistical Analysis System ) is a software suite developed by SAS Institute for advanced analytics , multivariate analyses , business intelligence , data management , and predictive analytics .
SAS was developed at North Carolina State University from 1966 until 1976 , when SAS Institute was incorporated . SAS was further developed in the 1980s and 1990s with the addition of new statistical procedures , additional components and the introduction of JMP . A point @-@ and @-@ click interface was added in version 9 in 2004 . A social media analytics product was added in 2010 .
= = Technical overview and terminology = =
SAS is a software suite that can mine , alter , manage and retrieve data from a variety of sources and perform statistical analysis on it . SAS provides a graphical point @-@ and @-@ click user interface for non @-@ technical users and more advanced options through the SAS programming language . In order to use Statistical Analysis System , Data should be in an Excel table format or SAS format . SAS programs have a DATA step , which retrieves and manipulates data , usually creating a SAS data set , and a PROC step , which analyzes the data .
Each step consists of a series of statements . The DATA step has executable statements that result in the software taking an action , and declarative statements that provide instructions to read a data set or alter the data 's appearance . The DATA step has two phases , compilation and execution . In the compilation phase , declarative statements are processed and syntax errors are identified . Afterwards , the execution phase processes each executable statement sequentially . Data sets are organized into tables with rows called " observations " and columns called " variables " . Additionally , each piece of data has a descriptor and a value .
The PROC step consists of PROC statements that call upon named procedures . Procedures perform analysis and reporting on data sets to produce statistics , analyses and graphics . There are more than 300 procedures and each one contains a substantial body of programming and statistical work . PROC statements can also display results , sort data or perform other operations . SAS Macros are pieces of code or variables that are coded once and referenced to perform repetitive tasks .
SAS data can be published in HTML , PDF , Excel and other formats using the Output Delivery System , which was first introduced in 2007 . The SAS Enterprise Guide is SAS ' point @-@ and @-@ click interface . It generates code to manipulate data or perform analysis automatically and does not require SAS programming experience to use .
The SAS software suite has more than 200 components Some of the SAS components include :
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The development of SAS began in 1966 after North Carolina State University re @-@ hired Anthony Barr to program his analysis of variance and regression software so that it would run on IBM System / 360 computers . The project was funded by the National Institute of Health and was originally intended to analyze agricultural data to improve crop yields . Barr was joined by student James Goodnight , who developed the software 's statistical routines , and the two became project @-@ leaders . In 1968 , Barr and Goodnight integrated new multiple regression and analysis of variance routines . In 1972 , after issuing the first release of SAS , the project lost its funding . According to Goodnight , this was because NIH only wanted to fund projects with medical applications . Goodnight continued teaching at the university for a salary of $ 1 and access to mainframe computers for use with the project , until it was funded by the University Statisticians of the Southern Experiment Stations the following year . John Sall joined the project in 1973 and contributed to the software 's econometrics , time series , and matrix algebra . Another early participant , Caroll G. Perkins , contributed to SAS ' early programming . Jolayne W. Service and Jane T. Helwig created SAS ' first documentation .
The first versions of SAS were named after the year in which they were released . In 1971 , SAS 71 was published as a limited release . It was used only on IBM mainframes and had the main elements of SAS programming , such as the DATA step and the most common procedures in the PROC step . The following year a full version was released as SAS 72 , which introduced the MERGE statement and added features for handling missing data or combining data sets . In 1976 , Barr , Goodnight , Sall , and Helwig removed the project from North Carolina State and incorporated it into SAS Institute , Inc .
= = = Development = = =
SAS was re @-@ designed in SAS 76 with an open architecture that allowed for compilers and procedures . The INPUT and INFILE statements were improved so they could read most data formats used by IBM mainframes . Generating reports was also added through the PUT and FILE statements . The ability to analyze general linear models was also added as was the FORMAT procedure , which allowed developers to customize the appearance of data . In 1979 , SAS 79 added support for the CMS operating system and introduced the DATASETS procedure . Three years later , SAS 82 introduced an early macro language and the APPEND procedure .
SAS version 4 had limited features , but made SAS more accessible . Version 5 introduced a complete macro language , array subscripts , and a full @-@ screen interactive user interface called Display Manager . In 1985 , SAS was rewritten in the C programming language . This allowed for the SAS ' Multivendor Architecture that allows the software to run on UNIX , MS @-@ DOS , and Windows . It was previously written in PL / I , Fortran , and assembly language .
In the 1980s and 1990s , SAS released a number of components to complement Base SAS . SAS / GRAPH , which produces graphics , was released in 1980 , as well as the SAS / ETS component , which supports econometric and time series analysis . A component intended for pharmaceutical users , SAS / PH @-@ Clinical , was released in the 1990s . The Food and Drug Administration standardized on SAS / PH @-@ Clinical for new drug applications in 2002 . Vertical products like SAS Financial Management and SAS Human Capital Management ( then called CFO Vision and HR Vision respectively ) were also introduced . JMP was developed by SAS co @-@ founder John Sall and a team of developers to take advantage of the graphical user interface introduced in the 1984 Apple Macintosh and shipped for the first time in 1989 . Updated versions of JMP were released continuously after 2002 with the most recent release being from 2012 .
SAS version 6 was used throughout the 1990s and was available on a wider range of operating systems , including Macintosh , OS / 2 , Silicon Graphics , and Primos . SAS introduced new features through dot @-@ releases . From 6 @.@ 06 to 6 @.@ 09 , a user interface based on the windows paradigm was introduced and support for SQL was added . Version 7 introduced the Output Delivery System ( ODS ) and an improved text editor . ODS was improved upon in successive releases . For example , more output options were added in version 8 . The number of operating systems that were supported was reduced to UNIX , Windows and z / OS , and Linux was added . SAS version 8 and SAS Enterprise Miner were released in 1999 .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 2002 , the Text Miner software was introduced . Text Miner analyzes text data like emails for patterns in Business Intelligence applications . In 2004 , SAS Version 9 @.@ 0 was released , which was dubbed " Project Mercury " and was designed to make SAS accessible to a broader range of business users . Version 9 @.@ 0 added custom user interfaces based on the user 's role and established the point @-@ and @-@ click user interface of SAS Enterprise Guide as the software 's primary graphical user interface ( GUI ) . The Customer Relationship Management ( CRM ) features were improved in 2004 with SAS Interaction Management . In 2008 SAS announced Project Unity , designed to integrate data quality , data integration and master data management .
SAS sued World Programming , the developers of a competing implementation , World Programming System , alleging
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rulers and found settlements .
In 1896 , Major Deare led one such expedition north from the main seat of Company administration , Fort Salisbury , to meet with the Ngoni chief Mpezeni , who ruled to the east of Harrison Clark . One day , to Deare 's surprise , a small group of warriors approached his party from the west , carrying a letter . This message , written in English and signed " Changa @-@ Changa , Chief of the Mashukulumbwe " — the name John Harrison Clark was given in the body of the letter — said that its author had heard of a white man being entertained recently by Mpezeni , and wished to provide the same hospitality at Algoa . " Really , wonders never cease ! " Deare recalled . " I had heard of this man on the Zambezi and had known him well many years ago in the Cape Colony ... We had both lived in the same town for years . I learnt his story later . " It is unclear whether Deare took up Clark 's invitation to Algoa .
Harrison Clark subsequently sought protection from the British South Africa Company . He negotiated concessions with two neighbouring chiefs , Chintanda and Chapugira , each of whom signed over the mining and labour rights for his respective territory in return for a specified fee whenever Clark wished to use them . In August 1897 , Clark wrote to the Company administrator in Salisbury , Earl Grey , requesting that the Company honour these holdings , enclosing copies of the concessions he had secured . Also providing a cursory description of gold mining prospects in the region , Clark criticised the actions of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Robert Warton , who was in the vicinity representing the North Charterland Exploration Company , a BSAC subsidiary . " Mashukulumbwe can be occupied without fighting , " he wrote . " I am on friendly terms with all the natives , and , if necessary , can raise a force of three to seven thousand to operate on Mfisini [ Mpezeni ] or Mashukulumbwe . Colonel Warton 's Administration of this country has been a mistake ; the country is rich in alluvial and reef gold . " The Company took little notice of Clark , but he continued in the same vein , acquiring similar concessions from the chiefs Chetentaunga , Luvimbie , Sinkermeronga and Mubruma over the following two years .
Clark wrote to the Company again on 12 April 1899 , once more attaching copies of his concessions , with an offer to supply the BSAC settlements in Southern Rhodesia with contract labourers taken from among his neighbouring chiefs ' populations . He said he had permission from all of the chiefs involved to do so . He requested as his fee £ 1 per man , and said that he had agreed a monthly wage of 10 shillings for each worker plus food , accommodation and fuel . Having split his concessions into two sections to draw labour from , Clark proposed to provide Salisbury with workers from his eastern concessions , and Bulawayo with those from the west . The chiefs had agreed to provide workers on contracts lasting six months , but Clark wrote that he could attempt to supply labour all year round if the Company wished .
= = Decline and fall = =
On 14 April 1899 , Chief Chintanda gave a BSAC commissioner at Mazoe , Southern Rhodesia a statement in which , among other things , he asserted that Clark had been claiming to be a Company official and had been collecting tariffs such as hut tax under that pretence for at least two years . Clark 's labour and mining concessions , Chintanda said , had been agreed under the impression that he represented the BSAC . Chintanda furthermore claimed that Clark was a prolific womaniser who had once raped a pregnant woman . " Whenever Clark sees a girl he fancies he takes her as his mistress for a few days , and when tired of her sends her home , " Chintanda said . " The fathers and husbands of these girls are constantly complaining to me about Clark 's actions , but I can do nothing as Clark is a white man , and professed to be representing the government . " The chief asked the Company to send a genuine representative .
Chintanda 's affidavit caused the BSAC to become concerned about Clark 's continued authority in North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia and to begin investigating him more thoroughly . The situation was complicated when , after a month 's perusal , the Company 's lawyers resolved that the courts in Salisbury and Bulawayo held no jurisdiction outside Southern Rhodesia and therefore could not hear any case brought against Clark . On 4 July 1899 , Arthur Lawley , the Company 's administrator in Matabeleland , wrote to Cape Town to report the situation to the resident High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Alfred Milner . Lawley briefly summarised the charges against Clark and requested permission to hold a court north of the Zambezi under the supervision of one of three chiefs friendly to the Company . Milner replied on 17 August that he could not legally sanction this , and that Lawley should pursue the matter further only when authority extended over Clark 's area .
On 24 August 1899 , Sub @-@ Inspector A M Harte @-@ Barry of the British South Africa Police interviewed Chief Mubruma , who corroborated much of what Chintanda had said regarding Clark 's claims to represent the Company . Mubruma said that Clark had visited the previous week and had told him to have his men ready for work south of the river within a month . When told that Clark had no connection with the BSAC , Mubruma said that he would not give Clark the workers , but would readily take part in the kind of scheme he had suggested if the Company wished . He made no comment relevant to Clark 's alleged sexual misconduct .
The BSAC established two forts to the north @-@ west of Algoa in 1900 , then a boma at Feira in 1902 , bringing Mashukulumbwe under Company control . Harrison Clark said that his concessions gave him authority over the area and demanded that the Company pay him for them . The BSAC said Clark 's documents were illegal and refused to deal with him . It offered him compensation , the form of which differs by source ; Brelsford and a man who knew Clark personally during the 1920s , Colonel N O Earl Spurr , say that he was given farms as compensation , while a 1920s business acquaintance , A M Bentley , writes that the Company promised grants of land and the right to reserve some mining claims . Clark reluctantly accepted the compensation when he realised that to challenge the BSAC he would have to travel a great distance , possibly to England , and invest heavily in a court case he could not be sure of winning .
= = Later life and death = =
Clark became a successful farmer , experimenting with the growing of rubber , cotton and other plants previously absent from the area . His cotton plantation developed promisingly for a few years , but he abandoned it after heavy rain destroyed an entire crop around 1909 . He remained on the farm until the late 1910s , when he either gave or sold it to Catholic missionaries , and moved to Broken Hill , one of the largest settlements in what had become Northern Rhodesia in 1911 . Here he lived for the rest of his life . Retaining " Changa @-@ Changa " as a nickname , he helped to develop various businesses and events , acted as a partner in the first licensed brewery in Northern Rhodesia ( alongside Lester Blake @-@ Jolly ) , and became " one of the pillars of society in the Broken Hill of those days " , according to Spurr . He owned one of the first automobiles in Northern Rhodesia — a dark green Ford Model T.
According to Brelsford , the elderly Harrison Clark remained highly respected among the indigenous people and was sometimes called upon to settle disputes . His last job was personnel manager at a local mine . He dedicated his final years to the writing of a book about his life , the manuscript for which was lost when his house burned down . Clark alleged that the BSAC orchestrated the fire to stop him from publishing unflattering information about the early days of Company rule . He died from heart disease in Broken Hill on 9 December 1927 , aged about 67 , and was buried in the Protestant section of the town cemetery . The modest savings he possessed at the time of his death were left to his sister in Port Elizabeth .
According to M D D Newitt , Clark embodied much of the pioneering spirit of the time and was " an object of legend " to his fellow frontiersmen . " He had led a wild , tough life but it had not turned him either into a rascal or into an uncouth bush dweller , " Brelsford writes . " Changa @-@ Changa " endured in the local vernacular as a word roughly meaning " boss " , and was still in use in Zambia in the 1970s . Summarising Clark 's life , Peter Duignan and Lewis Gann conclude that he " experienced in his own person the transition from bush feudalism to capitalism . "
= New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project =
The New York Rescue Workers Detoxification Project was founded in New York City in 2003 with the stated purpose of treating rescue workers for toxins inhaled from the smoke of the September 11 attacks . It has two clinics : Downtown Medical on Fulton Street , two blocks from the site of the World Trade Center , and another at Williston Park , Long Island . The project 's co @-@ founder and top fundraiser is the actor Tom Cruise . It uses the Purification Rundown , a " detoxification " program invented by L. Ron Hubbard as part of Scientology 's Bridge to Total Freedom . This rundown has been criticized by many doctors as pseudoscientific and medically dangerous , although it has produced positive testimonials from some recipients . It was reported in October 2007 that 838 people had completed the program .
The project has been supported by some public officials , and received some public funding , but received criticism for its financial ties to the Church of Scientology , for exposing rescue workers to potential medical dangers , and for discouraging their use of orthodox medicine . Sources in the Fire Department told a reporter that several participants had joined Scientology , even disconnecting from their families .
= = Background = =
= = = Scientologists criticise EPA = = =
Tom Cruise explained his motivation for setting up the project in a Scientology promotional video that leaked onto the internet in January 2008 . The Environmental Protection Agency had stated after the World Trade Center attack that the air was safe to breathe . The video narration contradicted this , saying , " The devastation had spread an unprecedented combination of toxins through the air — and it was lethal . " Cruise is seen dismissing the EPA 's all @-@ clear :
" Of course , as a Scientologist , you go , that 's a lie . Outright lie . Liar . Fine . Finally you say , dammit , just go there and do it . Put it there , let 's go , here 's the money , let 's go . Let 's just get one person treated . I can 't sleep another night . "
In an appearance on CNN 's Larry King Live , Cruise said that he founded the project out of concern that 9 / 11 survivors would suffer leukemia , parkinsonism , multiple sclerosis or cancer as a result of toxins in their fatty tissue . He advocated Hubbard 's " research " as the only way to deal with these problems , claiming , " Doctors do not know how to diagnose chemical exposures [ ... ] You go to a doctor and now he 's going to put you on more and more drugs , steroids and things that are ineffective . "
= = = " Detoxification " in Scientology = = =
The " detoxification " program was created by L. Ron Hubbard , who set out the procedure in Clear Body , Clear Mind , one of the canonical texts of Scientology . Known as the " Purification rundown " or " Purif , " it is promoted through various groups affiliated with the Church of Scientology , including Narconon drug rehabilitation and the Second Chance Program . It claims to flush poisons from the body 's fat stores using exercise , saunas , and high doses of vitamins , particularly niacin . Medical professionals have judged it to be unproven , ineffective and / or potentially dangerous . A report for the Department of Health in California described the mega @-@ doses of vitamins as " hazardous " and " in some cases lethal . " Scientology 's own literature reports dehydration , electrolyte disturbances including hyponatremia ( low sodium level ) and hypokalemia ( low potassium level ) , and heat @-@ related illnesses as being frequent side @-@ effects of the program . Testimonials from some participants credit it with improvements in physical and mental health , but several families blame the Rundown for the death of a relative .
The project 's clients were required to attend this programme three hours each day , for between twenty @-@ one and forty days . This was promoted as a way to treat memory loss , respiration problems , fatigue and other problems suffered by the Ground Zero workers .
= = Finances and organization = =
From 2003 to 2007 , Downtown Medical received US $ 900 @,@ 000 in public funding , including $ 630 @,@ 000 from the City of New York . The project also received private funding , the biggest supporter being Tom Cruise . Other celebrity donors included Paul Newman , Paul McCartney , Adam Sandler , Leah Remini , Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith . By late 2004 , these donations amounted to $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The detoxification program has been offered for free to rescue workers , and also offered to other New York City residents , some of whom paid $ 5 @,@ 000 .
According to tax filings , the project pays on some of its money to two bodies , related to the Church of Scientology , that promote the Purification Rundown . These are the Association for Better Living and Education ( ABLE ) , which receives 5 % of all contributions , and the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education ( FASE ) . The Executive Director of the Church of Scientology was involved in creating the Foundation and later described it as a " front group " . In one year , $ 173 @,@ 300 of Downtown Medical 's income went to Dr. Steven Lager , a Scientologist . As of 2007 , the director of the project was Jim Woodworth , a former drug addict who credits his recovery to the Purification Rundown . He was formerly the executive director of HealthMed , a Sacramento , California group which promotes Hubbard 's approach to detoxification .
= = Endorsements and criticism = =
The project had a mixed response from public officials . Margarita López , a former member of New York City Council , endorsed the program and helped it to win public funding . Subsequently , she received nearly $ 115 @,@ 000 in campaign contributions from Scientologists . Another councillor , Joseph Addabbo , Jr . , also supported the project , telling reporters , " The project seems to work . I 've seen it firsthand . " Mayor Michael Bloomberg spoke out against Addabbo and López for their connections with the program , saying that Scientology is " not science , and we should only fund those programs that reputable scientists believe will stand the light of day . "
Another supportive member of the City Council was Hiram Monserrate . Monserrate went through
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regroup his forces , Sharon suggested that he capture the farm once Adan had cleared the routes to the canal , and Gonen consented . In a later meeting with Dayan and Bar @-@ Lev , Gonen reiterated the latter 's statement that no more forces would cross until the bridges had been laid , and added that , should the situation worsen , the paratroopers could be withdrawn .
The 162nd Division , concentrated south of Tasa , had been standing by to cross the canal since dawn on October 16 . The division advanced towards the canal , but movement was hampered by the massive traffic jams on the roads leading to the canal . When Adan realized that Akavish was closed , he ordered a tank battalion to make a turning maneuver through the desert to reach Deversoir . When it arrived , Sharon contacted Adan , explaining Reshef 's difficult situation , and requested that the battalion be placed under his command . Adan accepted , and Sharon in turn authorized Reshef 's request to pull back and regroup , replacing his brigade with the tank battalion .
After receiving his new orders , Adan moved his division to occupy a series of positions opposite ' Abd el @-@ Hamid 's 16th Brigade . One of Adan 's armored brigades had been placed as a reserve force under Southern Command . ' Abd el @-@ Hamid 's left @-@ flank infantry battalion , blocking Tirtur , repelled Israeli tanks attacking westwards and thwarted Adan 's efforts to clear the road . Adan realized that , without infantry support , breaking through the Egyptian positions would prove costly . However , at 2 : 00 PM , Southern Command notified Adan that he was soon receive the 35th Paratrooper Brigade , which had been transported by helicopters from Ras Sudar on the Gulf of Suez to Refidem 80 kilometers ( 50 mi ) east of the canal . The brigade made its way to the canal in buses and was greatly delayed by the traffic on Akavish road . Adan had expected the unit to arrive well before dusk , but the brigade commander , Colonel Uzi Ya 'iri , only arrived at 10 : 00 PM . The rest of his brigade soon arrived , transported by helicopters after the buses had come to a complete standstill .
= = = Paratrooper effort = = =
Adan met Ya 'iri at Adan 's former command post . Adan briefly explained the situation and , in a short discussion , Ya 'iri laid out his plan . He was tasked with clearing Akavish and Tirtur . At 11 : 30 PM , the paratroopers began moving , with a battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Yitzhak Mordechai spearheading the advance . Ya 'iri , acting with a sense of urgency , had decided to go into action without awaiting sufficient intelligence , or performing adequate reconnaissance on Egyptian defenses . His unit lacked artillery observers and , rather than wait for one to arrive , it was agreed the paratroopers would request fire support of the 162nd Division 's command net . The brigade was acting without armor support .
After some time , Mordechai 's battalion had reached an area where Tirtur and Akavish were closest , the distance between them no wider than 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . At around 2 : 45 AM , they came into contact with Abd el @-@ Hamid 's left @-@ flank battalion , positioned around Tirtur . The battalion directed effective artillery fire against the paratroopers , who were also receiving heavy machine @-@ gun and small @-@ arms fire from entrenched Egyptian infantry . The paratroopers attempted to assault the machine @-@ gun positions , in places advancing to within a few meters of Egyptian lines . The paratrooper companies spread out , but repeatedly failed to reach the defenses . Israeli artillery fire was ineffective . Egyptian infantry were able to suppress the paratroopers ' movement and thwart flanking attempts . Most company and platoon commanders were killed or wounded . Adan ordered Ya 'iri to narrow his brigade 's front and focus on clearing Akavish instead , but the lead paratrooper battalion was under such heavy fire that it was impossible to maneuver .
With dawn nearing , Adan realized that if the pontoon bridge could not be brought to the canal during the few remaining hours of dark , an entire day would pass without a bridge being laid across the canal , and in daylight , the paratroopers would sustain more casualties . He sent a half @-@ track company to reconnoiter Akavish at 3 : 00 . Half an hour later , the company reported it had reached the crossing site without encountering any resistance . The Egyptian battalion fighting the paratroopers had focused all their attention on the Israelis at Tirtur , ignoring activity on Akavish . Adan took a risky decision , sending the irreplaceable pontoons down Akavish to the canal . IDF bulldozers cleared the road of wreckage and debris , and the Israelis reached Fort Lakekan before turning northwards , finally reaching the crossing site . Bridge construction was started immediately by military engineers of the 143rd Division .
At dawn , Ya 'iri requested approval from Adan to withdraw his brigade , the paratroopers having thus far been unsuccessful in reaching Egyptian lines . Gonen denied the request , approving only medevac for the wounded . This was countermanded after Bar @-@ Lev visited Adan at his command post and realized the gravity of the paratroopers ' situation . An armored battalion was tasked with covering the paratroopers , but was unable to locate them . The paratroopers released red smoke to pinpoint their position , but this backfired as the Egyptians also spotted the smoke , directing accurate artillery fire against them and inflicting further casualties . The tanks assaulted the defenses , but suffered losses and fell back . It became evident that withdrawal could not be accomplished in the open ; APCs and half @-@ tracks were brought up to extract the paratroopers and the wounded — all the while under fire . The Israelis finally withdrew under cover of friendly tanks . In 14 hours of almost uninterrupted combat , the paratroopers suffered heavy casualties , with some 40 – 70 killed and 100 wounded . Ya 'iri would state that " We had suffered seventy casualties because we went into action too hastily , without proper intelligence on the enemy 's defenses . " Armored losses sustained during the withdrawal were also heavy .
= = = Egyptian withdrawal = = =
The Israeli armored brigades , principally those of Nir , Amir and Raviv , continued engaging the 16th Brigade after the paratroopers were withdrawn . The Israelis concentrated air and artillery attacks against 21st Division 's units from 5 : 00 AM . The Egyptians estimated there were upwards of 80 Israeli tanks attacking their positions . At around 7 : 00 AM on October 17 , the 21st Division received orders to evict Israeli armor from the vicinity of al @-@ Galaa ' village and capture Fort Matzmed , as part of a larger Egyptian effort to seal the Israeli penetration and destroy the bridgehead on the west bank . Since Oraby had the 18th Mechanized Brigade in defensive positions and stripped of its tank battalion , and the 14th Brigade defending other parts of the Egyptian bridgehead , he tasked the 1st Brigade to execute the attack with its remaining 53 tanks . At 8 : 00 AM , the Egyptians conducted an air and artillery strike on the area for some fifteen minutes , after which the attack commenced . Egyptian tanks managed to destroy Israeli armor near the village and reached the northern strongpoint of Fort Matzmed just after 9 : 00 AM in the face of heavy resistance . However , they were soon repelled by Israeli ground fire supported by air strikes . Israeli tanks then counterattacked and managed to advance significantly . The armored battle continued in a see @-@ saw fashion until 9 : 00 PM , by which time the 1st Brigade had restored its original lines . Meanwhile , an 5 : 00 PM attack by one of the 18th Brigade 's mechanized infantry battalions on al @-@ Galaa ' failed with heavy losses , and ten tanks were then allocated to the brigade . Israeli armor had occupied irrigation ditches around the farm and were entrenched in them , which significantly enhanced their defensive position . Egyptian attacks directed against the Israeli corridor or the bridgehead failed , with heavy losses .
The 1st Brigade had just 33 tanks remaining after losing 20 tanks . This prompted Second Army command to transfer a battalion of 21 tanks on October 18 from the 2nd Infantry Division to the north to reinforce the dwindling tank numbers in 16th Division 's bridgehead . As the battalion moved south , a large number of Israeli aircraft attacked the formation , forcing it to undertake evasive maneuvers , turning eastwards and fanning out in the desert terrain , thereby avoiding losses . The battalion was then attached to the 21st Division .
Abd el @-@ Hamid meanwhile reported the dire situation of his forces at 5 : 30 PM on October 17 . The 16th Brigade had been in heavy combat for three consecutive days – ammunition was becoming scarce , and the brigade was heavily outnumbered and outgunned due to its losses , including the destruction of its artillery units . Abd el @-@ Hamid received orders from 16th Division headquarters to retreat . His brigade abandoned its Chinese Farms positions and reinforced the lines of the 18th Mechanized Brigade to the north during the night of October 17 / 18 . This finally opened the Tirtur and Akavish roads to Israeli forces , ensuring Operation Abiray @-@ Lev would proceed . Missouri remained in Egyptian hands though , posing a threat to the Israeli corridor to the canal .
= = Aftermath = =
At around 4 : 00 PM on October 17 , the pontoon bridge had been fully assembled , opening the first Israeli bridge across the canal . The roller bridge was laid soon after at dawn on October 18 , and by afternoon , Adan 's division crossed to the west bank followed by Kalman Magen 's division . Adan , supported by Magen , would go on to reach Suez after the failure of a United Nations ceasefire , thereby cutting off two infantry divisions of the Egyptian Third Field Army . Sharon also crossed with part of his division , simultaneously trying to defend and expand the Israeli corridor to the Suez Canal — as well attacking northwards on the west bank to Ismailia in an attempt to similarly cut off the Second Army . His efforts bogged down , and he was unable to reach Ismailia ( see Battle of Ismailia ) , while attempts to seize critical positions and expand the Israeli corridor on the east bank saw little to no success .
While ultimately an Israeli victory , the Battle of the Chinese Farm has an especially infamous legacy among Israeli participants , and it is remembered as one of the most brutal battles of the war — and for the heavy losses incurred by both the Egyptians
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and Israelis . After the battle had ended , Dayan visited the area of the battlefield . Reshef , who accompanied him , said , " Look at this valley of death . " The minister , taken aback by the great destruction before him , muttered in an undertone , " What you people have done here ! " Later , Dayan would recount that : " I am no novice at war or battle scenes , but I have never seen such a sight , not in reality , or in paintings , or in the worst war movies . Here was a vast field of slaughter stretching as far as the eye could see . " Sharon would also provide his own poignant account of the aftermath : " It was as if a hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle of armor had taken place ... Coming close you could see the Egyptian and Jewish dead lying side @-@ by @-@ side , soldiers who had jumped from their burning tanks and died together . No picture could capture the horror of the scene , none could encompass what had happened there . "
The losses suffered by both the Egyptians and the Israelis in the battle were severe . Israeli units suffered heavy casualties in men and equipment ; Reshef 's armored losses during the first night of the battle alone were comparable to Egyptian armored losses on the disastrous October 14 offensive . For their part , the numbers of Egyptian armored forces within 16th Division 's bridgehead severely dwindled . As of 18 October the 21st Armored Division had no more than 40 tanks remaining of an original 136 tanks available at the start of the battle ( not counting 21 tanks received as reinforcements ) , while the 16th Infantry Division had just 20 tanks remaining in its organic tank battalion . This attrition served Egypt 's war strategy of inflicting maximum casualties on the Israelis , even though , from another perspective , the initiative had passed to the Israelis during the battle .
= = = Notable participants = = =
Among the participants of the battle were Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and Ehud Barak , then lieutenant colonels . Tantawi commanded an infantry battalion under the 16th Infantry Brigade . He engaged Reshef 's armor during October 16 and later Mordechai 's paratroopers during the night of October 16 / 17 , and was decorated for valor during the battle . Barak commanded an armored battalion during the battle and personally led the armored effort to extricate the Israeli paratroopers . Both men would later serve as Ministers of Defense in their respective nations and encounter each other again in that capacity .
= Homer Goes to College =
" Homer Goes to College " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 14 , 1993 . In the episode , Homer 's lack of a college degree is revealed and he is sent to Springfield University to pass a nuclear physics class . Homer , who bases his perception of college on comedy films and TV shows , goofs around and is sent to a group of boys for tutoring . The boys , who are stereotypical nerds , try to help Homer , but he instead tries to help them party and decides to pull a prank on another college . They steal Springfield A & M 's mascot , but his friends are caught and expelled . Homer invites them to live with him , but his family soon become angered by their new housemates .
" Homer Goes to College " was directed by Jim Reardon and was the final episode of the show for which Conan O 'Brien received sole writing credit . O 'Brien would leave the series halfway through the production of the season to host his own show , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . He had been working on this episode when he was informed that he had received the job and was forced to walk out on his contract .
The episode contains several references to the film Animal House as well as Monty Python and the Holy Grail , Star Trek and the song " Louie Louie " by The Kingsmen , which plays during the end credits .
= = Plot = =
During a surprise inspection of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , Homer is placed in a test module van that simulates an emergency . He has no idea what to do and starts pressing buttons at random , somehow causing a nuclear meltdown even though there was no nuclear material inside the van . The NRC officials tell Mr. Burns that Homer 's job requires college training in nuclear physics , and that he must go back to college to keep his job . Homer is rejected by every college he applies to , but Burns helps him get into Springfield University .
Homer ignores his studies and instead focuses on his preconceived notions of college life through adolescent movies and TV shows , such as the fictional The School of Hard Knockers , which stereotype college life as pranks , partying and rigid deans . He also insults the college dean , Dean Peterson , believing him to be a crusty , conservative administrator . In reality , Peterson relates well with the students and is relatively young . Homer acts like a know @-@ it @-@ all in class and is asked to demonstrate how a proton accelerator operates ; consequently , he causes a nuclear meltdown in class . Dean Peterson takes him aside and recommends hiring a tutor . The tutors turn out to be three computer nerds named Benjamin , Doug , and Gary . The trio try to help Homer understand the material from his physics course , but he refuses to cooperate . Instead , he is determined to help them gain a social life by pulling a prank on rival college Springfield A & M University . The prank involves kidnapping the other school 's mascot , a pig named Sir Oinks @-@ a @-@ lot . However , Homer causes the pig to become very ill after feeding it malt liquor , and Benjamin , Doug , and Gary are blamed for the incident .
Dean Peterson is forced to expel the nerds , and a remorseful Homer immediately invites them to move in with his family . However , their presence quickly disrupts the normal family routine , and Marge orders Homer to evict them , leading him to try to get the three re @-@ admitted to the school . Homer 's plan involves an attempt to run down Dean Peterson with his car , but have the nerds push Peterson out of the way at the last moment , with the hope that Peterson would readmit the nerds out of gratitude for saving his life . But the plan backfires , and Homer winds up running down the dean , seriously injuring him . At the hospital , Homer admits he was fully responsible for the pranks , and asks that Benjamin , Doug , and Gary be reinstated . The dean agrees to reinstate them and does not punish Homer , agreeing to forget everything that has happened . The nerds thank Homer for his assistance and move back into their old dormitory room .
Unfortunately , having been preoccupied with the nerd situation , Homer is not prepared for his final exam . The nerds say the only way to pass is to cram for the final exam , which they help him do . However , despite Homer 's best attempts , he gets an F. To Homer 's delight , the nerds hack into the school 's student records and change his grade to an A + , but unfortunately , Marge finds out and forces Homer to take the course again in order to set a good example for Bart and Lisa . Homer 's next college experience is shown during the end credits , with college clichés such as hazing by a fraternity , Telephone Booth Stuffing , a food fight , and finally his graduation ceremony where Homer flashes the audience .
= = Production = =
" Homer Goes to College " was the final episode of the show for which Conan O 'Brien received sole writing credit ; his final writing credit altogether was for the episode " Treehouse of Horror IV " , which he co @-@ wrote with five other writers . O 'Brien would leave the series halfway through the production of the season to host his own show , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien on NBC . O 'Brien was informed that he had been hired by NBC not long before the recording session for this episode began , and he was forced to walk out on his contract . The concept of the episode was that Homer attends college , but bases his entire understanding of what college is on " bad Animal House rip @-@ off movies " . O 'Brien mentioned in the DVD commentary that the antics of the characters Benjamin , Doug , and Gary were based on three " incredible nerds " who lived in the same college dormitory as O 'Brien .
The Fox Network executives had wanted the season premiere to be " Homer Goes to College " because it was an Animal House parody . However , the writers felt that " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " would be a better episode because of George Harrison 's involvement . During the episode , Homer sings " I am so smart ! S @-@ M @-@ R @-@ T ... I mean S @-@ M @-@ A @-@ R @-@ T ! " while he lights his high school diploma ( and the house ) on fire . During the recording session , Dan Castellaneta was singing the song and accidentally misspelled " smart " . The writers decided that it was much funnier that way , because it seemed like something Homer Simpson would do , so they left the joke in . The song has since become a fan favorite .
Jim Reardon directed the episode and has noted he remembers the episode for several scenes in which the action is viewed through windows , such as when Homer prank calls the dean . The animators were short on time , so for the design of Benjamin they took an earlier drawing of director Rich Moore and made it African @-@ American .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contains several references to the film Animal House , including the song " Louie Louie " by The Kingsmen which plays throughout the film . The couch gag with the huge pink foot squashing the Simpsons is a reference to The Foot of Cupid of the television series Monty Python 's Flying Circus . The film Monty Python and the Holy Grail is also referenced when Benjamin , Doug , and Gary imitate the Knights who say Ni . They play Dungeons & Dragons , hold arguments over Star Trek , and their room number is 222 , a reference to the television series Room 222 . Homer has posters of Albert Einstein and W. C. Fields . The episode contains the first reference to the Internet on The Simpsons , as " computer signals " being sent between the Nerds and MIT . A picture in the dorm shows four men wearing silver dome hats resembles the ' 80s new wave band Devo . The phrases the nerds say when Homer greets them ( Intruder Alert ) , ( Get the Humanoid ! ) are from the 1980 arcade game Berzerk .
Mr. Burns asks Homer to " find the jade monkey " in a reference to the film The Maltese Falcon . He also offers the nuclear inspectors a washer and dryer or the contents of a mysterious box , which parodies the gameshow Let 's Make a Deal . Mr. Burns ' escape pod resembles the one used by R2 @-@ D2 and C @-@ 3PO in the first Star Wars film . Mr. Burns tries to get Homer into college by using violence and hitting one of the members of the admissions committee with a baseball bat , a reference to the film The Untouchables . The scene in which Homer is studying for the final exam contains a reference to the Ludovico technique from the movie A Clockwork Orange .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer Goes to College " finished 44th in ratings for the week of October 11 to October 17 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , and was viewed in 10 @.@ 5 million households . It was tied with Beverly Hills , 90210 as the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
The episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Homer at his most excruciatingly stupid in another superb episode — his attitude to the college 's ' stuffy old dean ' ( who was , in fact , bassist for The Pretenders ) is a joy . " Thomas Rozwadowski of the Green Bay Press @-@ Gazette listed Homer 's line " Curly , straight . Curly , straight " whilst he torments the pig as " instantly memorable " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that it did not " quite live up to its two predecessors " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " and " Cape Feare " this year , but it remains a strong show nonetheless . Actually , it starts a little slowly but builds steam along the way . It includes some classic moments of a Homer idiocy — hard to beat him chasing squirrels with a stick — and one of the better visual gags via Burns ’ chair . Who can dislike a show in which Richard Nixon threatens Homer due to a drunken pig ? " The episode 's reference to The Untouchables was named the 13th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
In 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked " Burning Down the Mouse " from this episode as one of their nine favorite " Itchy & Stratchy " episodes of all time .
= Hurricane Babe =
Hurricane Babe was the second named storm and the first to impact the United States during the below @-@ average 1977 Atlantic hurricane season . Forming out of a tropical wave on September 3 , Babe began as a subtropical cyclone in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . The storm gradually intensified as it tracked westward . On September 5 , the storm turned north and acquired enough tropical characteristics . Later that day , Babe intensified into a hurricane and attained its peak strength with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) . Several hours later , the hurricane made landfall in Louisiana and quickly weakened . By September 6 , Babe had weakened to a tropical depression and later dissipated early on September 9 over North Carolina .
Hurricane Babe produced minimal impact throughout its path in the United States . The most significant impact occurred in Louisiana where the storm caused $ 10 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 39 million 2016 USD ) in damage , mainly from crop losses . An additional $ 3 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) in losses resulted from tornadoes spawned by Babe . Heavy rainfall in North Carolina , peaking at 8 @.@ 99 in ( 228 mm ) triggered flash flooding but little damage . No fatalities resulted from the hurricane . Coincidentally , a typhoon , also named Babe , existed at exactly the same time as Hurricane Babe .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Babe originated from a tropical wave that exited the western coast of Africa on August 23 . Tracking westward , the wave eventually entered the Gulf of Mexico on September 2 . Upon entering the gulf , a surface circulation developed ; however , convection associated with the system was not concentrated around the center . The newly formed system then interacted with an upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex situated near the Florida coastline . The following day , Convective banding features around the cyclone led to the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgrading the system to Tropical Storm Babe . Although classified a tropical storm , Babe was not fully tropical , it was later classified as a subtropical cyclone . The forward motion of Babe had slowed significantly from when it was a wave but maintained the westward direction .
By September 4 , the maximum winds were found closer to the center of circulation and the cyclone developed a warmer core , a main feature in tropical cyclones . An anticyclone also developed over Babe and later that day , the storm transitioned into a tropical cyclone . By this time , Babe had turned nearly due north and was near hurricane @-@ status . Around this time , reconnaissance missions into the storm found a closed eyewall with an eye measuring roughly 23 mi ( 37 km ) in diameter . Another reconnaissance flight that day found sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; however , these winds were located roughly 65 mi ( 100 km ) from the center and considered to be unrepresentative of the storm 's actual intensity .
Early on September 5 , reconnaissance found a central barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the storm . Around this time , Babe also intensified into a hurricane , attaining maximum winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later that day , Hurricane Babe made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana and quickly weakened to a tropical storm . By landfall , the eye of Babe had contracted to roughly 14 mi ( 23 km ) . On September 6 , the storm had weakened to a tropical depression and was moving northeast into Mississippi . The system continued this movement for the following two days . While crossing South Carolina , forecasters thought that the system would emerge into the Atlantic Ocean and regenerate into a tropical depression . However , the remnants of Babe dissipated shortly before crossing into North Carolina early on September 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Upon the storm 's formation on September 3 , gale warnings were issued for areas along the north @-@ central coast of the Gulf of Mexico . By September 5 , hurricane warnings were posted for areas between Vermilion Bay to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana . These warnings were later discontinued as the system moved over land . Ahead of the storm , up to 30 @,@ 000 residents in low @-@ lying parts of the state moved inland . However , press reports indicate that upwards of 45 @,@ 000 residents had evacuated from coastal regions prior to the storm . In Grand Isle , roughly 200 civil defense workers stayed behind in the town hall after the cities 2 @,@ 300 residents evacuated . In Cameron Parish , roughly 8 @,@ 000 residents evacuated inland . Emergency shelters were set up throughout Louisiana to house evacuees during the storm . As Hurricane Babe began to weaken over Louisiana , forecasters anticipated the formation of tornadoes and issued tornado watches for parts of Louisiana , Alabama , Mississippi , Georgia and Florida .
= = Impact = =
Prior to becoming a subtropical depression , Babe produced scattered rainfall in Florida , with peak amounts near 3 in ( 76 mm ) falling around Lake Okeechobee . Widespread rain fell in relation to Babe throughout the Southern United States . In Louisiana , rain was confined to eastern parts of the state , with up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) being measured near the Mississippi border . The remnants of the hurricane continued to produce heavy rain through its dissipation over North Carolina . A storm peak of 10 @.@ 99 in ( 279 mm ) fell in Lafayette , Georgia . Most of North Carolina received between 3 and 5 in ( 76 and 127 mm ) of rain with isolated areas exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) . A state maximum of 8 @.@ 99 in ( 228 mm ) fell in Lake Toxaway , North Carolina , 7 @.@ 05 in ( 179 mm ) in Caesars Head , South Carolina and 6 @.@ 62 in ( 168 mm ) in Chattanooga , Tennessee .
Upon making landfall , Babe produced a storm surge of 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , leading to minor coastal flooding . Due to the storm 's quick deterioration after moving inland , the NHC presumed that hurricane @-@ force winds did not impact land . The highest wind gust was recorded in Grand Isle , Louisiana at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and the highest sustained wind was recorded in Boothville , Louisiana at 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . In Jean Lafitte , Louisiana , overflow from the Fleming Canal produced flooding throughout the area . The most significant damage was to croplands inundated by flood waters . Flash flooding occurred throughout the path of the former hurricane in the eastern United States , particularly in North Carolina .
Hurricane Babe produced 14 tornadoes between September 5 and 7 along its track in several states . Louisiana recorded the most , with six touchdowns , including one F2 that injured one person and caused $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 9 @.@ 76 million 2016 USD )
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in damages near Hammond in Tangipahoa Parish . A country store sustained severe damage from the tornado , with most of the back of the store destroyed . Six wood @-@ frame homes were also knocked off their cinder block supports . Another F2 touched down in Tuscaloosa County , Alabama ; however , minimal damage was recorded along its 8 mi ( 13 km ) track . Another F2 briefly touched down in Harrison County , Mississippi on September 6 . It struck an unoccupied elementary school , wrecking six classrooms and leaving $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1977 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 95 million 2016 USD ) in damages . Throughout the storm 's path , damages amounted to $ 10 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 39 million 2016 USD ) with an additional $ 3 million ( 1977 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) from tornadoes . There was no loss of life due to Babe .
= Ganesha =
Ganesha ( / ɡəˈneɪʃə / ; Sanskrit : गणेश , Gaṇeśa ; listen ) , also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka , is one of the best @-@ known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon . His image is found throughout India , Sri Lanka and Nepal . Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations . Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists .
Although he is known by many attributes , Ganesha 's elephant head makes him easy to identify . Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles , the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom . As the god of beginnings , he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies . Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions . Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography .
Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE , during the Gupta period , although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre @-@ Vedic precursors . He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism ( a Hindu denomination ) in the 9th century . A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose , who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity . The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana , the Mudgala Purana , and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa .
= = Etymology and other names = =
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets , including Ganapati ( Ganpati ) and Vighneshvara . The Hindu title of respect Shri ( Sanskrit : श ् री ; IAST : śrī ; also spelled Sri or Shree ) is often added before his name .
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound , joining the words gana ( gaṇa ) , meaning a group , multitude , or categorical system and isha ( īśa ) , meaning lord or master . The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas , a troop of semi @-@ divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva , Ganesha 's father . The term more generally means a category , class , community , association , or corporation . Some commentators interpret the name " Lord of the Gaņas " to mean " Lord of Hosts " or " Lord of created categories " , such as the elements . Ganapati ( गणपति ; gaṇapati ) , a synonym for Ganesha , is a compound composed of gaṇa , meaning " group " , and pati , meaning " ruler " or " lord " . Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 of the 2nd @-@ millennium BCE Rigveda , it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha . The Amarakosha , an early Sanskrit lexicon , lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka , Vighnarāja ( equivalent to Vighnesha ) , Dvaimātura ( one who has two mothers ) , Gaṇādhipa ( equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha ) , Ekadanta ( one who has one tusk ) , Heramba , Lambodara ( one who has a pot belly , or , literally , one who has a hanging belly ) , and Gajanana ( gajānana ) ; having the face of an elephant .
Vinayaka ( विनायक ; vināyaka ) is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras . This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak ( Marathi : अष ् टविनायक , aṣṭavināyaka ) . The names Vighnesha ( विघ ् नेश ; vighneśa ) and Vighneshvara ( विघ ् नेश ् वर ; vighneśvara ) ( Lord of Obstacles ) refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles ( vighna ) .
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai ( Tamil : பிள ் ளை ) or Pillaiyar ( பிள ் ளையார ் ) . A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a " child " while pillaiyar means a " noble child " . He adds that the words pallu , pella , and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify " tooth or tusk " , also " elephant tooth or tusk " . Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant " the young of the elephant " , because the Pali word pillaka means " a young elephant " .
In the Burmese language , Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne ( မဟာပိန ္ နဲ , pronounced : [ məhà pèiɴné ] ) , derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka ( မဟာဝိနာယက ) . The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet . The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present @-@ day Indonesia , Thailand , Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th- and 8th @-@ centuries , and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th @-@ century or earlier .
In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo , and revered along with Buddha , Vishnu , Skanda and others .
= = Iconography = =
Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art . Unlike those of some deities , representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time . He may be portrayed standing , dancing , heroically taking action against demons , playing with his family as a boy , sitting down or on an elevated seat , or engaging in a range of contemporary situations .
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century . The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 – 1200 , after Ganesha had been well @-@ established as an independent deity with his own sect . This example features some of Ganesha 's common iconographic elements . A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 – 1200 by Paul Martin @-@ Dubost , and another similar statue is dated c . 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal . Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly . This statue has four arms , which is common in depictions of Ganesha . He holds his own broken tusk in his lower @-@ right hand and holds a delicacy , which he samples with his trunk , in his lower @-@ left hand . The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower @-@ left hand is a particularly archaic feature . A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century . Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown . In the standard configuration , Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha ( noose ) in the other upper arm . In rare instances , he may be depicted with a human head .
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha . In one modern form , the only variation from these old elements is that the lower @-@ right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness ( abhaya mudra ) . The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing , which is a very popular theme .
= = = Common attributes = = =
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art . Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head . One of his popular forms , Heramba @-@ Ganapati , has five elephant heads , and other less @-@ common variations in the number of heads are known . While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head , he acquires the head later in most stories . The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati . Shiva then replaced Ganesha 's original head with that of an elephant . Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source . Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva 's laughter . Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring , he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly .
Ganesha 's earliest name was Ekadanta ( One Tusked ) , referring to his single whole tusk , the other being broken . Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk . The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana , which states that the name of Ganesha 's second incarnation is Ekadanta . Ganesha 's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary , which dates to the Gupta period ( 4th to 6th centuries ) . This feature is so important that , according to the Mudgala Purana , two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it : Lambodara ( Pot Belly , or , literally , Hanging Belly ) and Mahodara ( Great Belly ) . Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly ( IAST : udara ) . The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes ( i.e. , cosmic eggs ; IAST : brahmāṇḍas ) of the past , present , and future are present in him . The number of Ganesha 's arms varies ; his best @-@ known forms have between two and sixteen arms . Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms , which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts . His earliest images had two arms . Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries . The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms . According to the Ganesha Purana , Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck . Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread ( IAST : yajñyopavīta ) wrapped around the stomach as a belt , held in a hand , coiled at the ankles , or as a throne . Upon Ganesha 's forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark ( IAST : tilaka ) , which consists of three horizontal lines . The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead . A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra ( IAST : bhālacandra ; " Moon on the Forehead " ) includes that iconographic element . Ganesha is often described as red in color . Specific colors are associated with certain forms . Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi , a treatise on Hindu iconography . For example , white is associated with his representations as Heramba @-@ Ganapati and Rina @-@ Mochana @-@ Ganapati ( Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage ) . Ekadanta @-@ Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form .
= = = Vahanas = = =
The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana ( mount / vehicle ) . Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana , Ganesha uses a mouse ( shrew ) in five of them , a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda , a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata , and Shesha , the divine serpent , in his incarnation as Vighnaraja . Mohotkata uses a lion , Mayūreśvara uses a peacock , Dhumraketu uses a horse , and Gajanana uses a mouse , in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana . Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse , elephant , tortoise , ram , or peacock .
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse , shrew or rat . Martin @-@ Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century ; the rat was always placed close to his feet . The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana , where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation . The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag . The names Mūṣakavāhana ( mouse @-@ mount ) and Ākhuketana ( rat @-@ banner ) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama .
The mouse is interpreted in several ways . According to Grimes , " Many , if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati 's mouse , do so negatively ; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire " . Along these lines , Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish . Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops . The Sanskrit word mūṣaka ( mouse ) is derived from the root mūṣ ( stealing , robbing ) . It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest , a type of vighna ( impediment ) that needed to be overcome . According to this theory , showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara ( Lord of Obstacles ) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma @-@ devatā ( village deity ) who later rose to greater prominence . Martin @-@ Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha , like the rat , penetrates even the most secret places .
= = Associations = =
= = = Removal of Obstacles = = =
Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta ( Marathi ) , the Lord of Obstacles , both of a material and spiritual order . He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles , though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked . Paul Courtright says that " his task in the divine scheme of things , his dharma , is to place and remove obstacles . It is his particular territory , the reason for his creation . "
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha 's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time . Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon , and the emergence of the Ganapatyas , to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā ( obstacle @-@ creator ) to vighnahartā ( obstacle @-@ averter ) . However , both functions continue to be vital to his character .
= = = Buddhi ( Knowledge ) = = =
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning . In Sanskrit , the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence , wisdom , or intellect . The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha , especially in the Puranic period , when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence . One of Ganesha 's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya . This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important . The word priya can mean " fond of " , and in a marital context it can mean " lover " or " husband " , so the name may mean either " Fond of Intelligence " or " Buddhi 's Husband " .
= = = Aum = = =
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum , also spelled Om . The term oṃkārasvarūpa ( Aum is his form ) , when identified with Ganesha , refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound . The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association . Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows :
( O Lord Ganapati ! ) You are ( the Trinity ) Brahma , Vishnu , and Mahesa . You are Indra . You are fire [ Agni ] and air [ Vāyu ] . You are the sun [ Sūrya ] and the moon [ Chandrama ] . You are Brahman . You are ( the three worlds ) Bhuloka [ earth ] , Antariksha @-@ loka [ space ] , and Swargaloka [ heaven ] . You are Om . ( That is to say , You are all this ) .
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha 's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts .
= = = First chakra = = =
According to Kundalini yoga , Ganesha resides in the first chakra , called Muladhara ( mūlādhāra ) . Mula means " original , main " ; adhara means " base , foundation " . The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests . This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa . Courtright translates this passage as follows : " You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [ mūlādhāra cakra ] . " Thus , Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara . Ganesha holds , supports and guides all other chakras , thereby " governing the forces that propel the wheel of life " .
= = Family and consorts = =
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati , the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth . In some he was created by Parvati , in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati , in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati 's bath water that had been thrown in the river .
The family includes his brother , the god of war , Kartikeya , who is also called Skanda and Murugan . Regional differences dictate the order of their births . In northern India , Skanda is generally said to be the elder , while in the south , Ganesha is considered the first born . In northern India , Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE , after which worship of him declined significantly . As Skanda fell , Ganesha rose . Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions .
Ganesha 's marital status , the subject of considerable scholarly review , varies widely in mythological stories . One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari . This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India . Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi ( intellect ) , Siddhi ( spiritual power ) , and Riddhi ( prosperity ) ; these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses , said to be Ganesha 's wives . He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant ( Sanskrit : daşi ) . Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts , Sarasvati or Śarda ( particularly in Maharashtra ) . He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity , Lakshmi . Another pattern , mainly prevalent in the Bengal region , links Ganesha with the banana tree , Kala Bo .
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons : Kşema ( prosperity ) and Lābha ( profit ) . In northern Indian variants of this story , the sons are often said to be Śubha ( auspiciouness ) and Lābha . The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma , the goddess of satisfaction . This story has no Puranic basis , but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma 's cult as evidence of Ganesha 's continuing evolution as a popular deity .
= = Worship and festivals = =
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions , especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business . K.N. Somayaji says , " there can hardly be a [ Hindu ] home [ in India ] which does not house an idol of Ganapati . ... Ganapati , being the most popular deity in India , is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country " . Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated , he grants success , prosperity and protection against adversity .
Ganesha is a non @-@ sectarian deity . Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers , important undertakings , and religious ceremonies . Dancers and musicians , particularly in southern India , begin art performances such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha . Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah ( Om , salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha ) are often used . One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah ( Om , Gaṃ , Salutation to the Lord of Hosts ) .
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus . He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets , called a modakapātra . Because of his identification with the color red , he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste ( raktacandana ) or red flowers . Dūrvā grass ( Cynodon dactylon ) and other materials are also used in his worship .
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa ( the fourth day of the waxing moon ) in the month of Bhadrapada ( August / September ) and the Ganesh Jayanti ( Ganesha 's birthday ) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa ( fourth day of the waxing moon ) in the month of magha ( January / February ) . "
= = = Ganesh Chaturthi = = =
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days , starting on Ganesha Chaturthi , which typically falls in late August or early September . The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha , symbolising Ganesha 's visit . The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi , when idols ( murtis ) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water . Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd , 3rd , 5th , or 7th day . In 1893 , Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event . He did so " to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non @-@ Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them " in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra . Because of Ganesha 's wide appeal as " the god for Everyman " , Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule . Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions , and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day . Today , Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour , though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra . The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai , Pune , and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples .
= = = Temples = = =
In Hindu temples , Ganesha is depicted in various ways : as an acolyte or subordinate deity ( pãrśva @-@ devatã ) ; as a deity related to the principal deity ( parivāra @-@ devatã ) ; or as the principal deity of the temple ( pradhāna ) , treated similarly to the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon . As the god of transitions , he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy , which is analogous to his role as Parvati ’ s doorkeeper . In addition , several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself , of which the Ashtavinayak ( Sanskrit : अष ् टविनायक ; aṣṭavināyaka ; lit . " eight Ganesha ( shrines ) " ) in Maharashtra are particularly well known . Located within a 100 @-@ kilometer radius of the city of Pune , each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati , complete with its own lore and legend . The eight shrines are : Morgaon , Siddhatek , Pali , Mahad , Theur , Lenyadri , Ozar and Ranjangaon .
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations : Wai in Maharashtra ; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh ; Jodhpur , Nagaur and Raipur ( Pali ) in Rajasthan ; Baidyanath in Bihar ; Baroda , Dholaka , and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi , Uttar Pradesh . Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following : Kanipakam in Chittoor ; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli ; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu ; at Malliyur , Kottarakara , Pazhavangadi , Kasargod in Kerala , Hampi , and Idagunji in Karnataka ; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh .
T. A. Gopinatha notes , " Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara ( Vigneshvara ) with or without a temple to house it in . At entrances of villages and forts , below pīpaḹa ( Sacred fig ) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of Viṣṇu ( Vishnu ) as well as Śiva ( Shiva ) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples ... the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen . " Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India , including Southeast Asia , Nepal ( including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley ) , and in several western countries .
= = Rise to prominence = =
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although by the second century CE the elephant @-@ headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati @-@ Vināyaka . There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant @-@ headed form at this early stage . Gaṇapati @-@ Vināyaka had yet to make his debut . "
Some have noted the roots of Ganesha worship , dating back to 3 @,@ 000 BCE since the times of Indus Valley Civilization . In 1993 , a metal plate depiction of an elephant @-@ headed figure , interpreted as Ganesha , was discovered in Lorestan Province , Iran , dating back to 1 @,@ 200 BCE . First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter , Pal , Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh . These figures are small , with elephant head , two arms , and chubby physique . The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times ( 2nd @-@ 3rd centuries CE ) .
One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas ( Vināyakas ) . In Hindu mythology , the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated . The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras . Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view , stating flatly of Ganesha , " He is a non @-@ vedic god . His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas , evil spirits , of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra ( 7th – 4th century BCE ) who cause various types of evil and suffering " . Depictions of elephant @-@ headed human figures , which some identify with Ganesha , appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century . According to Ellawala , the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre @-@ Christian era .
= = = Vedic and epic literature = = =
The title " Leader of the group " ( Sanskrit : gaṇapati ) occurs twice in the Rig Veda , but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha . The term appears in RV 2 @.@ 23 @.@ 1 as a title for Brahmanaspati , according to commentators . While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati , it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today . In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda , Ludo Rocher says that it " clearly refers to Bṛhaspati — who is the deity of the hymn — and Bṛhaspati only " . Equally clearly , the second passage ( RV 10 @.@ 112 @.@ 9 ) refers to Indra , who is given the epithet ' gaṇapati ' , translated " Lord of the companies ( of the Maruts ) . " However , Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .
Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda , Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā ( 2 @.@ 9 @.@ 1 ) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka ( 10 @.@ 1 ) , appeal to a deity as " the tusked one " ( Dantiḥ ) , " elephant @-@ faced " ( Hastimukha ) , and " with a curved trunk " ( Vakratuņḍa ) . These names are suggestive of Ganesha , and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification . The description of Dantin , possessing a twisted trunk ( vakratuṇḍa ) and holding a corn @-@ sheaf , a sugar cane , and a club , is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says " we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin " . However , Krishan considers these hymns to be post @-@ Vedic additions . Thapan reports that these passages are " generally considered to have been interpolated " . Dhavalikar says , " the references to the elephant @-@ headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations , and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity " .
Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period . A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa ( Vyāsa ) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him . Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted , that is , without pausing . The sage agreed , but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications . The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata , in which the twenty @-@ line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix . The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition . Ganesha 's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa 's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation . Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century , and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c . 900 , but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later . Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend . The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations . A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ( " Creator of Obstacles " ) in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition .
= = = Puranic period = = =
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus . Brown notes while the Puranas " defy precise chronological ordering " , the more detailed narratives of Ganesha 's life are in the late texts , c . 600 – 1300 . Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant 's head are in the later Puranas , which were composed from c . 600 onwards . He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas , such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas , are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries .
In his survey of Ganesha 's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature , Ludo Rocher notes that :
Above all , one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents . These incidents are mainly three : his birth and parenthood , his elephant head , and his single tusk . Other incidents are touched on in the texts , but to a far lesser extent .
Ganesha 's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century , when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism . The 9th @-@ century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the " worship of the five forms " ( Panchayatana puja ) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition . This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha , Vishnu , Shiva , Devi , and Surya . Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status . This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity .
= = = Scriptures = = =
Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism , some Brahmins chose Ganesha as their principal deity . They developed the Ganapatya tradition , as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana .
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana — and their dating relative to one another — has sparked academic debate . Both works were developed over time and contain age @-@ layered strata . Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement . " It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries " , she says , " but was later interpolated . " Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400 , which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text .
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana , which he dates between 1100 and 1400 . However , Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha . She bases her reasoning on the fact that , among other internal evidence , the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas ( the Brahma , the Brahmanda , the Ganesha , and the Mudgala Puranas ) which deal at length with Ganesha . While the kernel of the text must be old , it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions . Another highly regarded scripture , the Ganapati Atharvashirsa , was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries .
Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature , and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha . Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha . Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana .
One of the most important Sanskrit texts , that enjoys authority in Ganapatya tradition states John Grimes , is the Ganapati Atharvashirsa .
= = Beyond India and Hinduism = =
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India 's influence in Western and Southeast Asia . Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands .
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants , who went out of India for commercial ventures . From approximately the 10th century onwards , new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation . During this time , Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders . The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community .
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture , including Ganesha , with them . Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region , often beside Shiva sanctuaries . The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Java , Bali , and Borneo show specific regional influences . The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma , Cambodia , and Thailand . In Indochina , Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side , and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region . In Thailand , Cambodia , and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam , Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles . Today in Buddhist Thailand , Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles , the god of success .
Before the arrival of Islam , Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India , and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced . Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived , suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region .
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism , not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka , but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name . His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period . As the Buddhist god Vināyaka , he is often shown dancing . This form , called Nṛtta Ganapati , was popular in northern India , later adopted in Nepal , and then in Tibet . In Nepal , the Hindu form of Ganesha , known as Heramba , is popular ; he has five heads and rides a lion . Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him . A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag . In one Tibetan form , he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla , ( Shiva ) a popular Tibetan deity . Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles , and sometimes dancing . Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character . In northern China , the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531 . In Japan , where Ganesha is known as Kangiten , the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806 .
The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha . However , Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains , for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth , Kubera . Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections . The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century . A 15th @-@ century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images . Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat .
= Trade route =
A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo . The term can also be used to refer to trade over bodies of water . Allowing goods to reach distant markets , a single trade route contains long distance arteries , which may further be connected to smaller networks of commercial and noncommercial transportation routes . Among notable trade routes was the Amber Road , which served as a dependable network for long @-@ distance trade . Maritime trade along the Spice Route became prominent during the Middle Ages , when nations resorted to military means for control of this influential route . During the Middle Ages , organizations such as the Hanseatic League , aimed at protecting interests of the merchants , and trade became increasingly prominent .
In modern times , commercial activity shifted from the major trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between modern nation @-@ states . This activity was sometimes carried out without traditional protection of trade and under international free @-@ trade agreements , which allowed commercial goods to cross borders with relaxed restrictions . Innovative transportation of modern times includes pipeline transport and the relatively well @-@ known trade involving rail routes , automobiles , and cargo airlines .
= = Development of early routes = =
= = = Early development = = =
The period from the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE to the beginning of the Common Era saw societies in Western Asia , the Mediterranean , China and the Indian subcontinent develop major transportation networks for trade .
One of the vital instruments which facilitated long distance trade was portage and the domestication of beasts of burden . Organized caravans , visible by the 2nd millennium BCE , could carry goods across a large distance as fodder was mostly available along the way . The domestication of camels allowed Arabian nomads to control the long distance trade in spices and silk from the Far East to the Arabian Peninsula . Caravans were useful in long @-@ distance trade largely for carrying luxury goods , the transportation of cheaper goods across large distances was not profitable for caravan operators . With productive developments in iron and bronze technologies , newer trade routes — dispensing innovations of civilizations — began to rise .
= = = Maritime trade = = =
Evidence of maritime trade between civilizations dates back at least 90 millennia . Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE , and was probably known by the Indians and the Chinese people before the Sumerians . The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red Sea , importing spices from the " Land of Punt " ( East Africa ) and from Arabia .
Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds , soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to Southeast Asia , thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult . Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes . By making use of the maritime trade routes , bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE . A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one @-@ sixtieth the cost of over @-@ land routes .
= = = Visible trade routes = = =
The peninsula of Anatolia lay on the commercial land routes to Europe from Asia as well as the sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea . Records from the 19th century BCE attest to the existence of an Assyrian merchant colony at Kanesh in Cappadocia ( now in modern Turkey ) . Trading networks of the Old World included the Grand Trunk Road of India and the Incense Road of Arabia . A transportation network consisting of hard @-@ surfaced highways , using concrete made from volcanic ash and lime , was built by the Romans as early as 312 BCE , during the times of the Censor Appius Claudius Caecus . Parts of the Mediterranean world , Roman Britain , Tigris @-@ Euphrates river system and North Africa fell under the reach of this network at some point of their history .
According to Robert Allen Denemark ( 2000 ) :
" The spread of urban trading networks , and their extension along the Persian Gulf and eastern Mediterranean , created a complex molecular structure of regional foci so that as well as the zonation of core and periphery ( originally created around Mesopotamia ) there was a series of interacting civilizations : Mesopotamia , Egypt , the Indus Valley ; then also Syria , central Anatolia ( Hittites ) and the Aegean ( Minoans and Mycenaeans ) . Beyond this was a margin which included not only temperate areas such as Europe , but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia . This was truly a world system , even though it occupied only a restricted portion of the western Old World . Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy , all were identifiably part of a common world of interacting components . "
These routes - spreading religion , trade and technology - have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization . The extent of development of cities , and the level of their integration into a larger world system , has often been attributed to their position in various active transport networks .
= = Historic trade routes = =
= = = Combined land and waterway routes = = =
= = = = Incense Route = = = =
The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of Indian , Arabian and East Asian goods . The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE . This trade was crucial to the economy of Yemen and the frankincense and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth by the its rulers .
Ptolemy II Philadelphus , emperor of Ptolemaic Egypt , may have forged an alliance with the Lihyanites in order to secure the incense route at Dedan , thereby rerouting the incense trade from Dedan to the coast along the Red Sea to Egypt . I. E. S. Edwards connects the Syro @-@ Ephraimite War to the desire of the Israelites and the Aramaeans to control the northern end of the Incense route , which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding Transjordan .
Gerrha - inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon - controlled the Incense trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean and exercised control over the trading of aromatics to Babylon in the 1st century BCE . The Nabateans exercised control over the routes along the Incense Route , and their hold was challenged - without success - by Antigonus Cyclops , emperor of Syria . The Nabatean control over trade further increased and spread in many directions .
The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the East and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of the south . According to Milo Kearney ( 2003 ) " The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden . In response , the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea . " Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power .
= = = = Pre @-@ Columbian trade = = = =
Some similarities between the Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures suggest that the two regions became a part of a wider world system , as a result of trade , by the 1st millennium BCE . The current academic view is that the flow of goods across the Andean slopes was controlled by institutions distributing locations to local groups , who were then free to access them for trading . This trade across the Andean slopes — described sometimes as " vertical trade " — may have overshadowed the long distance trade between the people of the Andes and the neighboring forests . The Callawaya herbalists traded in tropical plants between 6th and the 10th centuries , while copper was dealt by specialized merchants in the Peruvian valley of Chincha . Long distance trade may have seen local elites resorting to struggle in order for manipulation and control .
Prior to the Inca dominance , specialized long distance merchants provided the highlanders with goods such as gold nuggets , copper hatchets , cocoa , salt etc. for redistribution among the locals , and were key players in the politics of the region . Hatchet shaped copper currency was produced by the Peruvian people , in order to obtain valuables from pre Columbian Ecuador . A maritime exchange system stretched from the west coast of Mexico to southernmost Peru , trading mostly in Spondylus , which represented rain and fertility and was considered the principal food of the gods by the people of the Inca empire . Spondylus was used in elite rituals , and the effective redistribution of it had political effect in the Andes during the pre @-@ Hispanic times .
= = = Predominantly overland routes = = =
= = = = Silk Road = = = =
The Silk road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds . According to Vadime Elisseeff ( 2000 ) :
" Along the Silk Roads , technology traveled , ideas were exchanged , and friendship and understanding between East and West were experienced for the first time on a large scale . Easterners were exposed to Western ideas and life @-@ styles , and Westerners too , learned about Eastern culture and its spirituality @-@ oriented cosmology . Buddhism as an Eastern religion received international attention through the Silk Roads . "
Cultural interactions patronized often by powerful emperors , such as Kanishka , led to development of art due to introduction of a rich variety of influences . Buddhist missions thrived along the Silk Roads , partly due to the conducive intermixing of trade and cultural values , which created a series of safe stoppages for both the pilgrims and the traders . Among the frequented routes of the Silk Route was the Burmese route extending from Bhamo , which served as a path for Marco Polo 's visit to Yunnan and Indian Buddhist missions to Canton in order to establish Buddhist monasteries . This route - often under the presence of hostile tribes - also finds mention in the works of Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani .
= = = = Grand Trunk Road = = = =
The Grand Trunk Road - connecting Chittagong in Bangladesh to Peshawar in Pakistan - has existed for over two and a half millennia . One of the important trade routes of the world , this road has been a strategic artery with fortresses , halting posts , wells , post offices , milestones and other facilities . Part of this road through Pakistan also coincided with the Silk Road .
This highway has been associated with emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Sher Shah Suri , the latter became synonymous with this route due to his role in ensuring the safety of the travelers and the upkeep of the road . Emperor Sher Shah widened and realigned the road to other routes , and provided approximately 1700 roadside inns through his empire . These inns provided free food and lodgings to the travelers regardless of their status .
The British occupation of this road was of special significance for the British Raj in India . Bridges , pathways and newer inns were constructed by the British for the first thirty @-@ seven years of their reign since the occupation of Punjab in 1849 . The British followed roughly the same alignment as the old routes , and at some places the newer routes ran parallel to the older routes .
Vadime Elisseeff ( 2000 ) comments on the Grand Trunk Road :
" Along this road marched not only the mighty armies of conquerors , but also the caravans of traders , scholars , artists , and common folk . Together with people , moved ideas , languages , customs , and cultures , not just in one , but in both directions . At different meeting places - permanent as well as temporary - people of different origins and from different cultural backgrounds , professing different faiths and creeds , eating different foods , wearing different clothes , and speaking different languages and dialects would meet one another peacefully . They would understand one another 's food , dress , manner , and etiquette , and even borrow words , phrases , idioms and , at times , whole languages from others . "
= = = = Amber Road = = = =
The Amber Road was a European trade route associated with the trade and transport of amber . Amber satisfied the criteria for long distance trade as it was light in weight and was in high demand for ornamental purposes around the Mediterranean . Before the establishment of Roman control over areas such as Pannonia , the Amber Road was virtually the only route available for long distance trade .
Towns along the Amber Road began to rise steadily during the 1st century CE , despite the troop movements under Titus Flavius Vespasianus and his son Titus Flavius Domitianus . Under the reign of Tiberius Caesar Augustus , the Amber Road was straightened and paved according to the prevailing urban standards . Roman towns began to appear along the road , initially founded near the site of Celtic oppida .
The 3rd century saw the Danube river become the principal artery of trade , eclipsing the Amber Road and other commercial routes . The redirection of investment to the Danubian forts saw the towns along the Amber Road growing slowly , though yet retaining their prosperity . The prolonged struggle between the Romans and the barbarians further left its mark on the towns along the Amber Road .
= = = = Via Maris = = = =
Via Maris , literally Latin for " the way of the sea , " was an ancient highway used by the Romans and the Crusaders . The states controlling the Via Maris were in a position to grant access for trade to their own citizens and collect tolls from the outsiders to maintain the trade route . The name Via Maris is a Latin translation of a Hebrew phrase related to Isaiah . Due to the biblical significance of this ancient route , many attempts to find its present @-@ day location have been made by Christian pilgrims . 13th @-@ century traveler and pilgrim Burchard of Mount Zion refers to the Via Maris route as a way leading along the shore of the Sea of Galilee .
= = = = Trans Saharan trade = = = =
Early Muslim writings confirm that the people of West Africa operated a sophisticated network of trade , usually under the authority of a monarch who levied taxes and provided bureaucratic and military support to his kingdom . Sophisticated mechanisms for the economic and political development of the involved African areas were in place before Islam further strengthened trade , towns and government in western Africa . The capital , court and trade of the region find mention in the works of scholar Abū ' Ubayd ' Abd Allāh al @-@ Bakrī ; the mainstay of the trans Saharan trade was gold and salt .
The powerful Saharan tribes , Berber in origin and later adapting to Muslim and Arab cultures , controlled the channels to western Africa by making efficient use of horse @-@ drawn vehicles and pack animals . The Songhai engaged in a struggle against the Sa 'di dynasty of Morocco over the control of the trans Saharan trade , resulting in damage on both sides and a weak Moroccan victory , further strengthening the uninvolved Saharan tribes . Struggles and disturbances continued till the 14th century , by which the Mandé merchants were trading with the Hausa , between Lake Chad and the Niger . Newer trade routes developed following extension of trade .
= = = Predominantly maritime routes = = =
= = = = Roman @-@ India routes = = = =
The Ptolemaic dynasty had initiated Greco @-@ Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports . The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt , indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time . By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India , trading in a diverse variety of goods . Arsinoe , Berenice Troglodytica and Myos Hormos were the principal Roman ports involved in this maritime trading network , while the Indian ports included Barbaricum , Barygaza , Muziris and Arikamedu .
The Indians were present in Alexandria and the Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire , which resulted in Rome 's loss of the Red Sea ports , previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco @-@ Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty .
= = = = Hanseatic trade = = = =
Shortly before the 12th century the Germans played a relatively modest role in the north European trade . However , this was to change with the development of Hanseatic trade , as a result of which German traders became prominent in the Baltic and the North Sea regions . Following the death of Eric VI of Denmark , German forces attacked and sacked Denmark , bringing with them artisans and merchants under the new administration which controlled the Hansa regions . During the third quarter of the 14th century the Hanseatic trade faced two major difficulties : economic conflict with the Flanders and hostilities with Denmark . These events led to the formation of an organized association of Hanseatic towns , which replaced the earlier union of German merchants . This new Hansa of the towns , aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade , was prominent for the next hundred and fifty years .
Philippe Dollinger associates the downfall of the Hansa to a new alliance between Lübeck , Hamburg and Bremen , which outshadowed the older institution . He further sets the date of dissolution of the Hansa at 1630 and concludes that the Hansa was almost entirely forgotten by the end of the 18th century . Scholar Georg Friedrich Sartorius published the first monograph regarding the community in the early years of the 19th century .
= = = = From the Varangians to the Greek = = = =
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks ( Russian : Путь " из варяг в греки " , Put iz varyag v greki , Swedish : Vägen från varjagerna till grekerna , Greek : Εμπορική Οδός Βαράγγων - Ελλήνων ) was a trade route that connected Scandinavia , Kievan Rus ' and the Byzantine Empire . The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium , and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of present @-@ day Belarus , Russia and Ukraine .
The route began in Scandinavian trading centres such as Birka , Hedeby , and Gotland , crossed the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland , followed the Neva River into the Lake Ladoga . Then it followed the Volkhov River , upstream past the towns of Staraya Ladoga and Velikiy Novgorod , crossed Lake Ilmen , and up the Lovat River . From there , ships had to be portaged to the Dnieper River near Gnezdovo . A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the Western Dvina ( Daugava ) between the Lovat and the Dnieper in the Smolensk region , and along the Kasplya River to Gnezdovo . Along the Dnieper , the route crossed several major rapids and passed through Kiev , and after entering the Black Sea followed its west coast to Constantinople .
= = = = Maritime republics ' Mediterranean trade = = = =
The economic growth of Europe around the year 1000 , together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes , eased the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean . The growing independence of some coastal cities gave them a leading role in this commerce : Maritime Republics ( Italian " Repubbliche Marinare " ) of Venice , Genoa , Amalfi , Pisa and Republic of Ragusa developed their own " empires " in the Mediterranean shores . From the 8th until the 15th century , they held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East . The silk and spice trade , involving spices , incense , herbs , drugs and opium , made these Mediterranean city @-@ states phenomenally rich . Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages . They were all imported from Asia and Africa . Muslim traders — mainly descendants of Arab sailors from Yemen and Oman — dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean , tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India , westward to Ormus in Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Sea . From there , overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts . Venetian merchants distributed then the goods through Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Empire , that eventually led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , barring Europeans from important combined @-@ land @-@ sea routes .
= = = = Spice Route = = = =
As trade between India and the Greco @-@ Roman world increased spices became the main import from India to the Western world , bypassing silk and other commodities . The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and 8th centuries .
The Abbasids used Alexandria , Damietta , Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China . Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk , camphor , ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad , the sultan of Yemen . Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka . Indian exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh ( 850 CE ) , al @-@ Ghafiqi ( 1150 ) , Ishak bin Imaran ( 907 ) and Al Kalkashandi ( 14th century ) . After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports , spices were sometimes shipped to East Africa , where they were used for many purposes , including burial rites .
On the orders of Manuel I of Portugal , four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope , continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut . The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore ; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade .
= = Modern routes = =
The modern times saw development of newer means of transport and often controversial free trade agreements , which altered the political and logistical approach prevalent during the Middle Ages . Newer means of transport led to the establishment of new routes , and countries opened up borders to allow trade in mutually agreed goods as per the prevailing free trade agreement . Some old trading route were reopened during the modern times , although in different political and logistical scenarios . The entry of harmful foreign pollutants by the way of trade routes has been a cause of alarm during the modern times . A conservative estimate stresses that future damages from harmful animal and plant diseases may be as high as 134 billion US dollars in the absence of effective measures to prevent the introduction of unwanted pests through various trade routes .
= = = Wagonway routes = = =
Networks , like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail , became prominent in the United States with wagon trains gaining popularity as a mode of long distance overland transportation for both people and goods
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. The Oregon @-@ California routes were highly organized with planned rendezvous locations and essential supplies . The settlers in the United States used these wagon trains - sometimes made up of 100 of more Conestoga wagons - for westward emigration during the 18th and the 19th centuries . Among the challenges faced by the wagon route operators were crossing rivers , mountains and hostile Native Americans . Preparations were also made according to the weather and protection of trade and travelers was ensured by a few guards on horseback . Wagon freighting was also essential to American growth until it was replaced by the railroad and the truck .
= = = Railway routes = = =
The 1844 Railway act of England compelled at least one train to a station every day with the third class fares priced at a penny a mile . Trade benefited as the workers and the lower classes had the ability to travel to other towns frequently . Suburban communities began to develop and towns began to spread outwards . The British constructed a vast railway network in India , but it was considered to serve a strategic purpose in addition to the commercial purpose . The efficient use of rail routes helped in the unification of the United States of America .
The modern times saw nations struggle for the control of rail routes : The Trans @-@ Siberian Railway was intended to be used by the Russian government for control of Manchuria and later China ; the German forces wanted to establish Berlin @-@ Baghdad Railway in order to influence the Near East ; and the Austrian government planned a route from Vienna to Salonika for control of the Balkans . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica ( 2002 ) :
Railroads reached their maturity in the early 20th century , as trains carried the bulk of land freight and passenger traffic in the industrialized countries of the world . By the mid @-@ 20th century , however , they had lost their preeminent position . The private automobile had replaced the railroad for short passenger trips , while the airplane had usurped it for long @-@ distance travel , especially in the United States . Railroads remained effective , however , for transporting people in high @-@ volume situations , such as commuting between the centres of large cities and their suburbs , and medium @-@ distance travel of less than about 300 miles between urban centres .
Although railroads have lost much of the general @-@ freight @-@ carrying business to semi @-@ trailer trucks , they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal , grain , chemicals , and ore over long distances . The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds . In addition , the introduction of piggyback flatcars , in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially @-@ designed cars , has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking .
= = = Modern road networks = = =
The advent motor vehicles created a demand for better use of highways . Roads evolved into two way roads , expressways , freeways and tollways during the modern times . Existing roads were developed and highways were designed according to intended use .
Trucks came into widespread use in the Western World during World War I , and quickly gained reputation as a means of long distance transportation of goods . Modern highways , such as the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , Highway 1 ( Australia ) and Pan @-@ American Highway allowed transport of goods and services across great distances . Automobiles continue to play a crucial role in the economies of the Industrialized countries , resulting in rise of businesses such as motor freight operation and truck transportation .
The emission rate for cars using highways has been on a decline between 1975 and 1995 due to regulations and the introduction of unleaded petrol . This trend is especially notable since there has been a growth in vehicles and vehicle miles traveled by automobiles using these highways .
= = = Modern maritime routes = = =
A consistent shift from land based trade to sea based trade has been recorded since the last three millennia . The strategic advantages of port cities as trading centers are many : they are both less dependent on vital connections and less vulnerable to blockages . Oceanic ports can help forge trading relationships with other parts of the world easily .
Modern maritime trade routes - sometimes in the form of artificial canals like the Suez Canal - had visible impact on the economic and political standing of nations . The opening of the Suez Canal altered British interactions with the colonies of the British Empire as the dynamics of transportation , trade and communication had now changed drastically . Other waterways , like the Panama Canal played an important role in the histories of many nations . Inland water transportation remained significantly important even as the advent of railroads and automobiles resulted in a steady decline of canals . Inland water transport is still used for the transportation of bulk commodities e.g. grains , coal , and ore .
Waterway commerce was historically important to Europe , particularly to Russia . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica ( 2002 ) : " Russia has been a significant beneficiary . Not only have inland waterways opened vast areas of its interior to development , but Moscow @-@ linked to the White , Baltic , Black , Caspian , and Azov seas by canals and rivers @-@ has become a major inland port . "
Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries . Oil spills , amounting to as much as 7 @.@ 56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year , occur due to damaged equipment or human error .
= = = Free trade areas = = =
Historically , many governments followed a policy of protection of trade . International free trade became visible in 1860 with the Anglo @-@ French commercial treaty , and the trend gained further momentum during the period after World War II . According to The Columbia Encyclopedia , Sixth Edition :
" After World War II , strong sentiment developed throughout the world against protection and high tariffs and in favor of freer trade . The results were new organizations and agreements on international trade such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( 1948 ) , the Benelux Economic Union ( 1948 ) , the European Economic Community ( Common Market , 1957 ) , the European Free Trade Association ( 1959 ) , Mercosur ( the Southern Cone Common Market , 1991 ) , and the World Trade Organization ( 1995 ) . In 1993 , the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) was approved by the governments of Canada , Mexico , and the United States . In the early 1990s , the nations of the European Union ( the successor organization to the Common Market ) undertook to remove all barriers to the free movement of trade and employment across their mutual borders . "
In May 2004 the United States of America signed the American Free trade Agreement with five Central American nations .
= = = Air routes = = =
Air transport has become an indispensable part of modern society . People have come to use air transport both for long and middle distances , with the average route length of long distances being 720 kilometers in Europe and 1220 kilometers in the US . This industry annually carries 1600 million passengers worldwide , covers a 15 million kilometer network , and has an annual turnover of 260 billion dollars .
This mode of transportation links national , international and global economies , making it vital to many other industries . Newer trends of liberalization of trade have fostered routes among nations bound by agreements . One such example , the American Open Skies policy , led to greater openness in many international markets , but some international restrictions have survived even during the present times .
Express delivery through international cargo airlines touched US $ 20 billion in 1998 and , according to the World Trade Organization , is expected to triple in 2015 . In 1998 , 50 pure cargo @-@ service companies operated internationally .
Air transport particularly favors light , expensive and small products : electronic media rather than books , for example , and refined drugs rather than bulk food .
= = = Pipeline networks = = =
The economic importance of pipeline transport - responsible for a high percentage of oil and natural gas transportation - is often undermined by the general public due to the lack of visibility of this mode . Generally held to be safer and more economical and reliable than the other modes of transport , this mode has many advantages over rival modes , such as trucks and railways . Examples of modern pipeline transport include Alashankou @-@ Dushanzi Crude Oil Pipeline and Iran @-@ Armenia Natural Gas Pipeline . International pipeline transport projects , like the Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline , presently connect modern nation states — in this case , Azerbaijan , Georgia and Turkey — through pipeline networks .
In some select cases , pipelines can even transport solids , such as coal and other minerals , over long distances ; short distance transportation of goods such as grain , cement , concrete , solid wastes , pulp etc. is also feasible .
= A Child of Our Time =
A Child of Our Time is a secular oratorio by the British composer Michael Tippett ( 1905 – 98 ) , who also wrote the libretto . Composed between 1939 and 1941 , it was first performed at the Adelphi Theatre , London , on 19 March 1944 . The work was inspired by events that affected Tippett profoundly : the assassination in 1938 of a German diplomat by a young Jewish refugee , and the Nazi government 's reaction in the form of a violent pogrom against its Jewish population — called Kristallnacht . Tippett 's oratorio deals with these incidents in the context of the experiences of oppressed people generally , and carries a strongly pacifist message of ultimate understanding and reconciliation . The text 's recurrent themes of shadow and light reflect the Jungian psychoanalysis which Tippett underwent in the years immediately before writing the work .
The oratorio uses a traditional three @-@ part format based on that of Handel 's Messiah , and is structured in the manner of Bach 's Passions . The work 's most original feature is Tippett 's use of American spirituals , which carry out the role allocated by Bach to chorales . Tippett justified this innovation on the grounds that these songs of oppression possess a universality absent from traditional hymns . A Child of Our Time was well received on its first performance , and has since been performed all over the world in many languages . A number of recorded versions are available , including one conducted by Tippett when he was 86 years old .
= = Background and conception = =
Michael Tippett was born in London in 1905 , to well @-@ to @-@ do though unconventional parents . His father , a lawyer and businessman , was a freethinker , his mother a writer and suffragette . He received piano lessons as a child , but first showed his musical prowess while a pupil at Stamford School in Lincolnshire , between 1920 and 1922 . Although the school 's formal music curriculum was slight , Tippett received private piano tuition from Frances Tinkler , a noted local teacher whose most distinguished pupil had been Malcolm Sargent , himself a former pupil at Stamford . Tippett 's chance purchase in a local bookshop of Stanford 's book Musical Composition led to his determination to be a composer , and in April 1923 he was accepted as a student at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) . Here he studied composition , first under Charles Wood ( who died in 1926 ) and later , less successfully , with Charles Kitson . He also studied conducting , first under Sargent and later under Adrian Boult . He left the RCM in December 1928 , but after two years spent unsuccessfully attempting to launch his career as a composer , he returned to the college in 1930 for a further period of study , principally under the professor of counterpoint , R. O. Morris .
In the economically depressed 1930s Tippett adopted a strongly left @-@ wing political stance , and became increasingly involved with the unemployed , both through his participation in the North Yorkshire work camps , and as founder of the South London Orchestra made up of out @-@ of @-@ work musicians . He was briefly a member of the British Communist Party in 1935 , but his sympathies were essentially Trotskyist , inimical to the Stalinist orientation of his local party , and he soon left . In 1935 he embraced pacifism , but by this time he was becoming overtaken by a range of emotional problems and uncertainties , largely triggered by the break @-@ up of an intense relationship with the painter Wilfred Franks . In addition to these personal difficulties he became anxious that the political situation in Europe was leading inexorably towards war . After meeting the Jungian psychoanalyst John Layard , Tippett underwent a period of therapy which included self @-@ analysis of his dreams . According to Tippett 's biographer Geraint Lewis , the outcome of this process was a " rebirth , confirming for Tippett the nature of his homosexuality while ... strengthening his destiny as a creative artist at the possible expense of personal relationships " . The encounter with Layard led Tippett to a lifelong interest in the work and teaching of Carl Jung , an influence carried through into many of his subsequent compositions .
In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s several of Tippett 's early works were published , including his String Quartet No. 1 , Sonata No. 1 for piano , and Concerto for Double String Orchestra . Among his unpublished output in these years were two works for voice : the ballad @-@ opera Robin Hood , written for performance at the Yorkshire work camps , and A Song of Liberty based on William Blake 's " The Marriage of Heaven and Hell " . As his self @-@ confidence increased , Tippett felt increasingly driven to write a work of overt political protest . In his search for a subject he first considered the Dublin Easter Rising of 1916 : he may have been aware that Benjamin Britten had written incidental music to Montagu Slater 's play Easter 1916 . However , events towards the end of 1938 turned his attention away from Irish matters . Tippett had made several visits to Germany , and had acquired a love for its literature and culture . He became increasingly distressed by reports of events in that country and , in particular the persecution of its Jewish population . In November 1938 the assassination in Paris of a German diplomat , Ernst vom Rath , by Herschel Grynszpan , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish refugee , precipitated the " Kristallnacht " pogrom across Germany . Over several days of violence synagogues were burned
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buildings . Tyldesley 's built environment is almost uniformly constructed of brick .
Among the listed buildings in Tyldesley are Chaddock Hall and Damhouse , both Grade II listed . Chaddock Hall is a private residence and Damhouse or Astley Hall is a heritage centre having previously been used as the office block for Astley Hospital .
= = Transport = =
Edward Entwistle , the driver of the first inter @-@ city scheduled passenger train in the world , was born in Tyldesley in 1815 . He drove the passenger service on the Liverpool to Manchester railway .
In 1861 the London and North Western Railway revived powers granted to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to build a railway from Eccles to Wigan through the town . Tyldesley railway station was to the east of the junction of the branch to Kenyon Junction on the Liverpool to Manchester Line via Leigh and Pennington . The Earl of Ellesmere cut the first sod at Worsley on 11 September 1861 and the line opened to traffic on 1 September 1864 . The Tyldesley Loopline closed on 3 May 1969 as a result of the Beeching Axe .
In 1900 , a Bill authorising South Lancashire Tramways to construct more than 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton and on 25 October 1902 a branch from Atherton to Tyldesley was opened and Tyldesley got its first tram . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport . In August 1931 trams were replaced by trolley buses . Because of Tyldesley 's narrow streets trams and trolley buses had to follow a one @-@ way system ; eastbound trams ran along Shuttle Street and Milk Street and westbound used Elliot Street and Castle Street , a system now used by all traffic . Tyldesley is connected to neighbouring towns by bus services operated by Diamond Bus North West of Atherton and First Greater Manchester .
The former trackbed of the Tyldesley Loopline route to the A580 , within the Wigan MBC area was reserved in the Unitary Development Plan in case the rail route could be reinstated . A guided busway was built on the former trackbed but the proposal was not universally popular . After consultations work started on the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile busway from Leigh to Ellenbrook in 2013 . It has four stops , Cooling Lane , Astley Street , Hough Lane and Sale Lane and one of its three park and ride sites in Tyldesley . A pathway for walkers , cyclists and horse riders runs alongside it .
= = Education = =
George Ormerod gave a site for a national school near St George 's Church , it catered for all age groups when it opened in 1827 . A day school was opened in the old Wesley Chapel in 1856 and in 1864 was replaced by new school which lasted until 1912 . A church school opened in Johnson St in 1872 and closed the 1960s . The British School in Upper George Street opened in 1902 . Its premises are now the Community Life Centre . The Mission School or Central C of E School in Darlington Street opened in 1892 . A board school opened in Lower Elliott Street in 1913 which was used for girls ' secondary education after 1935 . Garrett Hall Boys Secondary School opened in 1935 .
St George 's Central Primary School , built in the late 1990s is an amalgamation of the historical St George 's C of E and Central C of E School . Other primary schools are Tyldesley Primary School and Garrett Hall Primary . Until 2007 there was a school in Shakerley but this has closed . Kingshill Special School occupying the old girls ' secondary school , has closed .
The main school for secondary education in Tyldesley is Fred Longworth High School , which was awarded Arts College status in 1998 . Children in Tyldesley also attend other high schools in the area including , St Mary 's Catholic High School in Astley , the only Catholic high school and sixth form in the area .
= = Religion = =
John Wesley preached in Shakerley four times , between 1748 and 1752 , laying the foundations for a place of worship . In the 1780s George Whitfield who worked with Wesley early in his ministry also preached there . Tyldesley 's first place of worship , Top Chapel was built in the Square in 1789 for the Countess of Huntingdon 's Connexion which had broken from the Church of England . Thomas Johnson , gifted the site on the highest point of Tyldesley and Lady Huntingdon , a supporter of Wesley supplied money for building materials . The chapel became known as Top Chapel from its geographical location .
Before 1825 Tyldesley had no established church , and lay within the ancient parish of Leigh in the Diocese of Chester . The diocese divided in 1847 , when the present Diocese of Manchester was created . For ritual baptisms , marriages and burials , the population , had to travel to churches outside of the township 's boundaries , Leigh Parish Church or its daughter churches , Astley Chapel or Atherton Chapel or to Deane or Eccles .
The St George 's Church a chapel of ease to Leigh , St Mary 's , was built in 1825 on land donated by Thomas Johnson . It was a Commissioners ' Church , paid for by money from the parliament of the United Kingdom raised by the Church Building Act 1818 , said to be a celebration of Britain 's victory in the Battle of Waterloo . Robert Smirke an official architect to the Office of Works , advised the Parliamentary Commissioners on the building of new churches from 1818 onwards , including St George 's . The chapel was consecrated on 19 September 1825 , dedicated to England 's patron saint . The church could seat 1 @,@ 100 people , it is 112 feet ( 34 m ) in length , 60 feet ( 18 m ) in width and its spire , a local landmark is 150 feet ( 46 m ) in height . George Ormerod gave the land for the churchyard and also six bells which were cast at Downham Market .
There were chapels of the Congregational , Primitive Methodist , Wesleyan Methodist , Baptist , Welsh Congregational , Welsh Calvinistic and Independent Methodist connexions . Welsh chapels served the Welsh people who migrated toto the town after the opening of the railway in 1864 .
= = Sport = =
The idea for a public swimming baths came from millowner , Caleb Wright . The Local Board built the baths in Union Street at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( £ 110 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and they opened to great celebrations in 1876 . Tyldesley Swimming Club was formed as soon as the baths opened . The baths closed on health grounds in 1960 and the closed Majestic Cinema on Castle Street was converted into public baths in 1964 . The pool is now the Pelican Centre .
Before the 1895 schism in English rugby , John Berry played rugby union for England , and Tyldesley FC which was founded in 1881 . After the schism , the club was a founder member of the Northern Rugby Football Union ( now Rugby League ) and played for five seasons from 1895 – 96 to 1899 – 1900 finishing 6th of 22 in the initial combined league . The club rejoined the Rugby Football Union in 1911 playing at Well Street for many years before moving to St George 's Park on Astley Street in November 2001 . In 2008 / 09 season the 1st XV lost 8 – 7 to Cullompton in the Senior Vase Final at Twickenham .
Long @-@ distance runner Fred Norris worked underground at Cleworth Hall Colliery and competed in the 1952 Helsinki and 1956 Melbourne Olympics .
Tyldesley was the birthplace of professional wrestler , Lord James Blears .
= = Culture = =
Tyldesley 's wealth as an industrial town resulted in outlets for the entertainment of its population , including cinemas and public houses . Films were shown in Tyldesley Miners ' Hall from 1908 . Three cinemas were built in the town , the Theatre Royal in John Street opened in 1909 , the Carlton on Johnson Street in 1911 , and the Majestic in Castle Street in 1923 . In 1902 the council acquired land for a public park on Astley Street . A public library was built in 1908 with the aid of an Andrew Carnegie grant , on the site of the old Temperance Hall and Mechanics Institute on Stanley Street built in 1851 .
Founded in 1877 , Tyldesley Good Templars Band was the town 's first brass band . Tyldesley Band is a member of the North West Brass Band Association and meets in the chapel on Milk Street . Tyldesley Little Theatre in Lemon Street is home to an amateur dramatic society , members of the Greater Manchester Drama Federation . The auditorium is a small 150 @-@ seat theatre with a traditional proscenium arch stage , stalls and balcony seating . The town 's industrial landscape was recorded in the 1960s and 1970s in the paintings and prints of artist Roger Hampson .
= = Public services = =
Tyldesley is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Leigh and Atherton fire stations . Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust , which provides an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan Hospital and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by Wigan Metropolitan Council , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Tyldesley 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West . United Utilities manage Tyldesley 's drinking and waste water .
= Evstafi @-@ class battleship =
The Evstafi class were a pair of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I for the Black Sea Fleet . They were slightly enlarged versions of the Russian battleship Potemkin , with increased armour and more guns . Numerous alterations were made as a result of experience in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 5 that seriously delayed the completion of the two ships .
They were the most modern ships in the Black Sea Fleet when World War I began and formed the core of the fleet for the first year of the war , before the newer dreadnoughts entered service . They forced the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben to disengage during the Battle of Cape Sarych shortly after Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in late 1914 . Both ships covered several bombardments of the Bosphorus fortifications in early 1915 , including one where they were attacked by the Goeben , but they managed to drive her off . Later , Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust were relegated to secondary roles after the first dreadnought entered service in late 1915 , and were subsequently put into reserve in 1918 in Sevastopol .
Both ships were captured when the Germans took the city in May 1918 and was turned over to the Allies after the Armistice in November 1918 . Their engines were destroyed in 1919 by the British when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . They were abandoned when the Whites evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and were scrapped in 1922 – 23 .
= = Description = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The two Evstafi @-@ class ships were 379 feet ( 115 @.@ 5 m ) long at the waterline and 385 feet 9 inches ( 117 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 74 feet ( 22 @.@ 6 m ) and a draught of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 855 long tons ( 13 @,@ 061 t ) , only 120 long tons ( 120 t ) more than their designed displacement of 12 @,@ 738 long tons ( 12 @,@ 942 t ) . The Evstafi @-@ class were slightly larger than Potemkin , being 8 feet 3 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) longer , 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) wider , but displaced 45 long tons ( 46 t ) less . The ships had a double bottom from frames 18 to 82 . They were divided into 10 main compartments by transverse watertight bulkheads . They also had a centreline longitudinal bulkhead , presumably separating the engine rooms .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Evstafi class had two three @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines built by ONZiV in Nikolayev that had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 900 kW ) . Twenty @-@ two Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a pressure of 242 psi ( 1 @,@ 669 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) , which drove two screw propellers . On sea trials , the powerplant produced a total over 10 @,@ 800 ihp ( 8 @,@ 100 kW ) and a top speed of 16 @.@ 2 knots ( 30 @.@ 0 km / h ; 18 @.@ 6 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Two steam @-@ powered dynamos were carried with a total output of 300 kW , as well as two auxiliary dynamos rated at 64 kW each .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre Pattern 1895 guns mounted in hydraulically powered twin turrets fore and aft . Each turret had a firing arc of 260 degrees . The guns had a rate of fire of 40 seconds between rounds and 75 rounds per gun were carried . These guns had a maximum elevation of 35 degrees and could depress to -5 degrees . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 598 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) to a range of 22 @,@ 200 yards ( 20 @,@ 300 m ) at maximum elevation .
All four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 50 @-@ calibre Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in the corners of the superstructure in armoured casemates . These guns had a firing arc of 120 degrees and could fire straight ahead or astern . They had a range of elevation from -5 degrees to + 20 degrees . The guns fired a high explosive shell that weighed 264 @.@ 3 pounds ( 119 @.@ 9 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 647 ft / s ( 807 m / s ) . At 19 @.@ 5 degrees elevation it could range out to 15 @,@ 800 yards ( 14 @,@ 400 m ) . 110 rounds were stowed per gun .
The dozen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Pattern 1892 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in the lower casemates . The guns could elevate to a maximum of 20 degrees and depress to -5 degrees . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 27 lb ( 41 @.@ 40 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 yards ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) when fired at maximum elevation . The ships carried 180 rounds per gun .
The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament consisted of fourteen 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ calibre guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . The gun fired 10 @.@ 8 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shells to a range of about 8 @,@ 600 yards ( 7 @,@ 864 m ) at its maximum elevation of 21 degrees with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The rate of fire was between 12 and 15 rounds per minute .
The Evstafi class carried two 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes on the broadside aft . These torpedoes carried a 212 @-@ pound ( 96 kg ) warhead of TNT . It had two speed settings which gave it a maximum range of 3 @,@ 280 yards ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) or 2 @,@ 190 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) at 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) .
= = = Protection = = =
The Evstafi @-@ class ships used Krupp armour . The maximum thickness of the waterline belt was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to 7 – 8 inches ( 178 – 203 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered about 157 feet ( 47 @.@ 9 m ) of the ship 's length . The belt was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , including 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) below the waterline . The belt terminated in 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The belt was extended to the bow by armour plates 3 – 4 inches ( 76 – 102 mm ) thick and to the stern by 2 – 3 @-@ inch ( 51 – 76 mm ) armour .
The upper belt was six inches thick and was intended to protect the gap between the waterline belt and the casemate . The casemate protected the six and eight @-@ inch guns and was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick ; 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) bulkheads separated each gun . The sides of the turrets were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and they had a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) roof . Their barbettes were also 10 inches thick , although this was reduced to five inches where they were screened behind other armour . The two conning towers ' sides were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) in thickness with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) roof . The decks ranged from 1 @.@ 37 – 3 inches ( 35 – 76 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction = =
Construction of both ships began well before the formal keel @-@ laying ceremony ; Evstafi on 13 July 1904 and Ioann Zlatoust on 13 July 1903 , although the working drawings and preliminary calculations were not approved until 31 May 1904 , which caused some problems with Ioann Zlatoust . Progress was relatively quick , despite the disruptions caused by the 1905 Revolution , and both ships were launched less than three years after work began . Fitting @-@ out , however , was considerably delayed by a number of changes made as the navy digested the lessons of the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Maximum elevation of the main guns was increased from 15 degree to 35 degrees , the number of torpedo tubes was reduced from five to two , mine stowage was eliminated as were the 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The armour protection of the waterline fore and aft of the main belt was increased to prevent the sort of damage that disabled several ships at the Battle of Tsushima . A second conning tower was added at the rear of the superstructure and its design was altered , probably to eliminate the overhanging top that deflected splinters into the conning tower at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima . The masts and their fighting tops were replaced by light pole masts and light booms replaced the heavy boat cranes to save weight .
= = World War I = =
Evstafi , as the newest ship in the Black Sea Fleet , was the flagship of Vice Admiral Andrei Eberhardt for the first year or so of World War I. Two weeks after the Russian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November 1914 , the Black Sea Fleet set out to bombard Trebizond on 15 November . The force consisted of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Evstafi , Ioann Zlatoust , Pantelimon , Rostislav , Tri Sviatitelia and three cruisers escorted by three destroyers and 11 torpedo boats . They did this successfully on the morning of 17 November and then turned west to hunt for Turkish shipping along the Anatolian coast before setting course for Sevastopol later that afternoon . The following day , while en route , the ships were intercepted by the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych .
Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy and the capital ships initially did not spot each other . The Black Sea Fleet had experimented on concentrating fire from several ships under the control of a " master ship " before the war and Evstafi held her fire until Ioann Zlatoust , the master ship , could see Goeben . When the gunnery commands were finally received they showed a range over 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) in excess of Evstafi 's own estimate of 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) , so Evstafi opened fire using her own data before Goeben turned to unmask its broadside . She scored a hit with her first salvo as a 12 @-@ inch shell partially penetrated the armor casemate protecting one of Goeben 's 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) secondary guns . It detonated some of the ready @-@ use ammunition , starting a fire that burnt out the casemate and killed its crew .
Goeben returned fire shortly afterward and hit Evstafi in the middle funnel ; the shell detonated after it passed through the funnel and destroyed the antennae for the fire @-@ control radio , which meant that Evstafi could not correct Ioann Zlatoust 's inaccurate range data . The other ships either used Ioann Zlatoust 's incorrect data or never saw Goeben and failed to register any hits on the German ship . Goeben hit Evstafi four more times , although one shell failed to detonate , before Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon decided to turn away and break contact after fourteen minutes of combat . Evstafi suffered 34 killed and 24 wounded from those hits , and only fired between 12 and 16 twelve @-@ inch shells , as well as 14 eight @-@ inch and 19 six @-@ inch shells . Ioann Zlatoust fired only six shells from her main armament .
Several armour plates on Evstafi required replacement after the battle and they were taken from the old pre @-@ dreadnought Dvenadsat Apostolov , allowing the repairs to be complete by 29 November . On 9 January 1915 Breslau and the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye encountered the Russian fleet while returning from a bombardment mission in the eastern part of the Black Sea . During a minor engagement Breslau hit Evstafi 's forward turret , temporarily putting it out of action , after which the two cruisers escaped using their superior speed .
= = = Coast bombardment = = =
Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust
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from throughout Asia , including ( until 1638 ) goods from Japan . The return route of the Manila galleons , first charted by the Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta , took the ships northeast into the Kuroshio Current ( also known as the Japan Current ) off the coast of Japan , and then across the Pacific to the west coast of Mexico , landing eventually in Acapulco .
Spanish ships were periodically shipwrecked on the coasts of Japan due to bad weather , initiating contacts with the country . The Spanish wished to expand the Christian faith in Japan . Efforts to expand influence in Japan were met by stiff resistance towards the Jesuits , who had started the evangelizing of the country in 1549 , as well as by the opposition of Portuguese and the Dutch who did not wish to see Spain participate in Japanese trade . However , some Japanese , such as Christopher and Cosmas , are known to have crossed the Pacific onboard Spanish galleons as early as 1587 . It is known that gifts were exchanged between the governor of the Philippines and Toyotomi Hideyoshi , who thanks him in a 1597 letter , writing " The black elephant in particular I found most unusual . "
In 1609 , the Spanish Manila galleon San Francisco encountered bad weather on its way from Manila to Acapulco , and was wrecked on the Japanese coast in Chiba , near Tokyo . The sailors were rescued and welcomed , and the ship 's captain , Rodrigo de Vivero , former interim governor of the Philippines , met with the retired shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu . Rodrigo de Vivero drafted a treaty , signed on 29 November 1609 , whereby the Spaniards could establish a factory in eastern Japan , mining specialists would be imported from New Spain , Spanish ships would be allowed to visit Japan in case of necessity , and a Japanese embassy would be sent to the Spanish court .
= = First Japanese expeditions to the Americas = =
= = = 1610 San Buena Ventura = = =
A Franciscan monk named Luis Sotelo , who was proselytizing in the area of what is now modern Tokyo , convinced Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son Tokugawa Hidetada to send him as a representative to New Spain ( Mexico ) on one of their ships , in order to advance the trade treaty . Rodrigo de Vivero offered to sail on the Japanese ship in order to guarantee the safety of their reception in New Spain , but insisted that another Franciscan , named Alonso Muños , be sent instead as the Shogun 's representative . In 1610 , Rodrigo de Vivero , several Spanish sailors , the Franciscan father and 22 Japanese representatives led by the trader Tanaka Shōsuke sailed to Mexico aboard the San Buena Ventura , a ship built by the English adventurer William Adams for the Shogun . Once in New Spain , Alonso Muños met with the Viceroy Luis de Velasco , who agreed to send an ambassador to Japan in the person of the famous explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno with the added mission of exploring the " Gold and silver islands " ( " Isla de Plata " ) that were thought to be east of the Japanese isles .
Vizcaino arrived in Japan in 1611 and had many meetings with the Shogun and feudal lords . These encounters were tainted by his poor respect for Japanese customs , the mounting resistance of the Japanese towards Catholic proselytism , and the intrigues of the Dutch against Spanish ambitions . Vizcaino finally left to search for the " Silver island " , during which search he encountered bad weather , forcing him to return to Japan with heavy damage .
= = = 1612 San Sebastian = = =
Without waiting for Vizcaino , another ship – built in Izu by the Tokugawa shogunate under the minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen , and named San Sebastian – left for Mexico on 9 September 1612 with Luis Sotelo onboard as well as two representatives of Date Masamune , with the objective of advancing the trade agreement with New Spain . However , the ship foundered a few miles from Uraga , and the expedition had to be abandoned .
= = The 1613 embassy project = =
The Shogun decided to build a new galleon in Japan in order to bring Vizcaino back to New Spain , together with a Japanese embassy accompanied by Luis Sotelo . The galleon , named Date Maru by the Japanese and later San Juan Bautista by the Spanish , took 45 days work in building , with the participation of technical experts from the Bakufu ( the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen , an acquaintance of William Adams with whom he built several ships , dispatched his Chief Carpenter ) , 800 shipwrights , 700 smiths , and 3 @,@ 000 carpenters . The daimyo of Sendai , Date Masamune , was put in charge of the project . He named one of his retainers , Hasekura Tsunenaga ( his fief was rated at around 600 koku ) , to lead the mission :
" The Great Ship left Toshima @-@ Tsukinoura for the Southern Barbarians on 15 September [ Japanese calendar ] , with at its head Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga , and those called Imaizumi Sakan , Matsuki Shusaku , Nishi Kyusuke , Tanaka Taroemon , Naito Hanjuro , Sonohoka Kyuemon , Kuranojo , Tonomo , Kitsunai , Kyuji , as well as several others under Rokuemon , as well as 40 Southern Barbarians , 10 men of Mukai Shogen , and also tradespeople , to a total 180 " ( Records of the Date House , Keichō @-@ Genna 伊達家慶長元和留控 , Gonoi p . 56 ) .
The objective of the Japanese embassy was both to discuss trade agreements with the Spanish crown in Madrid , and to meet with the Pope in Rome . Date Masamune displayed a great will to welcome the Catholic religion in his domain : he invited Luis Sotelo and authorized the propagation of Christianity in 1611 . In his letter to the Pope , brought by Hasekura , he wrote : " I 'll offer my land for a base of your missionary work . Send us as many padres as possible . "
Sotelo , in his own account of the travels , emphasizes the religious dimension of the mission , claiming that the main objective was to spread the Christian faith in northern Japan :
" I was formerly dispatched as ambassador of Idate Masamune , who holds the reins of the kingdom of Oxu [ Japanese : 奥州 ] ( which is in the Eastern part of Japan ) — who , while he has not yet been reborn through baptism , has been catechized , and was desirous that the Christian faith should be preached in his kingdom — together with another noble of his Court , Philippus Franciscus Faxecura Rocuyemon , to the Roman Senate & to the one who at that time was in charge of the Apostolic See , His Holiness Pope Paul V. " ( Luis Sotelo De Ecclesiae Iaponicae Statu Relatio , 1634 ) .
The embassy was probably , at that time , part of a plan to diversify and increase trade with foreign countries , before the participation of Christians in the Osaka rebellion triggered a radical reaction from the Shogunate , with the interdiction of Christianity in the territories it directly controlled , in 1614 .
= = Trans @-@ Pacific voyage = =
Upon completion , the ship left on 28 October 1613 for Acapulco with around 180 people on board , including 10 samurai of the Shogun ( provided by the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shogen Tadakatsu ) , 12 samurai from Sendai , 120 Japanese merchants , sailors , and servants , and around 40 Spaniards and Portuguese , including Sebastian Vizcaino who , in his own words , only had the quality of a passenger .
= = = New Spain ( Acapulco ) = = =
The ship first reached Cape Mendocino in today 's California , and then continued along the coast to arrive in Acapulco on 25 January 1614 after three months at sea . The Japanese were received with great ceremony , but had to wait in Acapulco until orders were received regarding how to organize the rest of their travels .
Fights erupted between the Japanese and the Spaniards , especially Vizcaino , apparently due to some disputes on the handling of presents from the Japanese ruler . A contemporary journal , written by the historian Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin , a noble Aztec born in Amecameca ( ancient Chalco province ) in 1579 , whose formal name was Domingo Francisco de San Anton Muñon , relates Vizcaino was seriously wounded in the fight :
" Señor Vizcaino is still coming slowly , coming hurt ; the Japanese injured him when they beat and stabbed him in Acapulco , as became known here in Mexico , because of all the things coming along that had been made his responsibility in Japan "
Following these fights , orders were promulgated on 4 and 5 March to bring peace back . The orders explained that :
" The Japanese should not be submitted to attacks in this Land , but they should remit their weapons until their departure , except for Hasekura Tsunenaga and eight of his retinue ... The Japanese will be free to go where they want , and should be treated properly . They should not be abused in words or actions . They will be free to sell their goods . These orders have been promulgated to the Spanish , the Indians , the Mulattos , the Mestizos , and the Blacks , and those who don 't respect them will be punished " .
= = = New Spain ( Mexico ) = = =
The embassy remained two months in Acapulco and entered Mexico City on 24 March , where it was received with great ceremony . The ultimate mission for the embassy was to go on to Europe . The embassy spent some time in Mexico , and then went to Veracruz to board the fleet of Don Antonio Oquendo .
Chimalpahin gives some account of the visit of Hasekura .
" This is the second time that the Japanese have landed one of their ships on the shore at Acapulco . They are transporting here all things of iron , and writing desks , and some cloth that they are to sell here . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
" It became known here in Mexico and was said that the reason their ruler the Emperor of Japan sent this said lordly emissary and ambassador here , is to go in Rome to see the Holy Father Paul V , and to give him their obedience concerning the holy church , so that all the Japanese want to become Christians " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
Hasekura was settled in a house next to the Church of San Francisco , and met with the Viceroy . He explained to him that he was also planning to meet King Philip III to offer him peace and to obtain that the Japanese could come to Mexico for trade . On Wednesday 9 April , 20 Japanese were baptized , and 22 more on 20 April by the archbishop in Mexico , don Juan Pérez de la Serna , at the Church of San Francisco . Altogether 63 of them received confirmation on 25 April . Hasekura waited for his travel to Europe to be baptized there :
" But the lordly emissary , the ambassador , did not want to be baptized here ; it was said that he will be baptized later in Spain " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
= = = = Departure for Europe = = = =
Chimalpahin explains that Hasekura left some of his compatriots behind before leaving for Europe :
" The Ambassador of Japan set out and left for Spain . In going he divided his vassals ; he took a certain number of Japanese , and he left an equal number here as merchants to trade and sell things . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
The fleet left for Europe on the San Jose on 10 June . Hasekura had to leave the largest parts of the Japanese group behind , who were to wait in Acapulco for the return of the embassy .
Some of them , as well as those from the previous travel of Tanaka Shōsuke , returned to Japan the same year , sailing back with the San Juan Bautista :
" Today , Tuesday the 14th of the month of October of the year 1614 , was when some Japanese set out from Mexico here going home to Japan . ; they lived here in Mexico for four years . Some still remained here ; they earn a living trading and selling here the goods they brought with them from Japan . " ( Chimalpahin , " Annals of His Time " ) .
= = = Cuba = = =
The embassy stopped and changed ships in Havana in Cuba in July 1614 . The embassy stayed in Havana for six days . A bronze statue was erected on 26 April 2001 at the head of Havana Bay .
= = Mission to Europe = =
= = = Spain = = =
The fleet arrived in Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 5 October 1614 .
" The fleet arrived safely finally , after some dangers and storms , to the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 5 October , where the Duke of Medina Sidonia was advised of the arrival . He sent carriages to honor them and accommodate the Ambassador and his gentlemen " ( Scipione Amati " History of the Kingdom of Voxu " ) .
" The Japanese ambassador Hasekura Rokuemon , sent by Joate Masamune , king of Boju , entered Seville on Wednesday , 23 October 1614 . He was accompanied by 30 Japanese with blades , their captain of the guard , and 12 bowmen and halberdiers with painted lances and blades of ceremony . The captain of the guard was Christian and was called Don Thomas , the son of a Japanese martyr " ( Library Capitular Colombina 84 @-@ 7 @-@ 19 Memorias ... , fol.195 ) .
The Japanese embassy met with King Philip III in Madrid on 30 January 1615 . Hasekura remitted to the King a letter from Date Masamune , as well as offer for a treaty . The King responded that he would do what he could to accommodate these requests .
Hasekura was baptized on 17 February by the king 's personal chaplain , and renamed Felipe Francisco Hasekura . The baptism ceremony was to have been conducted by the Archbishop of Toledo , Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas , though he was too ill to actually carry this out , and the Duke of Lerma – the main administrator of Phillip III 's rule and the de facto ruler of Spain – was designated as Hasekura 's godfather .
The embassy stayed eight months in Spain before leaving the country for Italy .
= = = France = = =
After traveling across Spain , the embassy sailed on the Mediterranean aboard three Spanish frigates towards Italy . Due to bad weather , they had to stay for a few days in the French harbour of Saint @-@ Tropez , where they were received by the local nobility , and made quite a sensation on the populace .
The visit of the Japanese Embassy is recorded in the city 's chronicles as led by " Philip Francis Faxicura , Ambassador to the Pope , from Date Masamunni , King of Woxu in Japan " .
Many picturesque details of their movements were recorded :
" They never touch food with their fingers , but instead use two small sticks that they hold with three fingers . "
" They blow their noses in soft silky papers the size of a hand , which they never use twice , so that they throw them on the ground after usage , and they were delighted to see our people around them precipitate themselves to pick them up . "
" Their swords cut so well that they can cut a soft paper just by putting it on the edge and by blowing on it . "
( " Relations of Mme de St Troppez " , October 1615 , Bibliothèque Inguimbertine , Carpentras ) .
The visit of Hasekura Tsunenaga to Saint @-@ Tropez in 1615 is the first recorded instance of France – Japan relations .
= = = Italy = = =
The Japanese Embassy went on to Italy where they were able to meet with Pope Paul V in Rome in November 1615 , the same year Galileo Galilei was first confronted by the Roman Inquisition regarding his findings against geocentricism . Hasekura remitted to the Pope two gilded letters , one in Japanese and one in Latin , containing a request for a trade treaty between Japan and Mexico and the dispatch of Christian missionaries to Japan . These letters are still visible in the Vatican archives . The Latin letter , probably written by Luis Sotelo for Date Masamune , reads , in part :
Kissing the Holy feet of the Great , Universal , Most Holy Lord of The Entire World , Pope Paul , in profound submission and reverence , I , Idate Masamune , King of Wōshū in the Empire of Japan , suppliantly say :
The Franciscan Padre Luis Sotelo came to our country to spread the faith of God . On that occasion , I learnt about this faith and desired to become a Christian , but I still haven 't accomplished this desire due to some small issues . However , in order to encourage my subjects to become Christians , I wish that you send missionaries of the Franciscan church . I guarantee that you will be able to build a church and that your missionaries will be protected . I also wish that you select and send a bishop as well . Because of that , I have sent one of my samurai , Hasekura Rokuemon , as my representative to accompany Luis Sotelo across the seas to Rome , to give you a stamp of obedience and to kiss your feet . Further , as our country and Nueva España are neighbouring countries , could you intervene so that we can discuss with the King of Spain , for the benefit of dispatching missionaries across the seas . " Translation of the Latin letter of Date Masamune to the Pope .
The Pope agreed to the dispatch of missionaries , but left the decision for trade to the King of Spain .
The Roman Senate also gave to Hasekura the honorary title of Roman Noble and Roman Citizen , in a document he brought back to Japan , and which is preserved today in Sendai .
Sotelo also described the visit to the Pope , book De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ( published posthumously in 1634 ) :
" When we got there by the aid of God in the Year of Our Salvation 1615 , not only were we kindly received by His Holiness the great Pope , with the Holy College of the Cardinals and a gathering of bishops and nobles , and even the joy and general happiness of the Roman People , but we and three others ( whom the Japanese Christians had specially designated to announce their condition with respect to the Christian religion ) were heard , rested , and just as we were hoping , dispatched as quickly as possible . " ( Sotelo , De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ) .
= = = Rumours of political intrigue = = =
Besides the official description of Hasekura 's visit to Rome , some contemporary communications tend to indicate that political matters were also discussed , and that an alliance with Date Masamune was suggested as a way to establish Christian influence in the whole of Japan :
" The Ambassador strongly insisted that the authority and power of his ruler was superior to that of many European countries " ( Anonymous Roman communication , dated 10 October 1615 )
" The Franciscan Spanish fathers are explaining that the King of the Ambassador [ Hasekura Tsunenaga ] will soon become the supreme ruler of his country , and that , not only will they become Christians and follow the will of the church of Rome , but they will also in turn convert the rest of the population . This is why they are requesting the dispatch of a high eclesiastic together with the missionaries . Because of this , many people have been doubting the true purpose of the embassy , and are wondering if they are not looking for some other benefit . " ( Letter of the Venetian ambassador , 7 November 1615 ) .
= = = Second visit to Spain = = =
For the second time in Spain , in April 1616 Hasekura met again with the King , who declined to sign a trade agreement , on the ground that the Japanese Embassy did not appear to be an official embassy from the ruler of Japan Tokugawa Ieyasu , who , on the contrary , had promulgated an edict in January 1614 ordering the expulsion of all missionaries from Japan , and started the persecution of the Christian faith in Japan .
The embassy left Sanlúcar de Barrameda for Mexico in June 1616 after a period of two years spent in Europe , but some of the Japanese remained in Spain in a town near Seville ( Coria del Río ) , where their descendants to this day still use the surname Japón .
= = = Western publications on Hasekura 's embassy = = =
The embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga was the subject of numerous publications throughout Europe . The Italian writer Scipione Amati , who accompanied the embassy in 1615 and 1616 , published in 1615 in Rome a book titled History of the Kingdom of Woxu . This book was also translated into German in 1617 . In 1616 , the French publisher Abraham Savgrain published an account of Hasekura 's visit to Rome : " Récit de l 'entrée solemnelle et remarquable faite à Rome , par Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura " ( " Account of the solemn and remarkable entrance in Rome of Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura " ) .
= = = Return to Mexico = = =
Hasekura stayed for 5 months in Mexico on his way back to Japan . The San Juan Bautista was waiting in Acapulco since 1616 , after a second trip across the Pacific from Japan to Mexico . Captained by Yokozawa Shōgen , she was laden with fine pepper and lacquerware from Kyoto , which were sold on the Mexican market . Following a request by the Spanish king , in order to avoid too much silver leaving to Japan , the Viceroy asked for the proceeds to be spent on Mexican goods , except for an amount of 12 @,@ 000 pesos and 8 @,@ 000 pesos in silver which Hasekura and Yokozawa could bring back with them respectively .
= = = Philippines = = =
In April 1618 , the San Juan Bautista arrived in the Philippines from Mexico , with Hasekura and Luis Sotelo on board . The ship was acquired by the Spanish government there , with the objective of building up defenses against the attacks of the Dutch and the English
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as against the king 's treatment of Becket . In 1166 , Becket tried to convince Robert to switch sides , writing to Robert in conciliatory tones . John of Salisbury , a supporter of Becket 's , prevailed upon two French academics to write to Robert , criticising him for hypocrisy .
In October 1166 , Becket ordered Robert and Roger of Worcester to attend him in France , so they could give him guidance on his dispute with the king . When they informed the king of their intended journey he forbade them to leave England . Nevertheless , they attempted to sneak out of the country in February 1167 . They were apprehended on 2 February , and ordered to remain in England not only in the king 's name , but also in Alexander 's .
= = Theology = =
Robert 's theology is expressed in his three surviving works , the Quaestiones de divina pagina , Quaestiones de epistolis Pauli , and the unfinished Sententiae . The dating of the works is problematic , but it appears that the first two works were composed between 1145 and 1157 . The Sententiae was revised twice , probably during the 1150s and the 1160s . His works , especially the Sententiae , cover the entire subject of theology and are strictly orthodox in Christian doctrine .
Robert 's Sententiae , or Summa Theologica , was well known in his time , and has been considered a key connection in theology between Robert 's own teachers ' works and the works of Peter Lombard . Robert is the first commentator on St Paul to say that resistance to a tyrant might be vindicated by the Bible . Robert also opined that a king might be excommunicated if royal actions harmed the church . Robert used Gratian 's works as sources for his own , citing the Decretum Gratiani . Although he used this work , which dealt with church law , he does not appear to have been considered a lawyer , and his training was that of a theologian . Furthermore , his years as a student predated the establishment of canon law as a distinct discipline in the European schools . Robert 's views of the glossators , and their main work Glossa Ordinaria was that they had shortened their glosses to such a point that they made them unintelligible . Robert was also known as a logician , and John of Salisbury named him one of the leading disputatores , or a person who used rhetoric and logic to debate in public .
Although Robert condemned Gilbert Porrée in conjunction with Peter Lombard , he did not agree with Lombard 's Christology , or views on the nature of Jesus Christ . Likewise , although he disagreed with some of Abelard 's teachings , he defended Abelard against charges of heresy . Robert did , however , agree with some of Abelard 's teachings and methods . The introduction to the Sententiae proclaims Robert 's desire to harmonise the writings of two unnamed scholars , who have been identified by modern writers as Hugh of St Victor and Abelard .
= = Death and legacy = =
Robert died on 27 February 1167 . William fitzStephen , one of Becket 's supporters , wrote that Robert died of grief because he was unable to visit Becket in exile . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral . Robert enjoyed a good reputation on the continent , for his knowledge and teaching ability , as well as for his personal qualities . Before his appointment to Hereford , John of Salisbury had praised him , but Robert 's conduct during the Becket controversy soured John 's attitude towards his old teacher .
Robert 's works have been published in four volumes , edited by R. M. Martin . His episcopal documents are in Hereford 1079 – 1234 : English Episcopal Acta Number 7 , published in 1993 .
= = = Translations = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
= Battle of Neuburg ( 1800 ) =
The Battle of Neuburg occurred on 27 June 1800 in the south German state of Bavaria , on the southern bank of the Danube river . Neuburg is located on the Danube between Ingolstadt and Donauwörth . This battle occurred late in the War of the Second Coalition ( 1798 – 1802 ) , the second war between Revolutionary France and the conservative European monarchies , which included at one time or another Britain , Habsburg Austria , Russia ( until late 1799 ) , the Ottoman Empire ( Turkey ) , Portugal and Naples . After a series of reverses , several of the allies withdrew from the Coalition . By 1800 , Napoleon 's military victories in northern Italy challenged Habsburg supremacy there . French victories in the upper Danubian territories opened a route along that river to Vienna .
In a series of battles in what is now southern Germany , the French pushed the combined Austrian and Coalition force back , first capturing Stockach , then Messkirch , then Biberach . After his loss at Biberach , the Coalition commander Pál Kray withdrew to the fortress at Ulm , leaving detachments to secure the Danube crossings that lay further to the east , at Höchstädt , Blindheim , Donauwörth , and Neuburg . The battle at Neuburg was the last of the Danube campaign for the summer of 1800 ; the armistice between the Habsburgs and the French was signed a couple of days later and ended in late November , and the French ultimately defeated the Austrians at the battles at Ampfing and Hohenlinden . The heaviest action of the battle occurred in the village of Unterhausen , in the outskirts of Neuburg .
= = Background = =
By early 1799 , the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria . The uprising in Naples raised further alarms , and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany . At the beginning of 1800 , the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine . Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120 @,@ 000 troops . In addition to his Austrian regulars , his force included 12 @,@ 000 men from the Electorate of Bavaria , 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz , and 7 @,@ 000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol . Of these , 25 @,@ 000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance ( Bodensee ) to protect the Vorarlberg . Kray posted his main body of 95 @,@ 000 soldiers in the L @-@ shaped angle where the Rhine changes direction from a westward flow along the northern border of Switzerland to a northward flow along the eastern border of France . Unwisely , Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach , near the northwestern end of Lake Constance , only a day 's march from French @-@ held Switzerland .
= = = Strategic importance of Danube Valley = = =
The French war goal , to occupy Vienna and force the Habsburgs to accept and comply with peace terms established in 1798 , required a double @-@ pronged invasion through northern Italy , which First Consul Napoleon commanded , and through southern Germany , a campaign that fell to Moreau . To secure access into Bavaria and , eventually , to Vienna , the French needed to control the Danube riverway . This was not a new tactic : The stretch of river between Ulm and Neuburg had been the site of major battles of the Thirty Years ' War and War of the Spanish Succession . Between Ulm and Ingolstadt , the Danube grows significantly in volume , making it a wide and swift waterway . The Iller joins the Danube at Ulm , dumping massive amounts of water into the stream ; at Donauwörth , the Lech enters the Danube . Neuburg , the first significant city on the river after Donauwörth , had been the family seat of the princes of Pfalz @-@ Neuburg ; taking it from a princely family of the Holy Roman Empire would be a blow to the morale and prestige of the Habsburgs , whose role it was to protect the small princely domains . Control of the bridges and passages between Ulm and Donauwörth , Neuburg , then Ingolstadt offered an advantage of both transport and prestige .
= = = Preliminary to battle = = =
After withdrawing from Biberach , Kray waited at Ulm for Moreau 's assault , which did not come . Instead of striking directly at the well @-@ fortified and supplied city , Moreau 's first division , approaching Ulm from the south , suddenly veered to the east and struck at the smaller forces posted between Ulm and Donauwörth . Its commander , Claude Lecourbe , secured posts in Landsberg and Augsburg , and left sufficient rearguard troops to protect himself from Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen , who remained in the Tyrol guarding mountain access to Vienna . Lecourbe then approached Dettingen , Blindheim ( Blenheim ) and Höchstädt . The corps of General Paul Grenier had been posted with its right flank to the Danube and Gunzburg , and their left flank at Kinsdorf . General Richepanse protected both shores of the Iller , covering the road from Ulm south to Memmingen , and secured communication with Switzerland ; there , he withstood considerable skirmishing with the Austrians . Three divisions of reserve remained at the hamlets of Kamlack and Mindel , to support an attack made by General Lecourbe on Ulm , in a case it should succeed , or Grenier 's attack upon Günzburg , in case Lecourbe should not succeed . At the battle at Höchstädt , a full Austrian corps maintained possession until dislodged by repeated attacks of carabiners , cuirassiers and hussars , who took about 2 @,@ 000 of the Austrians and Württembergers as prisoners , along with some cannons and standards . Once Höchstädt and its nearby bridges fell on 19 June , the French controlled the Danube crossings between Ulm and Donauwörth . Kray abandoned Ulm , and withdrew further downstream . The next French target would be Neuburg .
= = Orders of battle = =
= = = French = = =
The exact order of battle of French forces is not clear , but contemporary sources suggest the presence of a portion of General Claude Lecourbe 's Corps of 28 @,@ 368 , including the forces of generals Laval , Molitor , Jardon , and Vandamme . This is also confirmed in an extract of Moreau 's dispatch to the French Minister of War , published in the London Chronicle , 10 June 1800 . " The 6th Chasseurs , 13th Cavalry , 4th Hussars and 11th Chasseurs distinguished themselves in this affair . The rest of the division , and that of [ Lecourbe ] , passed rapidly [ along ] the Danube ... General Grenier was equally well prepared . " In addition , the presence ( and death ) of Théophile Corret de la Tour d 'Auvergne , the First Grenadier of France , suggests that the grenadier company of the 46th Demi @-@ brigade infantry de ligne was at least engaged . In addition , General Espagne 's 37th and 84th Regiments were engaged , as were grenadiers the 109th Regiment . Lecourbe mentions the 37th and the 109th several times in his own account of the battle , so apparently they were heavily engaged : this would include the brigades of François Goullus and François Bontemps .
= = = = Lecourbe 's Division , Armée du Danube = = = =
Lecourbe 's division was reformed in April 1800 while still in Switzerland . After the Battle of Messkirch , both Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr and Sainte @-@ Suzanne had retired to the Rhine , taking many of their forces with them . Consequently , Moreau had assigned had the cavalry commanded by Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul to reinforce Lecourbe 's division . Based on the mentions in the dispatches and Lecourbe 's reconstituted division , portions of the following probably were either present or available :
General of Division Dominique Vandamme , Generals of Brigade Jardon , Laval , Molitor :
First Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
36th 83rd , 94th Demi @-@ Brigades de Ligne
8th Hussar Regiment
Total 9 @,@ 963 infantry , 540 cavalry
Generals of Brigade François Goullus and François Bontemps
10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
37th , 84th 109th Demi @-@ Brigades de Ligne
36th 93rd , 94th Regiments de Ligne
9th Hussars
Total 8 @,@ 238 infantry , 464 cavalry
General of Division Montrichard and General of Brigade Joseph Augustin Fournier
10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère
38th , 67th Regiments de Ligne
Total 6 @,@ 998
General of Division Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty
Combined Grenadiers , 25th Cavalry , 11th Dragoons , 12th Chàsseurs
Total 1 @,@ 500 infantry , 1 @,@ 280 cavalry
= = = Austrian = = =
The Austrian force included :
FZM Baron von Kray , Commanding
Infanterie Regiments Wenkheim # 35 , Erbach # 42 ( battalions each )
Kür Regiment Lothringen # 7 , Hohenzollern # 8 , Kinsky # 12 ( 6 squadrons each )
Dragoon Regiment Latour # 11 ( 6 squadrons )
Total Austrian force : 8 @,@ 000 men .
= = Battle = =
On 26 June 1800 , Kray 's force held the remaining passages across the Danube between Neuburg and Inglostadt . On that morning , the divisions of Gudin and Montrichard marched toward the junction of the Danube and Lech rivers from Donauwörth . General Gudin 's division followed a southward track toward Pöttmes and established a line north to Ehekirchen , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) ( roughly along what is now road 2035 ) . Montrichard 's division , the 10th Demi @-@ Brigade de Légère and the 38th and 67th Regiments de Ligne marched toward Neuburg , which he was instructed to occupy with his right wing connecting to Gudin 's and covered the road between Augsburg and Neuburg . Gudin 's division encountered some resistance before it could take possession of Pöttmes , but succeeded with several charges executed by the 6th and 8th Hussars , who also captured 100 horses from the Austrians . General Puthed , who commanded the brigade on General Gudin 's left , took control of Ehekirchen with little opposition .
General Montrichard 's division approached Neuburg on the causeway that ran parallel to the river and took possession of the outskirts of the city with little problem . Kray 's troops , joined with Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen and emerged from Neuburg to defend the outskirts . Both Austrian forces were unprepared for battle at the moment , which allowed Montrichard 's troops to penetrate within four miles of the city with little opposition . Espagne 's brigade supported the advance guard , and after a brief action took the heights of Oberhausen with the 37th and the 84th Regiments . By early afternoon , the Austrians had recovered the village of Niederhausen , but the village of Unterhausen remained in French hands , defended by 100 marksmen , portions of the 37th Regiment and the 1st company of gren
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foot of the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair , but the peloton were able to close the advantage to them all before the summit of the climb .
BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans and Lotto – Belisol rider Jurgen Van den Broeck both attacked on the Mont @-@ Saint @-@ Clair , and their accelerated pace ripped the peloton apart , with many riders falling off the back of the peloton . Around 25 riders remained in the lead group , with only Sagan and Van Den Broeck 's team @-@ mate André Greipel out of the sprinters making the group . Further moves came from Astana rider Alexander Vinokourov , Michael Albasini of Orica – GreenEDGE , and Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez , but they were closed down by Lotto – Belisol – looking after Greipel for the finish – and Team Sky for race leader Bradley Wiggins . Wiggins led out team @-@ mate Edvald Boasson Hagen for the sprint , but Greipel launched his own off his wheel and managed to fend off a quick @-@ finishing Sagan to take his third stage win of the Tour by half a wheel , the first such feat by a German rider since Erik Zabel in 2001 .
= = Stage 14 = =
15 July 2012 — Limoux to Foix , 191 km ( 118 @.@ 7 mi )
The race entered the lower Pyrenees with two first @-@ category climbs ; the 1 @,@ 517 m ( 4 @,@ 977 ft ) Port de Lers and the Mur de Péguère , reaching an elevation of 1 @,@ 375 m ( 4 @,@ 511 ft ) . The Mur de Péguère was featuring for the first time in the Tour de France ; with sections of the climb in excess of 16 % . Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were closed down shortly after . It was not until a quarter of the way through the stage – some 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) in – that a move was allowed to be established on the road , when eleven riders went clear including the points classification leader Peter Sagan of Liquigas – Cannondale , who was looking to extend his points advantage over his rivals André Greipel ( Lotto – Belisol ) and Orica – GreenEDGE rider Matthew Goss .
By the time that Sagan had crossed over the intermediate sprint line first , at Tarascon @-@ sur @-@ Ariège , the leaders ' advantage was already over thirteen minutes , and was increasing by the kilometre due to the wet conditions on the roads . At the Port de Lers , the eleven riders were fifteen minutes clear when Cyril Gautier ( Team Europcar ) developed a problem with his bike and had to stop for a change of equipment , losing around 40 seconds to his ten companions . He would not bridge back to them , and ultimately lost fourteen minutes to them by the stage finish . Rabobank 's Luis León Sánchez attacked on the Mur de Péguère , with only Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Gorka Izagirre and Sandy Casar of FDJ – BigMat able to follow originally . Sagan later brought himself back up to the group , before Casar pulled a few seconds clear over the summit .
At the summit of the climb , carpet tacks were thrown onto the road causing as many as thirty riders to puncture , including Gilbert 's team @-@ mates Cadel Evans and Steve Cummings , while race leader Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) changed his bike as a precaution . As a result , Wiggins called a temporary halt to the racing on the descent . At this time , Pierre Rolland ( Team Europcar ) attacked and gained a two @-@ minute margin over the peloton , but a combination of the tempo set by Lotto – Belisol and Liquigas – Cannondale , and Rolland realising the situation behind – later apologising for his actions – meant that he was brought back to the field , and they continued to slowly roll towards the finish in Foix . At the front , Sánchez attacked with around 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining , and eventually soloed his way to a fourth career stage victory at the Tour . Sagan led home a group of four riders almost a minute behind , while the peloton eventually crossed the line over eighteen minutes behind Sánchez .
= = Stage 15 = =
16 July 2012 — Samatan to Pau , 158 @.@ 5 km ( 98 @.@ 5 mi )
The stage ran through the foothills of the Pyrenees , in the Gers and Pyrénées @-@ Atlantiques departments . There were three minor climbs in the final third of the stage , which was expected to suit the remaining sprinters . Like the previous day , small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first hour of racing after the attacks were unsuccessful . The most prominent of these was a five @-@ rider move , involving Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step 's Bert Grabsch , Garmin – Sharp rider David Millar , Andriy Hryvko of Astana , Rui Costa ( Movistar Team ) and Yukiya Arashiro , representing Team Europcar . The peloton did not allow them to gain an advantage of more than 30 seconds , and they were eventually brought back to the main field at the 60 km ( 37 @.@ 3 mi ) mark .
Another five @-@ rider group formed immediately thereafter , consisting of Christian Vande Velde ( Garmin – Sharp ) , Arashiro 's team @-@ mate Thomas Voeckler , FDJ – BigMat 's Pierrick Fédrigo , Cofidis rider Samuel Dumoulin and Dries Devenyns of Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step . Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Nicki Sørensen chased the quintet down for around 20 km ( 12 @.@ 4 mi ) , and eventually made the group a sextet , after his team set the tempo in the main field for a while . The peloton had reduced the gap to the leaders to around five minutes at one point , but eventually decided to allow the breakaway to battle it out for stage honours . Voeckler took maximum points on all three categorised climbs prior to the closing 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , before Sørensen launched the first sustained attacks prior to the finish . However , Fédrigo and Vande Velde gained some ground with their attack at 6 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to go , and they contested the sprint in Pau ; Vande Velde tried to launch his sprint first , but Fédrigo saw the move and remained in front , to take his second stage win in Pau – after a previous victory in 2010 – and fourth of his career . The remaining members of the breakaway came in before the main field , with Lotto – Belisol 's André Greipel leading them home 11 ' 50 " down on Fédrigo .
= = Stage 16 = =
18 July 2012 — Pau to Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon , 197 km ( 122 @.@ 4 mi )
After the second and final rest day , the race entered the high mountains with the queen stage crossing two hors catégorie climbs – the Col d 'Aubisque and the Col du Tourmalet – followed by the first @-@ category climbs of the Col d 'Aspin and the Col de Peyresourde , completing the so @-@ called " Circle of Death " , before dropping down to the finish in Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon . The first rider over the Tourmalet – the highest point reached in both the Pyrenees and the 2012 Tour as a whole at 2 @,@ 115 m ( 6 @,@ 939 ft ) – received the Souvenir Jacques Goddet .
Almost forty riders – around a quarter of the race 's peloton at the start of the stage – made it into the early breakaway after around 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) , including three riders in the lower reaches of the top twenty placings overall , mountains classification leader Fredrik Kessiakoff ( Astana ) and stage @-@ winners Thomas Voeckler of Team Europcar and FDJ – BigMat rider Pierrick Fédrigo . Voeckler and Kessiakoff led the group over the top of the Col d 'Aubisque , with the group remaining together until the foot of the Col du Tourmalet . Here , the group started to fragment after Garmin – Sharp 's Dan Martin accelerated with Kessiakoff and Rabobank 's Laurens ten Dam in tow . BMC Racing Team rider George Hincapie , Chris Anker Sørensen of Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank and Saur – Sojasun 's Brice Feillu later joined the group up front , but only Voeckler and Feillu remained together at the top of the climb , where Voeckler further cut into Kessiakoff 's polka @-@ dot jersey lead . The peloton crossed the summit around ten minutes later .
Voeckler and Feillu had an advantage of almost two minutes at the bottom of the Col d 'Aspin , while Martin – on his own after being the last to be dropped by the French pairing out front – was joined by Hincapie and six other riders . With added pressure from Sørensen and RadioShack – Nissan rider Jens Voigt , Kessiakoff was dropped by the group , and aided the efforts for Voeckler to take the lead in the mountains classification . Back in the peloton , the tempo set by Liquigas – Cannondale and Team Sky was reducing the numbers in the group , and eventually , BMC Racing Team 's Cadel Evans lost contact on the climb . However , with team @-@ mates around him , he was able to rejoin the group before the final climb of the Col de Peyresourde . A third of the way up the climb , Voeckler left his companion Feillu behind , and set off on a solo attack . Evans again fell off the back of the group , as Vincenzo Nibali ( Liquigas – Cannondale ) decided to make a preliminary attack on his rivals , Team Sky 's Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome .
Wiggins and Froome were able to make their way back up to Nibali , sandwiching him with Froome on the front and Wiggins at the back of the trio . Voeckler cemented his mountains classification lead by reaching the summit of the Col de Peyresourde first , with the remaining riders of the breakaway spread out between him and the group of Wiggins , Froome and Nibali . Sørensen trailed Voeckler by a minute @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . Nibali attacked twice more on the steepest part of the climb , but Wiggins shadowed the move and kept himself up with Nibali . At the front , Voeckler descended towards the finish in Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon with a 1 ' 40 " lead over Sørensen , and held the lead to the end for his second stage win of the race , and repeated his 2010 stage victory in the town . Sørensen remained 1 ' 40 " behind in second , while Euskaltel – Euskadi rider Gorka Izagirre bested Alexander Vinokourov ( Astana ) for third place . Nibali , Wiggins and Froome came in seven minutes after Voeckler , while Evans lost almost five minutes to the trio , falling from fourth to seventh in the general classification behind Lotto – Belisol rider Jurgen Van den Broeck , RadioShack – Nissan 's Haimar Zubeldia and his own team @-@ mate Tejay van Garderen . Cofidis rider Jan Ghyselinck finished four seconds outside the stage 's cutoff time , but he was given a reprieve by the comissaires to continue in the Tour , making him the new lanterne rouge .
= = Stage 17 = =
19 July 2012 — Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Luchon to Peyragudes , 143 @.@ 5 km ( 89 @.@ 2 mi )
The final day in the mountains saw the race cross the first @-@ category Col de Menté and the second @-@ category Col des Ares before reaching the last hors catégorie climb of the Tour , the Port de Balès . The race then dropped down , before returning over the uncategorised Col de Peyresourde – crossing the summit for the second consecutive day – followed by a summit finish at the Peyragudes ski resort . With a scheduled parcours of 143 @.@ 5 km ( 89 @.@ 2 mi ) , the stage was the shortest of the mountain stages of the 2012 Tour .
Small attacks set the course of the early running of the stage , with the field remaining as a whole for the first half @-@ hour of racing after several attacks were closed down before a gap could be established . It was not until the Col de Menté that the early foundations of a breakaway were laid with the two mountains classification combatants , Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler and Fredrik Kessiakoff of Astana again battling it out for points ; Voeckler prevailed ahead of Kessiakoff . The two riders were also a part of a seven @-@ rider breakaway that formed on the descent from the climb . The group was also bolstered for a time by Liquigas – Cannondale rider Vincenzo Nibali , third place in the general classification behind Team Sky duo Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome , but he eventually sat up from the group as the breakaway was not likely to be given an advantage if Nibali was in the group .
A ten @-@ rider chase group formed behind the leaders , and eventually joined up with them around halfway through the stage . Voeckler bettered Kessiakoff at the Côte de Burs , to extend his lead in the classification ; the peloton were around three minutes behind , but closing gradually . Following a move by a pair of Euskaltel – Euskadi riders , Rui Costa ( Movistar Team ) attacked out of the group as a set @-@ up for his team leader Alejandro Valverde , who followed his move several kilometres later . Costa paced him for a time before Valverde went clear on his own , and built up a 35 @-@ second lead at the summit of the Port de Balès , while the peloton had closed by half a minute to trail him by around two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . The peloton caught the group of chasers including Voeckler , Omega Pharma – Quick @-@ Step rider Levi Leipheimer and Blel Kadri of Ag2r – La Mondiale , on the descent with only Valverde remaining ahead as they hit the Col de Peyresourde .
For the second ascent of the Col de Peyresourde during the race , the riders would take the climb in the opposite direction from what they had done on the previous day , before a slight descent and then the final climb to Peyragudes . Valverde held a lead of 1 ' 20 " at the top of the uncategorised pass , with only a handful of riders remaining with the group of the maillot jaune , including the top four in the general classification . Valverde was holding his own off the front , and the gap was fluctuating between 1 ' 20 " and 1 ' 30 " for several kilometres as they neared the summit , which came at the flamme rouge point . Lotto – Belisol 's Jurgen Van den Broeck tried to attack , but was pulled back by the Froome and Wiggins tandem , which then accelerated away from their rivals and set off after Valverde . Ultimately , they came up short due to Froome having to wait three times for Wiggins as the race leader was several metres behind his domestique on certain parts of the climb . Valverde achieved his fourth career stage victory at the Tour , nineteen seconds ahead of Froome and Wiggins , who in turn extended their advantage over the rest of the field .
= = Stage 18 = =
20 July 2012 — Blagnac to Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde , 222 @.@ 5 km ( 138 @.@ 3 mi )
Despite being ranked a " flat stage " , there were four ranked climbs during the day which had the potential to produce a successful break from the peloton . In the early kilometres of the stage , a group of six riders instigated the first breakaway of the day , but after the peloton allowed them to create an advantage on the roads , they were brought back to the confines of the peloton not long later . There was then an uneventful period in the action , with no major attacks going off the front , until the first categorised climb of the day , at the Côte de Saint @-@ Georges .
On the climb itself , Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank rider Nick Nuyens and Team Europcar 's Yukiya Arashiro attacked up the hill , before they were joined by fourteen other riders to create the second major breakaway of the day 's stage . The best @-@ placed rider amongst the group was Rui Costa of the Movistar Team – just under half an hour behind the race leader Bradley Wiggins of Team Sky – who was fresh from his set @-@ up work for team @-@ mate Alejandro Valverde the previous day . Around halfway through the stage , the advantage between the sixteen leaders and the main field reached its highest point of the day , at the 3 ' 30 " mark , before BMC Racing Team and Ag2r – La Mondiale set the tempo to start bringing the leaders back to the peloton . In the peloton , several riders fell to the ground after a dog ran into their path , slowing the pace as a whole . Among those involved was BMC Racing Team 's Philippe Gilbert , who had to be restrained when back on his feet . Liquigas – Cannondale sent their riders forward to set the pace on the front of the group in the hopes of setting Peter Sagan up for a fourth stage victory of the race , and the gap reduced under two minutes inside of 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining .
At the head of the race , Garmin – Sharp 's David Millar attacked on the Côte de Souillac , where moves from Arashiro and Wiggins ' team @-@ mate Edvald Boasson Hagen followed not long later . Five riders – Lotto – Belisol rider Adam Hansen , Alexander Vinokourov of Astana , Nuyens , Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) and FDJ – BigMat 's Jérémy Roy – came together at the bottom of the Côte de Lissac @-@ sur @-@ Couze , before Nuyens and Roy were dropped on the climb . They were replaced in the group by Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Nicolas Roche , RadioShack – Nissan rider Andreas Klöden and Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank , with the six riders remaining together off the front into the finishing straight in Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde . Roche and Sánchez attacked for the line , but both riders were usurped by the finish of Team Sky sprinter Mark Cavendish following a lead @-@ out from Boasson Hagen . Cavendish went around the outside of the pairing and took his 22nd Tour stage victory on the line , matching the tallies of Lance Armstrong , and André Darrigade for fourth place in the all @-@ time Tour stage wins list , and tying Darrigade 's record for victories by a sprinter . Orica – GreenEDGE 's Matthew Goss and Sagan also managed to get ahead of Sánchez and Roche in the closing stages , for second and third places respectively , but were around ten lengths behind Cavendish at the finish .
= = Stage 19 = =
21 July 2012 — Bonneval to Chartres , 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) , ( ITT )
The penultimate stage of the Tour was the final individual time trial with good roads into the centre of the city of Chartres . With other noted specialists within the time trial discipline having already abandoned the race , the top two riders in the general classification – Team Sky pairing Bradley Wiggins and Chris Froome – were expected to be the favourites for the stage , having finished first and second in the ninth stage time trial . As was customary of time trial stages , the riders set off in reverse order from where they were ranked in the general classification at the end of the previous stage . Thus , Jimmy Engoulvent of Saur – Sojasun , who , in 153rd place , trailed overall leader Wiggins by 3 hours , 49 minutes and 9 seconds , was the first rider to set off on the stage .
Engoulvent recorded a time of 1 hour , 12 minutes and 49 seconds for the course as he was first to reach the line ; but his lead was short @-@ lived as several minutes later , Cofidis rider Julien Fouchard went round the course over two minutes quicker than the time of Engoulvent . Garmin – Sharp 's Johan Vansummeren was the first rider to record a time below 1 hour and 10 minutes with a time of 1 hour , 9 minutes and 24 seconds , before Argos – Shimano rider Patrick Gretsch recorded a time almost three minutes quicker , having passed the two riders that started directly before him – at one @-@ minute intervals – on the course , and another on the finish line . Gretsch 's time held for a considerable amount of time – around 2 hours – and was ultimately good enough for him to place sixth in the final stage results . It was not until the 88th rider to start the course that his time was beaten . Luis León Sánchez of Rabobank set the best time at each of the three intermediate time @-@ checks along the 53 @.@ 5 km ( 33 @.@ 2 mi ) parcours and eventually crossed the finish line in a time of 1 hour , 6 minutes and 3 seconds , to surpass Gretsch 's time by thirty @-@ eight seconds .
The Spanish national champion 's time held right into the final riders to take to the course , now at three @-@ minute intervals for the last 14 riders . BMC Racing Team 's Tejay van Garderen , the holder of the white jersey for the young rider classification leader , went beneath Sánchez 's time at the first split , but faded on the rest of the course and eventually finished 44 seconds outside of his time in third place . He had already passed his team @-@ mate Cadel Evans , who had started three minutes ahead , on course , and the Boulder , Colorado native later dedicated his performance to the victims of the shooting in nearby Aurora . Only Froome and Wiggins beat the time of van Garderen at the first time @-@ point , with Wiggins beating Froome by a dozen seconds ; Wiggins continued to extend his lead on course , holding a 54 @-@ second buffer at the second time @-@ check , and 1 ' 15 " at the third . Froome crossed the line in a time of 1 hour , 5 minutes and 29 seconds to beat Sánchez 's time by 34 seconds , but Wiggins achieved his second stage win of the race , adding one second to his advantage between the third time @-@ check and the finish ; punching the air as he crossed the finish line . The only change in positions for the general classification inside the top ten was Evans being passed for sixth place by RadioShack – Nissan 's Haimar Zubeldia – despite nearly hitting a barrier during his pass through the course – by a margin of eight seconds .
= = Stage 20 = =
22 July 2012 — Rambouillet to Paris ( Champs @-@ Élysées ) , 120 km ( 74 @.@ 6 mi )
The Tour concluded with the now @-@ customary stage finish on the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris . The stage had an easy start – with two fourth @-@ category climbs 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) apart , inside the first third of the stage – before eight high @-@ speed laps , followed by the finish , which was expected to result in a sprint for the line . In keeping with tradition , the final stage began at a slow pace , and was a largely ceremonial procession through the suburbs of Paris . Shortly after the riders reached the circuit in the centre of the city , racing began in earnest , and after various unsuccessful attempts , the main break was initiated by Jens Voigt ( RadioShack – Nissan ) and Lampre – ISD 's Danilo Hondo with around 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) to go .
Hondo led the field across the final intermediate sprint point of the race , with Voigt just behind . Hondo did not remain out front however , as Voigt was eventually joined by ten other riders to form the breakaway , with their advantage eventually reaching a maximum of around thirty seconds in the closing stages . Hondo later crashed on the final lap , along with Ag2r – La Mondiale rider Mickaël Cherel , but both riders eventually remounted to finish the stage . As the peloton closed down the leaders ' advantage , mainly through the work of Team Sky , Liquigas – Cannondale and Saxo Bank – Tinkoff Bank , the breakaway lost members , until they were all caught with 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining . The lead @-@ out train for Mark Cavendish ( Team Sky ) , held the lead of the race through the final corners , and he won the final stage for the fourth successive year , becoming the first incumbent world champion to win on the Champs @-@ Élysées . His 23rd stage victory allowed him to move into fourth place on the all @-@ time Tour stage wins list , while the leaders of the four classifications finished in the peloton to secure their victories , and the traditional prize @-@ giving was made shortly after the race .
= Ashland , Oregon =
Ashland is a city in Jackson County , in the State of Oregon . It lies along Interstate 5 approximately 16 mi ( 26 km ) north of the California border and near the south end of the Bear Creek Valley , an arm of the Rogue Valley . As of July 1 , 2013 , the city 's population was estimated to be 20 @,@ 713 .
The city is the home of Southern Oregon University ( SOU ) and the Oregon Shakespeare Festival ( OSF ) . These are important to Ashland 's economy , which also depends on restaurants , galleries , and retail stores that cater to playgoers and other visitors . Lithia Park along Ashland Creek , historic buildings , and a paved intercity bike trail provide additional tourist attractions .
Ashland , originally called Ashland Mills , was named after Ashland County , Ohio , the original home of founder Abel Helman , and secondarily for Ashland , Kentucky , where other founders had family connections . Ashland has a mayor @-@ council government assisted by citizen committees . Historically , its liberal politics have differed , often sharply , with much of the rest of southwest Oregon .
= = History = =
Prior to the arrival of settlers in mid @-@ 19th century , the Shasta people lived in the valley along the creek approximately where Ashland is located . Early Hudson 's Bay Company hunters and trappers , following the Siskiyou Trail , passed through the site in the 1820s . In the late 1840s , settlers ( mostly American ) following the Applegate Trail began passing through the area . By the early 1850s , the Donation Land Act brought many white settlers into the Rogue Valley and into conflict with its native people . These often violent clashes continued until 1856 .
In 1851 , gold was discovered at Rich Gulch , a tributary of Jackson Creek , and a tent city developed on its banks , the area later known as Jacksonville . Settlers arrived in the Ashland area in January 1852 , including Robert B. Hargadine , Sylvester Pease , Abel D Helman , Eber Emery , and others . Helman and Hargadine filed the first donation land claims in Ashland . Helman and Emery built a sawmill along what they called Mill Creek ( later renamed Ashland Creek ) to turn timber into lumber for settlers . In 1854 , they and another settler , M. B. Morris , built a second mill , Ashland Flouring Mills , to grind local wheat into flour . The community around the mill became known as Ashland Mills . A post office was established in Ashland Mills in 1855 with Helman as postmaster .
During the 1860s and 1870s the community grew , establishing a school , churches , businesses , and a large employer , Ashland Woolen Mills , which produced clothing and blankets from local wool . In 1871 , the Post Office dropped " Mills " from Ashland 's name . In 1872 Reverend J. H. Skidmore opened a college , Ashland Academy , a predecessor of Southern Oregon University .
In 1887 , Portland , Oregon , and San Francisco , California , were joined by rail at Ashland . Until 1926 , when most rail service began taking a different route ( east through Klamath Falls to avoid the steep grade through the Siskiyou Mountains ) , Ashland thrived on rail trade of local products , including pears , peaches , and apples .
In 1908 , the Women 's Civic Improvement Club petitioned for the creation of a park — Ashland Canyon Park — along Ashland Creek . The discovery of lithia water near Emigrant Lake around the same time led to a plan to establish a mineral spa at the park . Voters approved bonds to pay for the project , which included piping the mineral water from its source to Ashland . The town engaged John McLaren , landscape architect of San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park , to design the park , renamed Lithia Springs Park , later shortened to Lithia Park . Although the park was popular , the mineral spa plans proved too expensive for local taxpayers and were abandoned in 1916 . Meanwhile , entrepreneurs took to bottling and selling mineral waters from the area 's springs .
During the Fourth of July celebration in 1935 , Angus L. Bowmer arranged the first performances of what would become the Oregon Shakespeare Festival . The festival grew during the 20th century , and has become an award @-@ winning and internationally @-@ known regional theater company .
Many of Ashland 's historic buildings have been preserved and restored . The city has 48 individual structures and 2 historic districts ( the Ashland Railroad Addition District and the Downtown District ) on the National Register of Historic Places . The structures include the Enders Building ( home of the Columbia Hotel ) , which from 1910 to 1928 contained the largest mercantile establishment between Sacramento and Portland .
= = Geography = =
Ashland is at 1 @,@ 949 feet ( 594 m ) above sea level in the foothills of the Siskiyou and Cascade ranges , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of the California border on Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . About 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Ashland and 5 miles ( 8 km ) north of the California border is Siskiyou Summit , which at 4 @,@ 310 feet ( 1 @,@ 310 m ) is the highest point on I @-@ 5 . Ashland is about 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Medford and about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Portland . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of about 6 @.@ 6 square miles ( 17 @.@ 1 km2 ) , all land .
Ashland Creek and its tributaries begin on the flanks of Mount Ashland , at 7 @,@ 533 feet ( 2 @,@ 296 m ) above sea level in the Siskiyou Mountains south of the city . Upstream ( south ) of the city boundary , these streams flow mainly through the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest . The creek flows through the city to meet Bear Creek , which roughly parallels I @-@ 5 along the east side of Ashland . Bear Creek , one of many streams in the Rogue Valley , flows generally northwest to join the Rogue River near Gold Hill , and from there the Rogue River flows generally west to its mouth on the Pacific Ocean . Ashland and the Bear Creek Valley are part of the Rogue Valley .
Oregon Route 99 , running roughly parallel to I @-@ 5 , passes through downtown Ashland . Oregon Route 66 enters Ashland from the east and intersects Route 99 near the city center .
= = = Climate = = =
Ashland lies within Oregon 's southwest interior climate zone , in which all but the higher @-@ elevation sites are in the rain shadow of the Oregon Coast Range to the west . The largest urban areas in this zone in addition to Ashland are Medford and Grants Pass in the Rogue Valley , and Roseburg in the Umpqua River Valley further north . Although the mountain peaks in this zone receive up to 120 inches ( 3 @,@ 000 mm ) of precipitation a year , the urban areas and the valleys in which they lie generally get 20 inches ( 510 mm ) or less . This valley climate is particularly good for growing fruit , especially pears , and for producing other crops and farm goods such as hay , grain , poultry , and beef .
Cloud cover in nearby Medford varies from an average of 21 percent in July to 86 percent in December . On average , precipitation falls in Ashland on 114 days each year and totals about 20 inches ( 510 mm ) . The average annual snowfall is only 1 @.@ 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 6 cm ) . The average relative humidity , measured at 4 p.m. daily , is 47 percent in Medford , varying from 26 percent in July to 76 percent in December . According to the Köppen climate classification system , Ashland has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) .
The coolest month is December , with an average high temperature of 47 ° F ( 8 ° C ) , and the warmest month is July , with an average high of about 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) . The highest temperature ever recorded in Ashland was 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) , observed in August 1981 , and the record low of − 4 ° F ( − 20 ° C ) occurred in December 1972 .
= = Demographics = =
In the census of 2010 , there were 20 @,@ 078 people , 9 @,@ 409 households , and 4 @,@ 542 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 047 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 176 / km2 ) . There were 10 @,@ 455 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 587 per square mile ( 613 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was about 90 % White , 1 % African American , 1 %
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Native American , 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % Pacific Islander , 1 @.@ 4 % from other races , and 4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were about 5 % of the population .
There were 9 @,@ 409 households out of which about 21 % had children under the age of 18 living with them . About 34 % were married couples living together ; 10 % had a female householder with no husband present , about 4 % had a male householder with no wife present , and about 52 % were non @-@ families . About 38 % of all households were made up of individuals and 13 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 03 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 63 .
The median age in the city was 42 @.@ 9 years . About 16 % of residents were under the age of 18 , and about 16 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 . Rounded to the nearest whole number , 21 % were from 25 to 44 years old ; 30 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 18 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was about 46 % male and 54 % female .
In 2010 , the median income for a household in the city was $ 41 @,@ 334 , and the median income for a family was $ 58 @,@ 409 . Males had a median income of $ 50 @,@ 368 versus $ 34 @,@ 202 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 28 @,@ 941 . About 21 % of the population and 13 % of families had incomes below the poverty line . Out of the total population , about 30 % of those under the age of 18 and 3 @.@ 5 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
= = Government = =
Ashland has a mayor – council government consisting of a mayor and six council members elected by the city 's voters to serve four @-@ year terms . John Stromberg , whose term ends in 2016 , is the current mayor . Unelected citizen committees assist the mayor and council in setting legislative goals .
Peter Buckley , a Democrat from Ashland , represents Ashland and all of Oregon House District 5 in the state legislature . As part of Oregon Senate District 3 , Ashland is represented by Democrat Alan Bates . At the federal level , Greg Walden , a Republican , speaks for Ashland and the rest of Oregon 's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives . Ron Wyden and Jeff Merkley , both Democrats , serve the state of Oregon in the United States Senate .
Historically , Ashland has been something of a political outlier in southwest Oregon . In the presidential election of 1860 , Ashland favored Abraham Lincoln while its neighbors strongly preferred pro @-@ slavery candidates . In the early 1900s , Ashland voters supported women 's suffrage and prohibition , generally out of step with the rest of the region . In more recent elections , liberal Ashland has supported tax levies and environmental regulations opposed by voters elsewhere in Jackson and nearby counties . Critics sometimes refer to the city as the People 's Republic of Ashland .
= = Economy = =
Income from tourism is important to Ashland 's economy . A large number of restaurants , galleries , and retail stores cater to thousands of visitors who attend plays each year at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival . In 2011 , the festival sold more than 390 @,@ 000 tickets to its theater productions .
The town 's largest employer is Southern Oregon University ( SOU ) , which has a faculty and staff of more than 750 . In addition to the Oregon Shakespeare Festival and the university , health @-@ service providers make significant contributions to the economy . Businesses related to outdoor recreation , transportation , technology , and light manufacturing are also important . In 2010 , the Shakespeare Festival employed about 500 people , the hospital about 400 , the public schools about 300 , and the City of Ashland about 250 . The Bathroom Readers ' Press , which produces the Uncle John 's Bathroom Reader books , is based in Ashland and San Diego . Brammo , specializing in battery @-@ electric motorcycles , was based in Ashland but moved to Talent .
= = Arts and culture = =
The Oregon Shakespeare Festival has grown from a summer outdoor series in the 1930s to a season that stretches from February to October , incorporating Shakespearean and non @-@ Shakespearean plays at three theaters . The OSF has become the largest regional repertory theater in the United States .
The Oregon Cabaret Theater features musicals and comedy throughout the year . Opened in 1986 , the dinner theater occupies a former First Baptist Church built in Mission Revival style . The Ashland Independent Film Festival , which shows international and domestic films of almost every genre , takes place each April in the Varsity Theatre downtown . About 90 films are shown during the five days of the festival . In 2009 , Ashland was the setting for the movie version of Neil Gaiman 's Coraline .
The annual Ashland New Plays Festival ( ANPF ) is a nonprofit organization that encourages playwrights to develop new work through public readings . Each year , the ANPF holds an international competition that winnows hundreds of submissions to four plays that are read to live audiences by professional actors during a five @-@ day festival in October .
= = = Museums and other points of interest = = =
The National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory in Ashland is the world 's only laboratory dedicated to solving crimes against wildlife . Using forensic science , experts at the laboratory help wildlife officers to investigate possible crimes against animals and to establish links between victims and suspects in cases that go to court . The laboratory has assisted the International Criminal Police Organization ( INTERPOL ) and foreign agencies concerned with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITIES ) .
The Ashland City Band ( ACB ) was organized in the late 19th century as the Ashland Brass Band . The band used an octagonal gazebo @-@ style bandstand in Lithia Park until the Butler Memorial Band Shell was built in Lithia Park in 1946 . The ACB gives public concerts there each summer between June and August .
= = Parks = =
Lithia Park is a 93 @-@ acre ( 38 ha ) park , including 42 acres ( 17 ha ) on the National Register of Historic Places , that begins near the downtown shopping area and extends upstream along Ashland Creek near the center of the city . It includes two ponds , a Japanese garden , tennis courts , two public greens , a bandshell ( outdoor stage ) and miles of hiking trails . The name Lithia comes from natural mineral water found in the Ashland area . It has a strong mineral taste and slight effervescence , and the lithia water fountains found on the town plaza are frequently tasted by unsuspecting tourists ( often at the behest of residents or frequent visitors who use the fountains as a cheap , humorous Ashland initiation rite ) .
A hiking and biking path , the Bear Creek Greenway , begins in Ashland near the intersection of West Nevada Street with Helman Street , close to the confluence of Ashland Creek ( which flows through Lithia Park ) . with Bear Creek . The 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) path follows Bear Creek between Ashland and Central Point and passes through Talent , Phoenix , and Medford .
= = Education = =
Southern Oregon University , a public co @-@ ed four @-@ year university founded in 1926 , offers courses of study toward degrees in the liberal arts , science , business , and education . Students can focus on any of more than 30 major fields or enroll in programs such as Shakespeare Studies and other minors . With an enrollment of about 6 @,@ 200 undergraduates as of Fall 2014 , this urban university also offers graduate @-@ level programs on its 175 @-@ acre ( 71 ha ) campus .
About 57 percent of the university 's students are women , and about 43 percent are men . Their most popular major fields include those related to business , psychology , visual and performing arts , social sciences , and protective services such as law enforcement and firefighting . The student – faculty ratio in 2013 – 14 is 20 to 1 . Tuition in 2013 – 14 is $ 7 @,@ 863 per year for Oregon residents and $ 20 @,@ 238 for all others .
The Ashland School District oversees three elementary schools , one of which is a magnet school focused on science and the arts ; one middle school ; one high school ; and a community learning center . Ashland High School was ranked 1,395th best among the nation 's public high schools and 15th best in Oregon by U.S. News & World Report as of 2013 .
= = Media = =
The Ashland Daily Tidings is published Monday through Saturday . The Mail Tribune , a morning daily published Monday through Sunday in Medford , also serves Ashland . Fifteen radio stations operate in the region around Ashland , including Jefferson Public Radio and KSKQ , an independent non @-@ profit broadcasting at 89 @.@ 5 FM . A former student @-@ run radio station with the call letters KSOC and the nickname " Radio Free Ashland " shut down in February 2013 after 14 years of broadcasting . Rogue Valley Community Television , based at Southern Oregon University , serves Jackson and Josephine counties . Ashland has no commercial television stations , but nearby Medford has seven .
= = Infrastructure and public services = =
The Asante Ashland Community Hospital is a general medical and surgical hospital that is part of the Asante health network based in Medford . As of 2015 , it has 49 inpatient beds .
The Ashland Public Library building was expanded from the city 's original Carnegie library . In 2003 , the historic Carnegie portion of the library was restored . In 2006 , budget problems led to the closing in April 2007 of the Ashland Library and 14 others in Jackson County . The event , which lasted until October 2007 , was the largest library closure in U.S. history . Although some of its services are handled by a private company , Library Systems and Services , the Ashland branch remains part of the Jackson County network of public libraries .
Rogue Valley Transportation District ( RVTD ) Route 10 and Route 15 provides bus service to much of the city , both routes running every 30 minutes providing a combined service frequency of 15 minutes . Route 10 also provides service to Medford , where passengers can connect to any of the other six RVTD routes as well as to Southwest POINT , a daily shuttle operated by Klamath Shuttle carrying passengers between Brookings and the Amtrak station in Klamath Falls . The Klamath Falls Amtrak Station serves the Coast Starlight long @-@ haul passenger train on track owned by the Union Pacific Railroad . Ashland Municipal Airport , with a 3 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) asphalt runway , offers general aviation services . Medford International Airport , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Ashland , also serves the city .
The City of Ashland moved to improve local broadband Internet access in the late 1990s by creating the Ashland Fiber Network ( AFN ) and building a fiber optic ring inside the city boundaries . However , by 2006 the city faced difficulties servicing AFN 's debt load , which was approaching $ 15 @.@ 5 million . The city hired a new AFN director , Joe Franell , who suggested scrapping cable television service while retaining the more profitable high @-@ speed Internet access . In October 2006 , the cable television service was transferred to a local company , Ashland Home Net , while the City retained both the infrastructure and the wholesale Internet business .
= = Sister city = =
Ashland has one sister city :
Guanajuato , Mexico
= = Notable people = =
= Rockin ' Robin ( wrestler ) =
Robin Denise Smith ( born October 9 , 1964 ) , better known by her ring name Rockin ' Robin , is an American former professional wrestler . As the daughter of Aurelian " Grizzly " Smith , she is a second @-@ generation wrestler . Her brother Sam Houston and half @-@ brother Jake " The Snake " Roberts are also wrestlers . Smith worked for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in the 1980s . She held the WWF Women 's Championship from October 1988 until it was retired in 1990 . She then worked on the independent circuit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
Smith grew up in a wrestling family and enjoyed going to wrestling shows , where she claims she and her siblings were treated like celebrities . Smith later decided to become a professional wrestler and trained , along with her sister @-@ in @-@ law Nickla Roberts ( known by her ring name Baby Doll ) , under Nelson Royal . During 1987 , Smith competed as Rockin ' Robin in Wild West Wrestling , where she feuded with Debbie Combs and Sue Green . When the WWF decided to restart their women 's division in the late 1980s , both women tried out for the company , but the role ultimately went to Smith . Smith , as Rockin ' Robin , debuted in the WWF in late 1987 . She competed at the first Survivor Series as a member of The Fabulous Moolah 's team . Throughout 1988 , she feuded with Sensational Sherri for the WWF Women 's Championship .
On October 7 , 1988 , she defeated Sensational Sherri , who had held the title for fifteen months prior , for the Women 's Championship in Paris . At the Royal Rumble in 1989 , she defended the title against Judy Martin . Smith defended the belt against Martin for the first six months of 1989 . In the meantime , at WrestleMania V , she sang " America the Beautiful " to open the show . Smith continued to defend the Women 's title against Martin throughout the summer of 1989 . She held the championship until 1990 , when she left the company . At that time , the title was retired by the WWF due to inactivity . Smith is still in possession of the title belt .
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include Binoe 's prickly gecko ( Heteronotia binoei ) , the gecko Christinus marmoratus , the Jew lizard ( Pogona barbata ) , King 's skink ( Egernia kingii ) , the western limestone ctenotus ( Ctenotus australis ) , the western worm lerista ( Lerista praepedita ) , the common dwarf skink ( Menetia greyii ) , and the Abrolhos bearded dragon ( Pogona minor minima ) . The carpet python was reported as present on the island in very low numbers before 1960 , but it has never been observed there by naturalists , and is now absent .
The green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) has been observed in large numbers near the shore , and it has been claimed that they breed on the island , but this has never been verified . If it is true , then North Island would be the species ' most southerly breeding site in Western Australia .
= = = Birds = = =
The birds most often mentioned in relation to North Island are the Abrolhos painted buttonquail ( Turnix varius scintillans ) , a rare subspecies of the widespread painted buttonquail ( Turnix varius ) known only from the Wallabi Group and protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 ; and the brush bronzewing ( Phaps elegans ) , one of the most common birds on North Island , the mainland populations of which are decreasing .
Other birds known to breed on North Island include the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus cristatus ) , greater crested tern ( Thalasseus bergii ) , Caspian tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ) , silver gull ( Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae novaehollandiae ) , and welcome swallow ( Hirunda neoxena ) . Birds commonly recorded as resident on the island but not recorded as breeding there include the Pacific reef heron ( Egretta sacra ) , white @-@ bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster ) , red @-@ capped plover ( Charadrius ruficapillus ) , fairy tern ( Sterna nereis nereis ) , Australasian pipit ( Antus novaseelandiae australis ) and western silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis chloronotus ) . The sooty oystercatcher ( Haematopus fuliginosus fuliginosus ) and white @-@ backed swallow ( Cheramoeca leucosterna ) have also rarely been observed as resident on the island .
The most common visitors to the island are the bar @-@ tailed godwit ( Limosa lapponica baueri ) , grey @-@ tailed tattler ( Tringa brevipes ) , ruddy turnstone ( Arenaria interpres interpres ) , red @-@ necked stint ( Calidris ruficollis ) and curlew sandpiper ( Calidris ferruginea ) . Other observed visitors include the great cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo novaehollandiae ) , nankeen kestrel ( Falco cenchroides cenchroides ) , banded lapwing ( Vanellus tricolor ) , greater sand plover ( Charadrius leschenaultii ) , whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus variegatus ) , greenshank ( Tringa nebularia ) , sanderling ( Calidris alba ) , willie wagtail ( Rhipidura leucophrys leucophrys ) and brown songlark ( Cincloramphus cruralis ) .
North Island is part of the Houtman Abrolhos Important Bird Area , identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance for supporting large numbers of breeding seabirds .
= = Human uses = =
The entire Houtman Abrolhos is protected by an A @-@ class nature reserve that is wholly vested in Western Australia 's Minister for Fisheries for purposes of " Conservation of Flora and Fauna , Tourism , and for Purposes Associated with the Fishing Industry " .
= = = Fishing industry = = =
North Island 's primary human use is as a seasonal camp for Western Rock Lobster fishers . During lobster season , which runs from 15 March to 30 June , North Island 's camp is occupied by about 130 fishers . The camp is serviced by a carrier boat , the North Islander , which visits the island every three days , bringing supplies and taking out the catch and any domestic waste .
= = = Conservation = = =
North Island is considered to have high conservation value with respect to its populations of brush bronzewing and Abrolhos painted buttonquail , and its dune , limestone and salt lake vegetation communities . The potential existence of historically significant artefacts on Record Hill , namely the bottle left by Wickham and Stokes in 1840 , has not been assessed .
A 514 ha ( 1 @,@ 270 acres ) area of reef immediately south of North Island is designated a Reef Observation Area ( ROA ) . Fishing is prohibited in this area , except for the use of lobster pots . One of four ROAs in the Houtman Abrolhos , these protected areas are intended to help conserve species of territorial fish that are fished elsewhere , and to provide divers with the opportunity to observe large populations that are not frightened by their approach .
= = = Tourism = = =
With extensive sand beaches , seabird breeding areas , and good dive sites in the Reef Observation Area to the south of the island , North Island is considered an attractive tourist site . However , all of the island 's limited anchorage and jetty space is occupied by commercial fishers , so landings from private or charter boats are possible only by prior arrangement . Moreover , visitors are not permitted to camp on the island . North Island accounts for about 3 @.@ 5 % of private recreational boat trips to the Houtman Abrolhos and about 1 % of commercial charter boat trips . The most recent tourism plan for the Houtman Abrolhos supports the continued use of North Island by private charter boats and the use of the airstrip for tourism purposes , but recommends against the establishment of a land @-@ based tourist site there .
= Presidential Council for Minority Rights =
The Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) is a non @-@ elected government body in Singapore established in 1970 , the main function of which is to scrutinize most of the bills passed by Parliament to ensure that they do not discriminate against any racial or religious community . If the Council feels that any provision in a bill amounts to a differentiating measure , it will report its findings to Parliament and refer the bill back to Parliament for reconsideration . The Council also examines subsidiary legislation and statutes in force on 9 January 1970 . One member of the PCMR is nominated by the Chairman to the Presidential Elections Committee , which is empowered to ensure that candidates for the office of President have the qualifications required by the Constitution . The President also appoints and dismisses the chairman and members of the Presidential Council for Religious Harmony ( " PCRH " ) , established by the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act ( Cap . 167A , 2001 Rev. Ed . ) , on the advice of the PCMR , and the PCMR is responsible for determining whether PCRH members who are not representatives of major religions in Singapore have distinguished themselves in public service or community relations in Singapore .
The Council is made up of its Chairman ( as of 6 November 2012 the Chief Justice of Singapore , Sundaresh Menon ) , up to ten permanent members who are appointed for life , and up to ten ordinary members who are appointed for a period of three years and may be re @-@ appointed . Appointments are made by the President on the advice of the Cabinet . If the President does not concur with Cabinet 's advice , he may veto appointments . However , he is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers ( " CPA " ) , and if the CPA does not concur with his view , Parliament may override his decision with a resolution passed with a two @-@ thirds majority vote . The President has no power to remove current PCMR members .
The Constitution only requires members of the Council to be Singapore citizens residing in Singapore who are at least 35 years old . There is no restriction on Cabinet ministers and members of political parties . Moreover , the Prime Minister may authorize any Minister , Minister of State or Parliamentary Secretary to attend Council meetings . It has been noted that this may have a chilling effect on the Council 's deliberations as such a guest might be the author or a vocal proponent of the legislation under scrutiny . On the other hand , it has been suggested that members with political affiliations can often make the biggest contribution towards the Council 's discussions . Another criticism of the PCMR 's composition is that having judges on the Council may lead to a conflict of interest as they may have to exercise judicial review over Acts of Parliament they have either endorsed or rejected previously .
All proceedings of the Council are conducted in private , and the Council is prohibited from hearing objectors or examining witnesses regarding any bill or law under consideration . Since its establishment , the PCMR has not found any legislation to contain differentiating measures .
= = Role = =
The Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) is a non @-@ elected body established in 1970 under Part VII of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore to fulfil the roles of safeguarding minority rights and advising the Government and the Parliament of Singapore . Its general function , as articulated in the Constitution , is " to consider and report on such matters affecting persons of any racial or religious community in Singapore as may be referred to the Council by Parliament or the Government " . To fulfil its role as a safeguard against any parliamentary or executive propensity to majoritarian or sectarian politics , it may constrict the Government 's freedom to discriminate against racial and religious communities by obstructing the passage of new laws and regulations that it deems to contain such " differentiating measures " .
As a legislative review mechanism , it plays a " limited quasi Second Chamber " role . It has also been called " the closest body [ Singapore has ] to a Second Chamber for many years " . However , the Council has been criticized for lacking teeth to act as a real check on potential legislative abuses . As of 2009 , the PCMR had not issued an adverse report regarding any piece of legislation referred to it . Nevertheless , it forms part of the statutory framework for the People 's Action Party government 's internationally lauded efforts in managing minority issues in multiethnic Singapore . Former Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar , formerly a member of the Council , has noted that the PCMR is also a symbol of the paramount importance placed on racial harmony in a world still rife with racial and communal conflict .
= = Origin = =
= = = The Wee Chong Jin Constitutional Commission = = =
On 18 January 1966 , shortly after Singapore 's independence , the President of Singapore appointed a Constitutional Commission helmed by Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin to consider how the rights of racial , linguistic , and religious minorities in the nascent nation should be protected . Singapore had just been ejected from Malaysia , and had experienced an extended period of racial and religious tension resulting from the Maria Hertogh riots . This experience reinforced the need for a multiracial society based on equality among races .
The Commission , in its report on 27 August 1966 , found that such equality was best protected by giving minority rights equal footing with the fundamental liberties in the Constitution . In addition , it recommended a " Council of State " , an advisory body that would inform the Government of the effects its laws would have on minorities . This concept was based on the Kenyan Council of State which was established in 1958 during its phase of transition to African majority rule . The idea of an advisory body which could not significantly impede the legislative agenda was viewed by lawmakers as a promising innovation . In addition , the creation of an advisory council ensuring equal treatment in legislation was very much in line with the idea that , as citizens become increasingly aware of racial and religious issues , national growth will very much depend on an approach to such problems that is not fraught with religious and racial tensions .
Some of the recommendations for the new Council of State included the following :
Members of the Council were to be appointed after consultation with the Prime Minister , but at the President 's discretion .
No member should belong to a political party .
Membership would be assigned and renewed for a specified period of either three , six or nine years .
Proceedings should be held in public .
= = = Parliamentary debate on the Constitution ( Amendment ) Bill 1969 = = =
The Constitution ( Amendment ) Act 1969 was passed on 23 December 1969 to create the " Presidential Council " based heavily on the proposed Council of State . The amendment took effect on 9 January 1970 . This Council was subsequently renamed the Presidential Council for Minority Rights in 1973 . Although the proposal of the Commission was accepted by Parliament , it nonetheless made several changes that led to the substantial differences from the original proposal , including the following :
Appointments to the Council are made by the President on the advice of the Cabinet .
There are two categories members , namely , permanent and non @-@ permanent members , with the permanent members holding life tenure .
Members of Parliament ( MPs ) , including ministers , are not precluded from sitting in the Council and serving their terms in Parliament simultaneously .
Affiliation with a political party is not a bar to Council membership .
Supporters of the new body heralded the Presidential Council as a step forward in enhancing the country 's democratic spirit . Its establishment was seen as putting a limit on possible dictatorial measures in legislation , which is especially important in a one @-@ party dominated Parliament like Singapore 's . Even if the new Council 's powers were strictly limited to giving advice , this was justified on the basis that it would nevertheless serve to alert the public should the Government proceed to enact an Act which prejudices a class of minorities . Indeed , the Constitutional Commission had intended for the Council of State " to fix the attention of the public on any matter originating from Parliament which may adversely affect the interests of any minority group " .
= = Composition , appointment and term of office of members = =
= = = Composition = = =
The Presidential Council can consist of no more than 21 persons at any one time . The Council is made up of its Chairman , up to ten permanent members who are appointed for life , and up to ten ordinary members who are appointed for a period of three years and may be re @-@ appointed . The distinction between permanent and non @-@ permanent members was not one of the recommendations of the Constitutional Commission , and the Government did not adopt the Commission 's proposal that members should not belong to a political party . It has been suggested that this causes the PCMR 's composition to be " somewhat weighted in favour of the Government and to that extent derogates from the concept of an uncommitted council of elders which sits as a watchdog over the rights of individuals " .
The Chairman is responsible for convening and presiding at all meetings of the Council , but whenever the office of Chairman is vacant , the Council may elect any member to act as Chairman . The Chairman has an original vote but not a casting vote . No fewer than eight members , including the Chairman or another member appointed to preside in his place , must convene in order for the Council to transact any business . Any motion in the Council fails in the event of a tie .
= = = Appointment and term of office = = =
The members of the Presidential Council are not elected , but appointed by the President on advice of the Cabinet . No public nomination process or vote is stipulated in the Constitution . The President , if he does not concur with the Cabinet , may veto the appointment . However , he is required to consult the Council of Presidential Advisers ( " CPA " ) , a constitutional body that advises the President on appointments of key public officials and matters relating to Singapore 's financial reserves . If he exercises his veto without the CPA 's concurrence , Parliament may overrule his decision with a resolution passed with a two @-@ thirds majority vote . The President has no power to remove current members .
Members of the Council must be Singapore citizens of at least 35 years of age residing in Singapore . Apart from these qualifications stated in the Constitution , there was an indication in the Parliamentary debates leading to the PCMR 's introduction that permanent members of the PCMR are very likely to be drawn from " men of distinction " who hold or have held high public appointments , such as former prime ministers , the Chief Justice , former chief justices , judges , the Speaker of the Parliament of Singapore , the Chairman of the Public Service Commission , the Attorney @-@ General and former permanent secretaries . Non @-@ permanent members will probably be mature citizens who have rendered distinguished public service , or are prominent members of their professions .
A member may be disqualified if he is found to be of unsound mind , if he becomes insolvent or is an undischarged bankrupt , if he is convicted and sentenced to imprisonment of not less than one year or a fine of not less than S $ 2 @,@ 000 , or if he has lost his Singaporean citizenship or declared himself allied to a foreign country . Any questions as to membership or disqualification are determined by a tribunal convened in secret that consists of a Supreme Court judge appointed by the Chief Justice and two members appointed by the Council . The Constitution does not stipulate any procedure for the removal of a member besides disqualification and the member 's own resignation .
= = = Current membership = = =
As of 1 April 2015 , there are 19 members on the PCMR , five of whom are permanent members . The Chairman is Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon ( who took over from former Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong who retired on 5 November 2012 ) , and prominent members include Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong , Attorney @-@ General V. K. Rajah , and the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Singapore William Goh . Former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was a permanent member of the Council until his death on 23 March 2015 .
= = = Issues = = =
The existence of permanent members ; the opacity of appointment ; and the inclusion of members of the Government , political parties , and their allies may mean that the PCMR could be used as a tool for the government of the day to remain in power despite its waning popularity in the future .
While the President may block certain appointments to the Council , he cannot remove a permanent member from his seat . In fact , it does not appear that any person has the power to do so . The door may be open for potential abuse with appointments based on some political agenda rather than merit . The counterpoint is that it is precisely those in power who are best placed to scrutinize bills for illegitimate differentiating measures , because " it is often those with political affiliations who can make the biggest contribution to the discussion ; if nothing else , from the folly and error of their past ways " .
The presence of judicial members on the Council may also pose additional problems . There is a possibility of conflict of interest for judges who sit as members of the Council if they find themselves having to review the very Acts of Parliament that they have either endorsed or rejected previously . This is exacerbated by the fact that the Council , in examining the legitimacy of Bills , plays a quasi @-@ judicial role . There may be confusion as regards the legality of a piece of legislation if , for example , it was initially condemned by the Council but enacted by the Government and later endorsed by the courts upon judicial review . When the potential conflict between the Chief Justice 's role as head of the judiciary and as Chairman of the Council was raised in 2010 by Githu Muigai , the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism , Racial Discrimination , Xenophobia and Related Tolerance , he was informed that the Chief Justice would recuse himself from any matter in which a conflict arose .
On the other hand , it has been suggested that the enactment of a statute by Parliament in the face of an adverse report by the PCMR should be taken as a " mere disagreement over the interpretation of the Constitution and thus should not foreclose judicial review " . However , this depends on whether the statute in question is a constitutional amendment or an ordinary Act of Parliament . Acts of Parliament may be disputed in court for their lack of compliance with the Constitution , but constitutional amendments may not be .
Further , scrutinizing legislation to determine if it contravenes fundamental liberties is traditionally the function of the judiciary . Even though the PCMR can potentially prevent an unconstitutional piece of legislation from coming into force , there is doubt as to whether the Council 's members have sufficient legal training to undertake the burdensome task .
= = Powers and functions = =
The PCMR may examine bills , subsidiary legislation , and written laws in force on 9 January 1970 for any " differentiating measure " , which is defined as any measure " which is , or is likely in its practical application to be , disadvantageous to persons of any racial or religious community and not equally disadvantageous to persons of other such communities , either directly by prejudicing persons of that community or indirectly by giving advantage to persons of another community " . All proceedings are conducted in private , and the Council is prohibited from hearing objectors or examining witnesses regarding any bill or law under consideration .
Such privacy means that the Council is denied even a modest " sanction " of publicity . Under the Constitutional Commission 's original proposal , the PCMR was meant to hold its meetings publicly in Parliament , and publish reports of such proceedings . These proposals were rejected on the ground that such publicity might have the adverse consequence of giving members a public forum at which to further their own agendas . E.W. Barker , the Minister for Law and National Development , commented in Parliament that having the discussions in private helps to ensure that they are conducted frankly and constructively , and not held with an eye on the press or with a view to scoring political points .
The validity of such measures to promote free discussion may be negated by Article 87 of the Constitution , which provides that any Minister , Minister of State or Parliamentary Secretary specially authorized by the Prime Minister may attend these private meetings . There may be a real chilling effect on the deliberations when a guest might well be the author or a vocal proponent of the legislation being scrutinized .
Moreover , the Council 's secrecy has been criticized as contrary to its status as a symbol of racial harmony in Singapore . The discharge of such a role requires that the PCMR projects an image of effectiveness , which the current requirement of secrecy arguably impedes . Secret discussions also prevent the public from being informed about controversial issues that may have arisen in the course of implementing new laws , especially those which may affect the rights of minorities .
= = = Bills = = =
The Speaker of Parliament is required to refer all bills , with some exceptions , to the PCMR for consideration immediately after the third reading of the bill in Parliament and obtain the Council 's report on it before the bill may be sent to the President for assent .
The Council must make its report to Parliament within 30 days of the passage of any bill that is referred to it , judging if any provisions of the Bill are " discriminatory or inconsistent with fundamental liberties " . However , if the bill is particularly complex or of great length , the Speaker has the discretion to extend the deadline upon application by the Chairman . If the Council fails to make a report within the given timeframe , it is " conclusively presumed " that the Council is satisfied that the bill is free from differentiating measures .
The referral of a bill only after its third reading means that Parliament will not have the opportunity of considering the Council 's views on the bill prior to the debate . The Wee Chong Jin Commission had advocated for the Council to consider each bill after it had been introduced during its second reading , on the presumption that the Council would express views that would benefit the debate on the bill . Additionally , since Parliament has already passed the bill , Parliament may consider it a " point of honour to maintain its original view ... whatever the merits of the Council 's objections " as they have already debated the bill and may decide to " stick to their original guns " .
If the Council does make an adverse report , Parliament may amend the bill to rid it of any differentiating measures before sending it back to the Council for inspection . The MP having charge of the bill may give two clear days ' notice of the amendments he or she proposes to move in Parliament to the provisions of the bill that were adversely reported upon by the Council . The bill then stands recommitted to a committee of the whole Parliament on those provisions , and the proposed amendments are considered . Parliament then resumes , and the MP having charge of the bill reports whether the amendments were agreed to by the committee . If so , the MP moves that the amended bill should be resubmitted to the Council . There is uncertainty as to whether the Council will have to make another report within any time limit , or if the bill will then be directly presented to the President for assent .
Alternatively , Parliament may effectively ignore the Council 's adverse report with a motion passed with an affirmative vote of two @-@ thirds of its members . Again , the MP in charge of the bill must give two clear days ' notice of his intention to move that the bill be presented to the President for assent despite the adverse report . Following a debate , MPs vote on the motion by taking a division . If Parliament rejects the adverse report in this way , Parliament may send the bill , notwithstanding any differentiating measures , to the President for assent . These overriding mechanisms against adverse reports present difficulties when seen in the light of Article 12 of the Constitution , which is meant to guarantee equal protection under the law to minorities without discrimination , since bills containing differentiating measures that are presented to the President for assent can be seen as " inconsistent with the fundamental liberties of the subject " .
= = = = Excluded types of bills = = = =
Three types of bills are expressly excluded from the scrutiny of the PCMR :
Money bills ; that is , bills which contains provisions dealing with public money , taxation , payments of debts or charges on public funds , grants of money to the Government , the raising or guaranteeing of loans , and any ancillary matters relating to such matters .
Bills that the Prime Minister certifies as affecting " the defence or security of Singapore , or which relate to the public safety , peace or good order of Singapore " .
Bills that the Prime Minister certifies to be so urgent that any delay in enactment would be detrimental to the public welfare .
It has been argued that such exemptions are too wide and may be open to abuse . For instance , it is up to the Speaker to determine whether any bill falls within the definition of a money bill , and once he has certified his opinion on the matter in writing , that is " conclusive for all purposes and shall not be open to question in any court " . Moreover , grounds upon which bills may be excluded such as " public safety " and " peace " , have been described as " nebulous " with potentially wide definitions that are open to abuse by the government in power . As regards a bill that has been enacted on a certificate of urgency and assented to by the President , the Speaker is required to send the Act of Parliament to the Council as soon as possible for its report , which is then presented to Parliament . However , the Constitution contains no provisions as to any steps that Parliament is required to take to amending the Act if an adverse report is made .
= = = Subsidiary legislation and certain written laws = = =
All new subsidiary legislation must be sent to the Council for scrutiny within 14 days of their publication in the Government Gazette . The Council is then required to make its report to the Speaker and the appropriate Minister within 30 days . However , unlike with bills , there is no provision to extend the original deadline . As with bills , tardiness in sending an adverse report results in a conclusive presumption that the Council finds no differentiating measures in the subsidiary legislation . Where the Council issues an adverse report , the Minister must revoke or amend the offending provision within six months of the report , unless Parliament passes a resolution confirming that provision .
The Council may also make a report on any written law in force on 9 January 1970 , but there is no constitutional provision that requires Parliament or the relevant Minister to act on it .
= = = Other functions of the Council and its members = = =
One of the members of the Presidential Elections Committee , which is the body empowered to ensure that candidates for the office of President have the qualifications required by the Constitution , is a member of the PCMR appointed to this post by the Chairman of the Council .
The Council also effectively decides the composition of the Presidential Council for Religious Harmony ( " PCRH " ) , established by the Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act . The President appoints the chairman and the members of the PCRH on the advice of the Council , and the Council is responsible for determining whether the members of the PCRH who are not representatives of major religions in Singapore have " distinguished themselves in public service or community relations in Singapore " . The President is also required to consult the Council before revoking the membership of any member of the PCRH . However , the President has the discretion to veto any appointment or revocation if he does not agree with the PCMR .
= = The PCMR as an " Upper Chamber " = =
The Singaporean Parliament is unicameral in nature , consisting of a single legislative body tasked with making laws
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the takeoff , he said " looks good to me , black strip is clear . "
While taxiing , the flight discussed deicing procedures . The first officer suggested to the pilot that the aircraft ahead of them in the queue " might keep our wings clear for us . " The pilot replied that " it can cause us to re @-@ freeze too ... I don 't want to be very close to him . " Later , the first officer remarked " look at all that stuff . What is that ? " to which the pilot replied " sand I guess , urea sand . "
The pilot of a jet taxiing behind Flight 405 , Northwest Airlines Flight 517 , a Boeing 757 , stated that he had a good view of the top of Flight 405 's wing , and that there was just enough snow on the fuselage to " fuzzy " the USAir printing but that the wings appeared to be clear . He believed that the snow had " all but stopped " and was more concerned about the amount of vehicular traffic , such as sweepers and ploughs , than he was about the snowfall . The second officer of Trump Shuttle Flight 1541 , which had landed around the time Flight 405 was taxiing , said their Boeing 727 had " picked up a lot of snow quickly during my post @-@ landing walkaround , but by the finish it seemed to be more rain . " He described Flight 405 as a " fairly clean airplane . " He said that he could not comment on clear ice , but that the wings and fuselage were clear of snow .
The jet , already several hours behind schedule , then suffered further delays taxiing to the runway . The weather had created heavy ground traffic at LaGuardia , and it was reported that there were queues of aircraft waiting for permission for takeoff . Investigators estimated that the plane took between 25 and 45 minutes to taxi from the gate to the runway .
= = = Crash = = =
Following permission for takeoff from controllers , the flight crew initiated the takeoff procedure and the first officer made a callout of 80 knots , and , several seconds later , a V1 callout , followed shortly after by a VR callout . Approximately 2 @.@ 2 seconds after the VR callout , the nose gear left the ground . The final report read that " the first officer described the takeoff as normal through the rotation . He stated that no problem was evident with vibration , rate of acceleration , ambient noise , [ or ] directional control " . However , The New York Times reported that " several passengers sensed that [ the airplane ] was not going fast enough . "
The first officer said it was " just like we lost lift . " As the captain attempted to level the wings , the crew used right rudder to manoeuvre the aircraft back toward the ground and avoid the water below . The accident report found that " the first officer said that they seemed to agree that the airplane was not going to fly and that their control inputs were in unison . " Rachuba and Majure continued to try to hold the nose up to impact in a flat attitude , although Rachuba later stated that there were no " heavy control inputs . " The final report further noted that " first officer stated that he did not touch the power levers . " The first officer later told investigators that the flight crew 's primary focus was to find a safe place to land .
Just under five seconds after the undercarriage left the ground , the plane 's left wing scraped against the asphalt for 110 feet and the stick shaker activated . The crew received six stall warnings , before the jet began banking to the left , then to the right , and then to the left again , still only several meters above the ground . The aircraft struck two visual approach slope indicator posts , touched down again for approximately 100 feet , before lifting off again and striking an ILS beacon and a water pump house .
The left wing then separated from the body of the airplane , before the fuselage impacted with the edge of Flushing Bay and came to rest in a partially inverted position . Parts of the fuselage and cockpit were submerged in water . Confusion , disorientation , or entrapment most likely caused the drowning of passengers who otherwise sustained only minor injuries and injuries that were not life @-@ threatening . The final report read :
Prior to impact , passengers did not assume the brace position . When the airplane came to rest , many of the passengers in the forward portion of the cabin were upside down , others , who were upright were submerged in water over their heads . Some passengers tried to move from their seats while their seatbelts were still buckled , and other passengers had difficulty locating and releasing their seatbelt buckles because of disorientation . Following the accident , passengers reported fires in the forward left and aft portions of the airplane , including many small fires on the water . Passengers stated that they escaped through large holes in the cabin . The lead flight attendant and first officer escaped through a hole in the cabin floor near the flight attendant ’ s position . Several passengers reported assisting others out of the cabin and into the knee @-@ deep water . Many of them walked in the water to the dike , climbed up the wall and over an embankment , and slid down a steep hill to the runway . Others were assisted out of the water by ground personnel .
= = = Rescue attempts , medical operation = = =
The tower cab coordinator on duty at the time of the accident stated that he saw a fireball emanating from the crash site following the accident . Upon seeing the flames , he sounded an alarm , alerting the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police , who responded . An investigation revealed that there were technical issues with an emergency telephone at LaGuardia , however it was found that these issues did not hinder the emergency response .
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department initially sent four vehicles . Personnel in these vehicles reported that snow and fog hampered their visibility while heading to the crash site , and they could not see the destroyed aircraft . However , one member of the fire crew observed people standing on top of a dike near the crash site . Police divers also entered the water following the crash , although they found no @-@ one alive inside the jet or in the water . The fire @-@ fighters continued spraying the fire , and the incident commander estimated that they had the fire under control ten minutes after their arrival at the scene . The New York Times reported that :
The accident sent thick black smoke billowing above the airport as more than 200 emergency workers ... had to contend not only with blustery snow but the powerful icy current in Flushing Bay ... the tense drama of the rescue continued into the early hours , with fire @-@ fighters and police officers in water up to their shoulders and helicopters shining spotlights on the wreckage and an ice @-@ covered mound of earth at the end of the runway so slick the rescue workers needed metal ladders to walk across it .
The NTSB report on the accident noted , but did not criticise , the medical operation at the scene . It described how paramedics attended to those who were conscious with life @-@ threatening injuries , but did not make any attempts to resuscitate victims who appeared drowned or lacked vital signs because they believed that they could not be revived because they had succumbed to the cold salt water . It was estimated by the authorities who attended the scene of the crash that 15 ambulances responded to the accident site , all of which were used to transport the injured to hospitals , and that 40 additional ambulances were available near the site of the crash , but were not needed .
The report described the emergency response as " effective and contributed to the survivability of the airplane 's occupants . However , the response by the emergency medical services personnel was inadequately coordinated , and the ambulance response times to the hospitals were excessive . " The final report read :
... a basic principle of triage is to treat victims having the most life @-@ threatening injuries first with available medical resources and to utilize limited medical personnel in a manner that will provide maximum effectiveness . However , the Safety Board is also aware that in recent years a number of victims of cold water drowning have been successfully resuscitated . They survived after periods of underwater , including sea water , as long as one hour or more . In view of these facts , the Safety Board believes that all emergency response organizations should review their emergency plans to include contingencies for applying cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) techniques as soon as a sufficient number of trained personnel arrive to perform CPR , even during mass casualty / triage incidents , regardless of whether vital signs are present , especially if cold @-@ water immersion / near drowning is involved and where traumatic injuries do not indicate death .
= = Investigation = =
The NTSB sent a team to the crash site to investigate the accident . They concluded that , unknown to the crew , ice had collected on the wings , which disrupted airflow and reduced lift.The inquiry lasted just under one year .
= = = Buildup of ice = = =
The investigators suggested multiple reasons why the jet was unable to gain lift , but the accident report states there was no evidence to suggest corrosion on the wings . The airplane 's flight control systems was also examined and revealed no failure prior to impact . The report reads that " the evidence did not support improper wing configuration , airframe or system defects , or deployment of the speed brakes as reasons for the loss of aerodynamic efficiency . " The investigators also stated that the takeoff roll of the jet was not abnormal . The board came to the conclusion that ice had built up on the wings , and this had contributed largely to the accident .
When attempting to find out why ice was present on the wings of the jet , the board determined that the airplane had been properly cleared of ice and snow during the two deicing procedures at the gate . However , approximately 35 minutes elapsed between the second time that the aircraft was deiced and the initiation of takeoff during which the airplane was exposed to continuing precipitation in below freezing temperatures . The NTSB were unable to determine how much ice had built up on the wings following the second deicing , but considered it to be highly likely that " some contamination occurred in the 35 minutes following the second deicing and that this accumulation led to this accident . "
" The Safety Board views the evidence as conclusive that the primary factor in this accident was the reduced performance of the wing due to ice contamination . Therefore , the Safety Board evaluated the extent to which the decisions of , and procedures used by the flight crew could have contributed to the accident , " read the final report . Although , when the cockpit was examined , the engine anti @-@ ice switch was found in the ' OFF ' position , further investigations found that even slight pressure could move the switch , and the NTSB ruled this out as a contributing factor in the crash . Following the accident , USAir sent out a maintenance directive ordering engine anti @-@ ice switches to be changed on F28s so they would lock into a selected position .
Investigators found that a flaw in the design of the F28 's wings made them extremely vulnerable to ice buildup . Because of the angle of the wings , even a very small amount of ice could have devastating effects . When the NTSB , in collaboration with Fokker , investigated the effect ice can have on an aircraft , they found that ice particles as small as 1 @-@ 2mm of a density of one particle per square centimeter can cause a loss of lift of over 20 % . A document written by Fokker before the accident detailed the effect of ice on the wing of an F28 warned that an " uncontrollable roll " would begin even with a small amount of ice on the wings .
= = = Errors by the flight crew = = =
The report found that the flight crew were aware that the poor weather was likely to cause ice buildup , however neither of them took any action to check the condition of the wing leading edge and upper surface . The aircraft was evaluated by ground crew and was deiced . After the mechanical failure of the deicing truck , the investigators reported that , as the captain requested another deice , there was an indication he was :
... concerned about the continuing exposure to precipitation , and the request was prudent and in accordance with USAir guidance . Following the second deicing , the flight crew was most likely satisfied that the airplane was free of adhering contamination . The flight crew was not aware of the exact delay that they would encounter before takeoff and their decision to leave the gate was reasonable . After taxiing , when it became evident that they would be delayed for a prolonged period , conversations between the crew showed that they were aware of and probably concerned about the risk of reaccumulating frozen contamination on the wing .
They also found that USAir guidance and flight crew training was sufficient and should have alerted the flight crew to the risk of attempting a takeoff while they were unaware of the condition of the wing . USAir guidance to flight crews specifically stated that :
... it is the captain 's responsibility to exercise caution prior to takeoff . If the elapsed time since deicing exceeds 20 minutes , careful examination of the surfaces should be conducted to detect the extent of accumulation [ of ice ] and to assure that the takeoff can be made safely and in compliance with existing [ regulations ] .
The final report read :
The Safety Board believes that the flight crew of Flight 405 should have taken more positive steps to assure a contamination @-@ free wing , such as entering the cabin to look at the wing from a closer range . Although the Safety Board acknowledges that the detection of minimal amounts of contamination , sufficient to cause aerodynamic performance problems , is difficult and may not be possible without a tactile inspection , an observation from the cabin would have improved the chance of seeing some contamination and might have prompted the flight crew to return to the gate . The Safety Board believes that the flight crew ’ s failure to take such precautions and the decision to attempt takeoff while unsure of wing cleanliness led to this accident and is a cause of it .
In a television interview , one of the NTSB investigators suggested that " the captain was faced with quite a problem . If he wanted to be deiced a third time , he would have had to get out of the line [ of jets waiting to take off ] and taxi all the way back to the parking area and meet up with a deicing truck again . That would have put him very , very late and it may have even caused the cancellation of the flight . "
The NTSB carried out tests to discover why the first officer was unable to see the ice buildup on the wing of the jet . When the sliding window of the cockpit was fully open , the first officer would have been able to see the outer eighty percent of the wing , including the black strip used to contrast the white surface of the wing so the flight crew can search for a build up of ice . When the sliding window was shut , as it was in the accident , it would be difficult to make out any details of the wing , and the black strip would have been distorted by the glass . They also found that the ice light made little difference to how much the first officer would have been able to see .
The investigators also requested that Fokker conduct a study of the effects of ice contamination and pilot technique on the F28 aircraft . The NTSB evaluated the data from the tests and found that the pilot initiated the rotation five knots earlier at 119 knots instead of the proper rotation speed of 124 knots . The data from Fokker was correlated with the cockpit voice recording and confirmed that the first officer called a rotation speed of 113 knots but the captain did not rotate until 119 knots . It was never established why the rotation was called and initiated earlier than was standard .
= = = Deicing procedures at LaGuardia = = =
Investigators also focused on deicing practices at LaGuardia . They found that the airport was using only Type I deicing fluid , not Type II . Type I fluids are used for the actual deicing of the jet , while Type II fluids are used for preventing buildup of ice . At the time of the accident , LaGuardia had prohibited the use of Type II deicing fluid because tests suggested that if it fell onto runways it reduced friction . Investigators noted the change had been made because of LaGuardia 's shorter runways and the fact that if an aircraft left the vicinity of the runway , it would come to rest in the cold water surrounding Runway 13 . The accident report , however , criticised the fact that the majority of the airplane operators in the United States relied only upon Type I fluids for protection , and they do not use Type II . The board stated that tests have shown that both Type I and Type II fluids do flow off the wings of a treated airplane in significant amounts during the initial takeoff ground run . The NTSB stated :
There are a number of views on the potential uses of Type I and II fluids . The use of Type I fluid raises concern because its holdover time is shorter than the holdover time for Type II fluid under certain conditions . Both fluids are under scrutiny for their environmental impacts , and it is uncertain if Type II fluid diminishes the runway coefficient of friction since the fluid rolls off the airplane during the takeoff roll . Also , the use of either type fluid may result in a temporary degradation in the airplane 's aerodynamic performance , a reduced stall margin , and an increase in drag .
= = = Safety card errors = = =
While it was not named as a cause of the accident , investigators also found that the passenger safety briefing cards in the airplane showed two types of galley service doors . However , only one door is installed on a particular F28 model at any one time . The examination also showed that the safety card did not show how to operate either of the two types of galley service doors in the emergency mode if the normal opening mode failed . However , the final report stated that this " did not contribute to the fatalities in the accident . "
= = = Conclusion = = =
The final report , published by the NTSB , cited the probable cause of the accident to be :
... the failure of the airline industry and the Federal Aviation Administration to provide flight crews with procedures , requirements , and criteria compatible with departure delays in conditions conducive to airframe icing and the decision by the flight crew to take off without positive assurance that the airplane 's wings were free of ice accumulation after 35 minutes of exposure to precipitation following de @-@ icing . The ice contamination on the wings resulted in an aerodynamic stall and loss of control after lift @-@ off . Contributing to the cause of the accident were the inappropriate procedures used by , and inadequate coordination between , the flight crew that led to a takeoff rotation at a lower than prescribed air speed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = NTSB recommendations = = =
The NTSB made several recommendations to the FAA , including requiring that " flight crew members and appropriate ground personnel responsible for the inspection of transport @-@ category airplanes for wing contamination receive specific periodic training that will illustrate what contamination looks like and feels like on a wing and the amount of contamination that is detectable under different light conditions " . They also ordered " airlines to establish a way to inform fight crews of the type of [ deicing ] fluid and mixture used , the current moisture accumulation rate , and the available holdover time . ”
With regard to the obstructions that the airplane collided with during the accident sequence , the NTSB ordered the modification or replacement of “ all pump houses adjacent to Runway 13 / 31 so that they are not obstructions to airplanes ” . They also ordered a study on the “ feasibility of building a frangible ILS antenna array for LaGuardia Airport ” Further , they ordered a review of Fokker F28 @-@ 4000 passenger safety briefing cards " to ensure that they clearly and accurately depict the operation of the two types of forward cabin doors in both their normal and emergency modes and that they describe clearly and accurately how to remove the overwing emergency exit and cover . "
= = = Dryden report allegations = = =
The crash was featured on National Geographic Channel in an episode of the television program Mayday ( Air Crash Investigation / Air Emergency ) entitled Cold Case , where the accident was compared with Air Ontario Flight 1363 , which crashed in Dryden , Ontario , after the crew did not deice their jet . The program opened by saying that Canadian investigators were " stunned " to hear of the accident , as it mirrored the Air Ontario flight which had occurred three years earlier .
The report on the crash in Dryden criticised approaches to deicing . It made several points , including recommending the use of Type II deicing fluid rather than Type I , deicing trucks near the runway rather than at the gate , and that the crew should inspect their wings not only from the cockpit , but also the cabin . The report concluded that competitive pressures caused by commercial deregulation cut into safety standards and that many of the industry ’ s sloppy practices and questionable procedures were placing pilots in difficult situations .
The Honourable Virgil P. Moshansky , who investigated the crash in Dryden and wrote the report , appeared in the documentary , alleging that if the recommendations in his report had been followed , the USAir accident could have been prevented . Moshansky told the documentary that his report " probably sat on somebody 's [ at the FAA ] desk . " He said " when I first heard about it I thought , my God , it 's Dryden all over again ... certainly if they had followed the recommendations in my report , the F28 crash at LaGuardia could have been averted . "
Another investigator into the Air Ontario accident told the documentary that " after all of this work [ investigating the Dryden crash ] , after all of the efforts , to see it happen again was extremely frustrating . " The documentary focused largely on these allegations , while also reconstructing the Air Ontario flight and the USAir flight . However , it was reported that the FAA refuted Moshansky 's allegations , and they claim that they never received his report .
= = = International Conference on Airplane Ground Deicing = = =
Following the crash of Flight 405 and the Air Ontario accident in Dryden , the FAA began to research methods of improving deicing practices at airports to minimise the number of accidents caused by a buildup of ice .
Described by the FAA as a “ sharply focused effort ” , experts convened on May 28 and 29 , 1992 , in Reston , Virginia for the International Conference on Ground Deicing . At the conference , industry methods were discussed and agreed upon for actions that should be taken in the long term and short term . A report on the conference by the FAA read :
A better understanding of airplane ground deicing and anti @-@ icing issues is a crucial prerequisite to the implementation of feasible and effective safety improvements . To achieve this goal , the FAA sponsored a conference at which the international aviation community could exchange thoughts and offer recommendation on a variety of issues concerning safe winter operations . [ At the conference ] more than 750 participants discussed the problems posed by aircraft deicing and examined possible solutions .
It was reported that discussions over different types of deicing fluid were discussed , along with different deicing equipment and techniques . They also found that the pilot in command was the ultimate authority for take off decisions , but that all operators had to provide proper training and criteria for the pilot in command to base a proper decision on .
The conference concluded with an amendment to FAA regulations which air carriers operated under . The new regulations stated that airlines should put in place FAA @-@ approved ground deicing or anti @-@ icing procedures anytime weather conditions of ice , snow or frost prevailed . The new rules went into effect on November 1 , 1992 .
= = = Developments in deicing = = =
In the years that followed the accident , airlines started using Type IV deicing fluid , which is more effective than both Type I and Type II fluids . Type IV fluids stick to aircraft for up to two hours . Chicago O 'Hare International Airport was the first to introduce deicing facilities at the runway , something which has now become commonplace .
Aircraft themselves now have more sophisticated deicing systems that can be used on the ground and in the air . Many modern civil fixed wing transport aircraft , for example the Boeing 737 , use anti @-@ ice systems on the leading edge of wings , engine inlets and air data probes using warm air . This is bled from engines and is ducted into a cavity beneath the surface to be anti @-@ iced . The warm air heats the surface up to a few degrees above freezing , preventing ice from forming . The system may operate autonomously , switching on and off as the aircraft enters and leaves icing conditions .
Ground deicing technologies are also developing , and a newer technology is infrared deicing . This is the transmission of energy by means of electromagnetic waves or rays . Infrared is invisible and travels in straight lines from the heat source to surfaces and objects without significantly heating the space ( air ) it passes through . When infrared waves strike an object , they release their energy as heat . This heat is either absorbed or reflected by the cooler surface . Infrared energy is continually exchanged between " hot " and " cold " surfaces until all surfaces have reached the same temperature ( equilibrium ) . The colder the surfaces , the more effective the infrared transfer from the emitter . This heat transfer mechanism is substantially faster than conventional heat transfer modes used by conventional deicing ( convection and conduction ) due to the cooling effect of the air on the deicing fluid spray .
Aircraft deicing vehicles have also improved since the accident , usually consisting of a large tanker truck , containing the concentrated de @-@ icing fluid , with a water feed to dilute the fluid according to the ambient temperature . The vehicle also normally has a cherry picker crane , allowing the operator to spray the entire aircraft in as little time as possible ; an entire Boeing 737 can be treated in under 10 minutes by a single de @-@ icing vehicle . Airport runways are also deiced by sprayers fitted with long spraying arms . These arms are wide enough to cross the entire runway , and allow de @-@ icing of the entire airstrip to take place in a single pass , reducing the length of time that the runway is unavailable .
= = Notable passengers = =
Richard Lawson - film and television actor ( survived accident )
= = = Similar accidents = = =
China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210 — crashed shortly after takeoff in 2004 after the jet collected a layer of frost overnight and was not deiced .
Air Florida Flight 90 — crashed in 1982 after ice built up on the airframe of the jet because of pilot error .
American Eagle Flight 4184 — crashed after flying into unforeseen icing conditions on October 31 , 1994 .
Arrow Air Flight 1285 — crashed attempting to take off from Gander , Newfoundland with contaminated wings in 1985 .
Colgan Air Flight 3407 crashed near Buffalo , NY due to icing conditions on February 12 , 2009 .
= No. 76 Wing RAAF =
No. 76 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during World War II . Initially based in Far North Queensland , its headquarters transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory , in September 1944 to take control of three PBY Catalina units : Nos. 20 , 42 , and 43 Squadrons . The prime task of these squadrons was minelaying in the South West Pacific theatre , and they conducted these operations as far afield as Java , Borneo , the Philippines , and China . As well as minelaying , No. 76 Wing 's Catalinas flew bombing , patrol , and transport missions , and dropped millions of propaganda leaflets in the closing months of the war . The wing headquarters disbanded in November 1945 .
= = History = =
No. 76 Wing headquarters was established at Townsville , Queensland , on 3 January 1944 , and moved to Cairns mid @-@ month . Led by Wing Commander Reginald Burrage , it transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory , in September to coordinate and control minelaying operations in the North @-@ Western Area by Nos. 20 , 42 , and 43 Squadrons . Each of the squadrons was equipped with PBY Catalina flying boats , nicknamed " Black Cats " ; No. 20 had been based in Cairns with No. 76 Wing headquarters , No. 42 had just been formed at Darwin in August , while No. 43 had been operating out of Darwin since March . Minelaying missions carried out by the RAAF over the past year had been credited with successfully disrupting enemy shipping for a much smaller outlay of operating hours than conventional bombing , and were thus considered profitable enough to dedicate a wing with three squadrons to furthering the work . Although the Catalinas were relatively slow and susceptible to enemy fighter attack , their loss rate was no more than one per 95 sorties . In addition to its flying squadrons , the wing controlled No. 2 Flying Boat Maintenance Unit , No. 11 Air Sea Rescue Flight , and No. 3 Mobile Torpedo Unit . All units were located in Darwin except No. 42 Squadron , which was based at Melville Bay .
The Catalina squadrons were expected to carry out a total of 100 missions per month from Darwin . In their first three weeks of operation from 13 September 1944 they accomplished 98 , mining targets in Celebes , Java , and Surabaya . In October , they were able to use the recently liberated island of Morotai as a forward base for operations against Balikpapan and Tarakan . On 14 December , No. 43 Squadron , augmented by Catalinas from No. 11 Squadron based at Rathmines , New South Wales , mined Manila Bay to keep Japanese shipping " bottled up " , thus supporting the Allied landing at Mindoro taking place the next day . Flying from Leyte , the 24 Catalinas successfully dropped 60 mines in the heavily defended target area for the loss of one of their number , and returned to base at the limit of their fuel reserves .
In the early part of 1945 , monsoonal weather in Darwin reduced the number of missions flown by No. 76 Wing . On the night of 5 / 6 April , three Catalinas kept watch on the Japanese cruiser Isuzu , which was subsequently struck by Allied bombers and sunk by submarines . During the month , the Catalinas mined Hong Kong harbour , as well as targets on the coast of mainland China , flying up to sixteen hours per mission . On 26 May , they undertook the RAAF 's most northerly operation during the Pacific War , against Wenchow . The same month , Group Captain Stuart Campbell , former leader of No. 42 Squadron , took over command
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000 US gal ) of water , 1 @,@ 300 blankets , 45 @,@ 360 km ( 100 @,@ 000 lbs ) of rice , 11 @,@ 328 meals ready to eat , and various other supplies . In total , the agency allocated $ 10 @.@ 6 million , mostly in the form of individual assistance that provided money for purchasing lost supplies . FEMA ultimately sent just under $ 5 million to Chuuk after Chataan , as well as subsequent typhoons Pongsona and Lupit ; however , about $ 445 @,@ 000 of the funding was believed to have been misspent due to discrepancies discovered in an audit in 2006 .
In the days after the storm , thousands of people on Guam evacuated to the 15 government shelters set up in schools across the island ; the total reached 3 @,@ 947 people on July 10 . The governor of Guam declared a state of emergency after the storm , and on July 6 President Bush declared the island a major disaster area ; this allocated federal funding to assist in removing debris and other emergency services . A week later , the declaration was extended to include individual assistance for anyone who experienced damage from the storm . The Fena Lake reservoir experienced excess silt deposit after excessive rainfall from Chataan , which prevented water distribution from the facility ; on July 19 – fifteen days after the typhoon 's landfall – water production resumed . Before the facility reopened , the Guam Waterworks Authority distributed water to the island at differing times of the day to ration the limited supply . However , by a month after the storm , residents were still required to boil water as a precaution . About five days after Chataan struck Guam , Typhoon Halong affected the island and caused further power outages . Some areas on the island remained without power for over a week , due to electric workers restoring the main transmission lines before fixing individual lines . By July 19 , 23 % of those who lost power still were without electricity , mostly in outlying areas . By that date , trash collection was restored , and government @-@ opened shelters were closed . Later in July , flooding washed debris from Chataan and clogged two rivers . The oil spill in Apra Harbor was cleaned at three of seven affected locations by August 19 . In the months after the storm , tourism decreased further after a decline that began after the September 11 attacks . Ultimately , FEMA provided $ 73 million in assistance to the territory , including $ 10 million in housing checks to 5 @,@ 947 people and $ 6 @.@ 5 million worth of food stamps for 79 @,@ 814 people . The agency provided $ 10 million for debris removal and rebuilding public buildings . In December 2002 , Typhoon Pongsona struck Guam and caused additional flooding and damage . On August 7 , President George W. Bush also declared Rota to be a disaster area , which provided funding for debris removal .
= = = Retirement = = =
Because of the storm 's death toll and damage , the name Chataan became retired and was replaced with Matmo in 2004 . Countries in the World Meteorological Organization can request tropical cyclone names to be retired if a storm caused unusually heavy damage . With PAGASA , they retired the name Gloria and was replaced with Glenda in 2005 ; the agency sought to be apolitical after Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo won a disputed presidential election in 2004 .
= Time ( xkcd ) =
" Time " is the 1,190th strip of Randall Munroe 's webcomic xkcd . Beginning with a single frame published at midnight on March 25 , 2013 , the image was updated every 30 minutes until March 30 , 2013 , where it was updated periodically every hour for 118 days ( 123 days in total ) , ending on July 26 with a total of 3 @,@ 099 unique images . Each image represented a single frame in a larger story , essentially making the comic a video with an extremely low frame rate .
Referred to by Glen Tickle of Geekosystem as Munroe 's " magnum opus " , " Time " attracted significant attention and was well received online , and several projects , wikis and web communities were built about it . In 2014 , it won the Hugo Award in the Best Graphic Story category .
= = Plot = =
" Time " begins with two stick figures , a woman and a man , building a sand castle complex on a beach . The woman notes that the sea ( visible on the right side of the frame ) is rising . After construction is completed , and after temporarily stopping the sea from eroding the castle away , the two decide to go on a journey to discover the cause behind the rising sea level . As they leave , the frames slowly fade to white , with the beginning of the destruction of the construction shown .
The two journey out , finding a river that they were unaware of ; the couple follow the river and make observations as they go . While resting under a tree , the man finds the remains of a campsite , discovering that the area they were in has been inhabited . Later , they find another campsite and massive , oddly shaped trees with markings on one . They find a decrepit boat they could use to cross the river , but continue up into the mountains . While climbing a small hill , the man sees a snake and tumbles down on the woman . Further on , they hear chirping in a tree , and pause briefly to observe a bird and its chick in a nest . While resting at a miniature river , the woman discovers that they are on the cliff of a large waterfall . After contemplating it , they decide to discover what the mountains are like .
They climb up and eventually reach a small abandoned house . While there , the man is attacked by a big cat , which the woman strikes away with a piece of wood . The man is unscathed , but the woman sustains a wound to her leg which they wrap with a flag brought from when they were creating the sand castle . Deciding that traveling in search of people towards the top of the mountain , where they see a structure , would be a better medical option than heading back home , they continue towards the mountaintops . As night falls , they rest in the wild . The man takes the first guard shift , and the stars in the night sky time lapse behind him . He wakes the woman to take his turn to sleep . When he eventually wakes up , the two characters press on with the intention of turning back if they do not find people .
They find a small structure , and from its top the woman spots people . As they leave the structure , they think upon their sand castle , wondering its fate . The screen flashes to a scene of a lone bucket floating on a body of water , then flashes back . After a bit more traveling , the characters make contact with three androgynous people wearing headgear . The woman attempts to communicate , but the native language of the people is incomprehensible . She shows them her wound , and they treat it with a paste . The group then beckon the man and woman to follow them into town . After receiving water , the man and woman sleep . The following morning , the man communicates with one of the locals by drawing pictures in the dirt . The local informs that the sea level is , in fact , rising , and that the two characters should follow and see someone to talk to . They rest while on the way , where the man and woman look over a map from one of the locals . They continue to a city , and a castle behind it . They are led to the natives ' leader , who , speaking the language of the protagonists poorly , explains the reason for the sea rising . She reveals that her people had erected a berm to keep what she calls " the planet 's mightiest river " at bay , which is presently days away from breaking through and flooding the man and woman 's home . She explains that the journey back to reach their home to warn the others living there would take too long and that they have no choice but to remain with the mountain people . Ignoring her , the man and woman flee and run back home , taking some of the mountain people 's provisions on the way out and guiding themselves with maps that the woman had stolen .
Upon returning home , the two characters attempt to coordinate an escape with their fellow people . A girl appears in a boat she constructed from wood used in the sand castle from the beginning of the story ; this causes the tribe to abandon their original plans and instead attempt to float up the river . After expanding the boat , the group loads onto it and sets sail . Soon they join the remaining members of their tribe , who had been in their own smaller boat . After a night of drifting , while the others are still asleep , the man and woman spot land . When they reach it , the story ends with the man and woman , last to depart , going into the new wilderness to explore it , with the boat seen bobbing in the water . The final five frames of the comic , in which the boat is bobbing on the water , are currently rotating in an undetermined pattern for the comic on the xkcd website .
= = Conception and development = =
Munroe described his reasons for creating " Time " in an interview with Rolling Stone , where he stated that he came up with the idea as he was pondering the space between animation and a daily comic , wanting to do something " in between " . In an interview with Computer Sweden , Munroe stated that he had never seen anyone attempt such a project before and that he " wanted to see if it would work . " Munroe noted that , in some cases , " things become more interesting if they are difficult to access , " such as in books that deliberately make the story more complicated . He hoped that , as people slowly got into it , the world and language would excite readers on a deeper level . According to Munroe , nothing like " Time " had been done before because it is difficult to reach people once every hour without a tool such as the Internet .
Following the ending of his story , comic creator Randall Munroe explained many of the story 's details and furthered its context in an article on Wired . He noted that " Time " is set 11 @,@ 000 years in the future , in a future civilization with humanity 's present civilization long extinct . It takes place in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea , which has largely evaporated following tectonic activity shutting it off from the Atlantic Ocean . This is modeled after a similar occurrence of this incident approximately 5 million years ago — the Messinian salinity crisis . The eventual flooding crisis at the end of the story is a supposed recurrence of the Zanclean flood . Munroe reportedly researched the plants and wildlife of the region and added them into the comic , offering hints as to the story 's location . According to Munroe , " I got suggestions from botanists and herpetologists , and I had a file with details on every species the characters encountered or talked about , like dwarf palms , juniper trees , horned vipers , and sand boas " .
In the scene where the male and female sleep in shifts , a time lapse of stars in the night sky occupies the background . This was done with the help of astronomy software to render the night sky of the characters ' location , in their specific time , accounting for projected precession of the equinoxes and stellar motion over the next 11 @,@ 000 years . The starfield lacks the star Antares , as Munroe consulted with astronomer Phil Plait , who told him that the star may go supernova before the date in which " Time " is set .
= = = Language = = =
The language ( and the script it is written in ) that Munroe gave the characters native to the mountains was created with the help of a linguist , and has as of yet not been deciphered , although the meaning of some of the words and symbols has been deduced . Munroe has not given the language a name , but fans dubbed it " Beanish " , a name that was later picked up by the media . Munroe has opened the possibility of using the language in a future comic .
= = Publishing = =
The frames of " Time " were originally updated every 30 minutes ; however , after frame 240 , the updates became hourly . After frame 2440 , five frames appeared in very quick succession , showing a meteor shooting through the sky , but the updates then returned to hourly . The technical details about the comic 's publishing were described on an independent website as follows :
Inside the page is a script and it uses simple Ajax to download a new image every so often . The script is minified and so not easy to follow , but there are a number of programmers taking the time to figure it out . The request redirects server side to a new image and it is difficult or impossible to get at the future images ( they might not have been created yet ) but if you know the links you can get the previous images . This has resulted in a number of sites putting the frames together to produce either an animated gif or a pseudo video that downloads each frame in turn .
= = Reception = =
" Time " was received well online , with Cory Doctorow of Boing Boing saying it was " coming along nicely " during publishing with an " astounding backstory " upon its conclusion . Wired 's Laura Hudson called the journey " epic " , and Glen Tickle of Geekosystem referred to the comic as Munroe 's " magnum opus " . Tasha Robinson from The A.V. Club said of the comic , " This is slow @-@ paced entertainment for a fast @-@ paced world , but it 's also the kind of nifty experiment that keeps people coming back to XKCD , which at its best isn 't a strip comic so much as an idea factory and a shared experience . " " Time " also got mentions from The Verge writer Jeff Blagdon and Washington Post blogger Andrea Peterson . On April 19 , 2014 , the comic was announced as a nominee for a Hugo Award in the Best Graphic Story category , and won the award in August 2014 . Doctorow accepted the award on behalf of Munroe , dressing as Munroe had drawn him in an earlier strip , " 1337 : Part 5 " .
The comic garnered " obsessive " attention from viewers on xkcd 's forum , with a discussion thread that exceeds 2 @,@ 000 pages and 90 @,@ 000 posts . Fans created a wiki specific to " Time " , and a glossary of invented terms to describe the comic .
= Railway stations in Cromer =
The fishing port and holiday resort of Cromer in the English county of Norfolk has had a rail service since 1877 . It was served by three railway stations for many years , and is now served by two . Cromer Beach station , which opened in 1887 , was renamed Cromer following the closure of the other early stations .
Cromer High , on the outskirts of the town , was opened in 1877 as the terminus of the Great Eastern Railway main line from London . It was followed in 1887 by Cromer Beach station , on the rural Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway ( M & GNJR ) . Cromer Links Halt railway station , on the little @-@ used and now closed Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway line to North Walsham via Overstrand and Mundesley , was opened in 1923 .
Following a reduction in traffic caused by
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of former members of BasiL , including Hiro Suzuhira and Aoi Nishimata , the illustrators for Shuffle ! . Shuffle ! was released at around the same time as Fate / stay night , a highly anticipated visual novel by Type @-@ Moon . The limited edition of Shuffle ! was the second highest @-@ selling computer game for the last two weeks of January 2004 the top 50 best @-@ selling Bishōjo games semi @-@ monthly sales chart in Japan , behind Fate / stay night . It then ranked 18th and 50th in February before dropping off the chart in the first two weeks of March at 40th . The regular edition of the PC version of Shuffle ! premiered at 9th in the chart in the last two weeks of February . It then ranked 5th and 40th in March , before its last appearance at 49th in the first half of April . Shuffle ! On the Stage was released on October 20 , 2005 and sold well ( for a visual novel ) during its first week , selling 29 @,@ 732 copies by October 23 .
Getchu.com hosts a yearly voting poll called the " Getchu.com Bishōjo Game Ranking " where game users vote online for the best games of the previous year in several different categories . For the 2004 ranking , the categories were : overall , scenario , theme songs , background music , visuals , gameplay system , and heroines . Out of the seven , Shuffle ! ranked in four . The game was voted 8th best overall , 11th best for its scenario , and 14th best for its gameplay system . Asa Shigure ranked as the 14th most popular heroine with Kaede Fuyou ranking 15th .
= = = Anime = = =
Shuffle ! the anime television series received mixed reviews from critics . Theron Martin of Anime News Network described the anime as although " genuinely enjoyable " , often " alternating between brazen stupidity , lame jokes , and disgusting sweetness " criticizing it as being a typical harem anime that offered little new content . Helen Ellingwood of Active Anime disagreed stating that Shuffle ! contained what she described as the most important ingredient , which sets it apart from other harem anime : " heart " . Anime News Network 's Carlo Santos agreed with Martin 's assessment , agreeing with the show 's lack of novelty and stating that the highlight of the anime is its comedy , but that its romance is " slowly running the series into the ground . " However , D. F. Smith of IGN stated that it actually does well against other harem anime as it " may be ridiculous , exploitative , a simultaneous affront to good sense and good taste , but at least it 's good for a chuckle or two " . Smith criticized the ending for lacking " intensity " ; however , Ellingwood praised it for showing the consequences of avoiding which heroine the protagonist would choose to love , unlike harem anime she had prior .
Ellingwood praised the animation quality as " high quality " with " wonderfully lush and vibrant color schemes " used for the character designs . Smith agreed , describing the anime as " colorful " and " sharply @-@ drawn " , however in the last few episodes as having darkened the scenes a little excessively . However , Martin criticized the " mediocre " animation noting the " bland " appearance of characters as uncharacteristic of harem anime . Santos stated that the animation was " sloppy " for the secondary characters , however praised the high quality and detail of the artwork . Although Ellingwood described the score as " energetic and pleasing " , Smith stated that the music " tends to stick to the background " . Martin expressed a similar view stating that the soundtrack " does little to spruce up the production " , although he described the opening theme " You " as " a strong , energetic J @-@ rock number worth listening to independently " and as " unquestioningly " the highlight of the soundtrack . On the other hand , Santos described the theme music and at times the music selection as " show [ ing ] absolutely no originality " but the background music as " surprisingly listenable " and at times " so evocative that it conveys the scene better than the story and characters do . "
= = = Legacy = = =
A 3D virtual world called Ai Sp @ ce was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from Shuffle ! , Clannad , and Da Capo II . Released in October 2008 , the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact , bridging the gap between the separate franchises . Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game , along with choosing one game heroine to live with , which is referred to as a character doll , or chara @-@ doll for short . The user and chara @-@ doll reside together on one of the three in @-@ game " islands " depending on which franchise the heroine is from , which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased . The chara @-@ dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user .
= Cripple Creek miners ' strike of 1894 =
The Cripple Creek miners ' strike of 1894 was a five @-@ month strike by the Western Federation of Miners ( WFM ) in Cripple Creek , Colorado , USA . It resulted in a victory for the union and was followed in 1903 by the Colorado Labor Wars . It is notable for being the only time in United States history when a state militia was called out ( May / June 1894 ) in support of striking workers .
The strike was characterized by firefights and use of dynamite , and ended after a standoff between the Colorado state militia and a private force working for owners of the mines . In the years after the strike , the WFM 's popularity and power increased significantly through the region .
= = Causes of the strike = =
At the end of the 19th century , Cripple Creek was the largest town in the gold @-@ mining district that included the towns of Altman , Anaconda , Arequa , Goldfield , Elkton , Independence and Victor , about 20 miles from Colorado Springs on the southwest side of Pikes Peak . Surface gold was discovered in the area in 1891 , and within three years more than 150 mines were operating there .
The Panic of 1893 caused the price of silver to crash ; the gold price , however , remained fixed , as the United States was on the gold standard . The influx of silver miners into the gold mines caused a lowering of wages . Mine owners demanded longer hours for less pay , and assigned miners to riskier work .
In January 1894 , Cripple Creek mine owners J. J. Hagerman , David Moffat and Eben Smith , who together employed one @-@ third of the area 's miners , announced a lengthening of the work @-@ day to ten hours ( from eight ) , with no change to the daily wage of $ 3 @.@ 00 per day . When workers protested , the owners agreed to employ the miners for eight hours a day – but at a wage of only $ 2 @.@ 50 .
Not long before this dispute , miners at Cripple Creek had formed the Free Coinage Union . Once the new changes went into effect , they affiliated with the Western Federation of Miners , and became Local 19 . The union was based in Altman , and had chapters in Anaconda , Cripple Creek and Victor .
On February 1 , 1894 , the mine owners began implementing the 10 @-@ hour day . Union president John Calderwood issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners reinstate the eight @-@ hour day at the $ 3 @.@ 00 wage . When the owners did not respond , the nascent union struck on February 7 . Portland , Pikes Peak , Gold Dollar and a few smaller mines immediately agreed to the eight @-@ hour day and remained open , but larger mines held out .
= = Events of the strike = =
The strike had an immediate effect . By the end of February , every smelter in Colorado was either closed or running part @-@ time . At the beginning of March , the Gold King and Granite mines gave in and resumed the eight @-@ hour day .
Mine owners still holding out for the 10 @-@ hour day soon attempted to re @-@ open their mines . On March 14 , they obtained a court injunction ordering the miners not to interfere with the operation of their mines , and brought in a number of strikebreakers . The WFM initially attempted to persuade these men to join the union and strike , but when they were unsuccessful , the union resorted to threats and violence . These tactics succeeded in keeping the non @-@ union miners away .
On March 16 , an armed group of miners ambushed and captured six sheriff 's deputies en route to the Victor mine . Shots were fired , and the miners and deputies engaged in a fistfight , in which two of the deputies received minor injuries . An Altman judge , a member of the WFM , charged the deputies with carrying concealed weapons and disturbing the peace , then released them .
= = = Involvement of the state militia = = =
After the assault on his deputies , El Paso County Sheriff M.F. Bowers wired the governor and requested the intervention of the state militia ( predecessor to the Colorado National Guard ) . Governor Davis H. Waite , a 67 @-@ year @-@ old Populist , dispatched 300 troops to the area on March 18 under the command of Adjutant General T.J. Tarsney . Tarsney found the area tense but quiet . Union president Calderwood assured him that union members would cooperate with his operations , even surrendering for arrest if requested . Convinced that Bowers had exaggerated the extent of the chaos in the region , Tarsney recommended the withdrawal of troops ; Waite concurred . The state militia left Cripple Creek on March 20 .
In response to the recall of the state militia , the mine owners closed the mines . Bowers arrested Calderwood , 18 other miners , and the mayor and town marshal of Altman ( who had supported the miners ) . They were taken to Colorado Springs and quickly tried on several different charges , but found not guilty . Meanwhile , outbursts of violence , such as stone @-@ throwing and fights between union miners and scabs , increased in frequency . Stores and warehouses were broken into , and guns and ammunition stolen .
In early May , the mine owners met with representatives of the WFM in Colorado Springs in an attempt to end the strike . The owners offered to return to the eight @-@ hour day , but at a daily wage of only $ 2 @.@ 75 . The union rejected the offer and talks broke down .
= = = Mine owners raise a private army = = =
Shortly after negotiations with the union ended , the mine owners met secretly with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado Springs . They told Bowers they intended to bring in hundreds of nonunion workers , and asked if he would be able to protect such a large force of men . Bowers said he could not , for the county lacked the financial resources to pay and arm more than a few deputies . The mine owners offered to subsidize an initial force of a hundred or so men . Bowers agreed , and immediately began recruiting ex @-@ police and ex @-@ firefighters from Denver .
News of the mine owners ' meeting with Bowers soon leaked out , and the miners organized and armed themselves in response . Calderwood was leaving on a tour of the WFM locals in Colorado to raise funds for the Cripple Creek strike , and so appointed Junius J. Johnson , a former U.S. Army officer , to take over strike operations . Johnson immediately established a camp atop Bull Hill , which overlooked the town of Altman . He ordered that fortifications be built , a commissary stocked and the miners be drilled in maneuvers .
On May 24 , the strikers seized the Strong mine on Battle Mountain , which overlooked the town of Victor . The next day , at about 9 am , 125 deputies arrived in Altman and set up camp at the base of Bull Hill . As they started to march toward the strikers ' camp , miners at the Strong mine blew up the shafthouse , hurling the structure more than 300 feet into the air . A few moments later , the steam boiler was also dynamited , showering the deputies with timber , iron and cable . The deputies fled to the rail station and left town .
A celebration broke out among the miners , who broke into liquor warehouses and saloons . That night , some of the miners loaded a flatcar with dynamite and attempted to roll it toward the deputies ' camp . It overturned short of its goal and killed a cow . Other miners wanted to blow up every mine in the region , but Johnson quickly discouraged them . Frustrated , several drunken miners then stole a work train and steamed into Victor . They caught up with the group of fleeing deputies , and a gun battle broke out . One deputy and one miner died , a man on each side was wounded , and six strikers were captured by the deputies . The miners subsequently captured three officials of the Strong mine who had been present when the shafthouse was blown up . A formal prisoner exchange later freed all prisoners on both sides .
Calderwood returned during the night and restored calm . He asked saloons to close , and he imprisoned several miners who had instigated outbursts of violence .
On May 26 , mine owners met again with Sheriff Bowers in Colorado City . The owners agreed to provide more funding to allow the sheriff to raise 1 @,@ 200 additional deputies . Bowers quickly recruited men from all over the state , and established a camp for them in the town of Divide , about 12 miles away from Cripple Creek .
= = = Waite intervenes = = =
Warned about the size of the force Bowers was raising , Gov. Waite interceded again in the strike . He issued a proclamation on May 27 in which he called on the miners to disband their encampment on Bull Hill . In a development unparalleled in American labor history , he also declared the force of 1 @,@ 200 deputies to be illegal and ordered the group disbanded . He also ordered the state militia to be on the alert for a possible move on Cripple Creek . On May 28 , the governor visited the miners , who authorized Waite to negotiate on their behalf .
An initial meeting on May 30 nearly ended in disaster . Waite and several local civic leaders called union president Calderwood and mine owners Hagerman and Moffat to a conference in a meeting hall on the campus of Colorado College in Colorado Springs . Talks were under way and proceeding well when a mob of local citizens attempted to storm the building . Blaming Calderwood and Waite for the violence in Cripple Creek , they intended to lynch both men . As a local judge distracted the mob , Calderwood and Waite escaped out a rear door and onto the governor 's waiting train .
Negotiations resumed in Denver on June 2 , and the parties reached an agreement on June 4 . The agreement provided for resumption of the $ 3 @.@ 00 @-@ per @-@ day wage and the eight @-@ hour day . The mine owners agreed not to retaliate against or prosecute any miner who had taken part in the strike , and the miners agreed not to discriminate against or harass any nonunion worker who remained employed in the mines .
= = = The state militia returns = = =
With 1 @,@ 300 deputies still in Cripple Creek , Sheriff Bowers was unable to control the private army he had created . On June 5 , the deputies moved into Altman , perhaps as a prelude to storming Bull Hill . The deputies cut the telegraph and telephone wires leading out of town , and imprisoned a number of reporters . Concerned that the paramilitary force might get out of hand , Waite again dispatched the state militia , this time under the command of General E.J. Brooks .
When Colorado state troops arrived in Cripple Creek early on the morning of June 6 , more violence had already broken out . The deputies were exchanging gunfire with the miners on Bull Hill . Gen. Brooks quickly moved his troops from the train station to the foot of Bull Hill . As Sheriff Bowers and Gen. Brooks began to argue about what course of action to take next , the deputies took advantage of the lull and attempted to charge the miners . The miners sounded the whistle at the Victor mine , alerting Gen. Brooks . Soldiers of the state militia quickly intercepted the deputies and stopped their advance . Brooks ordered his men to occupy the top of Bull Hill , and the miners offered no resistance .
The deputies turned their attention to Cripple Creek itself . They arrested and imprisoned hundreds of citizens without cause . Many inhabitants of the town were seized on the street or pulled from their homes , then clubbed , kicked or beaten . The deputies formed a gauntlet and forced townspeople to pass through it , spitting , slapping and kicking them . With Bull Hill in his possession , Gen. Brooks began detaining the deputies . By nightfall , Brooks had seized the town and corralled all of Bowers ' men .
Waite threatened to declare martial law , but the mine owners refused to disband their deputy force . Gen. Brooks then threatened to keep his troops in the region for another 30 days . Faced with the prospect of paying for a paramilitary force which could only sit on its hands , the owners agreed to disband it . The deputies , which Gen. Brooks had dispatched via rail to Colorado Springs , began dispersing on June 11 . The Waite agreement became operative the same day , and the miners returned to work .
Union president Calderwood and 300 other miners were arrested and charged with a variety of crimes . Only four miners were convicted of any charges , and were quickly pardoned by the sympathetic populist governor .
= = Impact of the strike = =
The Cripple Creek strike was a major victory for the miners ' union . The Western Federation of Miners used the success of the strike to organize almost every worker in the Cripple Creek region – including waitresses , laundry workers , bartenders and newsboys – into 54 local unions . The WFM flourished in the Cripple Creek area for almost a decade , even helping to elect most county officials ( including the new sheriff ) .
The Cripple Creek strike also transformed the Western Federation of Miners enormously as a political entity . The year @-@ old union , weak and penniless before the strike , became widely admired among miners throughout the West . Thousands of workers joined the union over the next few years . Politicians and labor officials throughout the country became steady allies of the union , and the WFM became a political force throughout much of the Rocky Mountain West .
But the WFM 's success at Cripple Creek also created a significant backlash . The WFM was forever tarred as a dangerous and violent organization in the eyes of employers . Never again would the WFM have in a local strike the level of public support it enjoyed at Cripple Creek in 1894 . Indeed , when the union struck the Cripple Creek mines again in 1898 , its public support ended after violence broke out . During another strike in 1903 – 4 , whose violent significance earned it the name Colorado Labor Wars , the union went up against the power of the employers and the state combined .
The union 's success also altered the course of Colorado politics . Colorado citizens blamed Waite for protecting the miners ' union and encouraging violence and anarchy . The backlash led to Waite 's defeat at the polls in November 1894 and the election of Republican Albert McIntire . The Populist movement in Colorado never recovered .
The Cripple Creek strike of 1894 also hardened the attitudes of mine owners . Under Gov. McIntire , the government of Colorado formed a political alliance with the mine owners . Mine owners increasingly turned to the Thiel Detective Service Company and Pinkerton National Detective Agency for spies , increased the use of strikebreakers , and implemented the lockout and blacklist as a means of controlling union members . Whenever these tools proved ineffective , the state government stepped in to support the mine owners . When the WFM struck the Leadville mines in 1896 , Gov. McIntire called out the state militia against the union and broke the WFM 's power in Colorado .
The Cripple Creek backlash indirectly influenced the direction of American labor history . The collapse of the 1896 Leadville strike caused the WFM to sever its relationship with the American Federation of Labor and to turn strongly to the left politically . After the Colorado Labor Wars , the WFM was instrumental in launching the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) in 1905 . Although the IWW 's heyday was short @-@ lived , the union was symbolically important and the ideals embodied by it continue to deeply influence the American labor movement to this day .
= Chester ( TTC ) =
Chester is a subway station on the Bloor – Danforth line in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The station is located on Chester Avenue just north of Danforth Avenue . It opened in 1966 as one of the original stations of this subway line . The Toronto Parking Authority operates a public parking lot across Chester Avenue opposite the subway entrance .
= = History = =
Chester station was opened on February 25 , 1966 , along with the rest of the first phase of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line which operated between Keele and Woodbine stations .
Following the design style set by the stations of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line , Chester station uses a two colour theme with the station 's name in the Toronto Subway Font . In keeping with the style , Chester 's colours match the ' opposing ' stations on the western half of the subway line : the trim tiles are blue and complement Lansdowne station , while the light green main tiles complement the original tile colour for Dufferin station .
= = Facilities = =
Chester station has one entrance which is located on Chester Avenue just north of Danforth Avenue . A walkway leads to the station from a nearby street to allow access to the station from the west side . The nearby communities that are served by this station are Greektown , Withrow Park , Riverdale , and Broadview North . In addition to serving these communities , Chester station is commonly used to access local street festivals such as the Taste of the Danforth .
Although the station is rated as high priority in the requirement for a second exit , Chester is the only one left on the east end of the Bloor @-@ Danforth line where design work and consultation has yet to be done .
The Gateway Newsstand kiosk at the station , which had been vacant for over six years , was reopened on May 8 , 2015 as " The Artist Newsstand " by a group of local artists led by Jess Dobkin . Along with the usual offerings of newspapers , magazines and drinks , The Artist Newsstand is a performance and gallery space for artists as well as being staffed by artists , as a way of funding their work . A $ 4000 Kickstarter campaign was launched to fund the renovation of the kiosk , with the campaign successfully raising $ 4 @,@ 931 . The Artist Newsstand will operate in the space for one year .
= = Service = =
Chester station is served by the Bloor @-@ Danforth line which operates between Kennedy and Kipling stations . The station was designed to be serviced with side platforms as it mainly serves the surrounding neighbouhood . As it is the only station in the system that is not connected to a regular bus or streetcar route it is one of the least used subway stations in Toronto . The 300 Bloor @-@ Danforth Night and 303 Don Mills Night Bus operates on Danforth from 1 : 30 @-@ 5 : 30 a.m. after the line is shut down for nightly maintenance .
= On Translating Beowulf =
" On Translating Beowulf " is an essay by J. R. R. Tolkien which discusses the difficulties faced by anyone attempting to translate the Old English heroic @-@ elegiac poem Beowulf into modern English . It was first published in 1940 as a preface contributed by Tolkien to a translation of Old English poetry ; it was first published as an essay under its current name in the 1983 collection The Monsters and the Critics , and Other Essays .
In the essay , Tolkien explains the difficulty of translating individual words from Old English , noting that a word like eacen ( ' large ' , ' strong ' , ' supernaturally powerful ' ) cannot readily be translated by the same word in each case . He notes the problem of translating poetic kennings such as sundwudu ( ' flood @-@ timber ' , i.e. ' ship ' ) and that the language chosen by the poet was already archaic at that moment . He explains that such terms had echoes and connotations of another world , an " unrecapturable magic " .
The essay describes Old English metre , with each line in two opposed halves . The stressed syllables in each half contained alliterating sounds in six possible patterns , which Tolkien illustrates using modern English . Rhyme is used only for special effects , such as to imitate waves beating on a shore . The essay ends with the observation that the whole poem is itself in two opposed halves , covering " Youth + Age ; he rose – fell . "
Critics note that Tolkien attempted and sometimes failed to follow the rules he laid down in the essay in his own alliterative verse , in his own translations , and indeed in his narrative fiction such as Lord of the Rings .
= = Literary context = =
J.R.R. Tolkien contributed " On Translating Beowulf " as a preface entitled " Prefatory Remarks on Prose Translation of ' Beowulf ' " to the 1940 edition of C.L. Wrenn 's book Beowulf and the Finnesburg Fragment , A Translation into Modern English Prose , which had first been published in 1911 by John R. Clark Hall . Tolkien , the Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo @-@ Saxon at the University of Oxford , had himself attempted a prose translation of Beowulf , but abandoned it , dissatisfied ; it was published posthumously , edited by his son Christopher Tolkien as Beowulf : A Translation and Commentary in 2014 .
The preface was published under the title " On Translating Beowulf " in 1983 ( and in subsequent editions ) , as one of the essays in The Monsters and the Critics , and Other Essays , also edited by Christopher Tolkien .
= = Essay = =
The essay is divided into the following sections ( which are arranged hierarchically but not numbered in the original ) :
= = = On Translation and Words = = =
Tolkien comments on the risk of using a translation as a substitute for study with grammar and dictionary , calling it an abuse , and writing that
On the strength of a nodding acquaintance of this sort ( it may be supposed ) , one famous critic informed his public that Beowulf was ' only small beer ' . Yet if beer at all , it is a drink dark and bitter : a solemn funeral @-@ ale with the taste of death .
He notes that a readable translation cannot always translate an Old English ( OE ) word the same way ; thus eacen is rendered ' stalwart ' , ' broad ' , ' huge ' , and ' mighty ' , correctly in each case to fit the context , but losing the clue to the word 's special meaning , " not ' large ' but ' enlarged ' " . The word implies , in fact , supernatural or superhuman power , like Beowulf 's gift from God of " thirtyfold strength " . And this is just an example , Tolkien points out , of a minor challenge to the translator .
A second issue ( in his view ) is the compactness of Old English words , which often have no modern equivalents , and phrases which are " inevitably weakened even in prose by transference to our looser modern language " .
Another problem is posed by the kennings , which Tolkien calls " poetical devices , ... descriptive compounds " . He gives the example of sundwudu ( ' flood @-@ timber ' ) for ' ship ' ; some phrase like ' wave @-@ borne timbers ' is " an attempt to unfold , at the risk of dissipating it , the briefly flashed picture " .
Tolkien mocks " oddities " like " ten timorous trothbreakers together " ( for Beowulf line 2846 , in Clark Hall 's unrevised version ) as " reminiscent of the ' two tired toads that tried to trot to Tutbury ' " . He does not approve , either , of choosing needlessly colloquial words : " Too often notables , visitors and subalterns appeared instead of the more fitting , and indeed more literally accurate , counsellors , strangers , and young knights . "
Further , he points out that the language used by the Beowulf poet was already archaic , and the choice of words was at the time recognisably poetic . Tolkien gives as an example beorn , which meant both ' bear ' and ' warrior ' , but only in heroic poetry could it be used to mean ' man ' . He advises the translator to prefer ' striking ' and ' smiting ' , and to avoid " hitting and whacking " . But on the other hand , he criticises William Morris for using the dead and unintelligible ' leeds ' for OE leode ( ' freemen ' , ' people ' ; cf German leute ) , even if antiquarians feel that the word ought to have survived . Tolkien does not accept the etymological fallacy either : mod means ' pride ' , not ' mood ' ; burg is ' stronghold ' , not ' borough ' , even though the modern word derives from the old one .
Some terms present special problems ; the Beowulf poet uses at least ten synonyms for the word ' man ' , from wer ( as in werewolf , a man @-@ wolf ) and beorn to leod and mann ; Tolkien writes that in heroic verse there were over 25 terms that could at a stretch be used to mean ' man ' , including words like eorl ( a nobleman , like ' earl ' ) ; cniht ( a young man , like ' knight ' ) ; ðegn ( a servant , like thain ) ; or wiga ( a warrior ) . He argues that the translator need not avoid words from the Middle Ages that might suggest the age of chivalry : better the world of King Arthur than " Red Indians " , and in the case of words for armour and weapons , there is no choice .
In the case of compound words , Tolkien observes that the translator has to
hesitate between simply naming the thing denoted ( so ' harp ' 1065 , for gomen @-@ wudu ' play @-@ wood ' ) , and resolving the combination into a phrase . The former method retains the compactness of the original but loses its colour ; the latter retains the colour , but even if it does not falsify or exaggerate it , it loosens and weakens the texture . Choice between the evils will vary with occasions . "
Tolkien concludes the section by warning the translator that even the most well @-@ worn kennings had not lost their meaning and connotations . Whereas , he argues , the Old English word hlaford , meaning ' lord ' ( which derives from it ) was all that was left of the antique hlafweard ( which originally meant ' bread @-@ keeper ' , ' loaf @-@ guard ' ) in daily speech , the poetic phrases used in verse retained echoes of another world :
He who in those days said and who heard flæschama ' flesh @-@ raiment ' , ban @-@ hus ' bone @-@ house ' , hreðer @-@ loca ' heart @-@ prison ' , thought of the soul shut in the body , as the frail body itself is trammelled in armour , or as a bird in a narrow cage , or steam pent in a cauldron . ... The poet who spoke these words saw in his thought the brave men of old walking under the vault of heaven upon the island earth [ middangeard ] beleaguered by the Shoreless Seas [ garsecg ] and the outer darkness , enduring with stern courage the brief days of life [ læne lif ] , until the hour of fate [ metodsceaft ] when all things should perish , leoht and lif samod . But he did not say all this fully or explicitly . And therein lies the unrecapturable magic of ancient English verse for those who have ears to hear : profound feeling , and poignant vision , filled with the beauty and mortality of the world , are aroused by brief phrases , light touches , short words resounding like harp @-@ strings sharply plucked .
= = = On Metre = = =
Tolkien states that he is going to give an account of Old English metre using modern English , bringing out " the ancestral kinship of the two languages , as well as the differences between them " .
= = = = Metre = = = =
Tolkien explains that each line of Old English poetry had two opposed halves , groups of words which had six possible patterns of stress , such as ' falling @-@ falling ' , like
kníghts in | ármour .
4 ........... 1 4 .... 1
where 4 means a full lift ( maximum stress ) and 1 is the lowest dip in stress .
A clashing pattern would be like
on hígh | móuntains .
1 ....... 4 4 ......... 1
Tolkien emphasises that these are still the patterns found everywhere in modern English ; poetry differs from prose , he argues , in that the poet clears away everything else , so " these patterns stand opposed to each other . "
He then provides " a free version of Beowulf 210 @-@ 228 in this metre . The passage should be read slowly , but naturally : that is with the stresses and tones required solely by the sense . " The first few lines , which as Tolkien says are a free ( non @-@ literal
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