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Ashes series , the media and the public were anxious to know if Bradman would lead Australia . " His doctor recommended against a return to the game . Encouraged by his wife , Bradman agreed to play in lead @-@ up fixtures to the Test series . After hitting two centuries , Bradman made himself available for the First Test at The Gabba .
Controversy emerged on the first day of the First Test at Brisbane . After compiling an uneasy 28 runs , Bradman hit a ball to the gully fieldsman , Jack Ikin . " An appeal for a catch was denied in the umpire 's contentious ruling that it was a bump ball " . At the end of the over , England captain Wally Hammond spoke with Bradman and criticised him for not " walking " ; " from then on the series was a cricketing war just when most people desired peace " , Whitington wrote . Bradman regained his finest pre @-@ war form in making 187 , followed by 234 during the Second Test at Sydney ( Sid Barnes also scored 234 during the innings , many in a still standing 405 run 5th Wicket partnership with Bradman . Barnes later recalled that he purposely got out on 234 because " it wouldn 't be right for someone to make more runs than Bradman " ) . Australia won both matches by an innings . Jack Fingleton speculated that had the decision at Brisbane gone against him , Bradman would have retired , such were his fitness problems . In the remainder of the series , Bradman made three half @-@ centuries in six innings , but was unable to make another century ; nevertheless , his team won handsomely , 3 – 0 . He was the leading batsman on either side , with an average of 97 @.@ 14 . Nearly 850 @,@ 000 spectators watched the Tests , which helped lift public spirits after the war .
= = = Century of centuries and " The Invincibles " = = =
India made its first tour of Australia in the 1947 – 48 season . On 15 November , Bradman made 172 against them for an Australian XI at Sydney , his 100th first @-@ class century . The first non @-@ Englishman to achieve the milestone , Bradman remains the only Australian to have done so . In five Tests , he scored 715 runs ( at 178 @.@ 75 average ) . His last double century ( 201 ) came at Adelaide , and he scored a century in each innings of the Melbourne Test . On the eve of the Fifth Test , he announced that the match would be his last in Australia , although he would tour England as a farewell .
Australia had assembled one of the great teams of cricket history . Bradman made it known that he wanted to go through the tour unbeaten , a feat never before accomplished . English spectators were drawn to the matches knowing that it would be their last opportunity to see Bradman in action . RC Robertson @-@ Glasgow observed of Bradman that :
Next to Mr. Winston Churchill , he was the most celebrated man in England during the summer of 1948 . His appearances throughout the country were like one continuous farewell matinée . At last his batting showed human fallibility . Often , especially at the start of the innings , he played where the ball wasn 't , and spectators rubbed their eyes .
Despite his waning powers , Bradman compiled 11 centuries on the tour , amassing 2 @,@ 428 runs ( average 89 @.@ 92 ) . His highest score of the tour ( 187 ) came against Essex , when Australia compiled a world record of 721 runs in a day . In the Tests , he scored a century at Nottingham , but the performance most like his pre @-@ war exploits came in the Fourth Test at Leeds . England declared on the last morning of the game , setting Australia a world record 404 runs to win in only 345 minutes on a heavily worn wicket . In partnership with Arthur Morris ( 182 ) , Bradman reeled off 173 not out and the match was won with 15 minutes to spare . The journalist Ray Robinson called the victory " the ' finest ever ' in its conquest of seemingly insuperable odds " .
In the final Test at The Oval , Bradman walked out to bat in Australia 's first innings . He received a standing ovation from the crowd and three cheers from the opposition . His Test batting average stood at 101 @.@ 39 . Facing the wrist @-@ spin of Eric Hollies , Bradman pushed forward to the second ball that he faced , was deceived by a googly , and bowled between bat and pad for a duck . An England batting collapse resulted in an innings defeat , denying Bradman the opportunity to bat again and so his career average finished at 99 @.@ 94 ; if he had scored just four runs in his last innings , it would have been 100 . A story developed over the years that claimed Bradman missed the ball because of tears in his eyes , a claim Bradman denied for the rest of his life .
The Australian team won the Ashes 4 – 0 , completed the tour unbeaten , and entered history as " The Invincibles " . Just as Bradman 's legend grew , rather than diminished , over the years , so too has the reputation of the 1948 team . For Bradman , it was the most personally fulfilling period of his playing days , as the divisiveness of the 1930s had passed . He wrote :
Knowing the personnel , I was confident that here at last was the great opportunity which I had longed for . A team of cricketers whose respect and loyalty were unquestioned , who would regard me in a fatherly sense and listen to my advice , follow my guidance and not question my handling of affairs ... there are no longer any fears that they will query the wisdom of what you do . The result is a sense of freedom to give full reign to your own creative ability and personal judgment .
With Bradman now retired from professional cricket , RC Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote of the English reaction " ... a miracle has been removed from among us . So must ancient Italy have felt when she heard of the death of Hannibal " .
= = After cricket = =
After his return to Australia , Bradman played in his own Testimonial match at Melbourne , scoring his 117th and last century , and receiving £ 9 @,@ 342 in proceeds . In the 1949 New Year Honours , he was appointed Knight Bachelor for his services to the game , becoming the only Australian cricketer ever to be knighted . He commented that he " would have preferred to remain just Mister " . The following year he published a memoir , Farewell to Cricket . Bradman accepted offers from the Daily Mail to travel with , and write about , the 1953 and 1956 Australian teams in England . The Art of Cricket , his final book published in 1958 , is an instructional manual .
Bradman retired from his stockbroking business in June 1954 , depending on the " comfortable " income earned as a board member of 16 publicly listed companies . His highest profile affiliation was with Argo Investments Limited , where he was chairman for a number of years . Charles Williams commented that , " [ b ] usiness was excluded on medical grounds , [ so ] the only sensible alternative was a career in the administration of the game which he loved and to which he had given most of his active life " .
Bradman was honoured at a number of cricket grounds , notably when his portrait was hung in the Long Room at Lord 's ; until Shane Warne 's portrait was added in 2005 , Bradman was one of just three Australians to be honoured in this way . Bradman inaugurated a " Bradman Stand " at the Sydney Cricket Ground in January 1974 ; the Adelaide Oval also opened a Bradman Stand in 1990 , which housed new and much needed media facilities , as well as bar facilities and the South Australian Cricket Museum ( the Adelaide Oval 's Bradman Stand was demolished in early 2013 as the oval undergoes extensive re @-@ development ) . Later in 1974 , he attended a Lord 's Taverners function in London where he experienced heart problems , which forced him to limit his public appearances to select occasions only . With his wife , Bradman returned to Bowral in 1976 , where the new cricket ground was named in his honour . He gave the keynote speech at the historic Centenary Test at Melbourne in 1977 .
On 16 June 1979 , the Australian government awarded Bradman the nation 's second @-@ highest civilian honour at that time , Companion of the Order of Australia ( AC ) , " in recognition of service to the sport of cricket and cricket administration " . In 1980 , he resigned from the ACB , to lead a more secluded life .
= = = Administrative career = = =
In addition to acting as one of South Australia 's delegates to the Board of Control from 1945 to 1980 , Bradman was a committee member of the SACA between 1935 and 1986 . It is estimated that he attended 1 @,@ 713 SACA meetings during this half century of service . Aside from two years in the early 1950s , he filled a selector 's berth for the Test team between 1936 and 1971 .
Cricket saw an increase in defensive play during the 1950s . As a selector , Bradman favoured attacking , positive cricketers who entertained the paying public . He formed an alliance with Australian captain Richie Benaud , seeking more attractive play , with some success . He served two high @-@ profile periods as chairman of the board of Control , in 1960 – 63 and 1969 – 72 . During the first , he dealt with the growing prevalence of illegal bowling actions in the game , a problem that he adjudged " the most complex I have known in cricket , because it is not a matter of fact but of opinion " . The major controversy of his second stint was a proposed tour of Australia by South Africa in 1971 – 72 . On Bradman 's recommendation , the series was cancelled . Cricket journalist Michael Coward said of Bradman as an administrator :
Bradman was more than a cricket player nonpareil . He was ... an astute and progressive administrator ; an expansive thinker , philosopher and writer on the game . Indeed , in some respects , he was as powerful , persuasive and influential a figure off the ground as he was on it .
In the late 1970s , Bradman played an important role during the World Series Cricket schism as a member of a special Australian Cricket Board committee formed to handle the crisis . He was criticised for not airing an opinion , but he dealt with World Series Cricket far more pragmatically than other administrators . Richie Benaud described Bradman as " a brilliant administrator and businessman " , warning that he was not to be underestimated . As Australian captain , Ian Chappell fought with Bradman over the issue of player remuneration in the early 1970s and has suggested that Bradman was parsimonious :
I ... thought to myself , ' Ian , did you just ask Bradman to fill your wallet with money ? ' Bradman 's harangue confirmed my suspicions that the players were going to have a hard time extracting more money from the ACB .
= = = Later years and death = = =
After his wife 's death in 1997 , Bradman suffered " a discernible and not unexpected wilting of spirit " . The next year , on his 90th birthday , he hosted a meeting with his two favourite modern players , Shane Warne and Sachin Tendulkar , but he was not seen in his familiar place at the Adelaide Oval again . Hospitalised with pneumonia in December 2000 , he returned home in the New Year and died there on 25 February 2001 , aged 92 .
A memorial service to mark Bradman 's life was held on 25 March 2001 at St Peter 's Anglican Cathedral , Adelaide . The service was attended by a host of former and current Test cricketers , as well as Australia 's then prime minister , John Howard , leader of the opposition Kim Beazley and former prime minister Bob Hawke . Eulogies were given by Richie Benaud and Governor @-@ General Sir William Deane . The service was broadcast live on ABC Television to a viewing audience of 1 @.@ 45 million . A private service for family and friends was earlier held at the Centennial Park Cemetery in the suburb of Pasadena , with many people lining both Greenhill and Goodwood Roads to pay their respects as his funeral motorcade passed by .
= = = Legacy = = =
Cricket writer David Frith summed up the paradox of the continuing fascination with Bradman :
As the years passed , with no lessening of his reclusiveness , so his public stature continued to grow , until the sense of reverence and unquestioning worship left many of his contemporaries scratching their heads in wondering admiration .
As early as 1939 , Bradman had a Royal Navy ship named after him . Built as a fishing trawler in 1936 , the HMS Bradman was taken over by the Admiralty in 1939 , but was sunk by German aircraft the following year .
In the 1963 edition of Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , Bradman was selected by Neville Cardus as one the Six Giants of the Wisden Century . This was a special commemorative selection requested by Wisden for its 100th edition . The other five players chosen were : Sydney Barnes , W. G. Grace , Jack Hobbs , Tom Richardson and Victor Trumper .
On 10 December 1985 , Bradman was the first of 120 inaugural inductees into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame . He spoke of his philosophy for considering the stature of athletes :
When considering the stature of an athlete or for that matter any person , I set great store in certain qualities which I believe to be essential in addition to skill . They are that the person conducts his or her life with dignity , with integrity , courage , and perhaps most of all , with modesty . These virtues are totally compatible with pride , ambition , and competitiveness .
Although modest about his own abilities and generous in his praise of other cricketers , Bradman was fully aware of the talents he possessed as a player ; there is some evidence that he sought to influence his legacy . During the 1980s and 1990s , Bradman carefully selected the people to whom he gave interviews , assisting Michael Page , Roland Perry and Charles Williams , who all produced biographical works about him . Bradman also agreed to an extensive interview for ABC radio , broadcast as Bradman : The Don Declares in eight 55 @-@ minute episodes during 1988 .
The most significant of these legacy projects was the Bradman Museum , opened in 1989 at the Bradman Oval in Bowral . This organisation was reformed in 1993 as a non @-@ profit charitable Trust , called the Bradman Foundation . In 2010 , it was expanded and rebranded as the International Cricket Hall of Fame .
When the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame was created in Melbourne in 1996 , Bradman was made one of its 10 inaugural members . In 2000 , Bradman was selected by cricket experts as one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Century . Each of the 100 members of the panel were able to select five cricketers : all 100 voted for Bradman .
Bradman 's life and achievements were recognised in Australia with two notable issues . Three years before he died , he became the first living Australian to be featured on an Australian postage stamp . After his death , the Australian Government produced a 20 @-@ cent coin to commemorate his life .
= = Family life = =
Bradman first met Jessie Martha Menzies in 1920 when she boarded with the Bradman family , to be closer to school in Bowral . The couple married at St Paul 's Anglican Church at Burwood , Sydney on 30 April 1932 . During their 65 @-@ year marriage , Jessie was " shrewd , reliable , selfless , and above all , uncomplicated ... she was the perfect foil to his concentrated , and occasionally mercurial character " . Bradman paid tribute to his wife numerous times , once saying succinctly , " I would never have achieved what I achieved without Jessie " .
The Bradmans lived in the same modest , suburban house in Holden Street , Kensington Park in Adelaide for all but the first three years of their married life . They experienced personal tragedy in raising their children : their first @-@ born son died as an infant in 1936 , their second son , John ( born in 1939 ) contracted polio , and their daughter , Shirley , born in 1941 , had cerebral palsy from birth . His family name proved a burden for John Bradman ; he legally changed his last name to Bradsen in 1972 . Although claims were made that he became estranged from his father , it was more a matter of " the pair inhabit [ ing ] different worlds " . After the cricketer 's death , a collection of personal letters written by Bradman to his close friend Rohan Rivett between 1953 and 1977 was released and gave researchers new insights into Bradman 's family life , including the strain between father and son .
Bradman 's reclusiveness in later life is partly attributable to the ongoing health problems of his wife , particularly following the open @-@ heart surgery Jessie underwent in her 60s . Lady Bradman died in 1997 , aged 88 , from cancer . This had a dispiriting effect on Bradman , but the relationship with his son improved , to the extent that John resolved to change his name back to Bradman . Since his father 's death , John Bradman has become the spokesperson for the family and has been involved in defending the Bradman legacy in a number of disputes . The relationship between Bradman and his wider family is less clear , although nine months after Bradman 's death , his nephew Paul Bradman criticised him as a "
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ic kingdom of the Gododdin , and Dunbarton rock , who gave its Brythonic name of Alt Clut to the kingdom that dominated the Strathclyde region in the post @-@ Roman period . The northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain , building materials , and politico @-@ military needs . The first identifiable king of the Picts , Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 @-@ 84 ) had his base at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd , now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute .
= New York State Route 326 =
New York State Route 326 ( NY 326 ) is a state highway in Cayuga County , New York , in the United States . NY 326 runs in a southwest to northeast direction from the village of Union Springs to the city of Auburn . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 90 near the northern village line of Union Springs . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 just west of the Auburn city limits in the town of Aurelius . NY 326 passes through largely rural portions of the Finger Lakes region and does not pass through any built @-@ up areas other than those at each of its termini .
NY 326 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as a connector highway between Union Springs and Auburn . However , its original alignment followed Oakwood Road and Genesee Street from the hamlet of Oakwood to downtown Auburn . It was realigned in the mid @-@ 1970s to end at US 20 and NY 5 west of downtown Auburn . In 1981 , NY 326 was rerouted between the hamlets of Oakwood and Half Acre to follow Half Acre Road . NY 326 's former routing between the two points is now maintained by Cayuga County .
= = Route description = =
NY 326 begins at an intersection with NY 90 near the northern village line of Union Springs . The highway heads eastward , following Auburn Street as it runs along the northern village boundary . It briefly parallels a former alignment of itself , now known as " Old Route 326 " , before exiting Union Springs and entering the surrounding town of Springport . Much of Springport , a town situated on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake , is rural and largely undeveloped . The route passes by houses and fields as it proceeds to a junction known locally as " Powers Corner " . Here , NY 326 turns northeastward and becomes known only by its designation as it heads toward the hamlet of Oakwood .
In Oakwood , NY 326 passes several homes and intersects Oakwood Road , a north – south highway linking the community to West Genesee Street in the town of Aurelius to the north . At this junction , NY 326 becomes Half Acre Road , named for the hamlet of Half Acre to the northeast . The highway continues its northeastern track for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before turning to the north and entering Half Acre , a small community in Aurelius that is built up around the junction of Half Acre Road and West Genesee Street . Here , NY 326 turns eastward to follow West Genesee Road toward the city of Auburn . It parallels US 20 and NY 5 for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Veterans Memorial Parkway , which NY 326 turns northward onto . It briefly enters the Auburn city limits but ends at an intersection with US 20 and NY 5 just west of the Auburn city limits in Aurelius .
= = History = =
NY 326 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from the village of Union Springs to the city of Auburn . The route initially followed Oakwood Road and Genesee Street from the hamlet of Oakwood to Auburn , where it ended at an intersection with NY 34 ( South Street ) in downtown Auburn . A divided highway was built west of Auburn c . 1975 , connecting the overlapping routes of US 20 and NY 5 to NY 326 . US 20 and NY 5 were rerouted to follow the new highway south to NY 326 , and all three routes continued east into downtown on Genesee Street . By 1977 , US 20 and NY 5 were realigned once again to follow a new arterial leading from the north end of the divided highway eastward into downtown . NY 326 , meanwhile , was realigned to follow the divided highway north to US 20 and NY 5 .
On April 1 , 1981 , NY 326 was realigned between the hamlets of Oakwood and Half Acre as the result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Cayuga County . As part of the swap , the state of New York assumed maintenance of Half Acre Road from Oakwood to Half Acre while maintenance of NY 326 's former routing between the two locations was transferred to Cayuga County . The former routing of NY 326 on Oakwood Road is now designated as County Route 168A ( CR 168A ) in the town of Aurelius and CR 168B in the town of Springport . The Genesee Street portion of old NY 326 is now part of CR 1 . In the 1981 maintenance swap , the state of New York also assumed maintenance of the section of Half Acre Road between Half Acre ( at NY 326 ) and the US 20 / NY 5 concurrency . This portion of Half Acre Road is now NY 931E , an unsigned reference route .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cayuga County .
= Kate Bush =
Catherine " Kate " Bush , CBE ( born 30 July 1958 ) is an English singer @-@ songwriter , musician and record producer . She is known for her eclectic and experimental music as well as her idiosyncratic performances .
Bush first came to note in 1978 when , at the age of 19 , she topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks with her debut single , " Wuthering Heights " , becoming the first female artist to achieve a UK number @-@ one with a self @-@ written song . She has since released twenty @-@ five UK Top 40 singles , including the top ten hits " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , " Babooshka " , " Running Up That Hill " , and " King of the Mountain " . She has released ten studio albums , all of which reached the UK Top 10 , including the UK number @-@ one albums , Never for Ever ( 1980 ) and Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) . She is the first British solo female artist to top the UK album charts and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at number @-@ one , as well as the first ( and to date , only ) female artist to have top five albums in the UK charts in five successive decades .
Bush has been nominated 13 times for British Phonographic Industry accolades , and in 1987 she won a Brit Award for Best British Female Artist . During the course of her career , she has also been nominated for three Grammy Awards . In 2002 , she was recognised with an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music . Bush was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to music .
= = Early life = =
Bush was born in Bexleyheath , Kent , ( now part of the London Borough of Bexley ) to English medical doctor Robert Bush ( 1920 – 2008 ) and Hannah Daly ( 1918 – 1992 ; from County Waterford , Ireland ) . She was raised as a Roman Catholic in their farmhouse in East Wickham with her older brothers , John and Paddy . Bush came from an artistic background : her mother was an accomplished traditional Irish dancer , her father was an accomplished pianist , Paddy worked as a musical instrument maker and John was a poet and photographer . Both brothers were involved in the local folk music scene .
John was a karateka at Goldsmiths College karate club and Kate also trained there , becoming known as " Ee @-@ ee " because of her squeaky kiai . One of the instructors , Dave Hazard , later noted in his autobiography that her dance moves seemed to owe something to karate .
Her family 's musical influence inspired Bush to teach herself the piano at the age of 11 . She also played the organ in a barn behind her parents ' house and studied the violin . She soon began writing her own tunes and eventually added lyrics to them .
= = Musical career = =
= = = 1975 – 77 : Beginnings = = =
Bush attended St Joseph 's Convent Grammar School , a Catholic girls ' school ( later part of St Mary 's and St Joseph 's School , Sidcup ) , in Woolwich Road , Abbey Wood , south east London , in the mid @-@ 1970s . During this time her family produced a demo tape with over 50 of her compositions , which was turned down by record labels . David Gilmour of Pink Floyd received the demo from Ricky Hopper , a mutual friend of Gilmour and the Bush family . Impressed with what he heard , Gilmour helped the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Bush get a more professional @-@ sounding demo tape recorded that would be more saleable to the record companies . Three tracks in total were recorded and paid for by Gilmour . The tape was produced by Gilmour 's friend Andrew Powell , who would go on to produce Bush 's first two albums , and sound engineer Geoff Emerick . The tape was sent to EMI executive Terry Slater . Slater was impressed by the tape and signed her . The British record industry was reaching a point of stagnation . Progressive rock was very popular and visually oriented rock performers were growing in popularity , thus record labels looking for the next big thing were considering experimental acts .
Bush was put on retainer for two years by Bob Mercer , managing director of EMI group @-@ repertoire division . According to Mercer he felt Bush 's material was good enough to be released but felt that if the album failed it would be demoralising and if it was successful Bush was too young to handle it . For the first two years of her contract , Bush spent more time on school work than making an album . She left school after doing her mock A @-@ levels and having gained ten GCE O @-@ Level qualifications . In 2005 , Bush stated in an interview with Mark Radcliffe on BBC Radio 2 that she believed EMI signed her before she was ready to make an album so that no other record company could offer her a contract . After the contract signing , EMI forwarded her a sizeable advance which she used to enroll in interpretive dance classes taught by Lindsay Kemp , a former teacher of David Bowie , and mime training with Adam Darius .
Bush also wrote and made demos of close to 200 songs , a few of which today can be found on bootleg recordings and are known as the Phoenix Recordings . From March to August 1977 , she fronted the KT Bush Band at public houses around London – specifically at the Rose of Lee public house ( now Dirty South ) in Lewisham . The other three band members were Del Palmer ( bass ) , Brian Bath ( guitar ) , and Vic King ( drums ) . She began recording her first album in August 1977 , although two tracks had been recorded during the summer of 1975 .
= = = 1978 – 79 : The Kick Inside and Lionheart = = =
As part of her preparation for entering the studio , Bush toured pubs with the KT Bush Band . However , for her début album , The Kick Inside ( 1978 ) , she was persuaded to use established session musicians , some of whom she would retain even after she had brought her bandmates back on board . Her brother Paddy played the harmonica and mandolin , unlike on later albums where he would play more exotic instruments such as the balalaika and didgeridoo . Stuart Elliott played some of the drums and would become her main drummer on subsequent albums .
Bush released The Kick Inside when she was 19 years old , but some of the songs had been written when she was as young as 13 . EMI originally wanted the more rock @-@ oriented track " James and the Cold Gun " to be her début single , but Bush insisted that it should be " Wuthering Heights " . Even at this early stage of her career , she had gained a reputation for her determination to have a say in decisions affecting her work . " Wuthering Heights " topped the UK and Australian charts and became an international hit . Bush became the first woman to reach number one in the UK charts with a self @-@ penned song . Despite her considerable subsequent chart success it is still her only No. 1 single ( as of 2015 ) . A second single , " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , reached number six in the UK charts . It also made it onto the American Billboard Hot 100 where it reached number 85 in early 1979 , and went on to win her an Ivor Novello Award in 1979 for Outstanding British Lyric .
Bob Mercer felt that Bush 's relative lack of success in the United States compared to the rest of the world was due to her music being a poor fit for American radio formats , and that there were no outlets for the visual presentation central to Bush 's appeal . EMI capitalised on Bush 's appearance by promoting the album with a poster of her in a tight pink top that emphasised her breasts . In an interview with NME magazine in 1982 Bush criticised this marketing technique , stating : " People weren 't even generally aware that I wrote my own songs or played the piano . The media just promoted me as a female body . It 's like I 've had to prove that I 'm an artist in a female body . " In late 1978 , EMI persuaded Bush to quickly record a follow @-@ up album , Lionheart , to take advantage of the success of The Kick Inside . Bush has often expressed dissatisfaction with Lionheart , feeling that she had needed more time to get it right . The album was produced by Andrew Powell , assisted by Bush . While it had spawned several hit singles , most notably " Wow " , it did not garner the same reception as her first album , reaching number six in the UK album charts .
Bush was displeased with being rushed into making the second album . She set up her own publishing company , Kate Bush Music , and her own management company , Novercia , to maintain complete control over her work . Members of her family , along with Bush herself , composed the company 's board of directors . Following the album 's release , she was required by EMI to undertake heavy promotional work and an exhausting tour . The tour , named The Tour of Life , began in April 1979 and lasted six weeks . This live show was co @-@ devised and performed on stage with magician Simon Drake . Typical of her determination to have creative control , she was involved in every aspect of the production , choreography , set design and staff recruitment for the show . The shows were noted for her dancing , complex lighting and her 17 costume changes per show . Because of her intention to dance as she sang , her sound engineers used a wire coat hanger and a radio microphone to fashion the first headset microphone to be used by a rock performer since the Swedish group the Spotnicks used a very primitive version in the early 1960s .
= = = 1980 – 84 : Never for Ever and The Dreaming = = =
Released in September 1980 , Never for Ever saw Bush 's second foray into production , co @-@ producing with Jon Kelly . Her first time as a producer was on her Live on Stage EP , released after her tour the previous year . The first two albums had resulted in a definitive sound evident in every track , with orchestral arrangements supporting the live band sound . The range of styles on Never for Ever is much more diverse , veering from the straightforward rocker " Violin " to the wistful waltz of hit single " Army Dreamers " .
Never for Ever was the first Kate Bush album to feature synthesisers and drum machines , in particular the Fairlight CMI , to which she was introduced when providing backing vocals on Peter Gabriel 's eponymous third album in early 1980 . It was her first record to reach the top position in the UK album charts , also making her the first female British artist to achieve that status , and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at the top . The top @-@ selling single from the album was " Babooshka " , which reached number five in the UK singles chart . In November 1980 , she released the standalone Christmas single " December Will Be Magic Again " , which reached number 29 in the UK charts .
September 1982 saw the release of The Dreaming , the first album Bush produced by herself . With her new @-@ found freedom , she experimented with production techniques , creating an album that features a diverse blend of musical styles and is known for its near @-@ exhaustive use of the Fairlight CMI . The Dreaming received a mixed critical reception in the UK , and many were baffled by the dense soundscapes Bush had created to become " less accessible " . In a 1993 interview with Q ( magazine ) , Bush stated : " That was my ' She 's gone mad ' album . " However , the album became her first to enter the US Billboard 200 chart , albeit only reaching number 157 . The album entered the UK album chart at number @-@ three , but is to date her lowest @-@ selling album , garnering only a silver disc .
" Sat in Your Lap " was the first single from the album to be released . It pre @-@ dated the album by over a year and peaked at number 11 in the UK . The album 's title track , featuring the talents of Rolf Harris and Percy Edwards , stalled at number 48 , while the third single , " There Goes a Tenner " , stalled at # 93 , despite promotion from EMI and Bush . The track " Suspended in Gaffa " was released as a single in Europe , but not in the UK .
Continuing in her storytelling tradition , Bush looked far outside her own personal experience for sources of inspiration . She drew on old crime films for " There Goes a Tenner " , a documentary about the war in Vietnam for " Pull Out the Pin " , and the plight of Indigenous Australians for " The Dreaming " . " Houdini " is about the magician 's death , and " Get Out of My House " was inspired by Stephen King 's novel The Shining .
= = = 1985 – 88 : Hounds of Love and The Whole Story = = =
Hounds of Love was released in 1985 . Because of the high cost of hiring studio space for her previous album , she built a private studio near her home , where she could work at her own pace . Hounds of Love ultimately topped the charts in the UK , knocking Madonna 's Like a Virgin from the number @-@ one position .
The album takes advantage of the vinyl and cassette formats with two very different sides . The first side , Hounds of Love , contains five " accessible " pop songs , including the four singles " Running Up that Hill " , " Cloudbusting " , " Hounds of Love " , and " The Big Sky " . " Running Up that Hill " reached number @-@ three in the UK charts and re @-@ introduced Bush to American listeners , climbing to number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1985 . The second side of the album , The Ninth Wave , takes its name from Tennyson 's poem , " Idylls of the King " , about the legendary King Arthur 's reign , and is seven interconnecting songs joined in one continuous piece of music .
The album earned Bush nominations for Best Female Solo Artist , Best Album , Best Single , and Best Producer at the 1986 BRIT Awards . In the same year , Bush and Peter Gabriel had a UK Top 10 hit with the duet " Don 't Give Up " ( Dolly Parton , Gabriel 's original choice to sing the female vocal , turned his offer down ) , and EMI released her " greatest hits " album , The Whole Story . Bush provided a new lead vocal and refreshed backing track on " Wuthering Heights , " and recorded a new single , " Experiment IV , " for inclusion on the compilation . Dawn French and Hugh Laurie were among those featured in the video for Experiment IV . At the 1987 BRIT Awards , Bush won the award for Best Female Solo Artist .
= = = 1989 – 93 : The Sensual World and The Red Shoes = = =
The increasingly personal tone of her writing continued on 1989 's The Sensual World . One of the quirkiest tracks on the album , touched by Bush 's black humour , is " Heads We 're Dancing " , about a woman who dances all night with a charming stranger only to discover in the morning that he is Adolf Hitler . The title track drew its inspiration from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses .
The Sensual World went on to become her biggest @-@ selling album in the US , receiving an RIAA Gold certification four years after its release for 500 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the United Kingdom album charts , it reached the number @-@ two position .
In 1990 , the boxed @-@ set This Woman 's Work was released and included all of her albums with their original cover art , as well as two discs of all single B sides recorded from 1978 to 1990 . In 1991 , Bush released a cover of Elton John 's " Rocket Man " , which reached number 12 in the UK singles chart , and went as high as number @-@ two in Australia , and in 2007 , was voted the greatest cover ever by readers of The Observer newspaper . She recorded " Candle in the Wind " , as the single 's b @-@ side .
Bush 's seventh studio album , The Red Shoes , was released in November 1993 . The album features more high @-@ profile cameo appearances than her previous efforts , including contributions from composer and conductor Michael Kamen , comedy actor Lenny Henry , Prince , Eric Clapton , Gary Brooker of Procol Harum , Trevor Whittaker , and Jeff Beck . Both The Sensual World and The Red Shoes featured contributions from Trio Bulgarka , the Bulgarian female vocal trio , who sang on six tracks , including " You 're The One " and " Rocket 's Tail " . The album gave Bush her highest chart position in the US , reaching number 28 , although the only song from the album to make the US singles chart was " Rubberband Girl " , which peaked at number 88 in January 1994 . In the UK , the album reached number @-@ two , and the singles " Rubberband Girl " , " The Red Shoes " , " Moments of Pleasure " , and " And So Is Love " all reached the top 30 . In 1994 , Bush released an accompanying short film , The Line , the Cross & the Curve . Written , directed by , and starring Bush , along with English actress Miranda Richardson , the film was based around the concept of The Red Shoes and featured six of the songs from the album .
The initial plan had been to take the songs out on the road , but no new tour transpired . Thus , Bush deliberately aimed for a live @-@ band feel , with less of the studio trickery that had typified her last three albums and which would have been too difficult to re @-@ create on stage . The result alienated some of her fan base , who had enjoyed the intricacy of her earlier compositions , but others found a new complexity in the lyrics and the emotions they expressed .
This period had been a troubled time for Bush . She had suffered a series of bereavements , including the loss of guitarist Alan Murphy , who had started working with her on The Tour of Life in 1979 , and her mother Hannah , to whom she was exceptionally close . Many of the people she lost are honoured in the ballad " Moments of Pleasure . " However , Bush 's mother was still alive when " Moments of Pleasure " was written and recorded . Bush describes playing the song to her mother , who thought the line where she is quoted by Bush as saying , " Every old sock meets an old shoe , " was hilarious and " couldn 't stop laughing . "
= = = 1994 – 2010 : Aerial = = =
After the release of The Red Shoes , Kate Bush dropped out
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of the public eye for many years , although her name occasionally cropped up in the media with rumours of a new album release . Bush had originally intended to take one year off but despite working on material twelve years passed before her next album release . The press often viewed her as an eccentric recluse , sometimes drawing a comparison with Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens 's Great Expectations . In 1998 , Bush had given birth to Albert , known as " Bertie " , fathered by her guitarist and now husband Danny McIntosh . In 2001 , Bush was awarded a Q Award as Classic Songwriter . In 2002 , she was awarded an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music , and performed " Comfortably Numb " at David Gilmour 's concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London .
Kate Bush 's eighth studio album , Aerial , was released on double CD and vinyl in November 2005 . The first single from the album was " King of the Mountain " , which was played for the first time on BBC Radio 2 on 21 September 2005 .
As on Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) , the album is divided into two sections , each with its own theme and mood . The first disc , subtitled A Sea of Honey , features a set of unrelated themed songs , including " King of the Mountain " ; " Bertie " , a Renaissance @-@ style ode to her son ; and " Joanni " , based on the story of Joan of Arc . In the song " <formula> " , Bush sings 117 digits of the number Pi , but misses 22 digits from the 80th to the 101st place of the value of pi . The second disc , subtitled A Sky of Honey , features one continuous piece of music describing the experience of being outdoors after waking at dawn , moving through afternoon , dusk , to night , then back to the following dawn of single summer 's day . All the pieces in this suite refer or allude to sky and sea in their lyrical content . Bush mixed her voice with cooing woodpigeons to repeat the phrases " A sea of honey , a sky of honey , " and " You 're full of beauty " throughout the piece , and uses recordings of actual birdsong throughout . A Sky of Honey features Rolf Harris playing the didgeridoo on one track , and providing vocals on " The Painter 's Link " . Other artists making guest appearances on the album include Peter Erskine , Eberhard Weber , Lol Creme , and Gary Brooker . Two tracks feature string arrangements by Michael Kamen , performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra . A CD release of the single " King of the Mountain " included a cover of " Sexual Healing " by Marvin Gaye .
" King of the Mountain " entered the UK Downloads Chart at number @-@ six on 17 October 2005 , and by 30 October it had become Bush 's third @-@ highest @-@ charting single ever in the UK , peaking at number @-@ four on the full chart . Aerial entered the UK albums chart at number @-@ three , and the US chart at number 48 . Bush herself carried out relatively little publicity for the album , only conducting a handful of magazine and radio interviews . Aerial earned Bush two nominations at the 2006 BRIT Awards , for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Album .
In late 2007 , Bush composed and recorded a new song , " Lyra " , for the soundtrack to the fantasy film The Golden Compass .
= = = 2011 @-@ 12 : Director 's Cut and 50 Words for Snow = = =
On 16 May 2011 , Bush released the album , Director 's Cut . The album , which Bush has described as an entirely new project rather than a collection of mere remixes , contains 11 tracks of substantially reworked material from her earlier albums , The Sensual World and The Red Shoes , all of which have been recorded using analogue , rather than digital , equipment to create " a warmer sound " . All the tracks have new lead vocals , new drums , and radically reworked instrumentation . Some of them have been transposed to a lower key to accommodate her lowering voice . Three of the songs , including " This Woman 's Work " , have been completely re @-@ recorded , with lyrics often changed in places . The album has been met with a wide range of reviews with most reviewers a bit confused about the concept of the album itself , while responding with varying degrees of enthusiasm about its revamped tracks . Of particular note is the warmer , more intimate tone of the songs and the richer , more mature sound of her voice . This is the first album on her new label , Fish People , a division of EMI Records , with whom she 's had a relationship since she started recording . In addition to the album , Director 's Cut in both its single CD form and in a box @-@ set with The Sensual World and the analogue re @-@ mastered The Red Shoes , Fish People will be releasing re @-@ mastered editions of The Hounds of Love and The Dreaming . The album debuted at number @-@ two on the United Kingdom chart .
The song " The Sensual World " has been renamed " Flower of the Mountain " and contains a passage of Molly Bloom 's famous soliloquy from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . Bush said , " Originally when I wrote the song ' The Sensual World ' , I had used text from the end of Ulysses . When I asked for permission to use the text I was refused , which was disappointing . I then wrote my own lyrics for the song , although I felt that the original idea had been more interesting . Well , I 'm not James Joyce am I ? When I came to work on this project I thought I would ask for permission again and this time they said yes . "
The first single released from the album was " Deeper Understanding " and contains a new chorus featuring computerised vocals from Bush 's son , Albert . A video for the song , directed by Bush , has been released through her channel on YouTube . It features Robbie Coltrane as a man consumed by his relationship with his computer ( voiced by Bush 's son ) . Frances Barber plays the man 's wife , and Noel Fielding also appears .
Bush 's next studio album , 50 Words for Snow , was released on 21 November 2011 . The album contains seven new songs " set against a backdrop of falling snow , " with a total running time of 65 minutes . A radio edit of the first single , " Wild Man , " was played on BBC Radio 2 's The Ken Bruce Show on 10 October. and was released as a digital download on 11 October . The album is distributed in the United States by Anti @-@ Records .
On 14 November 2011 , NPR played 50 Words for Snow in its entirety for the first time . Australia 's ABC Radio National declared 50 Words for Snow album of the week of 12 November 2011 .
The album 's songs are built around Bush 's quietly jazzy piano and Steve Gadd 's drums , and utilise both sung and spoken word vocals in what Classic Rock critic Stephen Dalton calls " a ... supple and experimental affair , with a contemporary chamber pop sound grounded in crisp piano , minimal percussion and light @-@ touch electronics ... billowing jazz @-@ rock soundscapes , interwoven with fragmentary narratives delivered in a range of voices from shrill to Laurie Anderson @-@ style cooing . " Bassist Danny Thompson appears on the album , which also features performances by Elton John and actor Stephen Fry .
On the first track , " Snowflake , " in a song written specifically to use his still high choir @-@ boy voice , Bush 's son Albert ( Bertie ) sings the role of a falling snowflake in a song expressing the hope of a noisy world soon being hushed by snowfall . " Snowflake " drifts into " Lake Tahoe " , where choral singer Stefan Roberts and Bush sing about a rarely seen ghost : a woman who appears in a Victorian gown to call to her dog , Snowflake . Bush explained to fellow musician Jamie Cullum in an interview on Dutch Radio that she wished to explore using high male voices in contrast to her own , deeper , voice . " Misty " is about a snowman lover who melts away after a night of passion , while " Wild Man " tells the story of a group of climbers in the Himalayas who , upon finding evidence of a nearby Yeti , erase all traces of it to protect it from discovery . Elton John and Bush as eternally divided lovers trade vocals on " Snowed in at Wheeler Street " , while Stephen Fry recites the " 50 Words for Snow " . The quiet " Among Angels " finishes the album .
50 Words for Snow received general acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 88 , based on 26 reviews , which indicates " universal acclaim " . She was nominated for a Brit Award in the " Best Female Artist " category , and the album won the 2012 Best Album at the South Bank Arts Awards , and was also nominated for Best Album at the Ivor Novello Awards .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Bush turned down an invitation by the organisers of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony to perform at the event . Instead a recording of a new remix of her 1985 hit " Running Up that Hill " was played at the end of the ceremony . Bush released an exclusive limited @-@ edition 10 " picture disc of the 2012 remix as part of Record Store Day 2013 on 20 April 2013 .
In March 2014 , Bush announced her first live concerts in several decades : a 22 @-@ night residency called Before the Dawn in London from 26 August – 1 October 2014 at the Hammersmith Apollo . Tickets sold out in 15 minutes . The concerts received positive reviews . In August 2014 , bolstered by the publicity around her upcoming performances , she became the first female performer to have eight albums in the Official UK Top 40 Albums Chart simultaneously , putting her at number three for simultaneous UK Top 40 albums ( behind Elvis Presley with 12 albums in 1977 , and The Beatles in 2009 with 11 albums ) ; altogether she had 11 albums in the top 50 .
= = Artistry = =
Bush 's musical aesthetic is eclectic , and is known to employ varied influences and meld disparate styles , often within a single song or over the course of an album . Even in her earliest works , with piano the primary instrument , she wove together many diverse influences , drawing on classical music , glam rock , and a wide range of ethnic and folk sources . This would continue throughout her career . By the time of Never for Ever , Bush had begun to make prominent use of the Fairlight CMI synthesizer , which allowed her to sample and manipulate sounds , expanding her sonic palette . Her career output has been variously categorized as art rock , art pop , baroque pop , experimental pop , and pop rock . She has been compared with other " ' arty ' 1970s and ' 80s British pop rock artists " such as Roxy Music and Peter Gabriel .
Bush has a soprano vocal range . Her vocals contain elements of British , Anglo @-@ Irish and most prominently ( southern ) English accents and , in its utilisation of musical instruments from many periods and cultures , her music has differed from American pop norms . Elements of Bush 's lyrics often employ historical or literary references , as embodied in her first single " Wuthering Heights , " which is based on Emily Brontë 's novel of the same name . She has described herself as a storyteller who embodies the character singing the song and has dismissed efforts by others to conceive of her work as autobiographical . Bush 's lyrics have been known to touch on obscure or esoteric subject matter , and New Musical Express noted that Bush was not afraid to tackle sensitive and taboo subjects in her work . " The Kick Inside " is based on a traditional English folk song ( The Ballad of Lucy Wan ) about an incestuous pregnancy and a resulting suicide . " Kashka from Baghdad " is a song about a homosexual male couple ; Out magazine listed two of her albums in their " Top 100 Greatest Gayest Albums " list . She has referenced G. I. Gurdjieff in the song " Them Heavy People " , while " Cloudbusting " was inspired by Peter Reich 's autobiography , A Book of Dreams , about his relationship with his father , Wilhelm Reich . " The Infant Kiss " is a song about a haunted , unstable woman 's almost paedophilic infatuation with a young boy in her care ( inspired by Jack Clayton 's film The Innocents ( 1961 ) , which had been based on Henry James 's famous novella The Turn of the Screw ) ; and " Breathing " explores the results of nuclear fallout from the perspective of a fetus .
Other non @-@ musical sources of inspiration for Bush include horror films , which have influenced the gothic nature of several of her songs , such as " Hounds of Love " , which samples the 1957 horror movie Night of the Demon . Her songs have occasionally combined comedy and horror to form dark humour , such as murder by poisoning in " Coffee Homeground " , an alcoholic mother in " Ran Tan Waltz " and the upbeat " The Wedding List " , a song inspired by François Truffaut 's 1967 film of Cornell Woolrich 's The Bride Wore Black about the death of a groom and the bride 's subsequent revenge against the killer . Bush has also cited comedy as a significant influence . She has cited Woody Allen , Monty Python , Fawlty Towers , and The Young Ones as particular favourites .
Reviewers have used the term " surreal " to describe her music . Many of her songs explore melodramatic emotional and musical surrealism that defies easy categorisation . It has been observed that even her more joyous pieces are often tinged with traces of melancholy , and even the most sorrowful pieces have elements of vitality struggling against all that would oppress them .
= = Duration between album releases and media rumours = =
The length of time between album releases has led to rumours in the media concerning her health or appearance . In the past , stories of weight gain or mental instability have been disproved by Bush 's periodic reappearance . In 2011 Bush told BBC Radio 4 that the amount of time between album releases is extremely stressful noting : " It 's very frustrating the albums take as long as they do ... I wish there weren 't such big gaps between them . " In the same interview Bush denied she was a perfectionist in the studio , saying : " I think it 's important that things are flawed ... That 's what makes a piece of art interesting sometimes – the bit that 's wrong or the mistake you 've made that 's led onto an idea you wouldn 't have had otherwise , " and reiterated her prioritisation of her family life .
= = Live performances = =
Bush 's first tour took place 2 April – 13 May 1979 ; 35 years later she embarked on a series of 22 concerts at the Hammersmith Apollo , beginning 26 August 2014 . Apart from these two concert series , she has only given occasional live performances . Several reasons have been suggested as to why she abandoned touring , among them her reputed need to be in total control of the final product , which is incompatible with live stage performance , a rumour of a crippling fear of flying , and the suggestion that the death of 21 @-@ year @-@ old Bill Duffield severely affected her . Duffield , her lighting engineer , was killed in an accident during her concert of 2 April 1979 at Poole Arts Centre . Bush held a benefit concert on 12 May 1979 , with Peter Gabriel and Steve Harley at London 's Hammersmith Odeon for his family . Duffield would be honoured in two later songs : " Blow Away " on Never for Ever and " Moments of Pleasure " on The Red Shoes . Bush explained in a BBC Radio 2 interview with Mark Radcliffe that she actually enjoyed the tour but was consumed with producing her subsequent records . A BBC film crew followed the preparation for the tour which was shown on the BBC Nationwide program as a 30 @-@ minute special .
During the same period as her tour , she made numerous television appearances around the world , including Top of the Pops in the United Kingdom , Bios Bahnhof in Germany , and Saturday Night Live in the United States ( with Paul Shaffer on piano ) --her only appearance on American television to date . On 28 December 1979 , BBC TV aired the Kate Bush Christmas Special . It was recorded in October 1979 at the BBC Studios in Birmingham , England ; choreography by Anthony Van Laast . As well as playing songs from her first two albums , she played " December Will Be Magic Again " , " Violin " , " The Wedding List " , " Ran Tan Waltz " and " Egypt " from her forthcoming album , Never for Ever . Peter Gabriel made a guest appearance to play " Here Comes the Flood " , and a duet of Roy Harper 's " Another Day " with Bush .
After the Tour of Life , Bush desired to make two more albums before touring again . At that point , she got involved with production techniques and sound experimentation that took up a lot of time and prevented her from touring . She came close to touring again following the release of The Dreaming and The Red Shoes , but live shows never materialised .
In 1982 , Bush participated in the first benefit concert in aid of The Prince 's Trust alongside artists such as Madness , Midge Ure , Phil Collins , Mick Karn and Pete Townshend . On 25 April 1986 Bush performed live for British charity event Comic Relief , singing " Do Bears ... ? " , a humorous duet with Rowan Atkinson , and a rendition of " Breathing " . In March 1987 , Bush sang " Running Up That Hill " at The Secret Policeman 's Third Ball accompanied by David Gilmour . On 28 June 1987 , she made a guest appearance to duet with Peter Gabriel on " Don 't Give Up " at Earl 's Court , London as part of his So tour .
On 17 January 2002 , Bush appeared with her long @-@ time champion , David Gilmour , singing the part of the doctor in " Comfortably Numb " at the Royal Festival Hall in London .
In 2011 , Bush told the magazine Classic Rock : " I do hope that some time I get a chance to do some shows . Maybe not a tour , but something . "
In March 2014 , Bush announced a 22 @-@ night residency called Before the Dawn in London from 26 August – 1 October 2014 at the Hammersmith Apollo . The BBC reviewed the concert positively . The set list comprised most of Hounds of Love featuring the entire Ninth Wave suite , most of Aerial including the entire second disc , two songs from The Red Shoes , and one song from 50 Words for Snow . Bush 's first four albums and The Sensual World were noticeably excluded from the set list .
= = Video projects = =
In 1978 Bush made her debut on Dutch television in " De Efteling Special " , which was broadcast on 11 May 1978 . The amusement park De Efteling served as a backdrop for six songs from The Kick Inside : " Moving " , " Wuthering Heights " , " Them Heavy People " , " Strange Phenomena " , " The Man With The Child In His Eyes " and " The Kick Inside " . Early 1978 the amusement parks Haunted Castle was completed and the opening was scheduled on 10 May that year . Bush , who just had a big hit in the Netherlands with " Wuthering Heights " , made her debut on Dutch television in this special . Her popularity was used to draw the attention to the Haunted Castle ( and the popularity of De Efteling drew attention to Kate ) .
In 1979 Bush 's one live show , The Tour of Life , was recorded for the BBC and for release on VHS as Kate Bush Live at Hammersmith Odeon .
Bush has appeared in innovative music videos designed to accompany her singles releases . Among the best known are those for " Running Up that Hill " , " Babooshka " , " Breathing " , " Wuthering Heights " , and " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , and " Cloudbusting " , featuring actor Donald Sutherland , who made time during the filming of another project to take part in the video . EMI has released collections of her videos , including The Single File , Hair of the Hound , The Whole Story , a career video overview released in conjunction with the 1986 compilation album
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the song " My Computer " from Prince 's album Emancipation . In 1987 , she sang a verse on the Beatles cover charity single " Let It Be " by Ferry Aid . She sang a line on the charity single " Spirit of the Forest " by Spirit of the Forest in 1989 .
1990 saw Kate producing , for the only time in her career , one song for another artist , Alan Stivell 's " Kimiad " , on his album Again . Stivell had appeared on The Sensual World . In 1991 , Kate Bush was invited to perform a cover of Elton John 1972 song " Rocket Man " for the tribute album Two Rooms : Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin . In 2011 , Elton John collaborated with Bush once again in Snowed in at Wheeler Street for her most recent album 50 Words for Snow . In 1994 , Bush covered George Gershwin 's " The Man I Love " for the tribute album The Glory of Gershwin . In 1996 , Bush contributed a version of " Mná na hÉireann " ( Irish for " Women of Ireland " ) for the Anglo @-@ Irish folk @-@ rock compilation project Common Ground : The Voices of Modern Irish Music . Bush had to sing the song in Irish , which she learned to do phonetically .
Artists who have contributed to Bush 's own albums include Elton John , Eric Clapton , Jeff Beck , David Gilmour , Nigel Kennedy , Gary Brooker , Danny Thompson , and Prince . Bush provided backing vocals for a song that was recorded during the 1990s titled Wouldn 't Change a Thing by Lionel Azulay , the drummer with the original band that was later to become the KT Bush Band . The song , which was engineered and produced by Del Palmer , was released on Azulay 's album Out of the Ashes .
Bush declined a request by Erasure to produce one of their albums because " she didn 't feel that that was her area " .
= = Influence on musicians = =
Many artists cite her as an influence , including Tori Amos , Charli XCX , Tegan and Sara , k.d. lang , Paula Cole , and Alison Goldfrapp of Goldfrapp . Nerina Pallot was inspired to become a songwriter after seeing Bush play " This Woman 's Work " on Wogan . Natasha Khan a.k.a. Bat for Lashes said she inspired her , as did Kate Nash . Coldplay took inspiration from " Running Up That Hill " to compose their hit single " Speed of Sound " . Andy Bell cites Bush as an influence on Erasure .
In addition to those artists who state that Bush has been a direct influence on their own careers , other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for her work including Annie Lennox , Björk , Little Boots , Dido , Sky Ferreira , St. Vincent , Lily Allen , Anohni of Antony and the Johnsons , Big Boi of OutKast , and Tupac Shakur . Marina and the Diamonds discovered Bush 's music when people compared her music to Bush 's . Courtney Love of Hole mentioned Bush among other artists as one of her favourites as a teenager . Tricky wrote an article about The Kick Inside , saying : " Her music has always sounded like dreamland to me " . [ ... ] " I don ’ t believe in God , but if I did , her music would be my bible " . Suede front @-@ man Brett Anderson stated about Hounds Of Love : " I love the way it 's a record of two halves , and the second half is a concept record about fear of drowning . It 's an amazing record to listen to really late at night , unsettling and really jarring " . John Lydon , better known as Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols , declared her work to be " beauty beyond belief " . Rotten once wrote a song for her , titled " Bird in Hand " ( about exploitation of parrots ) that Bush rejected . Bush was one of the singers that Prince thanked in the liner notes of 1991 's Diamonds and Pearls . In December 1989 , Robert Smith of The Cure chose " The Sensual World " as his favourite single of the year , The Sensual World as his favourite album of the year and included " all of Kate Bush " plus other artists in his list , " the best things about the eighties " .
Kele Okereke of Bloc Party said about " Hounds of Love " : " The first time I heard it I was sitting in a reclining sofa . As the beat started I was transported somewhere else . Her voice , the imagery , the huge drum sound : it seemed to capture everything for me . As a songwriter you 're constantly chasing that feeling " . Rufus Wainwright named Bush as one of his top ten gay icons . Outside music , Bush has been an inspiration to several fashion designers , including Hussein Chalayan .
= = Personal life = =
Bush is married to guitarist Dan McIntosh and they have a son , Albert , born 1998 , known as Bertie . Bertie featured prominently in the 2014 concert , " Before the Dawn " . She previously had a long @-@ term relationship with Del Palmer .
Bush is a former resident of Eltham , southeast London . In the 1990s , she moved to a canalside residence in Sulhamstead , Berkshire , and subsequently moved to Devon in 2004 . Bush is a vegetarian .
Raised a Roman Catholic , she said in 1999 :
I was a Roman Catholic and brought up in Roman Catholic schools . I would never say I was a strict follower of Roman Catholic belief , but a lot of images are in there ; they have to be ; they 're so strong . Such powerful , beautiful , passionate images ! There 's a lot of suffering in Roman Catholicism . I think I 'm looking for not necessarily religion , but ways of helping myself to become more understanding , more complete , a happier person — what we all want in life . But I really don 't think I 've found a niche .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Discography = =
The Kick Inside ( 1978 )
Lionheart ( 1978 )
Never for Ever ( 1980 )
The Dreaming ( 1982 )
Hounds of Love ( 1985 )
The Sensual World ( 1989 )
The Red Shoes ( 1993 )
Aerial ( 2005 )
Director 's Cut ( 2011 )
50 Words for Snow ( 2011 )
= Richmond Park =
Richmond Park , in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames , was created by Charles I in the 17th century as a deer park . The largest of London 's Royal Parks , it is of national and international importance for wildlife conservation . The park is a national nature reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Area of Conservation and is included , at Grade I , on Historic England 's Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . Its landscapes have inspired many famous artists and it has been a location for several films and TV series .
Richmond Park includes many buildings of architectural or historic interest . The Grade I @-@ listed White Lodge was formerly a royal residence and is now home to the Royal Ballet School . The park 's boundary walls and ten other buildings are listed at Grade II , including Pembroke Lodge , the home of 19th @-@ century British Prime Minister Lord John Russell and his grandson , the philosopher Bertrand Russell .
Historically the preserve of the monarch , the park is now open for all to use and includes a golf course and other facilities for sport and recreation . It played an important role in both world wars and in the 1948 and 2012 Olympics .
= = Overview = =
= = = Size = = =
Richmond Park is the largest of London 's Royal Parks . It is the second @-@ largest park in London ( after the 10 @,@ 000 acre Lee Valley Park , whose area extends beyond the M25 into Hertfordshire and Essex ) and is Britain 's second @-@ largest urban walled park after Sutton Park , Birmingham . Measuring 3 @.@ 69 square miles ( 955 hectares or 2 @,@ 360 acres ) , it is comparable in size to Paris 's Bois de Vincennes ( 995 ha or 2 @,@ 458 ac ) and Bois de Boulogne ( 846 ha or 2 @,@ 090 ac ) . It is almost half the size of Casa de Campo ( Madrid ) ( 1750 ha or 4324 @.@ 34 ac ) and around three times the size of Central Park in New York ( 341 ha or 843 ac ) .
= = = Status = = =
Of national and international importance for wildlife conservation , most of Richmond Park ( 856 hectares ) is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , a National Nature Reserve ( NNR ) and Special Area of Conservation ( SAC ) . The largest Site of Special Scientific Interest in London , it was designated as an SSSI in 1992 , excluding the area of the golf course , Pembroke Lodge Gardens and the Gate Gardens . In its citation , Natural England said : " Richmond Park has been managed as a royal deer park since the seventeenth century , producing a range of habitats of value to wildlife . In particular , Richmond Park is of importance for its diverse deadwood beetle fauna associated with the ancient trees found throughout the parkland . In addition the park supports the most extensive area of dry acid grassland in Greater London . "
The park was designated as an SAC in April 2005 on account of its having " a large number of ancient trees with decaying timber . It is at the heart of the south London centre of distribution for stag beetle Lucanus cervus , and is a site of national importance for the conservation of the fauna of invertebrates associated with the decaying timber of ancient trees " .
Since October 1987 the park has also been included , at Grade I , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England , being described in Historic England 's listing as " A royal deer park with pre C15 origins , imparked by Charles I and improved by subsequent monarchs . A public open space since the mid C19 " .
= = = Geography = = =
Richmond Park is located in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames . It is close to Richmond , Ham , Kingston upon Thames , Wimbledon , Roehampton and East Sheen .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Governance = = =
The Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport manages Richmond Park and the other Royal Parks of London under powers set out in the Crown Lands Act 1851 , which transferred management of the parks from the monarch to the government . Day @-@ to @-@ day management of the Royal Parks has been delegated to The Royal Parks , an executive agency of the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ( DCMS ) . The Royal Parks ' Board sets the strategic direction for the agency . Appointments to the Board are made by the Mayor of London .
The Friends of Richmond Park and the Friends of Bushy Park co @-@ chair the Richmond and Bushy Parks Forum , comprising 38 local groups of local stakeholder organisations . The forum was formed in September 2010 to consider proposals to bring Richmond Park and Bushy Park – and London 's other royal parks – under the control of the Mayor of London through a new Royal Parks Board and to make a joint response . Although welcoming the principles of the new governance arrangements , the forum ( in 2011 ) and the Friends of Richmond Park ( in 2012 ) have expressed concerns about the composition of the new board .
= = = Access = = =
Richmond Park is enclosed by a high wall with several gates . The gates either allow pedestrian and bicycle access only , or allow bicycle , pedestrian and other vehicle access . The gates for motor vehicle access are open only during daylight hours , and the speed limit is 20 mph . Apart from taxis , no commercial vehicles are allowed unless they are being used to transact business with residents of the park .
From Easter until the end of August 2015 , a free bus service runs on Wednesdays , stopping at the main car parks and the gate at Isabella Plantation nearest Peg 's Pond .
The gates open to motor traffic are : Sheen Gate , Richmond Gate , Ham Gate , Kingston Gate , Roehampton Gate and ( for access to Richmond Park Golf Course only ) Chohole Gate . There is pedestrian and bicycle access to the park 24 hours a day except during the deer cull in February and November when the pedestrian gates are closed between 8 : 00 pm and 7 : 30 am .
The Beverley Brook Walk runs through the park between Roehampton Gate and Robin Hood Gate . The Capital Ring walking route passes through the park from Robin Hood Gate to Petersham Gate . The Thames Cycle Route runs across the park from Ham Gate to Roehampton Gate . London Cycle Network route no . 3 goes through the park .
The park has designated bridleways and cycle paths . These are shown on maps and noticeboards displayed near the main entrances , along with other regulations that govern use of the park . The bridleways are special in that they are for horses ( and their riders ) only and not open to other users like normal bridleways . Cycling is allowed only on main roads and on the Tamsin Trail ( the shared @-@ use pedestrian cycle path that runs close to the park 's perimeter ) .
As the park is a national nature reserve and a Site of Special Scientific Interest , all dog owners are required to keep their dogs under control while in the park . This includes not allowing their dog to disturb other park users or disrupt wildlife . In 2009 , after some incidents leading to the death of wildfowl , the park 's dogs on leads policy was extended . Park users are said to believe that the deer are feeling increasingly threatened by the growing number of dogs using the park and Royal Parks advises against walking dogs in the park during the deer 's birthing season .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
A mugging at gunpoint in 1854 reputedly led to the establishment of a park police force . Until 2005 the park was policed by the separate Royal Parks Constabulary but that has now been subsumed into the Royal Parks Operational Command Unit of the Metropolitan Police . The mounted police have been replaced by a patrol team in a four @-@ wheel drive vehicle . In 2015 the Friends of Richmond Park expressed concern about plans to cut the numbers of police in the park to half the level that they were ten years previously , despite an increase in visitor numbers and in incidents of crime .
In July 2012 it was reported that police have been given the power to issue £ 50 on @-@ the @-@ spot fines for littering , cycling outside designated areas and for dog fouling offences . In August 2012 a dog owner was ordered to pay £ 315 after allowing five dogs to chase ducks in the park . Since 2013 commercial dog @-@ walkers have been required to apply for licences to walk dogs in the park and are allowed to walk only four dogs at a time . In September 2013 a cyclist was successfully prosecuted for speeding at 37 mph in the park . In March 2015 a cycling club member was fined for speeding at 41 mph and faced disciplinary action from his cycling club , which uses the park for training . In 2014 and 2015 two men were prosecuted for picking mushrooms in the park .
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
Cycling : Cycles are available for hire near Roehampton Gate and , at peak times , near Pembroke Lodge . The Tamsin Trail ( shared between pedestrians and cyclists ) provides a circuit of the park and is almost entirely car @-@ free .
Fishing is allowed , by paid permit , on Pen Ponds from mid @-@ June to mid @-@ March .
Golf is played at Richmond Park Golf Course , accessed from Chohole Gate .
Horse riding : Horses from several local stables are ridden in the park .
Rugby : A section of the grassland to the north of the Roehampton Gate is maintained and laid out during the winter months for rugby ; there are three pitches . At weekends , this area is hired extensively to Rosslyn Park Rugby Football Club . The club buses visiting teams to and from the park pitches from its nearby clubhouse and changing rooms .
Running : The Tamsin Trail is a 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) trail around the park which is popular with runners . Members of Barnes Runners complete at least one circumnavigation of it on the first and third Sunday of every month . The Richmond Park Parkrun , a 5 km organised run , takes place every Saturday at 9 : 00 a.m. from a starting point close to Bishop 's Gate .
There are children 's playgrounds at Kingston Gate and Petersham Gate .
= = = Friends of Richmond Park = = =
The Friends of Richmond Park ( FRP ) was founded in 1961 to protect the park . In 1960 the speed limit in the park had been raised from 20 to 30 miles an hour and there were concerns that the roads in the park would be assigned to the main highway system as had recently happened in parts of Hyde Park . In 1969 , plans by the then Greater London Council to assign the park 's roads to the national highway were revealed by the Friends and subsequently withdrawn . The speed limit was reduced to 20 miles an hour in the summer of 2004 .
In 2011 , the Friends successfully campaigned for the withdrawal of plans for open air screenings of films in the park . In 2012 , the Friends contributed towards the cost of a new Jubilee Pond , and launched a public appeal for a Ponds and Streams Conservation Programme in which the Friends , the Richmond Park Wildlife Group and Healthy Planet have been working with staff from The Royal Parks to restore some of the streams and ponds in the park .
The Friends run a visitor centre near Pembroke Lodge , organise a programme of walks and education activities for young people , and produce a quarterly newsletter . The Friends have published two books , A Guide to Richmond Park and Family Trails in Richmond Park ; profits from the books ' sales contribute towards the Friends ' conservation work .
The Friends of Richmond Park has been a charitable organisation since 2009 . It has 2200 members , is run by approximately 150 volunteers and has no staff . Broadcaster and naturalist Sir David Attenborough , former Richmond Park MP Baroness Susan Kramer and children 's author Dame Jacqueline Wilson are patrons of FRP . The chair ( in 2015 ) is Ron Crompton , who also chairs the Royal Parks Friends Forum . The Friends Forum enables the chairs of all the Royal Parks Friends groups to meet regularly to discuss common issues and to make their views known to the chief executive of the Royal Parks , the Royal Parks Advisory Group and the Department of Culture , Media and Sport .
= = History = =
= = = Stuart origins = = =
In 1625 Charles I brought his court to Richmond Palace to escape an outbreak of plague in London and turned the area on the hill above Richmond into a park for the hunting of red and fallow deer . It was originally referred to as the king 's " New Park " to distinguish it from the existing park in Richmond , which is now known as Old Deer Park . In 1637 he appointed Jerome Weston , 2nd Earl of Portland as keeper of the new park for life , with a fee of 12 ( old ) pence a day , pasture for four horses , and the use of the brushwood . – later holders of that office were known as " Ranger " . Charles 's decision , also in 1637 , to enclose the land was not popular with the local residents , but he did allow pedestrians the right of way . To this day the walls remain , although they have been partially rebuilt and reinforced . Following Charles I 's execution , custodianship of the park passed to the Corporation of the City of London . It was returned to the restored monarch , Charles II , on his return to London in 1660 .
= = = Georgian alterations = = =
In 1719 Caroline of Ansbach and her husband , the future George II of Great Britain , bought Richmond Lodge as a country residence . This building had first been built as a hunting lodge for James I in 1619 and had also been occupied by William III . As shown in a map of 1734 , Richmond Park and Richmond Gardens then formed a single unit – the latter was merged with Kew Gardens by George III in the early 1800s . In 1736 the Queen 's Ride was cut through existing woodland to create a grand avenue through the park and Bog Gate or Queen 's Gate was opened as a private entrance for Caroline to enter the park on her journeys between White Lodge and Richmond Lodge . The same map shows Pen Ponds , a lake divided in two by a causeway , dug in 1746 and initially referred to as the Canals , which is now a good place to see water birds . Richmond Lodge fell out of use on Caroline 's death in 1737 but was brought back into use by her grandson George III as his summer residence from 1764 to 1772 , when he switched his summer residence to Kew Palace and had Richmond Lodge demolished .
In 1751 , Caroline 's daughter Princess Amelia became ranger of Richmond Park after the death of Robert Walpole . Immediately afterwards , the Princess caused major public uproar by closing the park to the public , only allowing few close friends and those with special permits to enter . This continued until 1758 , when a local brewer , John Lewis , took the gatekeeper , who stopped him from entering the park , to court . The court ruled in favour of Lewis , citing the fact that , when Charles I enclosed the park in the 17th century , he allowed the public right of way in the park . Princess Amelia was forced to lift the restrictions .
= = = 19th century = = =
Full right of public access to the park was confirmed by Act of Parliament in 1872 . However , people were no longer given the right to remove firewood ; this is still the case and helps in preserving the park .
Between 1833 and 1842 the Petersham Lodge estate , and then part of Sudbrook Park , were incorporated into Richmond Park . Terrace Walk was created from Richmond Gate to Pembroke Lodge . The Russell School was built near Petersham Gate in 1851 . Between 1855 and 1861 , new drainage improvements were constructed , including drinking points for deer . In 1867 and 1876 fallow deer from the park were sent to New Zealand to help build up stocks – the first fallow deer introduced to that country In or around 1870 , the Inns of Court Rifle Volunteers were using an area near Bog Gate as a drill ground . Giuseppe Garibaldi , Italian general and politician , visited Lord John Russell at Pembroke Lodge in 1864 , as did the Shah of Persia , Naser al @-@ Din Shah Qajar in 1873 . He was the first modern Iranian monarch to visit Europe .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Edward VII developed the park as a public amenity by opening up almost all the previously fenced woods and making public those gates that were previously private . From 1915 level areas of the park were marked out for football and cricket pitches . A golf course was developed on the former " Great Paddock " of Richmond Park , an area used for feeding deer for the royal hunt . The tree belt in this part of the park was supplemented by additional planting in 1936 . The golf course was opened in 1923 by Edward , Prince of Wales ( who was to become King Edward VIII and , after his abdication , Duke of Windsor ) . The future king had been born in the park , at White Lodge , in 1894 .
The park played an important role during World War I and was used for cavalry training . On 7 December 1915 English inventor Harry Grindell Matthews demonstrated , in a secret test on Pen Ponds , how selenium cells would work in a remotely controlled prototype weapon for use against German Zeppelins . Reporting on this story several years later , in April 1924 , The Daily Chronicle reported that the test had been carried out in the presence of Lord Balfour , Lord Fisher and a staff of experts . Its success led to Matthews receiving a payment of £ 25 @,@ 000 from the Government the very next morning . Despite this large sum changing hands , the Admiralty never used the invention . Between 1916 and 1925 the park housed a South African military war hospital , which was built between Bishop 's Pond and Conduit Wood . The hospital closed in 1921 and was demolished in 1925 . Richmond Cemetery , just outside the park , contains a section of war graves commemorating 39 soldiers who died at the hospital ; the section is marked by a Cross of Sacrifice and a grade II listed cenotaph designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens .
= = = 1925 – present = = =
Faisal I of Iraq and Lebanese politician Salim Ali Salam were photographed visiting the park in 1925 . In 1938 , an army camp was set up near Dann 's Pond . During World War II Pembroke Lodge was used as the base for " Phantom " ( the GHQ Liaison Regiment ) . The Pen Ponds were drained , in order to disguise them as a landmark , and an experimental bomb disposal centre was set up at Killcat Corner , which is between Robin Hood Gate and Roehampton Gate . Picture Post , on 13 December 1941 , featured a photograph of an anti @-@ aircraft gun site inside Sheen Gate . The Russell School was destroyed by enemy action in 1943 and Sheen Cottage a year later . For the 1948 Summer Olympics , an Olympic village was built near Dann 's Pond . In 1953 President Tito of Yugoslavia stayed at White Lodge during a state visit to Britain .
The Petersham Hole was a sink hole caused by subsidence of a sewer which forced the total closure of the A30
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of South Asia , Rasmussen examined tens of thousands of bird specimens , since the late S. Dillon Ripley had strongly favoured the use of museum specimens to determine which birds to include . With Robert Prys @-@ Jones of the Natural History Museum , she showed that the decades @-@ old Meinertzhagen fraud was far more extensive than first thought . Many of the 20 @,@ 000 bird specimens in his collection had been relabelled with regard to where they were collected , and sometimes also remounted . The false documentation delayed the rediscovery of the forest owlet , since previous searches had relied on Meinertzagen 's faked records . Rasmussen 's successful expedition ignored these and looked in the areas identified by the remaining genuine specimens .
Meinertzhargen had been banned from the Natural History Museum 's Bird Room for 18 months for unauthorised removal of specimens , and suspicions that he was stealing specimens and library material were documented by staff for over 30 years , twice reaching the verge of prosecution .
Falsified records identified by Rasmussen and Prys @-@ Jones included high @-@ altitude occurrences of coral @-@ billed scimitar @-@ babbler Pomatorhinus ferruginosus , out @-@ of @-@ range Kashmir flycatcher Ficedula subrubra and Himalayan winter records of ferruginous flycatcher Muscicapa ferruginea and large blue flycatcher Cyornis magnirostris ( now hill blue @-@ flycatcher C. banyumas ) . However , some records such as those for Afghan snowfinch Montifringilla theresae , a species Meinertzhagen described , appear to be genuine .
= Grévy 's zebra =
The Grévy 's zebra ( Equus grevyi ) , also known as the imperial zebra , is the largest extant wild equid and the largest and most threatened of the three species of zebra , the other two being the plains zebra and the mountain zebra . Named after Jules Grévy , it is the sole extant member of the subgenus Dolichohippus . The Grévy 's zebra is found in Kenya and Ethiopia . Compared with other zebras , it is tall , has large ears , and its stripes are narrower .
The Grévy 's zebra lives in semi @-@ arid grasslands where it feeds on grasses , legumes , and browse ; it can survive up to five days without water . It differs from the other zebra species in that it does not live in harems and has few long @-@ lasting social bonds . Male territoriality and mother – foal relationships form the basis of the social system of the Grévy 's zebra . This zebra is considered to be endangered . Its population has declined from 15 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 since the 1970s . However , as of 2008 , the population is stable .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The Grévy 's zebra was first described by French naturalist Émile Oustalet in 1882 . He named it after Jules Grévy , then president of France , who , in the 1880s , was given one by the government of Abyssinia . Traditionally , this species was classified in the subgenus Dolichohippus with plains zebra and mountain zebra in Hippotigris . Fossils of zebra @-@ like equids have been found throughout Africa and Asia in the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits . Notable examples include E. sanmeniensis from China , E. cautleyi from India , E. valeriani from central Asia and E. oldowayensis from East Africa . The latter , in particular is very similar to the Grévy 's zebra and may have been its ancestor . The modern Grévy 's zebra arose in the early Pleistocene . Zebras appear to be a monophyletic linage and recent ( 2013 ) phylogenies have placed Grevy 's zebra in a sister taxon with the plains zebra . In areas where Grévy 's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras , the two may gather in same herds and fertile hybrids do occur .
= = Description = =
The Grévy 's zebra is the largest of all wild equines . It is 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 75 m ( 8 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 0 ft ) from head to tail with a 55 – 75 cm ( 22 – 30 in ) tail , and stands 1 @.@ 45 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) high at the shoulder . These zebras weigh 350 – 450 kg ( 770 – 990 lb ) . Grévy 's zebra differs from the other two zebras in its more primitive characteristics . It is particularly mule @-@ like in appearance ; the head is large , long , and narrow with elongated nostril openings ; the ears are very large , rounded , and conical and the neck is short but thick . The zebra 's muzzle is ash @-@ grey to black in colour with the lips having whiskers . The mane is tall and erect ; juveniles have a mane that extends to the length of the back and shortens as they reach adulthood .
As with all zebra species , the Grevy 's zebra 's pelage has a black and white striping pattern . The stripes are narrow and close @-@ set , being broader on the neck , and they extend to the hooves . The belly and the area around the base of the tail lack stripes which is unique to the Grevy 's zebra . Foals are born with brown and white striping , with the brown stripes darkening as they grow older . Embryological evidence has shown that the zebra 's background colour is dark and the white is an addition . The stripes of the zebra may serve to make it look bigger than it actually is or disrupt its outline . It appears that a stationary zebra can be inconspicuous at night or in shade . Experiments have suggested that the stripes polarize light in such a way that it discourages biting horse @-@ flies in a manner not shown with other coat patterns . Other studies suggest that , when moving , the stripes may confuse observers , such as mammalian predators and biting insects , via two visual illusions , the wagon wheel effect , where the perceived motion is inverted , and the barber pole illusion , where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The Grévy ’ s zebra largely inhabits northern Kenya , with some isolated populations in Ethiopia . It was extirpated from Somalia and Djibouti and its status in South Sudan is uncertain . It lives in Acacia @-@ Commiphora bushlands and barren plains . Ecologically , this species is intermediate between the arid @-@ living African wild ass and the water @-@ dependent plains zebra . Lactating females and non @-@ territorial males use areas with green , short grass and medium , dense bush more often than non @-@ lactating females and territorial males .
Grévy 's zebras rely on grasses , legumes , and browse for nutrition . They commonly browse when grasses are not plentiful . Their hindgut fermentation digestive system allows them to subsist on diets of lower nutritional quality than that necessary for ruminant herbivores . Grevy 's zebras can survive up to five days without water , but will drink daily when it is plentiful . They often migrate to better watered highlands during the dry season . Females require significantly more water when they are lactating . During droughts , the zebras will dig water holes and defend them . Grévy 's zebras are preyed on by lions , hyenas , wild dogs , cheetahs and leopards . In addition , they are susceptible to various gastro @-@ intestinal parasites , notably of the Trichostrongylus genus .
Adult males mostly live in territories during the wet seasons but some may stay in them year round if there 's enough water left . Stallions that are unable to establish territories are free @-@ ranging and are known as bachelors . Females , young and non @-@ territorial males wander through large home ranges . The females will wander from territory to territory preferring the ones with the highest @-@ quality food and water sources . Up to nine males may compete for a female outside of a territory .
Territorial stallions will tolerate other stallions who wander in their territory , however when an oestrous female is present the territorial stallion keeps other males at bay . Non @-@ territorial males may avoid territorial ones because of harassment . When females are not around , a territorial stallion will seek the company of other stallions . The stallion shows his dominance with an arched neck and a high @-@ stepping gait and the least dominant stallions submit by extending their tail , lowering their heads and nuzzling their superior 's chest or groin . The call of the Grévy 's zebra has been described as " something like a hippo 's grunt combined with a donkey 's wheeze " . To get rid of flies or parasites , they roll in dust , water or mud or , in the case of flies , twitch their skin . They also rub against trees , rocks and other objects to get rid of irritations like itchy skin , hair or parasites . Although Grévy 's zebras do not perform mutual grooming , they do sometimes rub against a conspecific .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Grévy 's zebras can mate and give birth year @-@ round , but most mating takes place in the early rainy seasons and births mostly take place in August or September after the long rains . An oestrous mare may visit though as many as four territories a day and will mate with the stallions in them . Among territorial stallions , the most dominant ones control territories near water sources , which mostly attract mares with dependant foals , while more subordinate stallions control territories away from water with greater amounts of vegetation , which mostly attract mares without dependant foals .
The resident stallions of territories will try to subdue the entering mares with dominance rituals and then continue with courtship and copulation . Grévy 's zebra stallions have large testicles and can ejaculate a large amount of semen to replace the sperm of other males . This is a useful adaptation for a species whose females mate polyandrously . Bachelors or outside territorial stallions sometimes " sneak " copulation of mares in another stallion ’ s territory . While female associations with individual males are brief and mating is promiscuous , females who have just given birth will reside with one male for long periods and mate exclusively with that male . Lactating females are harassed by males more often than non @-@ lactating ones and thus associating with one male and his territory provides an advantage as he will guard against other males .
Gestation of the Grévy 's zebra normally lasts 390 days , with a single foal being born . A newborn zebra will follow anything that moves , so new mothers prevent other mares from approaching their foals while imprinting their own striping pattern , scent and vocalisation on them . Females with young foals may gather into small groups . Mares may leave their foals in " kindergartens " while searching for water . The foals will not hide , so they can be vulnerable to predators . However , kindergartens tend to be protected by an adult , usually a territorial male . A female with a foal stays with one dominant territorial male who has exclusive mating rights to her . While the foal will not likely be his , the stallion will look after it to ensure that the female stays in his territory . To adapt to a semi @-@ arid environment , Grévy 's zebra foals have longer nursing intervals and wait until they are three months old before they start drinking water . Although offspring became less dependant on their mothers after half a year , associations with them continue for up to three years .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The Grévy 's zebra was known to the Europeans in antiquity and was used by the Romans in circuses . It was subsequently forgotten in the Western world for a thousand years . In the seventeenth century , the king of Shoa ( now central Ethiopia ) exported two zebras ; one to the Sultan of Turkey and another to the Dutch governor of Jakarta . A century later , in 1882 , the government of Abyssinia sent one to French president Jules Grévy . It was at that time that the animal was recognised as its own species and named in Grévy ’ s honor .
= = = Status and conservation = = =
The Grévy 's zebra is considered endangered . Its population was estimated to be 15 @,@ 000 in the 1970s and by the early 21st century the population was lower than 3 @,@ 500 , a 75 % decline . It is estimated that there are less than 2 @,@ 500 Grévy 's zebras still living in the wild . There are also an estimated 600 Grévy 's zebras in captivity . Captive herds have been known to thrive , like at White Oak Conservation in Yulee , Florida , United States , where more than 70 foals have been born . There , research is underway in partnership with the Conservation Centers for Species Survival on semen collection and freezing and on artificial insemination . The Grévy 's zebra population trend is considered stable as of 2008 .
The Grévy 's zebra is legally protected in Ethiopia . In Kenya , it is protected by the hunting ban of 1977 . In the past , Grévy 's zebras were threatened mainly by hunting for their skins which fetched a high price on the world market . However , hunting has declined and the main threat to the zebra is habitat loss and competition with livestock . Cattle gather around watering holes and the Grévy 's zebras are fenced from those areas . Community @-@ based conservation efforts have shown to the most effective in preserving Grévy 's zebras and their habitat . Less than 0 @.@ 5 % of the range of the Grévy 's zebra is in protected areas . In Ethiopia , the protected areas include Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve , Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuary , Borana Controlled Hunting Area and Chalbi Sanctuary . In Kenya , important protected areas include the Buffalo Springs , Samburu and Shaba National Reserves and the private and community land wildlife conservancies in Isiolo , Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau .
The Mesquite plant was introduced into Ethiopia around 1997 and is endangering the zebra 's food supply . The Mesquite plant is an invasive species replacing the two grass species , Cenchrus ciliaris and Chrysopogon plumulosus , which the zebra 's eat for most of their food .
= House of Lancaster =
The House of Lancaster was the name of two cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet . The first house was created when Henry III of England created the Earldom of Lancaster — from which the house was named — for his second son Edmund Crouchback in 1267 . Edmund had already been created Earl of Leicester in 1265 and was granted the lands and privileges of Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , after de Montfort 's death and attainder at the end of the Second Barons ' War . When Edmund 's son Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , inherited his father @-@ in @-@ law 's estates and title of Earl of Lincoln he became at a stroke the most powerful nobleman in England , with lands throughout the kingdom and the ability to raise vast private armies to wield power at national and local levels . This brought him — and Henry , his younger brother — into conflict with their cousin Edward II of England , leading to Thomas 's execution . Henry inherited Thomas 's titles and he and his son , who was also called Henry , gave loyal service to Edward 's son — Edward III of England .
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45 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 78 at exit 60 and PA 309 in the community of Lanark in Upper Saucon Township , Lehigh County . South of this interchange , the roadway continues southeast as part of PA 309 while northbound PA 309 heads west along I @-@ 78 . From this interchange , PA 145 heads northwest on South Pike Avenue , a divided highway with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane . The road becomes undivided at the Vera Cruz Road / Oakhurst Derive intersection and ascends South Mountain with S @-@ curves , passing through forested areas with some homes . The route reaches the community of Summit Lawn at the peak of South Mountain , where it intersects Rock Road , which heads southwest to provide access to westbound I @-@ 78 / northbound PA 309 . Here , PA 145 turns north and enters Salisbury Township , where it descends the mountain with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes through forests with a few residences . At the base of South Mountain , the route heads into the city of Allentown and becomes South 4th Street , heading into residential areas . The road crosses Emaus Avenue and narrows to two lanes , running north @-@ northwest past businesses as it heads into the Mountainville neighborhood . PA 145 continues past homes and businesses , curving to the north as it passes to the east of a shopping center . After passing through the Mountainville neighborhood , the route turns west onto Susquehanna Street and passes over Norfolk Southern 's Reading Line and Trout Creek .
PA 145 curves north and becomes South 5th Street before it splits into a one @-@ way pair . The northbound direction follows South 5th Street north and Auburn Street west to an intersection with South 6th Street and Lehigh Street while the southbound direction follows South 6th Street south and Wyoming Street east . The one @-@ way streets , which carry two lanes of traffic in each direction , pass through urban residential neighborhoods , with northbound PA 145 passing Good Shepherd Hospital along South 5th Street . Past the one @-@ way pair , the route follows Lehigh Street , a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes , through urban residential and commercial areas , crossing Little Lehigh Creek before intersecting Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive . After this intersection , the road ascends a long hill . PA 145 splits into another one @-@ way pair at Union Street , with the northbound direction following two @-@ lane South 6th Street and the southbound direction following three @-@ lane South 7th Street . The route heads into the commercial downtown of Allentown , intersecting the northern terminus of northbound PA 222 at West Walnut Street , which is one @-@ way eastbound . A block later , PA 145 intersects West Hamilton Street , with the Sailors and Soldiers Monument located at the center of the intersection between 7th and Hamilton streets . Past this intersection , northbound PA 145 follows North 6th Street and southbound PA 145 follows North 7th Street , with southbound PA 145 passing to the east of the PPL Center sports arena . Past the arena , the route intersects West Linden Street , which is one @-@ way westbound and serves as the southbound beginning of PA 222 . Continuing north , PA 145 leaves the downtown area and passes through urban areas of homes and businesses , intersecting Tilghman Street . A short distance later , northbound PA 145 turns west on two @-@ way , two @-@ lane West Washington Street to rejoin southbound PA 145 at North 7th Street .
PA 145 continues north on North 7th Street , a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes that is lined with urban homes . The route widens to four lanes and crosses Sumner Avenue on a tall bridge , at which point it leaves Allentown for Whitehall Township . Here , the route becomes four @-@ lane divided MacArthur Road and intersects Mickley Road / 6th Street as it heads into commercial areas . The road crosses Jordan Creek and passes between businesses to the west and residential areas to the east before it comes to an interchange with the US 22 freeway . Past this interchange , PA 145 becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier and several intersections controlled by jughandles . The route traverses the main commercial center of the Lehigh Valley , passing to the west of Lehigh Valley Mall . After intersecting Grape Street , the road passes to the west of Whitehall Mall before coming to another intersection with Mickley Road . PA 145 continues past shopping centers and businesses , intersecting Schadt Avenue and curving to the northwest .
After the Eberhart Road intersection in the community of Mickleys , the road narrows to a four @-@ lane divided highway and runs through a mix of farmland and commercial development , turning to the north . The route continues through wooded areas with some nearby farms and residential commercial development and reaches an intersection with PA 329 in Eagle Point , located east of Egypt and west of Northampton . Past this intersection , PA 145 continues north through rural areas with some development , crossing into North Whitehall Township . The route intersects Second Street and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided , unnamed road as it heads along the west bank of the Lehigh River . The road continues through wooded areas alongside the river before it curves northwest away from it and reaches the community of Laurys Station . PA 145 passes homes and businesses , curving to the north again . The route heads into farmland with some homes , turning to the west and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway .
PA 145 crosses the Lehigh River on the Treichlers Bridge , at which point it enters Lehigh Township in Northampton County . The route passes over Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line before it descends off the Treichlers Bridge and intersects Blue Mountain Drive in the community of Treichlers . Past this , PA 145 heads south on two @-@ lane undivided Riverview Drive and passes through a mix of farms and homes to the west of the river and the railroad tracks . The road begins a long curve to the west and then to the northwest as it continues parallel to the Lehigh River , heading into wooded areas with some development . The route passes through the community of Lockport and runs west through a mix of farms and woods before it enters the borough of Walnutport . PA 145 curves north and becomes South Best Avenue , heading through residential areas with some businesses . The route becomes North Best Avenue and heads into commercial areas , briefly becoming a divided highway before intersecting Main Street . The road becomes undivided again and continues into wooded areas with some development . The route leaves Walnutport for Lehigh Township again , where the name changes back to Riverview Drive . PA 145 continues north and reaches its northern terminus at PA 248 in the community of Weiders Crossing , a short distance south of the northern terminus of PA 873 at PA 248 and the Lehigh Gap in Blue Mountain . At the northern terminus , the route also encounters the Appalachian Trail .
= = History = =
When routes were first legislated in Pennsylvania following the passage of the Sproul Road Bill in 1911 , the present @-@ day PA 145 corridor was legislated as part of Legislative Route 153 south of Allentown and as Legislative Route 175 in Northampton County . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , the present @-@ day route heading south out of Allentown was designated as part of US 309 . In 1928 , PA 312 was designated concurrent with US 309 between Center Valley and Allentown . The concurrent PA 312 designation was removed from US 309 by 1930 . US 309 entered Allentown from the south on Jordan Street ( now South 4th Street ) and intersected PA 43 at Susquehanna Street , at which point it turned west to join PA 43 . US 309 / PA 43 curved north on 5th Street and turned west on Auburn Street to intersect PA 29 at Lehigh Street . From here , US 309 / PA 29 / PA 43 continued north along Lehigh Street , Union Street , and 7th Street to the center of Allentown .
PA 145 was first designated in 1928 to run from PA 45 ( now PA 248 ) in Weiders Crossing east to PA 45 ( now PA 248 ) in Bath , heading south along its current alignment and continuing along the river to Cementon , where it turned east and passed through Northampton before continuing to Bath . When first designated , the route was paved between Treichlers and Bath . By 1930 , the entire length of PA 145 was paved . The road between Cementon and Allentown was designated by 1930 as part of PA 329 . This route followed Coplay Road from Cementon to Coplay and then ran along Mickley Pike through Whitehall Township before entering Allentown on 7th Street , where it ended at US 22 , US 309 , PA 29 , and PA 43 at the intersection of 7th and Hamilton streets . In the 1930s , PA 329 was realigned to follow Seventh Street Pike ( now MacArthur Road ) through Whitehall Township . The Seventh Street Pike was built starting in the later part of the 1920s to provide a straight north @-@ south road in Whitehall Township . The road between Allentown and Mickleys church was widened to three lanes in the 1930s . The southern terminus of PA 329 was cut back to US 22 , US 309 , and PA 29 at Tilghman Street in Allentown in the 1930s , with US 309 / PA 29 replacing the route along 7th Street between Tilghman and Hamilton streets . The concurrent PA 43 designation was also removed from US 309 . In 1941 , PA 145 was realigned to follow Seventh Street Pike south from Eagle Point to Allentown and 7th Street in Allentown to US 22 / US 309 / PA 29 at 7th and Tilghman streets in Allentown , with PA 329 realigned to follow the former alignment of PA 145 between Cementon and Bath . The section of Seventh Street Pike between Center Street and Eagle Point was constructed as a concrete road in 1941 . The portion of PA 145 along Seventh Street Pike was widened to four lanes between Allentown and west of Coplay by 1947 . In the early 1950s , Seventh Street Pike was renamed to MacArthur Road in honor of General Douglas MacArthur , a World War II hero .
Following the completion of the US 22 freeway in 1955 , the southern terminus of PA 145 was cut back to the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 78 / US 22 in Whitehall Township . Also , US 309 and PA 29 were rerouted to bypass Allentown to the south and west in the 1950s , leaving the former alignment unnumbered . By 1961 , PA 145 was realigned to bypass the center of Walnutport to the east along Best Avenue , having previously passed through the borough on Washington Street , Main Street , Cherry Street , and Spruce Street . In 1970 , PA 145 was widened into a divided highway between US 22 and north of PA 329 . The section of the route in Whitehall Township developed into a major retail center for the Lehigh Valley in the second half of the 20th century , with the construction of several businesses along with the Whitehall Mall and the Lehigh Valley Mall . In 1984 , PennDOT proposed to extend PA 145 to I @-@ 78 and PA 309 in Lanark . Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown was one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it . He supported his idea by saying that motorists also might be aided if US 222 was extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor . By 1991 , the extension of PA 145 south from US 22 to I @-@ 78 / PA 309 along its current alignment was completed . PA 145 was dedicated as the Battle of the Bulge Veterans Memorial Highway in 2008 in honor of the veterans who fought in the Battle of the Bulge during World War II . In 2012 , a project began to improve PA 145 's interchange with US 22 . The project reconstructed the bridge carrying PA 145 over US 22 and replaced the cloverleaf interchange with a modified diamond interchange to improve traffic flow . The reconstruction project , which cost $ 13 @.@ 8 million , was planned to be finished in December 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Drosera anglica =
Drosera anglica , commonly known as the English sundew or great sundew , is a carnivorous plant species belonging to the sundew family Droseraceae . It is a temperate species with a generally circumboreal range , although it does occur as far south as Japan , southern Europe , and the island of Kauaʻi in Hawaiʻi , where it grows as a subtropical sundew . It is thought to originate from an amphidiploid hybrid of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis , meaning that a sterile hybrid between these two species doubled its chromosomes to produce fertile progeny which stabilized into the current D. anglica .
= = Morphology = =
Drosera anglica is a perennial herb which forms an upright , stemless rosette of generally linear @-@ spatulate leaves . As is typical for sundews , the laminae are densely covered with stalked mucilaginous glands , each tipped with a clear droplet of a viscous fluid used for trapping insects . The lamina , which is 15 – 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 38 in ) long , is held semi @-@ erect by a long petiole , bringing the total leaf size to 30 – 95 mm . Plants are green , coloring red in bright light . In all populations except those in Kaua 'i , D. anglica forms winter resting buds called hibernacula . These consist of a knot of tightly curled leaves at ground level , which unfurl in spring at the end of the dormancy period . The root system is weak and penetrates only a few centimeters , serving mainly as an anchor and for water absorption . Nitrogen is in short supply in bogs and trapping and digesting insects provides an alternate source .
Drosera anglica flowers in the summer , sending up peduncles 6 – 18 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) . long bearing several white flowers which open individually . Like other sundews , the flowers have five sepals , petals , and stamens . The petals for this species are 8 – 12 mm long , and the flowers have branched 2 @-@ lobed styles . The odorless , nectar @-@ less flowers do not rely on insect pollinators for pollination , rather setting seed well through self @-@ pollination ( autogamy ) . The black ovoid seed forms in a dehiscent capsule and is 1 to 1 ½ mm long .
= = Carnivory = =
Like all sundews , D. anglica uses stalked mucilaginous glands called tentacles which cover its laminae to attract , trap , and digest small arthropods , usually insects . These are attracted by a sugary scent exuded by the glands , and upon alighting on the plant adhere to the sticky drops of mucilage . Although most of its prey consists of small insects such as flies , bulkier insects with large wings are also caught . Small butterflies , damselflies , and even dragonflies can become immobilized by the plant 's sticky mucilage .
The plant 's initial response to contact with prey consists of thigmotropic ( movement in response to touch ) tentacle movement , with tentacles bending toward the prey and the center of the leaf to maximize contact . D. anglica is also capable of further movement , being able to bend the actual leaf blade around prey to further the digestion process . Tentacle movement can occur in a matter of minutes , whereas the leaf takes hours or days to bend . When something gets caught , the tentacles touching the prey exude additional mucilage to mire down the prey , which eventually dies of exhaustion or is asphyxiated as the mucilage clogs its tracheae . Once the prey has been digested and the resulting nutrient solution has been absorbed by the plant , the leaf unfurls , leaving only the prey 's exoskeleton behind .
= = Habitat = =
Drosera anglica grows in open , non @-@ forested habitat with wet , often calcium @-@ rich soils . These include bogs , marl fens , quaking bogs , cobble shores , and other calcareous habitats . This tolerance of calcium is relatively rare in the rest of the genus . D. anglica is often associated with various sphagnum mosses , and many times grows in a soil substrate that is entirely composed of living , dead , or decomposed sphagnum . The sphagnum wicks moisture to the surface while simultaneously acidifying it . What soil nutrients are not seeped away by the constant moisture are often used up by the sphagnum or made unavailable by the low soil pH . Since nutrient availability is low , competition from other plants is diminished , allowing the carnivorous English sundew to flourish .
= = Distribution = =
Drosera anglica is one of the most widely distributed sundews in the world . It is generally circumboreal , meaning that it is found at high latitudes around the globe . In a few areas , however , it is found farther south , particularly in Japan , southern Europe , the Hawaiian island of Kauaʻi , and California . Plants from Hawaiʻi , where it is known as mikinalo , are generally smaller than normal and do not experience a winter dormancy period . Its natural habitat includes 12 U.S. states , including Alaska , and 11 Canadian provinces and territories . The altitudinal range is from 5 m to at least 2000 m .
= = Special origins = =
All North American Drosera species except for D. anglica have a chromosome count of 2n = 20 . In 1955 , Wood noted that D. anglica had a chromosome count of 2n = 40 , and hypothesized that it was of hybrid amphidiploid origin . Since the leaf morphology of D. anglica is an intermediary between that of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis and the two occur sympatrically in several locations , Wood conjectured that D. anglica likely originated from a hybrid between these two .
All North American Drosera species produce sterile hybrids . The natural hybrid D. rotundifolia × D. linearis ( conventionally but incorrectly referred to as Drosera × anglica ) , is also sterile but is morphologically similar to the modern D. anglica . Errors in meiosis during ovule and pollen production , however , can result in a chromosome doubling which can allow for viable seed to be produced . The resulting plants , known as amphiploids , would be fertile . Woods noted that this appeared to be an ongoing process with D. anglica speciating from D. rotundifolia × D. linearis through amphidiploidy in multiple locations . The question remains as to why D. anglica is so widespread , whereas the range of D. linearis is limited to the Great Lakes region of North America . The greater adaptability of D. anglica to varied habitat conditions could be a major factor .
= = Botanical history = =
Drosera anglica was first described by William Hudson in 1778 . It has frequently been confused with the other circumpolar long @-@ leaf Drosera , D. intermedia . This confusion was fueled by the resurfacing of an older name , D. longifolia ( described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 ) , which was regarded as being too ambiguous in description and had been applied to specimens of both D. anglica and D. intermedia . Herbarium specimens were also a mix of the two species . These points led Martin Cheek to propose D. longifolia for rejection as a species name in 1998 . The proposal was accepted and the taxon listed as rejected in 1999 .
= = Hybrids = =
Several naturally occurring hybrids involving D. anglica exist . These include :
These are all sterile . In addition , several man @-@ made hybrids have been made .
= = Gallery = =
= New York State Route 111 =
New York State Route 111 ( NY 111 ) is a state highway located in Suffolk County , New York , in the United States . It runs north – south for 9 @.@ 42 miles ( 15 @.@ 16 km ) through the towns of Islip and Smithtown , connecting NY 27A in the town seat of Islip to the east end of the NY 25 and NY 25A concurrency in Smithtown 's Village of the Branch . Most of the road is a two @-@ lane highway , save for several short four @-@ lane stretches in the vicinity of interchanges along the route . NY 111 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as an East Islip – Village of the Branch highway , using what is now County Route 17 ( CR 17 ) south of Hauppauge . It was realigned to serve the hamlet of Islip in 1966 .
= = Route description = =
NY 111 begins at an intersection with NY 27A ( Main Street ) in the town of Islip . The route proceeds north through the hamlet of Islip along the two @-@ lane Islip Avenue , passing through a short residential stretch ahead of an intersection with CR 50 ( Union Boulevard ) . NY 111 soon crosses the nearby Montauk Branch of the Long Island Rail Road just east of the Islip station , from where it continues north past various businesses and residences . As the road heads northward , it intersects with Bittermint Street , a connector to NY 27 ( Sunrise Highway ) eastbound . After crossing over NY 27 , the route intersects with a ramp serving the westbound lanes and Islip Boulevard , which connects NY 27 westbound to NY 111 .
Past Sunrise Highway , the route serves many blocks of residences prior to entering a cloverleaf interchange with the Heckscher State Parkway ( exit 43 ) . After this junction , NY 111 continues north as a two @-@ lane residential street to the hamlet of Central Islip . Here , the residences give way to various businesses as NY 111 and Islip Avenue briefly bend to the northwest for several blocks . Another north @-@ northwesterly stretch follows , bringing the highway over another Long Island Rail Road line , this time the Ronkonkoma Branch . Past the railroad overpass , NY 111 intersects with CR 100 ( Suffolk Avenue ) , at which point NY 111 leaves Islip Avenue and changes names to Joshua 's Path .
One block north of CR 100 , Caleb 's Path forks off to the northwest while NY 111 splits to the northeast along Joshua 's Path , serving a long stretch of homes in the northern part of Central Islip . Several blocks to the north , NY 111 intersects with CR 67 ( Long Island Motor Parkway ) at an at @-@ grade intersection on the northern edge of the community . Now out of Central Islip , the route traverses industrialized areas surrounding a large Y intersection with CR 17 ( Wheeler Road ) in Hauppauge . NY 111 takes on the Wheeler Road name , and the route immediately enters an interchange ( exit 56 ) with the Long Island Expressway ( I @-@ 495 ) . From here , the route bends northeast along Wheeler Road , paralleling the Nissequogue River as it serves the northern part of the town of Islip .
The highway passes the American Real Estate School and a campus of Empire State College before intersecting NY 454 ( Veterans Highway ) . Not far from NY 454 , NY 111 has a short concurrency with CR 76 ( Townline Road ) along the Islip – Smithtown and then the names changes to Hauppauge Road town line before fully crossing into Smithtown . After forking from CR 76 , NY 111 continues northeast through the hamlet of Hauppauge , crossing NY 347 ( Smithtown Bypass ) at @-@ grade as it runs across another residential stretch . The route soon enters Village of the Branch , where it bends northward into a large commercial area at the center of the community . Here , NY 111 intersects with East Main Street , which enters the junction from the west as NY 25 and NY 25A . At this point , NY 25 continues eastward as Middle Country Road , NY 111 terminates , and NY 25A turns northward on NY 111 's right @-@ of @-@ way , changing names to North Country Road .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 111 date back to 1914 when the state of New York awarded a contract on July 29 to improve a 9 @.@ 56 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 39 km ) highway in the towns of Islip and Smithtown to state highway standards . The road covered by the project began at Main Street in East Islip and headed north on Carleton Avenue and Wheeler Road to Hauppauge , from where it continued northeast to Village of the Branch via Hauppauge Road . Reconstruction of the road cost $ 263 @,@ 359 ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 72 million in 2016 ) , and the rebuilt road was added to the state highway system on June 1 , 1922 , as unsigned State Highway 1208 ( SH 1208 ) . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways were assigned a posted route designation for the first time . One of these was SH 1208 , which became NY 111 .
On September 13 , 1966 , NY 111 was realigned south of Hauppauge to follow a slightly more westerly alignment to the hamlet of Islip along Joshua 's Path and Islip Avenue , two streets that ran parallel to the route 's original path on Carleton Avenue and Wheeler Road . Ownership and maintenance of NY 111 's former routing was transferred to Suffolk County , which redesignated the road as CR 17 . The ultimately cancelled eastern extension of the Northern State Parkway would have crossed NY 111 just south of Village of the Branch at a point north of Mount Pleasant Road . An interchange between the parkway and NY 111 was planned at that location .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Suffolk County .
= Ford Nation =
Ford Nation was an opinion and discussion programme that aired on the Canadian news channel Sun News Network . The show featured two sitting Toronto politicians , mayor Rob Ford and his brother , city councillor Doug Ford , Jr . , and was pulled from the network after only one airing on November 18 , 2013 . An online version of the show aired on YouTube for five episodes between February and April , 2014 . The title is a reference to the ardent , mainly suburban supporters of the Fords and their populist conservative agenda .
= = Background = =
From February 2012 to November 3 , 2013 , the Fords hosted The City , a weekly two @-@ hour Sunday afternoon show on CFRB radio which Rob Ford described as " an unfiltered take on the work we do every day at Toronto City Hall . " After months of controversy involving the mayor , criticism of the station for letting the Fords use the show as a " bully pulpit " where their political allies were promoted and opponents cut down , and complaints to the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council alleging the show breached its code of ethics , CFRB announced in November 2013 that it and the Fords had " mutually determined " to end The City .
On November 14 , the brothers were tapped by Sun News Network to host a weekly pre @-@ taped one @-@ hour program on the TV network , to be titled Ford Nation .
= = Content = =
The lone airing of Ford Nation was broadcast on Monday , November 18 , 2013 , taking the 8PM ( ET ) slot normally occupied by Sun News Network 's The Source with Ezra Levant . The format included a back @-@ and @-@ forth dialogue between Rob Ford and Doug Ford , with the former readmitting the personal mistakes he has made as mayor ( " It is what it is . I 've admitted to my mistakes . " ) . Segments included discussions with Levant and Toronto Sun columnist Joe Warmington . Levant 's appearance included a commentary critical of the Toronto Star 's investigations into Rob Ford , with Levant likening the media 's treatment of the mayor over his recent controversies to the paparazzi 's hounding of Princess Diana .
= = Cancellation and revival as web series = =
On November 19 , 2013 , less than 24 hours after Ford Nation 's debut , Sun News Network announced it was cancelling the program after just one episode . Sun News cited high production costs involved with the premiere episode ; the show , taped one day before its airing , reportedly took five hours to record and an additional eight hours to edit . Additionally , the show met with advertiser resistance about being associated with the controversial politicians . Doug Ford , in a later conversation with The National Post , insisted that the brothers entered into the project with Sun with the understanding that Ford Nation was a " one @-@ off " project , one that was not intended to evolve into prolonged status .
Despite the show 's expense and its immediate cancellation , Ford Nation 's sole episode attracted an audience of 155 @,@ 000 viewers for the original broadcast , plus an additional 45 @,@ 000 for its replay on prime time in Western Canada and 65 @,@ 000 downloads of the program online . The audience was , according to Sun News vice @-@ president Kory Teneycke , " by far the most successful thing , from an audience perspective , the network has ever done , " topping a 2012 charity boxing match between Liberal MP Justin Trudeau and Conservative Senator Patrick Brazeau .
Rob Ford 's celebrity status had , according to Doug Ford , caught the eye of several reality television producers in both Canada and the United States . Councillor Ford stated that the brothers passed on those offers , but took an interest in suggestions by videographers for an online program that would retain the Ford Nation title and be posted weekly on YouTube . The program employed a format similar to what the Fords enjoyed on CFRB 's The City , with the Fords " [ getting ] the message out " on various topics in a " professional , yet simple " presentation , with occasional interactions with guests and audiences .
Councillor Ford announced the new show would be released on YouTube " before Christmas " 2013 . A series of short videos of under 5 minutes in length was launched on YouTube on February 10 , 2014 . In one segment , Mayor Ford admitted lying about his drug use . Others were lighter in tone and included predictions for the Stanley Cup playoffs and other remarks . In the second video , Ford named 18 councillors he wanted defeated , offering his support to any campaign opposing them . Each weekly " episode " consisted of 3 to 5 short videos of 1 to 5 minutes in length . Comments were disabled ; however , the brothers occasionally answered viewer emails in the segments . The National Post described the program as " a bizarro world version of Wayne 's World " .
Five episodes of the web series aired , with some episodes broken up into several parts . No new episodes were filmed after April 2014 when Rob Ford entered rehab following the emergence of a second video of him smoking crack cocaine .
= RNA =
Ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) is a polymeric molecule implicated in various biological roles in coding , decoding , regulation , and expression of genes . RNA and DNA are nucleic acids , and , along with proteins and carbohydrates , constitute the three major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life . Like DNA , RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides , but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single @-@ strand folded onto itself , rather than a paired double @-@ strand . Cellular organisms use messenger RNA ( mRNA ) to convey genetic information ( using the letters G , U , A , and C to denote the nitrogenous bases guanine , uracil , adenine , and cytosine ) that directs synthesis of specific proteins . Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome .
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions , controlling gene expression , or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals . One of these active processes is protein synthesis , a universal function wherein mRNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes . This process uses transfer RNA ( tRNA ) molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome , where ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) then links amino acids together to form proteins .
= = Comparison with DNA = =
Like DNA , most biologically active RNAs , including mRNA , tRNA , rRNA , snRNAs , and other non @-@ coding RNAs , contain self @-@ complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold and pair with itself to form double helices . Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured . Unlike DNA , their structures do not consist of long double helices , but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins . In this fashion , RNAs can achieve chemical catalysis , like enzymes . For instance , determination of the structure of the ribosome — an
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, almost half that much across ( and likely further at depth ) . The original deposits were from 16 to 35 kilometers thick . Weaver , reckoning a minimal thickness of only 3 @,@ 000 feet , still estimated " nearly 10 @,@ 000 cubic miles of rock " ; he put the total volume to be as great , if not greater , than the better known Columbia River Basalts . Snavely et al . , recognizing at least 10 @,@ 000 feet of thickness , and as much as 20 @,@ 000 feet under eruptive centers , estimated the volume to be in excess of 50 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( over 200 @,@ 000 km3 ) . Duncan ( 1982 ) estimated around 250 @,@ 000 km3 ( about 60 @,@ 000 cubic miles ) , which exceeds the volume of most continental rift zones , and some flood basalt provinces . A recent estimate put the volume at 2 million cubic km .
= = Paleorotation = =
When lava solidifies it retains an imprint of the earth 's magnetic field , thus recording how it was oriented . Measurements of such paleomagnetic fields in the Oregon Coast Range show rotations of 46 to 75 ° , all of it following the presumed accretion to the continent ( alternately , formation ) of the Siletz terrane at about 50 Ma . These rotations are all clockwise , and show a strong correlation with the age of the rock : about one and a half degrees of rotation per million years . These paleomagnetic rotations and other evidence show that Siletzia — or the part of it constituting the Siletz terrane ( " SZ " on map , above ) , from the Klamath Mountains to the Columbia River — has rotated clockwise as a single , coherent block .
Did Siletzia pivot about its northern end or southern end ? This question has attracted considerable attention , with the evidence now favoring a northern pivot . A key piece of evidence is that the Crescent Formation is laid over sediments ( the Blue Mountain unit ) derived from the continent , including boulders of quartz diorite some 65 million years old ; this requires the Crescent Formation to have formed close to the continent .
This model has Siletzia forming on the continental margin along what is now the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament ( OWL ; a zone of topographical features of unknown age and tectonic significance ) , with the southern end of Siletzia and the Klamath Mountains ( joined to Siletzia ) near the Idaho Batholith in central Idaho . Further evidence for this comes from the sand of the Tyee Formation that overlie the Roseburg Formation . Not only does this sand have the same isotopic composition of rock in the Idaho Batholith ( and of sand now coursing down the Snake and Columbia Rivers ) , but it appears to have not been transported very far from its source . This implies that the Tyee Formation was much closer to the Idaho Batholith when it was deposited , and subsequently rotated away . Geodetic surveys show that the region continues to rotate , likely as a result of extension of the Basin and Range province and asthenospheric flow around the southern edge of the subducting Juan de Fuca plate .
North of the Columbia River , matters are more complicated . First , in southwestern Washington there is only half as much rotation as seen in rocks of similar age in Oregon . This is the basis for believing the Crescent terrane has broken from the Siletz terrane ( perhaps because they formed on different oceanic plates ) , and undergone a different rotational history . Second , in Washington there is more variation in the amount of rotation and more faulting , which has led to a speculation that the Crescent terrane has broken up into eight or nine crustal blocks .
At Bremerton , on the east side of the Olympics , the measured rotations are less , and within the statistical error bounds of being zero ; while further north , near Port Townsend , the rotation is slightly counter @-@ clockwise . On Vancouver Island the paleorotations are counter @-@ clockwise , and other evidence shows that the tip of the island has been bent , presumably as a result of the collision of Siletzia . The northwestern tip of the Olympic Peninsula also shows counter @-@ clockwise rotation , of around 45 degrees . This raises a question of how much of the arcuate shape of the Crescent Formation is due to loss of material from the center after uplift by the Olympic Mountains , and how much reflects oroclinal bending .
= = Origin = =
Siletzia 's origin is not yet determined , and ( as of 2011 ) lacks a definite answer . Theories are still being developed , and even the details the theories depend on " have remained enigmatic " . Following are several of the most notable models .
Models of how Siletzia formed are of two general types : ( 1 ) Formation well offshore ( possibly as seamounts , like the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , or a hotspot at a spreading ridge , like Iceland ) and then accretion to the continent ; ( 2 ) formation inshore , on or near the continental margin ( perhaps as a result of transcurrent extension , or of a slab window ) . All current models then have Siletzia rifting away from the continental edge about a northern pivot . Studies of Siletzia 's origins have generally focused on accounting for two principal observations : the large paleorotation ( described above ) , and the voluminous output ( over 50 @,@ 000 cubic miles , exceeding the volume of most continental rift zones , and some flood basalt provinces ) . Accounting for the observed volumes of basalt requires an enhanced magmatic source , for which most models invoke either the presence of the Yellowstone hotspot , or slab windows . The latter would have resulted from the subduction of the Farallon — Kula ( or possibly Farallon — Resurrection ) spreading ridge . The relation with the Kula @-@ Farallon spreading ridge is an important element in all models , though its location through that epoch is not well determined .
= = = Simpson & Cox 1977 : Two models = = =
Seeking to explain the observed clockwise paleorotation , and noting that Siletzia appeared to have rotated as a rigid block , Simpson & Cox ( 1977 ) proposed two models . First was rotation about a southern pivot in contact with the Klamath Mountains . This has various problems , especially because at the northern end sediments and even boulders from the continent are found at the base of the Crescent Formation , showing that it was near the continent from the beginning . In the second model ( subsequently refined by Hammond 1979 ) , Siletzia was originally adjacent to the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament , then rifted from the continent and rotated about a northern pivot near the Olympic Peninsula . Because sediments also show the Klamaths in close contact from the start , this requires the Klamaths to have moved with Siletzia . Originally there were conflicts in the understanding of when the Klamaths moved , and with the age and amount of rotation of the Clarno Formation in central Oregon . These were largely cleared up in a study of the Clarno Formation by Grommé et al . ( 1986 ) and illustrated with a palinspastic reconstruction as of 38 Ma .
= = = Offshore model : A captured island chain ? = = =
An early and widely cited paper by Duncan ( 1982 ) ( drawing on features of the fairly new theory of plate tectonics ) exemplifies the off @-@ shore or " seamount " type of models . It featured a set of radiometrically determined ( K @-@ Ar and 40Ar @-@ 39Ar ) ages that were younger in the center ( for the Grays River volcanics ) and older at the ends . This dihedrally symmetric age progression strongly suggested the pattern seen at spreading ridges , where the older rock is carried away on both sides from where the new rock erupts . Duncan considered five models ( but none involving rifting or ridge subduction ) , favoring one where a hotspot — presumably the Yellowstone hotspot — intersected the Farallon @-@ Kula spreading ridge ( such as at Iceland ) to generate a chain of islands . These islands were then accreted to the continent as the underlying oceanic crust was subducted .
This study has been criticized on multiple grounds , particularly regarding the ages . Duncan himself noted that measurement of the northern ages may have been affected by loss of argon due to low @-@ grade metamorphism , and that there might be bias in respect of stratigraphic position . The latter was demonstrated by a recent study that showed , on the basis of geochemistry , that the Grays River volcanics followed the Siletzia eruptions , and thus are not representative of the initial phase of Siletz magmatism . Recent dating also shows a more monotonic trend of south to north age progression ( " younging " ) .
The range of the original ages was also a problem , as the rate of Kula @-@ Farallon spreading over that time would produce a chain of seamounts much longer than observed , and too far away from the continent to explain the continentally derived sediments . This objection is attenuated somewhat in that the newer ages show a smaller range of ages .
= = = Inshore models = = =
Various models have Siletzia forming inshore , on or near the continental margin . While all current models have Siletzia rifting away from the continent after accretion or formation , a subclass of " rifted " models consider the rifting to have caused the Siletzia eruptions .
Wells et al . 1984 proposed that the Siletzia basalts might have " leaked " through transform faults ( perpendicular to a spreading ridge ) during changes in direction of the tectonic plates . The size of these eruptions and their location in this region is attributed to proximity to the Yellowstone hotspot . This " leaky transform " theory seems to be largely rejected , likely because the plate motion model it was based on was shown to be faulty .
Wells , et al . , alternately suggested that as a terrane at the margin of the continent was pushed over the Yellowstone hotspot , it was rifted away from the continent by the upwelling magma , which then formed the Siletzia basalts . This idea was further developed by Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) , who suggested rifting might have been initiated by a change in plate direction , or by kinematic effects as the Kula @-@ Farallon ridge migrated along the continental margin . One such effect is the formation of a slab window ( or slab gap ) which would allow increased upwelling of magma .
= = = Slab windows = = =
That spreading ridges could be subducted was recognized early in the development of plate tectonic theory , but there was little consideration of the ensuing effects . In the 1980s came realization that the magma welling up from the asthenosphere through the subducted ridge would not reach seawater , and thus not be quenched to form rock and close the gap . Continued spreading would lead to a widening gap or " window " in the subducting plate through which there could be increased flow of magma The implications of this for Siletzia were first shown by Thorkelson & Taylor ( 1989 ) and Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) ( following the pioneering work by Dickinson & Snyder 1979 ) . Breitsprecher et al . ( 2003 ) subsequently identified the fan @-@ shaped wake of volcanics of distinctive geochemistry left by the widening Kula @-@ Farallon slab window across northeastern Washington and into Idaho .
Madsen et al . ( 2006 ) showed that most of the Eocene and subsequent magmatism from Alaska to Oregon " is explainable in terms of ridge subduction and slab window tectonics . " That is , a slab window — and a single subducted ridge can give rise to multiple slab windows — can provide adequate magmatism without having to invoke a hotspot ( mantle plume ) . ( So much so that it has been suggested that the Yellowstone hotspot may have been initiated by a slab window . ) Mantle plumes and slab windows both feature voluminous magmatism ; the main difference is that slab windows would form only where the spreading ridge is subducted . This implies formation at the continental margin , and then rifting , in the manner of the second class of models .
= = = Gulf of Alaska = = =
Any model of the origin of Siletzia must account for interactions with plate boundaries that were being subducted under North America through the Eocene . Early studies were plagued by indeterminate locations for these boundaries , particularly of the Kula @-@ Farallon ( K @-@ F ) spreading ridge : basalts at the head of the Gulf of Alaska ( along the Alaska panhandle ) have ages and compositions corresponding to the Siletz volcanics , suggesting that the K @-@ F ridge was offshore of the Yukon at the same time it was offshore of Washington . This can be resolved by assuming that by about 56 Ma the eastern part of the Kula plate had broken away to form the Resurrection plate , with the new Kula @-@ Resurrection ( K @-@ R ) spreading ridge running up the Gulf of Alaska towards Kodiak Island , and the former K @-@ F ( now R @-@ F ) ridge reaching Washington . Subduction of this plate under western Canada was rapid , and it disappeared entirely with subduction of the K @-@ R ridge about 50 Ma .
This scenario then permits rapid transport north of crustal blocks such as the Yakutat terrane . Now lying southeast of Cordova at the head of the Gulf of Alaska , paleomagnetic evidence indicates it was formed at a latitude corresponding to Oregon or northern California . Similarly , certain schists on Baranof Island are believed to have been contiguous with the Leech River Schists ( Leech River Complex ) on Vancouver Island around 50 Ma , and subsequently transported northward with other elements of the Chugach @-@ Prince William terrane .
= = After accretion : 50 @-@ 42 Ma = =
Whether formed far offshore as seamounts , or close inshore by a slab window , the Siletzian basalts were laid down on a subducting oceanic plate : the Siletz terrane on the Farallon plate , and the Crescent terrane most likely on the adjoining Resurrection plate ( previously broken away from the Kula plate , which had previously broken away from the Farallon plate ) . In both cases the Siletzia mass was drawn toward the subduction zone , which possibly ran diagonally across what is now Washington , approximately at the position of the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament . However , Siletiza was too big to be subducted , and it accreted to the continent . Accretion is sometimes called " docking , " but is more akin to a collision : various peripheral structures are first folded or crushed , then the main structures are deformed when they come into contact , and various parts get pushed over other parts , all this playing out over several million years . To the extent that the accretion of Siletzia to North America can be given a definite date most studies give it as about 50 Ma . This date has added significance as it is also the start of a change in direction of the Pacific plate , as seen in the bend in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , and also a change in the Pacific Northwest from compressional to extensional tectonics . This may also be when the last of the Resurrection plate was subducted under British Columbia . Initiation of the north @-@ striking right @-@ lateral Straight Creek Fault at ~ 48 Ma likely resulted from strain accumulated during the accretion of Siletzia .
As Siletzia accreted it also jammed the existing subduction zone , halting subduction of the Farallon plate . This terminated the Laramide orogeny that had been uplifting the Rocky Mountains , and triggered the ignimbrite sweep , a wave of large @-@ volume silicic magmatism that swept over much of western North America between 50 and 20 Ma . This undoubtedly affected the enigmatic and controversial Challis Arc ( stretching from southeastern British Columbia to the Idaho Batholith , roughly parallel with the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament ) , but the details of this are unknown .
Subduction , having ceased at the existing zone , eventually reinitiated further to the west as the current Cascadia subduction zone . Volcanism from the new subduction zone ( such as the Grays River Volcanics and Northcraft Volcanics ) reached the surface about 42 Ma , thereby initiating the rise of the ancestral Cascade Range .
Several other significant events occurred around 42 Ma , including cessation of metamorphism of the Leech River Schists ( resulting from the Metchosin / Crescent Formation being thrust under Vancouver Island ) and the end of strike @-@ slip motion on the Straight Creek Fault ; these may reflect the last movement of Siletzia relative to North America . On a broader scale , there was a change in absolute direction of the Pacific plate ( marked by the end of the bend in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain ) , and a change in the convergence of the Kula plate with the North American plate .
As subduction waned so did the force that had clamped Siletzia against the continent , and the tectonic regime shifted from compressional to extensional . Deposition of sand from the then proximal Idaho Batholith into the Tyee Formation in southern Oregon may have continued as late as 46 @.@ 5 Ma , but was interrupted when Siletzia rifted from the continent and began rotating away . What initiated rifting is unknown . Wells et al . ( 1984 , p . 290 ) suggested that as the continent overrode the Yellowstone hotspot , the upwelling plume tore away a previously accreted terrane . Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) suggested a change in the rate at which the plates were converging , or the " kinematic effects " ( such as a slab window ) from the passage of the Kula @-@ Farallon ridge ( or Resurrection @-@ Farallon ridge ) .
= Ukiyo @-@ e =
The ukiyo @-@ e genre of art flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries . Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of such subjects as female beauties ; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers ; scenes from history and folk tales ; travel scenes and landscapes ; flora and fauna ; and erotica . The term ukiyo @-@ e ( 浮世絵 IPA : [ u.ki.jo.e ] ) translates as " pictures of the floating world " .
Edo ( modern Tokyo ) became the seat of government for the military dictatorship in the early 17th century . The merchant class at the bottom of the social order found themselves the greatest beneficiaries of the city 's rapid economic growth . Many indulged in the entertainments of kabuki theatre , courtesans , and geisha of the pleasure districts . The term ukiyo ( " floating world " ) came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle . Printed or painted ukiyo @-@ e images of this environment emerged in the late 17th century and were popular with the merchant class , who had become wealthy enough to afford to decorate their homes with them .
The earliest success was in the 1670s with Moronobu 's paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women . Colour prints came gradually — at first added by hand for special commissions . By the 1740s , artists such as Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour . From the 1760s the success of Harunobu 's " brocade prints " led to full @-@ colour production becoming standard , each print made with numerous blocks . The peak period in terms of quantity and quality was marked by portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Kiyonaga , Utamaro , and Sharaku in the late 18th century . This peak was followed in the 19th century by a pair of masters best remembered for their landscapes : the bold formalist Hokusai , whose Great Wave off Kanagawa is one of the best @-@ known works of Japanese art ; and the serene , atmospheric Hiroshige , most noted for the series The Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō . Following the deaths of these two masters , and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868 , ukiyo @-@ e production went into steep decline .
Some ukiyo @-@ e artists specialized in making paintings , but most works were prints . Artists rarely carved their own woodblocks for printing ; rather , production was divided between the artist , who designed the prints ; the carver , who cut the woodblocks ; the printer , who inked and pressed the woodblocks onto hand @-@ made paper ; and the publisher , who financed , promoted , and distributed the works . As printing was done by hand , printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines , such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block .
Ukiyo @-@ e was central to forming the West 's perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century – especially the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige . From the 1870s Japonism became a prominent trend and had a strong influence on the early Impressionists such as Degas , Manet , and Monet , as well as Post @-@ Impressionists such as van Gogh and Art Nouveau artists such as Toulouse @-@ Lautrec . The 20th century saw a revival in Japanese printmaking : the shin @-@ hanga ( " new prints " ) genre capitalized on Western interest in prints of traditional Japanese scenes , and the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement promoted individualist works designed , carved , and printed by a single artist . Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein , often made with techniques imported from the West such as screen printing , etching , mezzotint , and mixed media .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
Japanese art since the Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) had followed two principal paths : the nativist Yamato @-@ e tradition , focusing on Japanese themes , best known by the works of the Tosa school ; and Chinese @-@ inspired kara @-@ e in a variety of styles , such as the monochromatic ink wash painting of Sesshū Tōyō and his disciples . The Kanō school of painting incorporated features of both .
Since antiquity , Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy , military governments , and religious authorities . Until the 16th century , the lives of the common people had not been a main subject of painting , and even when they were included , the works were luxury items made for the ruling samurai and rich merchant classes . Later works appeared by and for townspeople , including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of female beauties and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts . The hand @-@ produced nature of these shikomi @-@ e limited the scale of their production , a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass @-@ produced woodblock printing .
During a prolonged period of civil war in the 16th century , a class of politically powerful merchants had developed . These machishū allied themselves with the court and had power over local communities ; their patronange of the arts encouraged a revivial in the classical arts in the late 16th and early 17th centuries . In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu ( 1543 – 1616 ) unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan . He consolidated his government in the village of Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages . The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country , so that males came to make up nearly seventy percent of the population . The village grew during the Edo period ( 1603 – 1867 ) from a population of 1800 to over a million in the 19th century .
The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided the population into four social classes , with the ruling samurai class at the top and the merchant class at the bottom . While deprived of their political influence , those of this class most benefited from the rapidly expanding economy of the Edo period , and their improved lot allowed for leisure that many sought in the pleasure districts — in particular Yoshiwara in Edo — and collecting artworks to decorate their homes , which in earlier times had been well beyond their financial means . The experience of the pleasure quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth , manners , and education .
Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE . Until the 17th century such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images . Movable type appeared around 1600 , but as the Japanese writing system required about 100 @,@ 000 type pieces , hand @-@ carving text onto woodblocks was more efficient . In Saga Domain , calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise ( 1608 ) and other works of literature . During the Kan 'ei era ( 1624 – 1643 ) illustrated books of folk tales called tanrokubon , or " orange @-@ green books " , were the first books mass @-@ produced using woodblock printing . Woodblock imagery continued to evolve as illustrations to the kanazōshi genre of tales of hedonistic urban life in the new capital . The rebuilding of Edo following the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657 occasioned a modernization of the city , and the publication of illustrated printed books flourished in the rapidly urbanizing environment .
The term " ukiyo " , which can be translated as " floating world " , was homophonous with an ancient Buddhist term signifying " this world of sorrow and grief " . The newer term at times was used to mean " erotic " or " stylish " , among other meanings , and came to describe the hedonistic spirit of the time for the lower classes . Asai Ryōi celebrated this spirit in the novel Ukiyo Monogatari ( " Tales of the Floating World " , c . 1661 ) :
" living only for the moment , savouring the moon , the snow , the cherry blossoms , and the maple leaves , singing songs , drinking sake , and diverting oneself just in floating , unconcerned by the prospect of imminent poverty , buoyant and carefree , like a gourd carried along with the river current : this is what we call ukiyo . "
= = = Emergence of ukiyo @-@ e ( late 17th – early 18th centuries ) = = =
The earliest ukiyo @-@ e artists came from the world of Japanese painting . Yamato @-@ e painting of the 17th century had developed a style of outlined forms which allowed inks to be dripped on a wet surface and spread out towards the outlines — this outlining of forms was to become the dominant style of ukiyo @-@ e .
Around 1661 , painted hanging scrolls known as Portraits of Kanbun Beauties gained popularity . The paintings of the Kanbun era ( 1661 – 73 ) , most of which are anonymous , marked the beginnings of ukiyo @-@ e as an independent school . The paintings of Iwasa Matabei ( 1578 – 1650 ) have a great affinity with ukiyo @-@ e paintings . Scholars disagree whether Matabei 's work itself is ukiyo @-@ e ; assertions that he was the genre 's founder are especially common amongst Japanese researchers . At times Matabei has been credited as the artist of the unsigned Hikone screen , a byōbu folding screen that may be one of the earliest surviving ukiyo @-@ e works . The screen is in a refined Kanō style and depicts contemporary life , rather than the prescribed subjects of the painterly schools .
In response to the increasing demand for ukiyo @-@ e works , Hishikawa Moronobu ( 1618 – 1694 ) produced the first ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . By 1672 , Moronobu 's success was
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school in the Ministry of Education 's 1999 ranking of Special / Express schools in Singapore .
= = = Designation of SAP Status ( 2001 – Present ) = = =
In November 2010 , Nan Chiau High School was formally recognised by the Ministry of Education to be included as the 11th Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) school , with effect from 2012 . The news was brought forth by minister of education Dr Ng Eng Hen during his opening address at the Singapore Hokkien Festival , and was welcomed by numerous school alumni and educators , who were delighted to see that the institution can finally fulfill its mission to preserve and advocate the Chinese heritage and culture with more support from the government .
On 29 December 2013 , a home @-@ coming event was held at the former Nan Chiau High School campus at 46 Kim Yam Road , which thousands of alumni , former and present principals , teachers and staff of the institution gathered at the former school hall in a brunch buffet setting . The event was held before the official relaunch of the site of the former campus as a commercial development of offices , schools and F & B establishments .
In March 2015 , Nan Chiau High School celebrated its 68th School Anniversary . Themed “ Appreciating our Past , Inspiring the Future ” , the event was graced by Guest @-@ of @-@ Honour , Minister for Defence , Dr Ng Eng Hen , which saw the school and the community coming together to mark the occasion with a celebration of SG50 , the outstanding achievements of the students , as well as the completion of the school ’ s upgrading works which costed a total of 2 @.@ 67 million dollars . The school upgrading works were co @-@ funded by the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan , comprising a revamp of canteen , air @-@ conditioned library , as well as the construction of the park square and a new 300 seat auditorium .
= = Principals = =
= = Campus = =
Nan Chiau High School ’ s current campus covers 7 @.@ 2 acres of land off Sengkang East Avenue , constructed under the School Management Model granted by the Ministry of Education in 2000 . The campus was officially declared open by then Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence Mr. Teo Chee Hean on 8 March 2003 . The five @-@ storey building cluster consists of an Administrative Block , a Science & Research Block , an Aesthetics block , and three classroom blocks .
The Kong Chian Hall ( main hall of Nan Chiau High School ) was named after the school ’ s co @-@ founder , Mr Lee Kong Chian . The air @-@ conditioned hall is the common venue for weekly assemblies and dialogue sessions , as well as hosting competitions and symposiums such as the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition and the NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science Research Symposium .
The 300 @-@ seat Auditorium , housed at the fourth level of the Aesthetics Block , was converted from an Air Rifle Shooting Range under the two @-@ year school upgrading project in 2012 funded by the School Management and Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan . The auditorium provides a venue for performances apart from the main hall , as well as conducting sharing talks and academic lectures .
The revamped Library , opened in 2013 , features dedicated study areas , a small platform to hold forums and press conferences , as well as three discussion rooms available for student @-@ teacher consultations , projects and group studies . As a North 4 Cluster Centre of Learning for Chinese Language , Nan Chiau High School also features 2 language labs catering for enhanced Chinese programmes and activities . The labs are currently used to host the Young Writer ’ s Programme for students of six schools in the North 4 Cluster , as well as the school ’ s Chinese calligraphy society .
Other facilities in NCHS include a gymnasium , an indoor sports hall , a central plaza , an open @-@ concept canteen , an eco @-@ garden and a 1 @.@ 3 acres field .
= = School Culture = =
= = = School Motto = = =
Nan Chiau High School 's motto , Sincerity & Perseverance ( 诚 、 毅 ) , is set after the philosophy of its founder , Mr Tan Kah Kee . The motto is also shared by all Hokkien Huay Kuan schools , as well as several institutions in mainland China with the same founder , such as Xiamen Jimei Middle School of Fujian , Jimei University & Xiamen University .
" Sincerity " or 诚 , meant to be truthful to self and others
" Perseverance " or 毅 , meant the dedication and persistence in the pursuit of excellence in the face of challenges .
= = = School Crest = = =
The school crest of Nan Chiau High School is represented by three interlocking rings , which symbolizes its students ' moral , physical and intellectual development .
The red colour of the rings depicts a persevering spirit in the pursuit of a bright and promising future , as represented by the golden background .
The heart shape in the centre of the overlapping rings symbolizes care and concern for the total welfare of the pupils in a student @-@ oriented system .
= = = School Anthem = = =
Nan Chiau High School keeps its original school anthem in Mandarin . The anthem was written by Ms Lin Zhen Ru , and moderated by Professor Zhao Xingdao ( Mr. ) in the early 1950s . The same anthem is shared with Nan Chiau Primary School , which was formerly its ancillary primary school before 2001 .
= = = Attire and Appearance = = =
Nan Chiau High School 's uniform is closely linked to its heritage as a former traditional Chinese school . Originally , the school uniform was in full white with the Chinese name of the school sewed on the right chest level of the blouse , much similar to other institutions with Chinese heritage . Nearing the 1990s , the school uniform was switched to be worn with dark coloured school pants or pinafore , with dark coloured school tag was sewed on the left side of the shirt . The uniform was redesigned to suit the school 's identity along with the relocation of the campus in 2000 .
Currently , male students wear white studded shirts with Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red . Navy blue shorts are worn in secondary 1 & 2 , and long pants for upper secondary levels . Female students wear white blouses bearing the Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red , with navy blue pleated skirts . During Assemblies and important functions , every student will wear a red @-@ coloured school tie .
= = = School Discipline = = =
Nan Chiau High School is known for its strict regulations and discipline , with minimal tolerance to misbehaviour of its students . Nevertheless , some recalled the incident in 2004 when the principal stepped down after admitting an overly harsh disciplinary action , despite the backing of many alumni and parents stressing that the disciplinary action taken on the student is justified .
= = Academic Details and Curriculum = =
= = = O Level Express Course = = =
As a Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) school , Nan Chiau High School offers the four @-@ year Express course which leads up to the Singapore @-@ Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level national examination , complemented by its signature cultural intelligence and global classroom programmes . Throughout the 4 years , NCHS students are exposed to a broad range of cultural knowledge and life skills alongside the academic curriculum . All NCHS students expect a 2 @-@ week based timetable , with supplementary lessons for four days allocated to individual subjects according to their academic needs ( with the exception for Wednesdays ) . A common educational procedure for the four @-@ year Express course , subject combination streaming for NCHS students is carried out at Secondary Two level . Usually , nine classes ( A to I ) will be allocated per cohort for upper secondary levels , with 2 classes allocated for students taking 3 pure science subjects ( commonly known as “ Triple @-@ Science ” combinations ) .
Nan Chiau High students has sustained academic and non @-@ academic results . A Band 1 school since 2006 , the institution has developed students with exceptional results for both GCE ‘ O ’ Level academic subjects as well as Co @-@ Curricular Activities ( or CCA ) . In 2014 , Nan Chiau High School 's ‘ O ’ Level students achieved a Mean @-@ Subject Grade ( MSG , based on L1R5 Grading ) of 10 @.@ 6 , with more than 90 % of the students obtaining A1 grading for CCA involvement .
= = = = Academic Subjects = = = =
The examinable academic subjects for Singapore @-@ Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level offered by Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary level ( via. streaming in secondary 2 level ) , as of 2015 , are listed below .
Notes :
Subjects indicated with ‘ * ’ are Mandatory Subjects .
All students in Singapore are required to undertake a Mother Tongue Language as a examinable subject , as indicated by ‘ ^ ’ .
" SPA " in Pure Science subjects refers to the incorporation of School @-@ based Science Practical Assessment , which 20 % of the subject result in the national examination are determined by school @-@ based practical examinations , supervised by the Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board .
Science
Additional Mathematics *
Mathematics *
Physics ( SPA )
Chemistry ( SPA ) *
Biology ( SPA )
Science ( Combined )
Language & Literature
English Language *
English Literature
Chinese Language * ^
Higher Chinese Language
Chinese Literature
Malay ( Special Programme )
Humanities
Geography
History
Combined Humanities ( Social Studies & History Elective / Geography Elective ) *
Arts & Aesthetics
Art & Design
Design & Technology
Higher Art
Music
Higher Music
= = = SAP Flagship Programme ( Cultural Intelligence ) = = =
The SAP Flagship Programme forms a major part of Nan Chiau High ’ s niche curriculum as a SAP school . It is designed with the incorporation of Howard Gardner ’ s “ Five Minds for the Future ” ( Disciplined Mind , Synthesizing Mind , Ethical Mind , Creating Mind , Respectful Mind ) , with an additional sixth mind , the ‘ Bi @-@ cultural Mind ’ .
The flagship programme develops students ’ interests in learning about the eastern and the western cultures by providing them with opportunities to integrate both cultures and to be immersed in other cultures , and to have in @-@ depth understanding of the essence of both the east and the west , thus preparing students to become inclusive talents who are effectively bilingual and able to make strong and meaningful connections with the world . The four @-@ year flagship programme
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to skills and interests of the students , and have achieved outstanding achievements . The NCHS Robotics Club is the retaining zonal champion of the DSTA @-@ DSO East Zone Robotics Challenge since 2014 , and have been organising annual competition for primary and secondary school students since 2009 . The Multimedia Club attained the Best School Award for consecutive years 2014 and 2015 in the Canon Photo Marathon .
The full listing of Co @-@ curricular Activities ( CCAs ) offered by Nan Chiau High School is featured below .
= = = Sports and Games = = =
Basketball
Badminton
Table Tennis
Wushu
Track & Field ( 2nd CCA )
= = = Uniformed Groups = = =
National Cadet Corps
National Police Cadet Corps
Red Cross Youth
Scouts
= = = Performing Arts = = =
Chinese Dance
Chinese Orchestra
Choir
Chinese LDDS
English LDDS
Contemporary Dance
String Orchestra
Wind Orchestra
= = = Clubs and Societies = = =
Multimedia and Photography Club
Infocomm Club
Robotics Club
Library Club
Green Club
Debate Club
= = = Visual Arts and Culture = = =
Mind Games ( Chinese Chess and Weiqi )
Visual Arts Club ( Ceramic / Art & Design )
Chinese Calligraphy
= = = Student Council = = =
The student council is distinguished by their striped ties . Members of the Council are involved in the running of several school events as well as certain daily functions of the school . Student Councillors also take up the role of ambassadors of the school during major school events and functions .
= = = Class Council = = =
The Class Council is formed by the representatives of individual classes . Apart maintaining discipline procedures in the class , the class council functions alongside the student council as a bridge between the school and the students , and building unity and class spirit through the participation in organising inter @-@ class competitions .
= = Events = =
= = = SHINES in Harmony = = =
Since 2012 , Nan Chiau High School organises the single day community fund raising event annually to raise funds for the community welfare organisations around the district such as the CDAC , REACH Family Service Centre . The event is open to the public , which the students , alumni and the parents support group of the institution set up food and games booths around the campus , as well as put up performances for the community to engage for a good cause .
= = Relation with Other Schools = =
= = = Combined Sports Meet = = =
Nan Chiau High School , Xinmin Secondary School & Yishun Town Secondary School hold combined sports meets yearly since 2013 to give student athletes from the participating schools a platform to showcase their physical talent and also for the schools to unite together to celebrate and enjoy . Apart from the inter @-@ school competitions among students , parent @-@ teacher races are also featured to engage the parents and school staff .
= = = NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science and Technology Research Programme = = =
The NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science and Technology Research Programme is a collaborated initiative between Nanyang Polytechnic , Yishun Town Secondary School and Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary levels with the aim of providing opportunities for capable science students to acquire science knowledge beyond academic syllabus , carry out research modules using contemporary technology , and interact with specialists in the relevant fields of Sciences and Information Technology . The research projects are presented in the form of an annual symposium hosted by Yishun Town Secondary and Nan Chiau High alternately , which serves as a platform for students involved to showcase their work to fellow schoolmates and counterparts from other schools .
= = School Alumni = =
Nan Chiau High School boosts a significant alumni community , comprising alumni from both Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School , which were once affiliated . The community under various bodies continues to organise events and programmes that bonds the alumni together , as well as contributing alongside the school committee to benefit the students ’ of both institutions .
= = = Nan Chiau Alumni Association = = =
Nan Chiau Alumni Association ( NCAA ) is the main alumni body of Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School . Formed on 12 January 1990 at the Kim Yam Road campus , the association works closely with the two institutions to preserve the traditional values of the schools while placing emphasis on the moral , physical , cognitive , social and aesthetic aspects of students ’ development . It also serves as a platform for all members from the Nan Chiau family to socialise and stay in contact with each other . With the relocation and separation of Nan Chiau High School with the ancillary primary school section in December 2000 , NCAA presently functions at both Nan Chiau Primary School and Nan Chiau High School . In 2001 , the NCAA started the Weekend Activities Program at Nan Chiau Primary School to complement the school curriculum , and is highly successful for providing a holistic education for the primary school pupils .
= = = Youth of Nan Chiau = = =
Youth of Nan Chiau is the youth wing of the Nan Chiau Alumni Association that comprises the youth graduates from both Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary . The youth wing plays a supportive role alongside the NCAA during events , gatherings when need arises . The youth wing also organizes activities for students of Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary on an ad @-@ hoc basis .
= = = Nan Chiau Youth Mentors = = =
The Nan Chiau Youth Mentors ( NCYM ) consists of young graduates from Nan Chiau High School who have strong passion of providing assistance to the juniors within the scope of a holistic education . The members of team works alongside the school to provide assistance and sharing for upper secondary levels preparing for the GCE O Level national examinations , as well as individual mentorship of their former Co @-@ curricular Activities ( CCAs ) .
= = Notable Alumni = =
= = = Education and Politics = = =
Mr. Peh Chin Hua : Former Member of Parliament , Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency ( 1988 – 2001 ) ; Executive Chairman , White Group ( Singapore ) ; Former Executive Chairman ( 1992 – 2005 ) , Dragon Land Limited .
Dr. Leong Chan @-@ Hoong : Deputy Head , Social Lab , Lee Kuan Yew Institute of Policy Studies , National University of Singapore
Mdm . Goh Lay Kuan : Singapore pioneer dance choreographer and arts educator ; Winner , Cultural Medallion , 1995 ; Co @-@ founder , Singapore Performing Arts School
= = = Business and Enterprise = = =
Mr. Jason Yeo - Founder and Chief Executive of JCS Group .
Ms. Han Kim Ling : Product Lifecycle Manager , Volex ; Former Project Manager , Tyco Electronics )
= = Gallery = =
= = = Campus = = =
= = = Events = = =
= Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy =
The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy ( sometimes called the Kentucky Tragedy ) was the murder of Kentucky legislator Solomon P. Sharp by Jereboam O. Beauchamp . As a young lawyer , Beauchamp had been an admirer of Sharp until Sharp allegedly fathered an illegitimate child with Anna Cooke , a planter 's daughter . [ a ] Sharp denied paternity of the stillborn child . Later , Beauchamp began a relationship with Cooke , who agreed to marry him on the condition that he kill Sharp to avenge her honor . Beauchamp and Cooke married in June 1824 , and in the early morning of November 7 , 1825 , Beauchamp murdered Sharp at Sharp 's home in Frankfort .
An investigation soon revealed Beauchamp as the killer , and he was apprehended at his home in Glasgow , four days after the murder . He was tried , convicted , and sentenced to death by hanging . He was granted a stay of execution to allow him to write a justification of his actions . Anna Cooke @-@ Beauchamp was tried for complicity in the murder , but was acquitted for lack of evidence . Her devotion to Beauchamp prompted her to stay in his cell with him , where the two attempted a double suicide by drinking laudanum shortly before the execution . This attempt failed . On the morning of the execution , the couple again attempted suicide , this time by stabbing themselves with a knife Anna had smuggled into the cell . When the guards discovered them , Beauchamp was rushed to the gallows , where he was hanged before he could die of his stab wound . He was the first person legally executed in the state of Kentucky . Anna Cooke @-@ Beauchamp died from her wounds shortly before her husband was hanged . In accordance with their wishes , the couple 's bodies were positioned in an embrace when buried in the same coffin .
While Beauchamp 's primary motive in killing Sharp was to defend the honor of his wife , speculation raged that Sharp 's political opponents had instigated the crime . Sharp was a leader of the New Court party during the Old Court – New Court controversy in Kentucky . At least one Old Court partisan alleged that Sharp denied paternity of Cooke 's son by claiming the child was a mulatto , the son of a family slave . Whether Sharp made such a claim has never been verified . New Court partisans insisted that the allegation was concocted to stir Beauchamp 's anger and provoke him to murder . The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy served as the inspiration for numerous literary works , most notably Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished Politian and Robert Penn Warren 's World Enough and Time ( 1950 ) .
= = Background = =
Jereboam Beauchamp was born in Barren County , Kentucky , in 1802 . Educated in the school of Dr. Benjamin Thurston , he resolved to study law at age eighteen . While observing the lawyers practicing in Glasgow and Bowling Green , Beauchamp was particularly impressed with the abilities of Solomon P. Sharp . Sharp had twice been elected to the state legislature and had served two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . Beauchamp became disenchanted with Sharp when , in 1820 , a planter 's daughter named Anna Cooke claimed Sharp was the father of her child , who was stillborn . Sharp denied paternity , and public opinion favored him . The disgraced Cooke became a recluse at her mother 's plantation outside Bowling Green .
Beauchamp 's father lived a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Cooke 's estate , and the young man wanted to meet her . Beauchamp gradually gained Cooke 's trust by visiting under the guise of borrowing books from her library . By summer 1821 , the two became friends and began a courtship . Beauchamp was eighteen ; Cooke was at least thirty @-@ four . As the courtship progressed , Cooke told Beauchamp that , before they could be married , he would have to kill Solomon Sharp . Beauchamp agreed to her request , expressing his own desire to dispatch Sharp .
The preferred method of honor killing in that day was a duel . Despite Cooke 's admonition that Sharp would not accept a challenge to duel , Beauchamp traveled to Frankfort to gain an audience with him . He had recently been named the state 's attorney general by Governor John Adair . Beauchamp 's account of the interview states that he bullied and humiliated Sharp , that Sharp begged for his life , and that Beauchamp promised to horsewhip Sharp every day until he consented to the duel . For two days , Beauchamp remained in Frankfort , awaiting the duel . He discovered that Sharp had left town , allegedly destined for Bowling Green . Beauchamp rode to Bowling Green , only to find that Sharp was not there and was not expected . Sharp was saved from Beauchamp 's first attempt on his life .
Cooke resolved to kill Sharp herself . The next time Sharp was in Bowling Green on business , she sent a letter to him that denounced Beauchamp 's actions and claimed she had broken off all contact with him . She asked Sharp to visit her at her plantation before he left town . Sharp questioned the messenger who delivered the letter , as he suspected a trap . He replied to her , saying he would visit at the time appointed . Beauchamp and Cooke awaited the visit , but Sharp never arrived . When Beauchamp rode to Bowling Green to investigate , he learned that Sharp had left for Frankfort two days earlier , leaving substantial unfinished business . Beauchamp concluded that Sharp would eventually have to return to Bowling Green to finish his business there . Determined to await Sharp 's return , Beauchamp opened a legal practice in the city . Throughout 1822 and 1823 , Beauchamp practiced law and waited for Sharp to return . He never did .
Although Beauchamp had not completed the task she set him , Cooke married the younger man in mid @-@ June 1824 . Beauchamp immediately hatched another plot to kill Sharp . He began sending letters – each from a different post office and signed with a pseudonym – requesting Sharp 's assistance in settling a land claim and asking when he would again be in Green River country . Sharp finally answered Beauchamp 's last letter – mailed in June 1825 – but gave no date for his arrival .
= = Murder = =
Serving as attorney general in Governor Adair 's administration , Sharp had become involved in the Old Court – New Court controversy . The conflict was primarily between debtors who sought relief from their financial burdens after the Panic of 1819 ( the New Court , or Relief , faction ) and the creditors to whom these obligations were owed ( the Old Court , or Anti @-@ Relief , faction ) . Sharp , who came from humble beginnings , sided with the New Court . By 1825 , the New Court faction 's power was on the decline . In an attempt to bolster the party 's influence , Sharp resigned as attorney general in 1825 to run for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His opponent was Old Court stalwart John J. Crittenden .
During the campaign , Old Court supporters again raised the issue of Sharp 's seduction and abandonment of Anna Cooke . Old Court supporter John Upshaw Waring printed handbills that not only accused Sharp of fathering Cooke 's child , but said that Sharp had denied paternity of the child on the grounds that it was a mulatto and the son of a Cooke family slave . Whether Sharp made such a claim has never been determined . Despite the allegations , Sharp won the election .
Word of Sharp 's alleged claims soon reached Jereboam Beauchamp , reviving his resolve to kill him . Beauchamp abandoned the idea of killing Sharp honorably in a duel . Instead , he decided to murder him and cast suspicion on his political enemies . To add to the intrigue , Beauchamp plotted to commit the murder on the eve of the General Assembly 's opening session .
Beauchamp rode to Frankfort on business , reaching it on November 6 . Unable to find lodging at the local inns , he rented a room in the private residence of Joel Scott , warden of the state penitentiary . Sometime after midnight , Scott heard a commotion from Beauchamp 's room . When he investigated , he found the door latch open and the room unoccupied . Beauchamp , clad in a disguise , buried a set of his clothes near the Kentucky River , then proceeded to Sharp 's house . Sharp was not at home , but Beauchamp soon found him at a local hotel . He returned to Sharp 's house , concealed himself nearby , and waited for Sharp 's return . He observed Sharp re @-@ enter the house about midnight .
Beauchamp approached the house at approximately two o 'clock in the morning on November 7 , 1825 . In his Confession , he described the encounter :
I put on my mask , drew my dagger and proceeded to the door ; I knocked three times loud and quick , Colonel Sharp said ; " Who 's there " - " Covington " I replied , quickly Sharp 's foot was heard upon the floor . I saw under the door as he approached without a light . I drew my mask over my face and immediately Colonel Sharp opened the door . I advanced into the room and with my left hand I grasped his right wrist . The violence of the grasp made him spring back and trying to disengage his wrist , he said , " What Covington is this . " I replied John A. Covington . " I don 't know you , " said Colonel Sharp , " I know John W. Covington . " Mrs. Sharp appeared at the partition door and then disappeared , seeing her disappear I said in a persuasive tone of voice , " Come to the light Colonel and you will know me , " and pulling him by the arm he came readily to the door and still holding his wrist with my left hand I stripped my hat and handkerchief from over my forehead and looked into Sharp 's face . He knew me the more readily I imagine , by my long , bush , curly suit of hair . He sprang back and exclaimed in a tone of horror and despair , " Great God it is him , " and as he said that he fell on his knees . I let go of his wrist and grasped him by the throat dashing him against the facing of the door and muttered in his face , " die you villain . " As I said that I plunged the dagger to his heart .
The wound severed Sharp 's aorta , killing him almost instantly . Sharp 's wife Eliza witnessed the entire scene from the top of the stairs in the house , but Beauchamp fled before he could be identified or captured . Returning to the site where he had buried a change of clothes , he stripped off his disguise , tied it up with a rock , and sank them in the Kentucky River . In his regular clothes , he returned to his room at Scott 's house , where he remained until the following morning .
= = Arrest = =
After learning of the murder , the Kentucky General Assembly authorized the governor to offer a reward of $ 3 @,@ 000 for the arrest and conviction of Sharp 's killer . The trustees of the city of Frankfort added a reward of $ 1 @,@ 000 , and friends of Sharp raised an additional $ 2 @,@ 000 reward . Suspicion for the killing rested on three men : Beauchamp , Waring , and Patrick H. Darby . During Sharp 's 1824 campaign for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives , Darby had remarked that , should Sharp be elected , " he would never take his seat and would be as good as a dead man " . Waring had made similar threats , boasting that he had already stabbed six men .
A warrant was sworn out for Waring 's arrest , but officials soon learned that he was incapacitated , after being shot through both hips the day before Sharp 's death . When Darby discovered that he was under suspicion , he began his own investigation into the murder . He traveled to Simpson County where he met Captain John F. Lowe , who told Darby that Beauchamp had related to him detailed plans for the assassination . He also furnished Darby with a letter that contained damaging admissions against Beauchamp .
The first night following the murder , Beauchamp stayed at the home of a relative in Bloomfield . The next day , he traveled to Bardstown , where he spent the night . He lodged with his brother @-@ in @-@ law in Bowling Green on the night of November 9 before returning to his home in Glasgow on November 10 . He and Anna had planned to flee to Missouri , but before nightfall , a posse had arrived from Frankfort to arrest him .
He was taken to Frankfort and tried before an examining court , but Commonwealth 's Attorney Charles S. Bibb said that he had not yet collected enough evidence to detain him . Beauchamp was released , but agreed to stay in Frankfort for ten days to allow the court to finish its investigation . During this time , Beauchamp wrote letters to John J. Crittenden and George M. Bibb requesting their legal aid in the matter . Neither letter was answered . Meanwhile , Beauchamp 's uncle , a state senator , gathered a defense team that included former U.S. Senator John Pope .
During the investigation , unsuccessful attempts were made to match a knife taken from Beauchamp upon his arrest to the type of wound observed on Sharp 's body . Efforts to match a footprint found near Sharp 's house to Beauchamp were similarly unsuccessful . The posse that arrested Beauchamp had taken a bloody handkerchief from the crime scene , but had lost it on the trip back to Frankfort after the arrest . The best evidence presented by the prosecution was the testimony of Sharp 's wife Eliza that she heard the killer 's voice and that it was distinctly high @-@ pitched . When given the opportunity to hear Beauchamp 's voice , she identified it as that of the killer .
When questioned , Patrick Darby testified that in 1824 , Beauchamp had solicited his services in order to bring suit against Sharp for unspecified charges . During their ensuing conversations , Beauchamp had related the story of Sharp 's abandonment of Anna Cooke and her child , swearing that he would kill him one day , even if he had to come to Frankfort and shoot him down in the street . The combined testimonies of Eliza Sharp and Patrick Darby were sufficient to persuade the city magistrates to hold Beauchamp for trial during the circuit court 's next term , which began in March 1826 .
= = Trial = =
Beauchamp was indicted , and his trial began May 8 , 1826 . Beauchamp pleaded not guilty , but never testified during the trial . Captain Lowe was called to repeat the story he had originally related to Patrick Darby regarding Beauchamp 's threats to kill Sharp . He further testified that Beauchamp returned home following the murder waving a red flag and declaring that he had " gained the victory . " He also turned over to the court a letter from the Beauchamps regarding the murder . In the letter , Beauchamp maintained his innocence , but told Lowe that his enemies were plotting against him and asked him to testify in his behalf . The letter gave Lowe several talking points to mention if called to testify , some true and some otherwise .
Eliza Sharp repeated her assertion that the murderer 's voice was that of Beauchamp . Joel Scott , the warden who gave Beauchamp lodging the night of the murder , testified that he heard Beauchamp leave during the night and return later that night . He also mentioned that Beauchamp was extremely inquisitive about the crime upon being told of it the next morning . The most extensive testimony came from Darby , who recounted his 1824 meeting with Beauchamp . According to Darby , Beauchamp claimed that Sharp offered him and Anna $ 1 @,@ 000 , a slave girl , and 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) of land if they would leave him alone . Sharp later reneged on the offer .
Some witnesses maintained that the killer 's claim to be John A. Covington was telling . They said that both Sharp and Beauchamp had been acquainted with John W. Covington , and that Beauchamp often mistakenly called him John A. Covington . Other witnesses told of threats they had heard Beauchamp make against Sharp .
Beauchamp 's defense team attempted to discredit Patrick Darby by stressing his association with the Old Court and suggesting the murder was politically motivated . They also presented witnesses who testified that they knew of no hostility between Beauchamp and Sharp , and questioned whether Darby and Beauchamp 's 1824 meeting ever occurred .
During closing arguments , defense counsel John Pope attempted to discredit Darby ; the latter reacted by assaulting one of Pope 's co @-@ counselors with a cane . The trial lasted thirteen days , and despite the absence of any physical evidence , including a murder weapon , the jury returned a guilty verdict after only an hour of deliberation on May 19 . Beauchamp was sentenced to be executed by hanging on June 16 , 1826 .
During the trial , Anna Beauchamp appealed to John Waring for help on her husband 's behalf . She also tried to entice John Lowe to commit perjury and testify on her husband 's behalf . Both appeals were denied . On May 20 , Anna was examined by two justices of the peace on suspicion of being an accessory to the murder , but was acquitted due to lack of evidence . At her request , Anna was permitted to stay in the cell with Beauchamp .
Pope 's request to have the verdict overturned was denied , but the judge granted Beauchamp a stay of execution until July 7 to allow him to produce a written justification of his actions . In it , Beauchamp said he had killed Sharp to defend Anna 's honor . Beauchamp had hoped to publish his work before his execution , but the libelous charges it contained – that prosecution witnesses committed perjury and bribery to see him convicted – delayed its publication .
= = Execution = =
The Beauchamps were accused of trying to bribe a guard to let them escape , but this effort failed . They also tried to get a letter to Senator Beauchamp , asking for his help in escaping . A final plea to Governor Desha for another stay of execution was denied on July 5 . Later that day , the couple attempted a double suicide by taking large doses of laudanum , but both survived .
On July 7 , the morning of Beauchamp 's scheduled execution , Anna requested that the guard allow her privacy while she dressed . Anna tried another overdose on laudanum , but was unable to keep it down . She had smuggled a knife into the cell , and the couple attempted another double suicide by stabbing themselves with it . When they were discovered , Anna was taken to the jailer 's home and tended to by doctors .
Weakened by his own wounds , Beauchamp was loaded on a cart to be taken to the gallows and hanged before he bled to death . He insisted on seeing his wife before being executed , but doctors told him she was not severely injured and would recover . Beauchamp protested that not being allowed to see his wife was cruel , and the guards consented to take him to her . Upon arriving , he was angered to see that the doctors had lied to him ; Anna was too weak even to speak to him . He remained with her until he could no longer feel her pulse . He kissed her lifeless lips and declared " For you I lived — for you I die . "
On his way to the gallows , Beauchamp asked to see Patrick Darby , who was among the assembled spectators . Beauchamp smiled and offered his hand , but Darby declined the gesture . Beauchamp publicly denied that Darby had any involvement with the murder , but accused Darby of having lied about the 1824 meeting . Darby denied this accusation of perjury and tried to engage Beauchamp in a discussion about it , hoping he would retract the charge , but the prisoner ordered the cart driver to continue to the gallows .
At the gallows , Beauchamp assured the assembled clergy that he had a salvation experience on July 6 . Too weak to stand , he was held upright by two men while the noose was tied around his neck . At Beauchamp 's request , the Twenty @-@ Second Regiment musicians played Bonaparte 's Retreat from Moscow while 5 @,@ 000 spectators watched his execution . It was the first legal hanging in Kentucky 's history . Beauchamp 's father requested the bodies of his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law for burial . The two bodies were placed in an embrace in a single coffin , as they had requested . They were buried in Maple Grove Cemetery in Bloomfield , Kentucky . The couple 's tombstone was engraved with a poem written by Anna Beauchamp .
= = Aftermath = =
Beauchamp 's confession was published in 1826 , the same year as The Letters of Ann Cook – the authorship of which is disputed . J. G. Dana and R. S. Thomas also published an edited transcript of Beauchamp 's trial . The following year , Sharp 's brother , Dr. Leander Sharp , wrote Vindication of the character of the late Col. Solomon P. Sharp to defend Sharp from the charges made in Beauchamp 's confession . Patrick Darby threatened to sue Dr. Sharp if the work were published . John Waring threatened Dr. Sharp 's life if he published Vindication . All copies of the work were left in the Sharps ' home in Frankfort , where they were discovered many years later during a remodel .
Though many regarded Sharp 's murder as an honor killing , some New Court partisans charged that Beauchamp had been incited to violence by members of the Old Court party , specifically Patrick Darby . Sharp was thought to be the minority party 's choice for Speaker of the House for the 1826 session . By enticing Beauchamp to murder Sharp , the Old Court could remove a political enemy . Sharp 's widow Eliza appeared to believe this notion . In an 1826 letter in the New Court Argus of Western America , she referred to Darby as " the chief instigator of the foul murder which has deprived me of all my heart held most dear on earth " .
Some Old Court partisans claimed that Governor Desha had offered Beauchamp a pardon if he would implicate Darby and Achilles Sneed , clerk of the Old Court , in his confession . Shortly before his execution , Beauchamp was heard to say he had " been New Court long enough , and would die an Old Court man . " Beauchamp had steadfastly identified with the Old Court , and his claim seems to imply that he had at least considered colluding with the New Court powers to secure his pardon . Such a deal is explicitly mentioned in one version of Beauchamp 's Confession . Beauchamp ultimately rejected the deal for fear that he would be double @-@ crossed by the New Court , leaving him imprisoned and deprived of the chivalrous motive for his actions .
Darby denied involvement with the murder , claiming that New Court partisans such as Francis P. Blair and Amos Kendall were seeking to defame him . He also countered that Eliza Sharp 's letter to the New Court Argus was written by New Court supporters , including Kendall , the newspaper 's editor . The claims and counterclaims between the two sides reached such an extreme that an 1826 letter in the New Court Argus suggested that New Court supporters had instigated Sharp 's murder in order to blame Old Court partisans and affix a stigma to them .
Darby eventually brought suit for libel against Kendall and Eliza Sharp , as well as Senator Beauchamp and Sharp 's brother Leander . Numerous delays and changes of venue prevented any of the suits from ever going to trial . Darby died in December 1829 .
= = In fiction = =
The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy inspired fictional works , notably Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished play Politian and Robert Penn Warren 's World Enough and Time . William Gilmore Simms wrote three works based on the Sharp 's murder and aftermath : Beauchampe : or The Kentucky Tragedy , A Tale of Passion , Charlemont , and Beauchampe : A Sequel to Charlemonte . Greyslaer : A Romance of the Mohawk by Charles Fenno Hoffman , Octavia Bragaldi by Charlotte Barnes , Sybil by John Savage , and Conrad and Eudora ; or , The Death of Alonzo : A Tragedy and Leoni , The Orphan of Venice both by Thomas Holley Chivers , all draw to some degree on the events that surround Sharp 's murder .
= Losing My Religion =
" Losing My Religion " is a song by the American alternative rock band R.E.M. The song was released as the first single from the group 's 1991 album Out of Time . Built on a mandolin riff , " Losing My Religion " was an unlikely hit for the group , garnering heavy airplay on radio as well as on MTV due to its critically acclaimed music video . The song became R.E.M. ' s highest @-@ charting hit in the United States , reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and expanding the group 's popularity beyond its original fanbase . It was nominated for several Grammy Awards , and won two for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Short Form Music Video .
= = Background = =
R.E.M. guitarist Peter Buck wrote the main riff and chorus to the song on a mandolin while watching television one day . Buck had just bought the instrument and was attempting to learn how to play it , recording the music as he practiced . Buck said that " when I listened back to it the next day , there was a bunch of stuff that was really just me learning how to play mandolin , and then there 's what became ' Losing My Religion ' , and then a whole bunch more of me learning to play the mandolin . "
Recording of the song started in September 1990 at Bearsville Studio A in Woodstock , New York . The song was arranged in the studio with mandolin , electric bass , and drums . Bassist Mike Mills came up with a bassline inspired by the work of Fleetwood Mac bassist John McVie ; by his own admission he could not come up with one for the song that was not derivative . Buck said the arrangement of the song " had a hollow feel to it . There 's absolutely no midrange on it , just low end and high end , because Mike usually stayed pretty low on the bass . " The band decided to have touring guitarist Peter Holsapple play acoustic guitar on the recording . Buck reflected , " It was really cool : Peter and I would be in our little booth , sweating away , and Bill and Mike would be out there in the other room going at it . It just had a really magical feel . " Singer Michael Stipe 's vocal was recorded in a single take . Orchestral strings , arranged by Mark Bingham , were added to the song by members of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra at Soundscape Studios in Atlanta , Georgia in October 1990 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Losing My Religion " is based on Peter Buck 's mandolin @-@ playing . Buck said , " The verses are the kinds of things R.E.M. uses a lot , going from one minor to another , kind [ of ] like those ' Driver 8 ' chords . You can 't really say anything bad about E minor , A minor , D , and G – I mean , they 're just good chords . " Buck noted that " Losing My Religion " was " probably the most typical R.E.M.-sounding song on the record . We are trying to get away from those kind of songs , but like I said before , those are some good chords . " Orchestral strings play through parts of the song . The song is in natural minor .
In the song , Michael Stipe sings the lines " That 's me in the corner / That 's me in the spotlight / Losing my religion " . The phrase " losing my religion " is an expression from the southern region of the United States that means losing one 's temper or civility , or " being at the end of one 's rope . " Stipe told The New York Times the song was about romantic expression . He told Q that " Losing My Religion " is about " someone who pines for someone else . It 's unrequited love , what have you . " Stipe compared the song 's theme to "
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are held at Mission Bay every year .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
The city is governed by a mayor and a 9 @-@ member city council . In 2006 , the city 's form of government changed from a council – manager government to a strong mayor government . The change was brought about by a citywide vote in 2004 . The mayor is in effect the chief executive officer of the city , while the council is the legislative body . The City of San Diego is responsible for police , public safety , streets , water and sewer service , planning and zoning , and similar services within its borders . San Diego is a sanctuary city , however , San Diego County is a participant of the Secure Communities program . As of 2011 , the city had one employee for every 137 residents , with a payroll greater than $ 733 million .
The members of the city council are each elected from single member districts within the city . The mayor and city attorney are elected directly by the voters of the entire city . The mayor , city attorney , and council members are elected to four @-@ year terms , with a two @-@ term limit . Elections are held on a non @-@ partisan basis per California state law ; nevertheless , most officeholders do identify themselves as either Democrats or Republicans . In 2007 , registered Democrats outnumbered Republicans by about 7 to 6 in the city , and Democrats currently ( as of 2015 ) hold a 5 @-@ 4 majority in the city council . The current mayor , Kevin Faulconer , is a Republican .
San Diego is part of San Diego County , and includes all or part of the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th supervisorial districts of the San Diego County Board of Supervisors , Other county officers elected in part by city residents include the Sheriff , District Attorney , Assessor / Recorder / County Clerk , and Treasurer / Tax Collector .
Areas of the city immediately adjacent to San Diego Bay ( " tidelands " ) are administered by the Port of San Diego , a quasi @-@ governmental agency which owns all the property in the tidelands and is responsible for its land use planning , policing , and similar functions . San Diego is a member of the regional planning agency San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) . Public schools within the city are managed and funded by independent school districts ( see above ) .
= = = State and federal representation = = =
In the California State Senate , San Diego is split between the 38th , 39th and 40th districts , represented by Joel Anderson ( R ) , Marty Block ( D ) , and Ben Hueso ( D ) , respectively .
In the California State Assembly , San Diego is split between the 77th , 78th , 79th , and 80th districts , represented by Brian Maienschein ( R ) , and Toni Atkins ( D ) , Shirley Weber ( D ) , and Lorena Gonzalez ( D ) , respectively .
In the United States House of Representatives , San Diego is split between California 's 49th , 50th , 51st , 52nd , and 53rd congressional districts , represented by Darrell Issa ( R ) , Duncan D. Hunter ( R ) , Juan Vargas ( D ) , Scott Peters ( D ) , and Susan Davis ( D ) , respectively .
= = = Major scandals = = =
San Diego was the site of the 1912 San Diego free speech fight , in which the city restricted speech , vigilantes brutalized and tortured anarchists , and the San Diego Police Department killed an IWW member .
In 1916 , rainmaker Charles Hatfield was blamed for $ 4 million in damages and accused of causing San Diego 's worst flood , during which about 20 Japanese American farmers died .
Then @-@ mayor Roger Hedgecock was forced to resign his post in 1985 , after he was found guilty of one count of conspiracy and twelve counts of perjury , related to the alleged failure to report all campaign contributions . After a series of appeals , the twelve perjury counts were dismissed in 1990 based on claims of juror misconduct ; the remaining conspiracy count was reduced to a misdemeanor and then dismissed .
A 2002 scheme to underfund pensions for city employees led to the San Diego pension scandal . This resulted in the resignation of newly re @-@ elected Mayor Dick Murphy and the criminal indictment of six pension board members . Those charges were finally dismissed by a federal judge in 2010 .
On November 28 , 2005 , U.S. Congressman Randy " Duke " Cunningham resigned after being convicted on federal bribery charges . He had represented California 's 50th congressional district , which includes much of the northern portion of the city of San Diego . In 2006 , Cunningham was sentenced to a 100 @-@ month prison sentence .
In 2005 two city council members , Ralph Inzunza and Deputy Mayor Michael Zucchet – who briefly took over as acting mayor when Murphy resigned – were convicted of extortion , wire fraud , and conspiracy to commit wire fraud for taking campaign contributions from a strip club owner and his associates , allegedly in exchange for trying to repeal the city 's " no touch " laws at strip clubs . Both subsequently resigned . Inzunza was sentenced to 21 months in prison . In 2009 , a judge acquitted Zucchet on seven out of the nine counts against him , and granted his petition for a new trial on the other two charges ; the remaining charges were eventually dropped .
In July 2013 , three former supporters of mayor Bob Filner asked him to resign because of allegations of repeated sexual harassment . Over the ensuing six weeks , 18 women came forward to publicly claim that Filner had sexually harassed them , and multiple individuals and groups called for him to resign . Filner agreed to resign effective August 30 , 2013 , subsequently pleaded guilty to one felony count of false imprisonment and two misdemeanor battery charges , and was sentenced to house arrest and probation .
= = = Crime = = =
San Diego was ranked as the 20th @-@ safest city in America in 2013 by Business Insider . According to Forbes magazine , San Diego was the ninth @-@ safest city in the top 10 list of safest cities in the U.S. in 2010 . Like most major cities , San Diego had a declining crime rate from 1990 to 2000 . Crime in San Diego increased in the early 2000s . In 2004 , San Diego had the sixth lowest crime rate of any U.S. city with over half a million residents . From 2002 to 2006 , the crime rate overall dropped 0 @.@ 8 % , though not evenly by category . While violent crime decreased 12 @.@ 4 % during this period , property crime increased 1 @.@ 1 % . Total property crimes per 100 @,@ 000 people were lower than the national average in 2008 .
According to Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) in 2010 , there were 5 @,@ 616 violent crimes and 30 @,@ 753 property crimes . Of these , the violent crimes consisted of forcible rapes , 73 robberies and 170 aggravated assaults , while 6 @,@ 387 burglaries , 17 @,@ 977 larceny @-@ thefts , 6 @,@ 389 motor vehicle thefts and 155 acts of arson defined the property offenses . In 2013 , San Diego had the lowest murder rate of the ten largest cities in the United States .
= = Education = =
Public schools in San Diego are operated by independent school districts . The majority of the public schools in the city are served by the San Diego Unified School District , the second @-@ largest school district in California , which includes 11 K @-@ 8 schools , 107 elementary schools , 24 middle schools , 13 atypical and alternative schools , 28 high schools , and 45 charter schools .
Several adjacent school districts which are headquartered outside the city limits serve some schools within the city ; these include the Poway Unified School District , Del Mar Union School District , San Dieguito Union High School District and Sweetwater Union High School District . In addition , there are a number of private schools in the city .
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
According to education rankings released by the U.S. Census Bureau , 40 @.@ 4 percent of San Diegans ages 25 and older hold bachelor 's degrees . The census ranks the city as the ninth @-@ most educated city in the United States based on these figures .
Public colleges and universities in the city include San Diego State University ( SDSU ) , University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , and the San Diego Community College District , which includes San Diego City College , San Diego Mesa College , and San Diego Miramar College .
Private colleges and universities in the city include University of San Diego ( USD ) , Point Loma Nazarene University ( PLNU ) , Alliant International University ( AIU ) , National University , California International Business University ( CIBU ) , San Diego Christian College , John Paul the Great Catholic University , California College San Diego , Coleman University , University of Redlands School of Business , Design Institute of San Diego ( DISD ) , Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising 's San Diego campus , NewSchool of Architecture and Design , Pacific Oaks College San Diego Campus , Chapman University 's San Diego Campus , The Art Institute of California – San Diego , Platt College , Southern States University ( SSU ) , UEI College , and Woodbury University School of Architecture 's satellite campus .
There is one medical school in the city , the UCSD School of Medicine . There are three ABA accredited law schools in the city , which include California Western School of Law , Thomas Jefferson School of Law , and University of San Diego School of Law . There is also one law school , Western Sierra Law School , not accredited by the ABA .
= = = Libraries = = =
The city @-@ run San Diego Public Library system is headquartered downtown and has 34 branches throughout the city . The libraries have had reduced operating hours since 2003 due to the city 's financial problems . In 2006 the city increased spending on libraries by $ 2 @.@ 1 million . A new nine @-@ story Central Library on Park Boulevard at J Street opened on September 30 , 2013 .
In addition to the municipal public library system , there are nearly two dozen libraries open to the public which are run by other governmental agencies and by schools , colleges , and universities . Noteworthy among them are the Malcolm A. Love Library at San Diego State University and the Geisel Library at the University of California , San Diego .
= = Media = =
The following are published within the city : the daily newspaper , U @-@ T San Diego and its online portal , of the same name , and the alternative newsweeklies , the San Diego CityBeat and San Diego Reader . Times of San Diego is a free online newspaper covering local news in the metropolitan area . Voice of San Diego is a non @-@ profit online @-@ only news outlet covering government , politics , education , neighborhoods , and the arts . The San Diego Daily Transcript is a business @-@ oriented daily newspaper .
San Diego led U.S. local markets with 69 @.@ 6 percent broadband penetration in 2004 according to Nielsen / / NetRatings .
San Diego 's first television station was KFMB , which began broadcasting on May 16 , 1949 . Since the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) licensed seven television stations in Los Angeles , two VHF channels were available for San Diego because of its relative proximity to the larger city . In 1952 , however , the FCC began licensing UHF channels , making it possible for cities such as San Diego to acquire more stations . Stations based in Mexico ( with ITU prefixes of XE and XH ) also serve the San Diego market . Television stations today include XHTJB 3 ( Once TV ) , XETV 6 ( CW ) , KFMB 8 ( CBS ) , KGTV 10 ( ABC ) , XEWT 12 ( Televisa Regional ) , KPBS 15 ( PBS ) , KBNT @-@ CD 17 ( Univision ) , XHTIT @-@ TDT 21 ( Azteca 7 ) , XHJK @-@ TDT 27 ( Azteca 13 ) , XHAS 33 ( Telemundo ) , K35DG @-@ D 35 ( UCSD @-@ TV ) , KDTF @-@ LD 51 ( Telefutura ) , KNSD 39 ( NBC ) , KZSD @-@ LP 41 ( Azteca America ) , KSEX @-@ CD 42 ( Infomercials ) , XHBJ @-@ TDT 45 ( Gala TV ) , XHDTV 49 ( MNTV ) , KUSI 51 ( Independent ) , XHUAA @-@ TDT 57 ( Canal de las Estrellas ) , and KSWB @-@ TV 69 ( Fox ) . San Diego has an 80 @.@ 6 percent cable penetration rate .
Due to the ratio of U.S. and Mexican @-@ licensed stations , San Diego is the largest media market in the United States that is legally unable to support a television station duopoly between two full @-@ power stations under FCC regulations , which disallow duopolies in metropolitan areas with fewer than nine full @-@ power television stations and require that there must be eight unique station owners that remain once a duopoly is formed ( there are only seven full @-@ power stations on the California side of the San Diego @-@ Tijuana market ) . Though the E. W. Scripps Company owns KGTV and KZSD @-@ LP , they are not considered a duopoly under the FCC 's legal definition as common ownership between full @-@ power and low @-@ power television stations in the same market is permitted regardless to the number of stations licensed to the area . As a whole , the Mexico side of the San Diego @-@ Tijuana market has two duopolies and one triopoly ( Entravision Communications owns both XHAS @-@ TV and XHDTV @-@ TV , Azteca owns XHJK @-@ TV and XHTIT @-@ TV , and Grupo Televisa owns XHUAA @-@ TV and XHWT @-@ TV along with being the license holder for XETV @-@ TV , which is run by California @-@ based subsidiary Bay City Television ) .
San Diego 's television market is limited to only San Diego county . The Imperial Valley has its own market ( which also extends into western Arizona ) , while neighboring Orange and Riverside counties are part of the Los Angeles market . ( Sometimes in the past , a missing network affiliate in the Imperial Valley would be available on cable TV from San Diego . )
The radio stations in San Diego include nationwide broadcaster , Clear Channel Communications ; CBS Radio , Midwest Television , Lincoln Financial Media , Finest City Broadcasting , and many other smaller stations and networks . Stations include : KOGO AM 600 , KFMB AM 760 , KCEO AM 1000 , KCBQ AM 1170 , K @-@ Praise , KLSD AM 1360 Air America , KFSD 1450 AM , KPBS @-@ FM 89 @.@ 5 , Channel 933 , Star 94 @.@ 1 , FM 94 / 9 , FM News and Talk 95 @.@ 7 , Q96 96 @.@ 1 , KyXy 96 @.@ 5 , Free Radio San Diego ( AKA Pirate Radio San Diego ) 96.9FM FRSD , KSON 97 @.@ 3 / 92 @.@ 1 , KXSN 98 @.@ 1 , Jack @-@ FM 100 @.@ 7 , 101 @.@ 5 KGB @-@ FM , KLVJ 102 @.@ 1 , Rock 105 @.@ 3 , and another Pirate Radio station at 106.9FM , as well as a number of local Spanish @-@ language radio stations .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Utilities = = =
Water is supplied to residents by the Water Department of the City of San Diego . The city receives most of its water from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California .
Gas and electric utilities are provided by San Diego Gas & Electric , a division of Sempra Energy .
= = = Street lights = = =
In the middle part of the 20th century the city had mercury vapor street lamps . In 1978 the city decided to replace them with more efficient sodium vapor lamps . The proposal triggered an outcry from astronomers at Palomar Observatory 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of the city ; they said the proposed lamps would increase light pollution and interfere with astronomical observation . The city altered its lighting regulations to limit light pollution within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Palomar .
In 2011 , the City announced plans to upgrade 80 % of its street lighting to new energy @-@ efficient street lights which use induction technology , a modified form of fluorescent lamp that produces a broader spectrum than sodium @-@ vapor lamps . The new system is predicted to save $ 2 @.@ 2 million per year in energy and maintenance costs . The city stated the changes would " make our neighborhoods safer . " They also increase light pollution .
In 2014 , San Diego announced plans to become the first U.S. city to install cyber @-@ controlled street lighting , using an " intelligent " lighting system to control 3 @,@ 000 LED street lights .
= = = Transportation = = =
With the automobile being the primary means of transportation for over 80 percent of its residents , San Diego is served by a network of freeways and highways . This includes Interstate 5 , which runs south to Tijuana and north to Los Angeles ; Interstate 8 , which runs east to Imperial County and the Arizona Sun Corridor ; Interstate 15 , which runs northeast through the Inland Empire to Las Vegas and Salt Lake City ; and Interstate 805 , which splits from I @-@ 5 near the Mexican border and rejoins I @-@ 5 at Sorrento Valley .
Major state highways include SR 94 , which connects downtown with I @-@ 805 , I @-@ 15 and East County ; SR 163 , which connects downtown with the northeast part of the city , intersects I @-@ 805 and merges with I @-@ 15 at Miramar ; SR 52 , which connects La Jolla with East County through Santee and SR 125 ; SR 56 , which connects I @-@ 5 with I @-@ 15 through Carmel Valley and Rancho Peñasquitos ; SR 75 , which spans San Diego Bay as the San Diego @-@ Coronado Bridge , and also passes through South San Diego as Palm Avenue ; and SR 905 , which connects I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 805 to the Otay Mesa Port of Entry .
The stretch of SR 163 that passes through Balboa Park is San Diego 's oldest freeway , and has been called one of America 's most beautiful parkways .
San Diego 's roadway system provides an extensive network of routes for travel by bicycle . The dry and mild climate of San Diego makes cycling a convenient and pleasant year @-@ round option . At the same time , the city 's hilly , canyon @-@ like terrain and significantly long average trip distances — brought about by strict low @-@ density zoning laws — somewhat restrict cycling for utilitarian purposes . Older and denser neighborhoods around the downtown tend to be utility cycling oriented . This is partly because of the grid street patterns now absent in newer developments farther from the urban core , where suburban style arterial roads are much more common . As a result , a vast majority of cycling @-@ related activities are recreational . Testament to San Diego 's cycling efforts , in 2006 , San Diego was rated as the best city for cycling for U.S. cities with a population over 1 million .
San Diego is served by the San Diego Trolley light rail system , by the SDMTS bus system , and by Coaster and Amtrak Pacific Surfliner commuter rail ; northern San Diego county is also served by the Sprinter light rail line . The Trolley primarily serves downtown and surrounding urban communities , Mission Valley , east county , and coastal south bay . A planned Mid @-@ Coast extension of the Trolley will operate from Old Town to University City and the University of California , San Diego along the I @-@ 5 Freeway , with planned operation by 2018 . The Amtrak and Coaster trains currently run along the coastline and connect San Diego with Los Angeles , Orange County , Riverside , San Bernardino , and Ventura via Metrolink and the Pacific Surfliner . There are two Amtrak stations in San Diego , in Old Town and the Santa Fe Depot downtown . San Diego transit information about public transportation and commuting is available on the Web and by dialing " 511 " from any phone in the area .
The city 's primary commercial airport is the San Diego International Airport ( SAN ) , also known as Lindbergh Field . It is the busiest single @-@ runway airport in the United States . It served over 17 million passengers in 2005 , and is dealing with an increasingly larger number every year . It is located on San Diego Bay three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from downtown . San Diego International Airport maintains scheduled flights to the rest of the United States including Hawaii , as well as to Mexico , Canada , Japan , and the United Kingdom . It is operated by an independent agency , the San Diego Regional Airport Authority . In addition , the city itself operates two general @-@ aviation airports , Montgomery Field ( MYF ) and Brown Field ( SDM ) . By 2015 , the Tijuana Cross @-@ border Terminal in Otay Mesa will give direct access to Tijuana International Airport , with passengers walking across the U.S. – Mexico border on a footbridge to catch their flight on the Mexican side .
Numerous regional transportation projects have occurred in recent years to mitigate congestion in San Diego . Notable efforts are improvements to San Diego freeways , expansion of San Diego Airport , and doubling the capacity of the cruise ship terminal of the port . Freeway projects included expansion of Interstates 5 and 805 around " The Merge , " a rush @-@ hour spot where the two freeways meet . Also , an expansion of Interstate 15 through the North County is underway with the addition of high @-@ occupancy @-@ vehicle ( HOV ) " managed lanes " . There is a tollway ( The South Bay Expressway ) connecting SR 54 and Otay Mesa , near the Mexican border . According to a 2007 assessment , 37 percent of streets in San Diego were in acceptable driving condition . The proposed budget fell $ 84 @.@ 6 million short of bringing the city 's streets to an acceptable level . Port expansions included a second cruise terminal on Broadway Pier which opened in 2010 . Airport projects include expansion of Terminal 2 , currently under construction and slated for completion in summer 2013 .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
San Diego has 16 sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
= 1917 Nueva Gerona hurricane =
The 1917 Nueva Gerona hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Florida Panhandle until Hurricane Opal in 1995 . The eighth tropical cyclone and fourth tropical storm of the season , this system was identified as a tropical storm east of the Lesser Antilles on September 20 . After crossing the Lesser Antilles , the system entered the Caribbean Sea and achieved hurricane intensity on September 21 . After becoming a Category 2 hurricane , the storm struck the northern coast of Jamaica on September 23 . Early on September 25 , the cyclone reached Category 4 status and attained maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) soon thereafter . Later that day , the hurricane made landfall in eastern Pinar del Río Province , Cuba . The system entered the Gulf of Mexico shortly thereafter and weakened slightly . Recurving to the northeast , the hurricane briefly threatened Louisiana before turning toward Florida . Early on September 29 , the hurricane made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Once over land , the cyclone rapidly weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating on September 30 .
Some islands in the Lesser Antilles experienced strong winds and heavy rainfall , including Dominica , Guadeloupe , and Saint Lucia . In Jamaica , the hurricane caused significant damage to banana and coconut plantations . Communications from Holland Bay were disrupted when the station was demolished . The greatest damages were reported from the northern half of the island . Nine deaths occurred in the city of Port Antonio . In Nueva Gerona , Cuba , strong winds destroyed well @-@ constructed buildings and all
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eating practices ; though Puritan society was less stratified , particularly compared to the southern colonies , heads of the household and their spouses would often eat separately from both children and servants . Though New England had a great abundance of wildlife and seafood , traditional East Anglian fare was preferred , even if it had to be made with New World ingredients . Baked beans and pease porridge were everyday fare , particularly during the winter , and usually eaten with coarse , dark bread . At first it was made with a mixture of wheat and maize ( corn ) , but after a disease called wheat rust struck in the 1660s , it was made of rye and maize , creating what has later been known as " rye ' n ' injun " . Vegetables with meat boiled thoroughly was a popular dish , and unlike many other regions in North American colonies , they were cooked together , rather than separately , and frequently without seasoning . Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes today seen as quintessentially American , such as apple pie and the baked Thanksgiving turkey .
= = = Delaware Valley and Mid @-@ Atlantic region = = =
The Quakers emigrated to the New World from the Northern English Midlands during the 17th century , and eventually settled primarily in the Delaware Valley . They were similar to the Puritans in the strictness that they applied to everyday life , though their religious teachings were far more egalitarian . The food was plain and simple . Excessive consumption was discouraged and failure to eat or drink moderately was punished with public acts of self @-@ criticism . William Penn , the founder of Pennsylvania and an important figure in the development of the Quaker movement encouraged frugality in his followers with advice such as " If thou rise with an appetite thou are sure never to sit down without one " . Just like the Puritans , the Quakers encountered an abundance of food in the New World ; forests rich with game and berries , streams teeming with fish , and flocks of birds so abundant that they would sometimes block the sun for several hours . Still the asceticism persevered . Many Quakers avoided eating butter as a form of self @-@ mortification , and the most eccentric followers would avoid tea and meat . The idealist and pacifist ideas of the Quakers also encouraged many to boycott products that were considered to be tainted by sin . This included butter , due to its role in raising war taxes , and coffee , because it was produced by slave labor . Eating habits were more egalitarian than those of either the Puritans or the Virginian Anglicans . At meals , entire households would dine at the same table , including children and servants .
The most typical cooking method of the Quakers was boiling , a method brought from ancestral northern England . Boiled breakfast and dinner were standard fare , as well as " pop @-@ robbins " , balls of batter made from flour and eggs boiled in milk . Boiled dumplings and puddings were so common in Quaker homes that they were referred to by outsiders as " Quakers ' food " . Travelers noted apple dumplings as an almost daily dish in the Delaware Valley and cook books specialized in puddings and dumplings . Food was mostly preserved through boiling , simmering or standing . A popular genre of dishes made from this favored method of food preparation was " cheese " ( or " butter " ) , a generic term for dishes prepared by slow boiling or pressing . It could be made from ingredients as varying as apples ( i.e. , apple butter ) , plums and walnuts . Cream cheese had its origins in Quaker cooking , but was in colonial times not true cheese made with rennet or curds , but rather cream that was warmed gently and then allowed to stand between cloth until it became semi @-@ solid . Dried beef was widely popular in the Delaware Valley and was eaten along with puddings and dumplings to add flavor . The use of dried beef was so widespread that it was often called " Quaker gravy " in the 18th century . Though the Quaker influence from the Northern Midlands was the most dominant , there was some influence from German immigrants during the 18th century . Scrapple , a pot pudding made from meat scraps and grain , became a staple of the regional cuisine for many generations .
= = = Backcountry = = =
The last major wave of British immigrants to the colonies took place from 1720 – 1775 . About 250 @,@ 000 people travelled across the Atlantic primarily to seek economic betterment and to escape hardships and famine . Most of these came from the borderlands of northern Britain and were of Scots @-@ Irish or Scottish descent . Many were poor and therefore accustomed to hard times , setting them apart from the other major British immigrant groups . They settled in what would come to be known generally as the " Backcountry " , on the frontier and in the highlands in the north and south .
A typical breakfast could be toasted bread , cheese , and any leftover meat or vegetables from the previous dinner . In summer , people drank fresh milk .
The backcountry relied heavily on a diet based on mush made from soured milk or boiled grains . Clabber , a yogurt @-@ like food made with soured milk , was a standard breakfast dish and was eaten by backcountry settlers of all ages . This dietary habit was not shared by other British immigrant groups and was equally despised by those still in Britain . The Anglican missionary Charles Woodmason , who spent time among Ulster Irish immigrants , described them as depending " wholly on butter , milk , clabber and what in England is given to hogs " . Oatmeal mush was a popular meal in the British borderlands and remained popular in America . The only difference was that the oatmeal was replaced by corn , and is still known today in the South as grits . Cakes of unleavened dough baked on bakestones or circular griddles were common and went by names such as " clapbread " , " griddle cakes " and " pancakes " . While the potato had originated in South America , it did not become established in North America until it was brought to the colonies by northern British settlers in the 18th century and became an important backcountry staple along with corn . Pork had been a food taboo among northern Britons and the primary meat had been sheep . In the American colonies the raising of sheep was not as efficient and mutton was therefore replaced with pork . The habit of eating " sallet " or " greens " remained popular , but the vegetables of the Old World were replaced with plants like squashes , gourds , beans , corn , land cress and pokeweed . The distinctive cooking style of the British borderlands and the American backcountry was boiling . Along with clabber , porridge and mushes , the typical dishes were various stews , soups and pot pies .
Food was eaten from wooden or pewter trenchers with two @-@ tined forks , large spoons and hunting knives . Dishware was not popular since it was easily breakable and tended to dull knives quickly . Unlike the Quakers and Puritans , feasting with an abundance of food and drink was never discouraged and practiced as often as was feasible . Generally , the backcountry cuisine did not share the religious austerity of the North nor the refinement of the South and was therefore denigrated by outside commentators . An apparent lack of fastidiousness in preparing the food provoked further criticism from many sources . The Anglican Woodmason characterized backcountry cooking as " exceedingly filthy and most execrable " . Others told of matrons washing their feet in the cookpot , that it was considered unlucky to wash a milk churn and that human hairs in butter were considered a sign of quality . These descriptions seem to be confirmed by an old saying attributed to Appalachian housewives : " The mair [ more ] dirt the less hurt " . Another expression of backcountry hardiness was the lack of appreciation of coffee and tea . Both were described as mere " slops " and were deemed appropriate only for those who were sick or unfit for labor .
= = Diet before the American Revolution = =
When colonists arrived in America , they planted familiar crops from the Old World with varying degrees of success and raised domestic animals for meat , leather , and wool , as they had done in Britain . The colonists faced difficulties owing to different climate and other environmental factors , but trade with Britain , continental Europe , and the West Indies allowed the American colonists to create a cuisine similar to the various regional British cuisines . Local plants and animals offered tantalizing alternatives to the Old World diet , but the colonists held on to old traditions and tended to use these items in the same fashion as they did their Old World equivalents ( or even ignore them if more familiar foods were available ) . The American colonial diet varied depending on region , with local cuisine patterns established by the mid @-@ 18th century .
A preference for British cooking methods is apparent in cookbooks brought to the New World . There was a general disdain for French cookery , even among the French Huguenots in South Carolina and French Canadians . One cookbook common in the colonies , The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , by Hannah Glasse , held the French style of cookery in disdain , stating " the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby , than give encouragement to a good English cook ! " She does add French recipes to the text but speaks out flagrantly against the dishes , " ... think ( ing ) it an odd jumble of trash . " The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1764 ) reinforced anti @-@ French sentiment . The conflict strengthened an age @-@ old English distrust of the French , and led the English to deport French @-@ speaking people , as in the forced migration of the Acadians to Louisiana . The Acadian French brought a profound French influence to the diet of settlers in Louisiana , but had little influence outside of that region .
= = = Northern colonies = = =
A striking characteristic of the diet in New England was the seasonal availability of food . While farming in the southern colonies took place for most of the year , northern growing seasons were more restricted , limiting the availability of fresh fruit and vegetables . However , the coastal colonists ' close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to supplement their diet year @-@ round , especially in the north . Wheat , the grain primarily used in English bread , was almost impossible to grow in the North , and imports of wheat were far from cost productive . Substitutes included corn ( maize ) in the form of cornmeal . The johnnycake was generally considered a poor substitute for wheaten bread , but was accepted by residents in both the northern and southern colonies .
= = = Animal proteins = = =
Game hunting was a familiar beneficial skill to the colonists when they immigrated to the New World . Most northern colonists depended upon hunting , whether they hunted themselves or purchased game from others . As a method of obtaining protein for consumption , hunting was preferred over animal husbandry as domestic animals were expensive and more work was required to defend domestic animals against natural predators , Native Americans or the French . Commonly hunted game included deer , bear , buffalo and turkey . The larger parts of the animals were roasted and served with currant and other sauces , while smaller portions went into soups , stews , sausages , pies and pasties .
Venison was the most popular game . The plentiful meat was often potted or jerked , and its tripe was popular as well . Venison was especially popular during the Thanksgiving season . Buffalo was an important protein source until roughly 1770 , when the animals were over @-@ hunted in the eastern United States . Bear were numerous in the northern colonies , especially in New York , and many considered the leg meat to be a delicacy . Bear meat was frequently jerked as a preservation method .
In addition to game , mutton was consumed from time to time . Keeping sheep provided wool to the household , and when a sheep reached an age when it was unmanageable for wool production ; it could be harvested as mutton . Sheep were originally introduced to the Americas through the Spanish in Florida . In the north , the Dutch and English also introduced several varieties of sheep . The casual English practice of animal husbandry allowed sheep to roam free , consuming a variety of forage . Forage – based diets produce meat with a characteristically strong , gamey flavor and a tough consistency , which requires aging and slow cooking to tenderize .
Fats and oils derived from animals were used to cook many colonial foods . Rendered pork fat , especially from bacon , was the most popular cooking medium . Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the south . Many homes kept a deerskin sack filled with bear oil for use in cooking . Solidified bear fat resembled shortening . The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well , but it was rare prior to the American Revolution , as cattle were not yet plentiful .
Colonists near the shores in New England often dined on fish , crustaceans and other sea animals . Colonists ate large quantities of turtle , a delicacy also exportable to Europe . Cod was enjoyed in both fresh and salted form , salted cod being suitable for long @-@ term storage . Lobsters proliferated in the waters as well , and were commonplace in the New England diet . Some complained about dining on lobster and codfish too often and they were even used as pig fodder . The highest quality cod was usually dried and salted , however , and exported to the Mediterranean in exchange for fruits not grown in American colonies .
= = = = Fruits and vegetables = = = =
A number of vegetables were grown in the northern colonies , including turnips , onions , cabbage , carrots , and parsnips , along with pulses and legumes . These vegetables stored well through the colder months . Other vegetables , such as cucumbers , could be salted or pickled for preservation . Agricultural success in the northern colonies came from following the seasons , with consumption of fresh greens only occurring during summer months . In addition to vegetables , a large number of seasonal fruits were grown . Fruits not eaten in season were often preserved as jam , wet sweetmeats , dried , or cooked into pies that could be frozen during the winter months . Some vegetables originating in the New World , including beans , squashes , and corn , were readily adopted and grown by the European colonists . Pumpkins and gourds grew well in the northern colonies and were often used for fodder for animals in addition to human consumption .
= = = = Alcohol = = = =
Hard apple cider was by far the most common alcoholic beverage available to colonists . This is because apple trees could be grown locally throughout the colonies , unlike grapes and grain which did not grow well at all in New England . Cider was also easier to produce than beer or wine , so it could be made by farmers for their own consumption . Since it was not imported , it was much more affordable to the average colonist than beer or wine . Apple trees were planted in both Virginia and the Massachusetts Bay Colony as early as 1629 . Most of these trees were not grafted , and thus produced apples too bitter or sour for eating ; they were planted expressly for making cider . Cider was sometimes also distilled or freeze @-@ distilled into applejack ( so called because freeze @-@ distillation was called " jacking " ) ; the cold climate of the Northeast in the wintertime encouraged the process . The beverage was particularly popular in New Jersey , where applejack was occasionally called " Jersey Lightning " and was sometimes used to pay road @-@ construction crews .
Before the Revolution , New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer as maritime trade provided relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items . Rum was the distilled spirit of choice as molasses , the main ingredient , was readily available from trade with the West Indies . In the continent 's interior , colonists drank whiskey , as they had ready access to corn and rye but did not have good access to sugar cane . However , up until the Revolution , many colonists considered whiskey to be a coarse beverage unfit for human consumption , believing that it caused the poor to become raucous and disorderly .
Beer was such an important consumable to Americans that they would closely watch the stocks of barley held by farmers to ensure quality beer production . In John Adams ' correspondence with his wife Abigail , he asked about the quality of barley crops to ensure adequate supply for the production of beer for himself and their friends . However , hops , essential to production of beer , did not grow well in the colonies . It only grew wild in the New World , and needed to be imported from England and elsewhere . In addition to these alcohol @-@ based products produced in America , merchants imported wine and brandy . Beer was not only consumed for its flavor and alcohol content , but because it was safer to drink than water , which often harbored disease @-@ causing microorganisms . Even children drank small beer .
= = = Southern colonies = = =
Unlike the north , the south did not have a central cultural origin or a single culinary tradition . The southern colonies were also more diverse in their agricultural products . Slaves and poor Europeans in the south shared a similar diet , based on many of the indigenous New World crops . The rural poor often hunted and ate squirrel , opossum , rabbit , and other woodland animals . Salted or smoked pork often supplemented the vegetable diet . Those on the " rice coast " ate ample amounts of rice , while the southern poor and slaves used cornmeals in breads and porridges . Wheat was not an option for most poorer residents in the southern colonies .
Well into the eighteenth century , the Chesapeake region still relied on home @-@ brewed cider as a primary beverage . In most small planters ' households , women were responsible for the production of the drink and relied on local products to make the different ciders . This production was seasonal , as only large planters had the funds and the technology necessary to produce alcohol year round .
The southern colonies can be culturally divided between the uplands and the lowlands , and this distinction is seen in diet and food preparation in the two regions . The diet of the uplands often included cabbage , string beans , white potatoes , while most affluent whites in the uplands avoided crops imported from Africa because they were associated with , and reflected the social inferiority of , black slaves . Those who could grow or afford wheat often had biscuits on their table for breakfast , along with healthy portions of pork . Salted pork was a staple of any meal , as it was used in the preparations of vegetables for flavor , in addition to its direct consumption as a protein .
The coastal lowlands , particularly surrounding Charleston and New Orleans and which also included much of the Acadian French regions of Louisiana and the surrounding area , more varied diet was heavily influenced by Africans and Caribbeans , as well as the French . Rice played a large part in the diet . In addition , unlike the uplands , the lowlands ' protein came mostly from coastal seafood and game meats . Much of the diet involved the use of peppers , as it still does today . Although the English had an inherent disdain for French food as well as many of the native foods , the French had no such disdain for indigenous foodstuffs . In fact , they expressed an appreciation for native ingredients and dishes .
= = Dietary changes through boycott = =
The colonists were quite dependent on their " parent " England for imports of food and other basic products . When taxes and British Parliamentary tariffs on products used by the American colonists increased , the colonists were forced into paying the taxes if they were to continue importing English and West Indian goods . As a result , a number of colonists began to boycott imported goods in favor of domestic goods . The boycott was not initially widespread , especially as it could not be officially enforced , and so lacked luster in a number of regions . Increasing support for this boycott , however , helped generate the revolution against England .
As England imposed its series of acts upon the colonists , changes in the American colonist ’ s purchases and trades eventually altered the American diet . Starting with the Molasses Act of 1733 , followed by the Sugar Act of 1760 , a shift in alcohol consumption occurred . This was more than a protest against taxation of molasses , the main ingredient in rum production . Whiskey became the spirit of choice for many American colonists who wished to thumb their noses at England . In the northern colonies , whiskey was made with rye , while the southern colonies preferred corn . Rye was seen as a more civilized grain , while corn whiskey was presented as a more patriotic version as it was produced from an indigenous American crop .
The production of whiskey was certainly not a norm in the colonies in the early years . The upper echelon of colonial society looked down upon American whiskey up until the time of the American Revolution . Some even saw the harsh spirit as a bastion of debauchery in the American colonies . Whatever the sentiment , the Scottish , Irish , and Germans brought a taste for hard spirits from their homelands to the American colonies in the 1730s . These groups continued to produce hard spirits in imported stills , or stills based on Old World designs , in retaliation against the English economic controls .
The Revenue Act of 1764 that heavily taxed Madeira and other wines led to yet another boycott , this time against imported wines . This promoted another indigenous agricultural item of the American Colonies , the Vitis labrusca grapes . In 1765 , Benjamin Franklin decided to use Poor Richard 's Almanack to promote the growing of American grapes in order to encourage the production of domestic wines . One of Franklin 's friends , Benjamin Gale , stated one evening at one of their gatherings " We must drink wine of our own making or none at all ; " this opinion seemed to be a prevailing sentiment in the colonies from 1764 until the Revolution . Many who supported temperance in the colonies also supported the production of American wine at this time since the colonial form of temperance at the time was to drink only wine or beer instead of hard spirits .
The Quartering Act of 1765 , probably more than anything else , stripped the colonists of funds and thus the ability to purchase imported luxuries . The Stamp Act of 1765 resulted in a boycott on imported goods by many merchants , which was further strengthened by the passage of the Townshend Act of 1767 . These boycotts , however , were short lived , to the dismay of more radical colonists who hoped to take control of superficial goods imported by the English and imports from the West Indies . Once the Townshend Act was repealed , colonists flocked back to markets to purchase non @-@ essentials .
The enforcement of the Tea Act of 1773 became a heated issue with the colonists , with the well @-@ known demonstration at the Boston harbor , the Boston Tea Party , a direct reaction to the act . However , a much more important shift occurred in the colonists ' drink of choice . In 1773 , John Adams wrote a letter to his wife stating , " Tea must be universally renounced and I must be weaned , and the sooner the better . " Thus began the American shift from tea to coffee . In a concentrated boycott , the housewives of Falmouth , Massachusetts publicly united , vowing to serve only coffee in their homes . This inspired other households throughout the colonies , both in the north and south , to do the same .
= = Effects of the American Revolution = =
In 1775 , the Continental Congress decreed that no imports would enter the American colonies , nor would any exports move from America to England . Some historians state that this had a profound effect on the agriculture of America , while others state that there was no effect as the domestic market was strong enough to sustain American agriculturists . The dispute lies in the fact that the American economy was highly diverse ; there was no standard form of currency , and records were not consistently kept .
By the declaration of the American Revolution , with George Washington as its military leader , a number of dietary changes had already occurred in America . Coffee was quickly becoming the normal hot drink of the colonies and a taste for whiskey had been acquired among many of those who could produce it . In fact , in 1774 , the first corn was grown in Kentucky specifically for production of American Bourbon whiskey . This step may have established this American spirit in American culture , just as the country was going to war with England . In addition to whiskey coming into favor , a shift began in the consumption of cider over beer . Colonists opted to grow less barley as it was easier to ferment apple cider than to brew beer . Another reason for this change would have been the lack of imported hops needed to brew beer .
As the American colonies went to war , they needed soldiers , supplies , and lots of them . Soldiers needed uniforms and , as all shipping into the colonies had ceased , wool became an integral commodity to the war effort . During the Revolution the consumption of mutton ceased almost entirely in many areas , and in Virginia it became illegal to consume except in
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00 : 00 UTC on July 24 , the hurricane made landfall at Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , with winds of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Weakening as it crossed Puerto Rico , the cyclone quickly regained strength on July 25 as it moved through the Bahamas ; rapidly reaching maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) , it attained the equivalence of Category 4 intensity — one of only four Atlantic hurricanes to have done so in or before the month of July . After peaking at 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) with an estimated central pressure of 938 mb ( 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) , based on ship observations , the cyclone struck the island of New Providence , the seat of the Bahamian capital Nassau , on the morning of July 26 , with sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Weakening thereafter , the storm moved northwestward , paralleling the east coast of Florida , but came ashore near New Smyrna Beach early on July 28 with winds of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Thereafter , the cyclone quickly diminished in intensity , becoming a tropical depression on July 29 , as it curved west @-@ northwestward over Georgia ; three days later , it became an extratropical cyclone and dissipated over Ontario , Canada , on August 2 .
In Puerto Rico , the storm produced hurricane @-@ force winds and heavy rainfall that flooded all the rivers in the southern half of the island ; crops in the western portion of the island were greatly damaged , and the entire island was affected by strong winds . At least 25 people were reported to have died as a result . In the Bahamas , the cyclone killed at least 146 people and produced severe damage to the capital Nassau ; it was called the worst storm to affect Nassau since the 1866 Nassau hurricane , also a Category 4 cyclone that struck New Providence and caused major flooding throughout the Bahamas . More than a week after the storm , 400 people were reported to be missing . On the east coast of Florida , the hurricane produced a large storm tide that damaged boats , docks , and coastal structures , and damaging winds destroyed barns and crops well inland ; severe damage to structures and communications wires was reported at New Smyrna Beach , where the storm struck the state . The storm also produced heavy rainfall along the coast , peaking at 10 @.@ 02 inches ( 254 @.@ 51 mm ) at Merritt Island . One person died from the effects of the storm in Florida . In all , the hurricane caused at least 287 deaths — the fourth deadliest July hurricane since 1492 — and $ 16 @.@ 4 million ( 1926 USD ) in losses , at least $ 8 million of which were in the Bahamas . It remains only the second of three recorded hurricanes since 1851 to have struck the east coast of Florida north of Cape Canaveral from the Atlantic Ocean , the others being a hurricane in 1915 and Hurricane Dora in 1964 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Early on July 29 , a tropical depression formed more than 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 930 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Over the next few days , it moved west @-@ northwest , becoming a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on July 31 . On August 1 , the cyclone turned northwestward and began strengthening rapidly , reaching hurricane intensity by the early afternoon . The next day , it attained major hurricane intensity — winds of at least 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , equivalent to the modern @-@ day classification of Category 3 intensity — and over the next few days its track varied between north @-@ northwest and northwest . Early on August 5 , it reached a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) , based on the pressure – wind relationship . It curved to the north and weakened , then passed about 80 mi ( 129 km ) west of Bermuda on August 6 . A few days later , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and then struck near Port Hawkesbury , Nova Scotia , with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) and a central pressure at or below 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) .
Several ships recorded hurricane @-@ force winds and pressures as low as 968 mb ( 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) , though none entered the eye of the hurricane and sampled the lowest pressure in the storm . The system produced winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) on Bermuda as it passed very close to that island . About this time , five ocean liners near each other encountered the storm ; some portholes on the Orca were damaged and 15 passengers were treated for cuts , bruises , and contusions . Off Nova Scotia , the cyclone produced an unspecified number of casualties , including the sinking of the schooners Sylvia Mosher and Sadie Knickle . Between 55 and 58 deaths occurred , including 49 from two ships crashing ashore Sable Island . In Nova Scotia , the storm downed trees and electrical poles , damaging some homes and leaving telephone service outages . Crops and fruit trees were also damaged . High winds also interrupted telegraph communications in Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
On August 20 , a low pressure area producing unsettled weather in the western Caribbean Sea , and centered about 400 mi ( 644 km ) west @-@ northwest of Maracaibo , Venezuela , was determined to have become a tropical depression . However , prior to scientific reanalysis in April 2012 based upon a 1975 report , it was not believed to have done so until two days later . Moving west @-@ northwest , the depression strengthened to a tropical storm on August 21 , and then turned northwestward while strengthening steadily . After brushing Cape San Antonio at the western tip of Cuba on August 22 , the cyclone then veered to the west @-@ northwest . Early on August 23 , the storm became a hurricane over the southern Gulf of Mexico . Later that day , the cyclone continued to intensify and began curving northwestward . By August 24 , with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , it turned north . Early on August 25 , the cyclone peaked as a modern @-@ day 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 , based on the pressure – wind relationship . In the afternoon , it struck west of Houma , Louisiana , at that intensity . Less than 24 hours later , the storm rapidly weakened to a moderate tropical storm and curved west @-@ northwestward , weakening to a tropical depression on August 27 and dissipating over Texas .
No known effects were reported from the Caribbean due to the cyclone . On the morning of August 24 , the United States Weather Bureau in Washington , D.C. , advised that the storm was likely to make landfall between Galveston , Texas , and Burrwood , Louisiana . Late that day , hurricane warnings were issued from Morgan City , Louisiana , to Mobile , Alabama . Although small in size at landfall , the storm caused a storm surge of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) south of Houma and hurricane @-@ force winds in a small area near the center . The lowest recorded pressure was 959 mb ( 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) at Houma , though this was taken inland and is not believed to have been in the exact center , as recent estimates place the central pressure slightly lower at 955 mb ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) . Along the Gulf Coast of the United States , the storm caused $ 6 million ( 1926 USD ) in damage to crops and buildings , with substantial damage to vegetation . In all , 25 deaths were reported , although extensive ship reports and timely warnings by mail , telephone , radio , and telegraph reduced the number of casualties .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
At 00 : 00 UTC on September 1 , an area of low pressure about 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) west of the Cape Verde islands organized into a tropical depression , though prior to hurricane reanalysis it was estimated to have formed a day later as a tropical storm . Moving generally west @-@ northwest over the next three days , the cyclone gradually intensified , first into a tropical storm on September 2 and later , based upon a report from the ship Stornest of hurricane @-@ force winds and 990 @.@ 5 mb ( 29 @.@ 25 inHg ) , a minimal hurricane by 00 : 00 UTC on September 5 . Late on September 7 , the cyclone strengthened to a major hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and turned northwest ; early the next day , the steamship Narenta passed through the eye of the storm and recorded a central pressure of 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) , the lowest associated with the cyclone . Thereafter , the storm for two days maintained its intensity while resuming a west @-@ northwest track . Late on September 10 , the storm abruptly turned north @-@ northwest . On September 12 , while centered about 400 mi ( 644 km ) southwest of Bermuda , the cyclone briefly peaked at 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) — equivalent to Category 4 intensity — though the cyclone was rather small and observations near the center were scarce .
Over the next two days , the cyclone headed north @-@ northwest again and slowly weakened to Category 2 strength with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , then afterward curved west @-@ northwest for about a day . As the storm passed west of Bermuda on September 13 , the island recorded a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mb ( 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) . As a trough approached , the hurricane suddenly turned northeast late on September 16 , and over the next three days , while located about 500 mi ( 805 km ) south @-@ southeast of Halifax in Nova Scotia , it executed a counterclockwise , S @-@ shaped curve . It then weakened to a tropical storm , recurved northeast , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 22 , whence it reacquired hurricane @-@ force winds . The next day , the system weakened and hit Cape St. Mary 's , Newfoundland , with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . As an extratropical storm it continued north @-@ northeastward until dissipating near Greenland on September 24 . The storm produced a pressure of 994 @.@ 2 mb ( 29 @.@ 36 inHg ) at St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador on September 23 , along with gale @-@ force winds along the coast of Newfoundland that affected an Arctic expedition led by George P. Putnam of the American Museum of Natural History . Strong winds in the province downed telegraph lines and demolished a post office in the town of Lamaline .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
By 06 : 00 UTC on September 10 , a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) was first observed over the open Atlantic Ocean about 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) southeast of Bermuda , but likely formed earlier and remained undetected due to a lack of ship observations . Over the next two days it headed north @-@ northwestward and strengthened , remaining approximately 730 mi ( 1 @,@ 170 km ) east of Hurricane Four . Based upon a ship report of hurricane conditions — 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) from the east @-@ southeast along with a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) — the cyclone was ascertained to have peaked at 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) , equivalent to Category 2 intensity , early on September 12 , although no meteorological data were available near the eye . Shortly thereafter , the system began turning north and then north @-@ northeast on September 13 , followed by steady weakening . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 14 , the cyclone diminished in intensity to a tropical storm and moved southeast , dissipating less than 24 hours later .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
Early on September 11 , a weak tropical depression formed in the western Caribbean Sea about
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crew " . The rowing correspondent for The Times described it as a " crushing defeat " for Oxford , stating that they were " completely outpaced " yet while Cambridge " upheld the tradition of skill " , Oxford " upheld that of courage " .
= Letting Go ( Body of Proof ) =
" Letting Go " is the second episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 3 , 2011 . The episode was directed by Nelson McCormick and written by Matthew Gross and series creator Christopher Murphey .
In this episode , Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and Detectives Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) inspect the case of an interracial couple who are shot dead in their car at Fairmount Park . This case leads them to many suspects , including one of the victim 's parents , Al ( Barry Shabaka Henley ) and Laura ( Brenda Pressley ) , both who seem to be hiding secrets about the couple 's relationship .
The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Sunday night it aired in the United States . Critics pointed out Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) as giving " some of the best lines of the night " and providing some " much needed comic relief " . Although this episode received positive reviews , it received significantly lower ratings than both the previous and the subsequent episodes , most likely due to the episode moving from the normal Tuesday timeslot to a Sunday night .
= = Plot = =
Dave Piaseki ( Steven Demarco ) and Linda Chapman ( Zakiya Cook ) are found shot dead in their car at Fairmount Park . When Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and detectives Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) arrive , they think the case is a Murder – suicide , but Megan finds two bullets in Dave and concludes that someone murdered them . Megan meets Linda 's parents , Al ( Barry Shabaka Henley ) and Laura ( Brenda Pressley ) , and tells them the news , leaving them devastated . Megan links Linda 's ex @-@ boyfriend Brian Hall ( Brian White ) to Dave and finds out that Dave was at Brian 's restaurant the night he died . However , Brian has an alibi as he was with employee Nina Wheeler ( Sherri Saum ) . The police find out that Linda used to work at Brian 's restaurant and received psychological abuse until Dave found out and confronted him . Brian has started to abuse Nina , so the police get Nina away from Brian , as he caused Linda to suffer from bulimia due to the abuse .
Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) and Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) find out that Dave was planning on marrying Linda ; however , as the two were an interracial couple , they gained an enemy in Eric Singleton ( Alexander Cendese ) , who stole the engagement ring out of the couple ’ s car , but after they were dead . Megan later finds residue in Linda 's eyes to suggest that the killer closed her eyes after she died , which leads them back to Linda 's parents , who knew that Dave intended to propose . When they call the two into the office , Al admits he killed Dave and Linda . He had only wanted to scare them so they would not marry ; however , the gun discharged , killing Linda , and in panic , he killed Dave too . After apologizing to Laura , Al is taken away . Throughout the day , Megan tries to reconnect with her daughter Lacey ( Mary Mouser ) ; however , her attempts to create a better relationship with her backfire .
= = Production = =
" Letting Go " was written by series creator Christopher Murphey and Matthew Gross , who is best known for directing episodes of Dirty Sexy Money and Day Break , and films such as Fired Up ! and Joe Somebody . Gross later directed the fifth episode of season 1 , " Dead Man Walking " , alongside Murphey . It was directed by Nelson McCormick making it the second episode in a row in which he was the director ; he also directed the previous episode " Pilot " . Daniel Licht , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actor Barry Shabaka Henley guest starred in the episode as Al Chapman and Brian J. White appeared as Brian Hall . Sherri Saum – best known for her roles in Sunset Beach and One Life to Live – also guest starred , playing Nina Wheeler . Mary Mouser – best known for her role in Life Is Wild – made another re @-@ appearance as Lacey Fleming , Megan 's daughter . The show was moved to a Sunday from the normal timeslot of Tuesday before Body of Proof 's pilot episode had aired . In a press statement , ABC said , " The second episode of new drama Body Of Proof will air on a special night and time , SUNDAY , APRIL 3 ( 10 : 01 @-@ 11 : 00 p.m. , ET ) , following an original episode of Desperate Housewives " .
" Letting Go " , along with the eight episodes from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episodes , a preview of season 2 , a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , and a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on 3 April 2011 , " Letting Go " was seen by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share . This means that it was seen by 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a much lower number of viewers than the previous episode , " Pilot " , as well as the subsequent episode , " Helping Hand " . However , the lower ratings than both " Pilot " and " Helping Hand " were likely due to the move from the normal Tuesday timeslot to a Sunday night . Body of Proof came sixth in the ratings on Sunday night ; it was outperformed by the ABC 's Desperate Housewives and Secret Millionaire , CBS 's 60 Minutes and airing of the ACM Awards , and NBC 's Celebrity Apprentice . " Helping Hand " was watched by 1 @.@ 69 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received positive reviews . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic stated that this episode gave her " hope for this procedural that the pilot didn 't " . She called the storyline " heartbreaking " , " sad " , shocking " , and " chilling " and added that there were " plenty of twists and turns that kept me guessing throughout the hour " . She was upset that Al Chapman was the murderer , saying that it would have been " wonderful to see Brian , Linda 's bad tempered , control freak of an ex hauled away in cuffs " . She added that the look that Eric Singleton gave Detective Baker was " positively evil " . She praised the interaction between the Megan and the rest of the main cast , saying , " We got to know more about the cast of characters in Megan 's office and Curtis was the standout . Last week Megan questioned Curtis ' abilities as a doctor . This week , Curtis not only proved her wrong but turned out to be the much needed comic relief delivering some of the best lines of the night " . She finished , " " Letting Go " definitely left me looking forward to what this new hit show has in store for us next " . After the ratings for " Pilot " were high , Matt Roush of TV Guide hoped that Body of Proof would " continue to improve " adding that he preferred this episode to " Pilot " , despite the lower ratings .
= Iowa Highway 182 =
Iowa Highway 182 ( Iowa 182 ) is a 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 14 km ) state highway in the northwestern corner of Iowa . It begins at U.S. Route 18 ( US 18 ) in Inwood and ends at Iowa 9 southeast of Larchwood . The highway has been in the primary highway system since 1930 , when it was known as Iowa 26 . On January 1 , 1969 , Iowa 26 and Iowa 182 swapped designations .
= = Route description = =
Iowa Highway 182 begins at an intersection with US 18 and County Road A42 ( CR A42 ) . At the intersection , eastbound US 18 approaches from the west , eastbound US 18 approaches from the south , and CR A42 approaches from the east . Iowa 182 travels north through Inwood for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and continues due north through the farmland of Lyon County for eight miles ( 13 km ) to an intersection with Iowa Highway 9 . The intersection with Iowa 9 is very similar to the intersection with US 18 ; eastbound Iowa 9 approaches from the north and westbound Iowa 9 approaches from the east .
= = History = =
Between 1930 and 1968 , the highway now known as Iowa 182 was called Iowa 26 . This was the second instance of Iowa 26 . The first was designated in 1920 with the rest of the primary highway system . It was originally a spur route from Primary Road No. 19 ( now US 18 ) to Rock Valley . Iowa 26 was extended north from Rock Valley back to US 18 in 1929 .
In 1930 , US 18 was rerouted in Lyon and Sioux counties . The new routing of US 18 went through Rock Valley , thus eliminating the need for Iowa 26 , which had connected Rock Valley to US 18 . The Iowa 26 designation was moved northwest . It replaced County Road S , which followed the same course Iowa 182 now follows .
On January 1 , 1969 , the Iowa State Highway Commission , now known as the Iowa Department of Transportation , renumbered several state highways . The changes to the highway system fixed a number of issues : creating continuous route numbers across state lines , removing duplicate route numbers where they were unnecessary , and extending route numbers in some locations . In this case , the former Iowa 182 in Allamakee County crossed into Minnesota and became Trunk Highway 26 . The two routes ' numbers were switched and have remained the same since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lyon County .
= Lord Guildford Dudley =
Lord Guildford Dudley ( also spelt Guilford ) ( c . 1535 – 12 February 1554 ) was the husband of Lady Jane Grey who , declared as his heir by King Edward VI , occupied the English throne from 10 July until 19 July 1553 . Guildford Dudley enjoyed a humanist education and was married to Jane in a magnificent celebration about six weeks before the King 's death . After Guildford 's father , the Duke of Northumberland , had engineered Jane 's accession , Jane and Guildford spent her brief rule residing in the Tower of London . They were still in the Tower when their regime collapsed and remained there , in different quarters , as prisoners . They were condemned to death for high treason in November 1553 . Queen Mary I was inclined to spare their lives , but Thomas Wyatt 's rebellion against her plans to marry Philip of Spain led to the young couple 's execution , a measure that was widely seen as unduly harsh .
= = Family and marriage = =
Lord Guildford Dudley was the second youngest surviving son of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , and his wife , Jane Guildford . The Dudley lineage goes back to a family called Sutton . In the early 14th century they became the lords of Dudley Castle , from whom Guildford descended through his paternal grandfather . This was Edmund Dudley , a councillor to Henry VII , who was executed after his royal master 's death . Through his father 's mother , Elizabeth Grey , Viscountess Lisle , Guildford descended from the Hundred Years War heroes , Richard Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick , and John Talbot , 1st Earl of Shrewsbury .
The Dudley children — there were thirteen born in all — grew up in a Protestant household and enjoyed a humanist education . Under the young King Edward VI , Guildford 's father became Lord President of the Privy Council and de facto ruled England from 1550 – 1553 . The chronicler Richard Grafton , who knew him , described Guildford as " a comely , virtuous and goodly gentleman " . In 1552 Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to marry Guildford to Margaret Clifford , a cousin of Jane Grey . Instead , in the spring of 1553 , Guildford was engaged to the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Jane Grey herself . Jane Grey figured higher in the line of succession than Margaret Clifford . On 25 May 1553 , three weddings were celebrated at Durham Place , the Duke of Northumberland 's town mansion . Guildford married Jane , his sister Katherine was matched with Henry Hastings , the Earl of Huntingdon 's heir , and another Catherine , Jane 's sister , married Lord Herbert , the heir of the Earl of Pembroke . It was a magnificent festival , with jousts , games , and masques . For the latter , two different companies had been booked , one male , one female . The Venetian and French ambassadors were guests , and there were " large numbers of the common people ... and of the most principal of the realm " . Guildford and some others suffered an attack of food poisoning , because of " a mistake made by a cook , who plucked one leaf for another . "
= = De facto consort = =
Mortally ill , King Edward , in his " Device of the Succession " , settled the Crown on his cousin once removed , Jane Grey , bypassing his half @-@ sisters , Mary and Elizabeth . After Edward 's death on 6 July 1553 the Duke of Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King 's will . The envoys of the Holy Roman Empire and France were sure of the plan 's success . Jane was reluctant to accept the Crown : She gave in after remonstrances by an assembly of nobles , including her parents and in @-@ laws ; Guildford chimed in with a lovelier approach , with " prayers and caresses " . On 10 July Jane and Guildford made their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London . Residing in there , Guildford wanted to be made king ; according to her own later account , Jane had a long discussion about this with Guildford , who " assented that if he were to be made king , he would be so by me , by Act of Parliament " . But then , Jane would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence ; Guildford replied that he did not want to be a duke , but king . When the Duchess of Northumberland heard of the argument she became furious and forbade Guildford to sleep any longer with his wife . She also commanded him to leave the Tower and go home , but Jane insisted that he remain at court , at her side .
According to later remarks by the Imperial ambassadors the daily Council meetings were presided by Guildford , who allegedly also dined in state alone and had himself addressed in regal style . Antoine de Noailles , the French ambassador , described Guildford as " the new King " . The Imperial court in Brussels also believed in the existence of King Guildford .
= = Imprisonment = =
On 10 July , the same day as Jane 's proclamation , a letter from Mary Tudor arrived in London , saying that she was now queen and demanding the obedience of the Council . Mary was assembling her supporters in East Anglia ; it was decided to take the field against her after some discussion over who should go , in which Jane made sure that her father should not . The Duke of Northumberland marched to Cambridge with his troops and passed a week that saw no action , until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . Northumberland now proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the market @-@ place and was arrested the next morning . On 19 July , a few hours before Queen Mary I 's proclamation in London , the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners ' children took place . Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child 's name to be Guildford . The Bishop of Winchester , Stephen Gardiner , who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years , took great offence at this fact as he heard of it .
A majority of the Privy Council moved out of the Tower before switching their allegiance . Becoming aware of his colleagues ' change of mind , Jane 's father , the Duke of Suffolk , abandoned his command over the fortress and proclaimed Mary I on nearby Tower Hill . After he had left , his wife was told she could also go home , while Jane , Guildford , and the Duchess of Northumberland were not allowed to . Jane was later moved from the royal apartments to the Gentleman Gaoler 's lodgings and Guildford was imprisoned in the Bell Tower . There he was soon joined by his brother , Robert . His remaining brothers were imprisoned in other towers , as was his father , who was for the moment the only prominent person to go to the scaffold ; Mary was prepared to spare Jane 's and Guildford 's lives .
Jane and Guildford were indicted on 12 August , and Jane submitted a letter of explanation to the Queen , " asking forgiveness ... for the sin she was accused of , informing her majesty about the truth of events . " In this account she spoke of herself as " a wife who loves her husband " . On 13 November 1553 Jane and Guildford were tried at Guildhall , together with Archbishop Cranmer and Guildford 's brothers Ambrose and Henry . They were all convicted of high treason after pleading guilty . Guildford was convicted of compassing to depose Queen Mary I by sending troops to the Duke of Northumberland and by proclaiming and honouring Jane as queen .
In December , Jane was allowed to walk freely in the Queen 's Garden . " Lord Robert and Lord Guildford " had to be content with taking the air on the leads of the Bell Tower . Jane and Guildford may have had some contact with each other , and at some point Guildford wrote a message to his father @-@ in @-@ law in Jane 's prayer book :
Your loving and obedient son wishes unto your grace long life in this world with as much joy and comfort as ever I wish to myself , and in the world to come joy everlasting . Your humble son to his death , G. Dudley
= = Execution = =
Queen Mary I 's plan to marry Philip II of Spain was greeted with widespread opposition , not just among the populace but also among Members of Parliament and privy councillors . Thomas Wyatt 's Rebellion in early 1554 , in which the Duke of Suffolk took part , was a result of this dislike . It was not the intention of the conspirators to bring Jane Grey on the throne again . Nevertheless , the government , at the height of the military crisis around 7 February , decided to execute Jane and her husband , possibly out of panic . It was also an opportunity for removing possible inspirations for future unrest and unwelcome reminders of the past . It troubled Mary to let her cousin die , but she accepted the Privy Council 's advice . Bishop Gardiner pressed for the young couple 's execution in a court sermon , and the Imperial ambassador Simon Renard was happy to report that " Jane of Suffolk and her husband are to lose their heads . "
The day before their executions Guildford asked Jane for a last meeting , which she refused , explaining it " would only ... increase their misery and pain , it was better to put it off ... as they would meet shortly elsewhere , and live bound by indissoluble ties . " Around ten o 'clock in the morning of 12 February Guildford was led towards Tower Hill , where " many ... gentlemen " waited to shake hands with him . Guildford made a short speech to the assembled crowd , as was customary . " Having no ghostly father with him " , he knelt , prayed , and asked the people to pray for him , " holding up his eyes and hands to God many times " . He was killed with one stroke of the axe , after which his body was conveyed on a cart to the Tower chapel of St Peter ad Vincula . Watching the scene from her window , Jane exclaimed : " Oh , Guildford , Guildford ! " He was buried in the chapel with Jane who was dead within an hour after him .
The executions did not contribute to the government 's popularity . Five months after the couple 's death , John Knox , the future Scottish reformer , wrote of them as " innocents ... such as by just laws and faithful witnesses can never be proved to have offended by themselves " . Of Guildford , the chronicler Grafton wrote ten years later : " even those that never before the time of his execution saw him , did with lamentable tears bewail his death " .
= = Ancestry = =
= New York State Route 322 =
New York State Route 322 ( NY 322 ) is a state highway in the Southern Tier of New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 83 in Balcom Corners , a hamlet within the Chautauqua County town of Villenova . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the Cattaraugus County town of Dayton . In between , the route passes through the village of South Dayton .
NY 322 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to its current
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alignment . Originally , maintenance of the Cattaraugus County portion of the route was split between the village of South Dayton and the county , the latter of which co @-@ designated the highway as County Route 3 ( CR 3 ) . The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of the Cattaraugus County segment in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state , the county , and South Dayton .
= = Route description = =
NY 322 is classified by the New York State Department of Transportation as a rural collector road . It serves as a connector from NY 83 to US 62 by way of the village of South Dayton . Most of the traffic along the route is made up of non @-@ commercial vehicles ; trucks account for only nine percent of all traffic along NY 322 . The roadway has an asphalt surface that is two lanes wide and varies in width from 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) to 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) . NY 322 travels through flat , open land outside of South Dayton and through residential areas within the village .
The route begins at an intersection with NY 83 and CR 87 at Balcom Corners , a hamlet within the town of Villenova . It heads eastward , passing through open fields and a handful of homes . Roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) east of NY 83 , the route meets the west branch of Conewango Creek and turns southeastward to follow the southern bank of the waterway . NY 322 passes over the creek just before crossing into Cattaraugus County and the village of South Dayton , located it the town of Dayton , that sits on the western county line .
In South Dayton , NY 322 is known as Pine Street as it proceeds through the village . The amount of development along the route rises as it approaches the center of the village at Main Street . The route continues on , traveling by four blocks of homes and businesses before curving eastward and entering another area dominated by open fields . It exits the village limits shortly afterward . East of South Dayton , NY 322 is known as Dexter Corners Road as it heads through a rural area of the town of Dayton . NY 322 continues to the community of Dexter Corners , where it ends at an intersection with US 62 .
In 2008 , the portion of NY 322 between NY 83 and the county line handled an estimated average of 1 @,@ 810 vehicles per day . The traffic volume increases to 2 @,@ 300 per day from there to Main Street in the village of South Dayton . East of Main Street , traffic volume falls to 1 @,@ 280 cars per day .
= = History = =
NY 322 was assigned to its modern alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Initially , NY 322 was maintained by Cattaraugus County between the eastern village limits of South Dayton and its junction with NY 241 ( now US 62 ) in Dayton and by the village of South Dayton within the village limits . The Cattaraugus County @-@ maintained portion of the route was co @-@ designated as CR 3 . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 322 in Cattaraugus County was transferred from the village of South Dayton and the county to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the three levels of government . The entirety of the route is now state @-@ maintained .
= = Major intersections = =
= Hurricane Alice ( June 1954 ) =
Hurricane Alice was the second @-@ strongest Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the month of June since reliable records began in the 1850s . While not a major hurricane , the storm was linked to catastrophic flooding in southern Texas and northern Mexico , especially along the Rio Grande and its tributaries . The third tropical cyclone and first hurricane of the 1954 Atlantic hurricane season , Alice was one of two storms to receive the same name that year , the other being an unusual post @-@ season hurricane that persisted into the new year of 1955 , becoming one of only two January hurricanes on record ( the other having formed in 1938 ) . The first Alice developed rather suddenly on June 24 over the Bay of Campeche , though it may well have formed earlier but went undetected due to limited surface weather observations . Moving northwestward , Alice strengthened rapidly as it neared the Mexican coastline , becoming a hurricane early the next day . By midday on June 25 , the hurricane reached peak winds of 110 miles per hour ( 177 km / h ) before moving inland well south of the U.S. – Mexico border . The storm struck an area with few inhabitants and caused relatively minimal impacts from wind near the point of landfall and in southern Texas .
As it moved inland , however , Alice produced prolific rains along and near the Rio Grande , resulting in some of the worst flooding ever seen in parts of northern Mexico and southern Texas ; in some areas , the flooding amounted to a one @-@ in @-@ 2 @,@ 000 @-@ year event . The Pecos River crested at 96 @.@ 24 ft ( 29 @.@ 33 m ) , which joined with the Rio Grande to produce significant flooding . The floods destroyed bridges and dikes and flooded many cities along the inner reaches of the river , which reached its highest water levels since 1865 . As the river overflowed its banks , floods breached the dikes at Piedras Negras , Coahuila , destroying large sections of the town . Other communities in Mexico reported significant flood damage . In the United States , damage was heaviest in Ozona , Texas , where the floods killed 15 people and caused $ 2 million in damage ( 1954 USD ) . Rainfall peaked at over 24 @.@ 07 in ( 611 mm ) , most of which fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . In all , flooding from Hurricane Alice killed at least 55 people , including 17 in the U.S. and 38 in Mexico , though many deaths in rural Mexico may have gone unreported ; the total death toll could have exceeded 150 .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 12 : 00 UTC on June 24 , 1954 , a moderate tropical storm formed about 270 miles ( 435 km ) east of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . In 2015 , NOAA researchers working on reanalysis with the Hurricane Research Division examined observations to determine whether Alice formed earlier , but were unsuccessful due to sparse surface weather observations over the Bay of Campeche . The first observation of gale @-@ force winds occurred at 18 : 00 UTC on June 24 , when a ship reported 60 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 97 km / h ) winds and an atmospheric pressure of 999 millibars ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) , indicating a well @-@ developed cyclone in the area . Based on these data , scientists concluded that Alice likely formed earlier than indicated , but went undetected until that day . Regardless , Alice steadily intensified almost immediately upon detection as it headed northwestward , strengthening into the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale by 00 : 00 UTC on June 25 . Early on that day , a ship calibrated the rapid strengthening of the storm , measuring winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) at 08 : 17 UTC . As Alice neared the coast of Mexico , reconnaissance aircraft known as Hurricane Hunters began tracking the eye of the hurricane , but apparently did not penetrate the center of the storm . They did , however , provide information about the position of the storm .
The storm continued to intensify rapidly as it approached the coastline south of the United States – Mexico border . Based on aircraft observations , research suggests that Alice made landfall about 60 mi ( 97 km ) south of Matamoros , Tamaulipas , at 14 : 00 UTC on June 25 . The storm affected a thinly populated segment of the Mexican coastline , and few observations were available to determine the strength of the hurricane . One report , taken about 100 mi ( 161 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas , suggested top winds of at least 70 to 80 mph ( 113 to 129 km / h ) . Prior to scientific reexamination , HURDAT — the official database containing tracks and intensities of cyclones in the North Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific regions — listed top winds of 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) at landfall in Mexico . However , a radiosonde , launched from Brownsville in time for the 12 : 00 UTC observation , recorded winds of 150 mph ( 241 km / h ) from the southeast at 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 m ) in elevation . Based on this measurement , which may have represented winds in the eyewall , researchers determined that Hurricane Alice was likely significantly stronger at landfall than previously assessed . They analyzed Alice as having struck Mexico with winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , while noting the great uncertainty and the possibility that the storm may have even been much stronger than this . The central pressure in the eye was probably 975 mb ( 28 @.@ 79 inHg ) or lower , as corroborated by observations well inland in Texas . Therefore , Alice was at least equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane at landfall and conceivably could have attained major hurricane status .
After hitting land , Hurricane Alice gradually weakened as it approximately followed the Rio Grande , crossing into southern Texas near La Grulla just before 00 : 00 UTC on June 26 . The storm by then had weakened back to a moderate tropical storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , but it still produced gale @-@ force winds in several communities across southern Texas ; a few areas in Texas may have even experienced hurricane @-@ force winds for brief periods before the storm entered the state , but there are no observations to confirm such winds . The storm likely caused winds of at least 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) in southern Texas . As it crossed into Texas , Tropical Storm Alice curved more to the north @-@ northwest early on June 26 before assuming a sharp bend back westward later in the day . The storm degenerated into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC and dissipated early on June 27 near the Big Bend National Park in Texas .
= = Impact = =
Before Alice moved ashore , about 50 Girl Scouts at a camp were evacuated to a center in Brownsville , Texas . The residents of Padre Island were also evacuated . Residents in the storm 's path were unprepared due to the storm forming suddenly . The United States Coast Guard spread the word about the storm by traversing the coast and advising residents to seek shelter . Officials at the U.S. Weather Bureau posted northwest storm warnings for the Brownsville area , recommending that small boats to stay at harbor . Damages along the coastline at the point of landfall were relatively light . Winds in Brownsville reached 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , which created flying debris that injured one man . Moderate to strong gales affected the Rio Grande Valley inland over southern Texas . Across the border , minor damage was reported in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , and one person there was killed by a fallen power line . A few shrimp fishing boats were driven ashore by heavy winds . Although later there was severe flooding further inland , a dam along the Rio Grande prevented significant flooding in the Brownsville area .
Most of the damage resulting from Alice was caused by heavy rain in the inland areas of Texas , Tamaulipas and Coahuila ; damage was exacerbated in these areas by drought conditions that rendered the soil especially vulnerable to erosion . Estimates of peak rainfall within 12 hours vary from 22 inches ( 56 cm ) to 26 inches ( 132 cm ) , and a total of 35 inches ( 89 cm ) of rain fell in 24 hours , approaching the world record that had been set by an unnamed hurricane in Texas in 1921 . However , a 2010 report on the storm 's rainfall indicated a maximum of 24 @.@ 07 in ( 611 mm ) near Pandale , of which 16 @.@ 02 in ( 407 mm ) fell in a 24 ‑ hour period .
The peak rainfall occurred in a small area centered near the Pecos River . A location along the Johnson Draw reported 11 in ( 280 mm ) of rainfall after receiving minimal precipitation in the previous three years . In addition , some locals in western Texas experienced rainfall from Alice that exceed yearly averages . This contributed to significant flooding along the Pecos River , reaching a flood stage of 55 ft ( 17 m ) in Pandale . The flooding swept away a group of fishermen in Sheffield as well as at a location 10 mi ( 16 km ) north of Pandale , killing four . Downstream , the river crested at 96 @.@ 24 ft ( 29 @.@ 33 m ) , which washed out a highway and three railroad bridges . A temporary bridge was built between Eagle Pass and Piedro Negro by July 10 , or two weeks after the storm . The destroyed rail lines stranded a Sunset Limited train , which prompted the passengers to evacuate to nearby Langtry . The flooding also stranded a Southern Pacific train , whose occupants were later evacuated by helicopters . The peak river crest corresponded to a discharge rate of 948 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ( 26 @,@ 800 m ³ / s ) , which the International Boundary and Water Commission remarked was " probably the greatest rate of runoff for a watershed of [ that ] size in the United States . " Heavy rain fell across all of southern Texas and northern Mexico as a result of Alice , causing flash floods in inland areas . Ozona , Texas was the town most affected by the floods , sustaining $ 2 million in damage ( 1954 USD ) , as well as 15 deaths . Early on the morning of June 25 , a " wall of water " as high as 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) poured out of a dry gully and overwhelmed most of the town . Roughly a third of Ozona had to be evacuated , and many livestock there were killed . About 500 families were left homeless in the town . United States military helicopters worked to rescue people trapped by the floodwaters . In all , at least seven towns experienced flooding from the storm on either side of the border , including Lamesa and Laredo , Texas which were badly damaged by flash floods .
The Rio Grande rose well above flood level at the cities of Eagle Pass , Texas and Piedras Negras , Coahuila . While the city of Eagle Pass was evacuated , Piedras Negras was not . Both cities were completely flooded , and the dike intended to protect Piedras Negras from floods was washed away . At least 38 people ( some sources say 39 ) were killed in Piedras Negras after the dike collapsed . In Eagle Pass , the commercial sector was flooded by over 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of waters , which let heavy losses . Before the storm began producing heavy rainfall , officials anticipated moderate river flooding that would peak at less than the flood of 1948 . The river crested at Laredo , Texas , where waters reached a peak of 62 @.@ 2 feet ( 19 m ) , at least 10 feet ( 3 m ) above the previous record flood . High waters caused the water treatment plants to fail there , which prevented the safe delivery of fresh water until July 1 . The International Bridge connecting Laredo and Nuevo Laredo was swept away . Although severe damage occurred in the latter city , no deaths were recorded in either city due to evacuations . Flooding along the Rio Grande was the highest since 1865 , and was considered a 1 in 2000 year event . About 12 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from nearby Ciudad Acuña following the flood . There , the floods left heavy damage .
Estimates for total death toll range from 55 to 153 . Death toll estimates for Texas range from 17 to 38 , though official records indicate that the 38 deaths occurred in Mexico rather than Texas . Estimates of the deaths in Mexico , where records are less complete , vary more widely . Several of the deaths in Texas were homeless people attempting to enter the United States , and as a result their deaths were not counted . Monetary damage figures are not available , but it is known that flooding from Alice caused considerable damage to crops , primarily cotton .
= = Aftermath and records = =
While Alice left almost unprecedented flooding in its wake , the storm itself was not an unheard @-@ of occurrence : a similar storm in 1921 , which followed a comparative track , caused significant flooding in Texas as well , albeit not in the same areas affected by the floods of 1954 . Following the devastation left by Alice , members of the U.S. Air Force , Navy , and Army flew 21 helicopters with over 81 tons of relief supplies to the affected people of Mexico and Texas , including food , water , medicine , and clothing . The disastrous flooding caused by Hurricane Alice along the Rio Grande accelerated the joint US – Mexico Amistad Dam project , a series of flood control dams designed to prevent similar catastrophes in the future . The project , in the planning stages for decades before the storm , was finally begun in 1960 .
Leftover waters from the storm led to an increase in mosquitoes in Texas , which prompted a widespread application of larvicide via airplane . On July 1 , the flood areas of southern Texas were declared a major disaster area . This followed a delivery of 2 flood specialists , 20 laborers , 2 portable water treatment plants , 7 trucks , and a quantity of insecticides and water treatment tablets . Residents in Laredo , Texas provided citizens of its neighboring city Nuevo Laredo , Mexico with food and water . The Mexican government provided temporary homes for the affected citizens of the flood . American officials distributed typhoid vaccinations , water purification tablets , and insecticides to the American cities along the Rio Grande . Safe water was eventually restored to Laredo , Texas on July 12 . All emergency work related to the disaster was finished by September 3 .
Besides flooding , Hurricane Alice was also notable for another reason : it made landfall with some of the strongest winds in a June hurricane on record . With top winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , the cyclone was the second @-@ strongest Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the month of June , behind only Hurricane Audrey in 1957 , which made landfall in Louisiana with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . The storm was somewhat analogous to Hurricane Alex , which also affected the same region in 2010 with winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , though Alex made landfall in early July .
= New York State Route 31 =
New York State Route 31 ( NY 31 ) is a state highway that extends for 208 @.@ 74 miles ( 335 @.@ 93 km ) across western and central New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 104 in the city of Niagara Falls . Its eastern terminus is at a traffic circle with NY 26 in Vernon Center , a hamlet within the town of Vernon . Over its routing , NY 31 spans 10 counties and indirectly connects three major urban areas in Upstate New York : Buffalo – Niagara Falls , Rochester , and Syracuse . The route is one of the longest routes in New York State , paralleling two similarly lengthy routes , NY 104 to the north and NY 5 to the south , as well as the Erie Canal , as it proceeds east .
Much of NY 31 west of Jordan was originally designated as part of a legislative route from the late 1900s to the early 1920s . NY 31 itself was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s , utilizing all of legislative Route 30 ( modern NY 31 , NY 429 , and NY 104 ) west of Rochester and much of its current alignment from Rochester to Lenox . At Lenox , NY 31 turned southeast to follow what is now NY 316 and NY 46 to NY 5 in Oneida . It was realigned by 1929 to continue west to Lewiston on Ridge Road and altered in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to continue east to Utica via Verona . With the advent of U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ) c . 1935 , NY 31 was realigned west of Rochester to follow most of its modern routing .
NY 31 was truncated westward to NY 365 in Verona in the early 1940s , moving the eastern terminus of NY 31 to the same junction that also had served as the northern terminus of New York State Route 234 , a north – south route that extended southeastward to Vernon Center , since the early 1930s . The two routes continued to share a terminus until 1981 , when ownership and maintenance of part of NY 234 was transferred from the state of New York to Oneida County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the state acquired a pair of county roads that followed a routing parallel to that of the transferred section of NY 234 . The new state highways and the remainder of NY 234 became an extension of NY 31 .
= = Route description = =
Most of NY 31 is owned by the state of New York and maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , some sections of the route — mostly within cities — are locally owned and maintained . In the cities of Niagara Falls and Rochester , NY 31 is completely city @-@ owned . Another city @-@ maintained section exists in the city of Lockport from Washburn Street ( five blocks east of NY 78 ) to the eastern city line . Two villages — Medina and Newark — also maintain parts of NY 31 . In Medina , the locally owned section begins at the Falls Road Railroad crossing in the village center and ends at Center Street ( NY 31E ) . The portion in Newark , meanwhile , extends from Mason Street ( one block west of NY 88 ) to the eastern village line .
As of 2009 , the most heavily trafficked segments of NY 31 lie in and around the city of Rochester . The busiest of these , from Interstate 590 ( I @-@ 590 ) to NY 65 in the eastern suburb of Brighton , carries in excess of 40 @,@ 000 vehicles per day on average . Two other segments — between South and Woodbury Avenues in downtown Rochester and from NY 65 to French Road in Brighton and Pittsford — have traffic volumes in excess of 30 @,@ 000 vehicles . On the other hand , the portion of NY 31 in the Oneida County town of Vernon between the Vernon Downs racetrack and Youngs Road handles just 910 cars per day on average , making it the least @-@ traveled segment of the route .
= = = Western New York = = =
NY 31 begins at an intersection with NY 104 in northern Niagara Falls . After a short distance eastward through the northern fringe of the city as College Avenue , the road encounters NY 61 at the northeastern city line . NY 31 continues northeastward into the town of Niagara , following Witmer Road to an interchange with I @-@ 190 at exit 24 . Past I @-@ 190 , NY 31 meets NY 265 south of the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant reservoir
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China . Atmospheric conditions became increasingly more hostile as Saomai tracked northeast , and the typhoon became elongated and ragged in appearance . At 1200 UTC on September 15 , Saomai was downgraded to severe tropical storm intensity as the cyclone began to undergo extratropical transition . At around 2030 UTC that day , Saomai made its final landfall as a tropical system west of Pusan , South Korea ; after emerging into the Yellow Sea the storm was declared extratropical at 0600 UTC the next day . These remnants later tracked inland near Vladivostok , Russia before dissipating on September 19 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Northern Mariana Islands and Guam = = =
Early in Saomai 's developmental history , the rainbands associated with the storm dropped heavy rain across the Northern Mariana Islands . Schools across the archipelago nation were closed , and ferry service between Saipan and Tinian was cancelled . Reports of flooding were widespread , including in Saipan . In Tianan , some banana trees were damaged by the storm 's affects . Damage from the islands amounted to US $ 650 @,@ 000 , with $ 600 @,@ 000 to infrastructure .
The presence of the nearby tropical cyclone caused the delaying of two flights and the cancellation of another at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport . On Guam , the United States Navy ordered the release of ships from the local harbor . There , peaked at 251 mm ( 9 @.@ 90 in ) over a 24 @-@ hour period at Piti . At the National Weather Service office in Tiyan , a gauge observed 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 95 in ) of rain . Gusty winds were also associated with Saomai 's outer rainbands , with gusts peaking at a measured 105 km / h ( 66 mph ) on September 4 . The winds caused power outage in localized areas and downed two telephone poles . Severe flooding occurred in Merizo after a storm drain became clogged with debris , inundating six houses .
= = = Japan = = =
On September 10 , rough seas caused by Saomai capsized a fishing boat off of Shizuoka Prefecture , causing one person to go missing . Another occupant of the boat was rescued three hours after the sinking by police helicopter . The waves also caused a dozen containers from the South Korean Heunga Nagoya to fall into the sea 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) off the coast of Susami and Wakayama Prefecture . Off of Oita Prefecture , the waves were the impetus for red tides , resulting in significant marine loss . The approach of the typhoon towards Okinawa coincided with the approach of a weather front over mainland Japan , resulting in prolonged rainfall over the mainland . The rains caused extensive flooding , prompting the Cabinet of Japan to make reassurances in the repair of the ensuing damage . Rail service along the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka was suspended for more than 18 hours at one point , the longest delay to be enforced in the rail 's service history . As a result , 50 @,@ 000 passengers were forced to wait out the storm in the line 's stopped trains . Toyota closed 24 of its manufacturing plants , resulting in the incompletion of 10 @,@ 000 vehicles . Similarly , Mitsubishi stopped production at two of its facilities in Nagoya . Japan Airlines , All Nippon Airways , and Japan Air System cancelled a combined 114 fights , which adversely affected about 21 @,@ 000 people .
Across the country , rainfall peaked at 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 @.@ 37 in ) in Miyagawa , Mie ; the same station also recorded 522 mm ( 20 @.@ 55 in ) of rain in a single 24 @-@ hour period . As a result of the flooding in Mie , 2 @,@ 819 homes were inundated and 25 landslides occurred . Several buildings succumbed to the water and thus collapsed . Extensive power outage occurred in Kagoshima Prefecture , affecting approximately 4 @,@ 500 households . In addition , the heavy rains caused damage to agriculture , including sugar cane crops . Damage in the prefecture totaled JP ¥ 356 million ( US $ 3 million ) . Similar effects were felt across Kyushu . Several flights into Nagasaki Prefecture were cancelled ; the rains there also caused agricultural damage totaling JP ¥ 99 million ( US $ 900 @,@ 000 ) . Flooding also occurred on Shikoku , where rainfall totals peaked at 976 mm ( 38 @.@ 43 in ) in Funato , Kōchi . Severe damage occurred elsewhere in Kōchi , where combined forestry and agricultural damage figures reached JP ¥ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 19 million ) . In Tokushima Prefecture , several landslides occurred , disrupting transportation routes .
Record rainfall was observed in Aichi Prefecture , with 511 mm ( 21 @.@ 69 in ) of rain in Tokai and 532 mm ( 20 @.@ 94 in ) of rain in Nagoya in a span of a single day ; both observations were the highest since records began in 1891 . Due to the threat of landslides in Nagoya , the municipal government ordered the evacuation of 140 @,@ 000 families . In the ward of Nakagawa @-@ ku , two rivers overflowed their banks and over @-@ topped the surrounding embankment . Two tornadoes occurred in the prefecture , with one striking Mihama and another striking Minamichita ; the former tornado injured 22 people , of which two were hospitalized . Another 41 @,@ 000 families encompassing 400 @,@ 000 people were evacuated across Aichi , Gifu , and Mie prefectures as a precautionary measure .
Damage in Okinawa , the site of Saomai 's first landfall , was considerable but not unprecedented . On September 10 , the provincial government established a disaster warning headquarters on Daito Island to more efficiently deal with the typhoon 's effects . Rainfall peaked on Mount Yonaha , where a station recorded 537 mm ( 21 @.@ 14 in ) of rain . During the storm , 31 roads sustained damage and 26 landslides occurred . Damage in Okinawa Prefecture reached JP ¥ 636 million ( US $ 6 million ) . Overall , Saomai caused the destruction of 609 homes and the inundation of 70 @,@ 017 others in Japan . Damage costs in the country totaled JP ¥ 24 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 223 million ) . Eleven people were killed and 103 others suffered injury . At the height of the storm , over 17 @,@ 000 people had been displaced in emergency shelters .
= = = Korean peninsula = = =
As Saomai approached South Korea , the typhoon forced the cancellation of flights beginning on September 12 . Four airports had their air service suspended . Other suspensions of transportation included the refuge of 362 fishing boats in ports and the closure of 10 national parks and 43 mountain paths . As a result , about 16 @,@ 600 campers and hikers were evacuated to safer areas . As a result of the inclement weather , the operation of 149 passenger ships were cancelled . On September 13 , the Korea Meteorological Administration ( KMA ) issued a typhoon warning for waters south of South Korea and Jeju Province . The administration anticipated heavy rainfall , though not as much as what had taken place in Japan . Offshore , an Indonesian freighter with 39 crewmen became stranded by the typhoon in waters south of Pusan . The crew were rescued by maritime police , but 270 tons of oil spilled into the ocean from a broken oil container .
In South Korea , the northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces were the most heavily impacted . At least 6 @,@ 000 ha ( 15 @,@ 000 ac ) of paddy fields were flooded . Heavy rains caused the Nakdong River to breach a section of embankment , prompting the evacuation of 100 families . Flood warnings were issued by the KMA on sections of the river for the first time in 2000 . In South Gyeongsang , an electricity pylon collapsed , cutting power supply to about 700 houses . Strong winds uprooted trees and destroyed homes and fishing boats in Pusan . Countrywide , losses were initially estimated at KR ₩ 20 billion ( US $ 18 million ) , though these figures later rose to US $ 71 million . As a result of Saomai , eight people were killed , and 411 others were displaced . More than 600 buildings were either inundated or destroyed entirely . At the height of the storm , roughly 422 @,@ 000 households were without power , primarily in northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces .
Relatively minor damage occurred in North Korea , previously impacted by Typhoon Prapiroon earlier in September . Rainfall peaked at 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 79 in ) in Kaesong . Saomai somewhat exacerbated the unprecedented damage caused by Prapiroon , and damaged maize crops which were set to be harvested in the coming weeks .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
At its closest approach to China , Saomai generated high waves that coincided with high tide , resulting in extensive damage . In preparation for the storm , schools in Ningbo were forced to close , and ferry service was discontinued . Over 20 @,@ 000 people were evacuated by the Chinese government onto higher land . The most severely affected Chinese province was Zhejiang . A station in Dinghai District observed 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 02 in ) of rain in 18 hours , equivalent to more than half of that station 's monthly average . In Zhoushan , 20 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland were inundated and 2 @,@ 500 homes collapsed . Off the island , ten fishing boats collided , and another oil tanker capsized . Areas in Gaoting were submerged under as much as 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of water . Off the coast , 225 boats and 130 piers were damaged . In Shanghai , 20 streets were flooded and hundreds of homes were flooded with water . At nearby Hongquiao Airport , an Airbus A340 bound for Paris slipped off the runway . Though no people were injured , the airport was closed for eight hours . The typhoon also caused the Huangpu River to rise to its third highest level in recorded history .
Despite being a much weaker storm upon impacting Russia , Saomai 's rains flooded coal retrieval sites , cutting down on electric power supplies in Primorsky Krai . Due to the shortages , electric power was transferred there from other surrounding areas . Furthermore , a 50 percent decrease in electricity output was documented at the local power station in Luchegorsk . To the south , an overflowing of the Kazachka River prompted the evacuation of over 60 people . Overall , 55 automobile accidents occurred in eastern Russia , leading to nine fatalities and 76 people injured .
= Action of 3 February 1812 =
The Action of 3 February 1812 was an unusual minor naval engagement off the western coast of Haiti between a British frigate and a frigate manned by a loose collation of Haitian rebels . The battle was fought against the background of the Napoleonic Wars and the collapse of government in Haiti in the aftermath of the Haitian Revolution eight years earlier . After the French had been expelled from Haiti in 1804 , the newly independent nation was first ruled by Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines , who was murdered in 1806 and replaced by two of his advisors , Henri Christophe and Alexandre Pétion . These rulers divided the country between them and in the confused political situation that followed a number of minor fiefdoms appeared , including one led by Jérôme Maximilien Borgella in the south of the island called the Sud Department . The small Haitian Navy defected to Borgella , who crewed the vessels with a collection of sailors from various countries , led by a notorious privateer named Gaspard .
Stationed off Haiti was the British frigate HMS Southampton under Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo , tasked with observing the political situation but with orders not to interfere in the intermittent conflict between Christophe and Pétion . Yeo 's orders did not include Borgella 's ships and Yeo reasoned that the Haitian flagship , the large frigate Heureuse Réunion ( recently renamed from Améthyste and often reported under its former name ) , presented a serious threat to international trade in the region .
Sailing to intercept the Haitian ship , Yeo discovered her in the Gulf of Léogane and ordered Gaspard to surrender . The Haitian refused , and the frigates exchanged shots at 06 : 30 . The superior seamanship and discipline on Southampton prevented Gaspard from boarding the British ship with his greater numbers and within half an hour Heureuse Réunion was dismasted and battered . At 07 : 45 the Haitian ship surrendered , Yeo depositing the crew ashore and bringing Heureuse Réunion to Port Royal , Jamaica . At Jamaica , his actions were approved by his superiors and Heureuse Réunion , renamed Améthyste , was returned to Henri Christophe .
= = Background = =
During the Napoleonic Wars , the Caribbean Sea was initially an important theatre of naval conflict , as ships operating from the various French , British , Spanish and Dutch colonies preyed on enemy trade . During 1809 and 1810 however , the Royal Navy launched a series of co @-@ ordinated amphibious operations that eliminated the French and Dutch colonies
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anela ( Gabriela , Cloves and Cinnamon ) . Perhaps the best @-@ known product of Caymmi and Amado 's collaboration is the song " É Doce Morrer no Mar " ( " It 's Sweet to Die in the Sea " ) , which the two wrote over dinner one night at Amado 's home . Other songs they co @-@ wrote include " Beijos pela Noite " ( " Kisses Through the Night " ) , " Modinha para Teresa Batista " ( " A Little Song for Teresa Batista " ) , " Retirantes " ( " Migrants " ) , and " Essa Nega Fulô " ( " This Feisty Dark Lady " ) .
= = Awards and honors = =
To thank Caymmi for bringing international attention to Brazilian music and culture , in 1968 , the governor of Bahia presented Caymmi with a house in Salvador , and so he returned to live in his hometown for a short period of time . In 1972 , Caymmi was awarded the Order of Merit of the State of Bahia , an order given to Bahian residents for excellent service to the state . In Caymmi 's case , the service was bringing pride and honor to Bahian people through the widespread dissemination of his music about life there . On Caymmi 's 70th birthday , in 1984 , French Minister of Culture Jack Lang presented him with the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , a French order that recognizes significant contributors to the fields of art and literature , in Paris . The following year , a new street named Avenida Dorival Caymmi ( Dorival Caymmi Avenue ) opened in Salvador . In 1986 , Rio de Janeiro 's famed Mangueira samba school based its Carnaval performance on Caymmi 's life and work , and the school won the annual parade @-@ style samba competition . In 2015 , his tribute album Centenário Caymmy was nominated for the 16th Latin Grammy Awards in the Best MPB Album category .
= = Personal life = =
Although Caymmi earned his fame through music , he was also known to a lesser degree for his paintings . From 1943 to 1945 , he regularly attended a drawing and painting class at the Escola de Belas Artes , a fine arts school in Rio de Janeiro . Even after discontinuing his formal study , he painted for the rest of his life . He practiced Candomblé , an Afro @-@ Brazilian religion characterized by belief in spirit @-@ gods and ritualistic practices involving mediumship . Candomblé was his father 's religion , and Caymmi gradually involved himself more with it as an adult , when his friends invited him to accompany them to religious ceremonies and parties . Caymmi was also a naturist , and when he was in Bahia , he liked to bathe nude in the Lagoa do Abaeté ( Abaeté Lagoon ) with a group of friends . He stated to the newspaper Valor Econômico : " We rolled around in palm leaves and slipped through the mountains of sand . Some people didn 't like this , but most understood that we weren 't naked for unclean reasons . "
= = = Marriage = = =
While working at Rádio Nacional in 1939 , he met Brazilian vocalist Adelaide Tostes , who is better known by her stage name Stella Maris , and the two married in 1940 . Tostes responded to a 1994 press query about Caymmi 's habit of frequenting bars with a short story : " One night I went to look for him in a bar ... He was surrounded by women . I went in and slammed a table . A glass broke . The bouncer came , and I punched Caymmi 's face . Then I left cussing . I thought he was involved with drugs , but it wasn 't the case . He was with the tramps . " Despite such incidents , however , they remained together for 68 years , until his death in 2008 . The couple had three children , Nana , Danilo , and Dori , all of whom followed their father into musical careers .
= = = Politics = = =
Although Caymmi rarely incorporated political messages into his music , he often spoke bitterly about the government 's corruption . Jorge Amado , his close friend , was sent into exile for several years after he publicly criticized the country 's rulers during the period of military dictatorship . In 1994 , Caymmi said , " I have concluded that to act as a citizen in Brazil today is to live a joke . It 's the same as playing the lotto , dreaming about nonsense , trying to get rich when you are 80 . "
= = Death = =
Dorival Caymmi died at age 94 of kidney cancer and multiple organ failure on August 16 , 2008 , at his home in Copacabana , Rio de Janeiro . His granddaughter , Stella , who wrote a biography about him in 2001 , said , " He did not know that he had cancer , and he did not want to know . He did not ask much about this . He was first hospitalized in 1999 . My grandfather went through with treatment , but he did not want to know anything about the illness . He acted with serenity every day , and because of that , we respected this wish . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Brazilian singer and composer Carlos Lyra praised Caymmi 's style for its " suave and romantic colloquialism . " In a 1994 anthology of Caymmi 's work , Antônio Carlos Jobim wrote in the introduction , “ Dorival is a universal genius . He picked up the guitar and orchestrated the world . ” In 2001 , New York Times journalist Ben Ratliff wrote that Caymmi was " perhaps second only to Antônio Carlos Jobim in ' establishing a songbook of this century ’ s Brazilian identity . ' " On the day of Caymmi 's death in 2008 , Brazilian composer and musician Tom Zé said , " It 's difficult to comprehend just how valuable a CD of Caymmi 's beach songs from the 1940s is . " Also around the time of Caymmi 's death , President of Brazil Luis Inácio Lula da Silva called him " one of the founders of Brazilian popular music . " Several of Caymmi 's contemporaries , including Gal Costa and Olivia Hime , have recorded tributes to him .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Prior to 1988 , all of Caymmi 's albums were released as LP records . His last four albums were released as CDs .
= = = Singles = = =
All of Caymmi 's singles were released as 78 rpm gramophone records .
= = = Tributes = = =
Note
A. ^ Reissued under new label .
= Defenders of Ardania =
Defenders of Ardania is a hybrid tower defense and real @-@ time strategy video game for the Windows PC , iOS , Xbox Live Arcade , and PlayStation Network . It was developed by Most Wanted Entertainment and published by Deep Silver and Paradox Interactive . The game was released December 6 , 2011 for the iOS and on March 14 , 2012 on all other platforms . Defenders of Ardania has an ESRB rating of Teen , a PEGI rating of 12 , and a USK rating of 12 . The game 's iOS release was well received by some critics and poorly received by others . A subsequent release on the PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 was significantly less well received .
= = Gameplay = =
Defenders of Ardania is a tower defense game that also has offensive real @-@ time strategy elements . As with all tower defense games , the player must defend their home base by building several types of static tower units that fire at weak offensive units spawned by the opponent . In Defenders of Ardania , however , players must also spawn soldiers themselves . Like the opponent 's soldiers , the player 's soldiers move along a fixed path towards their opponent 's base and cannot be directly maneuvered by the player . The game is won if units spawned by the player get past the opponent 's towers and destroy the opponent 's base before the opponent 's units get past the player 's towers and destroy the player 's base .
The game features a campaign mode with eighteen levels , pitting the player , controlling human , elven , and dwarven land and air units against a computer opponent controlling undead units . There is also a multiplayer mode that supports up to four players , either in free for all or two versus two format . In the multiplayer , players can choose from one of three factions to play as ; the single player campaign 's human faction , an animal @-@ filled faction , or the undead faction .
= = Reception = =
Defenders of Ardania received a mix of positive and negative reviews for the iOS but mixed to poor reviews on the PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 .
For the iOS , 148Apps gave the game four and a half out of five stars , praising the game 's visuals and level of detail , and expressing dissatisfaction only with the game 's tutorial . Eric Ford of TouchArcade , another iOS reviewer , gave Defenders of Ardania four out of five stars , praising the visuals as " beautiful " and " gorgeous " and saying that the game " is an excellent addition to the tower defense genre and is a must @-@ try for any fan " . Ford did , however , criticize the tutorial , expressing a desire for a tutorial mission rather than instructional screens . Mat Jones of The Average Gamer gave the game a highly negative review , saying that the game was not challenging and that concepts , such as the ability during one level to attack multiple bases and change which one player 's units went towards , were never explained . Jones concluded his review by saying that " Defenders of Ardania isn ’ t a quality product and you probably shouldn ’ t spend money on it . "
Reviews were universally less than positive on other systems . While critics praised the idea of the game , they found fault in the execution . Several critics disliked that the troops spawned by the player simply walk past the troops spawned by the opponent without the two groups fighting . The game 's flow also attracted significant criticism , with Peter Eykemans of IGN saying " Even on double speed , the pace is painful . This makes a simple two @-@ person battle turn into a lengthy saga of repeating the same actions over and over again . " and Ray Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly complaining of " long drawn out matches on even the easiest difficulty settings as you try to force your way past a virtual stalemate " . While the visuals did receive praise , critics felt that they also got in the way of allowing the player to tell what was going on in the game . Opinions about the narrator were mixed . Henry Winchester of PC Gamer praised the voiceover , calling it " a pleasingly booze @-@ obsessed voiceover , delivered by what sounds like a Dalek doing an impression of Sean Connery " . Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly was less kind , stating that " your narrator and chief advisor sounds like an awful Sean Connery impersonator and he may be the best of the voice actors you come across " . GamesRadar strikes a more neutral tone , stating that " Pre and post @-@ battle dialog is fully voiced by what are only technically ' actors , ' but it definitely beats silent text , and does add a bit of flavor to the world . " Multiplayer also received mixed reviews . Eykemans of IGN suggested that multiplayer exacerbates the length and flow issues already present in the single player game , while Matt Hughes of GamesRadar calls multiplayer the game 's " biggest asset " , stating that " Playing against real humans definitely ramps up the intensity and reduces the cheap exploitation found in the campaign . " .
= Action of 29 November 1811 =
The Action of 29 November 1811 was a minor naval engagement fought between two frigate squadrons in the Adriatic Sea during the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars . The action was one of a series of operations conducted by the British Royal Navy and the French Navy to contest dominance over the Adriatic between 1807 and 1814 . During this period the Adriatic was surrounded by French territory or French client states and as a result British interference was highly disruptive to the movement of French troops and supplies .
The action came over eight months after the British had achieved a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of Lissa and was the first squadron action since that engagement . The action of November 1811 was the result of the British interception of a French military convoy traveling from Corfu to Trieste with a consignment of cannon , and resulted in a British victory , only one French ship escaping capture by the British force . It has been suggested that this action was a factor in Napoleon 's decision to change the direction of his planned eastwards expansion in 1812 from the Balkans to Russia .
= = Background = =
Since the War of the Third Coalition , the French had maintained client kingdoms in Italy and Naples that controlled the western shores of the Adriatic . Over the next four years , strategically important islands and territories had been seized in the treaties of Tilsit and Schönbrunn , giving Napoleon direct command of the eastern shore . With these treaties , France had seized not only several important fortress islands , most notably Corfu , but also many important shipyards and harbours . Maintaining control of the Adriatic was however even harder than seizing it had been , the threat of attack by Austrian , Russian or Ottoman armies and the mountainous terrain of the Balkans forcing the development of garrisons that could be effectively resupplied only by sea .
The Royal Navy , preeminent in the Mediterranean since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , sought to disrupt French convoys across the Adriatic . Following the Russian withdrawal in 1807 , the Royal Navy dispatched a small frigate squadron to operate in the sea . The squadron was commanded by Captain William Hoste , who seized the Illyrian island of Lissa ( present @-@ day Vis ) to use as a base , waging a campaign against the French and their allies that forced the French Navy to deploy significantly larger forces to combat him . This escalating series of raid and counter raid continued until March 1811 , when the French commander in the Adriatic , Bernard Dubourdieu attacked Lissa with force twice that available to Hoste . In the ensuing battle Hoste not only routed his opponents , but captured two ships , sank another and killed Dubourdieu .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Lissa , the badly wounded Hoste returned to Britain in HMS Amphion leaving Captain James Brisbane in command in the Adriatic . Conflict in the theatre was widely dispersed , and so Brisbane delegated command to various commanders of small squadrons and independent cruisers . These dispersed forces continued to have success against French convoys ; on 27 November 1811 , the independently sailing HMS Eagle foiled an attempt to send supplies to Corfu and captured the unarmed frigate Corceyre . The following day at 07 : 00 , a message was received at Port St. George on Lissa warning that another French convoy had been sighted close to the island .
= = Chase = =
The British commander on Lissa in November 1811 was Captain Murray Maxwell of HMS Alceste with two other frigates and a sloop . Maxwell responded to the signal by readying his squadron to seek out and destroy the convoy , but the attempted invasion of Lissa the previous March had bred caution in the British defenders and Maxwell was therefore compelled to disembark 30 sailors and most of his marines at Port St. George and leave behind the 20 @-@ gun HMS Acorn to protect the harbour . This not only weakened the squadron but also delayed it , Maxwell 's force not departing Port St. George until 19 : 00 . It was assumed among the British squadron that the convoy comprised Danaé , Flore and Corona , the survivors of the Battle of Lissa now sailing from Trieste to Corfu to supply the island .
Shortly after passing the southern headland of Lissa , the British squadron encountered a neutral merchant ship that had been carrying Lieutenant John McDougal , formerly of HMS Unite , to Malta . McDougal had seen the French ships in passing and identified them as a convoy heading north from Corfu rather than south to it , and had ordered the merchant ship to return him to Lissa to bring warning . The French convoy was under the command of Commodore François @-@ Gilles Montfort and consisted of three ships , the two large frigates Pomone and Pauline and the smaller Persanne . The convoy had departed Corfu on 16 November carrying a cargo of cannon to Trieste .
= = = Squadrons = = =
Key
A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received .
The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle .
= = Battle = =
Casting south close to the island of Augusta ( Lastovo ) , Captain Gordon in Active sighted the French force at 09 : 20 on 29 November , sailing to the north @-@ west . Initially the French ships held their course , but on determining that the approaching squadron was British , Montfort spread all sail to escape pursuit . By 11 : 00 it was evident that Persanne could not maintain the pace of the two larger frigates and so turned north @-@ east in hopes of escaping independently . Active initially gave chase to the smaller ship , but Maxwell recalled her and sent Unite after Persanne , keeping Active and Alceste in pursuit of the larger French ships . At 11 : 50 it became clear that Alceste would soon catch the heavily laden French ships , and Maxwell sent the telegraph signal to Gordon ; " Remember the battle of Lissa " , the action of eight months before at which Hoste had raised the signal " Remember Nelson " .
The first shots were fired at 12 : 30 by Persanne close to the island of Pelagosa ( Palagruža ) , but the main action did not begin for another hour , when Alceste and Pomone exchanged shots from their stern and bow guns . By 13 : 40 , Alceste was firing her broadside into Pomone and simultaneously pressing on all sail in an effort to reach Pauline , but this ambition was thwarted when a shot from Pomone brought down Alceste 's main topmast , slowing her suddenly and allowing Pauline to pull a little ahead . At 14 : 00 , Active had arrived in action and was also firing into Pomone , forcing Montfort to bring Pauline round to protect her outgunned colleague . By 14 : 20 the conflicts between Active and Pomone and Alceste and Pauline had separated into different duels , Pomone particularly suffering severely but Active also taking heavy damage , a 32 @-@ pounder carronade shot severing Captain Gordon 's leg at the height of the engagement .
At 15 : 05 another British ship appeared on the horizon , the sloop HMS Kingfisher , which persuaded Montfort that he could no longer protect the battered Pomone against superior numbers . Pauline set all sail to the west , away from her opponents who were either too battered or too distant to pursue . Alceste and Active now concentrated their full broadsides on Pomone , which soon lost both masts and was forced to surrender to prevent total destruction . Pauline escaped , later reaching Ancona safely but having suffered severe damage in the engagement .
= = = Unite vs. Persanne = = =
The secondary engagement of the battle was contested initially within sight of the other combatants , Persanne firing the first shots at the pursuing Unite at 12 : 30 . The smaller size of these vessels made them faster and more maneuverable than their larger counterparts , and as a result it was not until 16 : 00 that Unite caught the smaller ship . During the pursuit , the ships had exchanged long @-@ range shots from their stern and bow guns which caused six casualties aboard Unite but none on Persanne . From external appearances , Persanne seemed to be a frigate of similar size to the fifth rate Unite , but in fact the French ship was only lightly armed , carrying 26 small guns to her opponents 36 . As a result , when it became clear that his ship could not outrun Unite , Captain Satie surrendered after firing a token broadside rather than be destroyed by the more powerful ship .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties suffered in the action were relatively heavy on both sides . The British ships , with their reduced crews , suffered 61 men killed or wounded while the French lost over 50 on Pomone alone . There were no casualties on Persanne , and Pauline 's losses are unknown , although believed to be heavy given her battered condition . The French also lost the cargo aboard Persanne and Pomone , which amounted to 201 bronze and iron cannon , 220 iron wheels for gun carriages and numerous other military stores .
Promotions were granted to the junior officers of Alceste and Active and both crews received praise and prize money for their service in the operation . Similar rewards were not made to the crew of Unite , probably because Persanne was so much smaller and less @-@ well armed than her opponent . The total prize money was £ 3 @,@ 500 , not as much as first anticipated because neither of the captured ships were of sufficient quality to warrant purchase into the Royal Navy . Pomone had been hastily built in 1803 as the personal warship of Jérôme Bonaparte and as a result was of weak construction while Persanne had been designed as an armed storeship rather than a full @-@ scale warship . Ultimately Pomone was transferred to Britain , briefly renamed HMS Ambuscade and broken up for materials while Persanne was sold to the Bey of Tunis . Nearly four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
In France , the action had more significant consequences . The loss of two ships and over 200 cannon was a serious blow to the French army marshalling in the Balkans . Napoleon himself took an interest in the engagement and it has been suggested by British historian James Henderson that this action convinced Napoleon of his inability to control the Adriatic Sea , which was vital to launching operations in the Balkans . This action may have been a factor in his decision to abandon plans to invade the Ottoman Empire , and instead to turn his attention on Russia . In the French Navy , the flight of Pauline was deemed cowardly and Captain Montfort was court @-@ martialled and relieved of command . In 1817 , when Murray Maxwell visited St Helena on his return from the East Indies where HMS Alceste had been wrecked , Napoleon greeted him with the words " Your government must not blame you for the loss of Alceste , for you have taken one of my frigates " .
The effects on the Adriatic itself were slight , the action only confirming the already overwhelming British dominance in the region . The French Navy would continue to seek reinforcements for their squadrons , concentrating on the construction of several new ships in Italian seaports that would not be ready until 1812 . As a result , this was the last significant action of the year in the Adriatic .
= Colonel Homer =
" Colonel Homer " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 26 , 1992 . In the episode , Homer embarrasses his wife Marge at a movie theater , leading to a big argument between the two . Homer , angry at Marge , visits a redneck bar in the middle of the night where he meets a waitress named Lurleen Lumpkin , a talented singer . Homer becomes Lurleen 's manager and tries to make her famous , but he does not appear aware that Lurleen has fallen in love with him . With Marge already upset and thinking Homer is cheating on her , he must decide on the importance of his marriage after Lurleen makes romantic advances toward him .
The episode was written by The Simpsons creator Matt Groening , and directed by Mark Kirkland . It is the only episode of the series for which Groening received an individual writing credit . American singer and actress Beverly D 'Angelo guest starred in the episode as Lurleen . Although the character makes several cameo appearances after this episode , Lurleen makes her second full @-@ time appearance sixteen years later in " Papa Don 't Leech " . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " There 's a Kind of Hush ( All Over the World ) " by Herman 's Hermits and " Funkytown " by Lipps Inc , and the films Deliverance , Honey , I Shrunk the Kids , and Look Who 's Talking .
Since airing , " Colonel Homer " has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It attained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 8 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network for the week it aired . The episode was selected for inclusion in a video collection of selected episodes , titled The Last Temptation of Homer , that was released on November 9 , 1998 . An action figure set based on " Colonel Homer " was released in March 2002 , and two of Lurleen 's songs from the episode appeared on the Simpsons compilation album Songs in the Key of Springfield .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons go to the local movie theater to see a film . Bart and Lisa see Space Mutants VI , while Homer , Marge , and Maggie see The Stockholm Affair . As the film starts , Homer acts loud and obnoxious , embarrassing Marge . When he gives away the film 's ending , Marge berates him and the audience heckles Homer , embarrassing them both . During the car ride home , Marge tries to apologize , but Homer will not accept it , by dropping Marge and the children off at home and goes off on a long drive into the night , finally stopping at a redneck bar called Beer ' N ' Brawl , where he grabs a beer while listening to an attractive waitress named Lurleen Lumpkin performing on stage . She sings a song that follows Homer 's current state with every detail , and once she finishes , Homer introduces himself to her .
Several days later , still humming Lurleen 's song , Homer drives to her mobile home to ask for a copy . Lurleen tells him she has not recorded the song , so Homer insists that she come to a recording company to record a CD . Homer grants the recording company clerk permission to play the song on the radio , and Lurleen 's songs are an instant hit all over Springfield . At home , Marge asks Homer about Lurleen ; he claims that she is just a waitress who is turning into a music superstar . Marge does not approve that he is seeing her , as she fears that something more will come of the relationship . Homer becomes Lurleen 's manager , and to fit with the role , she buys
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the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach that year . He collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965 . The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplay for Gunpoint as well the script for Murphy 's last starring lead in the western 40 Guns to Apache Pass in 1967 . Murphy made Trunk to Cairo in Israel in 1966 .
He first met director Budd Boetticher when Murphy requested to be his boxing partner at Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club . He subsequently appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher 's first western The Cimarron Kid . Boetticher wrote the script in 1969 for Murphy 's last film A Time for Dying . Two other projects that Murphy and Boetticher planned to collaborate on – A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There 's Sumpthin ' to Do – never came to fruition .
= = Personal life = =
Murphy married actress Wanda Hendrix on 8 January 1949 , and their divorce became final on 19 April 1951 . Four days later he married former airline stewardess Pamela Archer . He had two sons with Archer : Terry Michael Murphy , born on 14 March 1952 , and James Shannon " Skipper " Murphy , born in 1954 .
Murphy bred quarter horses at the Audie Murphy Ranch in what is now Menifee , California , and the Murphy Ranch in Pima County , Arizona . His horses raced at the Del Mar Racetrack and he invested large sums of money in the hobby . Murphy had a gambling habit that left his finances in a poor state . In 1968 , he stated that he lost $ 260 @,@ 000 in an Algerian oil deal and was dealing with the Internal Revenue Service over unpaid taxes . In spite of his financial difficulties , Murphy refused to appear in commercials for alcohol and cigarettes , mindful of the influence he would have on the youth market .
= = Death and commemorations = =
On 28 May 1971 , Murphy was killed when the private plane in which he was a passenger crashed into Brush Mountain , near Catawba , Virginia , 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of Roanoke in conditions of rain , clouds , fog and zero visibility . The pilot and four other passengers were also killed . The aircraft was a twin @-@ engine Aero Commander 680 flown by a pilot who had a private @-@ pilot license and a reported 8 @,@ 000 hours of flying time , but who held no instrument rating . The aircraft was recovered on 31 May . After her husband died , Pamela Murphy moved into a small apartment and got a clerk position at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Los Angeles , where she remained employed for 35 years . In 1975 , a court awarded Murphy 's widow and two children $ 2 @.@ 5 million in damages because of the accident .
On 7 June 1971 , Murphy was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery . In attendance were Ambassador to the U.N. George H.W. Bush , Army Chief of Staff William Westmoreland , and many of the 3rd Infantry Division . Murphy 's grave site is in Section 46 , headstone number 46 @-@ 366 @-@ 11 , located across Memorial Drive from the Amphitheater . A special flagstone walkway was later constructed to accommodate the large number of people who visit to pay their respects . It is the cemetery 's second most @-@ visited grave site , after that of President John F. Kennedy .
The headstones of Medal of Honor recipients buried at Arlington National Cemetery are normally decorated in gold leaf . Murphy previously requested that his stone remain plain and inconspicuous , like that of an ordinary soldier . The headstone contains the birth year 1924 , based upon purportedly falsified materials among his military records . In 1974 , a large granite marker was erected just off the Appalachian Trail at 37 @.@ 364554 ° N 80 @.@ 225748 ° W / 37 @.@ 364554 ; -80.225748 ( Audie Murphy monument ) at 3 @,@ 100 ′ elevation , near the crash site .
Civilian honors were bestowed on Murphy during his lifetime and posthumously , including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . In 2013 , Murphy was honored by his home state with the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor .
Swedish power metal band Sabaton wrote a song on their 2014 studio album , Heroes , also named " To Hell and Back " , commemorating and recognizing Audie Murphy as one of the most decorated American veterans of World War II .
= = Song writing = =
David " Spec " McClure , his collaborator on the book To Hell and Back , discovered Murphy 's talent for poetry during their work on the memoir when he found discarded verses in Murphy 's Hollywood apartment . One of those poems , " The Crosses Grow on Anzio " , appears in To Hell and Back attributed to a soldier named Kerrigan . Only two others survived , " Alone and Far Removed " and " Freedom Flies in Your Heart Like an Eagle " . The latter was part of a speech Murphy had written at a 1968 dedication of the Alabama War Memorial in Montgomery , and later set to music by Scott Turner under the title " Dusty Old Helmet " .
Murphy was a fan of country music , in particular Bob Wills and Chet Atkins , but was not a singer or musician himself . Through his friend Guy Mitchell , Murphy was introduced to songwriter Scott Turner in 1961 . The two of them collaborated on numerous songs between 1962 and 1970 , the most successful of which was " Shutters and Boards " and " When the Wind Blows in Chicago " .
= Worle railway station =
Worle railway station , on the Bristol to Exeter Line , serves the Worle , West Wick and St Georges suburbs of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in North Somerset , England . It is 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Bristol Temple Meads railway station , and 134 miles ( 216 km ) from London Paddington . Its three @-@ letter station code is WOR . It was opened in 1990 by British Rail . The station , which has two platforms , is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly hourly services between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and between Cardiff Central and Taunton . The station 's car park was significantly expanded in 2013 , with a bus interchange built at the same time .
The line through Worle is not electrified , but there is significant local support for it to be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line , partly motivated by worries that unless the line is electrified , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare will lose direct services to London .
= = Description = =
Worle railway station is located in the east of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Somerset , serving the suburbs of Worle , West Wick and St Georges . The surrounding area is primarily residential , but with several commercial developments , including the Worle Parkway office development next to the station . The station is located just off the B3440 Bristol Road , near the M5 motorway junction 21 and the A370 . There is a car park on the north , east and south sides of the station . The station is on the Bristol to Exeter Line , 16 miles 11 chains ( 26 @.@ 0 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 134 miles 42 chains ( 216 @.@ 5 km ) from London Paddington ( via Chippenham ) . It is the fifth station along the line from Bristol Temple Meads . The station is oriented along an axis at 57 degrees to the meridian .
There are two platforms , on either side of the two tracks through the station . The southern platform , platform 1 , serves westbound trains ( towards Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Taunton ) ; the northern platform , platform 2 , serves eastbound trains ( towards Bristol ) . Both platforms are 100 metres ( 110 yd ) long . The line through the station has a speed limit of 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , and is not electrified . Access between the platforms is via an open footbridge with long , sloped ramps for step @-@ free access . Ticket machines are available , and a small ticket office operates during the weekday morning peak , but the station is otherwise unstaffed . Help points are provided , allowing travellers to ask questions of a call centre . There are metal and glass waiting shelters on both platforms – two on the eastbound platform and one on the westbound .
49 chains ( 0 @.@ 99 km ) west of the station is Worle Junction , where the single @-@ track loop line to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare diverges from the main line towards Taunton . The next station west along the loop is Weston Milton , the next station west on the main line is Highbridge & Burnham . The next station east of Worle is Yatton .
= = Services = =
The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who operate all rail services from the station . The basic service consists of two trains in each direction per hour : one is the Bristol Parkway to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare service , calling at all stations ; the second is the faster Cardiff Central to Taunton service , non @-@ stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea & Backwell , Worle and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Some westbound services are extended to Exeter St Davids or Plymouth . There is one service to Avonmouth on weekday evenings . Each Sunday there are two services to and from the Severn Beach Line . During summer months these terminate at Severn Beach ; the rest of the year only one does , the other terminating at Avonmouth . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 25 minutes , to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare is 8 minutes .
Services between London Paddington and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare call at Worle in the early morning and evening , running non @-@ stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea and Backwell . From Monday to Friday there are four morning services and one evening service to London , with seven services from London , all in the evening . One service from London is extended to Taunton , and another to Penzance . Saturday sees two services to London , all in the morning , and three services from London , all in the evening – one is extended to Exeter St David 's , another to Plymouth . There are five services to and six from London on Sundays , spread throughout the day , with one service extended to Taunton and another to Exeter . All trains call at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare westbound , and at Yatton and Nailsea and Backwell eastbound , but not all stop at Weston Milton . The typical journey time to London is 2 hours 15 minutes .
Local services from Worle are operated by Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . Services to and from London are formed of High Speed Train sets , which are longer than the station , so passengers in the front carriages have to move to a different carriage to get out . Passengers are prevented from getting out onto the tracks by a selective door @-@ opening system .
CrossCountry services pass through the station throughout the day , operating services between Cornwall and Scotland , but do not stop . Occasional Great Western Railway intercity services between London and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare or Taunton and Exeter also pass through non @-@ stop .
= = History = =
The line through Worle saw its first use on 14 June 1841 , when the first section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway 's ( B & ER ) main line between Bristol and Bridgwater was opened . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad @-@ gauge but was reconstructed as a mixed @-@ gauge line to accommodate local 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) -gauge traffic by 1 June 1875 . Services were operated by the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) on behalf of the B & ER until 1 May 1849 . The B & ER then took over its own workings until the company was amalgamated into the GWR on 1 January 1876 . Broad @-@ gauge trains ceased operation on 20 May 1892 . When the railways were nationalised by the Transport Act 1947 , the line became part of the Western Region of British Railways .
The modern Worle railway station is the fourth station to serve Worle . The first station , 47 chains ( 0 @.@ 95 km ) east of the modern station , was opened in 1841 as Banwell and was known as Worle from 1869 to 1884 , then as Puxton and Worle from 1922 until closure in 1964 . From 1884 to 1922 , there was a station called Worle on the loop line to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , 60 chains ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) west of the modern station . There was also a station on the nearby Weston , Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway , which was known as Worle from 1897 to 1913 , then as Worle ( Moor Lane ) until 1917 , and as Worle Town until closure in 1940 .
The station at Worle was developed as a joint initiative between British Rail and Avon County Council . It cost £ 700 @,@ 000 and was built using lightweight construction materials due to being sited on marshy ground . The station was opened on 24 September 1990 by Councillor Betty Perry , the chair of Avon Council . The first train was a westbound Regional Railways service , operated by Class 150 Sprinter DMU 150270 . All services were local ones – no scheduled intercity services would call at Worle until 2007 .
Upon the privatisation of British Rail in 1997 , services were franchised to Wales & West , which was in turn succeeded in 2001 by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , which was later rebranded Great Western Railway . Great Western Railway services to and from London Paddington started calling at Worle in 2007 . Due to the trains being longer than the platforms , a selective door opening system was used to prevent passengers opening doors which were not adjacent to the platform .
In 2012 , plans to enhance the station 's facilities were approved by the Department for Transport . The works , part of a large transport scheme called the Weston Package , included expanded the car park by 320 spaces , better facilities for cyclists and motorcyclists , and a bus interchange . A bus link to the nearby Queensway retail park was also included in the scheme . The expansion took over unused land to the east and south of the station , and required the removal of slow worms and grass snakes to a nature reserve in Cheddar . The work , which started in April 2013 , was completed later the same year with the new car park opening on 3 September 2013 .
Worle has had a large number of incidents of railway vandalism and antisocial behaviour , and the stretch of line through Worle is considered one of the most vandalised in the United Kingdom – obstructions have been left on the line and stones have being thrown at railway staff . There
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oki Chrystie ) is one of Spike 's co @-@ delinquents forced into working on the paper , his initial main task writing the horoscopes . Frazz is initially portrayed as " intellectually challenged " , such as not understanding the synonymous relationship between " the astrology column " and the horoscopes . Later episodes , however , show him to be devious , such as in " The Last Word : Part 2 " when he stuns the gunman using a large array of flashguns .
= = = Other recurring characters = = =
Sam Black ( Gabrielle Anwar ) replaced Julie as the head of the graphics team in the second series . Sam is very fashion conscious and a flirt , and is surprised when an actor rejects her advances in favour of Sarah . Anwar had auditioned for the role of Lynda . ( Many actors who unsuccessfully auditioned for main characters were invited back later for guest roles . ) Moffat had expanded the role of Julie after the first series , but Lucy Benjamin was unavailable for series two . Sam , therefore , was basically the character of Julie under a different name , especially in her earlier episodes .
Charlie Creed @-@ Miles , who played Danny McColl , the paper 's photographer , became disenchanted with his minor role and left after the first series .
Toni " Tiddler " Tildesley ( Joanna Dukes ) is the junior member of the team , responsible for the junior section , Junior Junior Gazette .
Billy Homer ( Andy Crowe ) was also a recurring character . A tetraplegic , he is very competent with computer networks , sometimes hacking into the school 's database . His storylines are some of the first representations of the Internet in British television . Moffat felt that he was unable to sustain the character , and he appears only sporadically after the first series .
The main adults are deputy headmaster Bill Sullivan ( Nick Stringer ) , maverick editor Matt Kerr ( Clive Wood ) and experienced Gazette reporter Chrissie Stewart ( Angela Bruce ) .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was good , the show being particularly praised for the high quality and sophistication of the writing . The first episode was highly rated by The Daily Telegraph , The Guardian and the Times Educational Supplement . In his emphatic review , Paul Cornell writes that :
Press Gang has proved to be a series that can transport you back to how you felt as a teenager , sharper that the world but with as much angst as acute wit ... Never again can a show get away with talking down to children or writing sloppily for them . Press Gang , possibly the best show in the world .
Time Out said that " this is quality entertainment : the kids are sharp , the scripts are clever and the jokes are good . " The BBC 's William Gallagher called it " pretty flawless " , with The Guardian retrospectively commending the series . Others , such as Popmatters , have also commented upon how " the show is renowned ... for doing something kid television at the time didn 't do ( and , arguably , still doesn 't ) : it refused to treat its audience like children . " Comedian Richard Herring recalls watching the show as a recent graduate , commenting that it " was subtle , sophisticated and much too good for kids . " According to Moffat , " Press Gang had gone over very , very well in the industry and I was being touted and romanced all the time . " Press Gang 's complicated plots and structure would become a hallmark of Moffat 's work , such as Joking Apart and Coupling .
The series received a Royal Television Society award and a BAFTA in 1991 for " Best Children 's Programme ( Entertainment / Drama ) " . It was also nominated for two Writers ' Guild of Great Britain awards , one Prix Jeunesse and the 1992 BAFTA for " Best Children 's Programme ( Fiction ) " . Julia Sawalha won the Royal Television Society Television Award for " Best Actor – Female " in 1993 .
= = = Repeat showings = = =
The show gained an even wider adult audience in an early evening slot when repeated on Sundays on Channel 4 in 1991 . This crossover is reflected in the BBC 's review for one of the DVDs when they say that " Press Gang is one of the best series ever made for kids . Or adults . "
Nickelodeon showed nearly all of the episodes in a weekday slot in 1997 . The final three episodes of the third series , however , were not repeated on the children 's channel because of their content : " The Last Word " double episode with the gun siege , and " Holding On " with the repetition of the phrase " divorce the bitch " . On the first transmission of the latter on 11 June 1991 , continuity announcer Tommy Boyd warned viewers that it contained stronger than usual language . In 2007 , itv.com made the first series , with the exception of " Page One " , available to be viewed on its website free of charge .
2 episodes were broadcast on the CITV Channel on 5 & 6 January 2013 , as part of a weekend of archive programmes to celebrate CITV 's 30th anniversary .
= = = Fan following = = =
Press Gang has attracted a cult following . A fanzine , Breakfast at Czars , was produced in the 1990s . Edited by Stephen O 'Brien , it contained a range of interviews with the cast and crew ( notably with producer Hastie ) , theatre reviews and fanfiction . The first edition was included as a PDF file on the series two DVD , while the next three were on the series five disc . An e @-@ mail discussion list has been operational since February 1997 . Scholar Miles Booy observes that as Steven Moffat was himself a fan of Doctor Who , he was able to ingrate the elements that TV fans appreciated , such as :
series finales with big cliff @-@ hangers , rigorous continuity and a slew of running jokes and references which paid those who watched and rewatched the text to pull out its minutia . At the end of the second series , it is remarked that the news team have been following the Spike / Lynda romance ' since page one ' , and only the fans remembered – or discovered on reviewing – that " Page One " was the title of the first episode .
Booy points out that Chris Carter and Joss Whedon would be acclaimed for these elements in the 1990s ( in the shows The X @-@ Files and Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) , but " Moffat got there first , and ... in a children 's TV slot . His was the first show to arrive with a Britain 's fan 's sensibility to formal possibilities . "
Two conventions were held in the mid @-@ 1990s in Liverpool . The events , in aid of the NSPCC , were each titled " Both Sides of the Paper " and were attended by Steven Moffat , Sandra Hastie , Dexter Fletcher , Paul Reynolds , Kelda Holmes and Nick Stringer . There were screenings of extended rough cuts of " A Quarter to Midnight " and " There Are Crocodiles " , along with auctions of wardrobe and props . When Virgin Publishing prevented Paul Cornell from writing an episode guide , the Press Gang Programme Guide , edited by Jim Sangster , was published by Leomac Publishing in 1995 . Sangster , O 'Brien and Adrian Petford collaborated with Network DVD on the extra features for the DVD releases .
Big Finish Productions , which produces audio plays based on sci @-@ fi properties , particularly Doctor Who , was named after the title of the final episode of the second series . Moffat himself is an ardent Doctor Who fan , and became the programme 's lead writer and executive producer in 2009 .
Moffat has integrated many references to secondary characters and locations in Press Gang in his later work . His 1997 sitcom Chalk refers to a neighbouring school as Norbridge High , run by Mr Sullivan , and to the characters Dr Clipstone ( " UneXpected " ) , Malcolm Bullivant ( " Something Terrible " ) and David Jefford ( " Monday @-@ Tuesday " / " There are Crocodiles " ) , a pupil who Mr Slatt ( David Bamber ) reprimands for masturbating . The name " Talwinning " appears as the name of streets in " A Quarter to Midnight " and Joking Apart , and as the surname of the protagonist in " Dying Live " , an episode of Murder Most Horrid written by Moffat , as well as the name of a librarian in his Doctor Who prose short story , " Continuity Errors " , which was published in the 1996 Virgin Books anthology Decalog 3 : Consequences . The name " Inspector Hibbert " , from " The Last Word " , is given to the character played by Nick Stringer in " Elvis , Jesus and Jack " , Moffat 's final Murder Most Horrid contribution . Most recently , in the first episode of Moffat 's Jekyll , Mr Hyde ( James Nesbitt ) whistled the same tune as Lynda in " Going Back to Jasper Street " .
= = = Proposed television movie = = =
A television film called " Deadline " was planned . It was set a few years after the series and aimed at a more adult audience . At one stage in 1992 , series 4 was intended to be the last , and the movie was proposed as a follow @-@ up . However , making of the film fell through when a fifth series was commissioned instead . The idea of the follow @-@ up film was reconsidered several times during the 1990s , but every time fell through for various reasons .
In June 2007 , The Stage reported that Moffat and Sawalha are interested in reviving Press Gang . He said : " I would revive that like a shot . I would love to do a reunion episode — a grown @-@ up version . I know Julia Sawalha is interested — every time I see her she asks me when we are going to do it . Maybe it will happen — I would like it to . " The Guardian advocated the show 's revival , arguing that " a revamped Press Gang with Moffat at the helm could turn the show from a cult into a national institution - a petri dish for young acting and writing talent to thrive . It 's part of our TV heritage and definitely worthy of resuscitation . "
At the Edinburgh International Television Festival in August 2008 , Moffat told how he got drunk after the wrap party for Jekyll and pitched the idea of a Press Gang reunion special to the Head of Drama at the BBC , John Yorke . Despite Yorke 's approval , the writer said that he was too busy with his work on Doctor Who to pursue the idea .
= = Merchandise = =
Several products have been released , specifically four novelisations , a video and the complete collection on DVD .
Four novelisations were written by Bill Moffat and published by Hippo Books / Scholastic in 1989 and 1990 based on the first two series . First Edition was based on the first three episodes , with Public Exposure covering " Interface " and " How to Make a Killing . " The third book , Checkmate , covered " Breakfast at Czar 's " , " Picking Up the Pieces " and " Going Back to Jasper Street " , and reveals that Julie left the graphics department to go to art college . The fourth and final book , The Date , is a novelisation of " Money , Love and Birdseed " , " Love and the Junior Gazette " and " At Last a Dragon . " Each book featured an eight @-@ page photographic insert .
VCI Home Video , with Central Video , released one volume on VHS in 1990 featuring the first four episodes : " Page One " , " Photo Finish " , " One Easy Lesson " and " Deadline . " The complete series of Press Gang is available on DVD ( Region 2 , UK ) from Network DVD and in Australia ( Region 4 ) from Force Entertainment . Four episodes of the second series DVD features an audio commentary by Julia Sawalha and Steven Moffat , in which the actress claims to remember very little about the show . Shooting scripts and extracts from Jim Sangster 's programme guide ( published by Leomac Publishing ) are included in PDF format from series two onwards . The second series DVD set also contains the only existing copy , in offline edit form , of an unaired documentary filmed during production of series two .
= Valley View ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
Valley View is a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century Greek Revival residence and farm overlooking the South Branch Potomac River north of Romney , West Virginia . Valley View is on Depot Valley Road . The South Branch Valley Railroad adjacent to the farm is currently utilized by the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad .
The Valley View property was part of the South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a large tract that belonged to Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron . It was settled by the Collins family in 1749 , and acquired by the Parsons family before 1772 . The Valley View house was built by James Parsons Jr. in 1855 . After the Civil War , Parsons ' widow sold the farm to Charles Harmison . His wife Elizabeth Smith Harmison , inspired by her childhood Virginia home ( Western View ) and the scenic river views , named the farm Valley View . Following a series of owners , the property was purchased by the Mayhew family in 1979 . Valley View 's current proprietors , Robert and Kim Mayhew , have restored the historic residence and grounds .
The house at Valley View is a two @-@ story brick Greek Revival @-@ style structure with a rectangular architectural plan . The front entrance is covered by a small portico , topped with a pediment supported by wooden Doric columns . The rear of the house , with a two @-@ story ( double ) wood porch stretching across it , faces the South Branch Potomac River valley and Mill Creek Mountain . Each of the original eight large rooms of the 1855 structure contains a fireplace framed by a wooden trabeated mantelpiece with classical elements . The original windows , wooden trim , and materials in the main section of the house are intact . In 2012 , Valley View was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its locally significant architecture .
= = History = =
= = = Royal land grant and Collins family ownership = = =
Valley View is located on land that was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant first awarded in 1649 by Charles II of England to seven of his supporters and again in 1688 by official patent . One of the seven , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the right to the entire grant in 1681 . This was confirmed by King James II , and Colepeper 's grandson Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 . Lord Fairfax selected a portion of the proprietary for his manor . This tract , known as the South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary , extended from the north end of the Trough to the junction of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River . In 1748 , Fairfax commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale and lease , with lots ranging in size from 300 to 400 acres ( 120 to 160 ha ) .
In 1749 , the tract on which Valley View stands was purchased from Lord Fairfax by John Collins . The 425 @-@ acre ( 172 ha ) lot was Lot Number 20 on the South Branch Survey . Collins also owned a large tract of land spanning present @-@ day Hampshire and Hardy counties . His son Thomas Collins is thought to have inherited his father 's landholdings as an " heir at law " , since there is no
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record of a will by John Collins dispensing of his properties . By 1772 , Thomas Collins acquired Lot Number 20 , where he lived with his wife Elizabeth . In 1816 , Collins was serving as a magistrate when the town of Romney held a Virginia state election for the Electoral College . One representative from each of Virginia 's then @-@ 25 counties traveled to Romney to cast his vote . Collins and county commissioner William Donaldson certified the convention 's election results .
In 1817 , Thomas Collins sold Lot Number 20 to James Gregg Parsons . It is unknown whether the Collinses moved from the tract or continued living on it after the sale . Thomas Collins died in 1822 , and Elizabeth Collins in 1823 .
= = = Parsons family ownership = = =
The Parsons family was among the first English settlers in the Thirteen Colonies in 1635 ; around 1740 , they settled in Hampshire County . By 1778 , Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) , a member of the Virginia House of Delegates , owned 161 acres ( 65 ha ) of Lot Number 16 and all of Lot Number 17 in the Proprietary . James Gregg Parsons , his eldest son , was born in Hampshire County in 1773 . In 1795 he married Mary Catherine Casey ( 1773 – 1846 ) , whose family owned the adjoining Lot Number 21 . After their marriage they lived in the main house at Wappocomo ( built by Mary Catherine 's father ) , inheriting the house at his death in 1833 .
Parsons died on January 25 , 1847 , leaving most of his land to his three sons : James ( Big Jim ) Parsons Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) , David C. Parsons ( 1803 – 1860 ) , and Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 1862 ) . James , his eldest son , inherited Lot Number 20 ; his second son David inherited Lot Number 13 south of Romney ( on which Hickory Grove was later located ) ; and his youngest son Isaac inherited Lot Number 21 ( which included Wappocomo ) . His sons also inherited the nearby " Jake Sugar Rum Tract , the McGuire Tract , and five town lots in Romney " . According to historian William K. Rice , by 1846 Parsons ' sons and their families were all living on the tracts they would subsequently inherit . Rice determined that James Parsons Jr. moved to the Collins Tract around 1826 , and was living there when his father died .
James Parsons Jr . , known as " Big Jim " because of his size , was a farmer and cattleman who was born in Hampshire County . In her 1913 Parsons ' Family History and Record , Parsons ' relative ( and family genealogist ) Virginia Parsons MacCabe wrote about him : " He was square and honorable in business , and had a large circle of friends ; he had the urbanity and the gentility of manner which characterizes the true gentleman " . Parsons married Elizabeth Miller on January 8 , 1829 . The couple had eleven children , several of whom attended college .
In 1855 , Parsons began building the present @-@ day Valley View house , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Romney on the Collins Tract . Although he wrote many letters to his sister Mary Gregg Parsons Stump about farming , cattle , family , health and community events , no letters are known to remain from the time of the house 's construction . The Parsons family owned several slaves who are thought to have assisted with construction .
After living in his new house for three years , Big Jim died of tuberculosis on October 14 , 1858 . His widow , Elizabeth , lived in the house until after the Civil War . In 1867 or 1869 , she sold the house , the Collins Tract and the remainder of Lot Number 20 to Charles Harmison ( 1823 – 1896 ) for $ 8 @,@ 500 , moving with her remaining children to Missouri ( where she died in 1883 ) . The cost of building the house financially strained the Parsons family ; historian Catherine Snider Long suggests that Elizabeth Miller Parsons sold the house as a result of additional , war @-@ related financial stress from which the family could not recover .
= = = Harmison family ownership = = =
Charles Harmison was born in Franklin County , Illinois , to Nathaniel and Lydia Harmison , and married Elizabeth " Bettie " Ann Smith ( 1827 – 1903 ) on May 4 , 1854 , in Taylor County , West Virginia . Bettie , the daughter of C. C. and Martha W. Smith , was raised at Western View ( their Fauquier County , Virginia , home ) . By 1867 , Harmison and his family were living in Harrison County .
Charles Harmison 's older brother had moved to Romney , where he established and operated a hotel ( the Virginia House ) . In 1867 , the brother learned that the Parsons farm was for sale , and he advised Charles to buy it . Charles ' wife , who wanted to live nearer to Virginia , also urged her husband to buy the property . Charles did , and he , his wife , their ( then ) seven children and a young African American boy named Snoden moved from Harrison to Hampshire County in three days . They traveled on the Northwestern Turnpike in an ambulance Charles had bought after the war . Influenced by her childhood home and by its view of the South Branch Potomac River valley , Elizabeth Harmison named their new house and farm Valley View .
Harmison prospered in Hampshire County , acquiring additional land and enlarging his Valley View estate . He later gave this acquired land to his children to establish their own homes when they married . In 1884 , the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad completed its South Branch , connecting the main line at Green Spring to Romney ; this branch bisected the Valley View property . Charles Harmison lived at Valley View until his death on October 31 , 1896 .
Charles and Elizabeth 's son , George Edward Harmison ( 1863 – 1916 ) , inherited Valley View around 1903 and brought his wife , Carrie Belle Fox ( 1870 – 1953 ) , there after their marriage on October 4 , 1905 . George demolished the old log kitchen at Valley View , replacing it with a contemporary kitchen building .
The Hampshire Southern Railroad was completed from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's Romney Depot spur to the South Branch Potomac River by 1909 . In October of that year , the first train on the line passed over Harmison 's bottomlands and crossed the river on an unfinished wooden trestle . By 1910 , the 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) line from the Romney spur terminus at Valley View to McNeill was in operation . Later that year , freight and passenger service between Romney and Moorefield began , providing a direct rail link between Moorefield and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad main line at Green Spring . The Hampshire Southern Railroad Company operated this line until 1911 , when it was purchased by the Moorefield and Virginia Railroad Company . Moorefield and Virginia transferred the rail line to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company in 1913 , when it became part of the B & O 's South Branch .
In 1911 , George Harmison subdivided the Valley View fields on the Yellow Banks overlooking the South Branch Potomac River . The new development , known as the Valley View Addition to Romney , was south of the Valley View house and west of Romney Depot . Twenty @-@ one lots were sold at public auction on September 27 , 1911 , and several more were sold privately .
Harmison died in 1916 , and Carrie continued to live at Valley View until her death on February 8 , 1953 . Harmison 's nephew , Paul Cresap Harmison ( 1893 – 1972 , a grandson of Charles Harmison 's brother Jonathan Harmison ) , and his wife Nancy Parker Harmison ( 1896 – 1981 ) had moved to Valley View to live with her . After Carrie 's death , Paul and Nancy Parker Harmison inherited the house and farm . Valley View remained in the Harmison family until 1963 , when it was sold to Philip Newell and his wife Martha .
= = = Mind Garage = = =
The psychedelic rock band Mind Garage lived at Valley View during the summer of 1968 . During its stay , the band wrote many songs that were later included in their first , self @-@ titled RCA Records album and Mind Garage Early Years . Several songs were conceived on the porch overlooking the valley , then developed and practiced in the barn downhill from the house 's backyard . Among the songs written at Valley View was " Circus Farm " , inspired by the view of the South Branch Potomac River valley from the house 's rear second @-@ floor porch .
= = = Mayhew family ownership = = =
During its changes in ownership , the original Lot Number 20 of the South Branch Survey was repeatedly partitioned and sold . By 1976 , the original property was divided into five farms and additional parcels , including the Valley View Addition . The tract on which the Valley View residence is located currently measures 6 @.@ 63 acres ( 2 @.@ 68 ha ) .
Valley View was purchased by Robert Mayhew 's father and a business associate in 1979 . Mayhew subsequently purchased it from his father , and he and his wife Kim have restored the residence and grounds .
After surveys of historic properties in the county , in 2008 the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission began an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places . The county received funding from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History to survey and document its architecture and history . As a result of this initiative , Valley View was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register . The other seven were Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Old Pine Church and Springfield Brick House . The house at Valley View was listed on the NRHP on December 12 , 2012 .
= = Architecture = =
The house at Valley View is significant for its Greek Revival architecture . According to architectural historian Courtney Fint Zimmerman , " Valley View is a characteristic example of the Greek Revival style for more practical residential applications in outlying areas " . The Valley View house has several Greek Revival design characteristics , including a symmetrical architectural plan and elevations and " substantial , formal " mass . Zimmerman ( who prepared Valley View 's registration form for the NRHP ) said , " Valley View 's applied details in the Greek Revival style , including the front entrance entablature and portico , are more limited , yet the variations that can be seen on Valley View and other estates in the South Branch Valley illustrate the flexibility inherent in the style " .
Valley View 's house consists of the original 1855 brick section and a board @-@ and @-@ batten 1961 – 1962 kitchen addition . The grounds contain a smokehouse , a water well , the foundations of an ice house , and a summer kitchen .
The bricks from which the house was built were fired in the immediate vicinity ( along the banks of the South Branch Potomac River ) , and the brick walls were reinforced with hand @-@ wrought structural iron angles . The nails used in its construction were fabricated by a local blacksmith , and the wooden sills and joists were sawn by hand . As of 2012 , all the original windows , trim and building materials in the main section of the house were still present .
= = = Exterior = = =
Valley View 's house is a two @-@ story brick structure with a rectangular architectural plan and exterior dimensions measuring about 49 by 32 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) . The house 's exterior brick walls are 9 inches ( 23 cm ) thick and laid in an American bond . The house is topped with a steep metal gabled roof with standing seam profiles . Two sets of double inside chimneys extend above the steep roofline on the northwestern and southeastern ends .
The front façade of the house faces a hill to the southwest . It is five bays wide , with the front entrance at the first floor 's center bay . Wide double @-@ hung sash windows are uniformly placed on the house 's front façade , with four nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sashes on the first story and five six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sashes on the second . Each window is surrounded by green @-@ painted wooden shutters and white @-@ painted wooden lintels and sills .
The front entrance is covered by a small Greek Revival portico measuring about 12 by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) , topped with a pediment supported by wooden Doric columns and engaged columns at the wall . The front porch is flanked by modest wooden handrails and balusters on its left and right sides . The front entrance is post and lintel construction , with a six @-@ pane transom and two three @-@ pane sidelight windows around the doorway . Zimmerman suggests that " Big Jim " Parsons embellished his home 's front entrance to assert his " wealth and status " and provide " an honored welcome to visitors " .
The rear façade of the house faces northeast , across the South Branch Potomac River valley toward Mill Creek Mountain . A two @-@ story ( double ) wooden porch about 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) deep extends across the rear of the house , topped by a shed roof extending from the main gabled roof at a shallower pitch . The first @-@ story porch supports are brown wooden turned posts with no handrail or balusters , and the porch 's second story has white painted square wood posts and vertical railings . Like the front façade , the rear façade is five bays wide ; access to the double porch is through a door in the central bay on both levels . The other four bays have nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sash windows on the first story and six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sash windows on the second story . The northwestern and southeastern sides of the house have one small square window at attic level , between each pair of inside chimneys .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the Valley View house has a two @-@ room @-@ deep , central @-@ hallway floor plan . Its wide central hallway contains a staircase from the first floor to the attic , with a wooden handrail supported with square balusters and a modest wooden turned newel post . The ceilings are 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Although the house 's foundation is low , the height of the interior walls and the full @-@ sized attic make it appear tall from the outside .
The original house has eight large rooms , each with a fireplace framed by a wooden geometric trabeated mantelpiece with classical elements . The four large rooms on the first floor open from either side of the center hallway . They contain simple wide wood trim , including skirting boards and door frame moldings with " subtly demarcated corners " . The house 's living and dining rooms have wide , wooden dado rails . Most of the wooden decorative trim is painted white , and the walls are plaster . The lone exception is the room serving as an office and den , which has dark stained wooden trim and interior brick structural walls ( exposed by the removal of its plaster during the 1960s ) . All rooms have the original wide plank wooden floors . The second floor has four bedrooms , with closets on either side of a fireplace and simple wood skirting boards and door frames . Parsons family members painted signatures and graffiti in the attic around 1856 , which remain visible on the stairwell wall .
= = = Kitchen addition = = =
A one @-@ story kitchen addition , built in 1961 – 1962 and measuring about 21 by 14 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , extends from the northwest side of the original 1855 house . The addition has a gabled standing seam metal roof , and its exterior is covered in white @-@ painted board @-@ and @-@ batten siding . It has a vinyl bay window on the southwest side , a one @-@ over @-@ one double @-@ hung vinyl window on the northeast side and a door ( adjoining the wall of the 1855 house ) on the southeast side . An enclosed board @-@ and @-@ batten porch , measuring about 14 by 10 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 by 3 @.@ 0 m ) , and a shed roof extend from the front ( southwest ) of the kitchen addition . The original basement under the 1855 house is accessible through this porch extension . A ghost building outline on the northwest side of the 1855 house indicates an earlier structure where the present kitchen addition stands .
= = = Ancillary structures = = =
There are several ancillary structures near the house at Valley View , including a smokehouse and a water well , and the foundations of an ice house and a summer kitchen . Although the smokehouse , the summer kitchen and the ice house are believed to have been built by the Collinses before Big Jim Parsons built Valley View , the dates of construction are uncertain .
The smokehouse , measuring about 15 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , is adjacent to the kitchen addition . It is set into a hillside , allowing at @-@ grade entry to its two levels . Built of square @-@ cut logs with white chinking atop a rubble masonry foundation , the smokehouse is topped with a standing seam metal gabled roof .
South of the smokehouse is the brick foundation of an ice house measuring about 15 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) and topped by modern wooden pergola and patio structures . The 15 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) brick foundation of Valley View 's summer kitchen is north of the smokehouse and topped by a contemporary wooden pavilion with a gabled roof .
In the rear yard of the house is a water well , enclosed by a brick building about 7 by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 2 @.@ 1 m ) in area and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) in height . In the center of the well cap is a metal hand pump . Although the well cap 's bricks are similar to those used in the construction of the main house , the well may date from an earlier residence on the site .
= = Geography = =
The Valley View house is about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of downtown Romney , atop a promontory ( known locally as the Yellow Banks ) where Depot Valley joins the South Branch Potomac River valley . Depot Valley runs 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from West Sioux Lane to Valley View , and an unnamed tributary of Big Run flows north along its bottom . Depot Valley Road parallels the stream .
Depot Valley is named for Romney Depot , located at the end of a former spur of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line near the intersection of present @-@ day West Sioux Lane and Depot Valley Road . The unincorporated area around the depot was once known as Valley . A post office operated there from 1928 until 1937 , when its mail was routed through Romney ; it is assumed that Valley View farm used it , since it was 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of the house .
The Valley View farm property adjoins the Wappocomo farm on the northeast , the corporate limits of Romney on the east and south and the Yellow Banks on the west . In addition to Valley View 's 6 @.@ 63 acres ( 2 @.@ 68 ha ) tract , the Mayhew family owns agricultural land rich in alluvial soils along the South Branch Potomac River west of the house . The South Branch Valley Railroad bisects this farmland , crossing the South Branch Potomac River via a wooden trestle .
The Mayhews also own Valley View Island , an island in the South Branch Potomac River north of the mouth of Sulphur Spring Run and about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Valley View . The island is ringed by forests , with agricultural fields in its center . When Lots Number 17 and 19 of the South Branch Survey were surveyed in 1749 and resurveyed in 1788 , the island belonged to Lot Number 19 . At that time , the river flowed east of the island , along the base of the Yellow Banks ; its course later changed to run around the west side of the island .
Mill Creek Mountain , a narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises westward from the South Branch Potomac River across from Valley View . The western foothills of South Branch Mountain rise to the east . Both mountains are covered with Appalachian @-@ Blue Ridge forests of hardwoods and pine .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Interstellar Overdrive =
" Interstellar Overdrive " is an instrumental psychedelic rock song written and performed by Pink Floyd . The song was written in 1966 , and is listed on their debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , released in 1967 , clocking in at almost ten minutes in length .
The song originated when guitarist Syd Barrett heard the band 's manager Peter Jenner humming a song , which Barrett tried to interpret by playing it on his guitar . Musically sharing the same theme with " Astronomy Domine " , the piece was recorded in several takes between March and April 1967 . An earlier , longer recording of the song can be heard on the soundtrack to the film Tonite Lets All Make Love in London , which was recorded at Sound Technique Studios in early 1967 , and was released in the same year . Other versions of the track appear on various bootleg recordings . The piece has been covered by acts such as T. Rex , Pearl Jam , Hawkwind , the Melvins , and Simon House .
= = Composition and music = =
" Interstellar Overdrive " was one of the first very psychedelic instrumental improvisations recorded by a rock band . It was seen as Pink Floyd 's first foray into space rock ( along with " Astronomy Domine " ) , although band members would later disparage this term . " Interstellar Overdrive " originated when early Pink Floyd manager Peter Jenner was trying to hum a song he could not remember the name of ( most commonly identified as Love 's cover of " My Little Red Book " ) . Guitarist and vocalist Syd Barrett followed Jenner 's humming with his guitar and used it as the basis for the principal melody of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Bassist Roger Waters once told Barrett that the song 's riff reminded him of the theme tune from Steptoe and Son ( by Ron Grainer ) . Around the time the song was written , Barrett was also inspired by AMM and its guitarist Keith Rowe , who had a pattern of moving pieces of metal along his guitar 's fretboard . The free @-@ form section ( and also , " Pow R. Toc H. " ) was inspired by Frank Zappa 's free @-@ form freak @-@ outs and The Byrds ' " Eight Miles High " .
" Interstellar Overdrive " shares an emphasis on chromaticism with " Astronomy Domine " . The main theme descends chromatically from B to G , before resolving to E , all chords major . The opening hook of the piece is a distorted , descending guitar riff , played by Barrett , its composer , with Waters on bass and Richard Wright on organ . Nick Mason 's drums then kick in , and after the riff repeats itself a bit , the track turns into improvisation , including modal improvisations , flourishes on the Farfisa organ , and quiet interludes . The song gradually becomes almost structureless and in free @-@ form tempo , punctuated only by strange guitar noises . Eventually , however , the entire band restates the main theme , which is repeated with decreasing tempo and more deliberate intensity . Waters once called the song " an abstract piece " . A bass riff in the song later evolved into another Pink Floyd song , " Let There Be More Light " , which was written by Waters .
= = Recording = =
The stereo version of the song has an organ moving from speaker to speaker ; the effect is lost on the mono version of the song , where it simply gains an extra organ and guitar sound . Five takes of the song were originally recorded on 27 February 1967 , with a sixth later recorded on 16 March 1967 , in an attempt to create a shorter version , with overdubs in June of that year , the Piper version also appears on the official compilation albums Relics and A Nice Pair . Despite Smith trying to bring the rest of the album 's tracks from a jam @-@ long length to something more manageable , Smith relented for " Interstellar Overdrive " , as Jenner recalled : " It was definitely the deal that — hey , here you can do ' Interstellar Overdrive ' , you can do what you like , you can do your weird shit . So ' Interstellar Overdrive ' was the weird shit . . . and again , hats off to Norman for letting them do that . " A delay effect was created by producer Norman Smith by superimposing a second version of the song over a previous version . Smith played the drum roll on the song .
= = Alternative versions and live performances = =
The studio recording on The Piper at the Gates of Dawn is the one that most listeners are familiar with , yet several other versions survive from both the recording studio and the stage . It was first recorded as a demo on 31 October 1966 , recorded live @-@ in @-@ studio at Thompson Private Recording Company . This version was used as the audio sound to the film San Francisco , which was made by a friend of Barrett 's , Anthony Stern . While film @-@ maker Peter Whitehead and his secondhand Stern were having a discussion , the topic about Pink Floyd was brought about by Stern , to which Whitehead told him , " Yeah , terrible music " . Stern said that " they 're successful now " , and suggest the pair go watch Pink Floyd , at their gig at the Royal College of Art . Whitehead recalled that they " went to UFO and I liked them . Not connected to pop music , a long improvisatory quality , ideal for what I wanted . " Whitehead convinced Pink Floyd to record " Interstellar Overdrive " for a film he was working on . Before turning up at the recording studio , the band held a rehearsal , and the next day , 11 January 1967 , went to Sound Techniques studios . The studio , which was originally a dairy factory , was run by engineers Geoff Frost and John Wood .
For the session , which was booked for two hours , Wood and Joe Boyd operated the mixing desk , while Whitehead and Stern were filming . This recording of the song lasted nearly 16 @-@ minutes in length , recorded onto a 4 @-@ track recorder in one take , as the band didn 't want to have to play through the song again . The band then played another original instrumental , titled " Nick 's Boogie " . While 5 seconds of the band playing was included in Whitehead 's Tonite Lets All Make Love in London film , edits of the recording was included on the film 's respective soundtrack . The soundtrack ( released in 1968 ) includes an edited version of the song and two reprises of it . The full version is available on the album London ' 66 – ' 67 . While attempting to get the band a record deal , Joe Boyd returned ( and produced ) with the group to Sound Techniques studios . There , the band recorded a demo tape which was to be given to various record labels , one of the songs that features on the tape was " Interstellar Overdrive " . An early , unoverdubbed , shortened mix of the album 's " Interstellar Overdrive " was used for a French EP released in July 1967 . The 40th anniversary edition of The Piper at the Gates of Dawn contains two different , five @-@ minute @-@ long versions of the song , one of them being take 6 from 16 March .
Despite its encapsulation of their concert repertoire under the leadership of guitarist and composer Barrett , the long , improvisational , freeform structure of the piece is not particularly representative of the group 's recorded output . As drummer Mason states in his book Inside Out : A Personal History of Pink Floyd , live versions of the song featured many sections that did not appear on the album , and would often last more than 20 minutes . During the band 's days playing in residence at London underground clubs such as the UFO ( Underground Freak Out ) , the song usually opened their show . It occupied other positions , including the encore , until it was retired from the band 's setlist in 1970 . The song had first appeared in live performances in the autumn of 1966 . During one performance of the song , at a gig organized by Hoppy Hopkins , Pink Floyd managed to blow out the power of a venue . Hopkins called it " Very cold , very dirty but very nice . " After recording session for Piper were over , Pink Floyd played a 30 @-@ minute version of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Pink Floyd were filmed performing the song for Granada Television 's Scene Special documentary , in January 1967 at the UFO Club . A late @-@ Barrett era rendition was recorded live in Rotterdam in November 1967 , at the Hippy @-@ Happy Fair . The song was later replaced by " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " as the main part of the band 's set lists , after Barrett left the band . A version of " Interstellar Overdrive " was cut from the Ummagumma live album .
= = Covers and legacy = =
" Interstellar Overdrive " has been covered by many artists , including Teenage Fanclub and Kylesa .
Tyrannosaurus Rex percussionist Steve Peregrin Took played a few bars of the lead riff of the song at a concert at the Lyceum , just before the band played " Do You Remember ? " . The incident can be heard on Midnight Court at the Lyceum .
The Mars Volta incorporated a cover of the song into their live shows as a tribute to Syd Barrett .
The cover version by The Melvins appears on their album Electroretard .
Pearl Jam have played snippets , which have appeared on their live albums , 8 @-@ 18 @-@ 00 - Indianapolis , Indiana , 10 @-@ 27 @-@ 00 - Fresno , California , and 11 @-@ 15 @-@ 13 - Dallas , Texas .
moe. covered the song in its entirety on their live album Dr. Stan 's Prescription , Volume 1 .
Hawkwind covered the song and the recording appears on their box set , Hawkwind Family Box .
Camper Van Beethoven covered the song on their studio album Camper Van Beethoven .
A disco version by Rosebud on their tribute album to Pink Floyd , Discoballs : A Tribute to Pink Floyd .
Spiral Realms covered it on a tribute album , Saucerful of Pink : A Tribute to Pink Floyd and on their studio album Solar Wind .
Death Grips sampled the main riff on their track " I Want it I need it ( Death Heated ) " , from their Exmilitary mixtape .
The album version was ranked number 36 on " Rolling Stone " magazine 's list of the 100 greatest guitar songs of all time . While the song did feature on their compilation Relics , it was under consideration for — but ultimately left off – their career @-@ spanning " best of " retrospective , Echoes : The Best of Pink Floyd .
= = Personnel = =
Syd Barrett – guitar
Roger Waters – bass guitar
Rick Wright – organ
Nick Mason – drums
with :
Norman Smith – drum roll
= Sd.Kfz. 8 =
The Sonderkraftfahrzeug 8 ( " special motorized vehicle 8 " ) was a German half @-@ track that saw widespread use in World War II . Its main roles were as a prime mover for heavy towed guns such as the 21 cm Mörser 18 , the 15 cm Kanone 18 and the 10 @.@ 5 cm FlaK 38 . Approximately 4 @,@ 000 were produced between 1938 and 1945 . It was used in every campaign fought by the Germans in World War II , notably the Invasion of Poland , the Battle of France , the Balkans Campaign , the Eastern Front , the North African Campaign , the Battle of Normandy and the Italian Campaign .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 8 had a ladder frame chassis . Power was provided by a Maybach 12 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 8 @.@ 52 litre ( 520 cu in ) HL 85 TUKRM gasoline engine of 185 horsepower ( 188 PS ) . It had a semi @-@ automatic ZF transmission with four forward and one reverse gears . The driver selected the desired gear and initiated the shift by depressing the clutch . It had two fuel tanks , one of 40 litres ( 11 US gal ) and the other of 210 litres ( 55 US gal ) capacity .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that shallow turns used only the wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the farther the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket had rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of six double roadwheels , overlapping and interleaved in the usual Schachtellaufwerk system used for German half @-@ track vehicles , mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers .
The upper body had a crew compartment with three bench seats , one for the driver and his assistant , and two others for the crew . The rear cargo area contained storage compartments , one on each side and two in the rear . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted above the rear storage compartments . It fastened to the windshield when erected .
The Sd.Kfz. 8 was initially designed to have a towing capacity of 12
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tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) , but the wartime DB 10 could tow 14 tonnes ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the " Military Automotive Department " ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Daimler @-@ Benz had been working on its own half @-@ track design during 1931 — 32 , the ZD.5. It weighed 9 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 9 @.@ 2 long tons ; 10 @.@ 3 short tons ) , used a twelve @-@ cylinder , 150 horsepower ( 150 PS ) Maybach DSO 8 gasoline engine and its upper body had three bench seats behind the driver . Its suspension was based on the World War I @-@ era Marienwagen II and bore absolutely no relation to the interleaved roadwheels and torsion bars used by the various models of the Sd.Kfz. 8 .
Daimler @-@ Benz combined the best of both designs in the DB s7 prototype which appeared in 1934 . It used the same engine as the ZD.5 , but otherwise bore little resemblance to the older model other than an upper body that had two bench seats for the crew behind the driver 's seat . This upper body remained the same over the life of the Sd.Kfz. 8 . It weighed 14 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 14 @.@ 2 long tons ; 15 @.@ 9 short tons ) and could pull loads of 12 tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) . An improved version was introduced in 1936 as the DB s8 . The heavier ( 15 tonnes ( 15 long tons ; 17 short tons ) ) DB 9 model appeared in 1938 . It used the Maybach HL 85 TUKRM engine , could carry an 800 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) payload and could tow a 14 tonnes ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) load . Daimler @-@ Benz tried unsuccessfully to use their diesel OM 48 / 1 engine , but it was repeatedly rejected by the Army Weapons Office . The DB 10 was a refined version of the DB 9 and was introduced in October 1939 and was produced for the duration of the war .
= = = Variants = = =
Ten 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted on pedestals on DB s8 and DB 9 chassis in 1939 as the 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 ( Sfl . ) auf Zugkraftwagen 12t ( Sd.Kfz. 8 ) for anti @-@ tank duties . A gun shield was provided for the 88 , but the gun crew had no other protection . The driver 's cab was replaced by a lower , armored cupola and the engine compartment was lightly ( 14 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 57 in ) ) armored . The vehicle weighed 20 tonnes ( 20 long tons ; 22 short tons ) , was 7 @.@ 35 metres ( 24 @.@ 1 ft ) long , 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) tall and 2 @.@ 65 metres ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide . The gun could fire directly ahead without any problem , but traverse was limited to 151 ° to each side by the gun shield . Elevation was between -3 ° and + 15 ° . All ten were assigned to the first company of the anti @-@ tank battalion Panzerjäger @-@ Abteilung 8 which participated in the Invasion of Poland in 1939 , the Battle of France in 1940 and Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . The company was redesignated as Panzerjäger @-@ Kompanie ( " Anti @-@ Tank Company " ) 601 in January 1942 and then as the third company of Anti @-@ Tank Battalion 559 the following April . It reported that the last three vehicles had been lost by March 1943 .
= = Production and use = =
Daimler @-@ Benz and Krupp were the main builders of the Sd.Kfz. 8 during the war , but Krauss @-@ Maffei produced 315 in 1940 — 41 and Škoda joined in the last years of the war . 1615 were on hand on 20 December 1942 . 507 were built in 1943 and 602 in 1944 . Approximately 4000 were built in total . The Sd.Kfz. 8 was used by Czechoslovakia after the war , but it is not known if production continued at Škoda or when they were finally discarded .
Unlike most of the other German half @-@ tracks , the Sd.Kfz. 8 was almost always used as a tractor for heavy artillery pieces and was not modified for other roles .
= 1940 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1940 Pacific typhoon season marked an interruption in meteorological records in both the Philippines and Hong Kong due to the start of World War II . There were 43 reported tropical cyclone , including 27 that attained typhoon status . The first storm was observed in February , and the first typhoon formed two months later , killing three people along Mindanao . Several storms formed in June and July , including reports of a typhoon in the newspapers that killed 52 in South Korea , and another typhoon reported in newspapers that killed one person on Samar after dropping heavy rainfall . The strongest typhoon of the season originated in July and attained a minimum pressure of 927 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) , as reported by a ship northeast of the Philippines .
On August 18 , a typhoon moved near or over northeastern Luzon , killing nine people . In early September , a typhoon passed through the Bonin Islands south of Japan and later moved near Kyushu ; heavy rainfall caused a reservoir to collapse in Ōita Prefecture , killing 50 people . On September 18 , a typhoon caused a tram collision in Tokyo due to poor visibility , killing 20 . Another typhoon struck southern Taiwan on September 29 , causing 50 fatalities . On October 19 , Wake Island recorded typhoon @-@ force winds for the first time since observations began five years prior . A strong typhoon passed near Guam on November 3 with winds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) , damaging most of the buildings on the island and killing five . Three storms affected the Philippines in December , the second of which was the most notable ; it killed 63 people and left 75 @,@ 000 homeless on Catanduanes . The third of the Philippine storms dissipated on December 24 , ending activity for the season . There was another December typhoon that killed two people on a ship to the northeast of Guam .
= = Storms = =
Data for most of the storms were provided through the World Wide Consolidated Tropical Cyclone data file known as TD @-@ 9636 . The document utilized several sources to indicate where storms were located , and as a result there were duplications . During the season , the Philippine Weather Bureau issued monthly bulletins , which later provided info for tropical cyclone tracks . The agency used weather stations that were established by Spain and the United States after each country ruled over the archipelago . The weather data ceased in August 1940 , which were later rebuilt in 1945 . Also in 1940 , meteorology records were disrupted in Hong Kong , which were later restored in 1947 , due to World War II .
= = = February and April = = =
On February 1 , a tropical cyclone formed over western Mindanao in the Philippines . It moved northwestward across Palawan island and was last noted later on February 1 . Historical weather maps show only a circulation near 9 N 121 E. This was a weak system , likely a depression but may have been a weak Tropical Storm .
Two months later , a tropical depression developed on April 9 to the east of Yap in the western Caroline Islands . It moved west @-@ northwestward , passing south of the island without gaining much intensity . The depression later bypassed Palau to the north , dissipating on April 13 about 400 km ( 250 mi ) west @-@ northwest of the island .
On April 23 , a tropical cyclone was observed east of Palau , moving to the west @-@ southwest . It curved south of the island before turning to the west @-@ northwest . While the storm was approaching Mindanao , a ship reported a minimum pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) and force 12 on the Beaufort scale , indicating that the system was a typhoon . Early on April 26 , the typhoon made landfall just south of Port Lamon on eastern Mindanao , where a pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) was reported . Along the coast , the storm produced strong winds and heavy rainfall , and killed three people after capsizing a boat . The storm later crossed over Negros island and near Cebu , where winds of 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) were reported . The storm later entered the South China Sea , dissipating near Palawan on April 28 .
= = = June and July = = =
A preexisting low pressure area organized into a tropical cyclone on June 9 near Chuuk State . It moved to the northwest as a tropical depression , influencing the trade winds on Yap . On June 13 , the storm executed a small loop to the southwest , later turning back to the northwest . It eventually intensified into a typhoon , producing a pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) in the Ryukyu Islands while passing to the east . The system was no a longer a tropical cyclone by June 16 , either due to dissipation or becoming an extratropical cyclone that continued to the northeast toward Alaska .
Toward the end of June , a tropical depression moved across the Philippines through the Visayas , first observed on June 26 . After moving westward into the South China Sea , the depression turned to the northeast , reaching the Luzon Strait . Later , the depression recurved back to the west , dissipating over China on July 3 .
On June 29 , a tropical cyclone developed southeast of Palau . It moved to the northwest , remaining east of Palau and the Philippines . Later classified as a typhoon , the system turned to the west and struck Taiwan , then known as Formosa , on July 7 . It moved across the island , crossed the Taiwan Strait , and dissipated over China on July 9 .
Another tropical depression formed on July 4 near Chuuk . It moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , although it curved southwestward on July 6 . The next day , the system passed about 480 km ( 300 mi ) south of Guam , by which time it attained typhoon status . It resumed its movement to the northwest , remaining east of the Philippines . On July 11 , a nearby ship reported a pressure of 959 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) and winds of Force 12 on the Beaufort scale . Two days later , the typhoon passed about 95 km ( 60 mi ) west of Naha , Okinawa into the East China Sea , after turning more to the north . On July 14 , the typhoon turned to the northeast into the Sea of Japan , moving between Japan and South Korea . It later crossed Hokkaido , dissipating on July 17 in the Sea of Okhotsk .
On July 8 , the Australian Associated Press reported that there was a typhoon about 195 km ( 120 mi ) east of Samar . The storm dropped heavy rainfall over a period of a week , the most since 1919 in one area , which caused river flooding and one death . On July 12 , local newspapers also reported a typhoon striking Seoul , South Korea , killing 52 people and leaving thousands homeless . However , neither of the two storms were mentioned in the Monthly Weather Review summary for the month .
A short @-@ lived tropical cyclone appeared on July 11 in the South China Sea , but dissipated the next day . Another short @-@ lived system developed on July 13 near Yap , dissipating on the next day . A few days later on July 18 , a tropical cyclone formed west of Guam ; the system moved westward and was no longer observed by July 23 .
On July 12 , a tropical depression formed to the east @-@ southeast of Guam . It moved westward , passing through the Marianas Islands on July 14 . Around July 18 , the storm turned toward the north , passing east of Taiwan . Three days later , the storm approached the Japanese island of Ishigaki 100 km ( 60 mi ) to the west , where a pressure of 985 @.@ 3 mbar ( 29 @.@ 10 inHg ) confirmed the system attained typhoon status . On July 23 , the typhoon turned to the northeast and moved across the Korean Peninsula . The storm turned to the east , later moving across northern Honshu on July 24 , and dissipating two days later .
Another tropical depression formed east of Guam on July 21 . It tracked westward , passing near the island on July 23 , and later shifted more to the west @-@ northwest . On July 26 , a ship reported a low pressure of 927 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) , indicating that the system was a typhoon . The system later passed between the Philippines and Taiwan as it entered the South China Sea , but no land areas reported strong winds , suggesting the typhoon was either very small or had weakened from its peak . On July 29 , the typhoon made landfall between Hong Kong and Shantou in southeastern China , quickly dissipating .
On July 24 , a tropical depression appeared east of Guam , and soon after passed near the island while tracking northwestward . The system eventually passed between Okinawa and Taiwan , reaching a position 100 km ( 60 mi ) southwest of Naha , Okinawa on July 30 ; a station on the island reported a pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , suggesting the storm attained typhoon status . By the next day , the storm was no longer being tracked in the East China Sea , although the Monthly Weather Review summary indicated that the typhoon continued to the northwest , attaining a pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The storm reached a position northeast of Shanghai and dissipated on August 4 after crossing the Shandong Peninsula .
= = = August = = =
Activity in August began when a tropical depression formed on August 1 to the west of Guam . It exhibited a pababolic track , moving west @-@ northwestward before turning to the south , ultimately dissipating on August 4 ; it never intensified beyond tropical depression status . Another short @-@ lived tropical depression formed on August 1 near Guam , dissipating on August 3 after having moved to the north and west .
On August 11 , a tropical cyclone appeared east of Luzon . Over the next few days , it moved across the Philippines , passing near the island of Mindoro on August 13 . The system moved across the South China Sea , intensifying into a typhoon as it approached Vietnam . Although it paralleled the coast , the system dissipated over the Gulf of Tonkin on August 17 .
A tropical depression formed on August 13 to the southwest of Guam . It gradually strengthened while tracking west @-@ northwestward , becoming a typhoon on August 16 . Two days later , the storm passed near or over northeastern Luzon and moved into the South China Sea . After approaching Hong Kong , the typhoon turned to the west @-@ southwest , paralleling the southern China coast . Although the track for the storm ended on August 22 , the Monthly Weather Review summary indicated that the typhoon crossed Hainan . The storm then moved across the Gulf of Tonkin and dissipated on August 25 over Vietnam . In Luzon , stations reported a minimum pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) in Palanan , Isabela . The storm produced widespread flooding in Luzon , which damaged crops and cut communications , and killed nine people . In Ilocos Norte , the typhoon caused a shipwreck , although the passengers and crew were rescued . Later , the typhoon brought gusts of 134 km / h ( 83 mph ) to Hong Kong .
A short @-@ lived tropical depression formed east of Guam on August 14 , dissipating a day later . The next tropical system developed about 565 km ( 350 mi ) north of Yap on August 19 . It moved generally to the northwest , interrupted a brief turn to the northeast before resuming its trajectory . It quickly intensified into a typhoon , and Naha , Okinawa reported a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) on August 23 . After passing near the island , the typhoon turned sharply to the northeast . It moved along the southern coast of Japan before coming ashore west of Tokyo on August 26 . Soon after , the storm reached open waters and later passed over eastern Hokkaido , dissipating on August 28 .
On August 21 , a tropical depression formed near Yap . After moving erratically to the south and northwest , the system dissipated on August 25 to the east of the Philippines . There was another short @-@ lived depression on August 28 to the east of Guam , dissipating a day later .
Another tropical depression formed on August 24 to the east @-@ southeast of Guam . After passing south of the island , the system maintained a steady west @-@ northwest trajectory and quickly intensified into a typhoon . On August 29 , the storm passed east of the Batanes islands that are between Taiwan and Luzon ; a station there recorded a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . A day later , the typhoon made landfall in northern Taiwan , and after crossing the island , moved ashore in southeastern China near Fuzhou with a pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The storm remained distinct over land , turning to the northeast and passing west of Shanghai . On September 3 , the system dissipated off the south coast of South Korea .
The last storm to form in August developed on August 30 to the northwest of Guam . It briefly moved to the north @-@ northeast before maintaining a steady northwest track . The system attained typhoon status , later dissipating on September 4 near Okinawa .
= = = September = = =
On September 2 , a tropical depression developed to the east of Guam . The system moved northwestward , remaining east and north of the Marianas Islands . Around September 6 , the system passed through the Bonin Islands to the south of Japan , where a station recorded a pressure of 964 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) ; this indicated that the storm attained typhoon status . The storm turned to the west , influenced by a high pressure area over Japan . It is possible the storm executed a loop , or it traversed to the north , before resuming a westerly track on September 9 . The typhoon later passed over southern Kyushu , later turning abruptly to the northeast and east . On September 12 , the system dissipated over central Honshu . While moving through the Bonin Islands , the typhoon destroyed schools , government offices , and power plants . Several people were killed , and 500 were left homeless . Later , the storm disrupted shipping in and around Kyushu , damaging the port at Nagasaki . In Ōita Prefecture , rains from the typhoon caused a reservoir on Kyushu to collapse , killing 50 people .
Also on September 2 , a tropical depression formed between Guam and Luzon . It moved to the northwest , then turned to the northeast , intensifying into a typhoon ; this was based on a pressure reading of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) from a nearby ship . On September 6 , the system dissipated .
A short @-@ lived tropical depression formed on September 3 in the South China Sea , dissipating the next day while moving eastward . There was another short @-@ lived tropical depression that developed on September 4 near the Marianas Islands , but dissipated within one day . Another tropical depression formed on September 4 to the west of the Marianas Islands , which moved to the south and later northeast , dissipating on September 6 . On September 10 , a tropical depression formed northeast of Luzon , lasting only two days while moving in a circular track .
On September 9 , a tropical depression formed near Chuuk . Two days later , the system passed south of Guam while maintaining a general west trajectory , although it later turned to the north @-@ northwest . By September 13 , the system attained typhoon status . Three days later , the storm 's track shifted to the north @-@ northeast , bringing it near Hachijō @-@ jima on September 18 which recorded a pressure of 983 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . That day , it approached southeastern Honshu but remained offshore . After accelerating to the northeast , the system was no longer observed on September 20 to the southeast of the Kamchatka Peninsula . While passing east of Japan , the typhoon caused a tram collision due to poor visibility , killing 20 people .
On September 22 , a well @-@ developed typhoon was first observed east @-@ southeast of Guam . The storm moved to the west and later west @-@ northwest , bypassing the island to the south . On September 29 , the system entered the Balintang Channel between Taiwan and Luzon , where a station recorded a pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) at Basco , Batanes . That day , the typhoon passed over or very near southern Taiwan as it continued to the northwest . On September 30 , it made landfall about 160 km ( 100 mi ) northeast of Xiamen , weakening over land . The storm turned to the north and northeast , reaching the East China Sea and dissipating on October 2 . In Taiwan , the typhoon killed 50 people and wrecked 5 @,@ 000 houses .
The final September storm originated east of Guam on September 29 . It moved westward , intensifying into a typhoon and passing north of Guam . After varying its track toward the north or south , the typhoon dissipated on October 5 .
= = = October through December = = =
On October 8 , a tropical depression formed west of Luzon . Its track shifted from the northwest to the southwest and later back to the northwest . On October 12 , the system passed through the Paracel Islands , where a pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) was recorded . The storm attained typhoon status , moving ashore in Vietnam on October 15 . The tropical cyclone database listed a separate tropical cyclone that lasted from October 11 to 15 in the South China Sea that also struck Vietnam .
A typhoon was observed on October 13 to the northeast of Guam , with nearby ships reporting a pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . After moving to the northwest , the system turned to the northeast and was no longer observed after October 17 .
On October 19 , a typhoon passed near Wake Island , where a pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was recorded . Winds reached 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , which was the first instance of typhoon @-@ force winds on the island since observations began in 1935 . The winds were strong enough to cut radio communications and damage the Pan American World Airways base . The only people on the island were two dozen Pan American workers , who survived by staying in a storm shelter that previously never experienced gale @-@ force winds . After striking the island , the typhoon turned to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on October 21 .
A tropical depression formed on October 29 near Pohnpei . It moved to the northeast initially , but on October 31 began tracking to the west . On November 3 , the system passed just south of Guam as a typhoon , where a pressure of 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) was recorded . Winds reached over 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) , and there was a slight decrease during the passage of the eyewall . The typhoon turned to the northwest , passing near the Bonin Islands . On November 8 , the typhoon accelerated to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on November 10 . When the storm struck Guam , it damaged nearly every building on the island . Most of the damage occurred after the center of the storm passed and the onslaught of easterly winds began . The storm also damaged the Pan American tourist hotel and a hangar . Downed trees killed two or three people , and five people in total died on the island , the others likely due to drowning . After the storm , Naval Governor George McMillin sought aid from the American Red Cross to assist residents in rebuilding . It was considered among the worst typhoons on record in Guam .
On November 22 , a tropical depression developed near Chuuk and moved westward . It crossed over Palau on November 24 , and later turned more to the northwest . The system paralleled the east coast of Mindanao , briefly moving ashore on November 26 . It turned to the northeast , dissipating on November 29 .
The first in a series of storms to form in December was first observed on December 2 to the east of Samar . The storm moved to the west across the island and through the central Philippines , with a station in Samar reporting a minimum pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . This indicated the system attained typhoon status . While moving westward , it moved through Panay and later across Palawan before entering the South China Sea . On Panay island , Capiz recorded typhoon @-@ force winds , and throughout the Visayas , the storm damaged roads and bridges , but caused no deaths . The system dissipated on December 6 .
On December 3 , a tropical depression formed about 485 km ( 300 mi ) east of Yap . Tracking westward , it intensified into a typhoon on December 5 while approaching the Philippines . The system turned to the northwest , moving over eastern Samar and crossing Catanduanes island with a recorded pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Subsequently , there is contradictory information on the path ; the storm either continued to the northwest , dissipating over northeastern Luzon on December 8 , or it turned to the southwest . Capalonga in eastern Luzon reported a pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) on December 8 , and later , a station on Marinduque island reported a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The Monthly Weather Report tracked the storm over the Philippines into the South China Sea , reporting its dissipation on December 13 to the east of Vietnam . Across its path through the Philippines , the typhoon brought heavy rains and strong winds , which downed trees and power lines . On Catanduanes , the storm left about 75 @,@ 000 people homeless , and killed 60 . At Labo , Camarines Norte , ten people died when a tree fell onto a house . Another three people drowned between Polillo Island and Camarines Norte .
A tropical cyclone was observed on December 8 southeast of Guam . It moved northwestward and passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) north of the island on December 10 , where a pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) was recorded . The typhoon turned to the west and later to the southwest . Around December 14 , the system stalled to the east of the Philippines , later drifting to the east . On December 19 , the system weakened , although it remained a distinct entity as it recurved back to the south and west . On December 24 , the storm dissipated after striking Mindanao .
The final storm of the season was observed on December 18 to the northeast of Guam . It affected a nearby ship on December 20 , causing the deaths of two members of the crew in the subsequent day . The typhoon tracked to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on December 21 .
= = Contemporary seasons = =
1925 @-@ 1949 Pacific hurricane seasons
1940 Atlantic hurricane season
= Collybia cookei =
Collybia cookei is a species of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family , and one of three species in the genus Collybia . It is known from Europe , Asia , and North America . The fungus produces fruit bodies that usually grow on the decomposing remains of other mushrooms , like Meripilus giganteus , Inonotus hispidus , or species of Russula ; occasionally fruit bodies are found on rich humus or well @-@ decayed wood . The fungus produces small white mushrooms with caps up to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) in diameter , supported by thin stems that originate from a yellowish @-@ brown sclerotium . The mushroom is difficult to distinguish from the other two species of Collybia unless an effort is made to examine the sclerotia , which is usually buried in the substrate . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1928 as Collybia cirrhata var. cookei by the Italian mycologist Giacomo Bresadola . In a 1935 publication , Jean D. Arnold reported a series of cultural studies with monokaryon isolates ( hypha having only a single haploid nucleus ) of several Collybia species to determine their mating type . All attempts to produce hybrids between C. cirrhata var. cookei and C. cirrata or mycelial fusions between the two species failed . This sexual incompatibility indicated that the two taxa were separate species , and she raised the taxon from varietal to specific status , calling it Collybia cookei . The species has also been called Microcollybia cookei in a 1979 publication by Joanne Lennox , but the genus Microcollybia has since been folded into Collybia . Marcel Bon and Régis Courtecuisse considered the species a variety of Collybia tuberosa in a 1988 publication . A 2001 molecular analysis based on the ribosomal DNA sequences confirmed that C. cookei is phylogenetically related to C. tuberosa and C. cirrhata , and that the three species form a monophyletic group that comprise the genus Collybia .
The specific epithet cookei honors the British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke .
= = Description = =
The caps of young mushrooms are roughly spherical , but soon become convex to flattened in maturity , and reach diameters of 2 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) . The cap margin is rolled or curled inward when young , but straightens out as it matures . The cap color is white to cream . The gills are broadly adnate to slightly decurrent , with a color similar to the cap ; their spacing is close to subdistant . The whitish stem is equal in width throughout , usually not straight but with curves , and 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick . The upper region of the stem surface can be covered with what appears to be a white powder , and there are thin hairs near the base . The stems originate from a yellowish @-@ brown sclerotium that is up to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) long . The sclerotium ranges in shape from roughly spherical to almond @-@ shaped to irregular , and its surface is often wrinkled and pitted . The mushroom has no distinctive odor or taste , and its edibility is unknown .
In deposit , the spore color is white . The spores are smooth , ellipsoidal to tear @-@ shaped , hyaline ( translucent ) , not amyloid , and measure 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 by 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 3 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored and hyaline , with dimensions of 16 – 20 by 4 – 5 μm . They have clamps at their bases . There are no cystidia on
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, the British Library 's moving image services provide access to nearly a million sound and moving image items onsite , supported by data for over 20 million sound and moving image recordings . The three services , which for copyright reasons can only be accessed from terminals within the Reading Rooms at St Pancras , Colindale or Boston Spa , are :
BBC Pilot / Redux : A collaboration with BBC Research & Development to mirror its archive which has , since June 2007 , been recording 24 / 7 of all of the BBC 's national and some regional broadcast output . BBC Pilot includes 2 @.@ 2 million catalogue records and 190 @,@ 000 playable programmes , but unlike BBC Redux it does not include any broadcasts beyond 2011 .
Broadcast News : Since May 2010 , the British Library has been making off @-@ air recordings of daily TV and radio news broadcasts from seventeen channels , including BBC , ITV , Channel 4 , Sky News , Al @-@ Jazeera English , NHK World , CNN , France 24 , Bloomberg , Russia Today and China 's CCTV News . Many of the programs come with subtitles , which can be electronically searched , greatly enhancing the value of the collection as a research tool .
Television & Radio Index for Learning & Teaching ( TRILT ) : Produced by the British Universities Film & Video Council ( BUFVC ) , TRILT is a database of all UK television and radio broadcasts since 2001 ( and selectively back to 1995 ) . Its 16 million records , growing by a million per year , cover every channel , broadcast and repeat .
= = Philatelic Collections = =
The British Library Philatelic Collections are held at St Pancras . The collections were established in 1891 with the donation of the Tapling collection , they steadily developed and now comprise over 25 major collections and a number of smaller ones , encompassing a wide range of disciplines . The collections include postage and revenue stamps , postal stationery , essays , proofs , covers and entries , " cinderella stamp " material , specimen issues , airmails , some postal history materials , official and private posts , etc . , for almost all countries and periods .
An extensive display of material from the collections is on exhibit , which may be the best permanent display of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world . Approximately 80 @,@ 000 items on 6 @,@ 000 sheets may be viewed in 1 @,@ 000 display frames ; 2 @,@ 400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection . All other material , which covers the whole world , is available to students and researchers . As well as these collections , the library actively acquires literature on the subject . This makes the British Library one of the world 's prime philatelic research centres . The Head Curator of the Philatelic Collections is Paul Skinner .
= = Highlights of the collections = =
Highlights , some of which were selected by the British Library , include :
Diamond Sutra , the world 's earliest dated printed book printed in 868 during the Tang Dynasty
Codex Sinaiticus , the major portion of the world 's second @-@ oldest manuscript of the Bible in koine Greek ( 4th century ) .
Codex Alexandrinus , an early manuscript of the Bible in koine Greek
Lindisfarne Gospels , an illuminated Latin Gospel book from Anglo @-@ Saxon Northumbria
St Cuthbert Gospel , a Northumbrian gospel book with the oldest Western binding
Two Gutenberg Bibles , two copies of a Latin Bible printed at Mainz , Germany ( 1450s )
Giant medieval bibles such as the Worms Bible , Stavelot Bible , Parc Abbey Bible and Floreffe Bible
Schuttern Gospels , an early illuminated gospel book produced in Baden , Germany
Bible from Moutier @-@ Grandval Abbey , one of three illustrated bibles made in Tours in the 9th century
Two 1215 copies of Magna Carta
The sole surviving manuscript copy of the poem Beowulf
Bedford Hours a richly illustrated late medieval book of hours once owned by the Duke of Bedford
Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander , 1355 – 56 , the most important medieval Bulgarian manuscript .
Codex Arundel , one of Leonardo da Vinci 's notebooks .
William Tyndale 's 1534 English translation New Testament , the personal copy of Anne Boleyn .
Original manuscript of Handel 's Messiah
Manuscript of Alice 's Adventures Under Ground by Lewis Carroll ( given to the British Library by a consortium of American bibliophiles " in recognition of Britain 's courage in facing Hitler before America came into the war " )
= = Collections of manuscripts = =
= = = Foundation collections = = =
The three foundation collections are those which were brought together to form the initial manuscript holdings of the British Museum in 1753 :
Cotton manuscripts
Harley manuscripts
Sloane manuscripts
= = = Other named collections = = =
Other " named " collections of manuscripts include ( but are not limited to ) the following :
Arundel Manuscripts
Egerton manuscripts
King 's manuscripts
Lansdowne manuscripts
Royal manuscripts
Stefan Zweig Collection
Stowe manuscripts
= = = Additional manuscripts = = =
The Additional Manuscripts series covers manuscripts that are not part of the named collections , and contains all other manuscripts donated , purchased or bequeathed to the Library since 1756 . The numbering begins at 4101 , as the series is considered to be a continuation of the collection of Sloane manuscripts , which are numbered 1 to 4100 .
= = Chief Executives of the British Library = =
Sir Harry Hookway , the first Chief Executive ( 1973 to 1984 )
Dame Lynne Brindley ( 2000 to 2012 )
Roly Keating ( 2012 to present )
= Hurricane Inga ( 1969 ) =
Hurricane Inga is the third longest @-@ lived Atlantic hurricane on record . The 11th tropical cyclone and 9th named storm of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season , Inga developed on September 20 in the central Atlantic and tracked westward . After attaining tropical storm status , the system deteriorated into a depression , but once again intensified several days later . The storm eventually peaked in strength on October 5 , with winds corresponding to Category 3 on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Throughout its path , Inga underwent several changes in direction and oscillations in strength , before dissipating on October 15 , 25 days after it formed . Despite its duration , Inga caused little damage , and mostly remained over open waters .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 20 , a tropical disturbance in the Atlantic Ocean developed into a tropical depression . On the next morning , the National Hurricane Center reported that the system became a tropical storm while centered about 930 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) east @-@ southeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico . At the time , the storm was moving towards the west at 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) . At the time , Inga was a very small tropical cyclone ; gale @-@ force winds extended less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the center . However , by September 23 , the storm had become disorganized and sprawling . Later that day , Inga weakened back into a tropical depression .
The depression continued west @-@ northwestward , passing north of the Leeward Islands , before drifting northwestward . It once again attained tropical storm status on September 28 , while situated well to the east of the Bahamas . Inga continued to intensify , and achieved hurricane status at 0000 UTC on September 30 , at which point it turned northeastward . The storm then abruptly , yet gradually , turned towards the south , and ultimately completed a counter @-@ clockwise loop as it bent back westward . Steering currents were weak , and the hurricane continued to proceed slowly . Late on October 3 , it turned to the northwest , still as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm then curved northeastward and intensified to Category 2 status at 0000 UTC on October 5 .
Inga accelerated somewhat as it passed to the southeast of Bermuda . By the morning hours of October 5 , it was determined that the hurricane posed no significant threat to the island . At 1200 UTC , the storm 's lowest known barometric pressure of 964 millibars was recorded . Shortly thereafter , it briefly strengthened to Category 3 status ; the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . As it moved towards the open waters of the Atlantic and entered a cooler environment , it deteriorated to Category 1 intensity on October 6 . The hurricane slowed again , and as cold air became entrained into its circulation , it began to lose tropical characteristics .
However , Inga once again intensified and reattained Category 2 intensity on October 7 . At this point , the hurricane was drifting generally eastward . However , in time the storm turned towards the south and began to weaken . Operationally , the storm was believed to have downgraded to a tropical storm on October 8 and regained hurricane status thereafter , but instead it likely maintained Category 1 intensity steadily until October 10 . After the storm finally degenerated into a tropical storm , it curved southwestward . The storm 's center became ill @-@ defined and elongated at the storm continued to lose strength . Heading westward , Inga was downgraded to a tropical depression before dissipating fully on October 15 , about 290 mi ( 470 km ) from where it initially attained hurricane status .
= = Impact and records = =
Hurricane Inga lasted for nearly 25 days between September 20 and October 15 . This made it the third longest @-@ tracked Atlantic hurricane on record , behind the Hurricane San Ciriaco in August – September 1899 and Hurricane Ginger in September – October 1971 . The fourth , fifth , and sixth longest @-@ lived storms are Hurricane Nadine in 2012 , Hurricane Kyle in 2002 , and Hurricane Four in 1926 . At the time of its existence , however , Inga was believed to have been the longest @-@ lived Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . The National Hurricane Center issued 72 total advisories on the storm .
While Inga remained predominately over the open ocean , its outer fringes produced 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind gusts on Bermuda . The strong winds caused power failures , which were promptly restored . Residents were advised to monitor the storm in case of sudden changes in direction .
= Djibril Cissé =
Djibril Cissé ( French pronunciation : [ dʒibʁil sise ] ; born 12 August 1981 ) is a former professional French footballer .
Cissé started his career at AC Arles in 1989 at the age of eight . After seven years at the club , he had a six @-@ month spell at Nîmes Olympique before moving to Auxerre joining the club 's youth system . Cissé spent two years in the system before graduating to the first team in 1998 . After playing for Auxerre for six seasons , scoring 90 goals in 166 appearances , he moved to Premier League club Liverpool in 2004 .
During his time at Anfield , Cissé played 79 games , scoring 24 times and winning the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League and 2005 – 06 FA Cup . He went on to play in Greece with Panathinaikos , Italy with S.S. Lazio , Qatar with Al @-@ Gharafa and Russia with Kuban Krasnodor . He also had further spells in English football with Sunderland and Queens Park Rangers , and France with Olympique de Marseille and SC Bastia . In 2015 , Cissé made one appearance for Réunion based club JS Saint @-@ Pierroise before retiring from professional football . In the course of his career , Cissé suffered from two leg breaks , breaking his left leg in 2004 and his right leg in 2006 .
Cissé represented the France national football team at the 2002 and 2010 FIFA World Cups and was also part of les Bleus ' 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup winning squad .
= = Club career = =
= = = Auxerre = = =
After starting his career with Nîmes Olympique , Cissé signed for AJ Auxerre at the age of 15 . Playing for the youth team in 1999 , Cissé won the Coupe Gambardella , the equivalent of the FA Youth Cup . After promotion to the first team squad by coach Guy Roux , Cissé made his Ligue 1 debut at the age of 17 as a substitute against Paris Saint @-@ Germain on 20 March 1999 . His first goal came at the start of the 2000 – 01 season in a 2 – 1 defeat of FC Metz . He ended this season , his first as a regular in the first team , with eight goals from 25 games .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Cissé was the top scorer in Ligue 1 with 22 goals from 29 matches as Auxerre finished in third place and qualified for the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League . Cissé 's form saw him make his debut for the French national team and earn a place in the team 's squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup .
Cissé was again amongst the league 's top scorers in 2002 – 03 with 14 goals . He also scored six goals in six matches in Auxerre 's successful Coupe de France campaign , including both goals in the semi @-@ final defeat of Stade Rennais and the equalisier in the 2003 Coupe de France Final victory over PSG .
2003 – 04 proved to be Cissé 's most successful goalscoring season , with 30 goals in all competitions , including 26 in Ligue 1 to win the golden boot for the second time .
Overall , Cissé scored 70 goals in 128 league games for Auxerre before signing for Liverpool in a deal worth over £ 14 million in the summer of 2005 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
At Liverpool , Cissé scored 5 goals in 24 first @-@ team games in all competitions for Liverpool in the 2004 – 05 season . He had only played 19 games for Liverpool when a freak accident occurred while playing against Blackburn Rovers on 30 October 2004 . While Cissé and Blackburn 's Jay McEveley were challenging for the ball , Cissé 's boot got caught in the turf and his leg snapped . This resulted in a broken tibia and fibula , and physio Daryl Martin said " It could take six to nine months for a recovery and the absolute worst @-@ case scenario is 18 months ... " Cissé later revealed that had it not been for prompt attention from the trainers at the stadium , he would probably have lost the leg below the knee . He had pins inserted in the leg , and was expected to be out of action for the rest of the 2004 – 05 season. l
However , in an unexpected return , Cissé was able to come on as a 75th @-@ minute substitute in the second leg of Liverpool 's Champions League quarter @-@ final tie with Juventus on 13 April 2005 . He went on to score both Liverpool goals in their last Premiership match of the season , a 2 – 1 win over Aston Villa and also converted a penalty in Liverpool 's penalty shootout win over AC Milan in the Champions League final . During the 2005 – 06 season , Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez deployed Cissé on the right wing on numerous occasions . While his pace made him well suited to such a role , it was doubtful whether he would be happy to continue in this role rather than in his preferred position as striker . He scored two goals as Liverpool won the 2005 UEFA Super Cup . Cissé also scored Liverpool 's opening goal in the 2006 FA Cup Final with a sliding shot past West Ham United keeper Shaka Hislop . Liverpool went on to win 3 – 1 on penalties . He ended the 05 / 06 season with 19 goals in all competitions .
= = = Marseille = = =
From summer 2005 , the media had linked Cissé with a move away from Anfield . Speculation intensified as the season went on . In early June 2006 , it was reported that a transfer to Olympique de Marseille had been agreed . The very same day Cissé broke his leg during France 's final warm up match against China on 7 June 2006 . It was thought that even though a relatively quick recovery was expected , Cissé 's transfer would be postponed until at least the January transfer window . However , the two teams agreed a loan deal in July 2006 .
Cissé made his return to training on 20 October 2006 , and scored his first goal for Olympique de Marseille on 22 December 2006 when they beat AS Saint @-@ Étienne 2 – 1 . With only four goals in 14 appearances by April , Cissé 's performances were drawing such criticism that former player Jean @-@ Pierre Papin urged Cissé 's critics to be more patient while the striker recovered from his career @-@ threatening injury . Despite the slow start , Cissé managed to score 4 goals in his final 7 league appearances to finish with 8 goals in 21 league appearances , helping Marseille to finish 2nd in the 2006 – 07 season and guarantee a Champions League place for the 2007 – 08 season . On 12 May 2007 , he scored 2 goals in the French Cup Final against Sochaux , although Marseille still lost the match 5 – 4 on penalties , after a 2 – 2 stalemate after extra time following a late equaliser by another Liverpool player on loan Anthony Le Tallec .
On 7 July 2007 , Marseille president Pape Diouf announced that the club had struck a deal with Liverpool to sign Cissé permanently , for an estimated fee of € 8 million . But subsequently , Cissé was linked with a return to the English Premier League with Blackburn Rovers , Wigan Athletic , Tottenham Hotspur , Portsmouth and Bolton Wanderers said to be interested . Manchester City had their approach for Cissé rejected by Marseille boss , who said , " He is wanted , that is for sure , I myself have been approached by Manchester City ( about Cissé ) but I turned it down categorically " . On 26 January 2008 , Cissé scored a hat @-@ trick in Marseille 's 6 – 1 win against Caen .
= = = Sunderland = = =
On 20 August 2008 , Cisse secured a loan switch to Premier League club Sunderland . At the same ground where he had scored on his Liverpool debut , Cissé scored the winning header on his debut against Tottenham to make it 2 – 1 to Sunderland . A few days later , Cissé announced his desire to secure a permanent deal with the club . Manager Roy Keane also expressed his desire to sign Cissé , telling The News of the World , " I 'd be happy to break the transfer record if Djibril 's doing the business " . In the Tyne @-@ Wear derby , Cissé scored his third Sunderland goal on 25 October 2008 , with Sunderland winning 2 – 1 . After scoring in a 4 – 1 victory against Hull , Cissé stated that despite the departure of Roy Keane from Sunderland , he still wished to complete a permanent move to the club . On 18 April 2009 , Cisse scored his 10th league goal of the season in a 1 – 0 victory over Hull City at the Stadium of Light . On 24 May , it was confirmed that Sunderland would not be taking up the option to sign Cissé permanently , and he subsequently returned to Marseille .
= = = Panathinaikos = = =
On 25 June 2009 , Cissé signed a four @-@ year contract with Panathinaikos . It was reported that the player would earn € 2 @.@ 5 million per year , while French club Marseille would get an estimated € 8 million as a transfer fee . The total cost of the transfer is about € 20 million , taking into account the various bonuses . He scored his first goal in Greece against Crete @-@ based Ergotelis and soon he became the new leader of the team . He was the Superleague topscorer for the 2009 – 10 leading his team to win the double . In his first year in Greece , Cissé scored 23 goals in 28 matches .
Cissé 's performances made Panathinaikos fans love him . He had stated that after making the double in Greece he would love to play again in the Champions League with Panathinaikos and looking for a successful season also in Greece . On 30 October 2010 , he scored two goals ( one penalty ) in the Derby of the eternal enemies against arch @-@ rivals Olympiacos in a 2 – 1 home win . At the MVP award ceremony for the 8th fixture , Cissé said " I am not only a player of Panathinaikos , but I am also a fan . " In the new season , he has already scored 18 goals in 20 matches in the Greek League and one goal in the Greek Cup . He was also the team captain of Panathinaikos and the most valuable player of the club .
On 21 February 2011 , Olympiacos beat Panathinaikos in Karaiskaki Stadium ( 2 – 1 ) , after a controversial ( regarding the referees decisions ) game . After the game , Cisse had an wrangle with Olympiacos ' president Evangelos Marinakis . He was beaten by Olympiakos ' fans ( later called them " barbarians " ) and stated that he was going to appeal to the UEFA . He stated also that he had lost his patience with the questionable , according to his opinion , refereeing in Greece : " I will make my decisions but believe me , I ’ ve had enough . I can ’ t go on under these conditions . " One month later , Cissé reached 50 goals as a Panathinaikos player in domestic and European competitions . He celebrated this goal by wearing a T @-@ shirt of Panathinaikos supporters group Gate 13 . Cisse left Greece and Panathinaikos after celebrating in a farewell party with him as the DJ and he gave a promise to Panathinaikos fans that he will return .
= = = Lazio = = =
Cissé was transferred to Serie A club Lazio on 12 July 2011 for € 5 @.@ 8 million . He signed a four @-@ year contract with the Italian side . He made his debut in a UEFA Europa League match against FK Rabotnički on 18 August , scoring two goals in a 6 – 0 win for the home side . Cissé scored his only league goal for Lazio on his league debut in a 2 – 2 draw with Milan at the San Siro on 9 September .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
On 31 January 2012 , Cissé signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal with Queens Park Rangers for an undisclosed fee . He was Mark Hughes ' fourth signing since taking over as manager . He scored on his debut , against Aston Villa in a 2 – 2 draw at Villa Park on 1 February . He was then given a straight red card in his second game for violent conduct , when he reacted to a late challenge by Wolverhampton Wanderers player Roger Johnson by grabbing Johnson by the throat . With QPR down to ten men , they went on to lose the game 2 – 1 . On 21 March 2012 , Cissé scored QPR 's equalising goal in a 3 – 2 victory against his former club Liverpool . Three days later , he was sent off for the second time in his first five games for QPR when he received a straight red card for a two @-@ footed lunge on Sunderland 's Fraizer Campbell . He then returned from suspension on 29 April 2012 , and scored a late consolation goal against Chelsea in a 6 – 1 loss at Stamford Bridge . Cissé went on to score his fifth goal in seven matches to win the match against Stoke City . On 13 May 2012 Cisse scored the goal to make it 1 – 1 against Manchester City . This was his sixth goal in eight matches for QPR . QPR went on to lose the match 3 – 2 , as City scored two goals in stoppage time , but avoided relegation as Bolton succumbed to a 2 – 2 draw at Stoke . Cissé picked the number nine for his jersey and scored his first goal in the 2012 – 13 season in a 3 – 2 loss against Reading in the League Cup and his first Premier League goal of the season , also against Reading on 4 November . In January 2013 he joined Qatari club Al Gharafa on loan until the end of the season . His loan ended on 30 June , he made nine league appearances and scored one goal in the championship and four in the AFC Champions League . Cissé left QPR by mutual consent on 28 June 2013 .
= = = Kuban Krasnodar = = =
On 3 July 2013 , Cissé signed a one @-@ year contract ( plus one in option ) with Kuban Krasnodar .
= = = Bastia = = =
On 1 January 2014 , Cissé signed an 18 @-@ month deal with Bastia .
= = = JS Saint @-@ Pierroise = = =
In June 2015 , Cissé signed for JS Saint @-@ Pierroise of the Réunion Premier League on a month @-@ long contract starting in September of the same year .
= = = Retirement = = =
On 20 October 2015 , Cissé announced his retirement from football at the age of 34 due to injury .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth career = = =
Cissé played for the France Under @-@ 19 team in the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship , where they reached the quarter @-@ finals , with the player scoring six goals in five games . These goals included a hat @-@ trick against Iran on 18 June 2001 in a 5 – 0 win on their opening game , and two goals against Germany on 27 June 2001 in the round of 16 .
He was on the France Under @-@ 21 team. in the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Cissé scored two goals against Portugal in the first leg of qualification playoffs , winning 2 – 1 . In the second leg , Cissé scored a goal but for kicking Mário Sérgio he was sent off . France went on to lose the game 4 – 1 on penalties , after drawing 3 – 3 on aggregate . As a result of the sending off , he was given a five match ban and missed UEFA Euro 2004 .
= = = Senior career = = =
Cissé made his international debut , age 21 , against Belgium coming on as a 48th @-@ minute substitute for David Trezeguet on 18 May 2002 . The team manager Roger Lemerre included Cissé in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . In the tournament he played in all of the group matches against Senegal , Uruguay , and Denmark , coming on as a substitute in all three games but France were eliminated in the World Cup group stages . His first goal in the senior tournament came on 7 September 2002 against Cyprus in the Euro 2004qualifiers . Cissé was part of the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup championship team . He scored his only goal of the tournament from the penalty spot in France 's 1 – 0 win against Colombia on 18 June 2003 .
After being banned from UEFA Euro 2004 , Cisse was next
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television . The score was composed by series musician Michael Giacchino , while popular music was also featured throughout the episode . Charlie also sings a song in the episode that was written by Dominic Monaghan , who plays him . A Lost season finale is approximately twice as long the average Lost episode . Due to the episode 's length , it was split into two parts in some countries and when released on DVD . Unlike most episodes , this episode did not feature a " previously on Lost … " recap at the start of the episode when it first aired ; however , it was originally preceded by a clip @-@ show titled " Lost : The Answers " , which recapped the third season . Cuse said that he and Lindelof think the finale is " very cool [ and ] we 're very proud of it . " Stephen McPherson , the president of ABC Entertainment , called " Through the Looking Glass " " one of the best episodes " of the series . Buena Vista Home Entertainment released " Through the Looking Glass " on the season 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc sets on December 11 , 2007 in Region 1 . A featurette called " Lost : On Location " features cast and crew discussing production of select episodes , including " Through the Looking Glass " . The episode was rerun for the first time on January 30 , 2008 with on @-@ screen text in the lower third of the screen , similar to VH1 's Pop @-@ up Video . These pop @-@ ups were not written by Lost 's writers due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike ; they were written by the marketing company Met / Hodder . This enhanced edition was viewed by almost 9 million Americans .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In the U.S. , the episode brought in the best ratings for Lost in fifteen episodes . The two @-@ hour Wednesday broadcast on ABC made Lost the fourth most watched series of the week with an average of 13 @.@ 86 million American viewers , below the third season average of 14 @.@ 6 million . The first hour was viewed by 12 @.@ 67 million , and the audience increased to 15 @.@ 04 million in the second hour . The episode received a 5 @.@ 9 / 15 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode attracted 1 @.@ 21 million viewers , and was the second most watched program of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by Katie & Peter : The Next Chapter . In Australia , Lost was the thirty @-@ seventh most viewed show of the week , bringing in 1 @.@ 17 million viewers . In Canada , the episode placed sixteenth for the first half , with 911 @,@ 000 viewers and fifteenth for the second half , with 938 @,@ 000 viewers . The episodes were broadcast before and after American Idol .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode garnered universal critical acclaim and is largely considered to be one of the greatest television episodes of all time . The Los Angeles Times wrote that the episode was " an unusually action @-@ packed and sanguinary spring cleaning that … left a host of … characters … dead " , Access Atlanta said " it was deeply satisfying . The first hour started a bit slow but the second hour had great twists , wonderfully emotional moments , both happy and sad " , and the Associated Press said that " the powerful season @-@ ending episode redeemed the series with the shrewdness and intrigue that made it so addictive in the first place . " The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " not only was the pace fast , the teases taut , and the answers plenty , the writers took a compelling gamble … [ by telling ] viewers that in the future … maybe all … of the people on the Lost island get off . They get their wish . But in Jack , our guide through this series , the writers definitively say , ' Be careful what you wish for . ' " The San Jose Mercury News called the finale a " jaw @-@ dropping exercise in good storytelling . " The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette commented that the flashforward " twist gave the saga renewed momentum as it begins its march toward a 2010 finish . " The season finale was summed up as " a mind @-@ blower , for sure , a radical two hours that gave us major fake @-@ outs , an army of dead bodies , the possibility of rescue [ and ] diverse portraits of heroism " by The Boston Globe , who added that the death of Charlie was " the most touching loss of the series so far . " The Palm Beach Post and Wizard named it the " Best Cliffhanger " of 2007 . The Chicago Tribune called it " a qualified success " with excellent pacing and action , however , the flashforward scenes were thought to be uninteresting and " clumsy " . Time ranked the episode as the best of 2007 and the " Rattlesnake in the Mailbox " as one of the ten best scenes of 2007 television .
The Futon Critic placed the episode first in the site 's annual " 50 Best Episodes " list . E ! said that " Through the Looking Glass " was possibly " the best episode ever of the entire series . " TV Guide described " Through the Looking Glass " as " a dizzying exercise in adventure , sustained tension and time @-@ shifting rug pulling [ that was ] spectacularly produced , amazingly directed and gloriously acted . " IGN gave the double episode a perfect 10 / 10 – the best review of the season – saying it was " nothing short of a masterpiece of storytelling with a brilliantly paced narrative . " IGN would conclude that the flashforward was the " Biggest Shock " in 2007 television . Both IGN and The Los Angeles Times would later declare " Through the Looking Glass " as the second best Lost episode , behind " The Constant " . BuddyTV praised the unpredictability , saying that " no other show can even attempt to do what Lost does . " BuddyTV would later call " Through the Looking Glass " the best finale of 2007 and Charlie 's death the saddest TV death of 2007 . " Through the Looking Glass " was TV.com 's " Editor 's Choice " for " Best Episode " of 2007 . AOL 's TV Squad gave the episode a 7 / 7 , noting that " the writers followed through on Desmond 's premonitions and successfully delivered the highly anticipated game @-@ changer . " Television Without Pity gave the third season finale an " A " . The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Lost " may have unjumped [ the shark ] with [ the ] flashforward . " Entertainment Weekly ranked it as one of the top ten episodes of 2007 , saying that the cliffhanger " [ revealed ] new dimensions to [ Lost 's ] creative world . " Zap2It questioned " whether to be deeply frustrated ( again ) , really , really confused ( a distinct possibility ) or just in awe of the incredible mind- ( ahem ) show runners … have pulled off . " The writing for Locke was criticized , and one IGN writer said that " it seems irrational that he would go and [ stab Naomi ] in the back without explaining himself . " Lindelof stated " that we might be willing to give [ Locke ] the benefit of the doubt for any action he took in response to [ lying , gutshot , in a pit of Dharma corpses for two days and on the verge of taking his own life ] , even if considered slightly ' out of character ' . " Film and television director and writer Kevin Smith said that " to do [ 3 ] seasons and then suddenly throw a massive curveball is just so dramatically satisfying , you just take your hats off to the writers in a big , bad way . "
= = = Awards = = =
This episode was nominated for Outstanding Directing , Outstanding Writing , and Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , but failed to win in any of the categories . This episode was also submitted for consideration for Outstanding Drama Series " ; however , it was not nominated . For his work on this episode , Jack Bender was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .
= Grapico =
Grapico is a caffeine @-@ free , artificially flavored carbonated soft drink with a purple color and a grape taste that is sold in the Southeastern United States . When introduced in 1916 , the product quickly became a success , which in part was due to implying that Grapico contained real grape juice even though it did not . In the spring of 1926 , J. Grossman 's Sons sold the Grapico business to New Orleans business Pan American Manufacturing Co . Pan American continued J. Grossman 's Sons ' improper practice of implying that Grapico contained real grape juice and lost the right to use the word " Grapico " to designate their artificial grape drink in 1929 .
Although the J. Grossman 's Sons line of the brand had ended , the Grapico brand continued on through Alabama businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama @-@ based Grapico Bottling Works . R. R. Rochell had first become a wholesale syrup customer of J. Grossman 's Sons in the Summer of 1917 to serve the Alabama soft drink market . By the time Pan American had lost their artificial grape drink name in 1929 , Rochell
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playable characters and 41 stages .
Brawl also features compatibility with four kinds of controllers ( the Wii Remote on its side , the Wii Remote and Nunchuk combination , the Classic Controller , and the GameCube controller ) , while its predecessors only used the one controller designed for that system . The player also has the ability to change the configuration of controls and the controller type .
Super Smash Bros. Brawl features a new Adventure Mode titled Super Smash Bros. Brawl : The Subspace Emissary . This mode features unique character storylines along with numerous side scrolling levels and multiple bosses to fight , as well as CG cut scenes explaining the storyline . The Subspace Emissary features a new group of antagonists called the Subspace Army , who are led by the Ancient Minister . Some of these enemy characters appeared in previous Nintendo video games , such as Petey Piranha from the Mario series and a squadron of R.O.B.s based on classic Nintendo hardware . The Subspace Emissary also boasts a number of original enemies , such as the Roader , a robotic unicycle ; the Bytan , a one @-@ eyed ball @-@ like creature which can replicate itself if left alone ; and the Primid , enemies that come in many variations . Though primarily a single @-@ player mode , The Subspace Emissary allows for cooperative multiplayer . There are five difficulty levels for each stage , and there is a method of increasing characters ' powers during the game . This is done by placing collected stickers onto the bottom of a character 's trophy between stages to improve various aspects of a fighter .
= = = Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) = = =
At E3 2011 , it was confirmed that Super Smash Bros. will be coming to the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , with the two games being cross @-@ compatible with each other in some way . Sakurai stated that the announcement was made public in order to attract developers needed for the games , as development for the titles did not start until May 2012 due to production on Kid Icarus : Uprising . On June 21 , 2012 , Nintendo announced that the creation of the games would be a co @-@ production between Sakurai 's Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Entertainment . The titles were officially revealed at E3 2013 , with new information being released via trailers , Nintendo Direct presentations , and developer posts on Miiverse . The game features 58 characters ( seven of which are downloadable ) with 19 brand new fighters , including third @-@ party characters Mega Man , Pac @-@ Man , Ryu , Cloud Strife , and Bayonetta . The game was released for Nintendo 3DS in Japan on September 13 , 2014 , and in North America and Europe on October 3 , 2014 , and in Australia on October 4 , 2014 . The Wii U version was released on November 21 , 2014 in North America , in Europe on November 28 , 2014 , in Australia on November 29 , 2014 , and in Japan on December 6 , 2014 .
= = = Future = = =
In April 2014 , Bandai Namco Entertainment posted a recruitment advertisement on a Japanese career job opportunity website . The recruitment page consisted of a listing for programmers for Super Smash Bros. 6 , which was expected to be released in 2015 for both the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS . The page noted there were 120 game developers working on the project at the time , and that the Bandai Namco expected that number to increase to 200 . However , shortly after its publication , the page was taken down .
In January 2015 in his column in Weekly Famitsu , Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement , expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was . In December 2015 , Sakurai once again stated that he wasn 't sure if there will be another Smash Bros. game in the series . In January 2016 , it was rumoured that a new Super Smash Bros. game was being developed by Bandai Namco and that the game was planned as a launch title for Nintendo 's upcoming NX platform . However , it is currently unknown as to whether it will be another installment in the series or an enhanced port of the 3DS and Wii U versions .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay in the Super Smash Bros. series differs from many fighting games . Instead of winning by depleting an opponent 's life bar , players seek to launch their opponents off the stage and out of the map . Characters have a damage total which rises as they take damage , represented by a percentage value that measures up to 999 % . As a character 's percentage rises , the character can be knocked progressively farther by an opponent 's attacks . To knock out an opponent , the player must knock that character outside the arena 's boundaries in any direction . When a character is launched off the stage , the character can attempt to " recover " by using jumping moves and abilities to return to the stage . Some characters have an easier time recovering onto the stage than others due to their moves and abilities . Additionally , some characters vary in weight , with lighter characters being easier to launch than heavy characters .
Smash Bros. ' controls are greatly simplified in comparison to other fighting games , with one button used for standard attacks and another used for special attacks . Players can perform different types of moves by holding the directional controls up , down , to the side , or in a neutral position while pressing the attack or special button . As such , each character has four types of ground attacks , mid @-@ air attacks , and special attacks that can be performed . Quickly pressing or tapping a directional input and the attack button together while on the ground allows players to perform a chargeable " Smash Attack " , which is generally more powerful than other attacks . When characters are hit by attacks , they receive hitstun that temporarily disallows any attacks to be made . This allows combos to be performed . A shield button allows players to put up a defensive shield which weakens with repeated use and will leave the player unable to move if broken . Combining the shield button with directional inputs and attack buttons allows the player to also perform dodges , rolls , grabs , and throws . The three basic actions in Super Smash Bros. , attacking , grabbing , and shielding , are often described using a Rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors analogy : attacking beats grabbing , grabbing beats shielding , and shielding beats attacking . When a player knocks another player off of the main platform , they may perform an action called edge @-@ guarding . At the same time the player that has been knocked off will try to recover by jumping back onto the stage and avoiding the other players ' edge @-@ guarding .
Another element in the Super Smash Bros. series is battle items , the abundance of which players can adjust the before matches . There are conventional " battering items " , with which a player may hit an opponent , such as a baseball bat or a sword , throwing items , including Bob @-@ ombs and shells , and shooting items , either single shot guns or rapid fire blasters . Recovery items allow the user to reduce their damage percentage by varying amounts . Poké Balls are special items that release a random Pokémon onto the battlefield to assist the user . Brawl introduced the Assist Trophy item which serves a similar purpose ; instead of releasing Pokémon , it summons a character from a Nintendo franchise . Brawl also introduces the Smash Ball , which when broken allows fighters to perform a character @-@ specific super attack known as a " Final Smash " .
The rules that can be used in a match vary depending on the game , but the most commonly used settings across all games are Time and Stock . Time mode uses a point based system in which fighters earn points for knocking out their opponents and lose points for being knocked out or self @-@ destructing ( i.e. falling out of the arena by themselves ) . The player with the highest score at the end of the set time limit wins the match . Survival uses a life @-@ based system in which players are given a set number of lives , known as stock , with each fighter losing a life whenever they are knocked out , becoming eliminated if they run out of lives . The winner is the last fighter standing once all other fighters are eliminated or , if a time @-@ limit is applied to the match , the fighter with the most lives remaining once time runs out . In the event of a tie , such as two or more fighters sharing the highest score / life count at the end of the time limit or remaining fighters losing their last life simultaneously , a Sudden Death match takes place . Here , each of the tied fighters are given a starting damage percentage of 300 % , making them easier to launch off the stage , and the last fighter standing wins the match . In some games this process is repeated if the match ends in another tie .
Gameplay using competitive Smash Bros. rules is usually played in stock mode and with a timer . Items are turned off and the only tournament legal stages are those that do not feature hazards and other disruptive elements .
= = Characters = =
= = = Playable characters = = =
Each game in the series has a number of playable characters ( referred in the games as " fighters " ) taken from various Nintendo franchises . Starting with Brawl , characters from third @-@ party franchises have also made playable appearances . At the start of each game , some of the fighters will be locked from play . To unlock a hidden fighter , players need to clear certain conditions , such as playing a certain number of matches , and defeat that fighter in a match . In Brawl , players can also unlock fighters by encountering them in the Subspace Emissary mode . In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , players are able to customise existing fighters with altered movesets and statistics , or make their own Mii Fighters that can be given different fighting styles , though these cannot be played in online matches with strangers .
Notes
= = = Non @-@ playable characters = = =
The following characters are non @-@ playable characters unless using glitches or cheat cartridges , that appear only in the various Single Player modes throughout the series , controlled by the computer , or as hazards in specific stages , or in Smash Run . Most of the non @-@ playable characters were created for use in the Super Smash Bros. series although some of them , such as Goombas , come from other game franchises .
= = = = Bosses = = = =
Throughout the Super Smash Bros. series , most single @-@ player modes have included several non @-@ playable boss characters . These bosses generally have a number of advantageous characteristics , such as extreme resistance to being knocked off the screen . Most of these bosses were created specifically for the Super Smash Bros. franchise , though some have made appearances in other games .
Master Hand ( マスターハンド , Masutā Hando ) is a glove @-@ like being that appears in all games to date , serving as the final boss of Classic Mode and , in Super Smash Bros. Melee , the 50th Event Match " Final Destination Match " . In Melee , Master Hand is playable via a system glitch . Super Smash Bros. Melee introduced a left @-@ hand counterpart to Master Hand named Crazy Hand ( クレイジーハンド , Kureijī Hando ) , which appears alongside Master Hand in some scenarios . Master Hand makes several appearances in Kirby & the Amazing Mirror as a miniboss , and partnered with Crazy Hand as the bosses of Candy Constellation . Master Hand and Crazy Hand look identical aside from their chirality , but Crazy Hand 's fingers act in a more impulsive and destructive way . While Master Hand is more relaxed and mature , Crazy Hand evokes the bizarre and his fingers move differently when he 's preparing for an attack . His attacks are also wilder and faster than those of Master Hand . UGO.com listed Master Hand first on their list of " The 25 Awesomest Hidden Characters " citing the glitch which allows him to be playable . In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , fighting against Master Hand and Crazy Hand on a high intensity will lead to a battle against Master Core , a shape @-@ shifting being of dark energy that can take various forms , including that of the player 's fighter . After defeating these forms , the Master Core shows its true , vulnerable form .
Super Smash Bros. also features Metal Mario ( originally from Super Mario 64 ) and Giant Donkey Kong , who are simply enhanced versions of their respective characters . Metal Mario is simply Mario with increased resistance to being knocked out of the stage as well as a faster falling speed and more attack power , while Giant Donkey Kong is simply a larger and more powerful version of Donkey Kong . Both characters reappear in Super Smash Bros. Melee 's Adventure Mode along with Giant Kirby , Metal Luigi and two Tiny Donkey Kongs . However , due to items introduced in Melee ( the Metal Box , Super Mushroom , and Poison Mushroom , specifically ) , all of these seemingly non @-@ playable characters ( including the enhanced characters that were unplayable bosses in the first game ) are indeed playable for short amounts of time . Dark Link , a completely black form of Link , appears in Melee and Brawl as an opponent in an Event Match , and in Brawl and 3DS and Wii U is also a playable costume for Link .
Giga Bowser is a gigantic , enhanced version of Bowser introduced in Melee . He is the secret final boss of Melee 's Adventure mode , only appearing if certain conditions are met . Giga Bowser becomes playable for short periods of time in Brawl and 3DS and Wii U when Bowser performs his " Final Smash " attack . Bowser transforms into Giga Bowser , and is near invincible until the effect of the Final Smash wears off .
Tabuu ( タブー , Tabū ) is the villain of Super Smash Bros. Brawl 's story mode , The Subspace Emissary . He is a human @-@ shaped apparition composed of pure energy , with a single eye @-@ shaped object located where a person 's stomach would be . He is able to conjure several weapons for use in battle , including a rapier and large chakram . His other powers include the ability to change his size at will and teleportation . Towards the end of The Subspace Emissary , it is revealed that Tabuu is the entity that controlled Master Hand and the true antagonist behind the events of the story .
The Subspace Emissary also features other boss characters . Some of these characters , such as Petey Piranha , Ridley , Porky , and Rayquaza , are from other franchises . Three original bosses are also featured : the aforementioned Tabuu , Galleom ( ガレオム , Gareomu ) and Duon ( デュオン , Dyuon ) . Galleom is a giant cyborg that is fought two times in The Subspace Emissary . It usually attacks with its fists and body , but can also shoot missiles and transform into a tank @-@ like form . It also has a built in Subspace bomb that it uses to self @-@ destruct in the story mode . Duon is a giant robot that has two upper bodies positioned on top of a wheel . Its pink side uses projectile attacks , while the blue side uses blades on its arms and head . It is created when multiple Mr. Game and Watch clones fuse together .
= = = = Other characters = = = =
In each of the games , there is a group of characters that resemble the designs for the initial characters . In the Japanese versions of the games , these characters have always been called the " Mysterious Small Fry Enemy Corps " ( 謎のザコ敵軍団 , Nazo no Zako Teki Gundan ) . In the English regionalized versions of the games , they are given names that describe their physical form . These include the Fighting Polygon Team , the Fighting Wire Frames , the Fighting Alloy Team and the Fighting Mii Team . Along with Melee 's Adventure Mode came the inclusion of minor , generic enemies , such as Goombas from the Super Mario series and Octoroks from The Legend of Zelda series . This trend continues into Super Smash Bros. Brawl , which also includes an assortment of original characters to serve as non @-@ playable generic enemies led by the Subspace Army .
The Subspace Army ( 亜空軍 , Akūgun ) are the antagonists of Super Smash Bros. Brawl , appearing in The Subspace Emissary and led by the Ancient Minister ( エインシャント卿 , Einshanto Kyō ) . Their goal is to bring the entire world to Subspace piece by piece with devices called Subspace bombs ( detonated with the aid of two R.O.B.s , requires 3 minutes of waiting time ) . The Sandbag ( サンドバッグくん , Sandobaggu @-@ kun ) appears in the " Home @-@ Run Contest " minigame since Super Smash Bros. Melee . The object is to strike it as far as possible with either a Home @-@ Run Bat or a fighting move . Sandbag also appears randomly as an item that drops other items when hit in various other modes in Brawl .
= = Music = =
Super Smash Bros. features music from some of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises . While many are newly arranged for the game , some pieces are taken directly from their sources . The music for the Nintendo 64 game was composed by Hirokazu Ando , who later returned as sound and music director in Melee . Melee also features tracks composed by Tadashi Ikegami , Shougo Sakai , and Takuto Kitsuta . Brawl features the collaboration of 38 composers , including Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu , who composed the main theme . Like the previous game in the series , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U features many original and re @-@ arranged tracks from various different gaming franchises . Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the returning " My Music " feature , including pieces taken directly from earlier Super Smash Bros. titles . The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however , and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations . The 3DS version also has a " Play in Sleep Mode " option , allowing players to listen to the game 's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode . On August 22 , 2014 , the Super Smash Bros. website revealed the list of composers and arrangers for the game . Various well known musicians such as Masashi Hamauzu , Yuzo Koshiro , Yasunori Mitsuda , Motoi Sakuraba , Yoko Shimomura , Mahito Yokota , along with many others , provided new arrangements for both versions of the game . The original music was created by Bandai Namco 's in @-@ house sound team . The Wii U specific musicians were revealed on October 23 , 2014 , and feature contributions from Akari Kaida , Michiru Yamane , Koji Kondo , Kazumi Totaka , and Hiroshi Okubo , among others .
Three soundtrack albums for the series have been released . An album with the original music for Super Smash Bros. was released in Japan by Teichiku Records in 2000 . In 2003 , Nintendo released Smashing ... Live ! , a live orchestrated performance of various pieces featured in Melee by the New Japan Philharmonic . A two @-@ disc promotional soundtrack was available for Club Nintendo members who registered both the 3DS and Wii U games between November 21 , 2014 and January 13 , 2015 .
= = Development = =
Super Smash Bros. was developed by HAL Laboratory , a Nintendo first @-@ party developer , during 1998 . It began as a prototype created by Masahiro Sakurai and Satoru Iwata in their spare time titled " Dragon King : The Fighting Game " , and originally featured no Nintendo characters . However , Sakurai hit on the idea of including fighters from different Nintendo franchises in order to provide " atmosphere " which he felt was necessary for a home console fighting game , and his idea was approved . The game had a small budget and little promotion , and was originally a Japan @-@ only release , but its huge success saw the game released worldwide .
HAL Laboratory developed Super Smash Bros. Melee , with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production . The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics from the Nintendo 64 . The developers wanted to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube by making an opening full motion video sequence that would attract people 's attention to the graphics . HAL worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence . On their official website , the developers posted screenshots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game , with references to changes from its predecessor .
At a pre @-@ E3 2005 press conference , the president of Nintendo , Satoru Iwata , announced the next installment of Super Smash Bros. was not only already in development for their next gaming console , but hoped it would be a launch title with Wi – Fi compatibility for online play . The announcement was unexpected to the creator of the Super Smash Bros. series , Masahiro Sakurai . Back in 2003 , he had left HAL Laboratory , the company that was in charge with the franchises ' development and was never informed of this announcement despite the fact shortly after resigning from the company , Iwata said if a new game was to be made , he would be in charge . It was not until after the conference Sakurai was called to Satoru Iwata 's room on the top floor of a Los Angeles hotel , where he was told by Iwata " We 'd like you to be involved in the production of the new Smash Bros. , if possible near the level of director " . Although Iwata had said he was hoping for it to be a launch title , Sakurai stated " I decided to become director . And as of May 2005 , I was the only member of the new Smash Bros. development team " . Development of the game never actually started until October 2005 , when Nintendo opened a new office in Tokyo just for its production . Nintendo also enlisted outside help from various developer studios , mainly Game Arts . Sakurai also stated that these people had spent excessive amounts of time playing Super Smash Bros. Melee . This team was given access to all the original material and tools from the development of Melee , courtesy of HAL Laboratory . Also , several Smash Bros. staff members that reside around the area of the new office joined the project 's development .
On the game 's official Japanese website , the developers explain reasons for making particular characters playable and explain why some characters were not available as playable characters upon release . Initially , the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas , the main character of Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance , but they retained Ness in consideration of delays . The game 's creators have included Lucas in the game 's sequel , Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested Solid Snake , the protagonist of the Metal Gear series , to be a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Melee , but the game was too far in development for him to be included . As with Lucas , development time allowed for his inclusion in Brawl . Roy and Marth were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee . However , they received favorable attention during the game 's North American localization , leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version . Comparisons have been formed by the developers between characters which have very similar moves to each other on the website . Such characters have been referred to as " clones " in the media .
At the Nintendo Media Conference at E3 2007 , it was announced by Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aime that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on December 3 , 2007 in the Americas . However , just 2 months before its anticipated December release , the development team asked for more time to work on the game . During the Nintendo Conference on October 10 , 2007 , Nintendo Co . , Ltd. president Iwata announced the delay .
On October 11 , 2007 , George Harrison of Nintendo of America announced that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on February 10 , 2008 in North America . On January 15 , 2008 , the game 's release was pushed back one week in Japan to January 31 and nearly a month in the Americas to March 9 . On April 24 , 2008 , it was confirmed by Nintendo of Europe that Brawl will be released in Europe on June 27 .
Director Masahiro Sakurai first announced that a new Super Smash Bros. game was planned for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U at E3 2011 in June 2011 , but development only officially began following the completion of Sakurai 's other project , Kid Icarus : Uprising , in March 2012 . The game was later revealed to be a joint @-@ project between Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games , with various staff members from Bandai Namco 's Soulcalibur and Tekken series assisting Sakurai in development . Sakurai , who was previously the sole person responsible for balance in the series ' multiple fighters , has involved more staff to further improve the game 's competitive balance . The game was officially revealed at E3 2013 on June 11 , 2013 during a Nintendo Direct presentation . Along with screenshots being posted each weekday on the game 's official website and Miiverse community , various cinematic trailers were released , introducing each of the brand new fighters . Sakurai chose to use these trailers , which benefit from Internet sharing , as opposed to including a story campaign similar to the Subspace Emissary mode featured in Brawl , as he believed the impact of seeing the mode 's cinematic cutscenes for the first time was ruined by people uploading said scenes to video sharing websites .
At E3 2013 , Sakurai stated that the tripping mechanic introduced in Brawl was removed , with him also stating that the gameplay was between the fast @-@ paced and competitive style of Melee and the slower and more casual style of Brawl . While the games didn 't feature cross @-@ platform play between the Wii U and 3DS , due to each version featuring certain exclusive stages and gamemodes , there is an option to transfer customized characters and items between the two versions . The game builds upon the previous game 's third @-@ party involvement with the addition of third @-@ party characters such as Capcom 's Mega Man and Bandai Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , as well as the return of Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog . This involvement expands beyond playable characters , as other third @-@ party characters , such as Ubisoft 's Rayman , are also included in the game as trophies . The addition of Mii characters was made in response to the growing number of requests from fans to have their dream characters included in the game . To prevent potential bullying , as well as to maintain game balance online , Mii Fighters cannot be used in online matches against strangers . The decision to release the Wii U version at a later date from the 3DS version was made to allow each version to receive a dedicated debugging period . Hardware limitations on the Nintendo 3DS led to various design choices , such as the removal of mid @-@ match transformations , the absence of the Ice Climbers , and the lack of Circle Pad Pro support .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the Super Smash Bros. series are usually positive . The multiplayer mode in every title has been highly praised . However , single player modes have not been viewed as highly .
Super Smash Bros. has received praise for its multiplayer mode . Nintendo Power listed the series as being one of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo history , describing it as infinitely replayable due to its special moves and close @-@ quarters combat . There were criticisms , however , such as the game 's scoring being difficult to follow . In addition , the single @-@ player mode was criticized for its perceived difficulty and lack of features .
Super Smash Bros. Melee generally received a positive reception from reviewers , most of whom credited Melee 's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features , GameSpy commented that " Melee really scores big in the ' we 've added tons of great extra stuff ' department . " Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. — IGN 's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was " in an entirely different league than the N64 version " ; GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering an advanced " classic @-@ mode " compared to its predecessor , while detailing the Adventure Mode as " really a hit @-@ or @-@ miss experience . " Despite a mixed response to the single @-@ player modes , most reviewers expressed the game 's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game . In their review of the game , GameSpy stated that " you 'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console . "
Brawl received a perfect score from the Japanese magazine Famitsu . The reviewers praised the variety and depth of the single @-@ player content , the unpredictability of Final Smashes , and the dynamic fighting styles of the characters . Thunderbolt Games gave the game 10 out of 10 , calling it " a vastly improved entry into the venerable series " . Chris Slate of Nintendo Power also awarded Brawl a perfect score in its March 2008 issue , calling it " one of the very best games that Nintendo has ever produced " . IGN critic Matt Casamassina , in his February 11 Wii @-@ k in Review podcast , noted that although Brawl is a " solid fighter , " it does have " some issues that need to be acknowledged , " including " long loading times " and repetition in The Subspace Emissary .
Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U both garnered critical praise and were commercially successful , holding current ratings of 85 / 100 and 92 / 100 on Metacritic and 86 @.@ 10 % and 92 @.@ 39 % on GameRankings . Reviewers have particularly noted the large , diverse character roster , the improvements to game mechanics , and the variety of multiplayer options . Some criticisms in the 3DS version include a lack of single player modes and issues concerning the 3DS hardware , such as the size of characters on the smaller screen when zoomed out and latency issues during both local and online multiplayer . There were also reports of players damaging their 3DS Circle Pads while playing the game excessively . The Wii U version 's online play quality was mildly criticized for some inconsistency , but has overall been critically acclaimed . Daniel Dischoff of Game Revolution stated " It 's true that Super Smash Bros. evolves every time with regard to new features , items , and characters to choose from . While your favorite character may not return or a few annoying pickups may force you to turn off items altogether , this represents the biggest leap forward Smashers have seen yet . " Daniel Starky at GameSpot criticized the inconsistent online performance in the game , but still called it an " incredible game " , noting " With the Wii U release , Smash Bros. has fully realized its goals . " Jose Otero from IGN , praising the replayability of the game , states " Nearly every aspect of Smash Wii U seems fine @-@ tuned not only to appeal to the nostalgia of long @-@ time Nintendo fans , but also to be accessible to new players . "
Super Smash Bros sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in Japan , and 2 @.@ 3 million in the U.S. Melee sold over 7 million units worldwide , becoming the best @-@ selling GameCube title . Brawl sold 1 @.@ 524 million units in Japan as of March 30 , 2008 , and sold 1 @.@ 4 million units in its first week in the United States , becoming Nintendo of America 's fastest selling title . The 3DS version sold over a million copies in its first weekend on sale in Japan , and has sold more than 3 @.@ 22 million copies worldwide as of October 2014 . Super Smash Bros. for Wii U became the fastest @-@ selling Wii U game to date , selling 3 @.@ 39 million units worldwide within just two months of availability , beating the record previously held by Mario Kart 8 .
= = Competitive play = =
The Super Smash Bros. series has been widely played as competitive video games and has been featured in several high @-@ profile tournaments . The first publicized Super Smash Bros. Melee tournaments were held in early 2002 . From 2004 to 2007 , Melee was on Major League Gaming 's tournament roster . In 2010 MLG picked up Brawl for its pro circuit for a year . During this time , Nintendo prohibited MLG from live streaming Brawl matches . At 2014 MLG Anaheim Melee was once again hosted at an MLG event . Melee was also included at the Evolution Championship Series ( Evo ) in 2007 , a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas . Melee was again hosted at Evo 2013 after it won a charity drive to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup . Due to the large turnout and popularity that year , Evo again included a Melee at their 2014 event and plans to do so in 2015 . New Jersey based Apex is another prominent Super Smash Bros. tournament , and has a series of qualifying events that are a prerequisite to playing at Apex . In 2015 Apex announced that they were officially sponsored by Nintendo of America . EVO 2015 was the largest Smash tournament in history and featured Super Smash Bros. for Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Melee with the former having 1 @,@ 926 entrants and the latter having 1 @,@ 869 .
= Hyde Park Township , Cook County , Illinois =
Hyde Park Township is a former civil township in Cook County , Illinois , United States that existed as a separate municipality from 1861 until 1889 when it was annexed into the city of Chicago . Its borders are Pershing Road ( formerly 39th Street ) on the north , State Street on the west , Lake Michigan and the Indiana state line on the east , and 138th Street and the Calumet River on the south . This region comprised most of what is now known as the South Side of Chicago .
During Chicago 's initial explosive growth , it developed from an adjacent rural area to a developed residential , commercial and resort community . However , due to infrastructure limitations , legislative incentives and the lure of better municipal services it , along with numerous adjoining townships , agreed to be annexed into the city of Chicago , creating the largest city in the United States at that time .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The township was founded by Paul Cornell , who paid for a topographical survey of the lakefront south of the city in 1852 . In 1853 , following the advice of Senator Stephen Douglas , he bought 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 21 km2 ) of speculative property between 51st Street and 55th Street and set about developing the first Chicago railroad suburb . This area was 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 27 km ) south of the mouth of the Chicago River and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) south of downtown Chicago . In the 1850s , Chicago was still a walkable urban area well contained within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 22 km ) radius of the center . He selected the name Hyde Park to associate the area with the elite neighborhood of Hyde Park in New York as well as the famous royal park in London . By 1855 he began acquiring large land tracts , which he would subdivide into lots for sale in the 1870s .
In 1837 , the City of Chicago incorporated , and by the 1870s the surrounding townships had followed suit . After 1850 , Cook County was divided into basic governmental entities , which were designated as townships as a result of the new
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Illinois Constitution . Illinois 's permissive incorporation law empowered any community of 300 resident citizens to petition the Illinois legislature for incorporation as a municipality under a municipal charter with more extensive powers to provide services and tax local residents . Hyde Park Township was created by the Illinois General Assembly in 1861 within Cook County . This empowered the township to better govern the provision of services to its increasingly suburban residents .
= = = Annexation and current status = = =
Following the June 29 , 1889 elections , several suburban townships voted to be annexed to the city , which offered better services , such as improved water supply , sewerage , and fire and police protection . Hyde Park Township , however , had installed new waterworks in 1883 just north of 87th Street . Nonetheless , the majority of voters in 1889 supported annexation perhaps because of the city ’ s water system for fire prevention or because of the belief that township government had become too unwieldy . After the 1889 annexation Chicago was able to leverage efficiencies as the largest United States city in area and second largest in population .
The township has no current governmental structure or functions , other than being used by the Cook County Assessor 's office for taxation valuation and record keeping purposes . The Hyde Park Historical Society also offers middle school and high school awards with eligibility based on the historical boundaries . Hyde Park was the site of the Columbian Exposition of 1893 , and is also the location of the University of Chicago , which was founded two years after Hyde Park was annexed into Chicago , in 1891 .
= = Location = =
Hyde Park included the entirety of the following community areas ( see map , below right ) : Hyde Park ( 41 ) , Kenwood ( 39 ) , Woodlawn ( 42 ) , South Shore ( 43 ) , South Chicago ( 46 ) , East Side ( 52 ) , Hegewisch ( 55 ) , Avalon Park ( 45 ) , Calumet Heights ( 48 ) , South Deering ( 51 ) , Burnside ( 47 ) , Pullman ( 50 ) , and Riverdale ( 54 ) as well as the Southern part of Oakland ( 36 ) and the eastern parts of Grand Boulevard ( 38 ) , Washington Park ( 40 ) , Greater Grand Crossing ( 69 ) , Chatham ( 44 ) , Roseland ( 49 ) , and West Pullman ( 53 ) .
= = Demographics = =
When first created the township had only 350 residents . The creation of the Union Stock Yards in 1865 changed the evolutionary path of Hyde Park and the neighboring Lake Township , which became the industrial center while Hyde Park became the middle class enclave . The population of the township grew from 3 @,@ 600 in 1870 to 15 @,@ 700 ten years later . By 1889 the population had reached 85 @,@ 000 .
= Grantham Canal =
The Grantham Canal is a canal that runs for 33 miles ( 53 km ) from Grantham , falling through 18 locks to West Bridgford where it joins the River Trent . It was built primarily to allow for the transportation of coal to Grantham . It opened in 1797 , and its profitability steadily increased until 1841 . It was then sold to a railway company , after which it declined , and was finally closed in 1936 .
Because it was used as a water supply for agriculture , most of the channel remained in water , although bridges were lowered . Since the 1970s , the Grantham Canal Society have been working towards its restoration , and two stretches are navigable to small vessels . Full restoration will require a new route where the canal joins the Trent , as road building has effectively severed the original route .
= = History = =
The concept of a canal from the River Trent to Grantham was first raised on 27 August 1791 , as a way of supplying the district with cheaper coal . The intent was for the navigation to join the Trent below Nottingham at Radcliffe @-@ on @-@ Trent . As William Jessop was surveying the Nottingham Canal at the time , he was aked to survey the Grantham route as well , and a bill was put before Parliament in 1792 . It was defeated , as there was opposition from coal suppliers , who delivered coal by road to Grantham , and from those who thought that the River Witham would be damaged by the project . A revised route was developed , with the junction now at West Bridgford , and an additional 3 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) branch to Bingham . A second bill was put forward and the act of Parliament received the Royal Assent on 30 April 1793 . Building work on the canal started in 1793 , with Jessop in overall charge , but with James Green and William King as resident engineers : Green , who was from Wollaton , was appointed engineer for the section of canal from the Trent to the Leicestershire border , while King , who was the agent for the Duke of Rutland , was responsible for the rest of the canal , including two reservoirs , one at Denton and the other at Knipton on the River Devon .
The act authorised an initial £ 75 @,@ 000 to be raised to pay for construction , together with an option to raise a further £ 30 @,@ 000 , of which £ 20 @,@ 000 should be raised by shares of £ 100 each among the initial subscribers , and £ 10 @,@ 000 by mortgaging the future income of the canal . However , this amount proved insufficient , and there was also disagreement between the shareholders as to their liability to raise the additional £ 20 @,@ 000 . As a result , a second act was sought . This received the Royal Assent on 3 March 1797 , and made clear the obligations of existing shareholders to pay the extra subscription , and also authorised an additional £ 24 @,@ 000 to be raised . The second act also removed restrictions in the first act , and allowed the company to set whatever rates it chose for using the canal .
The eastern section from the Leicestershire border was opened on 1 February 1797 , with the rest of the canal later that year . The canal was built with locks 75 by 14 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , the same size as those on the Nottingham Canal to allow boats to use both . The branch to Bingham authorised by the first act was not built . The 18 locks raised the level of the canal by 140 feet ( 43 m ) from the Trent to Grantham . Eleven of them were located in the first 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) above the Trent , after which there was a level pound of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) before a flight of seven locks at Woolsthorpe , and a much shorter upper pound to Grantham . At Harlaxton , the canal passed through a deep cutting ( effectively crossing the watershed between the River Witham and the River Trent ) , which was only wide enough for a single boat , but this situation was partially rectified in 1801 when the cutting was widened in two places to allow boats travelling on opposite directions to cross . At Cropwell Bishop and Cropwell Butler , the route passed through gypsum beds , which resulted in problems with leakage .
= = = Operation = = =
The canal made sufficient money to repay substantial debts in 1804 and 1805 , after which dividends were paid to the shareholders , beginning at 2 per cent in 1806 , rising to 5 per cent in 1815 , and reaching their highest level of 8 @.@ 6 per cent in 1839 . The tolls brought in an income which remained below £ 9 @,@ 000 until 1823 , but then rose steadily to reach £ 13 @,@ 079 in 1841 . Traffic towards Grantham included coal and coke , lime , groceries and building materials . Some of it supplied villages along the line of the canal , and some of that which travelled the full distance was distributed by land to villages beyond Grantham . Downward traffic was largely agricultural produce , including corn , beans , malt and wool . Such produce was normally loaded at Grantham or Harby .
Initially , some of the coal carried on the canal had been transported in boats owned by the canal company , but they had given up this practice in 1812 . They resumed carrying coal in 1827 , because they felt that coal stocks at Grantham were not adequate , but were accused of price @-@ fixing . Although the penalty imposed by Lincoln Assizes was small , they ceased this trade , and the coal merchants agreed to maintain stocks of 2 @,@ 660 tons at Grantham . In 1833 , J. Rofe and his son made a proposal for a canal to connect Grantham and Sleaford , but this was not pursued .
= = = Decline = = =
In common with most canals , competition from railways posed a major threat , and in 1845 the canal owners agreed to sell it to the Ambergate , Nottingham , Boston and Eastern Junction Railway when their line from Ambergate to Grantham was opened . Although the railway was completed in 1850 , the railway company did not honour the agreement . The canal company brought a large number of cases against the railway company , and successfully opposed several bills which the railway were trying to get passed in Parliament . Eventually the railway company agreed to pay , and shareholders received £ 45 per share in cash , with the balance being in railway mortgages . The agreement was reached on 1 June 1854 , and the transfer of ownership took place on 20 December . Railway mergers meant that the canal came under the control of the Great Northern Railway in 1861 , and later the London and North Eastern Railway .
Traffic declined as the railway companies neglected the canal , and were down to 18 @,@ 802 tons in 1905 , on which the tolls amounted to £ 242 and an Act of Parliament was passed in 1936 , formally closing the canal , though there had been no boat traffic since 1929 . The closure act stipulated that water levels should be maintained at 2 feet ( 60 cm ) to support agricultural needs . This effectively guaranteed the continued existence of the canal channel , but structures such as locks and bridges deteriorated , and in the 1950s 46 of the 69 bridges over the canal were lowered as part of road improvement schemes . Although the low bridges act as barriers to navigation , large parts of the canal are still in water .
In 1948 Britain 's railways , and hence the canal , were nationalised , and became the responsibility of the British Transport Commission . In 1963 control of the canal passed to British Waterways . Under the terms of the Transport Act 1968 , all waterways within the jurisdiction of British Waterways were classified as commercial , cruising or remainder waterways . Remainder waterways were those that were deemed to have no economic future , and maintenance would only be carried out where failure to do so would create health or safety issues . The Grantham Canal was listed in this latter category .
= = Restoration = =
A plan to fill in a section of the canal in Nottingham resulted in a number of letters appearing in the local press in 1963 , and a student at Kesteven College produced a report on the state of the canal , which was presented to the Grantham Civic Society . In 1970 , the British Waterways Board attempted to obtain an act of parliament which would have allowed them to cease maintaining the water levels of the canal . The Inland Waterways Association campaigned against the bill , and the clause was amended . The Grantham Canal Society was formed soon afterwards , to promote restoration of the waterway . In 1974 , a National Boat Rally was held at Nottingham , to gain support for the restoration scheme , and to promote the idea of a new link to the Trent , which would pass through old gravel workings .
Together with British Waterways , the Inland Waterways Association and the Waterway Recovery Group , the Society began the work of restoration of the canal to navigation , a process which is still ongoing . A major development was the granting of permission in 1992 to remove an old railway embankment , which blocked the route near the top of the Woolsthorpe flight of locks . The task was completed by a number of Waterway Recovery Group workcamps . New gates were fitted to the top three locks , and rebuilding of Casthorpe bridge was funded by Lincolnshire County Council , opening up 4 @.@ 4 miles ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) of the canal for navigation . Further down the canal , restoration of a 2 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) section between Hickling Basin and Hose was funded by a derelict land grant of £ 400 @,@ 000 , received in 1993 . The Grantham Canal Partnership was formed in 1997 , as a way to take the project forwards . It consisted of representatives from each of the six local authorities through which the route passes , British Waterways , the Inland Waterways Association , the Grantham Canal Restoration Society and the Grantham Navigation Association , a group which had split off from the Canal Society in 1992 . As a result of the co @-@ operation , British Waterways formulated a draft business plan for the canal .
Following the restoration of the top three locks at Woolsthorpe in the 1990s , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 @-@ km ) section from the A1 to Redmile will be completed once the bottom four locks of the flight are restored . The rebuilding of locks 6 and 7 , completed in 2000 , brought the number of locks restored to five , and approximately one quarter of the canal has been restored to navigable standard . Much improvement of the towpath has also taken place , and access to it is possible at most of the bridges .
A major setback occurred in 2007 , when one of the walls of Woolsthorpe top lock had to be propped to prevent it collapsing , and British Waterways took the decision to fill it in , as funding was not available to rebuild it . The Inland Waterways Association received a legacy of £ 100 @,@ 000 from the estate of Fredrick Woodman , designated for the Grantham Canal , but British Waterways ruled that no work could start until the whole cost of £ 175 @,@ 000 had been found . The balance was made up by grants of £ 40 @,@ 000 from Lincolnshire County Council and £ 35 @,@ 000 from the East Midlands Development Agency . The wall was demolished and rebuilt in three sections , utilizing 290 cubic yards ( 220 m3 ) of concrete and 7 @,@ 500 new bricks .
Restoration of most of the canal does not present major problems , but challenges are presented by the final sections at both ends . The original route to join the Trent has been severed by the building of the A52 road . A route was identified which followed the course of the Polser Brook , which passes under the A52 to the north of the canal , but by 2009 , three possible solutions were under consideration . These pose additional problems in finding funding , since they do not count as restoration , and many of the traditional funding sources are not then available . At Grantham , an embankment carrying the A1 road blocks the line of the canal , and the terminal basin has been filled in . There are plans for a tunnel under the A1 as part of a cycle route to improve access to Grantham , and the basin could be redeveloped in due course .
There is also a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) dry section between Cotgrave and Kinoulton , which has presented problems since construction in the 18th century : gypsum in the soil reacted with the waterproof clay leading to leaking .
In early 2005 , the Grantham Canal Partnership appointed a full @-@ time Grantham Canal restoration manager , Kevin Mann , for an initial 18 @-@ month trial period . He would be responsible for planning and managing funding schemes for the restoration , identifying development opportunities and the promotion and interpretation of the canal . The trial proved to be successful , as he was still doing the job in 2009 .
= = Points of interest = =
= = Belvoir tramway = =
The Duke of Rutland also constructed a private wagonway or tramway between the wharf at Muston Gorse and Belvoir Castle . It was constructed in 1793 in anticipation of the opening of the canal . It was constructed with fish @-@ belly rail set into stone chairs , some of which , and some wagons , still exist in the castle cellars . The gauge was 4 ft 4 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 333 mm ) , and the rails were supplied by The Butterley Company . Some are in the collection of the science museum , and the National Railway Museum where there is the chassis of one of the wagons .
= Bridgwater and Taunton Canal =
The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal is a canal in the south @-@ west of England between Bridgwater and Taunton , opened in 1827 and linking the River Tone to the River Parrett . There were a number of abortive schemes to link the Bristol Channel to the English Channel by waterway in the 18th and early 19th centuries . These schemes followed the approximate route eventually taken by the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , but the canal was instead built as part of a plan to link Bristol to Taunton by waterway .
The early years of operation were marred by a series of legal disputes , which were resolved when the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal Company and the Conservators , who managed the River Tone Navigation , agreed that the Canal Company should take over the Tone Navigation . The canal originally terminated at a basin at Huntworth , to the east of Bridgwater , but was later extended to a floating harbour at Bridgwater Docks on its western edge . Financially this was a disaster , as the extension was funded by a mortgage , and the arrival of the railways soon afterwards started the demise of the canal . The canal was rescued from bankruptcy by the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1866 .
Despite commercial traffic ceasing in 1907 , the infrastructure was maintained in good order , and the canal was used for the transport of potable water from 1962 . The Countryside Act 1968 provided a framework for Somerset County Council to start the restoration of the canal as a leisure facility , which was completed in 1994 , when the canal was reopened throughout . Bridgwater Docks have been restored as a marina , but there is no navigable connection to the River Parrett , as the canal still transports drinking water for the people of Bridgwater .
= = History = =
Prior to the building of the canal , navigation between the towns of Bridgwater and Taunton was possible by using the River Parrett and the River Tone . The Tone had been improved by its Conservators , who had obtained Acts of Parliament in 1699 and 1707 , which had allowed them to straighten and dredge the river and parts of the Parrett , and to build locks and half @-@ locks to manage the water levels . The initial work was completed by 1717 , although further improvements including more locks continued to be made until the early 19th century .
= = = Precursors = = =
From 1768 there were a number of grand schemes proposed , all with the aim of linking the Bristol Channel to the English Channel by a waterway , thereby avoiding the need to navigate by sea around Cornwall and Devon . James Brindley was the first to survey a route , which would have run from the Bristol Channel to Exeter , following the course of the River Tone for part of its route . In 1769 , Robert Whitworth looked at a shorter route from Bridgwater Bay to Seaton , following the River Parrett and the River Axe . He was asked to reassess the route in the 1790s . William Jessop surveyed a route between Taunton and Exeter in 1794 , while another group proposed a canal linking Bristol , Nailsea , Bridgwater and Taunton , which was surveyed by William White . Jessop 's assistant , Josiah Easton , suggested a route from Uphill ( on the Bristol Channel ) to Seaton , again in 1794 , and the previous two schemes sought parliamentary approval as the Grand Western Canal and the Bristol and Western Canal , respectively . Only the first was authorised , but the economic downturn caused by the Napoleonic Wars meant that construction did not begin immediately .
John Rennie surveyed the line for a ship canal from the mouth of the River Parrett to Seaton in 1810 , which was designed for ships of 120 long tons ( 120 t ) , but it was felt that the economic situation would not support the projected expenditure of over £ 1 million . He then considered a more modest proposal , based on the original Bristol and Western plans , and the scheme , now renamed the Bristol and Taunton Canal , was authorised by an Act of Parliament dated 14 May 1811 . The company had powers to raise £ 420 @,@ 000 in shares and an additional £ 150 @,@ 000 if required , but economic concerns meant that the project did not start immediately . Powers for the Bristol to Bridgwater section lapsed in 1815 , but work finally commenced in 1822 , to be halted by an injunction because the authorised route was not being followed . A further Act , of 17 June 1824 , authorised the revised route , and changed the name of the project to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal Company . The predicted costs for the construction of the shorter canal were £ 34 @,@ 145 , as opposed to £ 429 @,@ 990 for the longer scheme .
Three further schemes were proposed before the idea of a Channel @-@ to @-@ Channel link was abandoned . James Green proposed a tub @-@ boat canal in 1822 , capable of handling 5 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) boats , which would have used inclines instead of locks , and would have cost £ 120 @,@ 000 . Thomas Telford revived the idea of a ship canal in 1824 , which would have taken over the line of the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal – enabling 200 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 200 t ) boats to reach the south coast – at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 75 million . This was authorised in 1825 , but no further action occurred . Finally , a barge canal between Bridgwater and Beer , costing £ 600 @,@ 000 , was proposed in 1828 , but enthusiasm for large canal schemes was waning , and the advent of iron @-@ hulled steamships meant that the risks of navigation around the south @-@ west peninsula were reduced .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction of the canal began in 1822 , with James Hollinsworth as the engineer and John Easton as the senior surveyor . The Bristol and Taunton scheme had incorporated a high @-@ level crossing of the River Parrett , but the shortened canal would now join the Parrett at Huntworth , where a basin was to be constructed . This change of route resulted in the Reverend Robert Gray obtaining an injunction , and work on the lower half of the canal stopped until the new route could be properly authorised by the 1824 Act . By this time , the estimated cost had risen to £ 60 @,@ 000 . Below Durston , the canal was cut into the clay subsoil , the clay forming a naturally waterproof channel ; but from Durston to Taunton the canal bed had to be puddled with clay to make it watertight , as the underlying ground was shale .
The canal was to be about 12 miles ( 19 km ) long . It included a 700 @-@ yard ( 640 m ) embankment at Lyng , which was 40 feet ( 12 m ) high , two short cuttings , eleven brick @-@ built bridges to carry roads over the canal , and more than twelve timber swing bridges , built to provide accommodation crossings for farms which had been divided by the line of the canal . The lock at Firepool ( Taunton ) had a set of reverse @-@ facing gates , to prevent the canal draining if the level of the River Tone dropped . There were four more locks on the main line , and a lock at the entrance to Huntworth Basin . One final lock connected the basin to the river , and again it had a set of reverse @-@ facing gates , so that the basin could be drained at low tide , and the low level retained for maintenance if required . A system of paddle gearing – using metal ball weights at the top and metal cylinder weights at the bottom – is unique to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal . Over fifty culverts were built to carry streams and drainage ditches under the canal . The work was completed with no recorded incidents of serious injury or death among the workforce .
By mid @-@ 1826 , the Canal Company had insufficient funds to complete the work , and a special meeting authorised the taking out of a mortgage to cover the £ 15 @,@ 000 deficit . The canal was an obvious competitor to the River Tone Navigation , which was managed by the Conservators of the River Tone , a legal body created for that purpose by Act of Parliament in 1699 . There was animosity between the Company and the Conservators , with the Company maintaining that they had a right to use the Tone to reach the centre of Taunton , and the Conservators maintaining that they did not . The canal was scheduled to be opened on 1 January 1827 , but the opening was delayed until 3 January , as the connection to the River Tone was not made until 2 January . The opening celebrations were hampered by snow and bitter cold weather .
= = = Operation = = =
The early years of the new canal were marred by legal disputes with the Conservators of the River Tone . The connection to the Tone at Taunton had been made forcibly , by the Canal Company breaching the bank of the river . In August 1827 they announced that they were taking over the Tone , and evicted William Goodland , the river superintendent , from his cottage . Despite a ruling by the Court of King 's Bench that their action was illegal , the Canal Company held on to the river until a High Court judgement in February 1830 . The Conservators promptly built a dam , to prevent boats reaching the river and water entering the canal , which they removed after further legal action and an Order of the Chancery Court . Reconciliation finally came in late 1831 , when the two parties proposed a new Act of Parliament to authorise the sale of the Tone Navigation to the Canal Company . This was obtained in July 1832 , and required the Canal Company to erect a new iron bridge to replace the existing North Town Bridge , which hampered access to the wharfs in Taunton . They also had powers to construct a lock and a short length of canal at French Weir , to connect with the Grand Western Canal , while the Conservators were allowed to conduct an annual inspection of the canal , and to resume their ownership of the river if the canal was not maintained in good order .
At the Bridgwater end , navigation onto the River Parrett was not easy , and the Corporation of Bridgwater had commissioned a number of surveys to construct a floating harbour . All came to nothing , but in 1836 the Bristol and Exeter Railway Company obtained an Act to construct a railway which would pass through Bridgwater . Subsequently the Canal Company , in order to protect their trade , sought their own Act to construct a floating harbour to the west of Bridgwater , and to extend the canal to join it . This was obtained on 21 April 1837 , and the works were started . The construction work involved a deep cutting from Albert Street to West Street , a short tunnel at West Street . There it entered Bridgwater Docks , which consisted of :
Inner basin that covered 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha )
Outer basin covering 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha )
The two basins were connected by a lock , whilst towards the river a ship lock consisting of a single 40 @
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-@ foot ( 12 m ) gate , and a barge lock , consisting of a pair of 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) gates . The whole outer basin could be used as a lock by larger ships up to 600 tons . The estimated cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 for the scheme escalated to nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 , most of which was raised by mortgage .
The new facilities were opened on 25 March 1841 , after which the basin and locks at Huntworth were filled in . Trade increased from 90 @,@ 000 long tons ( 91 @,@ 000 t ) in 1840 , before the harbour opened , to 120 @,@ 000 long tons ( 120 @,@ 000 t ) shortly afterwards . Around 2 @,@ 400 vessels per year were using the port by 1853 . The Canal Company had hoped that the opening of the Grand Western Canal in 1838 and the Chard Canal in 1842 would increase traffic significantly , but their impact was marginal . Despite commercial success , the interest payments on the mortgage were crippling , and in 1846 the company obtained an Act to convert the canal into a railway , although its powers were never used . Trade halved as railway competition increased , and the company was in the hands of receivers by the early 1850s .
In 1866 the Bristol and Exeter Railway stepped in and bought the canal . The main attraction was the dock , with its large volume of coal traffic , but they purchased both the canal and the dock for £ 64 @,@ 000 , under the terms of an Act of Parliament obtained that year , which included a requirement that there should always be " a good and sufficient water communication between the towns of Taunton and Bridgwater " . Unlike many such acquisitions , the canal was seen as a useful adjunct to the railway network , and was maintained in good order for several years , with the Conservators of the River Tone continuing their annual inspections , and reporting any defects to the railway company .
= = = Decline = = =
The canal was increasingly affected by water supply problems . The main source of water was the River Tone , although this was not fed into the canal at Firepool , in order to ensure that the mills on the upper section could function . Instead water was pumped out of the river at Creech , by the Charlton Pumping Station , where the river and canal were only 300 yards ( 270 m ) apart . Large volumes of water were discharged from the canal every fortnight , when the Bridgwater Dock was scoured , in order to free it from silt , while the Railway Company was extracting water to supply the station and steam locomotive sheds at Taunton . During the summer months there was often not enough water to go round .
The canal gradually became clogged with weed , and the railway took much of the trade . Between 1870 and 1874 , income dropped from £ 2 @,@ 500 to £ 1 @,@ 700 . Three years later , the Bristol and Exeter Railway merged with the Great Western Railway . The new owners were remote , and were more interested in the water supply for Taunton station and for the Bridgwater Dock , than running the canal as a going concern , with the result that the canal deteriorated further . The Conservators continued their annual inspections , but had little hope of any improvements being made .
The opening by the Great Western Railway of the Severn Tunnel in 1886 brought further decline , for the imports of coal and slate from South Wales to Bridgwater Dock and the canal could now be moved more directly . The provision in 1902 of water troughs on the railway near Creech , to enable non @-@ stop trains to pick up water , required another 100 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 450 m3 ) a day , which was extracted from the Tone . The remaining traffic moved to the railway , the last commercial boats used the canal , from Bridgwater dock to a wharf in North Town , Taunton , in 1907 , and the canal was effectively closed .
= = = Closure = = =
After the First World War the canal remained in a state of limbo – with minimal maintenance by the railway company – and was the haunt of fishermen and walkers . The Conservators continued their annual inspections , and the infrastructure remained in remarkably good order , compared to many other closed canals . The section near Creech St Michael was even used for swimming lessons for the local school children in the 1930s .
During the Second World War the route of the canal was employed as part of the Taunton Stop Line , a defensive line which followed the course of canals and railway embankments from the mouth of the Parrett to Seaton on the south coast . All permanent bridges were mined with demolition chambers . Hamp Bridge was prepared for demolition with four small charge chambers under the east side of the arch containing a total of 30 lb ( 14 kg ) of the explosive , ammonal . Anti @-@ tank obstacles were placed at bridge sites or locks to hinder bridging operations . All of the swing bridges were removed , but were then replaced with fixed timber bridges at towpath level . Only essential maintenance was carried out , to ensure a water supply for fire @-@ fighting and to prevent flooding . Although the physical structure of the canal was not damaged by enemy action , all of the Company records and traffic receipts , together with those of the Bristol and Exeter Railway , were destroyed during a bombing raid .
Control of the canal passed into public ownership with the Transport Act 1947 . Despite concerted efforts , the Conservators could not make any progress with the removal of the fixed low @-@ level bridges , which prevented maintenance from being carried out . The Inland Waterways Association started to take an active interest in the restoration of the canal from 1952 , but this was resisted by the British Transport Commission , who padlocked the lock gates to prevent them being used . Despite this , a team of seven men was employed to maintain the infrastructure through this period . The maintenance of the channel enabled the canal to become one of the first to be used for the commercial transport of water , which was pumped from the canal to Durleigh reservoir from 1962 onwards .
The canal was absorbed by the British Waterways Board in 1962 . The Conservators carried out an annual inspection in 1965 , the first since 1947 , but had to use a motor coach for most of the journey , as the locks were unusable . With the passing of the Transport Act 1968 , the canal was classified as a remainder waterway – little more than a drainage channel . Only essential maintenance to keep it safe was to be carried out . Soon afterwards , part of the cutting wall between West Street and Albert Street collapsed , and although the bed of the canal was cleared to ensure water could reach the dock , the towpath remained blocked for another nine years . Bridgwater Docks , which had been used by a small amount of coastal shipping , were finally closed in 1971 : the connection at the docks was stopped up , and the British Waterways Board were granted permission to cease maintaining the canal for navigation .
= = Restoration = =
From the late 1960s , there was a growing awareness of the benefits of retaining the canal . The Inland Waterways Association produced a report , entitled The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal - Waterway with a Future , suggesting that the canal had the potential for development as a linear Country Park , and the County Planning Officer for Somerset County Council produced a second report , suggesting that funds should be made available for maintenance and restoration , which the County Council duly adopted . The Countryside Act 1968 provided a framework for such action , and a visit in 1971 to see the work being done on the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal as part of the creation of the Brecon Beacons National Park convinced the Council of the wisdom of such a course of action . By 1974 , Higher and Lower Maunsel locks , which are listed buildings , had been refurbished by the British Waterways Board , with funding from the County Council . Funding for towpath maintenance and weed cutting was also provided .
In December 1974 , the Council bought Bridgwater Dock from British Railways . The concrete wall across the barge lock was removed , but there was no intention to restore the ship lock . By 1980 , the Council had invested over £ 50 @,@ 000 in the restoration , which included Kings and Standards locks , and the bottom gates of Newtown Lock . Some bridges had been raised , but only to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , which allowed canoeing , but prevented bigger boats from using the waterway . Work on the deep cutting between West Street and Albert Street started in September 1978 , jointly funded by the County Council and Sedgemoor District Council , using direct labour , while a Manpower Services Commission scheme to dredge the canal from the dock to the cutting and to widen the towpath was funded by the District Council in 1981 .
The condition of the swing bridge at Bathpool caused a change in policy . There were objections to the plan to replace it with a fixed bridge with limited headroom , and the planning application was deferred . By 1983 , a six @-@ year plan to restore the canal was fully costed , and it was adopted by the British Waterways Board , the County Council , Sedgemoor District Council and Taunton Deane Borough Council in the following year . The scheme was supported by the West Country Branch of the Inland Waterways Association , who offered the services of the Waterway Recovery Group , to do some of the work . The swing bridges at Crossways , Boat and Anchor , and Fordgate were rebuilt , and by 1987 , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) of canal were available for navigation . After some teething problems , it was decided that many of the rest of the accommodation bridges would be raised to give 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of headroom , rather than rebuilding them as swing bridges . Restoration of the bridges at the Taunton end continued during the early 1990s , and the canal was finally re @-@ opened in 1994 .
= = Current use = =
Boating on the canal is encouraged , although the lack of a link to the River Parrett at Bridgwater is restrictive . At this point , the Parrett is a salt water river , and is laden with silt , whereas the canal contains fresh water . Not only is there a risk of silt entering the canal , but the salt water cannot be allowed to contaminate the fresh , as the canal is still used for the transport of drinking water for the population of Bridgwater . The canal forms part of the local flood relief system , in winter taking water from the River Tone at
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nepp 's first interaction , he says that he is seeking signatures between the crew and the King though the July 13 agreement ( see image ) would more accurately be portrayed as between Phips and the crew , as the first mate protests . Knepp 's job seemed to be to seek additional signatures from the crew , which is easily done when Phips returns to the ship , with Randolph acting as a witness . Next Knepp complained to Phips about the firing of the ships cannons to set the watch . By the time the ship set sail the next day , Phips and Knepp were distinctly at odds , as Knepp records when asked for a cabin or berth and was told he would have to make do sleeping on a trunk . This was an unfortunate turn of events for both of them , as well as the historian who would prefer to have Knepp at the Captain 's table recording the dinner conversation between Randolph , his brother , and Phips . Class friction surely played a strong role in the conflict between Knepp and Phips . Knepp consistently presents himself as a victim and there are many times he is bullied and badly mistreated , but it also seems that he must have set himself above , and thought of himself as being of a higher class than Phips . The articles of agreement testify to the trust that the king and Narborough placed in Phips , and the crew seemed willing to do as Phips commanded , but Knepp acts as if he is not beholden to Phips . Knepp 's journal is addressed to Narborough ( and Haddock ) and it reads like a sycophant 's strong gambit for a future promotion . He presents Phips as the trope of a tarpaulin captain — every sailor his comrade , questionable literacy level — and so it is probably safe to infer that Knepp was of the gentleman class and likely some years younger than Phips , perhaps in his mid @-@ twenties . Knepp is excellent at taking coordinates and seems trained in piloting , but does not exhibit the a breadth of experience or knowledge of the rigging . Though he records every perceived misstep by Phips , his careful plotting of the journey also shows the great ability Phips possessed as a sailor , crossing the Atlantic in half the time of another ship that they meet , and making first landfall at Cape Ann .
= = = Randolph Arrived at Boston = = =
On October 27 , Increase Mather recorded his one and only diary entry for all of 1683 : " Randolph arrived at Boston . " Phips quickly began to provide a show of force for Randolph by insisting other ship 's strike their colors and firing across their bows if they did not . Knepp claims that Narborough did not condone this , and many historians have followed his lead in treating Phips ' activities in Boston harbor as arrogant showboating , but it seems clear from the letters of Randolph and Blathwayt that Phips was not doing this merely for some explosive fun . Phips cites personal instructions from the King and indeed Charles II was known to have insisted on a salute to his flag . As Phips was creating chaos for the Massachusetts government , he continued to pursue his original intention of gathering diving equipment and divers to take to the Bahamas . Phips later followed the same procedures of requiring ships to strike in the West Indies and with a new crew in Bermuda . Phips lack of experience in the Royal Navy would suggest he likely made mistakes and did not always go about this procedure in the best way . It must have been a strange and uncomfortable chore for someone whose loyalties were with Boston ( in ' 76 the records show initiated the building of a house in Boston ) . Randolph was never one to withhold criticism , but he did not complain of Phips activities in Boston harbor that winter and Randolph even seems to have assisted Phips by searching a ship for him . But choosing a threatening posture showed Randolph 's inability to understand the New England character and it did not produce the effect Randolph intended . The magistrates voted to submit to the crown , but the deputies resisted . Phips and the Rose became a focal point for the resistance , as Knepp dutifully recorded without understanding the subtext : " Phips crew say that they would as soon fire against this town as against Algiers and called us rebels , " is one deposition Knepp records though Knepp seems to believe he is merely recording a barroom brawl . " ... one of the constables in particular told him that he thought Capt. Phips had been a town born child , Captain Phips answering him , ' Let him be what he would , he had been sworn at sixteen years of age to be true to the King and his government . " ( As if in an act of delayed vengeance , HMS Rose would be boarded and de @-@ masted , and its captain John George imprisoned , less than six years later during the Boston Revolution . )
Randolph 's writ of quo warranto required a response from Massachusetts by the end of " Michaelmas term . " Empty @-@ handed , Randolph and his brother boarded a pink bound for England on December 14 . A few days later , Phips began making preparations but was detained by problems with the Boston government and the ongoing search for victuals . In a discussion with Phips , Knepp allows , as a purser , that many of the crew owe him money , and says that he would have them thrown into jail except that it would hinder His Majesties treasure hunt . Phips finally sailed clear of the Boston Harbor on January 19 , 1684 but unfortunately not before some of his rogue @-@ ish crew could cause a small riot in Boston and perpetrate a despicable assault in Hull , according to Knepp . Knepp was not on board , meaning he had effectively deserted according to the Articles , " though I should be almost undone by it " and so it became all the more important for Knepp to show Phips in a bad light .
Two days after Phips left the Boston area , Increase Mather gave a rousing speech to the deputies and freemen advising them not to submit to the crown and to resist the quo warranto . One historian calls this Increase Mather 's " first important entry into politics . " { Mather 's " Remarkable Providences " was distributed this same month , with echoes to the New England government Increase Mather assembles in 1692 . } It had been Phips ' debut into colonial politics too , if clumsily and involuntarily . To what extent he was swayed by the arguments of Randolph as they crossed the Atlantic , it is hard to know , but Phips certainly played the role with bluster , and he seems to have spoken up as a royalist to the Boston government in the meetings he had with Bradstreet and Stoughton , at least as recorded by Knepp . By 1688 , Phips would cross over to Increase Mather 's side and begin to consistently oppose Randolph and the Dominion government he helped to bring about , and with a vehemence that would seem to suggest some degree of shame and dismay for the role he played as captain of HMS Rose in 1683 @-@ 4 .
After leaving Boston , Phips searched the picked over wrecks in the Bahamas with limited success . Too many other treasure hunters had already gone before . When some of his crew became mutinous , he had them put off in Jamaica . On November 18 , 1684 , Phips was in Port Royal , Jamaica the same time as Captain Stanley of the Bonetta . There is no record of their joining forces or sharing information . It seems likely they met up but we don 't know if it was preordained . If Phips was unwittingly being used as a decoy to distract the other treasure hunters away from Stanley , it might have dawned on him at this time . Soon after Phips visited the north coast of Hispaniola and slowly cruised north exploring the banks where Stanley had been diligently searching for over a year . The decisiveness with which Phips later returned and quickly located the treasure suggests that he was able to gather valuable knowledge and begin to formulate a clear plan , though he would have to wait two years to bring it to fruition .
After Phips returned to London in August of 1685 , Samuel Pepys ordered the Navy Board to assess the Rose . Pepys had been out of power when Narborough set the strange plan in motion . In March and May of 1686 , Phips was ordered to attend the Lord Treasurer where it was found that the King was only to receive £ 471 in treasure , though the wear and tear on the Rose was estimated at £ 700 . In this age of piracy and high mortality , Phips making it back to London alive and with the King 's ship still afloat was probably enough for him to pass the test . Already Narborough had a new plan in the works for Captain Phips , though this time it would be a private venture . Narborough 's long infatuation with the Hispaniola treasure had not been diminished by Captain Stanley 's discouragement on the Bonetta . And Knepp 's report on Phips did not disqualify him . Phips had shown that he was serviceable : willing to harass the harbor of his hometown and to compromise between his own interests , and the interests of the crown . This was surely noted at Whitehall , even by the more conservative elements .
= = Striking Silver & Gold = =
With Captain Stanley of the Bonetta expressing disinterest in continuing to search for the Hispaniola treasure , while Captain Phips probably expressed enthusiasm and new confidence , the next logical choice for commander was obvious . Narborough turned to the hard @-@ partying Duke of Albemarle who assembled a group of private investors to fund another expedition . Phips was tasked with finding suitable ships and these came to be the James and Mary , a 22 @-@ gun 200 @-@ ton frigate , and the 45 @-@ ton Henry of London , a sloop commanded by Francis Rogers , Phips ' second mate on the previous voyage ( he had left the Rose in Boston [ 1 ] ) . Phips utilized experience as a sailor and shipwright to select high quality anchors , chains , and cables to hold their ships securely in close proximity to the shoals for months as they tried to fish treasure from it . £ 500 worth of merchandize was taken along to barter for provisions , as well as to provide cover , or a ruse , that they were in Hispaniola merely as merchants , not treasure hunters . The London investors must have felt confident because they paid a total of £ 3 @,@ 210 outfitting the ships for the voyage . Unlike the voyage of the Rose , the crew were to be paid regular wages .
Phips sailed from the Downs on 12 September 1686 , and on 28 November arrived in Hispaniola , Samana Bay , where they spent two weeks restocking their water and provender . The weather was bad , and the search consequently did not get under way for a few more weeks . January 12 , Phips sent out Captain Rogers in the smaller Henry of London along with three Native American divers ( Jonas Abimeleck and John Pasqua , name of other diver not listed ) to search what was then called the Ambrosia Bank ( now the Silver Bank ) . There was a bit more delay from weather but Peter Earle writes , " There is no doubt that he knew exactly where he was going . " January 20 , they spotted cannons from a shipwreck lying on the white sands of the reef . The ship they had found was the Almiranta of the Spanish silver fleet ( later determined to be Nuestra Señora de la Concepción ; the English did not know the name of the ship ) wrecked in 1641 . Over the next two days , the divers were able to bring up 3 @,@ 000 coins and 3 silver bars . They decided to travel back to Phips ' to let him know but this turned out to be a somewhat slow and treacherous trip among the reefs .
After Phips was discreetly informed of their amazing find , he spent the next nine days preparing the ships and gathering enough food to sustain the men over months of bringing up treasure . ( During the controversies that surrounded Phips at the end of his life , his critics like to portray him as hot @-@ headed , ill @-@ bred , and impatient , so it seems worth noting his careful conduct during this life @-@ changing and momentous time . )
Through March and April the divers and ships ' crews worked to recover all manner of treasure : silver coins , silver bullion , doubloons , jewelry , a small amount of gold , and other artifacts . Concerned about the possibility of mutiny , Phips guaranteed to the crew , who had been hired for seaman 's wages , that they would receive shares in the find , even if he had to pay them from his own percentage . He carefully avoided putting in at any ports before anchoring at Gravesend , where he dispatched a courier to London with the news .
The treasure weighed in at over 34 tons , or £ 205 @,@ 536 . Almost a quarter went to Albemarle . Phips , after paying out £ 8 @,@ 000 in crew shares , received £ 11 @,@ 000 . Phips was treated as a hero in London , and the find was
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Productions was a small independent production , promotion and recording company run by songwriters and musicians " hellbent on getting the good music out there . " In the interview with Wood , Paul stated that the four songwriters started doing group shows together and collaborated on each other 's material . Although he goes on to say that the collaboration " was a good thing " and that the four musicians learned a lot from each other , eventually the foursome " burned out on the competitiveness " . The collaboration lasted three years .
Following his graduation from Boston College in 1987 , Paul worked a day @-@ job at the COMPASS school as a teacher and social worker with inner city school children performing at open mics three or four nights a week . It was not until the fall of 1992 that he quit his day @-@ job to pursue music as a full @-@ time career . During this period Paul met his manager , Ralph Jaccodine , and together they founded Black Wolf Records . In 1989 the label released Paul 's first two albums of original material : Am I Home and Urban Folksongs and Paul began touring outside the Boston area . Although originally released on cassette , the two albums were re @-@ released on CD in 2001 .
= = Rising success : 1990 – 2000 = =
Winning the Boston Acoustic Underground Award in 1991 resulted in Paul playing to the largest crowd of his career to that point – 300 . He continued to play in and around the New England area . Around this time , Windham Hill Records , which had previously released the Legacy songwriter compilation , put a call out to the music industry asking for songwriter submissions to be considered for the follow @-@ up Legacy II compilation . After the Old Vienna Kaffeehouse sent one of Paul 's tapes to Windham Hill , Paul 's " Ashes to Dust " from Urban Folksongs was chosen to be on the compilation . In the interview with Wood , Paul stated that he felt very excited to be on the Windham Hill release because it served as a calling card that every DJ and folk promoter in the country would recognize . Legacy II was released in 1992 and included songs performed by Patty Larkin , Patty Griffin , Greg Brown , Cheryl Wheeler and several others . Legacy II was Paul 's first national exposure .
After Paul opened for Bill Morrissey several times , Morrissey became one of Paul 's earliest mentors . Morrissey introduced Paul to the traditional songwriting of Woody Guthrie and Mississippi John Hurt , as well as songwriters of the 60s , such as Randy Newman . In a 2001 interview with Scott Alarik , Morrissey said that Paul jumped into listening to traditional songwriters " bigtime " and as a result is a much better writer and performer .
Paul asked Morrissey to produce his first album Say Something , which was released in 1993 on Black Wolf records . Fiddler Johnny Cunningham and guitarist Duke Levine , both friends of Morrissey 's , can be heard on the recording along with the background vocals of Patty Griffin . Scott Alarik wrote : " As his lovely , demanding and brilliant debut album Say Something attests , there is a precocious credibility and emotional truth to his real @-@ life ballads . "
Levine would co @-@ produce Paul 's follow @-@ up release Stories , which was released on Black Wolf in 1994 and re @-@ released on Rounder Records the following year . It was also in 1994 that Paul was first invited to play the Kerrville Folk Festival , winning the Kerrville New Folk award .
Paul became a follower of the music of Woody Guthrie during the early 1990s . In a 1998 Boston Globe article , Paul refers to a tattoo of Woody Guthrie on his right shoulder saying that Woody 's image was the only thing he could put on his body that would be " like a badge of who he was . " Paul 's tattoo of Woody Guthrie resulted in a chance meeting with Nora Guthrie , Woody Guthrie 's daughter , at a Folk Alliance Conference when Nora asked to see Paul 's tattoo . That chance meeting resulted in Paul being invited to perform at a Woody Guthrie tribute show at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . The 10 @-@ day celebration , held in September 1996 , included other notable musicians such as Bruce Springsteen , Billy Bragg , The Indigo Girls and Ani DiFranco . DiFranco 's record label , Righteous Babe , released a compilation of the event , ' Til We Outnumber ' Em , in 2000 .
Jerry Marotta , a drummer who had worked with Peter Gabriel , produced Paul 's third CD release A Carnival of Voices which was released on Rounder in 1996 . Marotta brought in bassist Tony Levin , guitarist Bill Dillon , and once again Duke Levine . Paul stated that A Carnival of Voices comprised character sketches of different people in different towns tied to " the carnival mentality of traveling . " A Carnival of Voices hit # 3 on The CMJ New Music Report Triple chart and World Café voted it the # 1 album of the year . By 1997 Paul 's mailing list passed 7 @,@ 000 names as his fan @-@ base continued to grow .
As Paul 's reputation and popularity grew , he was asked to return to folk venues and festivals around the country including the Falcon Ridge Folk Festival , the Kerrville Folk Festival and the Newport Folk Festival . The number of shows he performed annually increased to more than 200 . Although Paul performed mostly self @-@ penned songs , he would often include a Woody Guthrie song into his set . Woody 's " Hard Travelin ' " was always a crowd pleaser , especially in Oklahoma , Woody 's birthplace . In July 1998 , the 1st Woody Guthrie Folk Festival was held in Woody 's hometown of Okemah , Oklahoma . Not only did Paul headline the festival along with Billy Bragg , but the city of Okemah made him an honorary citizen . Paul stated that when he made the pilgrimage to Okemah he felt that he was walking in Woody 's footsteps and that the experience was " like going to the mount " . Paul 's sixth CD , Translucent Soul , was released later that year in October . Again produced by Jerry Marotta , the title track is a song about his relationship with good friend Vance Gilbert and tackles the issue of racism .
At the end of the decade , Paul was invited to perform at Club Passim 's 40th anniversary show . The event took place on January 16 , 1999 at the Sanders Theater in Cambridge . The four @-@ hour sold @-@ out concert also included Patty Larkin , Joan Baez , The Nields , and others . Joan Anderman , covering the event for the Boston Globe , reported that Paul 's " thinking @-@ person 's poetry " at the Sanders theater was " embellished with the bite of an electric guitarist and the earthy cool of a percussionist " , and that his set was " a model of modern organic grace " .
= = Career : 2000 – 2003 = =
Paul released his first live recording , simply titled Live , on March 14 , 2000 . The double @-@ disk included recordings from several shows , as well as previously unreleased studio tracks . Highlights of the year 2000 included Paul singing the National Anthem at Fenway Park , and having his song " The World Ain 't Slowing Down " chosen for the theme song in the Farrelly brothers movie Me , Myself and Irene starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger . Both events took place on the same June weekend . In November 2001 , Paul was again successful in having a song in a movie when " Sweet Mistakes " was featured in Shallow Hal starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Jack Black . Paul released his 8th CD , Sweet Mistakes , a collection of audience @-@ favorites not yet recorded , on November 15 , 2001 . In January 2002 , Paul was named the FolkWax Artist of the Year for 2001 .
Paul often recites original poetry for his audiences . Some of those poems can be found in Notes from the Road , a collection of Paul 's original poems , lyrics , and journal entries published by Black Wolf Press in May 2002 . In her review for Performing Songwriter , Abby White said , " The book has an intimate , conversational tone , and Paul 's childlike drawings , song lyrics and poetry provide commercial breaks to his personal journal entries and vivid recollections of significant events he encounters while touring " . As the 21st century began Paul recited his " Millennium Poem " , regularly at shows .
In 2002 Paul became friends with Nora Guthrie . Nora Guthrie is executive director of the Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives in New York City where hundreds of Woody Guthrie 's handwritten lyrics — many without music — are housed . She invited Paul to visit the Archives and choose one set of lyrics to put to song . Referring to the huge undertaking of finding songwriters to write music for hundreds of her father 's lyrics , Nora Guthrie stated that there was a " job description " that her father left behind that " Ellis took on " . Paul chose " God 's Promise " , lyrics that Woody had adapted in 1955 from " What God Hath Promised " , a hymn of the day and recorded it for his 2002 release Speed of Trees . Paul said that visiting the Woody Guthrie Archives was like going through a time capsule of his biggest hero and that the posthumous collaboration with Woody Guthrie was one of the " coolest things " he 'd ever done . The Nov. 5th episode of the TV series Ed featured Paul 's " If You Break Down " .
Paul 's connection to Woody Guthrie continued into 2003 when he was invited to perform in the Ribbon of Highway , Endless Skyway tribute show to honor Woody Guthrie . The ensemble show , which was the brainchild of Texas singer @-@ songwriter Jimmy LaFave , toured around the country and included a rotating cast of singer @-@ songwriters individually performing Guthrie 's songs . Interspersed between songs were Guthrie 's philosophical writings read by a narrator . In addition to LaFave and Paul , members of the rotating cast included Slaid Cleaves , Eliza Gilkyson , Joel Rafael , husband @-@ wife duo Sarah Lee Guthrie ( Woody Guthrie 's granddaughter ) and Johnny Irion , Michael Fracasso , and The Burns Sisters . Oklahoma songwriter Bob Childers , sometimes called " the Dylan of the Dust , " served as narrator . When word spread about the tour , performers began contacting LaFave whose only prerequisite was to have an inspirational connection to Guthrie . Each artist chose the Guthrie songs that he or she would perform as part of the tribute . One of the songs Gilkyson chose was " Pastures of Plenty " , while Cleaves chose " This Morning I Am Born Again " - a song he wrote using Guthrie 's lyrics . One of the songs Paul chose was a song he wrote using Guthrie 's lyrics - " God 's Promise " . LaFave said , " It works because all the performers are Guthrie enthusiasts in some form " . The Ribbon of Highway tour kicked @-@ off on February 5 , 2003 at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville . The abbreviated show was a featured segment of " Nashville Sings Woody " , yet another tribute concert to commemorate the music of Woody Guthrie held during the Folk Alliance Conference . The cast of " Nashville Sings Woody " , a benefit for the Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives , also included Arlo Guthrie , Marty Stuart , Nanci Griffith , Guy Clark , Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , Janis Ian , and others .
Paul 's 3000 Miles DVD was released in February 2003 . Divided into four segments , the DVD begins with a live show recorded on October 3 , 2001 at Boston 's Somerville Theater - a show that was the final date of a six @-@ week tour with Susan Werner . The second segment is a 39 @-@ minute road movie filmed in 1995 by Matt Linde , an independent filmmaker who accompanied Paul on a cross @-@ country tour . Individual vignettes chronicle shows , conversations and events in Paul 's daily life as a traveling musician . A third segment shows Paul demonstrating the open tunings he uses in many of his songs , while the final segment is a discussion of songwriting with fellow songwriters Christopher Williams and Vance Gilbert . In her review for Dirty Linen , Annette C. Eshleman said , " In just under three hours , viewers are able to watch as Paul evolves from a young , inexperienced folk singer wearing a backwards baseball cap to the highly respected , confident , seasoned performer that he is today " .
= = Career : 2004 – 2009 = =
On May 1 , 2004 Paul was the recipient of the 2nd annual Boston College Arts Council Alumni Award for Artistic Achievement . The award was presented as part of the sixth annual Boston College Arts Festival . His appearances at the festival also included an " Inside the BC Studio " interview with music writer Scott Alarik , a master class on songwriting , and a concert . In 2004 Paul was also awarded his 13th Boston Music Award in the category of Outstanding Singer / Songwriter . At the time Paul was writing what he called " country tunes " when he teamed up with an Irish musician , producer , and studio expert named Flynn . This resulted in American Jukebox Fables , released April 5 , 2005 , a recording produced by Flynn that surprised some fans by melding folk , pop and electronica . Paul said that his collaboration with Flynn formed a partnership where he brought banjos and accordions and Flynn brought a laptop and keyboard . Although Paul knew that the end result would fall outside the comfort zone of some fans who expected another acoustic folk album , experimenting with Flynn 's musical chemistry set injected excitement and fun into the recording project .
Since approximately 1995 ( no one seems to know for certain ) , Paul has annually played Club Passim over New Year 's , performing two shows on December 30 and two shows on New Year 's Eve . In early 2006 Black Wolf Records released Live at Club Passim , a recording compiled from Paul 's 2005 New Year 's Eve shows . In May 2006 , Paul toured Europe and England playing to sold @-@ out shows in Paris , France ; Twickenham , England ; Cheltenham , England and Wasserburg , Germany . The tour also included two BBC radio interviews and a radio interview in Paris . Paul was included on the Woody Guthrie Coalition 's DVD Woody Sez : a Tribute to Woody Guthrie released in 2006 . The tribute show , recorded July 13 , 2005 at the Crystal Theater in Okemah , Oklahoma , included Paul performing a duet with The Burns Sisters on " God 's Promise " . Also released in 2006 was Paul 's " best of " album , released as Ellis Paul Essentials , on October 10 . The two @-@ disk retrospective of Paul 's 15 @-@ year career contained some songs that were absolutes and others that were included based on polls held on his website and discussion board . In his Folkwax review of Ellis Paul Essentials , Arthur Wood stated : " If you 've never visited " musically " with Mr. Ellis Paul , Essentials is a stunning place to start . " In his review for The Washington Post , Mike Joyce said " Essentials , a career @-@ spanning double CD from veteran singer @-@ songwriter Ellis Paul , has a few newly produced , John Jennings @-@ helmed tracks of previously recorded tunes that help set this compilation apart from most retrospectives . " In her review for Sing Out ! , Kari Estren said " Paul 's Essentials is just that and a must for your folk collection . "
In January 2008 , Paul released a children 's and family record entitled The Dragonfly Races . Inspired after the birth of his second daughter , Paul said that he wanted to teach his children about the world through the use of music . The songs are meant to be enjoyed by both children and adults , and Paul said " I wanted my kids to hear music with social commentary and some fantasy involved . " Scott Alarik said " Paul sings movingly about what really worries new parents , and turns lazy dragonflies , gentle monsters , and resilient roses into useful metaphors for world peace , the power of faith , and the delights of a sleepy day . " In April 2008 the Parents ' Choice Foundation awarded The Dragonfly Races a Silver Medallion . The Parents ' Choice Awards program honors the best material for children in these categories : books , toys , music and storytelling , magazines , software , videogames , television and websites .
In 2009 , country musician Jack Ingram chose to record a song written by Paul . According to CMT , Paul 's " The World Ain 't Slowing Down " , may be the song that takes Ingram to the " next level " . Ingram says " It 'll be fun for me to expose people to a fantastic song from an artist who 's had a 20 @-@ year career of being a very successful folk artist . "
= = Career : 2010 – 2014 = =
Paul 's sixteenth CD , The Day After Everything Changed , was released on January 12 , 2010 . Rather than work with a record label , Paul invited fans to help finance the recording by offering donors various premiums determined by the level of donation . Although Paul wasn 't sure what to expect when the United States economy collapsed , the fan @-@ funding initiative resulted in more than $ 100 @,@ 000 being collected - more , according to Paul , - than any label had ever spent on him . Recorded in Nashville with a guest appearance by Kristian Bush that includes a duet on the track , " Paper Dolls " , Paul says the fan support inspired him to make " the best record I could " . One reviewer wrote : " This is such a tuneful , beautifully drawn set of songs played and sung with authority that it reminds you how much we need storytellers back in pop music — storytellers with empathy , fine eyes and an understanding that even though we live in a soulless , indifferent world our music doesn 't have to reflect our culture . " In her review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said that the CD is " a masterwork filled with the best music and lyrics of his career . "
Five concerts commemorating Paul 's 20th anniversary in the music business took place at Boston 's Club Passim the weekend of July 9 – 10 , 2010 . Paul performed his eight solo albums in chronological order over four shows . In addition , he also performed a children 's concert . The Mayor of Boston , Thomas M. Menino , proclaimed July 9 , 2010 as Ellis Paul Day in the City of Boston .
WUMB announced that its listeners voted The Day After Everything Changed one of the Top 10 CDs of 2010 .
Paul 's second children 's album , The Hero in You , was released on January 1 , 2012 . The songs on the album are all written about persons who Paul considers to be American heroes including Benjamin Franklin , Thomas Edison , Georgia O 'Keeffe , and Rosa Parks . The album is Paul 's attempt to teach children about some of America 's most famous heroes . " I was a big fan of Schoolhouse Rock in the 70s . There was always a really great charm about the music . The main reason I can still remember the Preamble of the Constitution is because of those little songs " , Paul said . The illustrations in the accompanying lyrics booklet were all created by Paul .
In a review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said that The Hero in You contains some of the best melodies and most moving lyrics of Paul 's career . She goes on to cite " Chief Joseph " as an example - a song that incorporates one of the most famous quotes in Native American history : " I will fight no more forever " .
The Hero in You received a Gold Medal from the Parents ' Choice Foundation .
Paul 's first Christmas album , City of Silver Dreams , was released on December 1 , 2012 . Produced by Flynn , the album consists of nine original songs - several co @-@ written with Kristian Bush - and one cover song , the classic " Have Yourself a Very Merry Christmas " written by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane . In her review for No Depression , Holley Dey wrote : " It 's a collection with multifaceted personality , offering both melodic romanticism and a folk styled humor that twinkles with good natured fun . "
On July 12 , 2014 , Paul was one of four performers inducted into the Maine Music Awards Hall of Fame . The awards ceremony took place in the Portland ( Maine ) Civic Center . Paul performed along with other members of the inaugural class which included Don McLean , Howie Day , and David Mallett .
Paul 's 19th and second fan @-@ funded album , Chasing Beauty , was released on September 9 , 2014 . The 14 @-@ track CD was produced by Kristian Bush ( Sugarland ) and Brandon Bush ( Train ) and recorded primarily in Decatur , Georgia . Paul is supported by Kristian Bush ( acoustic / electric guitar , mandolin , banjo , bass ) , Brandon Bush ( keyboards ) , Sugarland ’ s Travis McNabb ( drums ) , Gray Griggs ( bass ) , Megan Lovell ( lap steel ) , Tim Smith ( bass ) , Ben Torres ( trombone ) , Michael Snell ( trumpet ) and Brandyn Taylor ( baritone sax ) . Rebecca Loebe and Red Molly make guest appearances .
= = Career : 2015 @-@ present = =
Paul was invited to present the keynote address at the 2015 NERFA ( Northeast Regional Folk Alliance ) conference held Nov. 12 @-@ 15 , 2015 at the Hudson Valley Resort in Kerhonkson , New York . The 26 @-@ minute address presented on Nov. 13 , 2015 was later published on his website and on YouTube .
In late 2015 , an announcement was made that Paul 's song " Nelly Bly " from the album Hero in You would appear in the movie 10 Days in a Madhouse being released in the fall of 2015 .
= = Collaborations = =
In September 2003 Paul released Side of the Road , a duo album recorded with good friend Vance Gilbert . The two songwriters , who have often shared the stage , each chose four cover songs to record - individual favorites - plus one song of their own . Although the album did not start out as a " 9 / 11 " project , the inclusion of Mark Erelli 's " The Only Way " set a theme . A review in No Depression magazine said this about Paul and Gilbert 's choice of songs :
" Thematically they 're mostly about individuals — indeed , an entire planet — in desperate need of healing . To that end , Paul 's original tune " Citizen of the World " is a wonderful balm , as he and Gilbert trade lyrics about the crossed bloodlines , attitudes and experiences that make us all brothers and sisters . Their version of Van Morrison 's " Comfort You " works magic of a similar sort . "
Sugarland 's first holiday album , Gold and Green released on October 13 , 2009 includes " City of Silver Dreams " and " Little Wood Guitar " , co @-@ written by Paul and Kristian Bush . In his review of the album , Matt Bjorke wrote , " City of Silver Dreams " could actually find itself a seminal holiday song like Joni Mitchell 's " River " as it tells a wonderfully soft and melodic story of New York City and the beauty of a new romance within the context of Christmas . "
= = Songwriting = =
" Boston @-@ style " songwriting refers to the introspective and literate breed of singer @-@ songwriter so prevalent in the modern folk music landscape . According to Paul , Boston @-@ style songwriting grew out of Boston 's thriving folk scene with its dense collection of colleges , college radio stations and listening rooms . Boston radio includes the University of Massachusetts ' WUMB , the country 's foremost radio station for folk and acoustic music 24 @-@ hours a day . Paul said the Boston songwriters tend to be more thoughtful and soft because in an intimate listening room , " all you 've got is you and your words . " Boston @-@ style songwriting tends to be more about lyric than melody , is intimate and thoughtful but also relevant , often addressing social issues . Boston @-@ style songwriting does not only refer to Boston musicians , but includes national artists such as Shawn Colvin , John Gorka , Susan Werner , Bill Morrissey , and Dar Williams . In an interview with Paul Freeman for the East Bay Daily News , Paul commented on how he hopes audience members relate to his songs , " Each song is supposed to be like a little three @-@ dimensional world . I 'm hoping to invite them in , have them make out the details and the reasons for being there , and apply them to their own lives . But I 'm also hoping to entertain them . "
After graduating from Boston College , Paul worked as a case worker at an inner city school in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston , working with children with behavioral problems and also worked as a social worker in Boston with clients who were drug dealers , rapists , and other kinds of criminal offenders . His work experiences opened his eyes to see the world in a broader , more open @-@ minded way and provided material for the songs he was beginning to write . Early in his career Paul promised himself that he would always write about the things he knew well . In her review of Ellis Paul Live for the Folk and Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said , " His finely honed songs tell stories filled with images that sparkle like jewels . His is a poet 's heart , and a romantic 's soul . He is an optimist who believes in people and possibilities . "
In her 1993 review of Paul 's Say Something , Debbie Catalano wrote , " Ellis Paul draws a picture with his words then draws you into the world he 's painting . " Like a Norman Rockwell painting , Paul 's songs are replete with crucial details and careful observations that tell a story with a minimum or words . In a 2002 article , Thomas Conner dissected a verse from Paul 's " Conversation with a Ghost " from Say Something . " Instead of bluntly saying , " I ran into an old flame in Central Park " , Paul writes around it , avoiding the clichés , painting the picture , showing us everything — the motives , the setting , the serendipity — except what we expect . "
When teaching songwriting classes , Paul often introduces aspiring songwriters to his " six @-@ step program to effective songwriting " which is based on the premise that songwriters should show and not tell . Paul teaches this six @-@ step method to develop a character in a song :
Choose a name for the person .
List five items in the person 's bedroom .
List five things the person would see if he or she looked in a mirror .
Choose two colors that bring the person to mind .
Choose one non @-@ human metaphor describing the person .
Write one line of dialogue that conveys the way the person speaks .
The most important advice he gives aspiring songwriters is to write what you know or what you 've experienced . " Use reality as the springboard to whatever you 're writing about " , Paul said . Paul also says that being a successful songwriter is like being a journalist who writes about what he sees and knows , the times people are living in and the things people are facing today . " The journalist looks out the window and writes about what is really happening . " " I make sure it 's real . I don 't want to fictionalize about things I haven 't witnessed . " Paul states that over the years he 's learned the value of simplicity in writing . He 's learned that he can say more when he writes more simply and direct . " It 's almost as if you can be complex and intricate by adopting a shorter , less complicated structure . " " I 'm not doing rocket science -- I 'm a storyteller " , he said . " I hope to inspire people to think and feel and to walk out with more than they came in with . "
When asked to describe the difference between writing songs for children and song for adults , Paul said : " The difference between writing a kids ' song and an adult song is that in the kids ' songs you tend to use primary colors and the words are brighter and the tempos are always upbeat . There 's a nuance to the adult songs that is different . It 's still the story telling , but its different shades and angles . You read between the lines more . "
Paul continues playing close to 200 dates annually on the folk circuit . His songs have appeared on more than 50 compilation CDs , and he has made nearly 40 guest appearances on the albums of artists including Lori McKenna , David Wilcox and Mark Erelli . When asked if he would rather play the 19 @,@ 600 @-@ seat Fleet Theater or the 900 @-@ seat Somerville Theater – both in Boston , Paul replied , " I prefer to keep it intimate . That way people can see the whites of your eyes . I 'd love to write a hit song and have it on the radio like " American Pie " or something , but I 'm just gonna do what I do and take what I can and run with it , because it 's a hard business to have even what I have . So I don 't have pie @-@ in @-@ the @-@ sky Springsteen @-@ esque hopes . I just want to write great songs . "
In a review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said , " Ellis Paul is one of the best singer / songwriters of his generation . And for many of us he is the face of contemporary folk music — few are as smart , as literate and as poetic as Paul . He has spun his story songs for nearly twenty years now , and has eleven studio recordings ( with an additional two early recordings on cassette — now available on CD ) to his credit . I cannot think of another artist on the acoustic music scene who is better @-@ loved by fans , or more respected by his contemporaries . "
= = Children 's books = =
On September 1 , 2014 , Paul 's children 's CD Hero in You was published as a book by Albert Whitman & Company . Illustrated by Angela Padron , the book of American biographies includes a copy of the CD with exclusive introductory tracks by Paul . The accompanying CD allows young readers to listen to each song while discovering additional facts about Paul 's heroes on each page .
Paul 's second children 's book was published - again by Albert Whitman & Company - in October 2015 . Based on his Christmas poem The Night the Lights Went Out on Christmas , the book , illustrated by Scott Brundage , is the whimsical yet heartwarming story of a neighborhood where families trying to outdo one another with Christmas lights and decorations use so much electrical power that the neighborhood is thrown into darkness . The poem originally appeared on Paul 's City of Silver Dreams Christmas CD and is included as a downloadable mp3 file with the book .
= = Sports honor = =
In September 2012 , Presque Isle High School announced that Paul would be one of four high school graduates inducted into its Athletic Hall of Fame at the third annual ceremony on January 11 , 2013 . During his high school career , Paul - a member of the class of 1983 - starred in cross @-@ country and track . He won a cross @-@ country state championship as a senior as well as three Eastern Maine titles and a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ meter state crown in track . He also finished second in the 15 @-@ 16 age division of the 1981 AAU national cross @-@ country championships and later during his career placed seventh in the 17 @-@ 18 age group at the AAU Junior Olympic national championships .
Coinciding with the Athletic Hall of Fame induction ceremony were two performances to benefit the Wintergreen Arts Center , one at The Whole Potato Cafe and Commons and one at the University of Maine at Presque Isle 's Wieden Auditorium .
= = University of Maine honor = =
On May 17 , 2014 Paul was the commencement address speaker at the University of Maine at Presque Isle 's 105th commencement . Paul was also awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree during the commencement ceremony . At the conclusion of his commencement address , Paul performed his composition " Rise Up , Presque Isle " which has been adopted as the school 's new Alma Mater .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Books = = =
2003 — Kerouac , Jack . Doctor Sax and the Great World Snake , Mint Publishers , ISBN 0 @-@ 9729733 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 . ( Screenplay recorded on two audio CDs with Ellis Paul as the voice of Lousy . )
2003 — Alarik , Scott . Deep Community : Adventures in the Modern Folk Underground , Boston : Black Wolf Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 9720270 @-@ 1 @-@ 7 . ( Prominently features Ellis Paul . )
2002 — Paul , Ellis . Notes From the Road , Boston : Black Wolf Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 9720270 @-@ 0 @-@ 9 . ( Paul 's self @-@ illustrated book of lyrics , poems and journal entries . )
2002 — Kubica , Chris and Hochman , Will . Letters to J.D. Salinger , University of Wisconsin Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17800 @-@ 5 . ( Includes an entry written by Ellis Paul . )
2001 — Stambler , Irwin . Folk & Blues : The Encyclopedia : The Premier Encyclopedia Of American Roots Music , Thomas Dunne Books , ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 20057 @-@ 9 . ( Includes an entry for Ellis Paul . )
= = = Magazines = = =
( See the Ellis Paul Archives for a more comprehensive listing . )
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2006 — Perricone , Mike. gallery : ellis paul . Did Galileo Pray ? Symmetry : Dimensions of Particle Physics , Jun / Jul 2006 , p . 28 @-@ 9 . Retrieved February 10 , 2007 .
2005 — Soroff , Jonathan . Soroff on Ellis Paul . Improper Bostonian , Apr 6 – 19 , 2005 , p . 16 .
2002 — Rutz , Kathy . New Release Spotlight : Ellis Paul . Performing Songwriter , Dec 2002 , p . 26 .
2000 — Weider , Tamara . Ellis Paul : On the road again . Improper Bostonian , June 14 , 2000 , p . 18 – 22 .
1996 — Fagan , Neil . Artist spotlight : Ellis Paul . Performing Songwriter , Jan / Feb 1996 , p . 30 @-@ 1 .
= = = Miscellany = = =
2011 — Never Not Funny : The Jimmy Pardo Podcast Video of Ellis Paul appearing on Never Not Funny hosted by Jimmy Pardo . February 2 , 2011 .
2007 — Studio Concert Series : Ellis Paul . Video interview / performance recorded at Blue Rock Studios in Wimberley , Texas .
May 10 , 2007 .
2004 — " Inside the BC Studio : A Conversation with Ellis Paul " . Video interview at Boston College with Scott Alarik as part of the Boston College Arts Council Alumni Award weekend festivities . April 30 , 2004 .
1999 — Ellis Paul on The Millennium Stage of the Kennedy Center Video performance in Washington , D.C .. June 22 , 1999 .
= Interstate TDR =
The Interstate TDR was an early unmanned combat aerial vehicle — referred to at the time as an " assault drone " — developed by the Interstate Aircraft and Engineering Corporation during the Second World War for use by the United States Navy . Capable of being armed with bombs or torpedoes , 2000 aircraft were ordered , but only around 200 were built . The type saw some service in the Pacific Theater against the Japanese , but continuing developmental issues affecting the aircraft , along with the success of operations using more conventional weapons , led to the decision being made to cancel the assault drone program in October 1944 .
= = Design and development = =
In 1936 , Lieutenant Commander Delmar S. Fahrney proposed that unpiloted , remotely controlled aircraft had potential for use by the United States Navy in combat operations . Due to the limitations of the technology of the time , development of the " assault drone " project was given a low priority , but by the early 1940s the development of the radar altimeter and television made the project more feasible , and following trials using converted manned aircraft , the first operational test of a drone against a naval target was conducted in April 1942 . That same month , following trials of the Naval Aircraft Factory TDN assault drone , Interstate Aircraft received a contract from the Navy for two prototype and 100 production aircraft to a simplified and improved design , to be designated TDR @-@ 1 .
Control of the TDR @-@ 1 would be conducted from either a control aircraft , usually a Grumman TBF Avenger , with the operator viewing a tv screen showing the view from a camera mounted aboard the drone along with the radar altimeter 's readout , or via a pilot on board the TDR @-@ 1 for test flights . Powered by two Lycoming O @-@ 435 engines of 220 horsepower ( 160 kW ) each , the TDR @-@ 1 used a remarkably simple design , with a steel @-@ tube frame constructed by the Schwinn bicycle company covered with a molded wood skin , thus making little use of strategic materials so as not to impede production of higher priority aircraft . Capable of being optionally piloted for test flights , an aerodynamic fairing was used to cover the cockpit area during operational missions . The TDR @-@ 1 was equipped with a fixed tricycle landing gear , that on operations would be jettisoned following takeoff for improved performance .
= = Operational history = =
Under the code @-@ name Operation Option , the Navy projected that up to 18 squadrons of assault drones would be formed , with 162 Grumman TBF Avenger control aircraft and 1000 assault drones being ordered . However technical difficulties in the development of the TDR @-@ 1 , combined with a continued low priority given to the project , saw the contract modified with the order reduced to only around 300 aircraft . A single TDR @-@ 1 was tested by the U.S. Army Air Forces as the XBQ @-@ 4 , however no production contract resulted from this testing .
In 1944 , under the control of the Special Air Task Force ( SATFOR ) , the TDR @-@ 1 was deployed operationally to the South Pacific for operations against the Japanese . TDR @-@ 1 aircraft equipped a single mixed squadron ( Special Air Task Group 1 ) along with TBM Avenger control aircraft , and the first operational mission took place on September 27 , conducting bombing operations against Japanese ships . Despite this success , the assault drone program had already been canceled after the production of 189 TDR @-@ 1 aircraft , due to a combination of continued technical problems , the aircraft failing to live up to expectations , and the fact that more conventional weaponry was proving adequate for the defeat of Japan . The final mission was flown on October 27 , with 50 drones having been expended on operations , 31 aircraft successfully striking their targets , without loss to the pilots of STAG @-@ 1 .
Following the war , some TDR @-@ 1s were converted for operation as private sportsplanes .
= = Aircraft on display = =
A single example of the TDR @-@ 1 survives , and is on display at the U.S. Navy 's National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola , Florida .
= = Variants and operators = =
United States Navy
XTDR @-@ 1 - Two prototypes .
TDR @-@ 1 - Production version of XTDR @-@ 1 , 189 aircraft produced .
XTD2R @-@ 1 - Variant with two Franklin O @-@ 805 @-@ 2 engines , two prototypes ordered , canceled in favor of TD3R .
XTD3R @-@ 1 - Variant with Wright R @-@ 975 radial engines , three prototypes .
XTD3R @-@ 2 - Variant of XTD3R @-@ 1 , one prototype .
TD3R @-@ 1 - Production version of XTD3R @-@ 1 , 40 aircraft ordered but cancelled .
United States Army Air Forces
XBQ @-@ 4 - Army designation for TDR @-@ 1 . One aircraft converted from TDR @-@ 1 .
XBQ @-@ 5 - Army designation for XTD2R @-@ 1 . Designation reserved but no aircraft ordered .
XBQ @-@ 6 - Army designation for XTD3R . No aircraft produced .
BQ @-@ 6A - Army designation for TD3R @-@ 1 . No aircraft produced .
= = Specifications ( TDR @-@ 1 ) = =
Data from Parsch
General characteristics
Crew : 0 @-@ 1 ( optional pilot )
Wingspan : 48 ft ( 15 m )
Gross weight : 5 @,@ 900 lb ( 2 @,@ 676 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Lycoming O @-@ 435 @-@ 2 opposed piston engines , 220 hp ( 160 kW ) each
Performance
Cruise speed : 140 mph ( 122 kn ; 225 km / h )
Range : 425 mi ( 369 nmi ; 684 km )
Armament
One 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bomb or one aerial torpedo
= Cyclone Bingiza =
Tropical Cyclone Bingiza was the only named storm to make landfall in the inactive 2010 – 11 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . The second of three storms , Bingiza developed on February 9 to the northeast of Madagascar . For a few days it meandered generally southwestward , failing to intensify significantly . On February 12 , the storm began a steady westward track as environmental conditions became more favorable . In a 24 ‑ hour period , Bingiza developed from a moderate tropical storm into an intense tropical cyclone with a well @-@ defined eye . After attaining peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) , the cyclone moved ashore in northeastern Madagascar on February 14 and quickly weakened as it crossed the country . It emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weak tropical disturbance , and it turned southward to move across western Madagascar . Bingiza attained tropical storm status before making its final landfall near Morondava , dissipating on February 18 .
Across Madagascar , the cyclone killed 34 people and injured 13 others . High winds destroyed 25 @,@ 464 houses , which left 25 @,@ 845 people homeless . Bingiza first affected the Masoala National Park , destroying half of a village and leaving it isolated . High winds and heavy rainfall left over 500 km2km ( 195 mi2 ) of damaged crops , which increased food prices and threatened the economic livelihoods of the affected people .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cyclone Bingiza were from a persistent area of disorganized convection on February 8 , about 880 km ( 545 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Réunion . At the time , the system consisted of a poorly defined circulation , located in an area of low wind shear . It moved west @-@ southwestward along the northern periphery of a ridge , and its convection gradually became more organized over the center . On February 9 , Météo @-@ France ( MF ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 5 , and six hours later upgraded it to a tropical depression . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert after convective banding and outflow increased . Following intensification of the depression into a moderate tropical storm , MF advised the Madagascan Weather Service to name the storm as Bingiza which they did late on February 9 .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Bingiza was located in an area of weak steering currents , which resulted in a slow , meandering motion toward the southwest . Its motion turned to the south on February 10 , with conditions only marginally favorable for further intensification . After two days of meandering without strengthening , Bingiza turned to the southwest on due to a building ridge to its southwest toward Madagascar . Around the same time , upper @-@ level conditions began improving , which allowed the convection to increase in coverage . Based on the improved appearance , MF upgraded Bingiza to a severe tropical storm at 0600 UTC on February 12 about 335 km ( 210 mi ) east of the coast of Madagascar . Later that day an eye became apparent on satellite imagery , signaling the beginning of a rapid deepening trend . Late on February 12 , MF upgraded Bingiza to tropical cyclone intensity , which is the equivalent of a hurricane or typhoon . With minimal wind shear and warm waters , the agency forecast the cyclone to intensify further to peak 10 – sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Continuing to strengthen , Bingiza attained 10 minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) early on February 13 . Similarly , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , noting a contracting eye 37 km ( 23 mi ) in diameter in the process of an eyewall replacement cycle .
Despite initial forecasts , the cyclone failed to strengthen further due to interaction with Madagascar . Early on February 14 , Bingiza made landfall along the Masoala Peninsula with winds of at least 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . It emerged into the Antongil Bay , before moving ashore north of Manambolosy . It quickly weakened over land , although it produced heavy rainfall along its northern periphery . Early on February 15 , Bingiza weakened to a tropical depression . The center became difficult to locate over land , although it emerged into the Mozambique Channel north of Besalampy as a tropical disturbance . After moving over waters , the system was able to re @-@ intensify due to favorable water temperatures and inflow . It quickly organized into a tropical depression again , although strengthening was halted after it turned southward over western Madagascar due to a ridge to its north . It again moved into the Mozambique Channel , and Bingiza re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on February 17 . The storm developed a concentrated area of convection near the center , as well as a poorly defined eye . The re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived after Bingiza made its final landfall just south of Morondava around 1330 UTC on February 17 . Around that time , the circulation was dissipating over land , and its remnants left the island on February 19 .
= = Impact = =
When Bingiza made its first Madagascar landfall , it became the first cyclone to strike the country in the cyclone season . It first moved through the Masoala National Park , a sparsely @-@ populated protected region with significant amounts of trees . In Vinanivao , located along the Masoala peninsula , the cyclone destroyed half of the buildings as well as the roads and bridges , leaving it only accessible by boat . The cyclone affected five districts , primarily Mananara Nord . There , an early report indicated that 80 % of the houses were destroyed , along with one hospital and four other health facilities . The high winds caused heavy crop damage , including to rice and banana , which left minimal food supplies in some areas . The vanilla crop was also severely affected , and the mayor of Mananara was uncertain whether any of the crop could be harvested . Bingiza struck at what one relief worker described as the " worst time of year for a cyclone " , because many farmers were unable to replant their damaged crops . The cyclone damaged 40 % of the food crops and 10 % of the cash crops in Manambolosy , as well as 70 % of the food crops in Antanambaobe . Overall , the cyclone destroyed 405 @.@ 23 km2 ( 156 @.@ 46 mi2 ) of rice fields , as well as 101 @.@ 67 km2 ( 39 @.@ 26 mi2 ) of other crops . The cyclone also damaged the road infrastructure in Mananara , which made it difficult to transport fish in the region to other areas of the country . The resulting crop and road damage resulted in increased food prices .
Across its path , Bingiza destroyed 25 @,@ 464 houses and damaged 36 schools . Overall , the damage was less than expected , given the strength of the cyclone . Most of the damage occurred due to the poor infrastructure and drainage systems of Madagascar , along with high levels of poverty . A total of 34 deaths were reported , along with 13 injuries . When Bingiza made its final landfall , it produced five days of rainfall to a region already severely affected by flooding . In Vangaindrano district in southeastern Madagascar , the cyclone caused widespread flooding that isolated five villages , as well as covering fields of rice and other crops . A total of 310 people in the southern portion of the country were left homeless .
Immediately after the storm moved ashore , high winds prevented disaster teams from assessing damage in the affected areas . By February 18 , CARE international had dispatched relief teams to the most affected regions . The teams distributed plastic tarps and food for 10 @,@ 000 people . High winds halted locust @-@ control operations , while heavy rainfall provided favorable breeding conditions . In the area of the cyclone 's first landfall , most people were able to rebuild their houses using trees and supplies from the surrounding countryside . Overall , about 25 @,@ 845 people became homeless due to the cyclone , although most were able to return to their homes after a few days after they were repaired . In the months after the storm 's passage , the European Commission allocated € 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 287 @,@ 000 USD ) to CARE France for the storm victims .
= 2015 Gent – Wevelgem =
The 2015 Gent – Wevelgem was a one @-@ day cycling classic that took place in Belgium and France on 29 March 2015 . It was the 77th edition of the Gent – Wevelgem race ; it took place on 29 March and was the seventh race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The defending champion was John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , who had won the 2014 edition in a bunch sprint .
Gent – Wevelgem is part of the spring classics season and is known as the " sprinter 's classic " , because its terrain is less challenging than most of the other classics . The 2015 edition followed a 239 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 148 @.@ 6 mi ) route that started in Deinze and ended in Wevelgem . The race took place in difficult weather conditions with heavy wind and rain ; as a result , only 39 riders finished the race of the 200 who had started . The race was won by Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) , who attacked a small group in the final 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) and took a solo victory . Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) sprinted to second place , ahead of Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) .
= = Route = =
The 2015 Gent – Wevelgem was 239 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 148 @.@ 6 mi ) in length , starting in the Belgian city of Deinze , west of the city of Gent , and finishing in Wevelgem . Most of the spring classics centre around Oudenaarde and the many small hills in the nearby region . Gent – Wevelgem , however , travels west into West Flanders and France and has fewer hills , making it more suitable for sprinters .
After the race began in the Grote Markt in Deinze , the route took the riders west towards the coast ; after 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) of flat roads , they reached Adinkerke , southwest of Nieuwpoort , where the route turned south . They travelled another 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) before reaching Roesbrugge and , after 97 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 60 @.@ 8 mi ) , entered the Nord department of France . The first 12 kilometres ( 7 mi ) of French roads took them west , before they turned south at Wormhout . The first climb of the day came another 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) later , as the riders climbed the Casselberg . A 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) loop brought them round to climb the Casselberg a second time , though from a different direction .
The route then turned east . The final French climb was the Catsberg , which came after 143 kilometres ( 89 mi ) . The riders continued east after this and , after 148 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 92 @.@ 1 mi ) , re @-@ entered Belgium at Westouter , on the outskirts of Heuvelland , to enter the key section of the race . This began with the climb of the Baneberg , 152 kilometres ( 94 mi ) from the start . 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) later , they climbed the Kemmelberg in the town of Kemmel . 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) after that , they climbed the Monteberg . This succession of climbs was interspersed with steep descents , including the difficult descent of the Kemmelberg . A flat , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) section of road followed , as the route went east towards Mesen , then gradually looped back west through Nieuwkerke . After this flat section , the riders returned to the same roads that
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of the accidents of publication — and because of Tolkien 's great gift for rhetoric — only the latter has shaped the field of Beowulf criticism .
John D. Niles observed that " Bypassing earlier scholarship , critics of the past fifty years have generally traced the current era of Beowulf studies back to 1936 " , meaning to Tolkien 's essay , which he called " eloquent and incisive " . Niles argued that the essay quickly came to be a starting point , as scholars from then on assumed — with Tolkien — that the poem was " an aesthetic unity endowed with spiritual significance . " In Niles 's view , Tolkien thought that the battles with monsters and the sombre , elegiac tone of the poem expressed the " artistic designs of a deep thinker , religiously enlightened , who let his mind play over a lost heroic world of the imagination " , in other words that the Beowulf poet was a man much like Tolkien . Niles cited George Clark 's observation that Tolkien left Beowulf scholars with the " myth of the poet as brooding intellectual , poised between a dying pagan world and a nascent Christian one . " Niles noted that Tolkien 's view of the melancholic vision of the Beowulf poet , and of the heroic fatalism of the poem 's leading characters , was not wholly new , but that his view of the poet himself as a hero was .
= = = Press = = =
Joan Acocella , writing in the The New Yorker , calls it " a paper that many people regard as not just the finest essay on the poem but one of the finest essays on English literature . " She adds that " Tolkien preferred the monsters to the critics . "
Regina Weinreich , reviewing The Monsters and the Critics : And Other Essays in The New York Times , wrote that the title essay " revolutionized the study of the early English poem Beowulf , in which a young hero crushes a human @-@ handed monster called Grendel . Against the scorn of critics , Tolkien defends the centrality and seriousness of literary monsters , declaring his own belief in the symbolic value of such preternatural representations of sheer evil . " Weinreich added that " Beowulf , like other ancient legends , served to nourish Tolkien 's imagination . "
John Garth , writing in The Guardian , describes the paper as " still well worth reading , not only as an introduction to the poem , but also because it decisively changed the direction and emphasis of Beowulf scholarship . Up to that point it had been used as a quarry of linguistic , historical and archaeological detail " . Garth notes that
Tolkien pushed the monsters to the forefront . He argued that they represent the impermanence of human life , the mortal enemy that can strike at the heart of everything we hold dear , the force against which we need to muster all our strength – even if ultimately we may lose the fight . Without the monsters , the peculiarly northern courage of Beowulf and his men is meaningless . Tolkien , veteran of the Somme , knew that it was not .
= = = Translator = = =
Tolkien 's paper was praised by the Irish poet Seamus Heaney in the introduction to his critically acclaimed translation of Beowulf . He wrote that the " epoch @-@ making paper " stood out in considering Beowulf as literature . Heaney argued that Tolkien " took for granted the poem 's integrity and distinction as a work of art " , and showed how the poem achieved that status :
Tolkien assumed that the poet had felt his way through the inherited material - the fabulous elements and the traditional accounts of a heroic past - and by a combination of creative intuition and conscious structuring had arrived at a unity of effect and a balanced order . He assumed , in other words , that the Beowulf poet was an imaginative writer rather than some kind of back @-@ formation derived from nineteenth @-@ century folklore and philology .
Heaney called the paper 's literary treatment " brilliant " . He suggested that it had changed the way that Beowulf was valued , and that it had started " a new era of appreciation " of the poem .
Tolkien 's own translation of Beowulf , published posthumously in 2014 as Beowulf : A Translation and Commentary , has been linked to the essay .
= = Editions = =
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1936 ) . " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " . Proceedings of the British Academy 22 : 245 – 95 .
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1983 ) . The Monsters and the Critics . London : George Allen & Unwin . ISBN 0 @-@ 04 @-@ 809019 @-@ 0 .
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1997 ) . The Monsters and the Critics . London : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 261 @-@ 10263 @-@ X.
Nicholson , Lewis E. , ed . ( 1963 ) . An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism . Notre Dame : University of Notre Dame Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 268 @-@ 00006 @-@ 9 .
Fulk , Robert Dennis , ed . ( 1991 ) . Interpretations of Beowulf : A Critical Anthology . Indiana University Press. pp. 14 – 43 . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 20639 @-@ 1 .
= = Translations = =
Icelandic : Arndís Þórarinsdóttir , trans . ( 2013 ) . Bjólfskviða : Forynjurnar og fræðimennirnir . Reykjavík : Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag . ISBN 9789979663096 .
= Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil =
The legacy of Pedro II of Brazil began to become apparent soon after his death . Emperor Pedro II was the second and last monarch of Brazil , whose long 58 @-@ year reign ( 1831 – 1889 ) represented a time of remarkable prosperity and progress for his country . Despite his achievements , he was deposed in a coup by disgruntled republicans , though there was no desire for a change in the form of government among the majority of the Brazilian people .
His popularity among the citizenry had never waned , and support continued to be evident , even on the eve of his overthrow and throughout his exile . He was seen as a hero , a model citizen , a caring monarch , and the source of national unity and well @-@ being . Following his death , political wrangling prevented the return of his remains to Brazil . Continued efforts to repatriate the bodies of the Emperor and his wife dragged on for decades . The disputes were resolved and this was finally accomplished in 1920 with much fanfare . Over the decades , Pedro II gradually grew within Brazil to represent the archetypical benevolent , self @-@ effacing and effective ruler concerned only for the national welfare .
Aside from the prosperity and modernization Pedro II left to the nation , there was also a heritage of political and personal values . Many of his reforms and achievements had become so much a part of the national consciousness that they were accommodated by successor regimes . These formed the foundation for Brazilian democratic ideals . Historians have also largely agreed that Pedro II 's reign was not merely benign , but rather , exceptionally constructive and progressive . He has also consistently been ranked by scholars as the greatest Brazilian .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Aftermath of his death = = =
The monarchy fell at a point when it had reached its highest popularity among Brazilians , due in part to the abolition of slavery on 13 May 1888 . Indifferent to the new heroes , such as Tiradentes , imposed by the new republican government , Brazilians remained attached to the popular Emperor whom they regarded as a hero . He continued to be thought of as a national symbol , the Father of the People personified . This view was even stronger among those of African descent , who equated the monarchy with freedom . The afro @-@ Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways , such as by having the Imperial Crown tattooed on their bodies .
In cities throughout the nation , the years immediately following the end of monarchy witnessed the spread of music containing lyrics that reflected popular sentiments favorable to the Emperor . Examples include : " Pedro the Second left / to the kingdom of Lisbon . / The monarchy is over / and now Brazil is adrift . " and " The mother of Deodoro said : This son was once mine / Now he is cursed / by me and by God . " The Brazilian historian Ricardo Salles argued that among the " great — and few — names in our history [ of Brazil ] that hold a place in the popular imagination , is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II . " The phenomenon of continued support for the deposed monarch is largely credited to an unextinguished and generally held belief that he was a " wise , benevolent , austere and honest ruler . " The positive view towards Pedro II , and nostalgia for his reign , only grew as the nation quickly fell into a series of economic and political crises which Brazilians attributed to the Emperor 's overthrow . He never ceased being a popular hero , and would gradually become , once again , an official hero .
Surprisingly strong feelings of guilt were manifested among republicans , and these became increasingly evident upon the Emperor 's death in exile at the end of 1891 . In Brazil , the news of the Emperor 's death " aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who , without sympathy for a restoration , acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler . " The overthrown monarchy was still a fresh memory to Brazilians , to which was added a feeling of remorse over what they perceived as an unjust exile , followed by his lonely demise . Some republicans " reconsidered the long banishment and reflected upon the severity of such action . " Even they believed that Pedro II deserved a better end , and nostalgia spread among them as they " started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time , a golden age , forever gone . " The Empire began to be viewed more tolerantly by the new governments , and its considerable achievements were openly recognized . Now appeared " a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable , more honest , and more powerful . "
An odd predilection arose on the part of various republican politicians , including those " of higher standing " , for " praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy . " They did not desire a restoration , but believed that the Brazilian Republic might learn from the fallen regime . Thus , Pedro II " became , paradoxically , a model of republican ideals . " To these " republicans , d . Pedro appeared as the best of themselves ; for the monarchists the compliment meant , clearly , something else [ i.e. , that the Emperor was the best of the monarchists ] . "
After the death of the Emperor , appeals for the repatriation of his body increased over time . The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio ( The City of Rio ) stated that " Brazil is so large that it cannot begrudge some scant feet of land to him " and demanded : " Bring him back . " The Gazeta da Tarde ( Afternoon Gazette ) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral within the country . In 1895 , Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo ( Commerce of São Paulo ) : " The body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory . " By 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac wrote , " The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it . " The Jornal do Comércio ( Commerce Newspaper ) predicted that " one day , when all passions have lost their strength , your body shall rest here . "
= = = The end of Pedro II 's exile = = =
A law was proposed in the Chamber of Deputies to authorize the transfer of the bodies of Pedro II and his wife . Although it had support from old republicans , it was put aside due to a precondition from Princess Isabel that this could only be permitted if the banishment of her family was also rescinded . The dedication of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis on 5 February 1911 was attended by more than 1 @,@ 500 people , including members of the federal government . Several statues of the monarch were erected throughout the country during the following years . At this time , a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers , Lafayette , Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that " given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns , we agree to the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora . "
A proposed new bill , which would revoke the banishment , was debated in the Chamber in 1913 . The republican deputy Irineu Machado alleged that " futile objections " were being raised which denied " justice to the memory of the emperor . " Another member , Martim Francisco de Andrada III , affirmed that " D. Pedro II departed poor , leaving the country rich ; it was an injustice that the those who are rich and leave the country impoverished be against it . " The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent " the perpetual gratitude of posterity towards the most clement , the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time . " The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that " now the traces of his political legacy — honesty — are disappearing . " In the Senate , however , the proposal was rejected due to intervention by the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado . The most famous speech in homage to Pedro II was made in 1914 by the last surviving republican leader of the 1889 coup , the person who had ordered the banishment :
The lack of justice , Mr. Senators , is the great evil of our land , the evil of evils , the origin of all our misfortunes , the source of all our discredit , is the supreme misery of this poor nation . [ ... ] After seeing so much futility triumph , after seeing so much dishonor prosper , after seeing so much power in the hands of evil people grow , man becomes disheartened about virtue , he laughs to himself at honor and becomes ashamed of being honest . This has been the work of the Republic in the last years . In the other regime [ the Monarchy ] the man who had a certain disgrace in his life was lost forever , as a political career would be closed to him . There was a vigilant sentinel [ Dom Pedro II ] , whose severity everyone feared and that , bright and very high , protected the surroundings as a lighthouse that never fades away , in benefit of honor , justice and morality .
Two years later , in 1916 , President Venceslau Brás agreed to the return of the bodies and revocation of the banishment , but opted to await the end of World War I to officially approve the Act . On 3 September 1920 , his successor Epitácio Pessoa signed the law ( using a gold quill provided by the Brazilian Press Association ) which ended the banishment and allowed repatriation of the remains . Rui Barbosa said that those " who created the federal republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor , whose virtues were much higher than his faults . " He concluded , " Therefore , in the republican gallery there is a proper place , and a great one , for D. Pedro II . "
= = = The Emperor returns home = = =
In 1920 the dreadnought São Paulo bore the imperial coffins to Brazil . The Portuguese republican government granted Pedro II an exhumation with dignities befitting a Head of State , and he received the same honors upon arrival in Brazil . The Count of Eu accompanied the remains , along with his only surviving son , Pedro de Alcântara . His wife , Princess Isabel , was elderly , unwell and unable to participate . She died one year later , without ever seeing her homeland again . President Artur Bernardes declared a national holiday and the return of the Emperor was celebrated throughout the nation .
In attendance at the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro was councilor Antonio Prado , the last minister of the Empire still living , who had traveled from São Paulo . Thousands of people attended the event . The " elderly people cried . Many kneeled . All clapped . There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists . They were all Brazilians . " It marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past . However , " the official return of the figure of d . Pedro as a national hero would truly come only in 1922 , owing to the great national commemoration of the centenary celebration of Brazilian independence " during which the Emperor was highly acclaimed .
Three years later , Brazilians spontaneously commemorated Pedro II 's centenary . There was a clear " disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d . Pedro , and the little interest in the anniversary of the Republic , which was then 36 years old . " President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse " the justice that the Emperor deserves . He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time . " Pedro II became , once again , the " Father of the Fatherland " ( or " Father of the Nation " ) .
His body was temporarily housed in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until construction on the Cathedral of Petrópolis was complete . The final burial would only occur on 5 December 1939 , when the dictator Getúlio Vargas took advantage of the ceremony as an opportunity to benefit his own popularity ( just as Mussolini had done during Anita Garibaldi 's funeral in 1932 ) . Vargas dedicated the funerary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were interred .
Many of the most profound transformations achieved under Pedro II would survive him . Concepts such as a representative political system and a paradigm of citizenship had been allowed to flourish and become ingrained under the Empire , so much so that they survived " during three succeeding regimes : the Old Republic ( 1889 – 1930 ) , the Vargas Era ( 1930 – 45 ) , the Liberal Republic ( 1945 – 64 ) . " The concept of a nation @-@ state , as envisioned by Pedro II , was even appropriated by the military which seized control during 1964 . Though during the 1980s , this concept began to change , it still endures . At the beginning of the twenty @-@ first century his " name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation 's heritage . His image confers respectability , dignity , and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it . "
= = Historical assessments = =
Historians have expressed high regard for Pedro II and his reign . The scholarly literature dealing with him is vast and , with the exception of the period immediately after his ouster , overwhelmingly positive , and even laudatory . Emperor Pedro II is usually regarded by historians in Brazil as the greatest Brazilian . In a manner quite similar to methods which had been used by the republican politicians , historians point to the Emperor 's virtues as an example to be followed , although none go so far as to advocate a restoration of the monarchy . " Most twentieth @-@ century historians , moreover , have looked back on the period [ of Pedro II 's reign ] nostalgically , using their descriptions of the Empire to criticize — sometimes subtly , sometimes not — Brazil 's subsequent republican or dictatorial regimes . "
American historian Dana Munro wrote in her study about Latin America that Pedro II " grew up to be serious minded , irreproachable in his private life , and indefatigable in the performance of what he considered his duty . " She added that he was " an able and intelligent ruler if not a great statesman " . Another American historian writing on Brazilian history , Thomas Skidmore , remarked that the Emperor " brought a natural talent to his work . Even at age 14 , he was steady , equilibrated and discrete " . He states that during " his reign , he acquired the reputation of being just and objective , projecting the image of an honest and ethical sovereign who would not hesitate in disciplining politicians who were caught turning away from his strict standards " . The British historian Roderick . J. Barman wrote in his biography of Pedro II that he " was at once the model emperor and the model citizen . He literally and metaphorically towered above his fellow Brazilians . Pedro II 's achievements at home and the high reputation he established abroad convinced Brazilians that the goals he advocated would create a country as powerful and as civilized as France , Great Britain or the United States " .
The Brazilian American historian Richard Graham praised Brazilian politics affirming that " Brazil enjoyed all appearances of a functioning representative democracy . Foreign observers were virtually unanimous in praising a political system that seemed so like the bourgeois regimes of Europe . The main focus of their enthusiasm lay in the regularity of elections and in the alternation of parties in power . The government scrupulously observed the Constitution , individual rights seemed protected , and no military leader or other dictator overthrew the elected government . " The Brazilian historian Pedro Calmon in his work covering Brazilian history asserted that during Pedro II 's reign the " politics became British – like , and were improved , creating processes which began to function under the vigilant eyes of the emperor " , and which allowed " the evolution of democracy in Brazil " .
José Murilo de Carvalho , a biographer of the Emperor , wrote that at the time he was deposed the nation had been consolidated , the slave trade had been abolished , and the foundations of a representative system had been established due to uninterrupted elections and broad freedom of the press . He remarked that for " the longevity of his government and the transformations effected during its course , no other head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country . "
The historian Pedro Karp Vasquez wrote that the Emperor ushered " the country into a period of stability and prosperity after 1850 . Enormously interested in everything that was related to scientific discoveries , Dom Pedro II sought to modernize the nation , in many instances anticipating initiatives in European nations . " Another biographer of Pedro II , Renato S
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a cartoon called " Burning Down the Mouse , " as Lisa puts it , " This is the one where Scratchy finally gets Itchy . " However , due to the Simpsons ' television being unplugged , the viewer does not see the end of the cartoon and Krusty proclaims that the network will never let it be shown again . Scratchy , voiced by Harry Shearer , is a black cat and is the victim of much abuse from the sadistic Itchy . The writers often forget which character is which ; a trick they use is that Scratchy contains the letters c , a and t .
Poochie , voiced by Dan Castellaneta and Alex Rocco , is an anthropomorphic dog that appeared in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " ( season eight , 1997 ) . In the episode , the producers of The Itchy & Scratchy Show believed the cartoons were getting stale , and needed a new character to reinvigorate the show . Homer Simpson gets the job of voicing Poochie , who is introduced in the cartoon , " The Beagle Has Landed . " A product of marketing department thinking , Poochie was near @-@ universally despised , and was killed off in his second appearance , despite Homer 's objections . The episode was both a reference to TV shows which added new characters purportedly to reinvigorate the show , and a commentary on the growing complaints of fans of The Simpsons . The original idea for the episode was that Poochie would be obnoxious because he was so rich , rather than because he was so cool . Poochie would later make brief speaking cameo appearances in " Treehouse of Horror IX " and " Little Big Mom . "
Disgruntled Goat , Uncle Ant , Ku Klux Klam , an anthropomorphic goat , ant and clam , respectively , were characters introduced in a short @-@ lived " Itchy and Scratchy and Friends " show . Bart and Lisa find plush toys of them in a gift shop in the " Itchy and Scratchy Land " episode .
= = = Production staff = = =
Roger Meyers , Jr . , voiced by Alex Rocco and Hank Azaria , is the chairman and CEO of Itchy & Scratchy Studios and is the son of Roger Meyers . He first appeared in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " ( season two , 1990 ) . He distributes the cartoon and is a jaded and selfish businessman who has nothing but contempt for the children who comprise his audience . He also possesses an extremely obnoxious personality , where he only cares about people who can help him . This is displayed in his contempt for the writers of The Itchy & Scratchy Show .
Alex Rocco also voiced Meyers in " The Day the Violence Died " and " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show . " He said that he liked voicing Meyers because " I get to be a big @-@ shot . " He professed being nervous when voicing the character for the first time in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " because he said that he had never done a voice @-@ over before . At first he tried doing a special voice , but was told to " just be yourself . " Rocco was one of Bill Oakley 's and Josh Weinstein 's favorite guest stars , and they liked including him in their episodes so they could " have a little fun with him . " On occasions when Rocco was unavailable to do a voice over , Meyers was voiced by Hank Azaria in " The Front " ( season four , 1993 ) , " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " ( season five , 1994 ) and " Itchy & Scratchy Land . "
The spelling of Meyers ' name has been inconsistent in the show . His last name was spelt both Myers and Meyers in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge , " and Myers the later episode " The Day the Violence Died . " His name is spelt Meyers in " The Front , " as well as in the book The Simpsons : A Complete Guide to Our Favorite Family .
Roger Meyers , Sr. first appeared in video footage in " Itchy & Scratchy Land " and has never had a speaking role . He was created because the writers felt it would have been " tortured logic " to have the Roger Meyers , Jr. be the creator . Roger Meyers Sr. has similarities to Walt Disney . For example , Disney 's alleged antisemitism is spoofed when it is revealed that Meyers made a cartoon called Nazi Supermen are Our Superiors .
June Bellamy , voiced by Tress MacNeille , is the actress who portrays both Itchy and Scratchy . Her only appearance was in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show . " It is assumed she is a reference to veteran voice actress June Foray , based on the same first name . In the episode , Bellamy states that a woman voiced the characters , although Itchy and Scratchy are voiced by male actors .
Chester J. Lampwick , voiced by Kirk Douglas , is the creator of Itchy and only appeared in " The Day the Violence Died . " The producers ' first choice for the character , William Hickey , declined . Douglas 's recording session was fraught with interruptions because he refused to wear the supplied earphones , and said the maximum he would do was two takes .
Writing staff : In several episodes revolving around the production of The Itchy & Scratchy Show , caricatures of the show 's staff are used as the staff of The Itchy & Scratchy Show . This first occurred in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " where caricatures of animators David Silverman , Wes Archer and Rich Moore can be seen . In " The Front " many of the show 's writers were used , this in @-@ joke was purely an idea of the animators . John Swartzwelder , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Sam Simon , Jon Vitti and Mike Reiss all appeared in the episode . This joke returned in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " . Almost all of the writers shown are caricatures of the actual staff of The Simpsons . At the production table , David X. Cohen , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein are shown , while Meyer speaks out and gets fired . The animator shown designing Poochie is Silverman . Others who appear include Dan McGrath , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Donick Cary , Ron Hauge , Ned Goldreyer and Mike Scully .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Itchy & Scratchy Show first appeared in the Tracey Ullman Show short " The Bart Simpson Show , " which originally aired November 20 , 1988 . They were the first major recurring characters outside of the Simpson family to appear . They are based on Tom and Jerry and other cat and mouse cartoons . As a child , series creator Matt Groening and his friends would fantasize about an ultra violent cartoon and how much fun it would be to work on a show like that . The names " Itchy " and " Scratchy " were inspired by " Pixie and Dixie , " who were mice on the cartoon show Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks . The comic strip Squeak the Mouse is also considered as an apparent inspiration for the characters . The show is also based on Herman and Katnip , a show that , according to director David Silverman , " is hilarious because it 's just bad . " As a child , Groening really liked the 1961 Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians , and it was one of the reasons to why he got into cartooning . In the film , the puppies watch television , and the idea that it is possible to have a cartoon within a cartoon thrilled Groening . From that idea he got the inspiration for The Itchy & Scratchy Show .
David Silverman states that Itchy and Scratchy cartoons are " an ironic commentary on cartoon mayhem in the sense that it 's taken to a more realistic level . The kids on The Simpsons are laughing at it , and we 're laughing too , but part of what you 're laughing at is the over @-@ the @-@ top excessiveness of the violence . "
= = = Development = = =
Itchy and Scratchy cartoons are often added when a show needs expanding or when there is an issue that the writers wish to satirize . In some cases , notably in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show , " the writers use Itchy & Scratchy as a way to comment on The Simpsons . The shorts are often difficult for the writers , and take much time to develop and devise a title , and in the end they fill little time . Writing the Itchy & Scratchy cartoons is quite often a group effort , with it being pitched out one gag after another . Itchy & Scratchy are a favorite of John Swartzwelder , who has written many of the episodes that center on them and quite often pitches the ideas for the shorts . In the early seasons , fans wanted more Itchy & Scratchy , so the writers decided to do " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge , " an episode also dealt with censorship issues which would allow them to show several cartoons . The cartoons are often kept short , because according to David Silverman , " it doesn 't really work as a long cartoon . "
During his tenure as showrunner ( season five and six ) David Mirkin was asked by the Fox network not to do any more Itchy & Scratchy cartoons due to the amount of violence in them . In response , the show produced " Itchy & Scratchy Land . " The network asked them not to do the episode , and threatened that if the episode was produced , they would cut the Itchy & Scratchy parts out themselves , but relented when Mirkin threatened to tell the media . The writers nevertheless promised to try not to overdo the violence and in some scenes the violence was cut .
During their tenure as executive producers , Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein tried to fit in one episode relating to The Itchy & Scratchy Show every season . They note that as the seasons progressed , it became increasingly difficult for them to create new Itchy & Scratchy episode ideas . Although the episode was difficult to animate , " Itchy & Scratchy Land " was " a dream come true " for the animators , as they enjoyed animating scenes filled with violence .
The theme song is adapted from the jazz standard " Should I ( Reveal ) ? "
= = Reception = =
In a 2006 article , IGN ranked Itchy & Scratchy in tenth position on their list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters , " citing that " the Itchy & Scratchy Show shines a nice mirror on cartoons , showing just how funny cartoon violence really is . " In 2003 , Entertainment Weekly named " Itchy & Scratchy Land " and " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " the 7th @-@ best and 23rd @-@ best episodes of The Simpsons , respectively . In 2007 , Vanity Fair named " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " the sixth @-@ best episode in the show 's history , describing it as " a classic satire of network influence , obsessed TV fans , and programs that survive long after the shark has been jumped , the episode is a meta @-@ celebration , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rebuttal to everyone who claimed that the quality of The Simpsons had declined over the years . " Todd Gilchrist called it a masterpiece , stating it " could easily be packaged and sold by [ itself ] . " Robert Canning of IGN writes that " it 's always fun to see an ' Itchy and Scratchy ' cartoon " but believes that the shorter and simpler cartoons are better than the longer more complex ones . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner describes Itchy & Scratchy as " by far the most gleeful visual riffing on The Simpsons [ ... ] each snippet of " Itchy & Scratchy " packs as much frenetically paced action , sight @-@ gaggery and physical humor into its half @-@ minute of screen time as a half @-@ dozen Road Runner cartoons and a dozen Tom & Jerrys . " In a 2014 Vulture article , the Simpsons writers ranked their 9 favourite Itchy and Scratchy cartoons . Season @-@ wise their choices ranged from season 4 's " Steamboat Itchy " to Season 14 's " Bleeder of the Pack " , while also including the opening scene of The Simpsons Movie and the safety video " Safety First " that plays before The Simpsons Ride at Universal Studios , both from 2007 .
= = Merchandising = =
Itchy and Scratchy have appeared in various products and other media relating to The Simpsons . A video game named The Itchy & Scratchy Game was released for Genesis , Game Gear , Super NES and Game Boy . Another game , Itchy and Scratchy in Miniature Golf Madness , was released for Game Boy . Itchy , Scratchy and Poochie play roles in the " Grand Theft Scratchy " section in The Simpsons Game . Itchy & Scratchy have also appeared in commercials for various products , including a 1999 Butterfinger advert where Bart watches a short called " 500 Easy Pieces " . They appear in the very first scene of The Simpsons Movie . The writers of the film knew from the beginning that they were going to start with an Itchy & Scratchy short and the segment was the first scene that was storyboarded by the animators .
The duo also appear in the pre @-@ show video for The Simpsons Ride . They host a video called " Safety First " that shows riders what can happen to them if they do not follow ride requirements . Only Itchy has a speaking part in the ride , because Harry Shearer chose not to participate in the ride , so none of his characters have speaking parts .
British based street @-@ wear label Drop Dead released the first ever Itchy & Scratchy specific clothing range on May 31 , 2014 . The collection includes both men 's and women 's wear including leggings , sweat pants , hoodies , T @-@ shirts , and crew @-@ necks . The collection pays homage to classic simpsons , with a vintage theme throughout . Itchy & Scratchy feature on all almost all the garments , aside from a handful that feature Krusty the Clown .
= Morpholino =
A morpholino , also known as a morpholino oligomer and as a phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer ( PMO ) , is type of oligomer molecule ( colloquially , an oligo ) used in molecular biology to modify gene expression . The molecular structure has a backbone of methylenemorpholine rings and phosphorodiamidate linkages . Morpholinos block access of other molecules to small ( ~ 25 base ) specific sequences of the base @-@ pairing surfaces of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) . Morpholinos are used as research tools for reverse genetics by knocking down gene function . They are being studied for application in medicine .
This article discusses only the morpholino antisense oligomers , which are nucleic acid analogs . The word " morpholino " can occur in other chemical names , referring to chemicals containing a six @-@ membered morpholine ring . To help avoid confusion with other morpholine @-@ containing molecules , when describing oligos " Morpholino " is often capitalized as a trade name , but this usage is not consistent throughout the scientific literature .
Gene knockdown is achieved by preventing cells from making a targeted protein . Morpholinos can also modify the splicing of pre @-@ mRNA . Knocking down gene expression is a powerful method for learning about the function of a particular protein ; in a similar manner , causing a specific exon to be spliced out of a protein can help to determine the function of the protein moiety encoded by that exon or can sometimes knock down the protein activity altogether . These molecules have been applied to studies in several model organisms , including mice , zebrafish , frogs , and sea urchins .
Morpholinos are in development as pharmaceutical therapeutics targeted against pathogenic organisms such as bacteria or viruses and for amelioration of genetic diseases . These synthetic oligos were conceived by James E. Summerton ( Gene Tools ) and originally developed in collaboration with Dwight D. Weller at a biotech corporation ( formerly Antivirals , renamed AVI BioPharma , renamed Sarepta Therapeutics ) . The experimental Morpholino drug eteplirsen from Sarepta Therapeutics is currently ( April 2016 ) in Phase III clinical trials for treatment of some mutations causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy .
= = Structure = =
Morpholinos are synthetic molecules that are the product of a redesign of natural nucleic acid structure . Usually 25 bases in length , they bind to complementary sequences of RNA by standard nucleic acid base @-@ pairing . In terms of structure , the difference between Morpholinos and DNA is that , while Morpholinos have standard nucleic acid bases , those bases are bound to morpholine rings instead of deoxyribose rings and linked through phosphorodiamidate groups instead of phosphates . This may be easiest to visualize by referring to the first figure and comparing the structures of the two strands depicted there , one of RNA and the other of a Morpholino . Replacement of anionic phosphates with the uncharged phosphorodiamidate groups eliminates ionization in the usual physiological pH range , so Morpholinos in organisms or cells are uncharged molecules . The entire backbone of a Morpholino is made from these modified subunits .
= = Function = =
Morpholinos do not degrade their target RNA molecules , unlike many antisense structural types ( e.g. , phosphorothioates , siRNA ) . Instead , Morpholinos act by " steric blocking " , binding to a target sequence within an RNA and simply getting in the way of molecules that might otherwise interact with the RNA . Morpholino oligos are often used to investigate the role of a specific mRNA transcript in an embryo . Developmental biologists inject Morpholino oligos into eggs or embryos of zebrafish , African clawed frog ( Xenopus ) , sea urchin , and killifish ( F. heteroclitus ) producing morphant embryos , or electroporate Morpholinos into chick embryos at later stages of development . With appropriate cytosolic delivery systems , Morpholinos are effective in cell culture . Vivo @-@ Morpholinos , in which the oligo is covalently linked to a delivery dendrimer , enter cells when administered systemically in adult animals .
= = = Normal gene expression in eukaryotes = = =
In eukaryotic organisms , pre @-@ mRNA is transcribed in the nucleus , introns are spliced out , then the mature mRNA is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm . The small subunit of the ribosome usually starts by binding to one end of the mRNA and is joined there by various other eukaryotic initiation factors , forming the initiation complex . The initiation complex scans along the mRNA strand until it reaches a start codon , and then the large subunit of the ribosome attaches to the small subunit and translation of a protein begins . This entire process is referred to as gene expression ; it is the process by which the information in a gene , encoded as a sequence of bases in DNA , is converted into the structure of a protein . A Morpholino can modify splicing or block translation , depending on the Morpholino 's base sequence .
= = = Blocking translation = = =
Bound to the 5 ' -untranslated region of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , Morpholinos can interfere with progression of the ribosomal initiation complex from the 5 ' cap to the start codon . This prevents translation of the coding region of the targeted transcript ( called " knocking down " gene expression ) . This is useful experimentally when an investigator wishes to know the function of a particular protein ; Morpholinos provide a convenient means of knocking down expression of the protein and learning how that knockdown changes the cells or organism . Some Morpholinos knock down expression so effectively that , after degradation of preexisting proteins , the targeted proteins become undetectable by Western blot ( e.g. , figure 1 in : ) .
= = = Modifying pre @-@ mRNA splicing = = =
Morpholinos can interfere with pre @-@ mRNA processing steps either by preventing splice @-@ directing small nuclear ribonucleoproteins ( snRNP ) complexes from binding to their targets at the borders of introns on a strand of pre @-@ mRNA , or by blocking the nucleophilic adenine base and preventing it from forming the splice lariat structure , or by interfering with the binding of splice regulatory proteins such as splice silencers and splice enhancers . Preventing the binding of snRNP U1 ( at the donor site ) or U2 / U5 ( at the polypyrimidine moiety and acceptor site ) can cause modified splicing , commonly excluding exons from the mature mRNA . Targeting some splice targets results in intron inclusions , while activation of cryptic splice sites can lead to partial inclusions or exclusions . Targets of U11 / U12 snRNPs can also be blocked . Splice modification can be conveniently assayed by reverse @-@ transcriptase polymerase chain reaction ( RT @-@ PCR ) and is seen as a band shift after gel electrophoresis of RT @-@ PCR products .
= = = Other applications : blocking other mRNA sites and use as probes = = =
Morpholinos have been used to block miRNA activity and maturation . Fluorescein tagged Morpholinos , combined with fluorescein @-@ specific antibodies , can be used as probes for in @-@ situ hybridization to miRNAs . Morpholinos can block ribozyme activity . U2 and U12 snRNP functions have been inhibited by Morpholinos . Morpholinos targeted to " slippery " mRNA sequences within protein coding regions can induce translational frameshifts . Morpholinos can block editing of RNA . Activities of Morpholinos against this variety of targets suggest that Morpholinos can be used as a general @-@ purpose tool for blocking interactions of proteins or nucleic acids with mRNA .
= = Specificity , stability and non @-@ antisense effects = =
Morpholinos have become a standard knockdown tool in animal embryonic systems , which have a broader range of gene expression than adult cells and can be strongly affected by an off @-@ target interaction . Following initial injections into frog or fish embryos at the single @-@ cell or few @-@ cell stages , Morpholino effects can be measured up to five days later , after most of the processes of organogenesis and differentiation are past , with observed phenotypes consistent with target @-@ gene knockdown . Control oligos with irrelevant sequences usually produce no change in embryonic phenotype , evidence of the Morpholino oligo 's sequence @-@ specificity and lack of non @-@ antisense effects . The dose required for a knockdown can be reduced by coinjection of several Morpholino oligos targeting the same mRNA , which is an effective strategy for reducing or eliminating dose @-@ dependent off @-@ target RNA interactions .
mRNA rescue experiments can often restore the wild @-@ type phenotype to the embryos and provide evidence for the specificity of a Morpholino . In an mRNA rescue , a Morpholino is co @-@ injected with an mRNA that codes for the same protein that the Morphlino is targeted to knock down . However , the rescue mRNA has a modified 5 ' -UTR ( untranslated region ) so that the rescue mRNA contains no target for the Morpholino but the rescue mRNA 's coding region encodes the protein of interest . Translation of the rescue mRNA replaces production of the protein that was knocked down by the Morpholino . Since the rescue mRNA would not affect phenotypic changes due to modulation of off @-@ target gene expression by the Morpholino , this return to wild @-@ type phenotype is further evidence of Morpholino specificity .
Because of their completely unnatural backbones , Morpholinos are not recognized by cellular proteins . Nucleases do not degrade Morpholinos , nor are they degraded in serum or in cells . Morpholinos do not activate toll @-@ like receptors and so they do not activate innate immune responses such as interferon induction or the NF @-@ κB @-@ mediated inflammation response . Morpholinos are not known to modify methylation of DNA .
Up to 18 % of Morpholinos appear to induce nontarget @-@ related phenotypes including cell death in the central nervous system and somite tissues of zebrafish embryos . Most of these effects have been shown to be due to activation of p53 @-@ mediated apoptosis , and can be suppressed by co @-@ injection of an anti @-@ p53 Morpholino along with the experimental Morpholino ; moreover , the p53 @-@ mediated apoptotic effect of a Morpholino knockdown has been phenocopied using another antisense structural type , showing the p53 @-@ mediated apoptosis to be a consequence of the loss of the targeted protein and not a consequence of the oligo type used to knock down the protein . It appears that these effects are sequence @-@ specific ; as in most cases , if a Morpholino is associated with non @-@ target effects , the 4 @-@ base mismatch Morpholino will not trigger these effects .
A cause for concern in the use of Morpholinos is the potential for " off @-@ target " effects . Whether an observed morphant phenotype is due to the intended knockdown or an interaction with an off @-@ target RNA can often be addressed by running another experiment to confirm that the observed morphant phenotype results from the knockdown of the expected target . This can be done by recapitulating the morphant phenotype with a second , non @-@ overlapping Morpholino targeting the same mRNA or by confirmation of the observed phenotypes by use of a mutant strain or dominant @-@ negative methods . As mentioned above , rescue of observed phenotypes by coinjecting a rescue mRNA is , when feasible , a reliable test of specificity of a Morpholino .
= = Delivery = =
For a Morpholino to be effective , it must be delivered past the cell membrane into the cytosol of a cell . Once in the cytosol , Morpholinos freely diffuse between the cytosol and nucleus , as demonstrated by the nuclear splice @-@ modifying activity of Morpholinos observed after microinjection into the cytosol of cells . Different methods are used for delivery into embryos , into cultured cells or into adult animals . A microinjection apparatus is usually used for delivery into an embryo , with injections most commonly performed at the single @-@ cell or few @-@ cell stage ; an alternative method for embryonic delivery is electroporation , which can deliver oligos into tissues of later embryonic stages . Common techniques for delivery into cultured cells include the Endo @-@ Porter peptide ( which causes the Morpholino to be released from endosomes ) , the Special Delivery system ( no longer commercially available , used a Morpholino @-@ DNA heteroduplex and an ethoxylated polyethylenimine delivery reagent ) , electroporation , or scrape loading .
Delivery into adult tissues is usually difficult , though there are a few systems allowing useful uptake of unmodified Morpholino oligos ( including the inherently leaky muscle cells caused by Duchenne muscular dystrophy or the vascular endothelial cells stressed during balloon angioplasty ) . Though they permeate through intercellular spaces in tissues effectively , unconjugated PMOs have limited distribution into the cytosol and nuclear spaces within healthy tissues following IV administration . Systemic delivery into many cells in adult organisms can be accomplished by using covalent conjugates of Morpholino oligos with cell @-@ penetrating peptides , and , while toxicity has been associated with moderate doses of the peptide conjugates , they have been used in vivo for effective oligo delivery at doses below those causing observed toxicity . An octa @-@ guanidinium dendrimer attached to the end of a Morpholino can deliver the modified oligo ( called a Vivo @-@ Morpholino ) from the blood to the cytosol . Delivery @-@ enabled Morpholinos , such as peptide conjugates and Vivo @-@ Morpholinos , show promise as therapeutics for viral and genetic diseases .
= Weight Gain 4000 =
" Weight Gain 4000 " is the third episode of the American animated television series South Park . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 27 , 1997 . In the episode , the residents of South Park excitedly prepare for a visit by celebrity Kathie Lee Gifford , whom the boys ' third @-@ grade teacher Mr. Garrison plans to assassinate because of a childhood grudge . In the meantime , Cartman becomes extremely obese after buying a bodybuilding supplement called Weight Gain 4000 .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone . After the South Park pilot episode , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , drew poor test audience results , Comedy Central requested a script for one more new episode before deciding whether or not to commit to a full series . The resulting script for " Weight Gain 4000 " helped the network decide to pick up the show . Although the second episode to be produced , it was originally broadcast as the third episode . It was also the first South Park episode created completely using computers rather than construction paper .
Although some reviewers criticized the episode for its profanity and other material deemed offensive at the time of its original broadcast , several others felt " Weight Gain 4000 " was a significant improvement over the pilot , particularly for its satirical element regarding American consumerism . The episode introduced such recurring characters as Jimbo Kern , Mayor McDaniels , Bebe Stevens and Clyde Donovan . The show 's portrayal of Kathie Lee Gifford was the first time a celebrity was spoofed in South Park . Cartman 's line " Beefcake " became one of the most popular catchphrases from the series .
= = Plot = =
South Park Elementary teacher Mr. Garrison announces that Cartman has won the school 's " Save Our Fragile Planet " essay contest , much to the anger of his classmate Wendy Testaburger , who immediately suspects him of cheating . The rest of the town becomes a flurry of excitement upon learning celebrity television host Kathie Lee Gifford will come to South Park to present Cartman with an award on national television . Mayor McDaniels plans a big event to showcase the town , with hopes of furthering her own career . Mr. Garrison directs rehearsals for a play with the schoolchildren depicting the history of South Park , which is to be shown at the event . Mayor McDaniels is horrified , however , to learn the historically accurate play includes children playing pioneers who attack and brutally beat the students portraying Native Americans .
Unbeknownst to the rest of town , Mr. Garrison relives a traumatic childhood memory in which a young Gifford defeated him in a national talent show . Mr. Garrison is manipulated by his hand puppet , Mr. Hat , to assassinate Gifford out of revenge . He purchases a large rifle from Jimbo 's gun shop and plots to shoot Gifford . Meanwhile , Cartman is excited to appear on live television , and Mayor McDaniels instructs him to get into shape for Gifford 's visit . Seeing a television commercial for a bodybuilding supplement called " Weight Gain 4000 " , Cartman asks his mother to buy it for him . Cartman becomes extremely fat from the product , although he believes he is in excellent shape and the excess weight is strictly muscle . Back at the school , Wendy looks through Mr. Garrison 's papers and confirms Cartman indeed cheated on the contest by writing his name on a copy of Walden by Henry David Thoreau . Wendy also learns about Mr. Garrison 's assassination plan , and enlists the help of her friend Stan to stop him .
Gifford arrives , and most of the town attends the celebratory event , where Chef sings a song to seduce her . Mr. Garrison takes his position in a tall book depository , but he is frustrated to see that Gifford is hidden behind a bulletproof glass bubble . Wendy and Stan arrive and try unsuccessfully to stop Mr. Garrison , saying that they understand his pain , but when Stan accidentally reignites Garrisons anger , he decides to go through with the assassination . Just as he 's about to fire , Cartmans new immense weight causes the stage to collapse , catapulting Gifford off it , and causing the bullet to hit Kenny in the head . Kenny is propelled through the air and impaled on a flagpole . Gifford 's bodyguards whisk Gifford away , costing a disappointed Cartman his chance to be on television . Wendy takes to the stage and reveals that Cartman cheated on his essay , but the townspeople are too upset about Gifford 's departure to care . Mr. Garrison is taken to a mental hospital , where Mr. Hat is placed into a straitjacket . Mr. Garrison apologizes to the kids for costing the town a chance to be on television , although Kyle explains to him that Cartman is now appearing on talk show Geraldo because of his tremendous obesity . The episode ends with Chef having sex with Gifford while watching Geraldo .
= = Production = =
" Weight Gain 4000 " was written and directed by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 27 , 1997 . The South Park pilot , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , did not do well with test audiences , and Comedy Central executives were unsure whether they wanted to order any additional episodes . However , they paid Parker and Stone to write another script when Internet buzz began to generate about the duo and their work on The Spirit of Christmas , the 1995 animated short film that served as a precursor to South Park . The network opted not to commit to a full Comedy Central series until they could read the newly commissioned script . The result was " Weight
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salmon ( the landlocked Pacific salmon ) , rainbow trout and white sturgeon are among the many species found in the river . Kokanee and rainbows are commonly found in Lake Koocanusa . Kootenai Falls , which drops some 90 metres ( 300 ft ) within a run of a few hundred meters , forms a natural boundary between fishes of the upper and lower river , but Libby Dam , several kilometres upstream , is an even more formidable barrier . Fish in the Kootenay have traditionally been abundant but the construction of the dam may have led to declines in the population of sturgeon , among other fishes , because of changes in water flow . The best season for fishing is from June to November . One may fish from banks , sandbars and islands , or from boats . Because of the size and strength of the river , fishing from drift boats is easier than from the shore . Also , because the Kootenay 's primary sources are glaciers , fishing conditions are quite different from most rivers in Montana and Idaho , which are fed by snowmelt . In the United States , the Kootenay , with its " exceptional " trout fishing , is considered a Blue Ribbon fishery .
Steep and strewn with rapids , the Kootenay , despite being unsuitable for commercial transportation of agricultural and mineral products , is considered an outstanding whitewater river . Whitewater rafting is popular on the Kootenay in two stretches : in Jennings Canyon between the Libby Dam in Montana and Bonners Ferry in Idaho , and in the upper reaches of the river in Kootenay National Park in British Columbia .
Rafting the middle Kootenay between Libby Dam and Bonners Ferry is best at flows of 230 to 340 cubic metres per second ( 8 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) . The run , about 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from east to west , includes Class IV + rapids and includes Kootenai Falls , which rarely has been run safely , in the middle of its course . In Montana , the river is rated a Class I water under the Montana Stream Access Law for recreational purposes from Libby Dam to the Montana @-@ Idaho border . Class I represents bodies of water that are navigable and suitable for recreation .
Rafting is also popular in some of the Canadian stretches of the river , especially those near the headwaters that have the steepest gradient and the most challenging rapids . Several Canadian outfitters provide trips on the river near Kootenay National Park ranging from a few hours to several days . Canoeing in the numerous sloughs , side @-@ channels and distributaries of the Kootenay that thread through the wetlands of the Kootenay Flats has the additional benefit of watching birds and wildlife in the Creston Valley Wildlife Management Unit and other surrounding marshes . Larger craft such as houseboats are able to travel on Kootenay and Koocanusa Lakes . Rafting and kayaking is also an activity on the swift @-@ flowing Slocan River , the lowermost major tributary of the Kootenay , and in parts of other major Kootenay tributaries as well .
= = Crossings = =
Crossings of the Kootenay River are listed from upstream to downstream . The name of the road / track , the coordinates , and the location are given .
= = Additional reading = =
Bathymetric Surveys of the Kootenai River near Bonners Ferry , Idaho United States Geological Survey
Sullivan , Gordon ( 2008 ) . Saving Homewaters : The Story of Montana 's Streams and Rivers . Woodstock , VT : The Countryman Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88150 @-@ 679 @-@ 2 .
= Breakaway ( Kelly Clarkson album ) =
Breakaway is the second studio album by American singer Kelly Clarkson , released on November 30 , 2004 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her successful debut album , Thankful ( 2003 ) . Executive produced by Clive Davis , Breakaway sees Clarkson collaborating with various producers and songwriters for the first time , primarily Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Avril Lavigne , Kara DioGuardi , Ben Moody , and David Hodges ; the latter two are former members of American rock band Evanescence . Despite the established commercial success of Thankful , music critics still continued to typecast Clarkson as an American Idol winner and were also critical of her attempts of establishing a commercial appeal on her own . Wanting to stray from those , she was convinced by Davis to work with Dr. Luke and Martin in Stockholm , and with Moody and Hodges in Los Angeles , in pursuit of a pop rock direction . This also led her to part ways with her manager Simon Fuller and hire the management services of Jeff Kwatinetz before the album 's release . Breakaway is predominately a pop rock album with elements of rock and soul music , marking a departure from the R & B @-@ oriented sound of Thankful ; its lyrics explore themes of heartbreak , love , and escapism .
Breakaway received a positive response from music critics , with many commending the album 's new @-@ found pop rock sound and Clarkson 's vocal performances . " It received several awards and nominations , including winning two Grammy Awards and receiving a nomination for a Juno Award . The album became a commercial success worldwide . By selling over 15 million copies worldwide , it remains her most successful album to date . After debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 in the United States , it stayed on the top twenty of the chart for more than a year , eventually being certified 6 × multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of more than six million copies .
Breakaway 's singles " Breakaway " , " Since U Been Gone " , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , " Because of You " , and " Walk Away " became worldwide hits and have become some of Clarkson 's signature songs . Their successes prompted Billboard to credit her for landscaping the core sound of mainstream pop music as an uptempo dance @-@ oriented sound in the 2000s . Furthermore , Breakaway established Clarkson as one of the four highest @-@ selling acts of Sony BMG in the 2000s , and made Davis , Dr. Luke , and Martin prominent pop producers . Internationally , the album topped the music charts of Ireland and the Netherlands and became the world 's 7th biggest @-@ selling release of 2005 , eventually being certified platinum in over 17 countries . To support Breakaway , Clarkson embarked on three international concert tours from 2005 to 2006 : the Breakaway World Tour , Hazel Eyes Tour , and the Addicted Tour . Billboard placed the album 77th in the Greatest of All Time Billboard 200 Albums .
= = Background and production = =
In early 2004 , Clarkson began working on new material for her second studio album , which followed her successful debut album Thankful ( 2003 ) , while co @-@ headlining the Independent Tour with Clay Aiken , the runner @-@ up from the second season of American Idol . She had also expressed intentions to record with Fantasia Barrino , who had then just won the series ' third season ; both were expected to release their albums in the same month .
As she began to work for the album with music executive Clive Davis , Clarkson was invited by Whitney Houston to record the song " Breakaway " , which would be included for the soundtrack of the 2004 Walt Disney Pictures feature film The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement , which Houston had co @-@ produced . The song , written by Avril Lavigne , Matthew Gerrard , and Bridget Benenate , was initially written for Lavigne 's debut album Let Go ( 2002 ) but deemed unsuitable for the album 's themes at the time . Initially reluctant , Clarkson agreed to record the song . " Breakaway " was first released on July 2004 by Walt Disney Records as a single from the soundtrack , acting as an interim record until her second album 's lead single was released . After debuting on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 60 , it peaked at number six , a week before the album 's release .
In April 2004 , Clarkson entered the studio immediately after the Independent Tour . She said in an interview , " I 've written most of ( the songs ) so far , but there 's some people who have some stuff for me . I 'm not one of those people who thinks you have to write everything . ( I 'll sing it ) as long as I can relate to it . " During the album 's development , Davis revealed that he was reluctant to let Clarkson write material for the album . He revealed , " I always encourage people to write their own songs , but in the pop arena , where the career is totally dependent on hits , you get skeptical . Artists with great voices like Melissa Manchester and Taylor Dayne could have had much longer careers if they didn 't insist on writing their own material . " Clarkson reiterates that she 's been writing songs since her teens , but rather than argue over labels or abilities , the two reached a détente — she would co @-@ write half the album , with the other half being penned by other songwriters and producers . She said , " I just think it 's funny that all these middle @-@ age guys told me , ' You don 't know how a pop song needs to sound . ' I 'm a 23 @-@ year @-@ old girl ! But I was fighting those battles alone . " In February 2004 , Clarkson met with musicians Ben Moody and David Hodges , who had just departed from their band Evanescence in late 2003 . She said , " I didn 't know that he ( Moody ) wasn 't with Evanescence anymore , " Clarkson said . " I just really liked their vibe and I thought it might be cool to work with one of them . So I just randomly asked people I work with , ' Hey , do you think that he 'd work with me ? ' And then I found out that he kind of split and that 's what he 's doing ... so it worked out perfectly . " Moody recalled , " It 's cool because she wants to do some branching out , and I 'm doing nothing but branching out , We got together and she had all these songs in mind of what she wanted to do . It 's just a really , really cool process for me , because everybody is a new experience . Everybody works differently . "
Worried of Clarkson being continually typecast as a talent show winner , Davis met with various producers , primarily Max Martin , and encouraged them to produce records for Clarkson in a pop rock direction . Clarkson revealed that she expected that she 'll always be labeled as an American Idol winner , she remarked , " I 'm the first one , so it 's going to be on my grave , I 'm aware of that . ( There 's no getting away from it ) so why even try ? " Upon their meeting , Martin presented songs he wrote with Dr. Luke . These songs include " Since U Been Gone " and a demo version of what would have been " Behind These Hazel Eyes " . Davis wanted Clarkson to record the songs , describing them having " a sharp rock edge but were still capable of being pop hits . They would push Kelly in a promising direction for her , while maintaining and even growing her audience . " Martin insisted that the songs should given to rock acts , wanting to stray from his reputation for producing pop singles for the Backstreet Boys and , Britney Spears in the 1990s . Davis recalled , " Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys , and I really spent time convincing them that an American Idol winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song . " Martin and Dr. Luke eventually agreed and invited Clarkson to travel to Sweden to record the songs . Upon hearing the tracks , Clarkson was skeptical of the pop elements ; and the three eventually decided to develop a rock sound , a move Clarkson claimed Davis did not approve . Davis reiterated that he was ecstatic with the prospect , claiming that she disliked it and demanded that both the songs be removed from the album . Clarkson then asserted that she wanted it to be on the record and claimed that Davis had detested " Because of You " instead , saying that she " was a shitty writer ( sic ) who should be grateful for the gifts that he bestows upon . Davis reiterated the he loved the song and felt that Clarkson could indeed write hits .
= = Composition = =
= = = Style and inspirations = = =
Wanting to stray away from the R & B @-@ styled music of Thankful , which she described as a showcase of versatility , she revealed that Thankful 's success " empowered me to step more into rock , step more into the soulful vibe . " She described the music of the second album as " like the first CD in the sense that it 's versatile , but it 's more into the rock , It 's more into the soulful roots , and it 's just a little bit deeper , so it 's pretty cool . " Dr. Luke revealed in an interview that alternative music and indie music were inspirations to " Since U Been Gone " , saying , " That was a conscious move by Max and myself , because we were listening to alternative and indie music and talking about some song @-@ I don 't remember what it was . I said , ' Ah , I love this song , ' and Max was like , ' If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it ! ' It was driving him nuts , because that indie song was sort of on six , going to seven , going to eight , the chorus comes ... and it goes back down to five . It drove him crazy . And when he said that , it was like , light bulb . ' Why don 't we do that , but put a big chorus on it ? ' It worked . " Songs such as " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , and " Because of You " were also inspired by her real life experiences , the former about her relationship with an ex @-@ boyfriend and the latter about her experience after her parents ' divorce .
= = = Songs = = =
Clarkson shares writing credits on six songs from Breakaway . " Breakaway " was included as the album 's opening and title track . She described it as a simple song , and further explained , " I think that it 's simplicity is what 's beautiful about it . Whenever writers or producers come to work with me , they take advantage of the fact that I can really belt it out . What 's cool about ' Breakaway ' is that it doesn 't take advantage of that . The song just uses the simplicity of my voice . I 've done country music , I 've done pop , I 've done gospel ... all of my singles have sounded different . But this song was different from everything I 've done ; people didn 't even know it was me ! " Written by Martin and Dr. Luke , Clarkson described the second track " Since U Been Gone " , as " not as " smooth " as pop or R & B. Clarkson said of the track , the very last to be recorded for the album , " It 's very emotional . Vocally , it can be a lot more challenging , but is very fun to play live . " Written by Clarkson , Dr. Luke , and Martin , the third track " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , was the last song she had co @-@ written for the album . She recalled , " I wrote ' Behind The Hazel Eyes ' about my last boyfriend . It 's the last song I wrote for the album , I almost didn 't make the deadline . " The fourth track , " Because of You " , was originally intended for Thankful . Clarkson wrote a draft of the song after a late night talk with a friend who had hard time with her family , with Moody and Hodges providing additional writing . " Gone " , the fifth track , was written by Kara DioGuardi and John Shanks . Clarkson admits she cannot relate thoroughly on the song , but felt that it should be heard nonetheless . The sixth track , " Addicted , was written by Clarkson , Moody , and Hodges . Clarkson revealed that the song was inspired by the songs featured on Evanescence 's debut album Fallen ( 2003 ) . She remarked , " I wanted to work on them with someone as passionate about music as I am . And then I heard that Evanescence record ... I loved their record because of the passion behind it .
Clarkson co @-@ wrote the seventh track , " Where Is Your Heart " , with DioGuardi and Chantal Kreviazuk . She revealed that it was also about her boyfriend , Hodges , whom she described as " wanting to get really into our relationship , and I just thought , ' Where are you in our relationship ? ' " " Walk Away " , the eight track , was also written by the three , with additional writing by Raine Maida . Clarkson described it as " one of the brighter songs " on Breakaway , and said that " It 's very blunt and to the point . ' I 'm done with you , you 're upsetting me . ' " DioGuardi and Shanks co @-@ wrote the ninth track , " You Found Me " . Clarkson revealed , " When I recorded this one , I was actually in a good place with a guy . It was very fitting at the time that I recorded it . " DioGuardi had also co @-@ written the tenth track , " I Hate Myself for Losing You " , with Jimmy Harry and Shep Solomon . Clarkson described the song as " depressing " , but felt it could be used as a foreshadowing device . She explained " I read something that Sting said in an interview , he talked about how the great thing about writing is that it is an emotional and therapeutic thing and you can get it out . " The eleventh track , " Hear Me " , was written by Clarkson , DioGuardi , and Clif Magness . Clarkson explained the song , " It 's is almost like a prayer to God . I haven 't met the person whom I will spend the rest of my life with , but the song is a prayer to God about that . That 's what the song is . ' God , I 'm ready for ' the one ! ' " The twelfth and closing track is a live recording of " Beautiful Disaster " , originally from Thankful . Clarkson admitted that she hated Thankful 's version of the song , and thought the production was distracting from the lyrics . So she decided to record a piano ballad version instead .
= = Release = =
Breakaway was first released in the North America on November 30 , 2004 by RCA Records , 19 Recordings , and S Records , following an influx of releases by American Idol contestants Aiken , Ruben Studdard , and Barrino . The New York Times columnist Jeff Leeds noted that the release could benefit from a holiday season , but " it could also hinder their efforts to establish themselves as recording artists with distinctive personalities and the legitimacy needed for long careers . " Davis reiterated that the release was intended to recede from their ties from American Idol , saying , " I 'm not interested in merely souvenir sales " . The album was titled Breakaway to capitalize on the success of the The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement soundtrack single " Breakaway " , which was also reissued as the album 's final single . Immediately before the album was released , Clarkson left 19 Management , dismissed Fuller as her manager , and quickly hired the managing services of Jeff Kwatinetz of the The Firm , though still contracted to 19 Recordings . A promotion plan was created for Clarkson for Breakaway 's release . Davis positioned her to be RCA 's top global priority , and at the recommendation of The Firm , removed American Idol from her official biography . Rather than being booked on arenas for her tour , Kwatinetz booked Clarkson for smaller amphitheaters to hone her performance skills . He remarked , " American Idol gave her a lot of exposure that allowed her to skip some steps in her development , and that 's hazardous . " Breakaway was first released internationally on January 3 , 2005 by the Bertelsmann Music Group ( now Sony Music Entertainment ) , and was released in the United Kingdom on July 18 , 2005 by RCA . On November 2005 , a special edition CD + DVD was released , containing additional bonus tracks and music videos .
= = = Promotion = = =
Clarkson , along with Studdard and Barrino , hosted a television musical special on the Fox Broadcasting Company entitled Kelly , Ruben & Fantasia : Home for Christmas on November 25 , 2004 . On the eve of Breakaway 's release , she performed " Since U Been Gone " on the The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On February 2005 , she appeared on Saturday Night Live to perform " Since U Been Gone " and " Breakaway " . On September 2005 , she appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and performed " Breakaway " as well as " Because of You " . Clarkson also performed in award ceremonies and events , she performed " Since U Been Gone " on the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards at the AmericanAirlines Arena and on the 2006 BRIT Awards at the Earls Court . She performed " Because of You " on the 48th Annual Grammy Awards at the Staples Center and on the 15th Echo Awards at the Estrel Berlin .
= = = Singles = = =
Breakaway 's lead single , " Since U Been Gone " , was released on November 2004 , but gained traction at the beginning of 2005 . After debuting at number seventy , it peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at number two , and stayed in the chart 's top ten for 20 weeks . Despite a number two peak , " Since U Been Gone " remains as Clarkson 's most successful single on the Billboard Hot 100 , outpacing even her number one hits on the chart . It also topped nine other Billboard charts , including the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 and the Billboard Dance / Mix Show Airplay , and became a successful hit around the world . The second single , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , was released on April 2005 and continued the chart success . After debuting at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 , it peaked at number six while " Since U Been Gone " is still in the top ten . It stayed on the chart 's top ten for 15 weeks , and also became an international hit . The third single , " Because of You " , released on August 2005 , performed successfully along with its predecessors , peaking at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . While " Since U Been Gone " became Breakaway 's most successful release in the United States , " Because of You " became the album 's most successful release internationally . It topped the Dutch Top 40 chart in the Netherlands , Schweizer Hitparade chart in Switzerland , the Tracklisten Airplay chart in Denmark and became a number one single on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart ; while also attaining a top ten position in nine regions . The follow @-@ up track , " Walk Away " , was released on January 2006 as Breakaway 's fourth single and its final release in the United States . After debuting at number 97 , it peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and became a top forty hit internationally . Originally released as a single from The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement soundtrack in July 2004 , the title track " Breakaway " was reissued as the album 's fifth and final single in May 2006 . After peaking on the Billboard Hot 100 at number six , it became a top twenty hit internationally .
= = = Tours = = =
From 2005 to 2006 , Clarkson embarked on three concert tours to promote Breakaway : the Hazel Eyes Tour , the Breakaway World Tour , and the Addicted Tour . The Hazel Eyes tour took place in various theaters throughout North America , with the concert at UCF Arena being streamed live on AOL and AOL Radio . The Breakaway World Tour , which took place in between the Hazel Eyes Tour , marked as her first world tour , visiting theaters and arenas throughout in Europe and Oceania . Upon returning to the United States , she then embarked on the Addicted Tour , performing at various amphitheaters across North America .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received positive reviews from music critics . AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who gave it four out of five stars , wrote " what gives Breakaway its spine are the driving , anthemic pop tunes , numbers that sound simultaneously mainstream and youthful , which is a hard trick to pull off " and describing the tracks as the ones that illustrate Clarkson as a rare thing in the 2000s : a pop singer who 's neither hip nor square , just solidly and enjoyably in the mainstream . Sputnikmusic 's Dave Donnelly gave it a " 4 " rating , remarking that " Breakaway is not a Thriller to her Off The Wall by no means , but that she has at least created a rare type of album : a one that which offers a full selection of potential singles , reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's Bad or Thriller , which he described as having a mass appeal with artistic integrity and perceived longevity . Breakaway may be remembered in years to come as a pop classic , alongside Madonna 's early material perhaps . " Raymond Fiore of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B " rating , noting it 's rock direction and describing it as " Avril @-@ meets @-@ Evanescence , with a splash of Pat Benatar . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave Breakaway a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating , and commented that though her rocky leanings were hinted at on the less coherent Thankful , Clarkson had always cited Mariah Carey as a primary influence and that she still owes a lot to that former powerhouse artist . Furthering describing it as " what Mariah might sound like if she ever decided to rock out . " Charles Merwin wrote for Stylus Magazine that the album 's probable non @-@ singles still maintain a quality " high enough to quell worries about the " I love the singles , but that 's all I really need to hear " arguments . " He described Clarkson as ranking some where at the top of her class as far as rock albums go among the teen pop set , saying that she " has a long way to go before we 'll ever feel comfortable calling her anything besides an American Idol , but for now she has a sound that seems believable enough to support her considerable chops . " In a quick review , Billboard described Breakaway as a " rare exhibition of substance over style " .
Some critics , however , were less impressed by the album . Shirley Halperin of the Rolling Stone offered a mixed review . Giving the album a three @-@ star rating , saying Clarkson isn 't ready for her new sound . She asked , " You can 't help but wonder , Who is the real Kelly Clarkson , and when will she stop wearing her big sister 's hand @-@ me @-@ downs ? " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian gave it a two @-@ star rating , saying that the title track expresses Clarkson 's novel desire to " spread my wings and learn to fly " , but settles into a catchy enough rut that at times . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Breakaway is currently Clarkson 's most successful release to date , with sales of over 15 million copies worldwide . On the week ending December 18 , 2004 , the album debuted at number three on Billboard 200 chart in the United States with 250 @,@ 000 copies , which were 47 @,@ 000 less than her first week sales of Thankful . Music commercial analysts noted that Clarkson 's commercial appeal has endured beyond American Idol , but also commented on its slumping performance . Billboard director Geoff Mayfield noted the lackluster performance may have been caused by being released in a competitive holiday market . Despite failing to top the chart , the record stayed on the top twenty of the Billboard 200 for 61 consecutive weeks , and became the first title in five years to spend its entire year in the top twenty of the chart . By the end of 2005 , Breakaway became the year 's third best @-@ selling album in the United States , according to Nielsen Soundscan . It was certified 6 × multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 23 , 2007 , and as of 2014 , it has sold over 6 @,@ 307 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and becoming her best @-@ selling record in the region .
Breakaway has also enjoyed commercial success internationally ; it became her first album to chart in over nineteen regions . By the end of 2005 , the album became the world 's seventh best @-@ selling release of the year according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In the United Kingdom , it debuted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number ten with 17 @,@ 631 copies . At the beginning of 2006 , the album ascended to number three on the chart . As of 2012 , it has sold over 1 @,@ 571 @,@ 278 copies in the region . In Australia , Breakaway debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ nine , and also spent its entire year on the top fifty , peaking at number two . In Ireland , the album debuted on the IRMA Artist Albums chart at number twenty @-@ one , and topped the chart in 2006 . Together with the Australian Recording Industry Association , the Irish Recorded Music Association certified the record as 7 × multi @-@ platinum , its highest certification overall . In the Netherlands , the album debuted on the Mega Album Top 100 at number forty @-@ seven and topped the chart for three weeks . In other regions , Breakaway peaked in the top five in the national charts of Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Germany , Greece , New Zealand , Portugal , and Switzerland ; and has attained a top twenty position in six regions worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
It has received various accolades from several music industry awards . It won Grammy Awards for Best Pop Vocal Album and Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Since U Been Gone " at the 49th ceremony , marking the first time she won a Grammy Award . It was also nominated for a Juno Award for International Album of the Year at the 36th Juno Awards . In the 2005 American Music Awards , Breakaway received four nominations , including Favorite Pop / Rock Album , and earned Clarkson two awards for Artist of the Year and Favorite Adult Contemporary Artist . In addition , she won the award for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist at the 2006 American Music Awards . It also earned her twelve nominations at the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , nine of which she had won . At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , Breakaway won four awards , including a Choice Album award . At the TMF Awards , the album enabled Clarkson to win three awards , including a Best Pop Artist and a Best Female Artist award .
Breakaway also appeared on decade @-@ end best @-@ of lists . Newsweek ranked it as the ninth best album of the 2000s . Entertainment Weekly ranked it as the 29th of the 100 best albums from 1988 to 2008 . Rolling Stone ranked it as the 11th top album of the decade @-@ end reader 's poll .
= = Impact = =
Music commercial analysts reported that Clarkson has attained a commercial appeal on her own with Breakaway , despite their initial skepticism of her establishing prominence beyond American Idol . Davis recalled that " With the songs " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , we were able to take Clarkson to a major seller of albums all over the world where they had never even heard of American Idol . " According to Mediabase , which monitors radio station airplay in North America , Clarkson was the most played artist on the radio of 2006 . David Corey , program director of WXKS @-@ FM , described it as " very rare " . Just before the release of her third studio album , Davis also stated that she was one of the top four artists at Sony BMG " .
Billboard credits Clarkson for landscaping the core sound of mainstream pop music in the 2000s to a uptempo dance @-@ oriented sound with the release of " Since U Been Gone " and the singles that followed it . The album 's producers also came into prominence due to the album 's success . Dr. Luke , who was the house band lead guitarist for Saturday Night Live at the time of the Breakaway 's release , has credited " Since U Been Gone " as his first big break . Max Martin , who had already found major success as a music producer in the 1990s and early 2000s with , among others , Britney Spears , Backstreet Boys and NSYNC , achieved more prominence due to the success of " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " .
Breakaway 's critical acclaim also enabled Clarkson to also earn critical respect , particularly from the rock and indie music scene , who had looked down upon American Idol contestants . In his memoir , Davis recalled a meeting Fuller and BMG President Charles Goldstuck , where Fuller acknowledged how the worldwide success of Breakaway has validated American Idol itself . The popularity of " Since U Been Gone " among the rock community has also resulted to various cover versions by rock acts , such as A Day to Remember , Ted Leo , and Tokyo Police Club . She recalled , " It 's ridiculous how well that song was received by hard rockers , by indie people . I was walking around with a friend of mine and this hard @-@ rock guy came up to me and was like , ' I look stupid , but I tell my friends I love this song . ' People at concerts are like , ' That 's my guilty pleasure . I don 't mean to be mean , but I didn 't want to like the American Idol girl . ' But they love that song , and it kind of won them over . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes .
Recorded at
Performance credits
Instruments
Production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Mitochondrion =
The mitochondrion ( plural mitochondria ) is a double membrane @-@ bound organelle found in all eukaryotic organisms , although some cells in some organisms may lack them ( e.g. Red blood cells ) . A number of organisms have reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures . To date , only one eukaryote is known to have completely lost its mitochondria . The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος , mitos , i.e. " thread " , and χονδρίον — , chondrion , i.e. " granule " or " grain @-@ like " .
Mitochondria are commonly between 0 @.@ 75 and 3μm in diameter but vary considerably in size and structure . Unless specifically stained , they are not visible . Mitochondria have been described as " the powerhouse of the cell " because they generate most of the cell 's supply of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , used as a source of chemical energy . In addition to supplying cellular energy , mitochondria are involved in other tasks , such as signaling , cellular differentiation , and cell death , as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth . Mitochondrial biogenesis is in turn temporally coordinated with these cellular processes . Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases , including mitochondrial disorders , cardiac dysfunction , and heart failure . In 2014 , a study including ten children diagnosed with severe autism suggests that autism may be correlated with mitochondrial defects .
The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism , tissue , and cell type . For instance , red blood cells have no mitochondria , whereas liver cells can have more than 2000 . The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions . These compartments or regions include the outer membrane , the intermembrane space , the inner membrane , and the cristae and matrix . Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species . In humans , 615 distinct types of protein have been identified from cardiac mitochondria , whereas in rats , 940 proteins have been reported . The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated . Although most of a cell 's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus , the mitochondrion has its own independent genome that shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes .
= = History = =
The first observations of intracellular structures that probably represented mitochondria were published in the 1840s . Richard Altmann , in 1894 , established them as cell organelles and called them " bioblasts " . The term " mitochondria " was coined by Carl Benda in 1898 . Leonor Michaelis discovered that Janus green can be used as a supravital stain for mitochondria in 1900 .
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game visuals was less glowing . GamePro stated that the " character and vehicle models look great " , but the visuals were also described as " blah " and " substandard . " GameDaily said " the graphics look good but there 's a lack of polish . "
Though the single @-@ player campaign was criticized for being short , Renegade Squadron 's multiplayer was widely praised . GameSpot noted that the game included an infrastructure mode , a feature which Battlefront II did not have , and GameZone commented that the game ran smoothly in multiplayer even when handling the maximum number of players . GameSpy described the multiplayer as " fantastic , " and GamesRadar said that it promised hours of satisfaction . Many reviewers said that the multiplayer was the most important part of the game , with some of the less positive reviews advising players to play the game primarily for the multiplayer experience .
= Ewelina Hańska =
Eveline Hańska ( Ewelina , née Rzewuska , 6 January c . 1805 – 11 April 1882 ) was a Polish noblewoman best known for her marriage to French novelist Honoré de Balzac . Born at the Wierzchownia estate in Volhynia , ( now Ukraine ) Hańska married landowner Wacław Hański ( Wenceslas Hanski ) when she was a teenager . Hański , who was about 20 years her senior , suffered from depression . They had five children , but only a daughter , Anna , survived .
In the late 1820s , Hańska began reading Balzac 's novels , and in 1832 , she sent him an anonymous letter . This began a decades @-@ long correspondence in which Hańska and Balzac expressed a deep mutual affection . In 1832 , they met for the first time , in Switzerland . Soon afterward he began writing the novel Séraphîta , which includes a character based on Hańska .
After her husband died in 1841 , a series of complications obstructed Hańska 's marriage to Balzac . Chief of these was the estate and her daughter Anna 's inheritance , both of which might be threatened if she married him . Anna married a Polish count , easing some of the pressure . About the same time , Hańska gave Balzac the idea for his 1844 novel Modeste Mignon . In 1850 they married and moved to Paris , but he died five months later . Though she never remarried , she took several lovers , and died in 1882 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family and early life = = =
Hańska was the fourth of seven children born to Adam Wawrzyniec Rzewuski and his wife , Justyna Rzewuska ( née Rdułtowska ) . Their family was established as Polish nobility , known for wealth and military prowess . One ancestor had imprisoned his own mother in a tower to extract his part of an inheritance . Hańska 's great @-@ grandfather , Wacław Rzewuski , was a famous writer and Grand Crown Hetman . When the Russian Empire gained control of lands owned by the family through the Partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century , Rzewuski swore his allegiance to Catherine II . He was rewarded with a comfortable position in the ranks of the empire . Moving between assignments in Kiev , St. Petersburg , and elsewhere , he chose as his primary residence the village of Pohrebyszcze in the region of Volhynia .
She was born in the Pohrebyszcze castle , in the Kiev Governorate of Russian partition of Poland . Although scholars agree that Hańska was born on 6 January , the year is disputed . Her biographers and those of her Balzac offer conflicting evidence of her age , taken from correspondence , family records , and testimonies from descendants . Most estimates range between 1801 and 1806 . Balzac 's biographer Graham Robb writes : " Balzac chose 1806 as her date of birth and he was probably right . " Roger Pierrot 's 1999 biography of Hańska , however , contends that she was born in 1804 . Polish Biographical Dictionary gives 24 December 1805 ( Georgian ) which converts to 5 January 1805 ( Julian ) .
Like her brothers and sisters , Hańska was educated by her parents about family lineage and religion . Her mother was a devout Catholic , but her father also taught the children about Voltairian rationality . The family was secluded in Pohrebyszcze , with only occasional trips away . Once a year , the family visited Kiev for a market gathering , during which Rzewuski sold grain and her mother purchased clothing and supplies for the estate .
Ewelina had three bothers : Adam , Ernest and Henryk , and three sisters : Alina , Karolina ( better known as Karolina Sobańska ) and Paulina . Hańska was closest to her brother Henryk , who later became famous for his work in the genre of Polish folk literature known as gawęda . They shared a passion for philosophical discussions , especially related to love and religion . Hańska 's other brothers , Adam and Ernest , both pursued military careers . Hańska 's eldest sister , Karolina , was admired as a child for her beauty , intellect , and musical talent . She later married a man 34 years her senior , a landowner from Podolie named Hieronim Sobański . They separated after two years , and she began a series of passionate affairs with some of her many suitors . These included the Russian general Ivan Ossipovitch Witt , the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz , and the Russian writer Alexander Pushkin . The Tsar considered her behavior scandalous and declared her dangerously disloyal . As a result , Hańska and the other Rzewuski women were watched carefully by police when they visited the Russian capital of St Petersburg . Hańska 's younger sisters , Alina and Paulina , married early into comfortable upper @-@ class families . Alina married a wealthy landowner from Smilavichy , whose father had gained his fortune by managing property for the Ogiński family . Her nephew Stanisław Moniuszko became a renowned composer . Paulina married a banker from Odessa named Jan Riznič .
= = = Marriage to Hański = = =
In 1819 Eveline married Wacław Hański , a noble who lived nearby at Verhivnya ( Wierzchownia ) . Their marriage was a union of wealthy families , not of passion . His estate covered 21 @,@ 000 acres ( 85 km2 ) and employed over 3 @,@ 000 serfs , including 300 domestic servants . The manor had been designed by a French architect , and its owner filled it with luxuries from around the world : paintings from galleries in Milan and London , dinnerware from China , and a library of 25 @,@ 000 books in a variety of languages . Hański boasted that none of the furniture was Russian .
Hański was more than twenty years older than Ewelina , who was a teenager at the time of their wedding , and his personality clashed with her youthful vigor . He spent most of the day supervising the grounds , by some accounts with an iron fist . After dinner he was usually too fatigued to spend time with his wife , and retired early . He was generally dour , and lived with a depressed condition that Hańska referred to as " blue devils " . Although she was surrounded by opulence , Hańska found herself dissatisfied with her new life and with her husband 's emotional distance in particular . As one biographer put it : " He loved Eve but he was not deeply in love with her . "
In the first five years of their marriage , Hańska gave birth to five children , four of whom died as infants . The surviving daughter , Anna , was a welcome joy to Hańska , and she trusted her care to a young governess named Henriette Borel who had moved to Wierzchownia from the Swiss town of Neuchâtel .
The estate at Wierzchownia was isolated . Hańska was bored by visits to the court at St. Petersburg , and even more bored by noble guests in her own home . She found nothing in common with the ladies of high society , and longed for the stimulating discussions she had enjoyed with her brother Henryk . She spent her time reading the books her husband imported from faraway lands .
= = = Becoming " The Stranger " = = =
One of the writers who most enchanted Hańska was the French novelist Honoré de Balzac . After laboring in pseudonymous obscurity for ten years , Balzac published Les Chouans ( The Chouans ) in 1829 . A tale of star @-@ crossed love amidst a royalist uprising in Brittany , it was the first work to which he signed his own name . Hańska was intrigued by the glowing portrayal of the female protagonist , driven by true love to protect the object of her desire . She also enjoyed Balzac 's Physiologie du mariage ( The Physiology of Marriage ) , also published in 1829 , which heaps satirical scorn on husbands and celebrates the virtue of married women .
When she read his 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin ( The Magic Skin ) , however , Hańska was appalled by the coarse depiction of Foedora , the so @-@ called " femme sans cœur " ( " woman without a heart " ) . She felt that Balzac had lost the reverence shown in his earlier works , and worried that he had based Foedora on a real woman from his life . Motivated partly by concern , partly by boredom , and partly by a desire to influence the life of a great writer ( as her sister Karolina had done ) , she wrote to Balzac .
On 28 February 1832 Hańska posted a letter from Odessa with no return address . In it , she praised Balzac for his work , but scolded him for the negative portrayal of women in La Peau de chagrin . She urged a return to the glowing representations in his earlier novels , and signed enigmatically : " L 'Étrangère " ( " The Stranger " or " The Foreigner " ) . Balzac was intrigued by the letter ; he took out a personal advertisement in the Gazette de France indicating his receipt of an anonymous letter and expressing regret for being unable to reply . She probably never saw this notice .
Hańska wrote to Balzac several times during 1832 . On 7 November she posted a seven @-@ page letter filled with praise and flattery :
Your soul embraces centuries , Monsieur ; its philosophical concepts appear to be the fruit of long study matured by time ; yet I am told that you are still young . I would like to know you , but feel that I have no need to do so . I know you through my own spiritual instinct ; I picture you in my own way and feel that were I to set eyes upon you I should exclaim , ' That is he ! ' Your outward semblance probably does not reveal your brilliant imagination ; you have to be moved , the sacred fire of genius has to be lit , if you are to show yourself as you really are , and you are what I feel you to be — a man superior in his knowledge of the human heart .
She insisted , however , that they could never meet , and indeed that he should never know her name : ( " For you I am The Stranger , and shall remain so all my life . " ) Still , she wished for him to write back , so she advised him to place a notice in La Quotidienne to " L 'É " from " H.B. " . He purchased a notice similar to the earlier one in the Gazette , and signed it according to her instructions .
In her next letter Hańska made arrangements for a trusted courier to collect letters from Balzac , and thereby allow for a direct correspondence . Before long she sent him the news that she and her husband would be traveling Europe , and visiting Vienna , Hanski 's childhood home . They would also travel to the Swiss village of Neuchâtel , to visit the family of her daughter 's governess . Contradicting her vow of eternal anonymity , she suggested a meeting . Balzac agreed immediately , and began to make preparations for the journey . Also , sometime in 1833 , Balzac wrote his first confession of love to her , despite being at that time in another relationship .
= = = Meeting Balzac = = =
In September 1833 , after traveling to the French village of Besançon to find cheap paper for a publishing enterprise , Balzac crossed into Switzerland and registered at the Hôtel du Faucon under the name Marquis d 'Entragues . He sent word to Hańska that he would visit the garden of the Maison Andrié , where she and her family were staying . He looked up and saw her face at the window , then – as he described it later – he " lost all bodily sensation " . They met later that day ( September 25 ) at a spot overlooking Lake Neuchâtel ; according to legend , he noticed a woman reading one of his books . He was overwhelmed with her beauty , and she wrote soon afterwards to her brother , describing Balzac as " cheerful and lovable just like you " .
Hańska and Balzac met several times over the next five days , and her husband became enchanted with Balzac as well , inviting him to meals with the family . During a trip to Lake Biel , Hański went to arrange lunch , leaving his wife and Balzac alone . In the shade of a large oak tree , they kissed and exchanged vows of patience and fidelity . She told him of the family 's plan to visit Geneva for Christmas ; Balzac agreed to visit before the end of the year . Before he left Nauchâtel , she sent a passionate letter to his hotel : " Villain ! Did you not see in my eyes all that I longed for ? But have no fear , I felt all the desire that a woman in love seeks to provoke " .
Arriving in Geneva on December 26 , the Christmas Eve , Balzac stayed at the Auberge de l 'Arc , near the Maison Mirabaud where the Hański family had settled for the season . She left a ring for him at the hotel , with a note asking for a new promise of love . He gave it , and described how he began wearing the ring on his left hand , " with which I hold my paper , so that the thought of you clasps me tight . " At this time he began working on a philosophical novel , Séraphîta , about a hermaphroditic angel united by the love of a mortal man for a compassionate and sensual woman . Balzac explained that she was his model for the latter . It was clear to all that Hański was in ill health , and Hańska began to think about her future with the French author . In the meantime , she asked Balzac to begin collecting for her autographs of the famous people he spent time with in Paris and elsewhere .
After leaving Geneva on 8 February , the Hański family spent several months visiting the major cities of Italy . In Florence the sculptor Lorenzo Bartolini started work on a bust of Hańska . In the summer of 1834 they returned to Vienna , where they would stay for another year . During this time Balzac continued writing to Hańska , and by accident two especially amorous letters fell into the hands of her husband . He wrote to the French author , furious , and demanded an explanation . Balzac wrote to Hański claiming that it was nothing more than a game : " One evening , in jest , she said to me that she would like to know what a love @-@ letter was . This was said wholly without meaning .... I wrote those two unfortunate letters to Vienna , supposing that she remembered our joke .... " Hański apparently accepted the explanation , and invited Balzac to visit them in Vienna , which he did in May 1835 .
Balzac 's biographers agree that , despite his vows of loyalty to Hańska , he conducted affairs with several women during the 1830s , and may have fathered children with two of them . One was an Englishwoman named Sarah who had married the Count Emilio Guidoboni @-@ Visconti . Hańska wrote to Balzac about these rumors in 1836 , and he flatly denied them . Her suspicion was raised again , however , when he later dedicated his novel Béatrix to " Sarah " . Balzac also corresponded with Hański ; while most of their family disapproved of Balzac , Hański respected him , and the two exchanged letters on literature and agronomy . Meanwhile , Hańska was experiencing a renewal of religious interest , partly because her daughter 's governess , Henriette Borel , left to join a nunnery in Paris . Hańska taught her daughter Anna from the works of Christian scholars including Jean Baptiste Massillon and St. François de Sales . Her religious interest was more towards mysticism than mainstream religions ; she corresponded with Baroness Barbara von Krüdener , and read on Rosicrucianism , Martinism and Swedenborgianism . Balzac treated this attack of devotion with the sharpest disapproval . When Balzac sent her works in progress , her only replies were moral queries , rather than the stylistic criticism for which he hoped .
= = = Hański 's death = = =
Hański died in November 1841 . She sent Balzac a letter , sealed in black , with the news . He instantly wrote back : " je n 'en aurais peut @-@ être pas voulu recevoir d 'autre de vous , malgré ce que vous me dites de triste sur vous et votre santé " ( " I could not perhaps wish to have received any other [ news ] from you , in spite of the sad things you tell me about yourself and your health " ) . He made plans to visit Dresden in May , and obtain a visa to visit her in Russia .
The future , however , was not as simple as Balzac wanted to believe . Hańska 's family did not approve of the French author ; her Aunt Rozalia was especially disdainful . To make matters worse , her late husband 's uncle protested the Hański 's will in which she had inherited Hański 's estate . Horrified that her daughter would be robbed of everything , Hańska insisted that she must end her relationship with Balzac . " You are free " , she wrote to him . As she made plans to protest the uncle 's interference in St. Petersburg , Balzac wrote back to offer his help . He suggested that he could become a Russian citizen and " go to the Czar myself and ask him to sanction our marriage " . She asked for his patience , which he offered anew .
Soon after she arrived in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg , in order to resolve some of the litigation issues surrounding her inheritance , she took Anna to a recital by the Hungarian composer and pianist Franz Liszt . Although she did not succumb to Lisztomania , she was impressed by his musical talent and his good looks . " He is an extraordinary mixture " , she wrote in her diary , " and I enjoy studying him . " They saw one another on several occasions , but she ultimately rejected his advances . One biographer says that their last meeting " gives striking evidence of her loyalty to Balzac " .
In late July 1843 Balzac visited her in St. Petersburg , the first time they had seen one another in eight years . He was struck by Hańska 's resilient beauty , but his condition had deteriorated over the years . Biographers agree that she was much less physically attracted to him at this time . Still they renewed their vows of love and planned to marry as soon as she won her lawsuit . In early October he returned to Paris . Soon afterwards , she wrote a story based on her own experience writing to Balzac for the first time . Unhappy with it , she threw it into the fire , but the French author begged her to rewrite it so he could adapt it . He assured her that she would " know something of the joys of authorship when you see how much of your elegant and delightful writing I have preserved " . Her story became Modeste Mignon , Balzac 's 1844 novel about a young woman who writes to her favorite poet .
Also in 1844 Hańska won her lawsuit . The wealth of her late husband 's estate would go to Anna , who had become engaged to a Polish Count , Jerzy Mniszech . They planned to marry in 1846 , after which time Hańska would bestow the inheritance . Thus Hańska 's marriage to Balzac would have to wait . In the meantime , two urgent problems began to complicate their plans . One was his health , which had been deteriorating for years . In October 1843 he wrote to her about " horrible suffering which has its seat nowhere ; which cannot be described ; which attacks both heart and brain " . Balzac 's other problem was financial : despite his illness , he could not afford to relax his work schedule , since he owed more than 200 @,@ 000 francs to various creditors .
= = = Second marriage and widowhood = = =
Hańska and Balzac were determined , however , and in 1845 she visited him in Paris with Anna and Jerzy . In April of the following year they visited Italy ; Balzac joined them for a tour of Rome , and they proceeded to Geneva . Soon after he returned to Paris , she wrote with the news that she was pregnant . Balzac was overjoyed , certain that they would have a boy , and insisting on the name Victor @-@ Honoré . The thought of having a son , he wrote , " stirs my heart and makes me write page upon page " . To avoid scandal , he would have to marry Hańska in secret , to hide the fact that their child was conceived out of wedlock . In the meantime , Anna married Jerzy Mniszech on 13 October in Wiesbaden . Balzac served as a witness and wrote an announcement for the Paris newspapers , which offended Hańska 's sister Alina .
Hańska , living for a time in Dresden , was not soothed , either , by Balzac 's disregard for financial stability . For years he had planned to buy a house for them to share , but in August 1846 she sent him a stern admonition . Until his debts were paid , she wrote , " we must postpone buying any property " . One month later he purchased a house on the Rue Fortunée for 50 @,@ 000 francs . Having collected finery from his many travels , he searched across Europe for items to properly complete the furnishings : carpets from Smyrna , embroidered pillowcases from Germany , and a handle for the lavatory chain crafted from Bohemian glass .
In November , Hańska suffered a miscarriage ; she wrote to Balzac with the tragic news . He wanted to visit her , but Anna wrote asking him to remain in Paris . The emotion involved , she wrote , " would be fatal " . Hańska made plans to return to Wierzchownia , but Balzac begged her to visit him , which she did in the spring of 1847 . As soon as she was back in Ukraine , however , a new wrinkle unfolded . Hańska had long been unhappy with the presence of Balzac 's housekeeper , Louise Breugniot , and he promised to break with her before marrying . He wrote with alarm to Hańska explaining that Breugninot had stolen her letters to him and blackmailed the author for 30 @,@ 000 francs . Biographers disagree about truth of this story ; Robb suggests it was " a convincing hysterical performance put on for the benefit of his jealous fiancée " .
Still , Balzac believed that keeping her letters was dangerous and , in a moment of characteristic impulse , threw them into the fire . He described it to her as " the saddest and most frightful day of my life ... I am looking at the ashes as I write to you , and I tremble seeing how little space fifteen years takes up . " On 5 September 1847 he left Paris to join her for the first time in Wierzchownia . They spent several happy months together , but financial obligations required his presence in France . The Revolution of 1848 began one week after his return . Back in Wierzchownia , Hańska lost 80 @,@ 000 francs due to a granary fire , and her time was consumed with three lawsuits . These complications , and Balzac 's constant debt , meant that their finances were unstable , and she hesitated anew at the idea of marriage . In any case , a wedding would be impossible without approval from the Tsar , which he did not grant until spring of 1850 . On 2 July 1849 Russian authorities responding to Balzac request of December 1847 to marry widow Hańska stated that he can do so but she cannot keep her lands .
Balzac returned to Wierzchownia in October , and immediately fell ill , with heart issues . His condition deteriorated throughout 1849 , and doubts persisted in her mind about their union . Biographers generally agree that Hańska was convinced by Balzac 's frail state and endless devotion . One wrote : " It was charity , as much as love or fame , which finally turned the scale . " Robb indicates that the wedding was " surely an act of compassion on her part " . To avoid rumors and suspicion from the Tsar , Hańska transferred ownership of the estate to her daughter . On 14 March 1850 they traveled to Berdychiv and , accompanied by Anna and Jerzy , were married in a small ceremony at the parish church of St. Barbara .
Both Hańska and Balzac took ill after the wedding ; she suffered from a severe attack of gout , for which her doctor prescribed an unusual treatment : " Every other day she has to thrust her feet into the body of a sucking @-@ pig which has only just been slit open , because it is necessary that the entrails should be quivering . " She recovered , but he did not . They returned to Paris in late May , and his health improved slightly at the start of summer . By July , however , he was confined to his bed . Hańska nursed him constantly , as a stream of visitors – including the writers Victor Hugo and Henri Murger – came to pay their respects . When Balzac 's vision started to give out , she began to act as his secretary , helping him with his writing .
In mid @-@ August Balzac succumbed to gangrene and began having fits of delirium . At one point he called out for Horace Bianchon , the fictional doctor he had included in many novels . But he also expressed great worry for Hańska , once telling Hugo : " My wife is more intelligent than I , but who will support her in her solitude ? I have accustomed her to so much love . " He died on 18 August 1850 .
As most of Balzac 's biographers point out , Hańska was not in the room when he died . Robb says she " must have retired for a moment " , while André Maurois notes that she had been by his side for weeks with no way of knowing how long it would continue , and " there was nothing to be done " . Vincent Cronin attributes her absence to the nature of their relationship : " From the first day by the lakeside at Neuchâtel theirs had been a Romantic love and Eve wanted to guard it to the end against that terrible taint of corruption . "
= = = Later years and death = = =
Hańska lived with Balzac 's mother for a time after his death , in the house he had spent so much time and expense furnishing . The elder Mme. Balzac moved in with a friend after several months , and Hańska approached the remains of her late husband 's writing . Several works had been left incomplete , and publishers inquired about releasing a final edition of his grand collection La Comédie humaine . Hańska sponsored new editions of his works and was involved in editing some of them , even adding occasional content . Balzac 's debt , meanwhile , still exceeded 200 @,@ 000 francs , which Hańska paid while also providing for his mother 's living expenses . One of her letters at the time gives voice to her frustrations : " In nursing my husband 's incurable malady I ruined my health , just as I have ruined my private fortune in accepting the inheritance of debts and embarrassments which he left me . " Anna and Jerzy moved into a nearby house in Paris .
Despite her obligations , Hańska was a beautiful unmarried woman of means living in Paris . The writer Jules Amédée Barbey d 'Aurevilly described her this way : " Her beauty was imposing and noble , somewhat massive , a little fleshy , but even in stoutness she retained a very lively charm which was spiced with a delightful foreign accent and a striking hint of sensuality . " As she began sorting through Balzac 's papers , she called on his friend , Champfleury , for assistance . As they worked one evening , he complained of a headache . " I 'll make it go away , " she said , and began massaging his forehead . As he wrote later : " There are certain magnetic effluvia , in such situations , of which the effect is that the matter does not stop there . " Her affair with the man twenty years her junior was brief , but it provided a tremendous release to Hańska , who had spent decades with older men in various states of ill health . She began partaking of the social life around her . " The night before last I laughed as I have never done before , " she wrote in 1851 . " Oh , how wonderful it is not to know anyone or have to worry about anyone , to have one 's independence , liberty on the mountain @-@ tops , and to be in Paris ! "
Champfleury was intimidated by her vitality and jealousy , and removed himself from her life . On his recommendation , she turned creative control of Balzac 's unfinished novels Le Député d 'Arcis and Les Petits Bourgeois to another writer , Charles Rabou . Rabou added extensively to them and published both books in 1854 . To soothe the publisher , Hańska falsely claimed that Balzac had chosen Rabou as his literary successor .
Hańska met the painter Jean Gigoux when she hired him in 1851 to paint Anna 's portrait . They began a relationship that lasted many years , but never married . Over the next thirty years , Hańska and particularly her spend @-@ thrift daughter spent the remainder of their fortune on fine clothing and jewelry . Jerzy , meanwhile , succumbed to mental disorders and died in 1881 , leaving behind a trail of debts . Hańska was forced to sell the house , but was allowed to continue living there . She died on 11 April 1882 and was buried in Balzac 's grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery .
= = Influence on Balzac 's works = =
Eveline was an inspiration for many of Balzac 's characters . She can be seen as the model for La Fosseue , Mme Claes , Modesta Mignon , Ursule Mirouet , Adelina Houlot , and especially Eugenie Grandet and Mme de Mortsauf . There is less agreement among scholars on whether she was also the inspiration for more negative characters such as Fedora and lady Dudley , as Balzac seems to have used her mostly as a model for more positive personas . His works also mention numerous characters named Eve or Eveline , and have several dedications to her .
In addition to Eveline , her daughter Anna , sister Alina , aunt Rozalia , first love ( Tadeusz Wyleżyński ) , and several other figures that she introduced Balzac to or told him about , were also incorporated into his works . After they met , Poland , Polish topics , Polish names , and Polish ( Slavic ) mysticism began to appear much more frequently in his works , as exemplified by such characters as Hoene Wroński , Grabianka and General Chodkiewicz .
= = Defenders and detractors = =
Hańska became a controversial figure among the biographers and researchers of Balzac . As Zygmunt Czerny notes , the " mysterious Pole " was criticized by some ( Henry Bordeaux , Octave Mirbeau ( La Mort de Balzac ) , Adolf Nowaczyński , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Charles Léger and Pierre Descaves ) , and praised by others ( Philippe Bertault , Marcel Bouteron , Barbey d 'Aurevilly , Sophie de Korwin @-@ Piotrowska , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Grabowski , Juanita Helm Floyd and André Billy ) . Czerny notes that one of the " greatest experts on Balzac " , Spoelberch de Lovenjoul , referred to her as " one of the best women of the epoch " , and that while there are those who deride her influence on Balzac , and question her feelings and motivations , few deny she had a crucial impact on him , and , for most , the " Great Balzac " emerged only after meeting her in early 1830s . Czerny concludes by saying : " However one could analyze her and their relationship , the impact of her love on Balzac was persistent , all @-@ enveloping and decisive " .
= William M. Callaghan =
William McCombe Callaghan ( August 8 , 1897 – July 8 , 1991 ) was a United States Navy officer who served as the first captain of the battleship USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) and the inaugural commander of the Military Sea Transportation Service . Through the course of almost 40 years , he served his country in three wars . His naval career began on a destroyer in the final months of World War I. Following command of the destroyer USS Reuben James ( DD @-@ 245 ) and logistical work prior to World War II , he took command of the Missouri in 1944 .
Callaghan is perhaps best known for ordering , despite disagreement from some of his crew , that an honorable funeral be held for an enemy pilot who died during a suicide attack on the Missouri in 1945 . Following World War II , he directed the US Navy 's transportation service and filled senior command roles in eastern Asia , including leadership of the US Pacific Fleet 's Amphibious Force during the Korean War . He retired from the US Navy at the rank of Vice Admiral in 1957 and worked in civilian maritime transport before retiring to Maryland .
= = Early life = =
Callaghan was born on August 8 , 1897 , the son of businessman Charles William Callaghan and Rose Wheeler Callaghan . The family was devout Roman Catholic . His elder brother , Daniel Callaghan ( 1890 – 1942 ) , would later become a US Navy Rear Admiral and posthumous Medal of Honor recipient . Both brothers studied at Saint Ignatius College Preparatory in San Francisco , the elder graduating in the class of 1911 . He subsequently attended the United States Naval Academy , graduating in 1918 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Early service = = =
Callaghan served on a destroyer during the last six months of World War I. He received a Master of Science degree in electrical engineering from Columbia University in 1925 , and would become a Knight of Malta . In the mid @-@ 1920s , he served as assistant engineering officer on board the light cruiser USS Concord , which was then performing scouting duties . From 1932 to 1933 , he was a Lieutenant aboard the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga .
= = = Ship commands = = =
At the rank of Commander , Callaghan captained the destroyer USS Reuben James from June 1936 to March 1938 , and subsequently joined the staff of the Chief of Naval Operations in 1939 . Before the US entered World War II , he was stationed in London in a logistical role . During the first part of World War II , he served as a logistics officer on the staff of the Commander in Chief , US Pacific Fleet , Admiral Chester Nimitz . He received
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40 ° C on 4 days of the year . Conversely , nighttime temperatures in winter are expected to drop below 0 ° C on 1 day , although generally the season is mild with moderate rainfall .
= Mercury Hayes =
Mercury Wayne Hayes ( born January 1 , 1973 ) is a former professional American football and Canadian football wide receiver , kickoff returner , and punt returner . He has played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the New Orleans Saints and Atlanta Falcons , and he has played in the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for the Montreal Alouettes . Prior to his professional football experience he was a University of Michigan Wolverines football star . He was drafted with the 136th overall pick in the 5th round of the 1996 National Football League draft .
Although he had a modest professional career , he was involved in many of the University of Michigan 's most memorable football moments . He is notable for his game @-@ winning catch in the 1995 Pigskin Classic against the University of Virginia . Hayes also once held the Michigan record for consecutive games with a reception ( 30 ) . Hayes was a member of the 1992 Big Ten Champions who won the 1993 Rose Bowl . He had attended Booker T. Washington High School in Houston , Texas .
= = College career = =
After attending Booker T. Washington High School in Houston , Hayes , son of Richard Hayes , was recruited by several college football programs . He selected the University of Michigan over several elite football programs , including the Colorado Buffaloes , Florida State Seminoles , Arkansas Razorbacks , and USC Trojans . During Hayes ' Michigan Wolverines career , the team 's best finish was as 1992 Big Ten Conference Champions , when coached by Gary Moeller . During that year , the team finished ranked fifth nationally in both the Associated Press college football final poll and the CNN / USA Today college football final poll , and the team beat the Washington Huskies 38 – 31 in the January 1 , 1993 Rose Bowl in a game that is memorable for Tyrone Wheatley 's MVP performance . Hayes had a 10 @-@ yard reception during the game .
Hayes ' 179 @-@ yard performance against the Virginia Cavaliers was the 1995 single @-@ game high by any of the Wolverines wide receivers , tight ends and running backs , which included Amani Toomer , Jay Riemersma , Chris Howard , Jerame Tuman , Tshimanga Biakabutuka , Tai Streets and Chris Floyd . The effort tied Jack Clancy 's 1966 single @-@ game total and Amani Toomer 's 1994 single @-@ game total for fourth on the Michigan all @-@ time single game reception yards list . It is worth noting that Clancy is the Michigan all @-@ time single @-@ game yardage recordholder at 197 yards . Braylon Edwards and Tai Streets have since surpassed 179 yards , in 2004 and 1998 respectively , to move the trio down to sixth . Hayes ' 48 receptions and 923 yards also led all Wolverines in receiving for the 1995 season . At the end of his Michigan career , Hayes ' 923 yards ranked sixth on the single @-@ season yardage list , but it is now fifteenth . His 2144 career yards ranked fifth and now ranks eleventh . The quarterbacks during his 1995 season were Brian Griese and Scott Dreisbach . Other quarterbacks during his collegiate career were Todd Collins and Elvis Grbac .
In 1995 , Hayes established the Michigan football record for most consecutive games with a reception by stringing together thirty such games . His record was broken by Marquise Walker 's 32 games in 2001 and later surpassed by Braylon Edwards 's 38 games and Jason Avant 's 35 games . Hayes ranks tenth in career yards per reception at 17 @.@ 3 and eleventh in career all @-@ purpose yards . He is listed prominently among Michigan 's all @-@ time leaders in kickoff returns and yards as well as total returns ( kickoff , punt , fumble and interception ) and return yards .
Amani Toomer and Hayes were the fourth pair of Michigan receivers to have played together with 2000 career reception yards . With 2 @,@ 144 career yards and 124 receptions he ranks 10th and 12th on the All @-@ time Michigan lists 2 yards behind Desmond Howard and 1 reception behind Derrick Alexander respectively .
= = Notable games = =
Hayes , who wore # 9 for the Michigan Wolverines from 1992 to 1995 , was recruited by University of Colorado , Florida State University , University of Arkansas , and University of Southern California . The University of Colorado was so interested in having him in the 1992 incoming class with Koy Detmer and Rashaan Salaam that they reserved their 25th scholarship for him , hoping he would change his mind after having committed to Michigan .
In the September 24 , 1994 Miracle at Michigan , # 7 @-@ ranked Colorado , with former Michigan coaching staff member Bill McCartney as their coach , exacted their revenge on # 4 @-@ ranked Michigan . Kordell Stewart completed a 64 @-@ yard hail mary pass to Detroit native Michael Westbrook against Ty Law and Chuck Winters as time expired to complete a miracle 27 – 26 comeback . In the game , Hayes had 3 receptions for 62 yards as well as a run for 14 yards . He also returned 3 kickoffs for 54 yards . The ending of this game has been described as one of the two wildest finishes in University of Michigan Football history .
Hayes is notable for his 7 @-@ reception 179 @-@ yard performance culminating in a game @-@ winning , fourth down , time expired 15 @-@ yard touchdown catch on August 26 , 1995 from Scott Dreisbach to seal an 18 – 17 win in Michigan 's greatest comeback , a record that stood for eight years until 2003 , when the Wolverines pulled off a 21 @-@ point comeback against Minnesota . The reception was recorded against University of Virginia Cavaliers defensive backs Ronde Barber and Paul London in the Pigskin Classic to complete what was at the time the largest comeback in Michigan Football history in Lloyd Carr 's coaching debut . The game constituted the other of the two wildest finishes in Michigan Football history .
Hayes is notable as one of the victims of Beaver Stadium attendees ' ice and snowball hurling on November 18 , 1995 . In the game , Hayes caught 6 receptions for 132 yards and had 3 kickoff returns for 48 yards . The game ended as a 27 – 17 loss to the Penn State Nittany Lions .
Hayes also had season highs in reception yards as a freshman and sophomore against his hometown Houston Cougars football team . As a sophomore , he totalled 127 yards on six receptions ; three punt returns for 38 yards ; and two kickoff returns for 54 yards in a 42 – 21 win on September 25 , 1993 . The game included Hayes ' longest punt return as a Wolverine ( 26 yards ) and represented Hayes career high in all @-@ purpose yards . The game was also Hayes ' third highest receiving yards total and the highest total he would have until his senior season . The freshman game , Michigan 's third of the season , marked Hayes ' debut as a kickoff returner .
= = Professional career = =
The 1996 NFL draft was a quality draft for wide receivers . Among the wide receivers drafted that year were first rounders Keyshawn Johnson , Terry Glenn , Eddie Kennison , Marvin Harrison and Eric Moulds . Additionally , Bobby Engram , Terrell Owens , Muhsin Muhammad , Joe Horn and former Michigan teammate Amani Toomer were also drafted that year . Hayes was the first of three 1996 fifth round picks by the Saints . He was drafted just after Pro Bowl wide receiver Joe Horn , the 135th pick . Mercury Hayes ' NFL career longest reception of 50 yards , caught in week 14 of the 1996 National Football League season in a 26 – 10 loss to the St. Louis Rams , was the first NFL pass by Doug Nussmeier ( Nussmeier 's second pass was his only touchdown completion ) . Although Hayes only compiled 4 receptions for 101 yards ; 2 rushes for 7 yards and 2 kickoff returns for 30 yards while appearing in 7 games , he earned nearly $ 39 @,@ 000 in bonus money over the course of his rookie season . Hayes started the 1997 National Football League season on the New Orleans Saints ' roster and appeared in 4 games .
Hayes signed with the Atlanta Falcons on October 27 , 1997 and appeared in two games for the Falcons . He was released by the Falcons in the pre @-@ season of the following year . Hayes was picked up on September 18 , 1998 by the Washington Redskins and added to their practice squad , but was released 19 days later . In February 1999 , he was drafted by the Barcelona Dragons , but he was released from the team five weeks later .
Mercury Hayes was signed by the Montreal Alouettes in June 1999 . They released him in July and re @-@ signed him in August . His 2000 season began productively with an impressive pre @-@ season effort ( including 67 and 77 @-@ yard touchdown runs in the same quarter of one game ) followed by effective 65 @-@ yard and 68 @-@ yard regular season reception totals in early August . However , by the end of August , Hayes was on the sidelines nursing an injury . He failed to accumulate 259 yards receiving on the season , which would have placed him among the top 15 Canadian Football League receivers in yardage for the 2000 Canadian Football League season . In September , he was released from the team . In 2002 , he attempted comeback with the Norfolk Nighthawks of the af2 , and this was his last attempt at professional football .
= Bømlafjord Tunnel =
The Bømlafjord Tunnel ( Norwegian : Bømlafjordtunnelen ) is a subsea road tunnel under Bømlafjorden which connects the island of Føyno in Stord to the mainland at Dalshovda in Sveio , Norway . The tunnel is 7 @.@ 82 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 86 mi ) long and reaches 260 @.@ 4 m ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . It carries three lanes of European Road E39 and is part of the Triangle Link , a fixed link which connects Sunnhordland to Haugaland . Plans for the tunnel arose in the 1980s ; construction started in 1997 and the tunnel opened on 27 December 2000 . The tunnel was built using the drilling and blasting method , with two teams building from each end . The tunnel runs through an area composed mostly of gneiss , phyllite and greenstone . The tunnel is the longest subsea tunnel in Norway and was the second @-@ deepest in the world until 2008 . It is still ( 2013 ) the deepest point on the E @-@ road network . The tunnel was a toll road from the opening until 30 . April 2013 . In 2012 the tunnel had an average 4 @,@ 084 vehicles per day .
= = Planning = =
The background for the Triangle Link was the desire to have a fixed link between the islands of Stord and Bømlo . The first documented proposals were made in the 1960s and involved building a pontoon bridge across Stokksundet . Following the 1982 opening of the Vardø Tunnel — the first subsea tunnel in Norway — Engineer Finn Nitter d.e. proposed a fixed link between the two islands . It would have crossed Digernessundet on a suspension bridge and continued along a causeway and low bridge onwards to a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) subsea tunnel under Spissøysundet and a low bridge over Gassasundet . In addition , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long tunnel would have been built from Føyno to Ulveråker in Sveio . The company Johannes Sørlie launched an all @-@ tunnel proposal in 1985 , estimated to cost 700 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and which would have resulted in 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of subsea tunnel connecting Bømlo , Stord and the mainland . An inter @-@ municipal committee was positive to the proposals , while Josef Martinsen , director of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , stated that the project was unrealistic . The limited company Ytre Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap AS ( SBT ) was founded in October 1986 by the municipal authorities of Bømlo , Stord , Fitjar and Sveio , Hordaland County Municipality and five banks .
In December 1986 , the Public Roads Administration recommended a bridge . A report published by SBT in 1987 considered detailed plans for a subsea tunnel to the mainland , which was followed up by seismic surveys in the fjord . SBT changed its name to Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap , and a majority of the board shifted towards being in favor of a fixed link . The Norwegian Coastal Administration stated that they would not allow a pontoon bridge , as it would interfere with ship traffic . On 26 June 1987 , SBT 's board decided to work towards getting permission to collect advanced tolls on the ferry services . On 16 September , they unanimously supported the triangular proposal , which was estimated to cost NOK 660 million . This was criticized by Hordaland Public Roads Administration , who stated that it would take longer time to plan , and thus complete , the Triangle Link .
From 1988 , environmental groups started opposing the Triangle Link . The most active was the local chapter of the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature , who stated that the road would have a negative impact for local boat traffic to the recreational islands of Føyno and Nautøy . They therefore recommended that the municipalities select a pontoon bridge . Another opponent to the project was the Action Committee Against a Hasty Construction of the Triangle Link , who wanted to delay the decision until after the 1991 municipal elections to ensure that the municipal councils had backing in the public . Also Gisle Tjong , a local citizen , opposed the project , stating that the risk was too large and that it was uncertain how long the tolls would last . He argued that the tolls could just as well last 60 as 15 years . Instead , he wanted to use advanced tolls and fuel fees , place the income in the bank and then pay the whole fixed link with the saved @-@ up funds . Most of the opposition against the project was from Stord , while in Bømlo there was near consensus in favor of the project . The exception was in southern Bømlø , where there was concerns that their ferry service to the mainland would be terminated , which would result in considerably longer driving time to Haugesund . Concerns were also raised regarding people with fear of tunnels and proposals were made to keep a ferry service for such people .
The Triangle Link was passed by the various municipal councils in February and March 1988 . Hordaland Public Roads Administration still supported a pontoon bridge , and stated that two and a half years of work on a master plan had been wasted . A new master plan for the Triangle Link was published in early 1989 . It recommended that the Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry , which connected to southern Bømlo , remain , but that the other four ferry services be terminated . During late 1989 , advance tolls on the ferries was approved by the municipal councils and the county council , who recommended that collection start from 1 July 1990 . However , the start date was not supported by the national government and the issue placed on hold .
In July 1992 , the master plan was passed by the Council of State . On 10 December 1992 , Parliament approved advanced payment of tolls on the ferry , which were made effective from 1 January 1993 . Ticket prices increased with between NOK 10 and 12 . This resulted in protests from the ferry employees who stated that they would have to collect the tolls which would remove their jobs ; Norwegian Seafarers ' Union representatives stated that they considered suing the state . Work on the development plan started in 1992 . It included safety and environmental improvements which increased the project 's cost by NOK 200 million , and it was made subject to consultative statements in May 1994 . A report on the Coastal Highway ( E39 ) was published in 1995 , which recommended that the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry be removed . Following a dispute regarding the impact of the bridge landing on Stord , SBT proposed building a culvert on Digernes as a compromise to avoid a new plan which could have postponed the project several years . On 11 June 1996 , Parliament decided with 144 against 20 votes to build the Triangel Link . The original name proposed for the tunnel was Sunnhordlandsporten ( " The Portal to Sunnhordland " ) , but this was changed to Bømlafjordtunnelen .
= = Construction = =
Geological sampling was undertaken by the Norwegian Geological Survey and Grøner , and included both core samples and reflection seismology . Late core samples showed that the tunnel would have to be located 30 meters ( 98 ft ) further down than originally planned to avoid deposits . The tunnel construction was awarded to two companies : the contract starting from Dalshovda in Sveio and was worked by the Public Roads Administration , while the tunneling from Føyno was worked by NCC . Both used the drilling and blasting method . NCC was awarded the contract after bidding NOK 175 million for the job . Construction from Sveio started on 16 September 1997 and from Føyno on 6 March 1998 . In all , 625 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 22 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork was extracted . The earthwork from the Føyno side was transported by bardge to Austevoll and used to build the Austevoll Bridge . The earthwork from the Sveio side was used to build roads and a golf course in the area . In average , the tunnel was built at a speed of 55 meters ( 180 ft ) per week , with the record being 96 @.@ 7 meters ( 317 ft ) . Between 30 and 40 people worked with the tunneling on each team . The lowest point was reached on 5 May 1999 and the breakthrough took place on 2 September 1999 , five months before schedule . Construction involved injection of 282 tonnes ( 278 long tons ; 311 short tons ) and spraying of 14 @,@ 900 cubic meters ( 530 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of gunite .
The tunnel was budgeted to cost NOK 496 million , but ended up costing NOK 487 million . It opened along with the Stord Bridge on 27 December 2000 . Six hours before the opening , the bottom of the tunnel was used for a wedding . The toll company held a course for people with fear of tunnels to master their fears , with 60 people participating . The official opening took place on 30 April 2001 . When it opened , it was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe and Norway , after the Hitra Tunnel .
= = Specifications = =
The Bømlafjord Tunnel is 7 @,@ 860 meters ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long and crosses Bømlafjorden as part of European Route E39 . To the southeast , the tunnel begins at Dalshovda in Sveio . It runs under Bømlafjord , then passes below the island of Otterøya and continues under the fjord again before ending on the island of Føyno . The tunnel is 11 meters ( 36 ft ) wide and has three lanes . As the tunnel has a significant slope , two lanes runs uphill and one runs downhill . It has a height of 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft ) and has its deepest point at 260 @.@ 4 meters ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . Safety measures include fire extinguishers , emergency telephones and break @-@ down pullovers every 250 meters ( 820 ft ) . There are turning points for trucks every 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and lights and barriers at the entrances to notify drivers if the tunnel is closed . It features radio coverage and a system to register the position and key information about all vehicles in the tunnel . All the emergency equipment is connected to the Public Roads Administrations central in Bergen . The tunnel has mobile telephone coverage . In 2011 , the tunnel had an average 3 @,@ 966 vehicles per day .
The Triangle Link is partially financed with tolls , with toll collection taking place at Føyno . It is constructed as a grade @-@ separated intersection , resulting in that any car passes through the plaza once , with cars driving along E39 drive straight ahead through the plaza , while cars to or from Bømlo need to use the interchange . The toll station uses the Autopass toll collection , which allows passage without stopping , in addition to manual collection . Passengers , pedestrians , bicycles , motorcyclists and mopeds are free . As of 2011 , the fees are NOK 85 for cars and NOK 270 for trucks . Frequent travelers can prepay for at least 40 passings to the toll company , and receive a 40 percent discount . It is estimated that the tunnel will be paid off and the tolls removed in 2012 or 2013 .
The tunnel runs through an area with complex and varied geology . It runs through two rock complexes , the Halsnøy Basement Rock on the Sveio side , and Hardangerfjord Cover Complex on the Stord side . Both were created during the creation of the Caledonian orogeny 500 million years ago . The Halsnøy Basement Rock consists of Precambrian rock with elements of gneiss of both sedimentary and magmatic origin . They range between granite gneiss to mylonite . In the area between the two complexes , there is some amount of gabbro . At the lowest point , the tunnel runs through a section of phyllite , which continues to be the dominant species until the tunnel reaches Otterøya . Below the island the tunnel reaches a section of greenstone , before it higher up again runs through more phyllite .
= Battle on Snowshoes =
The 1758 Battle on Snowshoes occurred on March 13 , 1758 , during the French and Indian War . It was fought by members of British Ranger companies led by Robert Rogers against French troops and Indians allied to France . The battle took place near Lake George , now in northern New York , but then in the frontier area between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada . The battle was given its name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes .
Rogers led a band of about 180 rangers and regulars out to scout French positions . The French commander at Fort Carillon had been alerted to their movement , and sent a force consisting mostly of Indians to meet them . In fierce fighting , the British troop was decimated , with more than 120 casualties . The French believed that Rogers was killed in this action , as he was forced to abandon his regimental jacket , which contained his commission papers , during his escape from the scene .
This battle gave rise to the tale that Rogers escaped capture by sliding 400 feet ( 120 m ) down a rockface to the frozen surface of Lake George . That rock is now known as Rogers Rock or Rogers Slide .
= = Background = =
The French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers , and escalated the following year to include regular troops . By 1756 , the French had enjoyed successes in most of their frontier battles against the British . Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their southward advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George . From bases at Fort St. Frédéric ( located at what is now Crown Point , New York ) and Fort Carillon ( known to the British as Fort Ticonderoga ) , the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George and the upper Hudson River . The British , who had fewer Indian allies , resorted to companies of rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities . The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers , and eventually became known as Rogers ' Rangers .
= = Prelude = =
Captain Rogers was sent on a reconnaissance mission from Fort Edward northwards toward Fort Carillon on March 10 , 1758 . Lieutenant Colonel William Haviland , the fort 's commander , had originally planned on 400 men taking part but reduced the number to 180 , even though he had reason to believe the French knew of the expedition . The French had captured a man from an earlier expedition by Israel Putnam 's Connecticut rangers and it was suspected that he had informed his captors of the British plans . Putnam 's reconnaissance revealed that there were an estimated 600 Indians encamped near Fort Carillon .
The expedition was composed mostly of men from Rogers ' ranger companies , but it also included a few volunteer soldiers from the 27th ( Inniskilling ) Regiment . On March 13 , they wore snowshoes as they marched through snow four feet deep , with a rivulet to their left and a steep mountain separating them from Lake George to their right . They had stopped for a three @-@ hour break when their advance guard spotted what Rogers reported as " ninety @-@ six , chiefly Indians " .
On March 12 , Captain Louis @-@ Philippe Le Dossu d ’ Hébécourt , the French commander at Fort Carillon , heard rumors from the encamped Indians that the British were nearing . He sent Ensign Durantaye with a company of 200 Nipissing Indians and about 20 Canadians in response to these reports , but they found nothing . The next day two Indian scouts reported that they had found tracks of an enemy party . Around noon on March 13 , Durantaye led 100 men ( again a mixed company of Indians and Canadians ) out of the fort . These were followed shortly after by 200 Indians under Ensign de Langy .
Although the two French groups joined forces , Durantaye 's company was about 100 yards ( 91 m ) ahead of Langy 's when they were spotted by Rogers ' men .
= = Battle = =
Rogers ’ men immediately set up an ambush . When Durantaye 's men came within range at 14 : 00 , the British opened fire , killing " above forty Indians " , according to Rogers . Durantaye 's force broke and retreated in disarray . Rogers and about half his men gave chase , critically forgetting to reload their muskets , while the others stopped to collect scalps . Langy 's men , alerted by the gunfire , set up their own ambush . When Rogers ' men arrived , the attack by Langy 's force killed or wounded an estimated 50 men . The Rangers fought bravely , considering they were outnumbered and their numbers were falling quickly . They made several successful attempts to prevent themselves from being flanked , but after an hour and a half of heavy fighting , their numbers were significantly reduced . The remnants of the British force then tried to escape the battle . Rogers and some of his men did get away , but one group of men surrendered , only to be killed and scalped when a scalp was discovered in a pocket of one of the men .
= = Aftermath = =
Rogers and his decimated company returned to Fort Edward on March 15 . Rogers himself was originally reported by the French to have been killed , but had actually survived . The report stemmed from the manner of Rogers ’ escape during which he discarded some of his belongings , including his regimental coat , which contained his military commission . This episode also gave rise to a local legend that Rogers escaped the battle by sliding 400 feet down the side of a hill to the frozen surface of Lake George . While there is no proof of this event , the rockface he supposedly went down very quickly became known as Rogers ' Slide .
Reports of casualties , and of the numbers of forces involved , starkly differed in this battle . Rogers ' report of the event estimated the French @-@ Indian force at 700 , with one to two hundred casualties , and his accounts of the battle were doubted by a variety of commentators , as they were inconsistent with other accounts . A letter by Henry Pringle , written while held in captivity at Carillon , restored his reputation by clarifying the French advantage following the second ambush ; Rogers went on to rebuild his companies and serve in the Battle of Carillon in July 1758 .
= Galaxy Science Fiction =
Galaxy Science Fiction was an American digest @-@ size science fiction magazine , published from 1950 to 1980 . It was founded by an Italian company , World Editions , which was looking to break into the American market . World Editions hired as editor H. L. Gold , who rapidly made Galaxy the leading science fiction ( sf ) magazine of its time , focusing on stories about social issues rather than technology .
Gold published many notable stories during his tenure , including Ray Bradbury 's " The Fireman " , later expanded as Fahrenheit 451 ; Robert A. Heinlein 's The Puppet Masters ; and Alfred Bester '
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Diệm 's elder brother , Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục — the devoutly Roman Catholic Ngô family strongly favored co @-@ religionists and had great trust in Thảo , unaware that he was still loyal to the communists . He went on to serve as the chief of Bến Tre Province , and gained fame after the area — traditionally a communist stronghold — suddenly became peaceful and prosperous . Vietnamese and US officials , as well as journalists hostile to or supportive of Saigon , misinterpreted this as a testament to Thảo 's great ability , and he was promoted to a more powerful position where he could further his sabotage . Thảo and the communists in the local area had simply stopped fighting , so that the communists could quietly recuperate , while Thảo would appear to be very skillful and be given a more important job where he could do more damage .
Through intrigue , Thảo also helped destabilise and ultimately unseat two South Vietnamese regimes — Diem 's and the military junta of Khánh . As the Diệm regime began to unravel in 1963 , Thảo was one of the officers planning a coup . His plot was ultimately integrated into the successful plot and his activities promoted infighting which weakened the government and distracted the military from fighting the Viet Cong insurgency . Throughout 1964 and 1965 , as South Vietnam was struggling to establish a stable state after the ouster of Diệm , Thảo was involved in several intrigues and coup plots which diverted the government from implementing its programs . In 1965 , he went into hiding after a failed attempt to seize power from Khánh and was sentenced to death in absentia . Although this coup also failed , the subsequent chaos forced Khánh 's junta to collapse . Thảo died the same year he was forced into hiding ; it is believed that he was murdered after a bounty was placed on his head . After Vietnam was reunified at the end of the Vietnam War , the victorious communists claimed Thảo as one of their own and posthumously made him a one @-@ star general .
= = Early Vietminh years = =
Born Phạm Ngọc Thuần , Thảo was one of eleven children of a northern Vietnamese Roman Catholic family . At the time , Vietnam was a French colony . The family held French citizenship but opposed French colonialism . His father , an engineer , once headed an underground communist organisation in Paris , which assisted the Viet Minh 's anti @-@ French pro @-@ independence activities outside Vietnam . After attending French schools in Saigon , Thuần changed his name to Thảo and renounced his French citizenship . In his high school years at the Lycée Chasseloup @-@ Laubat , Thảo met Trương Như Tảng , who later became a high @-@ ranking member of the Viet Cong , a communist guerrilla organisation in South Vietnam . Tảng described Thảo as " my dearest friend " and recalled that they had " spent endless hours talking about everything under the sun . We were closer than brothers . "
Thảo spent his teenage years obsessed with his motorcycle . Despite being educated at an upper @-@ class school that served children of French colonial administrators and privileged Vietnamese — French was the medium of instruction and Gallic culture and history a major part of the curriculum — Thảo was attracted to nationalist politics . He participated in Hồ Chí Minh 's revolutionary campaigns for Vietnamese independence and joined the Vietminh .
In September 1945 , Hồ declared independence under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRV ) following the withdrawal of Imperial Japan , which had seized control of the country from France during the Second World War . At the time , there was a power vacuum , as both Japan and France had been decimated by the war . There was an outbreak of nationalist fervour in Vietnam ; Tảng and Thảo joined the Vanguard Youth , an impromptu independence militia . Tảng was assigned to be the leader of the local unit , but he left the movement soon after , leaving Thảo in command . During this period , Saigon was regularly engulfed in riots .
In 1946 , France attempted to reassert control over its colony and conventional military fighting broke out . Thảo served with the Vietminh in the Mekong Delta in the far south of Vietnam during the war against French rule from 1946 – 54 . He almost met his end before he had started ; he was apprehended by the local communists in Mỹ Tho , who saw his French @-@ style dress and mistook him for a colonial agent . They tied him up and chained him to a block of stone before throwing him into a river to drown . However , Thảo broke free of the weight and swam to safety . Thảo proceeded further south and deeper into the Mekong Delta to the town of Vĩnh Long , where he was again arrested by the local Vietminh . Just as Thảo was about to be executed by drowning , one of the communists realised he was a brother of one of their comrades . Thảo was released and rejoined his family , who lived in the region .
As a leader of the resistance , Thảo was allocated the responsibility of indoctrinating the 1947 batch of recruits with Vietminh ideology . One of Thảo 's students was his future enemy , South Vietnamese General and President Nguyễn Khánh . This group became the 410th Battalion and went on to fight near Cà Mau , the southernmost part of Vietnam . By 1949 , Thảo was in charge of the Vietminh espionage apparatus around Saigon and organised the guerrilla companies in the countryside . Thảo was also involved in procuring arms . Filipino traders brought arms into southern Vietnam in return for rice , shrimp , pork , gold and banknotes . Following the French defeat in 1954 at Điện Biên Phủ , Thảo helped evacuate communist fighters from South Vietnam and Cambodia in accordance with the terms of the Geneva Conference . Under these Accords , Vietnam was to be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel pending national elections to reunify the country in 1956 , and military personnel were to be evacuated to their respective sides of the border . In the meantime , Hồ Chí Minh 's Vietminh controlled the north under the DRV while the south was under the French @-@ sponsored State of Vietnam .
However , Thảo remained in the anti @-@ communist south when Vietnam was partitioned and made a show of renouncing communism . He became a schoolteacher and later worked in a bank , as well as the Department of Transport . He consistently refused to turn in the names of his former comrades , claiming that they were merely patriots fighting against the French and were not communists . At the same time , one of Thảo 's brothers had been appointed as North Vietnam 's ambassador to East Germany , having served as vice chairman of the Vietminh 's Resistance Committee for the South during the war against the French . In October 1955 , Prime Minister Diệm ousted Emperor Bảo Đại in a referendum to determine the form of government of the State of Vietnam . " Republic " received almost 99 % of the vote and " monarchy " received a little over 1 % . Diệm declared himself president of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . He scrapped the national elections , citing the fact that South Vietnam was not a signatory to the Accords of the Geneva Conference .
= = Undercover communist in the South Vietnamese army = =
The U.S.-backed Diệm was passionately anti @-@ communist . In 1957 , He initiated an " Anti @-@ Communist Denunciation Campaign " to root out Vietminh members and their sympathisers . Thousands of people were killed or jailed , and in time Diệm 's campaigns created more sympathy for the Vietminh . Before 1960 , various small @-@ scale pro @-@ Communist uprisings were taking place in the countryside . Thảo went on the run and hid in Vĩnh Long , worried that Diệm 's men were after him . In December 1960 , North Vietnam 's Politburo authorised the creation of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam , popularly known as the Viet Cong . The Vietcong were dominated by communists , but portrayed itself as a nationalist militant organisation , stating its aim to be the " reunification of the fatherland " with the overthrow of the " disguised colonial regime of the U.S. imperialists and the dictatorial Ngo Dinh Diem administration " . The creation of the Vietcong marked an escalation in the scale and organisation of the insurgency that developed into the Vietnam War .
Thảo 's Catholic background helped him to avoid detection as a communist . He and his brother were the only members of the family who were not anti @-@ communist . The remainder of the relatives were followers of Diệm 's brother , Archbishop Thục , who had been Bishop of Vĩnh Long during the war against France . Thảo was known to have a face that revealed nothing of his inner feelings . Thục 's intervention helped Thảo rise in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . Thục put Thảo in touch with Trần Kim Tuyến , who was in charge of intelligence operations under Diệm 's younger brother Nhu , who was the head of the secret police and controlled the ARVN Special Forces . Thảo began as a propagandist for various units of the army and for the secret Catholic Cần lao Party , whose system of informants and secret cells helped create the atmosphere of a police state and maintained the Ngô family 's grip on power .
Tảng believed that Thục " undoubtedly considered that Thảo 's Catholic and family loyalties were stronger and more durable than his youthful enthusiasm for revolution " . He felt that Thảo had tricked Thục into believing that he was no longer a communist , and that his inside knowledge would be useful to the Ngô family . Thảo started by training the Civil Guard . As a result of his family 's Catholic connections , Thảo rose steadily in the ARVN , since Diệm 's regime had always promoted officers primarily on religious preference and loyalty . Nhu sent him to Malaysia to study counterinsurgency techniques , and upon his return , Thảo became a vital part of Nhu 's efforts to purge the army of disloyal officers . As Thảo kept a close watch on those who commanded troops , lest they use their personnel in a coup , the leading officers were keen to maintain a good relationship with him , which increased his effectiveness as a spy . Thảo rose even further when the troops he commanded helped put down the November 1960 coup attempt against Diệm . Thảo assisted Khánh and Trần Thiện Khiêm to put down the revolt . All three were promoted , with the latter pair gaining the leadership of the ARVN and of the combined forces , respectively . This cemented the trio 's close ties .
Thảo was promoted to the post of chief of Bến Tre Province . He covertly worked with the cadres of Nguyễn Thị Định , a Vietcong leader who later became the highest ranking female communist in post @-@ war reunified Vietnam . The area was a traditional communist stronghold , and anti @-@ government attacks had increased in recent times , but it suddenly became peaceful when Thảo arrived . There were rumours that Thảo and the communists had decided to cease fighting for their mutual benefit ; the guerrillas could quietly strengthen themselves , while Thảo would appear to be successful and he would be promoted to a more powerful position where he could cause more damage to Diệm . The lack of fighting between Thảo 's forces and the Vietcong proved to beneficial to the communist cause . In a three @-@ month period in 1963 , the Vietcong were able to recruit 2 @,@ 000 men in Bến Tre and formed two more battalions . Thảo was praised by the Ngô family and U.S. military advisors , unaware of his ruse . He received another promotion , and with it , more influence and contacts among the officer corps .
The US ambassador , Elbridge Durbrow , described Bến Tre Province as an " agricultural showplace " and advised journalists to travel there to see Thảo 's successful administration . The influential American journalist Joe Alsop changed his plans so that he could spend more time in Bến Tre , saying that the province " particularly inspires hope " . In one operation by Thảo 's ARVN forces , American field journalists covering the battle saw their hours @-@ long attempt to box in a Vietcong battalion yield only one farmer who lived in a hut with antigovernment slogans . Despite this , the American journalists and Vietnamese officers remained unaware that Thảo was a double agent . In fact , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalist David Halberstam misinterpreted the lack of attacks in Bến Tre , while other provinces were being ravaged , as proof that Thảo was one of the few capable government officials in the Mekong Delta . Journalist Robert Shaplen wrote : " In all respects , Thao is one of the most remarkable Vietnamese around , being a conspiratorial revolutionary figure straight out of a Malraux novel and , at the same time , a highly sophisticated and astute man , whose talents , if only they were properly channeled , could profitably be used right now . " As Thảo was a former leader of the Vietminh , outsiders thought that his apparent success was due his first @-@ hand knowledge of communist tactics . During his period as the province chief , Thảo set up the Council of Elders , a consultative body of 20 – 200 men and women , who were allowed to criticise local officials . He advocated the creation of the Council of Patrons , a philanthropic body to raise money for community projects .
= = Strategic Hamlet Program = =
In 1962 , Nhu began work on the ambitious Strategic Hamlet Program , an attempt to build fortified villages that would be secure zones for rural Vietnamese . The objective was to lock the Vietcong out so that they could not operate among the villagers . Thảo supervised these efforts , and when told that the peasants resented being forcibly removed from their ancestral lands and put into forts that they were forced to build , he advised Nhu and Tuyến that it was imperative to build as many hamlets as fast as possible . This pleased the Vietcong , who felt that Thảo 's efforts were turning the rural populace against Saigon . Thảo specifically had villages built in areas that he knew had a strong Vietcong presence . This increased the number of communist sympathisers who were placed inside the hamlets and given identification cards . As a result , the Vietcong were able to more effectively penetrate the villages to access supplies and personnel .
Later in 1962 , United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara visited South Vietnam and was taken on an inspection tour of the country , accompanied by Diệm and Thảo . Perhaps because Thảo divulged the tour details to Vietcong guerrillas , each of McNamara 's stopovers was punctuated by bloody attacks on nearby ARVN installations . For example , when McNamara was in Bình Dương Province , five government soldiers were killed . As he flew from Đà Lạt north to Đà Nẵng near the Demilitarized Zone , he was greeted by a Vietcong bombing of a southbound troop train , which killed 27 and wounded 30 Civil Guard members .
= = The fall of Diệm = =
In 1963 , the Diệm regime began to lose its tight control over the country as civil unrest spread as a result of the Buddhist crisis . Large scale demonstrations by the Buddhist majority erupted in response to the government shootings of nine Buddhists in Huế who were protesting against a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag during Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . With Diệm remaining intransigent in the face of Buddhist demands for religious equality , sections of society began calling for his removal from power . Thảo was part of the many plots that engulfed Saigon , destabilising the regime . Aiming for a 15 July coup , Tuyến consulted with Thảo regarding his plans , but Tuyến was too closely associated with Nhu to recruit the necessary military aid and he was subsequently exiled by Nhu .
Tuyen 's group ended up being led by Thảo but his initial coup plans were shelved when American CIA agent Lucien Conein instructed Thảo 's superior , General Khiêm , to stop the coup on the grounds that it was premature . Thảo 's motivation for involvement in the plotting is generally attributed to communist instructions for him to cause infighting within the ARVN whenever possible . He resumed plotting , intending to stage the coup on 24 October . He had recruited various infantry , marine and paratroop units for his scheme , totalling 3 @,@ 000 men . Thảo 's group did not carry out the coup after senior generals persuaded him to integrate his forces into their larger group , which was more likely to succeed . Thảo reasoned that aligning himself with a group of officers that were likely to successful would yield more influence in the resulting junta . The coup was successfully executed on 1 November 1963 under the leadership of Generals Dương Văn Minh and Trần Văn Đôn .
Thảo commanded around two dozen tanks , which formed a column in the streets surrounding the Presidential Palace at midnight , and helped launch the full @-@ scale attack at 03 : 30 on 2 November . The rebels eventually gained control of the building , and at daybreak Thảo 's forces stormed the palace , but found it empty ; Diệm and Nhu had escaped . A captured officer of the Presidential Guard revealed the brothers ' hiding place and under the orders of Khiêm , Thảo went after them . Khiêm ordered Thảo to ensure the brothers were not physically harmed . Thảo arrived at the house in Cholon where the brothers were purportedly hiding and phoned the rebels back at the palace . Diệm and Nhu were apparently listening in on an extension in another room and escaped . The brothers subsequently surrendered to an ARVN convoy led by General Mai Hữu Xuân at a nearby Catholic church and were executed en route to military headquarters despite being promised safe exile .
The US media 's links to Thảo have been the source of historical debate . The journalists ' reporting of Diệm 's authoritarian rule , military failures , and attacks on Buddhists shifted American public opinion and put pressure on Washington to withdraw support for the Ngô family and seek a change of leadership . William Prochnau felt that the fall of Diệm was the biggest influence of the media on American foreign policy in over six decades . Thảo and Phạm Xuân Ẩn had been the source of much of the media 's information . Conservative revisionist historians have accused the media of bringing down Diệm by publishing reports that , according to them , were based on false data disseminated by communist propagandists to unfairly malign Diệm 's rule , which they claim was effective and fair towards the Buddhist majority .
= = Participation in military junta = =
After the fall of the Diệm regime , Thảo was designated by the head of state Minh and the civilian Prime Minister Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ to create the nucleus of a group called the Council of Notables , and promote it to the public. which , as an interim body of prominent civilians , would advise the military junta before it handed over power to an elected legislature under civilian rule . The Council of 60 people , 58 men and 2 women , held its first meeting on 1 January 1964 in Saigon . The council was composed almost entirely of well @-@ known professionals and academics and , as such , was hardly representative of South Vietnamese society ; there were no delegates from the agricultural or labour sectors of the economy . It gained a reputation for being a forum of debate , rather than a means of enacting policy change and government programs for the populace . Thơ and Minh assigned Thảo with the task of encouraging a transition to democracy by facilitating the formation of a few political parties . This was ineffective , as many political parties with only a handful of members sprang up and squabbled . Within 45 days of the coup , 62 parties had formed but nothing meaningful resulted . In the end , these efforts proved to be irrelevant as Minh 's junta and the accompanying Council of Notables were overthrown before the end of the month . During this period , Thảo served as the head of military security and played a role in replacing Colonel Đỗ Khắc Mai with Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as the head of the Vietnam Air Force . In the aftermath of the coup , Vietcong attacks increased markedly amid infighting among the Saigon leadership , which Thảo had helped to stir up .
The generals sent Thảo to Fort Leavenworth in the United States for six months to learn conventional warfare tactics . He also spent a month in England before returning to Vietnam . By this time , Minh 's junta had been replaced in a 1964 January coup by Khánh . It is suspected that one of the generals ' motives for deploying Thảo overseas was his continual involvement in plotting . Khánh appointed Thảo as his press officer as well as an unofficial political adviser .
Later that same year , Khánh became involved in a power struggle with his deputy Khiêm as well as Minh , who had been retained as the titular head of state . Thảo was a close friend of Khiêm , so when Khánh prevailed in the power struggle , Khánh despatched Khiêm to Washington as the ambassador with Thảo was his press attaché . In August 1964 , Khánh 's leadership became increasingly troubled after he tried to augment his powers by declaring a state of emergency . This only provoked large @-@ scale protests and riots calling for an end to military rule , with Buddhist activists at the forefront . Fearful of losing power , Khánh began making concessions to the protesters and promised democracy in the near future , which encouraged more groups to demand changes , and Khánh demoted certain Catholic pro @-@ Diệm supporters . On 13 September , a Catholic @-@ dominated group led by Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức , both of whom had been demoted , moved troops into Saigon but then withdrew after it became obvious they did not have the numbers to remove Khánh . Khiêm and Thảo were implicated in helping to plot Phát and Đức 's attempted putsch ; both were sent abroad by Khánh .
= = 1965 attempted coup = =
In late December 1964 , Thảo was summoned back to Saigon by Khánh , who correctly suspected him and Khiêm of plotting together with Washington . Thảo suspected Khánh was attempting to have him killed , so he went underground upon returning to Saigon , and began plotting in earnest , having been threatened with being charged for desertion . He sheltered in a house belonging to a friend of Trương Như Tảng . The ruling junta appealed to Thảo in newspaper advertisements and broadcasts to follow orders to report , but he ignored them . In mid @-@ January 1965 , the regime called for him to report to his superiors in the ARVN , warning that he would be " considered guilty of abandoning his post with all the consequences of such a situation " if he failed to do so .
Due to his Catholic background , Thảo was able to recruit Diệm loyalists such as Phát . With Khánh 's grip on power shaky , an anonymous source said that Thảo was worried about how he would be treated if someone else took over : " Thao acted first , out of fear that if he did not , the other generals would overthrow Khanh and get rid of him as well . He knew that if the others overthrew Khanh his fate would be worse than Khanh 's . " During this time , Thảo kept in touch with elements of the CIA in an attempt to get American backing . Meanwhile , Khiêm had been putting pressure on Khánh for over two months by charging him and the Buddhists of seeking a " neutralist solution " and " negotiating with the communists " . At the same time , Khánh 's relationship with the Americans — particularly Ambassador and retired General Maxwell Taylor — had broken down over a series of policy disputes and personal arguments , and the Americans were trying to encourage Khánh 's colleagues to overthrow him so that more hawkish policies could be enacted . The other generals wanted to overthrow Khánh and were aware that Thảo — who was widely distrusted — was planning to make a move . They anticipated trouble in trying to keep their subordinates , who were becoming impatient with Khánh 's ongoing tenure , from joining Thảo . Between January and February , Thảo continued to finalize the details of his own counter @-@ coup , using the contacts he had cultivated over the past decades .
Phát and other pro @-@ Diệm officers opposed the Buddhist influence being exerted on Khánh . Thảo consulted Kỳ — who wanted to seize power for himself — before the plot , and exhorted him to join the coup , but the air force chief claimed that he was remaining neutral . Thảo thus believed Kỳ would not intervene against him , but Kỳ was strongly opposed to Thảo and Phát . American intelligence analysts had believed that General Don was involved in the coup with Phát and Thảo , but this was proven false when the action started . Eight months after the coup was over , Don told the American historian George McTurnan Kahin that he had been plotting with Thảo , who had planned for him to become Defense Minister and Chief of Staff of the military , but that the Đại Việt and Thảo 's Catholic civilian allies had insisted on installing Khiêm , a Catholic . A month before the coup , American intelligence analysts had believed that Thảo was planning to replace Khánh as commander @-@ in @-@ chief with Don .
Shortly before noon on 19 February , he used around fifty tanks , their crew and a mixture of infantry battalions to seize control of the military headquarters , the post office and the radio station of Saigon . He surrounded the home of General Khánh and Gia Long Palace , the residence of head of state Phan Khắc Sửu . The tanks were led by Colonel Dương Hiếu Nghĩa , a Catholic member of the Đại Việt . The country was still trying to find stability , with Phan Huy Quát being appointed prime minister just three days earlier . Khánh managed to escape and flee to Vũng Tàu . His plane lifted off from Tan Son Nhut Air Base , the country 's military headquarters , just as rebel tanks were rolling in , attempting to block the runway . Thảo 's men tried to capture the Saigon base of the Republic of Vietnam Navy , and its commander , Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , but were foiled , but they did capture a number of junta members at Tan Son Nhut .
Thảo made a radio announcement stating that the sole objective of his military operation was to get rid of Khánh , whom he described as a " dictator " . He said that he intended to recall Khiêm to Saigon to lead the Armed Forces Council in place of Khánh , but would retain the civilian cabinet that answered to the generals . In doing so , he caught Khiêm off guard , asleep in his Maryland home . When informed of what was happening , Khiêm sent a cable in which he pledged " total support " to the plot . The coup group made pro @-@ Diệm announcements , claiming then @-@ U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . " was wrong in encouraging the coup against Diem rather than correcting mistakes " .
A Catholic rebel officer made a speech extolling Diệm , and mourning his loss . This gave the impression that the coup plotters wanted to roll back the country to a Diệm @-@ era position and punish those who had been involved in Diệm 's overthrow and execution . Thảo 's group also promised to aggressively fight the Vietcong and cooperate with the United States . Throughout the day , a series of anti @-@ Khánh speeches were broadcast on radio , and the rebels claimed to have the support of four divisions , something that was regarded as dubious . U.S. government analysts concluded that the rebellion was " primarily a move by die @-@ hard neo @-@ Diemists and Catholic military militants , disturbed at the rise of Buddhist influence , opposed to Gen. Khánh and — in a vague , ill @-@ thought @-@ out way — desirous of turning back the clock and undoing some of the results of the November 1963 ouster of Diem . " Among the civilians linked to Thảo 's plot were Catholic academics and a militant priest .
As Diệm had strongly discriminated along religious lines , the rebels ' commented caused a negative response among the Buddhist majority . The Buddhist activist monk Thich Tam Chau called on Buddhists to support the incumbent junta . The pro @-@ Diệm speeches also alarmed pro @-@ Buddhist and anti @-@ Diệm generals , such as Nguyễn Chánh Thi and Nguyễn Hữu Có , who had been part of the failed 1960 and successful 1963 coups against Diệm respectively . They thought that Thảo and Phat might seek revenge , driving many anti @-@ Diệm officers who may have otherwise been neutral or sympathetic to the coup , to swing more towards Khánh .
Although Taylor and US military commander General William Westmoreland wanted Khánh out , the pro @-@ Diệm political ideology expressed by Thảo 's supporters alienated them , as they feared that the coup plotters would destabilize and polarize the country if they took power . The Americans worried that Phat and Thảo could galvanize support for Khánh through their extreme views , which had the potential to provoke large @-@ scale sectarian divisions , playing into the hands of the communists and hindering wider American objectives . They were also worried by Thảo 's intention to remove Quát and the civilian government , whom he saw was " too susceptible to Buddhist peacemongering " . The U.S. saw civilian participation in governance as a necessity . They worried that a Khánh victory would enhance his prestige , so they wanted to see some third force emerge and defeat both the Thảo and Khánh factions . Westmoreland and Taylor decided to work for the failure of both Thảo and Khánh , and helped organize US advisers for the purpose .
Phat was supposed to seize the Bien Hoa Air Base to prevent air force chief Kỳ from mobilising air power against them , but he failed to reach the airfield before Kỳ , who circled Tan Son Nhut and threatened to bomb the rebels . Most of the forces of the III and IV Corps surrounding the capital disliked both Khánh and the rebels , and took no action . However , as night came , senior military opinion began to turn against Thảo and Phát , although it was not clear at this stage whether the anti @-@ Thảo forces being organised and led by Thi were hostile to Khánh as well .
At 20 : 00 , Phát and Thảo met with Kỳ , and insisted that Khánh be removed from power . The coup collapsed when , between midnight and dawn , anti @-@ Thảo forces swept into the city from the south along with some components of the 7th Airborne Brigade loyal to Kỳ from Biên Hòa in the north . Whether the rebels were genuinely defeated by the overwhelming show of strength or whether a deal was struck with Kỳ to end the revolt in exchange for Khánh 's removal is disputed , although a large majority support the latter . According to the latter version , Phát and Thảo agreed to free the members of the Armed Forces Council that they had arrested and withdraw in exchange for Khánh 's complete removal from power . Possibly as a means of saving face , Phát and Thảo were given an appointment with the figurehead chief of state Sửu , who was under close control by the junta , to " order " him to sign a decree stripping Khánh of his military leadership , and organizing a meeting of the junta and Prime Minister Quát 's civilian cabinet . During the early morning , while the radio station was still in the hands of Thảo 's men , a message attributed to Sửu was read out ; it claimed that the chief of state had sacked Khánh . However , the authenticity of the announcement was put into doubt when loyalists took control of the station and Sửu spoke in person , claiming otherwise . There were no injuries or deaths in the coup .
Before fleeing , Thảo broadcast a premature message claiming the coup had been effective in removing Khánh , and the Armed Forces Council later adopted a vote of no confidence in Khánh later that day , and forced him into exile . Later in the morning , while on the run , Thảo made a broadcast using a military radio system to call for Khanh 's departure and defend his actions , which he described as being in the best interest of the nation . Phat and Thảo were stripped of their ranks , but nothing was initially done as far as prosecuting or sentencing them for their involvement in the coup .
= = In hiding , and death = =
While in hiding in Catholic villages , Thảo expressed his willingness to surrender and cooperate with Quát 's government , if he
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and approximately fifty officers involved in the coup were granted amnesty . He also offered to go into exile in the United States , where his family had moved when he was sent there for training in 1964 . In May 1965 , a military tribunal sentenced both Thảo and Phát to death in absentia . The death sentence was attributed to the influence of Thi , who had assigned hit squads to look for him . After the conclusion of the trial , it was announced that the Armed Forces Council would disband and give the civilians more control in running the government . Thi was believed to have agreed to the transfer of power to a civilian government in return for Thảo 's death . As a result , Thảo had little choice but to attempt to seize power in order to save himself and he and Thi began to manoeuvre against one another .
On 20 May , a half dozen officers and around forty civilians , most or all of whom were Catholic , were arrested on charges of attempting to assassinate Quát and kidnap Thi and Kỳ . Several of the arrested were known supporters of Thảo and believed to be abetting him in evading the authorities . Despite this , Thảo himself managed to escape , even as a US $ 30 @,@ 000 bounty was put on him by the junta . On 16 July 1965 , he was reported dead in unclear circumstances ; an official report claimed that he died of injuries while on a helicopter en route to Saigon , after being captured north of the city . However , it is generally assumed that he was murdered or tortured to death on the orders of some military officials . One report holds that a Catholic priest betrayed Thảo , while another claims General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu caught him . In his memoirs , Kỳ claimed Thảo had been captured by police in Saigon and " died in jail a few weeks later , probably from a beating " . After the Fall of Saigon in 1975 , a conspiracy theory emerged , maintaining that Thảo went underground and worked in counterintelligence for the communist Central Office of South Vietnam , helping to hunt down Vietcong cadres who had defected to Saigon .
= = Legacy = =
Although Thảo 's last plot failed , his activities in 1965 and the resultant infighting led to a series of internal purges within the ARVN . Amid the instability , the Vietcong made strong gains across the country throughout the year . In response to the deteriorating military situation , the Americans began to deploy combat troops to South Vietnam in large numbers .
Thảo was posthumously promoted by the ARVN to the rank of one – star general and awarded the title of Heroic war dead ( Vietnamese : Liệt sĩ ) . After the Fall of Saigon and the end of the Vietnam War , the communist government awarded him the same title and paid war pensions to his family , claiming him as one of their own . In 1981 , the communists had his body exhumed and reburied in the " Patriots ' cemetery " in Ho Chi Minh City ( previously Saigon ) . Tảng believed Thảo " was a man who throughout his life fought single @-@ mindedly for Vietnam 's independence " . Tảng , who later abandoned communism , said that Thảo " was a nationalist , not an ideologue " , and credited him with turning the military tide towards the communists by helping to bring down Diệm and fomenting chronic instability and infighting for 18 months . Hồ Chí Minh had reacted to Diệm 's death by saying " I can scarcely believe that the Americans would be so stupid " . A communist report written in March 1965 , soon after Thảo 's revolt had caused Khánh to depart , stated that " The balance of force ... has changed very rapidly in our favor . ... The bulk of the enemy 's armed forces ... have disintegrated , and what is left continues to disintegrate " .
= Wilsonville , Oregon =
Wilsonville is a city primarily in Clackamas County , Oregon , United States . A portion of the northern section of the city is in Washington County . Originally founded as Boones Landing due to the Boones Ferry which crossed the Willamette River at the location , the community became Wilsonville in 1880 . The city was incorporated in 1969 with a population of around 1 @,@ 000 . The population was 13 @,@ 991 at the 2000 census , and grew to 19 @,@ 509 at the 2010 census . Slightly more than 90 % of residents at the 2000 census were White , with Hispanics as the largest minority group .
Located within the Portland metropolitan area , the city also includes the planned community of Charbonneau on the south side of the river . The city is bisected by Interstate 5 and includes I @-@ 5 's Boone Bridge over the Willamette . Public transportation is provided by the city 's South Metro Area Regional Transit , which includes Wilsonville Station on the Westside Express Service operated by TriMet . Students in public schools attend schools in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville and Canby school districts , including the only traditional high school , Wilsonville High School . Clackamas Community College and Pioneer Pacific College both have campuses in the city .
Wilsonville has a council @-@ manager form of government and operates its own library , public works , and parks department . Fire and police protection are contracted out to other regional government agencies . The city is home to several technology companies including Mentor Graphics , along with Stream Global Services , the largest employer in the city . Wilsonville contains many distribution and manufacturing buildings adjacent to Interstate 5 such as regional distribution facilities for Coca Cola and Rite Aid . Retail centers include Argyle Square on the north and the Town Center Shopping Center to the south . Media in Wilsonville consists of the Portland area broadcast stations , regional newspapers , and the local Wilsonville Spokesman newspaper .
= = History = =
Alphonso Boone , the grandson of Daniel Boone , settled in what would later become Wilsonville in 1846 and established the Boones Ferry across the Willamette River in 1847 . The ferry gave rise to the community of Boones Landing , which eventually grew into Wilsonville . Originally , the area was part of what became Yamhill County , but was transferred to the current Clackamas County in 1855 . The first post office was established in 1876 with the name , Boones Ferry .
Wilsonville became the name of the community on June 3 , 1880 , named after the first postmaster , Charles Wilson . That same year the first school , Wilsonville Grade School , was opened as a single @-@ room building . By 1890 , the railroad had reached town and the community contained depot , several hotels , a saloon , a tavern , a bank , and several other commercial establishments . In 1897 , the twelve school districts in the vicinity of Wilsonville up to Lake Oswego merged to create a single district . A railroad bridge was built across the river for the Oregon Electric Railway beginning in 1906 . The bridge was completed the next year and service from Wilsonville south to Salem began in 1908 .
A new Methodist church was built in the community in 1910 , which was used until 1988 and is still standing . Two years later , a new two @-@ room school replaced the old one @-@ room school , which in turn was replaced by a modern school in the mid 1900s , all on the same property . In 1939 , the wooden trestle part of the railroad bridge across the Willamette caught fire and burned . Boones Ferry was decommissioned after the Boone Bridge opened in 1954 carrying what was then the Baldock Freeway , and is today Interstate 5 .
In 1961 , the Dammasch State Hospital mental hospital opened on the west side of the community . Gordon House , the only house in Oregon to be designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright , was built in 1963 near what became Charbonneau and moved to the Oregon Garden in 2001 . Wilsonville was flooded in 1964 and the first fire station was built in 1966 . Wilsonville was incorporated as a city in 1969 with a population of about 1 @,@ 000 . In 1971 , the planned community of Charbonneau on the south side of the river was annexed into the city the year after development began .
Tektronix built a campus in the city beginning in 1973 , which was later sold to Xerox . The following year Wilsonville 's city hall relocated from Tauchman House at what is now Boones Ferry Park to a trailer and the next year the first city manager was hired . A standalone post office was built in 1976 at Boones Ferry and Wilsonville roads , with city police protection added in 1979 . In 1980 , the city reached a population of 2 @,@ 920 , and in 1982 the library was opened . The next year , a new city hall was opened , replacing a trailer that had served as city hall since 1975 .
In 1988 , the city opened their first library building , which replaced the one @-@ room library located in space leased from the school district . The population grew to 7 @,@ 106 at the 1990 census , and in 1991 the Town Center Shopping Center along Wilsonville Road opened . Due to growth in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , the school board approved building a new high school to be located in Wilsonville in 1992 .
Author Walt Morey owned an estate in Wilsonville and after his death in 1992 , his widow sold the property to a developer . The housing development built on that property , Morey 's Landing , bears his name as does the children 's section of the Wilsonville Public Library . Walt Morey Park , a bear @-@ themed park located in Morey 's Landing , contains a life @-@ size 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall wooden statue of Morey 's most famous literary creation , Gentle Ben .
Living Enrichment Center , a New Thought Church with as many as 3 @,@ 000 members , was headquartered in Wilsonville from 1992 until 2004 . The church closed that year after problems that including money laundering by the church leaders led to the bankrupting of the church .
In 1995 , Dammasch State Hospital was closed by the state of Oregon , and the site was then proposed as a location for what became the Coffee Creek Correctional Facility , which opened in 2001 at a different site to the north of the old hospital grounds . In protest of the construction of the prison , specifically the effect on property values , Larry Eaton began erecting school buses on his property . The former grounds of the state hospital are , as of 2009 , under development as Villebois , a primarily residential complex . Also in 1995 , Wilsonville High School opened as part of the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , the first high school in the city 's history . In 1998 , lack of an adequate long @-@ term water supply forced the city to suspend adding any new developments to the city . A new water treatment plant on the Willamette River opened in 2002 to address this need .
The Wilsonville Public Library was expanded to nearly four times the size of the 7 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) 1988 building with an expansion finished in 2002 . Wilsonville Primary School was closed in June 2001 , and later sold with the property and turned into a shopping center , anchored by an Albertsons supermarket . In September 2006 , Wilsonville opened a new $ 9 @.@ 9 million , two @-@ story brick and steel city hall after a controversy concerning its location led to unsuccessful attempts to recall several elected officials in the city , including the mayor .
= = Geography = =
Wilsonville is located on the southern edge of the Portland metropolitan area sitting at an elevation of 154 feet ( 47 m ) above sea level . Primarily in the southwestern part of Clackamas County , the northern section is in Washington County . It is located on the north side of the Willamette River around where Alphonse Boone established the Boones Ferry . Neighboring cities are Tualatin on the north , Sherwood to the northwest , and Canby and Aurora to the southeast . Newberg in Yamhill County is approximately 14 miles west along Wilsonville Road . The Willamette separates the majority of the city from Charbonneau , a planned community and neighborhood within the city limits , on the south .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 7 @.@ 42 square miles ( 19 @.@ 22 km2 ) , of which , 7 @.@ 21 square miles ( 18 @.@ 67 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 21 square miles ( 0 @.@ 54 km2 ) is water . Waterways in addition to the Willamette River include Arrowhead Creek , Meridian Creek , Basalt Creek , Seely Ditch , Boeckman Creek , and Coffee Lake Creek . The Boeckman and Coffee Lake creeks account for 85 % of the runoff in Wilsonville . Coffee Lake Creek is on the west side of the city and includes Coffee Lake and the Coffee Lake Wetlands . The foothills of the Chehalem Mountains lie to the west of Wilsonville , with most land within the city on level ground .
Wilsonville divides the city into 16 neighborhood groups , designated A through P. Within each of these planning areas are individual neighborhoods , and occasionally a neighborhood spans several of these groups . For instance the Villebois development covers areas D through G. Individual neighborhoods include Charbonneau , Wilsonville Meadows , Canyon Creek North , Town Center , RiverGreen , Frog Pond , and Old Town to name a few . Wilsonville ’ s Old Town neighborhood , the oldest of the neighborhoods , is located south of Wilsonville Road along Boones Ferry Road adjacent to the landing of the old Boones Ferry and contains the original portions of the town .
= = = Climate = = =
Wilsonville , as part of the Willamette Valley , is within the Marine west coast climate zone . Summers in Wilsonville are generally warm , but temperatures year @-@ round are moderated by a marine influence from the Pacific Ocean . Wilsonville receives most of its precipitation during the mild to cool winter months , with the wettest period from November through March . July and August are the warmest months with an average high temperature of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , while December is the coolest month with an average low of 34 ° F ( 1 ° C ) . December is also on average the wettest month with 6 @.@ 62 inches ( 168 mm ) . The highest recorded temperature , 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) , has occurred on August 11 , 1981 ; August 13 , 1977 ; August 18 , 1977 ; and September 3 , 1988 . Wilsonville 's lowest ever recorded temperature was − 15 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on December 23 , 1998 .
= = Demographics = =
The city has a significant population of families that use Wilsonville as a halfway point between jobs in different cities , mainly Salem and Portland . Wilsonville incorporated with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 residents in 1969 and grew to 2 @,@ 920 people at the 1980 Census , and to 7 @,@ 106 in 1990 . In 2000 , the census placed the population at 13 @,@ 991 , which rose to 19 @,@ 509 in 2010 . Of those counted , approximately 1 @,@ 500 are inmates at the Coffee Creek Correctional Facility that opened in the city in 2001 .
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 19 @,@ 509 people , 7 @,@ 859 households , and 4 @,@ 658 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 705 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 044 @.@ 7 / km2 ) . There were 8 @,@ 487 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 177 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 454 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 85 @.@ 3 % White , 1 @.@ 5 % African American , 1 @.@ 0 % Native American , 3 @.@ 8 % Asian , 0 @.@ 4 % Pacific Islander , 4 @.@ 8 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12 @.@ 1 % of the population .
There were 7 @,@ 859 households of which 29 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 45 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 0 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 40 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 32 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 28 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 93 .
The median age in the city was 36 @.@ 2 years . 22 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 8 @.@ 8 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 32 @.@ 2 % were from 25 to 44 ; 23 @.@ 8 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 13 @.@ 3 % were
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ant of the Riga Ghetto . These sightings proved to be false alarms , but in 1977 a person living in Buenos Aires who saw the movie reported to police that Roschmann was living nearby . The fugitive escaped to Paraguay , where he died of a heart attack a month later . In Ira Levin 's novel The Boys from Brazil , the character of Yakov Liebermann ( called Ezra Liebermann and played by Laurence Olivier in the film ) is modelled on Wiesenthal . Olivier visited Wiesenthal , who offered advice on how to play the role . Wiesenthal attended the film 's New York premiere in 1978 . Ben Kingsley portrayed him in the HBO film Murderers Among Us : The Simon Wiesenthal Story ( 1989 ) .
Wiesenthal has been the subject of several documentaries . The Art of Remembrance : Simon Wiesenthal was produced in 1994 by filmmakers Hannah Heer and Werner Schmiedel for River Lights Pictures . The documentary I Have Never Forgotten You : The Life and Legacy of Simon Wiesenthal , narrated by Nicole Kidman , was released by Moriah Films in 2007 . Wiesenthal is a one @-@ person show written and performed by Tom Dugan that premiered in 2014 .
= = Autobiographical inconsistencies = =
Wiesenthal wrote a number of books , some of which contain conflicting stories and tales , many of which were invented . Several authors , including Segev and British author Guy Walters , feel that Wiesenthal 's autobiographies are not reliable sources of information about his life and activities . For example , Wiesenthal would describe two people fighting over one of the lists he had prepared of survivors of the Holocaust ; the two look up and recognise each other and have a tearful reunion . In one account it is a man and wife , and in another telling it is two brothers . Wiesenthal 's memoirs variously claim he had spent time in as many as eleven concentration camps ; the actual number was five . A drawing he made in 1945 that he claimed was a scene he witnessed in Mauthausen had actually been sketched from photos that appeared in Life magazine that June . He particularly over @-@ emphasised his role in the capture of Eichmann , claiming that he prevented Veronika Eichmann from having her husband declared dead in 1947 , when in fact the declaration was denied " at the instigation of the authorities . " Wiesenthal said that he had retained his Eichmann file when he sent his research materials to Yad Vashem in 1952 ; in fact he sent all his materials there , and it was his counterpart , Tuviah Friedman in Vienna , who had retained materials on Eichmann . Isser Harel , director of the Mossad at the time , has stated that Wiesenthal had no role in the capture of Eichmann .
Walters and Segev both noted inconsistencies between Wiesenthal 's stories and his actual achievements . Segev concluded that Wiesenthal " lied as often as he did " because of his storytelling nature and survivor guilt . Daniel Finkelstein described Walters ' research in Hunting Evil as impeccable and quoted Ben Barkow : " Accepting that Wiesenthal was a showman and a braggart and , yes , even a liar , can live alongside acknowledging the contribution he made " .
= = List of books and journal articles = =
= = = Books = = =
Ich jagte Eichmann : Tatsachenbericht ( I Chased Eichmann : A True Story ) . Gütersloh : S. Mohn ( 1961 )
Writing under the pen name Mischka Kukin , Wiesenthal published Humor hinter dem Eisernen Vorhang ( " Humor Behind the Iron Curtain " ) . Gütersloh : Signum @-@ Verlag ( 1962 )
The Murderers Among Us : The Simon Wiesenthal Memoirs . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill ( 1967 )
Sails of Hope : The Secret Mission of Christopher Columbus . New York : Macmillan ( 1973 )
" Mauthausen : Steps beyond the Grave " . In Hunter and Hunted : Human History of the Holocaust . Gerd Korman , editor . New York : Viking Press ( 1973 ) . pp. 286 – 295 .
The Sunflower : On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness New York : Schocken Books ( 1969 )
Max and Helen : A Remarkable True Love Story . New York : Morrow ( 1982 )
Every Day Remembrance Day : A Chronicle of Jewish Martyrdom . New York : Henry Holt ( 1987 )
Justice , Not Vengeance . New York : Grove @-@ Weidenfeld ( 1989 )
= = = Journal articles = = =
" Latvian War Criminals in USA " . Jewish Currents 20 , no . 7 ( July / August 1966 ) : 4 – 8 . Also in 20 , no . 10 ( November 1966 ) : 24 .
" There Are Still Murderers Among Us " . National Jewish Monthly 82 , no . 2 ( October 1967 ) : 8 – 9 .
" Nazi Criminals in Arab States " . In Israel Horizons 15 , no . 7 ( September 1967 ) : 10 – 12 .
Anti @-@ Jewish Agitation in Poland : ( Prewar Fascists and Nazi Collaborators in Unity of Action with Antisemites from the Ranks of the Polish Communist Party ) : A Documentary Report . Bonn : R. Vogel ( 1969 )
" Justice : Why I Hunt Nazis " . In Jewish Observer and Middle East Review 21 , no . 12 ( 24 March 1972 ) : 16 .
= Crag martin =
The crag martins are four species of small passerine birds in the genus Ptyonoprogne of the swallow family . They are the Eurasian crag martin ( P. rupestris ) , the pale crag martin ( P. obsoleta ) , the rock martin ( P. fuligula ) and the dusky crag martin ( P. concolor ) . They are closely related to each other , and have formerly sometimes been considered to be one species . They are closely related to the Hirundo barn swallows and are placed in that genus by some authorities . These are small swallows with brown upperparts , paler underparts without a breast band , and a square tail with white patches . They can be distinguished from each other on size , the colour shade of the upperparts and underparts , and minor plumage details like throat colour . They resemble the sand martin , but are darker below , and lack a breast band .
These are species of craggy mountainous habitats , although all three will also frequent human habitation . The African rock martin and the south Asian dusky crag martin are resident , but the Eurasian crag martin is a partial migrant ; birds breeding in southern Europe are largely resident , but some northern breeders and most Asian birds are migratory , wintering in north Africa or India . They do not normally form large breeding colonies , but are more gregarious outside the breeding season . These martins build neat mud nests under cliff overhangs or in crevices in their mountain homes , and have readily adapted to the artificial cliffs provided by buildings and motorway bridges . Up to five eggs , white with dark blotches at the wider end , may be laid , and a second clutch is common . Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight , and patrol cliffs near the breeding site with a slow hunting flight as they seek their prey . They may be hunted by falcons and infected with mites and fleas , but their large ranges and populations mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened , and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The four Ptyonoprogne species are the Eurasian crag martin ( P. rupestris ) described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769 , the pale crag martin ( P. obsoleta ) , described by Jean Cabanis in 1850 , the rock martin ( P. fuligula ) , described by German zoologist Martin Lichtenstein in 1842 , and the dusky crag martin ( P. concolor ) formally described in 1832 as Hirundo concolor by British soldier and ornithologist William Henry Sykes . They were moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow .
These are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . Ptyonoprogne species construct a mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; They resemble the Hirundo species in that they make open cup nests , whereas Delichon martins build closed cups , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows , have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel . The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed , but a DNA analysis showed that a coherent enlarged Hirundo genus should contain all the mud @-@ builder genera . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the DNA research showed that if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off .
The small , pale northern subspecies of crag martin found in the mountains of North Africa and the Arabian peninsula is now usually split as the pale crag martin , Ptyonoprogne obsoleta . The remaining birds are now identified as Eurasian crag martin .
= = Description = =
These martins are 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with drab brown or grey plumage and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are similar , but juveniles show pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The species differ in plumage shades and size , Eurasian crag martin being significantly larger than the others . The flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides . The songs of these birds are simple twitterings , and contact calls include a high @-@ pitched twee or chi , chi , and a tshir or trrt call like that of the house martin .
These drab martins can only be confused with each other , or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . Even the smaller Ptyonoprogne species are slightly larger and more robust than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , and have the white tail spots which are absent from the Riparia martins . Where the ranges of Ptyonoprogne species overlap , the Eurasian crag martin is darker , browner and 15 % larger than the rock martin , and larger and paler , particularly on its underparts , than the dusky crag martin . The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives . In the east of its range , the rock martin always has lighter , more contrasted underparts than the dusky crag martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
These are exclusively Old World species . The rock martin breeds throughout Africa and through the Middle East as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan , and is replaced by the dusky crag martin further east in India and Indochina . The Eurasian crag martin breeds from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe , the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China . Northern populations of the Eurasian crag martin are migratory , with European birds wintering in north Africa , Senegal , Ethiopia and the Nile Valley , and Asian breeders going to southern China , the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East . Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean , and , like populations in warmer areas such as India , Turkey and Cyprus , just move to lower ground after breeding . The dusky crag martin and rock are largely resident apart from local movements after breeding , when many birds descend to lower altitudes , although some pale northern rock martins from North African and southern Arabian may winter further south alongside the local subspecies in Ethiopia , Mali and Mauritania .
The crag martins mainly breed on dry , warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges , and the Eurasian crag martin reaches 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 500 ft ) in Central Asia . The use of buildings as artificial cliffs has enabled breeding expansion into lowland areas , particularly for the two tropical species , and the rock martin breeds in desert towns . In South Asia , migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings in winter .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Martin pairs often nest alone , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form . These are more common south of the Sahara , where up to 40 rock martin pairs together have been recorded . Crag martins aggressively defend their nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with soft dry grass or sometimes feathers . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or shaped as a bowl like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . Usually two broods are raised , and the rock martin may nest for a third time in a season .
The clutch is two to five eggs that are white with brownish , ruddy or grey blotches particularly at the wide end . The egg size ranges from an average 20 @.@ 2 x 14 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 80 x 0 @.@ 55 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 08 g ( 0 @.@ 073 oz ) for the Eurasian crag martin to 17 @.@ 7 x 13 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 70 x 0 @.@ 51 in ) with a weight of 1 @.@ 57 g ( 0 @.@ 06 oz ) for the dusky crag martin . Both adults incubate the eggs for 13 – 19 days to hatching , and feed the chicks at least ten times an hour until they fledge 24 – 27 days later . The fledged young continue to be fed by the parents for some time after they can fly .
= = = Feeding = = =
Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight , although they will occasionally feed on the ground . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills and usually feeding close to the nesting territory . To maintain the high frequency with which the young are fed , the adults mainly forage in the best hunting zones in the immediate vicinity of the nest , since the further they have to fly to catch insects , the longer it would take to bring food to the chicks in the nest . At other times , they may hunt low over open ground . The insects taken depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes and other flies , aerial spiders , ants and beetles . Martins often feed alone , but sizeable groups may congregate if food is abundant , such as where insects are fleeing grass fires . The Eurasian crag martin may take aquatic species such as stoneflies , caddisflies and pond skaters . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The crag martins may be hunted by fast , agile birds of prey such as the African hobby or Eurasian hobby that specialise in catching swallows and martins in flight , and by other falcons such as the peregrine and Taita falcons . Crows may attack migrating Eurasian crag martins , and that species also treats common kestrels , Eurasian sparrowhawks , Eurasian jays and common ravens as predators if they approach the nesting cliffs . The dusky crag martin has been recorded in the diet of the greater false vampire bat , Megaderma lyra .
Crag martins may host parasites , including blood @-@ sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus such as D. chelidonis , and the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes . Invertebrate species first found in nests of crag martin species include the tick Argas ( A. ) africolumbae from a rock martin nest and the fly Ornithomya rupes and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from European crag martin nests .
= = Status = =
All four species have extensive ranges and large populations , and the increasing use of artificial nest sites has enabled range expansion . The rock martin often breeds in lowland and desert towns , the Eurasian crag martin 's range is expanding in Austria , Switzerland , the former Yugoslavia , Romania , and Bulgaria , and the dusky crag martin is spreading northeastwards into Guangxi , south into lowland Laos , and westwards to the hills and plains of Sindh . There is also a recent unconfirmed report from Cambodia . Their large ranges and presumed high numbers mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened , and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= Mycena arcangeliana =
Mycena arcangeliana ( commonly known as the angel 's bonnet or the late @-@ season bonnet ) is a species of Mycenaceae fungus . It has been known by a number of scientific names , and its taxonomy is still somewhat disputed . It produces small mushrooms with caps varying in colour from whitish to a darker grey @-@ brown , and stems of an olive @-@ greyish that fade with age . The mushrooms can be mistaken for the similar Mycena flavescens . They have a mild taste , but a strong smell of iodoform ; they are not edible . The species grows on dead wood in autumn months , and can be found throughout Europe .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
Mycena arcangeliana was first described by Giacomo Bresadola in 1904 ; the species was listed along with 41 others found in Pisa , in an article by Egidio Barsali published in the Bollettino Della Societa Botanica Italiana ( Bulletin of the Botanical Society of Italy ) . Authors Roger Phillips and Paul Sterry both describe the name Mycena oortiana as synonymous ; M. oortiana was a name given by Frederich Hora in 1960 based on Robert Kühner 's 1938 name for the variety Mycena arcangeliana var. oortiana , an invalid name . Phillips had earlier considered M. arcangeliana var. oortiana to be a synonym of M. oortiana , and MycoBank lists it as a synonym of Lucien Quélet 's Mycena olivascens . However , Index Fungorum lists both M. olivascens and Kühner 's Mycena vitilis var. olivascens as synonyms of M. arcangeliana . The specific epithet arcangeliana may be in honour of Giovanni Arcangeli , who collected the species in the Orto botanico di Pisa . M. arcangeliana is commonly known as the angel 's bonnet , or the late @-@ season bonnet .
Within the genus Mycena , it is found in the section Filipedes , on account of the cheilocystidia covered with evenly spaced , short cylindrical excrescences , and its size and occurrence on wood . It can be separated from the other members of the section on account of a cap with yellowish to olive shades , gills with pinkish hints and stems with vaguely violet colouration .
= = Description = =
Mycena arcangeliana mushrooms have caps of between 1 and 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 and 2 in ) in diameter which are conical in shape in younger mushrooms , becoming bell @-@ shaped with a broad umbo in older specimens . The oldest mushrooms have caps which are almost completely flat . The colouration varies from a whitish to a darker grey @-@ brown , sometimes with tints of olive or yellow , and it has furrows on the typically translucent surface . However , it is hygrophanous , and dries to a much paler colour . The cylindrical stem measures between 20 and 40 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 and 2 in ) in length , by 1 and 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 and 0 @.@ 08 in ) in width . In young mushrooms , it is an olive @-@ greyish colour , tinted with lilac , though it fades as the mushroom ages . The very top of the stem is a whitish colour , while the base is covered in white hairs . It is smooth and silky in texture , and there is no ring . The crowded gills are adnexed , that is , connected to the stem by only part of their depth , and are white in colour , turning pinkish as the mushroom ages . The gill edges are somewhat toothed . The flesh has a mild taste , but a strong smell of iodoform . In the cap , it is white , while in the stem , it is grey . The mushrooms are not edible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Mycena arcangeliana mushrooms leave a whitish spore print , while the spores are shaped like apple seeds and amyloid , meaning that they stain a dark colour in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The basidia are four @-@ spored . They measure from between 7 and 8 micrometres ( µm ) by 4 @.@ 5 and 5 µm . There are a large number of hyaline cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gills ) which are club @-@ shaped or ovate . They have thin cell walls , and are covered in grain @-@ like warts . The pleurocystidia ( the cystidia on the face of the gill ) are similar in appearance . The pileipellis is made up of wart @-@ covered hyphae measuring between 2 and 4 @.@ 5 µm wide and up to 30 µm long . The outermost layer of the stem is made up hyphae with short , cylindrical hairs . The hyphae have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena arcangeliana is somewhat similar to the less common Mycena flavescens , a species found in both hardwood and softwood forests on the floor among leaf or needle litter or grassland . M. flavescens typically has a whiter cap and a smell reminiscent of radish . M. peyerimhoffi , known from Algeria , has a similar cap colour to M. arcangeliana , but has a yellow stem . M. limonia , known from the Netherlands , has a lemon @-@ yellow cap and stem and more gills . Another species similar in appearance is M. metata , which has a sweet taste .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena arcangeliana grows on dead deciduous wood , favouring beech and ash , where it grows in " small troops " . It has also been recorded less frequently on conifers , bracken and Japanese knotweed . There have been reports from grassland , but these are probably a misidentification of M. flavescens . It is infrequently to commonly found in late summer to autumn months in the British Isles , though it is more commonly encountered in the south . Its distribution is fairly widespread elsewhere in Europe , though it is less common . It has been listed as vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Fungi in Norway . " Mycena oortiana " , which was rarely found in mycological literature , was described as a predominantly west @-@ European species ; however , M. arcangeliana has also been recorded in Scandinavia , Greenland , and Italy , from where it was first described .
= Ayudhapurusha =
Ayudhapurusha is the anthropomorphic depiction of a divine weapon in Hindu art . Ayudhapurushas are sometimes considered as partial incarnates of their divine owners .
The sex of the personified weapon is determined by the gender of the weapon in the Sanskrit language . The suffix " purusha " ( man ) is added to masculine weapons and " devi " ( goddess ) to female ones . The weapons Shakti , Heti ( a Hatchet @-@ like weapon ) and Gada ( mace ) , especially Kaumodaki ( the mace of Vishnu ) , Dhanus / Dhanushya ( " bow " ) are women . Chakra , especially Vishnu 's Sudarshana Chakra ( discus of Vishnu ) , Shankha ( " conch " ) , Padma ( lotus ) , Ankusha ( elephant goad ) , Pasha ( noose ) , Trisula ( trident ) , vajra ( thunderbolt ) , Khadga ( sword ) , Danda ( a sceptre or club ) , Bana / Shara ( " arrow " ) and Bhindi ( sling ) are depicted male .
While weapons are personified in ancient Hindu epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the ayudhapurushas were depicted in sculpture starting from the Gupta era . They might be depicted as humans with the weapons against them or holding the weapon or with the weapon on their head or emerging from it . The most popular ayudhapurushas are associated with the god Vishnu and appear in his iconography .
= = Textual references = =
The first instance , where weapons are personified in Hindu scriptures , appears in the Hindu epic Ramayana . Two daughters of the Prajapati Daksha , Jaya and Vijaya are married to the sage Krisasva . For destruction of Asuras ( " demons " ) , Jaya bore fifty sons - powerful divine weapons who could take any form . Suprabha gave birth to fifty invincible sons who were called Samharas ( " destroyers " ) . These magical weapons were known as Shastra @-@ devatas – the gods of weapons - and were given to king Kaushika , who later became the sage Vishwamitra . The weapons served him and later his pupil Rama , an avatar of Vishnu . The Mahabharata records at the time of the chakra @-@ musala war , the weapons of Krishna – another avatar of Vishnu and his brother Balarama appear in human form from the heavens to watch the battle . They include Krishna 's Sudarshana Chakra and Kaumodaki , and Balarama 's Samvartak plough and Saunanda musala ( club ) . The Duta @-@ Vakya ( " envoy 's message " ) of the Sanskrit playwright Bhasa ( c . 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE ) describes an episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna goes as an envoy to Kauravas ' court to broker peace between them and their cousins the Pandavas , on behalf of the latter . However , when the Kauravas try to arrest Krishna , Krishna assumes his Vishvarupa ( all pervading " Universal form " ) and summons his weapons , who appear as humans . The ayudhapurushas include the Sudarshana Chakra , the bow Saranga , Kaumodaki , Panchajanya the conch and Nandaka the sword , elaborate descriptions of whom are found in the text . This is the only Sanskrit play that depicts the weapons on stage as humans . The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa mentions about dwarf @-@ like ayudhapurushas denoting Vishnu 's chakra , lotus , sword , bow and mace .
= = Textual descriptions = =
Treatises such as the Vishnudharmottara Purana and various Agamas describe the iconography of the ayudhapurushas . Shakti is depicted as a red @-@ hued woman seated on a wolf . The Danda is a fearful black @-@ complexioned man with wrathful red eyes . The Khadga is also a dark and angry man . Pasha is depicted as a male snake with seven hoods . Dhvaja ( " banner " ) is a yellow @-@ coloured strong man with his mouth wide open . The Trishula is a handsome black @-@ complexioned man with lovely eyebrows . The Shankha is described as a white male with adorable eyes . The Bana ( arrow ) is a red @-@ coloured man with beautiful eyes , however the Vaikhaashagama describes it to be a black @-@ complexioned eunuch with three eyes , dressed in white clothes and riding on the wind . The Dhanus ( bow ) is a red lotus coloured female with a stringed bow on her head . The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes Chakra as man with a fat belly and round eyes , decorated with various ornaments and holding a chamara ( chowry ) and with Vishnu 's left hand on his head . The slim @-@ waisted woman Gada holds a chowry in her hands and is adored with ornaments , with Vishnu 's right hand resting on her head .
While the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted as a subordinate figure with Vishnu , in many South Indian Vishnu temples , the Chakra as an ayudhapurusha is worshipped in its own shrine attached to the central temple . Here , the Chakra is regarded as an aspect of Vishnu and called Chakra @-@ rupi Vishnu – Vishnu in the form of the Chakra . In the outline of the ordinary circular Chakra with a hexagram inscribed in it ( shat @-@ kona @-@ chakra ) – stands the personified Chakra in fierce form generally with eight arms . Often , Yoga @-@ Narasimha , the lion @-@ man ferocious aspect of Vishnu is depicted on the back of the Chakra sculpture . The Shilparatna describes that the fierce Chakra @-@ rupi Vishnu should hold in his hands gada , chakra , a snake , a lotus , musala ( a pestle ) , tramsha , pasha and ankusha . He is depicted as radiant as the sun and with protruding tusks from the sides of his mouth . Another description describes the Chakra as a sixteen @-@ armed fierce form of Vishnu . He holds a chakra , shankha , bow , parashu , asi ( sword ) , arrow , trishula , pasha , ankusha , agni ( fire ) , khadga ( sword ) , shield , hala ( plough ) , musala , gada and kunta . Three @-@ eyed and golden @-@ coloured with protruding tusks , the Chakra stands in the shat @-@ kona @-@ chakra , with Narasimha on the reverse of the sculpture .
= = Sculptural depictions = =
An ayudhapurusha is generally depicted as a two @-@ armed figure , prescribed to shown with a karanda mukuta ( conical crown ) . An ayudhapurusha may be depicted as a dwarf , concurring with Kalidasa 's description in the Raghuvamsa . Such icons are present in Rajgir , Mahabalipuram and Badami . They may be depicted as normal humans as in Udayagiri Caves and in the Sheshashayi Vishnu panel of the Gupta era ( 320 – 550 CE ) Deogarh temple . At Deogarh , the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted against the Chakra / wheel and the Kaumodaki holding a gada . In another instance , the ayudhapurushas are depicted without their weapons , though C. Sivaramamurti opines that there is enough evidence to identify them as ayudhapurushas . The human Chakrapurusha depicted against the Chakra is seen on the chakra @-@ vikrama coin of the Gupta ruler Chandragupta II where the Chakrapurusha – here denoting the wheel of sovereignty – is dedicated bestowing the three pelets of sovereignty to the king . The Gupta era and medieval sculptures often depict the ayudhapurushas in normal human proportions . Chola and Chalukya sculptors continued the trend , mostly focussing on the Sudarshana Chakra in a fierce multiple @-@ armed human form . Sometimes , the ayudhapurusha is depicted emerging from the associated weapon .
In another variation , the ayushapurusha stands besides the deity with folded hands ( in anjali mudra posture ) with the weapon depicted on the head as part of the crown or the weapon mark on the forehead . The Sudarshana Chakra with the Chakra on
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his head in Deogarh and Chola era bronzes of Chakra and Gada in similar fashion are some illustrations .
In the last variation of the ayudhapurusha iconography , he / she holds the associated weapon . Common examples are the Sudarshana Chakra , the Shankha @-@ purusha and Kaumodaki , mostly found in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal art . Sharanga with the bow in his hand and Nandaka with the sword as in Deogarh are other examples .
In some cases , the weapon may be depicted as in both anthropomorphic and their true form . While the central icon of Vishnu may hold the weapons , the ayudhapurushas of the same weapon may stand at the feet of the central icon .
= Black Hebrew Israelites =
Black Hebrew Israelites ( also called Black Hebrews , African Hebrew Israelites , and Hebrew Israelites ) are groups of African Americans who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites . Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of both Christianity and Judaism . They are not recognized as Jews by the greater Jewish community . Many choose to identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews to indicate their claimed historic connections .
Many Black Hebrew groups were founded in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , from Kansas to New York City , by both Americans and West Indian immigrants . In the mid @-@ 1980s , the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 . In the 1990s , the Alliance of Black Jews ( which is no longer operating ) estimated that there were 200 @,@ 000 African @-@ American Jews ; this estimate was based on a 1990 survey conducted by the Council of Jewish Federations . The exact number of Black Hebrews within that surveyed group remains unspecified .
= = Overview = =
While Black Christians traditionally have identified spiritually with the Children of Israel , they never claimed to be physical descendants of the Israelites . In the late 19th century among some African Americans , an identification with the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification as ancient Hebrews . One of the first groups of Black Hebrews , the Church of God and Saints of Christ , was founded in 1896 in Kansas , but it retained elements of a messianic connection to Jesus . During the following decades , many more Black Hebrew congregations were established , some without any connection to Christianity .
After World War I , for example , Wentworth Arthur Matthew , an immigrant from Saint Kitts , founded a Black Hebrew congregation in Harlem , claiming descent from the ancient Israelites . He called it the Commandment Keepers of the Living God . Similar groups selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the Black church . He incorporated it in 1930 and moved the congregation to Brooklyn , where he later founded the Israelite Rabbinical Seminary , where Black Hebrew rabbis have been educated and ordained .
The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably . The differences are so great that historian James Tinney has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups : Black Jews , who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals ; Black Hebrews , who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism ; and Black Israelites , who are most nationalistic and furthest from traditional Judaism .
Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics . Anthropologist James E. Landing , author of Black Judaism , distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement , which he refers to as Black Judaism , from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black ( " black Judaism " ) . Significantly , it does not depend on documented lineage to Jewish ancestors nor to recognized Orthodox or Conservative conversions :
Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized ( congregational ) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews , Israelites , or Hebrews ... in a manner that seems unacceptable to the " whites " of the world 's Jewish community , primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity . Thus " Black Judaism , " as defined here , stands distinctly apart from " black Judaism , " or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world 's Jewish community , such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother . " Black Judaism " has been a social movement ; " black Judaism " has been an isolated social phenomenon .
Landing 's definition , and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism , have been criticized .
= = Groups = =
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established . In Harlem alone , at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931 . The Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest @-@ known Black Hebrew group and the Church of God and Saints of Christ is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations . The Commandment Keepers , founded by Wentworth Arthur Matthew in New York , are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism . The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem are widely known for having moved from the United States , primarily Chicago , to Israel in the late @-@ 20th century .
= = = Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations = = =
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations . The group was founded by F. S. Cherry in Chattanooga , Tennessee , in 1886 , and later moved to Philadelphia . Theologically , the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity , counting the Bible — including the New Testament — and the Talmud as essential scriptures . The rituals of Cherry ’ s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions . For example , during prayer the men wore skullcaps and congregants faced east . In addition , members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork . Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and gospel singing . After Cherry 's death , members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son .
= = = Church of God and Saints of Christ = = =
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in Lawrence , Kansas , in 1896 by African @-@ American William Saunders Crowdy . The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899 , and Crowdy later relocated to Washington , D.C. , in 1903 . After Crowdy 's death in 1908 , the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer , who moved the organization 's headquarters to its permanent location in Belleville , Virginia , in 1921 . In 1936 , the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 " tabernacles " ( congregations ) and 37 @,@ 000 members . Howard Zebulun Plummer succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931 . His son , Levi Solomon Plummer , became the church 's leader in 1975 . Since 2001 , the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy , Jr . , a great @-@ grandson of William Saunders Crowdy . As of 2005 , it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa .
The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as " the oldest African @-@ American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism " . Founded by American William Saunders Crowdy in Kansas in 1896 , it teaches that all Jews had been black originally , and that African Americans are descendants of the lost tribes of Israel . Members believe that Jesus was neither God nor the son of God , but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet . They also consider William Saunders Crowdy , their founder in Kansas , to be a prophet .
The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity . They have adopted rites drawn from both the Old Testament and the New Testament . Its Old Testament observances include use of the Jewish calendar , celebration of Passover , circumcision of infant males , commemoration of the Sabbath on Saturday , and wearing of yarmulkes . Its New Testament rites include baptism ( immersion ) and footwashing , both of which have Old Testament origins .
= = = Commandment Keepers = = =
Wentworth Arthur Matthew founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919 . Matthew was influenced by the non @-@ black Jews he met and by Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League . Garvey used the Biblical Jews in exile as a metaphor for black people in North America . One of the accomplishments of Garvey 's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa , Ethiopia in particular . When Matthew later learned about the Beta Israel — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them . But , Israel recognizes the Beta Israel people as being descended from historic Jews by ancestry .
Today the Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays . Members observe kashrut , circumcise newborn boys and celebrate Bar and Bat Mitzvahs , and their synagogue has a mechitza to separate men and women during worship .
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba . Matthew taught that " the Black man is a Jew " and " all genuine Jews are Black men " , but he valued non @-@ black Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries . Matthew maintained cordial ties with non @-@ black Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue .
Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College ( later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy ) in Brooklyn . He ordained more than 20 rabbis , who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean . He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem , and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street .
Matthew died in 1973 , sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation . Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson , David Matthew Doré , as the new spiritual leader . Doré was 16 years old at the time . In 1975 , the synagogue 's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader . Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s , when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building . Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 , only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue . In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building , while various factions among former members sued one another .
Beside the Harlem group , there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area , and others throughout North America and in Israel . Since 2000 , seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew .
= = = African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem = = =
Ben Ammi Ben @-@ Israel established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in Chicago , Illinois , in 1966 , at a time of black nationalism and the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement ( 1954 – 68 ) . In 1969 , after a sojourn in Liberia , Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to Israel . Over the next 20 years , nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel . As of 2006 , about 2 @,@ 500 Hebrew Israelites live in Dimona and two other towns in the Negev region of Israel , where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews . In addition , there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities , including Chicago , St. Louis , and Washington , D.C.
The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the Tribe of Judah who were exiled from the Land of Israel after the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE . The group incorporates elements of African @-@ American culture into their interpretation of the Bible . They do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the Talmud . The Black Hebrews observe Shabbat and biblically ordained Jewish holidays such as Yom Kippur and Passover . Men wear tzitzit on their African print shirts , women follow the niddah ( biblical laws concerning menstruation ) , and newborn boys are circumcised . In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible , the Black Hebrews follow a strictly vegan diet and wear only natural fabrics . Most men have more than one wife , and birth control is not permitted .
When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969 , they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return , which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship . But , the Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship because they could not prove Jewish descent and had not undergone Orthodox conversion . The Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits . The group accused the Israeli government of racist discrimination . In 1981 , a group of American civil rights activists led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of the Black Hebrews ' situation . No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States , but some individual members were deported for working illegally .
Some Black Hebrews renounced their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations . In 1990 , Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews ' legal status in Israel . Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services . The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government , which helped them build a school and additional housing . In 2003 the agreement was revised , and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel .
In 2009 , Elyakim Ben @-@ Israel became the first Black Hebrew to gain Israeli citizenship . The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship .
The Black Hebrews of Israel have become well @-@ known for their gospel choir , which tours throughout Israel and the United States . The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities . In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer Whitney Houston visited them in Dimona . In 2006 , Eddie Butler , a Black Hebrew , was chosen by the Israeli public to represent Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest .
= = Allegations of black supremacy and racism = =
In late 2008 , the Southern Poverty Law Center ( SPLC ) described as black supremacist what it called " the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement " . It wrote that the members of such groups " believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified , deserving only death or slavery " . The SPLC also said that " most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti @-@ Semitic and do not advocate violence " .
The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the Nation of Yahweh and the Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ . Also , the Anti @-@ Defamation League has written that the " 12 Tribes of Israel " website , maintained by a Black Hebrew group , promotes black supremacy .
= Utah Beach =
Utah Beach was the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on June 6 , 1944 ( D @-@ Day ) , during World War II . The westernmost of the five landing beaches , Utah is on the Cotentin Peninsula , west of the mouths of the Douve and Vire rivers . Amphibious landings at Utah were undertaken by United States Army troops , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the United States Navy and Coast Guard as well as elements from the British , Canadian , Dutch and other Allied navies .
The objective at Utah was to secure a beachhead on the Cotentin Peninsula , the location of important port facilities at Cherbourg . The amphibious assault , primarily by the US 4th Infantry Division and 70th Tank Battalion , was supported by airborne
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, among them " the Singing Brakeman " Jimmie Rodgers , Moon Mullican , and Roy Acuff . In 1937 Williams got into a fight with his physical education coach about exercises the coach wanted him to do . His mother subsequently demanded that the school board terminate the coach ; when they refused , the family moved to Montgomery , Alabama . Payne and Williams lost touch , though eventually , Payne also moved to Montgomery , where he died in poverty in 1939 . Williams later credited him as his only teacher .
= = = Early career = = =
In July 1937 , the Williams and McNeil families opened a boarding house on South Perry Street in downtown Montgomery . It was at this time that Williams decided to change his name informally from Hiram to Hank , a name he said was better suited to his desired career in country music . During the same year he participated in a talent show at the Empire Theater . He won the first prize of $ 15 , singing his first original song " WPA Blues " . Williams wrote the lyrics and used the tune of Riley Puckett 's " Dissatisfied . " He never learned to read music and , for the rest of his career , based his compositions in storytelling . After school and on weekends Williams sang and played his Silvertone guitar on the sidewalk in front of the WSFA radio studios . His recent win at the Empire Theater and the street performances caught the attention of WSFA producers who occasionally invited him to perform on air . So many listeners contacted the radio station asking for more of " the singing kid " that the producers hired him to host his own 15 @-@ minute show twice a week for a weekly salary of US $ 15 ( equivalent to US $ 246 @.@ 90 in 2016 ) .
In August 1938 , Elonzo Williams was temporarily released from the hospital . He showed up unannounced at the family 's home in Montgomery . Lillie was unwilling to let him reclaim his position at the head of the household , so he stayed only long enough to celebrate Williams ' birthday in September before he returned to the medical center in Louisiana .
Williams ' successful radio show fueled his entry into a music career . His salary was enough for him to start his own band , which he dubbed the Drifting Cowboys . The original members were guitarist Braxton Schuffert , fiddler Freddie Beach , and comedian Smith " Hezzy " Adair . James E. ( Jimmy ) Porter was the youngest , being only 13 when he started playing steel guitar for Williams . Arthur Whiting was also a guitarist for The Drifting Cowboys . The band traveled throughout central and southern Alabama performing in clubs and at private parties . James Ellis Garner later played fiddle for him . Lillie Williams became the Drifting Cowboys ' manager . Williams dropped out of school in October 1939 so that the Drifting Cowboys could work full @-@ time . Lillie Williams began booking show dates , negotiating prices and driving them to some of their shows . Now free to travel without Williams ' schooling taking precedence , the band could tour as far away as western Georgia and the Florida Panhandle . The band started to play in theaters before the start of the movies and later in honky @-@ tonks . Williams ' alcohol problem started during the tours , on occasion spending an important part of the show revenues . Meanwhile , between tour schedules , Williams returned to Montgomery to host his radio show .
= = = 1940s = = =
The American entry into World War II in 1941 marked the beginning of hard times for Williams . All his band members were drafted to serve in the military , while he got a 4 @-@ F deferment from the military draft after falling from a bull during a rodeo in Texas . Many of their replacements refused to continue playing in the band because of Williams ' worsening alcoholism . He continued to show up for his radio show intoxicated , so in August 1942 radio station WSFA fired him for " habitual drunkenness . " During one of his concerts Williams met backstage his idol , Grand Ole Opry star Roy Acuff , who later warned him of the dangers of alcohol , saying , " You 've got a million @-@ dollar talent , son , but a ten @-@ cent brain . "
He worked for the rest of the war in a shipbuilding company in Mobile , Alabama , as well as singing in bars for soldiers . In 1943 Williams met Audrey Sheppard on a medicine show in Banks , Alabama . Williams and Sheppard lived and worked together in Mobile , Sheppard later told Williams that she wanted to move to Montgomery with him and start a band together and help him regain his radio show . The couple were married in 1944 in a Texaco Station in Andalusia , Alabama , by a justice of the peace . The marriage was declared illegal , since Sheppard 's divorce from her previous husband did not comply with the legally required sixty @-@ day trial reconciliation .
In 1945 , when he was back in Montgomery , Williams started to perform again for radio station WSFA . He wrote songs weekly to perform during the shows . As a result of the new variety of his repertoire , Williams published his first song book , Original Songs of Hank Williams . The book only listed lyrics , since its main purpose was to attract more audience . It included ten songs : " Mother Is Gone " , " Won 't You Please Come Back " , " My Darling Baby Girl " ( with Audrey Sheppard ) , " Grandad 's Musket " , " I Just Wish I Could Forget " , " Let 's Turn Back the Years " , " Honkey @-@ Tonkey " , " I Loved No One But You " , " A Tramp on the Street " , and " You 'll Love Me Again " . Williams became recognized as a songwriter , Sheppard became his manager and occasionally accompanied him on duets in some of his live concerts .
On September 14 , 1946 , Williams auditioned for Nashville 's Grand Ole Opry but was rejected . After the failure of his audition , Williams and Audrey Sheppard tried to interest the recently formed music publishing firm Acuff @-@ Rose Music . Williams and his wife approached Fred Rose , the president of the company , during one of his habitual ping @-@ pong games at WSM radio studios . Audrey Williams asked Rose if her husband could sing a song for him on that moment , Rose agreed , and he liked Williams ' musical style . Rose signed Williams to a six song contract , and leveraged this deal to sign Williams with Sterling Records . On December 11 , 1946 , in his first recording session , he recorded " Wealth Won 't Save Your Soul " , " Calling You " , " Never Again ( Will I Knock on Your Door ) " , and " When God Comes and Gathers His Jewels " . The recordings " Never Again " and " Honky Tonkin ' " became successful , and earned Williams the attention of MGM Records .
Williams signed with MGM Records in 1947 and released " Move It on Over " , which became a massive country hit . In 1948 he moved to Shreveport , Louisiana , and he joined the Louisiana Hayride , a radio show broadcast that propelled him into living rooms all over the southeast appearing on weekend shows . Williams eventually started to host a show on KWKH and started touring across western Louisiana and eastern Texas , always returning on Saturdays for the weekly broadcast of the Hayride . After a few more moderate hits , in 1949 he released his version of the 1922 Cliff Friend & Irving Mills song " Lovesick Blues " , made popular by Rex Griffin . Williams ' version became a huge country hit ; the song stayed at number one on the Billboard charts over four consecutive months , crossing over to mainstream audiences and gaining Williams a place in the Grand Ole Opry . On June 11 , 1949 , Williams made his debut at the Grand Ole Opry , where he became the first performer to receive six encores . He brought together Bob McNett ( guitar ) , Hillous Butrum ( bass ) , Jerry Rivers ( fiddle ) and Don Helms ( steel guitar ) to form the most famous version of the Drifting Cowboys , earning an estimated US $ 1 @,@ 000 per show ( equivalent to US $ 9 @,@ 945 @.@ 5 in 2016 ) . That year Audrey Williams gave birth to Randall Hank Williams ( Hank Williams , Jr . ) . During 1949 , he joined the first European tour of the Grand Ole Opry , performing in military bases in England , Germany and Azores . Williams released seven hit songs after " Lovesick Blues " , including " Wedding Bells " , " Mind Your Own Business " , " You 're Gonna Change ( Or I 'm Gonna Leave ) " , and " My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It " .
= = = 1950s = = =
In 1950 , Williams began recording as " Luke the Drifter " for his religious @-@ themed recordings , many of which are recitations rather than singing . Fearful that disc jockeys and jukebox operators would hesitate to accept these unusual recordings , Williams used this alias to avoid hurting the marketability of his name . Although the real identity of Luke the Drifter was supposed to be anonymous , Williams often performed part of the material of the recordings on stage . Most of the material was written by Williams , in cases with the help of Fred Rose and his son Wesley . The songs depicted Luke the Drifter traveling around from place to place , narrating stories from different characters and philosophizing about life . Some of the compositions were accompanied by a pipe organ .
Around this time Williams released more hit songs , such as " My Son Calls Another Man Daddy " , " They 'll Never Take Her Love from Me " , " Why Should We Try Anymore " , " Nobody 's Lonesome for Me " , " Long Gone Lonesome Blues " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " , " Moanin ' the Blues " , and " I Just Don 't Like This Kind of Living " . In 1951 " Dear John " became a hit , but it was the flip side , " Cold , Cold Heart " , that became one of his most @-@ recognized songs . A pop cover version by Tony Bennett released the same year stayed on the charts for 27 weeks , peaking at number one .
Hank 's career reached a peak in August – September 1951 with his Hadacol tour of the U.S. with actor Bob Hope and other luminaries . During the tour , Hank was photographed signing a motion picture deal with MGM . In October Hank recorded a demo , " There 's a Tear in My Beer " for a friend , " Big Bill Lister " , who recorded it in the studio . On November 14 , 1951 Hank flew to New York with his steel guitar player Don Helms where he appeared on television for the first time on " The Perry Como Show . " There he and Perry sang " Hey Good Lookin ' . " Photos but no existing footage remain of his appearance .
In November 1951 Hank suffered a fall during a hunting trip with his fiddler Jerry Rivers in Franklin , Tennessee . The fall reactivated his old back pains . He later started to consume painkillers , including morphine , and alcohol to ease the pain . On May 21 , he had been admitted to North Louisiana Sanitarium for the treatment of his alcoholism , leaving on May 24 . On December 13 , 1951 he had a spinal fusion at the Vanderbilt University Hospital , being released on December 24 . He lived during his recovery with his mother in Montgomery , and later moved to Nashville with Ray Price .
During March and April 1952 Hank flew to New York with steel guitarist Don Helms , where he made two appearances with other Grand Ole Opry members on " The Kate Smith Show . " He sang " Cold , Cold Heart , " " Hey Good Lookin ' , " " Glory Bound Train " with other cast members , and a duet , " I Can 't Help It if I 'm Still in Love with You " with Anita Carter . Footage remains of this appearance . That spring he had a brief affair with dancer Bobbi Jett , with whom he fathered a daughter , Jett Williams ( born January 6 , 1953 , two days after his interment ) .
In June 1952 , he recorded " Jambalaya , " " Window Shopping , " " Settin ' the Woods on Fire , " and " I 'll Never Get out of this World Alive . " In early July , Audrey Williams divorced Hank . The next day he recorded " You Win Again " and " I Won 't be Home No More . " About this time he met Billie Jean Jones , a girlfriend of country singer Faron Young , at the Grand Ole Opry . As a girl , Billy had lived down the street from Hank when he was with the Louisiana Hayride , and now Hank began to visit her frequently in Shreveport , causing him to miss many Grand Ole Opry appearances .
On August 11 , 1952 , Williams was dismissed from the Grand Ole Opry for habitual drunkenness and missing shows . He returned to Shreveport , Louisiana to perform in KWKH and WBAM shows and in the Louisiana Hayride , for which he toured again . His performances were acclaimed when he was sober , but despite the efforts of his work associates to get him to shows sober , his abuse of alcohol resulted in occasions when he did not appear or his performances were poor . In October 1952 he married Billie Jean Jones .
During his last recording session on September 23 , 1952 , Williams recorded " Kaw @-@ Liga , " along with " Your Cheatin ' Heart , " " Take These Chains from My Heart , " and " I Could Never be Ashamed of You . " Due to Williams ' excesses , Fred Rose stopped working with him . By the end of 1952 , Williams had started to suffer heart problems . He met Horace " Toby " Marshall in Oklahoma City , who said that he was a doctor . Marshall had been previously convicted for forgery , and had been paroled and released from the Oklahoma State Penitentiary in 1951 . Among other fake titles he said that he was a Doctor of Science . He purchased the DSC title for $ 35 from the Chicago School of Applied Science ; in the diploma , he requested that the DSC be spelled out as " Doctor of Science and Psychology " . Under the name of Dr. C. W. Lemon he prescribed Williams with amphetamines , Seconal , chloral hydrate , and morphine .
= = = Death = = =
Williams was scheduled to perform at the Municipal Auditorium in Charleston , West Virginia on Wednesday December 31 , 1952 . Advance ticket sales totaled US $ 3 @,@ 500 . That day , because of an ice storm in the Nashville area , Williams could not fly , so he hired a college student , Charles Carr , to drive him to the concerts . Carr called the Charleston auditorium from Knoxville to say that Williams would not arrive on time owing to the ice storm and was ordered to drive Williams to Canton , Ohio , for the New Year 's Day concert there .
They arrived at the Andrew Johnson Hotel in Knoxville , Tennessee , where Carr requested a doctor for Williams , as he was feeling the combination of the chloral hydrate and alcohol he had drunk on the way from Montgomery to Knoxville . Dr. P.H. Cardwell injected Williams with two shots of vitamin B12 that also contained a quarter @-@ grain of morphine . Carr and Williams checked out of the hotel ; the porters had to carry Williams to the car , as he was coughing and hiccuping . At around midnight on Thursday January 1 , 1953 , when they crossed the Tennessee state line and arrived in Bristol , Virginia , Carr stopped at a small all @-@ night restaurant and asked Williams if he wanted to eat . Williams said he did not , and those are believed to be his last words . Carr later drove on until he stopped for fuel at a gas station in Oak Hill , West Virginia , where he realized that Williams was dead . The filling station 's owner called the chief of the local police . In Williams ' Cadillac the police found some empty beer cans and unfinished handwritten lyrics .
Dr. Ivan Malinin performed the autopsy at the Tyree Funeral House . Malinin found hemorrhages in the heart and neck and pronounced the cause of death as " insufficiency of the right ventricle of the heart " . That evening , when the announcer at Canton announced Williams ' death to the gathered crowd , they started laughing , thinking that it was just another excuse . After Hawkshaw Hawkins and other performers started singing " I Saw the Light " as a tribute to Williams , the crowd , now realizing that he was indeed dead , sang along . Dr. Malinin also wrote that Williams had been severely beaten and kicked in the groin recently . Also local magistrate Virgil F. Lyons ordered an inquest into Williams ' death concerning the welt that was visible on his head .
His body was transported to Montgomery , Alabama , on Friday January 2 and placed in a silver coffin that was first shown at his mother 's boarding house for two days . His funeral took place on Sunday January 4 at the Montgomery Auditorium , with his coffin placed on the flower @-@ covered stage . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 people passed by the silver coffin , and the auditorium was filled with 2 @,@ 750 mourners . His funeral was said to have been far larger than any ever held for any other citizen of Alabama and the largest event ever held in Montgomery . Williams ' remains are interred at the Oakwood Annex in Montgomery . The president of MGM told Billboard magazine that the company got only about five requests for pictures of Williams during the weeks before his death , but over three hundred afterwards . The local record shops sold out of all of their records , and customers were asking for all records ever released by Williams . His final single , released in November 1952 while he was still alive , was titled " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " . " Your Cheatin ' Heart " was written and recorded in September 1952 but released in late January 1953 after Williams ' death . The song , backed by " Kaw @-@ Liga , " was number one on the country charts for six weeks . It provided the title for the 1964 biographical film of the same name , which starred George Hamilton . " Take These Chains From My Heart " was released in April 1953 and went to # 1 on the country charts . " I Won 't Be Home No More , " released in July , went to # 3 , and an overdubbed demo , " Weary Blues From Waitin , ' " written with Ray Price , went to # 7 .
= = = Personal life = = =
On December 15 , 1944 , Williams married Audrey Sheppard . It was her second marriage and his first . Their son , Randall Hank Williams , who would achieve fame in his own right as Hank Williams , Jr . , was born on May 26 , 1949 . The marriage , always turbulent , rapidly disintegrated , and Williams developed a serious problem with alcohol , morphine , and other painkillers prescribed for him to ease the severe back pain caused by his spina bifida . The couple divorced on May 29 , 1952 .
In June 1952 , Williams moved in with his mother , even as he released numerous hit songs , such as " Half as Much " in April , " Jambalaya ( On the Bayou ) " in July , " Settin ' the Woods on Fire " / " You Win Again " in September , and " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " in November . His drug problems continued to spiral out of control as he moved to Nashville and officially divorced his wife . A relationship with a woman named Bobbie Jett during this period resulted in a daughter , Jett Williams , who was born five days after Williams ' death . His mother adopted Jett , who was made a ward of the state and then adopted by another couple after her grandmother died . Jett Williams did not learn that she was Hank Williams ' daughter until the early 1980s .
On October 18 , 1952 , Williams and Billie Jean Jones Eshlimar were married in Minden , Louisiana by a justice of the peace . It was the second marriage for both ( both being divorced with children ) . The next day two public ceremonies were also held at the New Orleans Civic Auditorium , where 14 @,@ 000 seats were sold for each . After Williams ' death , a judge ruled that the wedding was not legal because Jones Eshlimar 's divorce had not become final until eleven days after she married Williams . Williams ' first wife , Audrey , and his mother , Lillie Williams , were the driving forces behind having the marriage declared invalid and pursued the matter for years . Williams had also married Audrey Sheppard before her divorce was final , on the tenth day of a required sixty @-@ day reconciliation period .
Williams was a lifelong Republican and was a vocal supporter of Dwight D. Eisenhower . According to singer Jo Stafford , he sent Eisenhower a telegram on his birthday prior to the 1952 presidential election informing him that Williams considered it a personal honor to endorse a military figure to lead the nation in its coming future .
= = Legacy = =
Hank is widely recognized as " The King Of Country Music " , a title he shares with fellow artists Roy Acuff and George Strait .
Alabama governor Gordon Persons officially proclaimed September 21 " Hank Williams Day . " The first celebration , in 1954 featured the unveiling of a monument at the Cramton Bowl , that was later placed in the grave site of Williams . The ceremony featured Ferlin Husky interpreting " I Saw the Light . "
Williams had 11 number one hits in his career ( " Lovesick Blues " , " Long Gone Lonesome Blues " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " , " Moanin ' the Blues " , " Cold , Cold Heart " , " Hey , Good Lookin ' " , " Jambalaya ( On the Bayou ) " , " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " , " Kaw @-@ Liga " , " Your Cheatin ' Heart " , and " Take These Chains from My Heart " ) , as well as many other top ten hits .
On February 8 , 1960 , Williams ' star was placed at 6400 Hollywood Boulevard on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1961 and into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1985 . When Downbeat magazine took a poll the year after Hank 's death , he was voted the most popular country and Western performer of all time — ahead of such giants as Jimmie Rodgers , Roy Acuff , Red Foley , and Ernest Tubb . In 1977 , a national organization of CB truck drivers voted " Your Cheatin ' Heart " as their favorite record of all time . In 1987 , he was inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame under the category Early Influence . He was ranked second in CMT 's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music in 2003 , behind only Johnny Cash . His son , Hank Jr . , was ranked on the same list . In 2004 Rolling Stone ranked him number 74 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . The website Acclaimedmusic , which collates recommendations of albums and recording artists , has a year @-@ by @-@ year recommendation for top artists . Hank Williams is ranked first for the decade 1940 – 1949 for his song " I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry " . Many artists of the 1950s and 1960s , including Elvis Presley , Bob Dylan , Jerry Lee Lewis , Merle Haggard , Gene Vincent , Carl Perkins , Ricky Nelson , Jack Scott , and Conway Twitty recorded Williams songs during their careers .
In 2011 Williams ' 1949 MGM number one hit , " Lovesick Blues " , was inducted into the Recording Academy Grammy Hall of Fame . The same year Hank Williams : The Complete Mother ’ s Best Recordings … .Plus ! was honored with a Grammy nomination for Best Historical Album . In 1999 , Williams was inducted into the Native American Music Hall of Fame . On April 12 , 2010 , the Pulitzer Prize Board awarded Williams a posthumous special citation that paid tribute to his " craftsmanship as a songwriter who expressed universal feelings with poignant simplicity and played a pivotal role in transforming country music into a major musical and cultural force in American life " . Keeping his legacy alive , Williams ' son , Hank Williams , Jr . , daughter Jett Williams , grandson Hank Williams III , and granddaughters Hilary Williams and Holly Williams are also country musicians .
In 2006 , a janitor of Sony / ATV Music Publishing found in a dumpster the unfinished lyrics written by Williams that had been found in his car the night he died . The worker claimed that she sold Williams ' notes to a representative of the Honky @-@ Tonk Hall of Fame and the Rock @-@ N @-@ Roll Roadshow . The janitor was accused of theft , but the charges were later dropped when a judge determined that her version of events was true . The unfinished lyrics were later returned to Sony / ATV , which handed them to Bob Dylan in 2008 to complete the songs for a new album . Ultimately , the completion of the album included recordings by Alan Jackson , Norah Jones , Jack White , Lucinda Williams , Vince Gill , Rodney Crowell , Patty Loveless , Levon Helm , Jakob Dylan , Sheryl Crow and Merle Haggard . The album , named The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams was released on October 4 , 2011 .
Material recorded by Williams , originally intended for radio broadcasts to be played when he was on tour , or for its distribution to radio stations nationwide resurfaced throughout time . In 1993 , a double @-@ disc set of recordings of Williams for the Health & Happiness Show was released . Broadcast in 1949 , the shows were recorded for the promotion of Hadacol . The set was re @-@ released on Hank Williams : The Legend Begins in 2011 . The album included unreleased songs . " Fan It " and " Alexander 's Ragtime Band " , recorded by Williams at age fifteen ; the homemade recordings of him singing " Freight Train Blues " , " New San Antonio Rose " , " St. Louis Blues " and " Greenback Dollar " at age eighteen ; and a recording for the 1951 March of Dimes . In May 2014 , further radio recordings by Williams were released . The Garden Spot Programs , 1950 , a series of publicity segments for plant nursery Naughton Farms originally aired in 1950 . The recordings were found by collector George Gimarc at radio station KSIB in Creston , Iowa . Gimarc contacted Williams ' daughter Jett , and Colin Escott , writer of a biography book on Williams . The material was restored and remastered by Michael Graves and released by Omnivore Record
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. There are four designated boat launches located on Jackson Lake and one on Jenny Lake . Additionally , sailboats , windsurfers and water skiing are only allowed on Jackson Lake and no jet skis are permitted on any of the park waterways . All boats are required to comply with various safety regulations including personal flotation devices for each passenger . Only non – motorized watercraft are permitted on the Snake River . All other waterways in the park are off limits to boating , and this includes all alpine lakes and tributary streams of the Snake River .
In 2010 , Grand Teton National Park started requiring all boats to display an Aquatic Invasive Species decal issued by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department or a Yellowstone National Park boat permit . In an effort to keep the park waterways free of various invasive species such as the Zebra mussel and whirling disease , boaters are expected to abide by certain regulations including displaying a self @-@ certification of compliance on the dashboard of any vehicle attached to an empty boat trailer .
Grand Teton National Park fisheries are managed by the Wyoming Fish and Game Department and a Wyoming state fishing license is required to fish all waterways in Grand Teton National Park . The creel limit for trout is restricted to six per day , including no more than three cutthroat trout with none longer than 12 in ( 30 cm ) , while the maximum length of other trout species may not exceed 20 in ( 51 cm ) , except those taken from Jackson Lake , where the maximum allowable length is 24 in ( 61 cm ) . There are also restrictions as to the seasonal accessibility to certain areas as well as the types of bait and fishing tackle permitted .
= = = Winter activities = = =
Visitors are allowed to snowshoe and do cross @-@ country skiing and are not restricted to trails . The Teton Park Road between the Taggart Lake trailhead to Signal Mountain Campground is closed to vehicular traffic during the winter and this section of the road is groomed for skiing and snowshoeing traffic . The park service offers guided snowshoe tours daily from the main headquarters located in Moose , Wyoming . Overnight camping is allowed in the winter in the backcountry with a permit and visitors should inquire about avalanche dangers .
The only location in Grand Teton National Park where snowmobiles are permitted is on Jackson Lake . The National Park Service requires that all snowmobiles use " Best Available Technology " ( BAT ) and lists various models of snowmobiles that are permitted , all of which are deemed to provide the least amount of air pollution and maximize noise abatement . All snowmobiles must be less than 10 years old and have odometer readings of less than 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) . Additionally , snowmobile use is for the purposes of accessing ice fishing locations only . Snowmobile access was permitted between Moran Junction and Flagg Ranch adjacent to the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway so that travelers using the Continental Divide Snowmobile Trail could traverse between Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and Yellowstone National Park . However , in 2009 , winter use planners closed this since unguided snowmobile access into Yellowstone National Park was also discontinued .
= = Tourism = =
= = = Visitor centers = = =
The Craig Thomas Discovery and Visitor Center adjacent to the park headquarters at Moose , Wyoming , is open year round . Opened in 2007 to replace an old , inadequate visitor center , the facility is named for the late U.S. Senator Craig Thomas and designed by acclaimed architect , Bohlin Cywinski Jackson . It was financed with a combination of federal grants and private donations . An adjoining 154 @-@ seat auditorium was opened to the public in April 2011 . To the north at Colter Bay Village on Jackson Lake , the Colter Bay Visitor Center & Indian Arts Museum is open from the beginning of May to the early October . The Colter Bay Visitor Center & Indian Arts Museum has housed the David T. Vernon Indian Arts Exhibit since 1972 . The Colter Bay Visitor Center was built in 1956 and was determined in 2005 to be substandard for the proper care and display of the Indian arts collection . During the winter of 2011 – 2012 , a $ 150 @,@ 000 renovation project was completed at the center and a portion of the arts collection was made available for viewing when the center opened for the season in May 2012 .
South of Moose on the Moose – Wilson Road , the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve Center is located on land that was privately owned by Laurance S. Rockefeller and is situated on Phelps Lake . Donated to Grand Teton National Park and opened to the public in 2008 , the property was once part of the JY Ranch , the first dude ranch in Jackson Hole . At Jenny Lake , the Jenny Lake Visitor Center is open from mid – May to mid – September . This visitor center is within the Jenny Lake Ranger Station Historic District and is the same structure photographer Harrison Crandall had constructed as an art studio in the 1920s .
= = = Accommodations = = =
Contracted through the National Park Service , various concessionaire entities manage lodging facilities inside the park . The largest such facility is the Jackson Lake Lodge , which is managed by the Grand Teton Lodge Company . Located near Jackson Lake Dam , the Jackson Lake Lodge has a total of 385 rooms , meeting facilities , a retail shop and a restaurant . The Grand Teton Lodge Company also manages the Jenny Lake Lodge , which consists of cabins and a restaurant and Colter Bay Village , which has cabins , a restaurant , a grocery store , a laundry and a marina . South of Jackson Lake Dam , the Signal Mountain Lodge is managed by Forever Resorts and provides cabins , a marina , a gas station and a restaurant . The American Alpine Club has hostel dormitory style accommodations primarily reserved for mountain climbers at the Grand Teton Climber 's Ranch . Adjacent to the Snake River in Moose , Wyoming , Dornan 's is an inholding on private land which has year @-@ round cabin accommodations and related facilities . Lodging is also available at the Triangle X Ranch , another private inholding in the park and the last remaining dude ranch within park boundaries .
= Hero of Belarus =
Hero of Belarus ( Belarusian : Герой Беларусi ; Łacinka : Hieroj Biełarusi ; Russian : Герой Беларуси , transliterated Geroy Belarusi ) is the highest title that can be bestowed on a citizen of Belarus . The title is awarded to those " who perform great deeds in the name of freedom , independence and prosperity of the Republic of Belarus " . The deed can be for military performance , economic performance or great service to the State and society . The design of the medal is similar to that of its predecessor , Hero of the Soviet Union . Similar titles to the Hero of Belarus include the Russian Hero of the Russian Federation , Ukrainian Hero of Ukraine , and Uzbek Hero of Uzbekistan . Since its creation , the title has been awarded to ten people .
= = Legislation = =
The title and other Belarusian state awards , their creation , nomination and awarding , are regulated by a set of legal documents : Belarusian Constitution , Law N 288 @-@ З " About state awards of the Republic of Belarus " and presidential decrees .
The title was created by the Belarus Supreme Soviet on April 13 , 1995 , with the passage of Resolution N 3726 @-@ XII , titled " System of State Awards for the Republic of Belarus " . Alongside the Hero of Belarus title , the resolution authorized the creation of medals , orders , and titles that can be presented by the Belarusian government . The creation of the awards was a way to honor those who have made valuable contributions to Belarus , irrespective of whether they were performed by a citizen or a foreigner .
This resolution was outlawed and replaced by Law N 288 @-@ З on May 18 , 2004 .
= = Recommendation process and awarding = =
To be considered for title , a person must perform a deed that greatly benefits the state and Belarusian society at large . The title can be awarded to those serving in the military , public service or private enterprise . It can only be awarded once to an individual , and can be awarded posthumously . The official criteria are stated in Chapter 2 , Article 5 of Law N 288 @-@ З . Chapter 3 , Article 60 of Law N 288 @-@ З allows any group ( association ) of workers to submit a recommendation ( petition ) for an individual to be awarded the title . Governmental bodies , the National Assembly , the Council of Ministers , cabinet officials and public unions , among others , are also eligible to submit nominations for the title . The candidate is evaluated , and if deemed worthy , the nomination is forwarded to the Council of Ministers and then , after having been allowed by the Governmental Secretariat of the Belarusian Security Council , to the President of the Republic .
Under the Belarus Constitution ( Part 4 , Chapter 3 , Article 84 ) , the President of the Republic has the power to bestow state awards . To announce an award , the President issues a decree conferring the title to a person . Within two months , the title will be presented by the President in a formal setting , usually at the Presidential Palace in the capital city of Minsk . A certificate ( gramota ) will also be presented to the recipient , signed by the President of the Republic .
= = Privileges = =
Initially , social privileges for those , who achieved Hero of Belarus , according to the Resolution of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus under April 13 , 1995 N 3727 @-@ XII , were equal to the privileges for people , whom Hero of Soviet Union , Hero of Socialist Labour , Order of Glory or Order of Labor Glory was given . These privileges are regulated by Resolution of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus under February 21 , 1995 N 3599 @-@ XII .
Now this question is regulated by Law of the Republic of Belarus under June 14 , 2007 N 239 @-@ З " About social privileges , rights and guarantees to a definite category of citizens " .
According to it , Heroes of Belarus have rights :
of free supplying with medicines in the list of main medicines , which are given under recipes in hospitals ;
of free production and repairing of dentures in governmental organizations domiciliary and of free supplying with other technical means of rehabilitation in accordance with the Governmental register of technical means of social rehabilitation ;
of pecuniary aid for recovery or , instead of pecuniary aid , of free out @-@ of @-@ turn sanitary @-@ resort recovery ;
of free trip on all kinds of urban transport ( except taxi ) irrespective of domicile ;
of free trip on the transport ( railway , water , auto , but not taxi ) of suburban traffic ;
of one free roundtrip by rail , airplane , or truck per year of interurban traffic ;
rent @-@ free housing , utilities , and services within 20 square meters of living space ;
of free home phone installation if the extension of the subscriber line is less than 500 meters ;
of free usage of the home phone ( except interurban and international talks ) .
The consumptions , connected with these privileges , are financed from means of republican and local budgets and of governmental social insurance .
= = Construction and display = =
The recipient of the title is given a medal called the Medal of the Hero of Belarus ( Belarusian : медаль Героя Беларусі , Russian : медаль Героя Беларуси ) . The star and suspension are made of gold , and thus it is nicknamed " Gold Star " , as was its predecessor , the Hero of the Soviet Union . The star has a total diameter of 33 millimeters , and is attached to a rectangular suspension device ( boot tree ) . In the center of the rectangle is a ribbon of two sections of red and one section of green . The red and green bars on the ribbon evoke the design and colors of the national flag . The amount of gold is set at 585 @-@ 1 Test , with the total weight of the medal being 19 grams . The present design was enacted into law by Presidential Decree Number 516 on September 6 , 1999 .
The design of the medal is modeled after one used for the Hero of the Soviet Union . Unlike the Hero of the Soviet Union , Hero of Socialist Labor and the Hero of the Russian Federation titles , there is no engraving on the reverse of the star . The ribbon also copies the Soviet Hero medal 's ribbon , since a flag design was also used to make the ribbon of that medal . The medal is always worn in full on the left side of the breast above all other medals and orders . Chapter 4 , Article 69 of Law N 288 @-@ З states that any awards and titles presented by the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR must be placed after awards from the Republic of Belarus . The same one can reed in the Presidential decree N 168 on April 8 , 2005 .
= = = 1996 medal = = =
When the title was created , a suggested medal was drafted and designed by the government . The major difference between this medal and the current medal is the design of the suspension and the star medallion at the bottom : the top suspension is longer than the bottom , and the bottom star is outlined differently and is adorned with rubies . The suspension was made from gold @-@ plated silver , while the suspension of the current medal is made from gold , as the medal . The design of the star evokes the Marshal 's Star , which Soviet Marshals wore around their necks . This medal was adopted by Presidential Decree Number 26 on May 15 , 1996 .
= = Recipients = =
The first award in history was given to Uladzimir Karvat ( posthumous ) in 1996 . The first " group awarding " took place on June 30 , 2001 to Pavel Mariev , Mikhail Karchmit , Vital Kramko and Alaksandar Dubko ( posthumous ) , while Kirill Vakhromeev , Mikhail Savicki , Mikhail Vysotsky , Piotr Prokopovich and Vasily Revyako were presented their titles on March 1 , 2006 .
Uladzimir Karvat , a military pilot , was flying his training aircraft Sukhoi Su @-@ 27p on May 23 , 1996 . The plane caught fire and Karvat was ordered to eject to safety . Unknown to the ground crew , the plane would have crashed in an area full of civilians . Seeing the civilians on the ground , Karvat steered the plane away until it crashed one kilometer from the Brest Voblast settlements of Arabawshchyna and Vyalikaye Hatsishcha , killing him instantly . President Alexander Lukashenko issued Decree Number 484 on November 21 , 1996 , which posthumously awarded Karvat the title Hero of Belarus . The crash site has been converted to a memorial for Karvat , where a copy of Lukashenko 's decree is on the tail fin of the Sukhoi Su @-@ 27p .
Pavel Mariev was awarded the title for his work in the automobile industry as manager of Belarusian Auto Works , a leading producer of Belarusian automobiles .
Vital Kramko and Mikhail Karchmit were awarded for their work in the agriculture industry . Kramko is the chairman of the Hrodna Voblast agricultural collective " October " , while Karchmit was the director of the Minsk Voblast cooperative " Snov " until his death in 2004 .
Alaksandar Dubko was posthumously awarded the hero title for his long service to the Belarusian and Soviet governments .
Kirill Vakhromeev , the current Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk , the Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus , was awarded the hero title for his work to restore spirituality among the Belarusian population .
Mikhail Savicki was awarded the hero title for his long contributions to the Belarusian arts and for helping to set up art academies in the republic .
Mikhail Vysotsky was awarded for running the research enterprise " Belavtotraktorostroyeniye " , a part of the National Academy of Sciences .
Piotr Prokopovich was awarded for his work as the chairman of the National Bank of Belarus .
Vasily Revyako was awarded for his work at the Hrodna Voblast agricultural co @-@ op " Progress @-@ Vertelishki " .
Darya Domracheva was awarded for her progress in biathlon after The Olympic Games in Sochi , where Darya won 3 gold medal in personal starts .
= = In culture = =
The medal was featured on a stamp , released by Belposhta , commemorating the 3rd year of Karvat 's death . Designed by V. Volynets , the 25 @,@ 000 rouble stamp featured the medal on the left and Karvat 's photo on the right in full color . In the white text below the medal , it says " Hero of Belarus , Uładzimir Mikalaevič Karvat , ( 28 @.@ 11 @.@ 1958 – 23 @.@ 05 @.@ 1996 ) " . It was issued on August 12 , 1999 , and had a print run of 90 @,@ 000 .
The hero title was also featured in a set of stamps released by BELPOST in December 2006 , depicting the state awards of Belarus . On the first issue card , the medal is displayed in full color next to drawings of the state emblem , state flag and the Presidential Palace . A first day postal marking from Minsk also uses an outline of the medal , which is adorned with wreaths and the text " National Decorations of the Republic of Belarus " written in the Belarusian language .
Another set of stamps , devoted to orders and medals of Belarus , was put into circulation by Ministry of communication and informatization of Belarus in August 2008 . The designers are Ivan Lukin and Oleg Gaiko . The printing is offset and full @-@ color . Paper is chalk @-@ overly and rubberized . The size of stamps are 29,6х52 mm .
Television channel " CTV ( Minsk ) " released a film , devoted to the Heroes of Belarus .
= SummerSlam ( 1993 ) =
SummerSlam ( 1993 ) was the sixth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on August 30 , 1993 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan .
All three championships were defended at SummerSlam . The Steiner Brothers defended the WWF Tag Team Championship against The Heavenly Bodies , and Shawn Michaels defended the WWF Intercontinental Championship against Mr. Perfect . The main event saw Lex Luger challenge Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . In addition to the title matches , Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler were scheduled to wrestle to settle their feud and determine who would be named " Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation . "
History of Wrestling gave the event a rating of 54 / 100 in The Complete WWF Video Guide Volume 3
= = Background = =
Two of the matches at SummerSlam 1993 were a result of Razor Ramon 's loss to The Kid ( later the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid ) on the May 17 , 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw . Following Ramon 's loss to the newcomer , Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) teased Ramon about the match . DiBiase offered Ramon a job as a servant , which Ramon angrily refused . Ramon began teaming with the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid for a series of matches against Money Inc . DiBiase asked for a singles match against the Kid , and the Kid accepted the challenge . Ramon helped the Kid win the match by distracting DiBiase . It was decided that the feuds would be settled in two singles matches at SummerSlam , with Ramon facing DiBiase and Schyster facing the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid .
The match between the Steiner Brothers and The Heavenly Bodies received little buildup . The Bodies were a successful tag team in Jim Cornette 's Smoky Mountain Wrestling , and an interpromotional agreement allowed them to challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship .
The rivalry between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began at WrestleMania IX . During a fight after the match between Lex Luger and Mr. Perfect , Shawn Michaels appeared and attacked Perfect . Mr. Perfect gained revenge by distracting Michaels at the May 17 , 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw , allowing Marty Jannetty to pin Michaels and win the WWF Intercontinental Championship . Michaels regained the belt the following month with the help of his new bodyguard , Diesel .
Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler had a heated feud , stemming from Lawler interrupting Hart 's victory ceremony at the 1993 King of the Ring tournament . Lawler insisted that he was the true king of the WWF and attacked Hart . The feud intensified as Lawler taunted and attacked Bret 's family , including his parents and his younger brother Owen .
According to a story relayed by Bret Hart on the TSN sports show Off The Record , Hart was originally supposed to wrestle Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . However , the match did not happen because Hogan changed his mind , as he was supposedly not happy with the planned finish . As a result , Hogan lost the belt to Yokozuna at King of the Ring 1993 instead .
Marty Jannetty was originally supposed to face Rick Martel , but Ludvig Borga replaced Martel well before the match . The match received little buildup , although Borga appeared in several vignettes leading up to the match . He criticized the United States for such reasons as its pollution . Jannetty vowed to defend America 's pride in his match against Borga .
The buildup for the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker after the Undertaker had defeated Kamala in a Coffin match at Survivor Series 1992 . Kamala 's manager Harvey Wippleman vowed revenge and introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 , with Gonzalez attacking and eliminating the Undertaker . Gonzalez and the Undertaker wrestled at WrestleMania IX , and Gonzalez knocked the Undertaker unconscious with a chloroform @-@ soaked rag . The feud intensified when Wippleman , Gonzalez and Mr. Hughes attacked the Undertaker and his manager , Paul Bearer . They stole the urn , the supposed source of the Undertaker 's strength , and used it to assault Paul Bearer , who was not seen again until SummerSlam . The feud came to a head at SummerSlam in a Rest In Peace match .
The six @-@ man match at SummerSlam was originally supposed to be a mixed tag @-@ team match between the team of Tatanka and Sherri Martel and the team of Bam Bam Bigelow and Luna Vachon . However , Luna broke her arm and Sherri left the WWF in July 1993 , however , forcing the WWF to change the match . Two reasons have been given for Sherri 's departure : her decision to enroll in cosmetology school and failed drug tests . As a result , Tatanka teamed with The Smoking Gunns and Bigelow teamed with The Headshrinkers . The Gunns and Headshrinkers were rivals in the tag team division but had no real storyline . The feud between Bigelow and Tatanka originated When Tatanka came to the help of Sherri , who had interrupted an interview with Bigelow . Subsequently , Bigelow ambushed Tatanka and cut some of the hair Tatanka had dyed red as a tribute to his Lumbee heritage .
Lex Luger 's rivalry with Yokozuna began on July 4 at the Yokozuna Bodyslam Challenge on the deck of the USS Intrepid . After several wrestlers and other athletes attempted to body slam Yokozuna , Luger arrived in a helicopter . He was able to body slam Yokozuna , which led to a title shot at SummerSlam . To build support for Luger , the WWF had him ride across the country in a bus named the Lex Express . Yokozuna 's spokesperson , Jim Cornette , agreed to the match , but he made Lex Luger agree to two conditions . Luger would not receive a rematch if he lost , and he had to wear protective padding over the steel plate in his forearm .
= = Event = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view took place in front of a crowd of 23 @,@ 954 at the Palace of Auburn Hills .
Before the event aired on PPV , " The Rocket " Owen Hart defeated longtime jobber Barry Horowitz in a dark match .
The first televised match was Razor Ramon versus Ted DiBiase . DiBiase got off to a quick start by attacking Ramon before the match began . Ramon quickly turned the match around with several clotheslines . DiBiase regained control before untying a turnbuckle cover . Ramon won the match after ramming DiBiase 's head into the exposed turnbuckle and using the Razor 's Edge to get the pin .
The Steiner Brothers were the audience favorites in the WWF Tag Team Championship match , as they were defending the belts in their hometown . Before the match began , The Heavenly Bodies attacked them . When the match began , the Bodies executed several double @-@ team maneuvers on Rick Steiner . Scott tagged in and took control of the match . The Bodies soon regained the advantage , and Jim Cornette got involved by hitting Scott in the throat with a tennis racket . Rick tagged back in and hit several Steiner @-@ Lines before Prichard attacked him with Cornette 's tennis racket . Del Ray accidentally hit Prichard with a moonsault , however , allowing Scott to hit a Frankensteiner and Rick to get the pin .
The match between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began with a series of wrestling holds . The match remained primarily technical until Diesel distracted Perfect , allowing Michaels to superkick him in the face . Michaels worked on Perfect 's injured back until Perfect took control of the match . After a series of attacks on Michaels , Perfect used the Perfect Plex . Diesel pulled him out of the ring and threw him into the steel ring steps , however , allowing Michaels to win by countout .
Irwin R. Schyster remained in control for the majority of his match against the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid . Although the Kid hit several kicks , Schyster regained control every time . Schyster used his usual abdominal stretch while using the ring ropes for leverage before the Kid made a brief comeback by hitting a moonsault . Schyster hit a Write Off , however , and got the pin .
Bret Hart came to the ring for his match with Jerry Lawler . Lawler , however , appeared on crutches and claimed that he had been injured in a car accident . He announced that his court jester , Doink the Clown ( portrayed by Matt Osborne ) , would wrestle Hart in his place . Doink threw a bucket of water on Bret 's brother , Bruce Hart , prompting Bret to attack Doink outside of the ring . The match consisted of angry brawling until Doink slowed the pace with a couple of submission holds . After Doink missed a Whoopie Cushion attempt , Bret took full control of the match and locked Doink in the Sharpshooter . With Doink in the sharpshooter , Lawler then attacked Bret with a crutch , revealing that he was not injured and thus causing an unofficial disqualification ( no official announcement was made ) . WWF President Jack Tunney came to the ring and had Howard Finkel announce that Lawler would be given a lifetime ban if he refused to compete in the scheduled match . The match between Lawler and Hart consisted almost exclusively of brawling . The two attacked each other with a milk pail and crutches and traded punches and kicks . Bret used Lawler 's signature move , the piledriver , before putting him in the Sharpshooter . Lawler submitted , but Bret refused to release him for three and a half minutes . The referee then reversed his decision and gave the victory and title of " Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation " to Lawler .
Ludvig Borga dominated the majority of a squash match against Marty Jannetty . He attacked Jannetty immediately with a series of punches and knees . Jannetty managed a couple of brief comebacks but was unable to mount a serious offense . Borga used his strength to control the match and won the match by submission with a backbreaker .
Harvey Wippleman was at ringside with the urn as the Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez . The two wrestlers brawled , using the ring steps and steel chairs . Halfway through the match , Paul Bearer appeared , carrying a black wreath . He attacked Wippleman and took back the urn . The Undertaker quickly took control of the match , attacking Gonzalez with a flying clothesline to win by pinfall . After the match , Gonzalez turned on Wippleman and attacked him with a chokeslam .
The next match on the card was the Six @-@ Man tag team match . The Headshrinkers ' manager Afa interfered by attacking Billy Gunn outside the ring . At one point , Tatanka looked like he was gaining control , as he began his usual war dance . Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head , however , to end his momentum . Near the end of the match , Bigelow and the Headshrinkers each climbed the turnbuckles to attempt simultaneous diving headbutts , but Tatanka rolled out of the way . Tatanka seized the opportunity and pinned Samu for the win .
Before the main event , Kiotika Suzuki sang the Japanese national anthem . Akio Sato , formerly a member of The Orient Express , was the flag bearer for Yokozuna . Randy Savage then introduced Aaron Neville , who sang the American anthem .
The main event began with a stare down . Luger gained the early advantage and managed to knock Yokozuna down by kicking the ring ropes into Yokozuna 's groin . Luger tried to bodyslam Yokozuna , but the sumo wrestler 's weight was too much . Yokozuna knocked him out of the ring and choked him . Yokozuna had his manager , Mr. Fuji , throw him a salt bucket , which he used to attack Luger . Yokozuna wore Luger down , and after a brief comeback by the all @-@ American , hit a leg drop on Luger and pulled him to the corner for a Banzai Drop . After Yokozuna missed , Luger succeeded in bodyslamming Yokozuna , and he attacked Mr. Fuji when the manager tried to get involved . Luger knocked Yokozuna out of the ring with a forearm smash , and followed this up by attacking Jim Cornette . Yokozuna was counted out , but he retained the title because championships change hands only by pinfall or submission . Several faces came to the ring to celebrate with Luger as red , white and blue balloons fell from the ceiling to celebrate the victory .
= = Aftermath = =
The SummerSlam match was DiBiase 's final appearance as a WWF wrestler . He injured his neck and back in January 1994 and was forced to retire from wrestling . Meanwhile , Ramon received a push in Fall 1993 that led to the first of four Intercontinental championships .
The Heavenly Bodies did not become serious contenders to the tag team title , and the Steiners soon began a feud with The Quebecers , a new team in the WWF .
Shawn Michaels was suspended in late 1993 and forced to vacate the Intercontinental Championship , while Mr. Perfect began a feud with Diesel . The WWF planned to have Perfect and Diesel face each other as part of an elimination match at Survivor Series 1993 , but Mr. Perfect was replaced by Randy Savage at the last minute . Mr. Perfect would not wrestle another pay per view match for the company until Royal Rumble 2002 .
The match between Hart and Doink was significant for a couple of reasons . It marked Doink 's final match as a heel , as he turned on Jerry Lawler shortly after the match . In addition , Matt Osborne , who had portrayed Doink since the character 's creation , was fired that fall because of drug problems .
The feud between Jerry Lawler and Bret Hart remained unsettled and led to several storylines over the next two years . The final pay per view event featuring this feud was SummerSlam 1995 , which saw Hart beat Lawler 's " dentist " Isaac Yankem , D.D.S.
Borga received a main event push after his SummerSlam match . After the event , he confronted Luger in the locker room . This began a feud that led to a match between the All @-@ Americans and Foreign Fanatics at Survivor Series 1993 .
Luger continued to work as a main event wrestler , although he never won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . He competed in another match with Yokozuna at WrestleMania X after co @-@ winning the 1994 Royal Rumble but was again unsuccessful in taking the belt from Yokozuna .
= = Results = =
= = Other on @-@ screen talent = =
= Siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) =
The First Arab Siege of Constantinople in 674 – 678 was a major conflict of the Arab – Byzantine Wars , and the first culmination of the Umayyad Caliphate 's expansionist strategy towards the Byzantine Empire , led by Caliph Mu 'awiya I. Mu 'awiya , who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following a civil war , renewed aggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital , Constantinople .
As reported by the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor , the Arab attack was methodical : in 672 – 673 Arab fleets secured bases along the coasts of Asia Minor , and then proceeded to install a loose blockade around Constantinople . They used the peninsula of Cyzicus near the city as a base to spend the winter , and returned every spring to launch attacks against the city 's fortifications . Finally , the Byzantines , under Emperor Constantine IV , managed to destroy the Arab navy using a new invention , the liquid incendiary substance known as Greek fire . The Arab land army in
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another important organizing body for children 's baseball . The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white @-@ controlled professional ball occurred the previous year : Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League 's Brooklyn Dodgers — where Branch Rickey had become general manager — and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal . In 1947 , Robinson broke the major leagues ' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers . Larry Doby debuted with the American League 's Cleveland Indians the same year . Latin American players , largely overlooked before , also started entering the majors in greater numbers . In 1951 , two Chicago White Sox , Venezuelan @-@ born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban @-@ born Minnie Miñoso , became the first Hispanic All @-@ Stars .
Facing competition as varied as television and football , baseball attendance at all levels declined . While the majors rebounded by the mid @-@ 1950s , the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved . Integration proceeded slowly : by 1953 , only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster . That year , the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded . It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly , but it remained largely ineffective for years . No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958 , when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco , respectively . The majors ' final all @-@ white bastion , the Boston Red Sox , added a black player in 1959 . With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players , the last Negro league folded the following year . In 1961 , the American League reached the West Coast with the | Los Angeles Angels expansion team , and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162 . This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth 's long @-@ standing single @-@ season home run record , one of the most celebrated marks in baseball . Along with the Angels , three other new franchises were launched during 1961 – 62 . With this , the first major league expansion in 60 years , each league now had ten teams .
= = = = Attendance records and the age of steroids = = = =
The players ' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller , who was elected executive director in 1966 . On the playing field , major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again . After the 1968 season , in an effort to restore balance , the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher 's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches . In 1969 , both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams , the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each , and a post @-@ season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted . Also that same year , Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause . The major leagues ' first general players ' strike took place in 1972 . In another effort to add more offense to the game , the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year . In 1975 , the union 's power — and players ' salaries — began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down , leading to the free agency system . In 1977 , two more expansion teams joined the American League . Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994 , the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years . Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid @-@ 1970s and in 1994 , before the stoppage , the majors were setting their all @-@ time record for per @-@ game attendance .
The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues , this time into three divisions each . Offensive production — the number of home runs in particular — had surged that year , and again in the abbreviated 1994 season . After play resumed in 1995 , this trend continued and non @-@ division @-@ winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post @-@ season . Regular @-@ season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second @-@ highest attendance mark for a full season was set . The next year , Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris 's decades @-@ old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added . In 2000 , the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities . While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes ( and the designated hitter distinction ) , the regulations and other functions — such as player discipline and umpire supervision — they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) .
In 2001 , Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season . There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids ( as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion ) , but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs before 2004 . In 2007 , Bonds became MLB 's all @-@ time home run leader , surpassing Hank Aaron , as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all @-@ time highs . Even though McGwire , Sosa , and Bonds — as well as many other players , including storied pitcher Roger Clemens — have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal , their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues ' defining attraction . In contrast to the professional game 's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption , Little League enrollment was in decline : after peaking in 1996 , it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade . With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance @-@ enhancing drug use a possible factor , the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010 , which became known as the " Year of the Pitcher " . Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years , and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century .
Before the start of the 2012 season , MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league . The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one @-@ game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league .
= = = Baseball around the world = = =
Baseball , widely known as America 's pastime , is well established in several other countries as well . The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States . As early as 1877 , a professional league , the International Association , featured teams from both countries . While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country , the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969 , when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team . In 1977 , the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League . The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993 , the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so . After the 2004 season , Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington , D.C. , where the team is now known as the Nationals .
In 1847 , American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa , Veracruz . A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo , they used the " wooden leg captured ( by the Fourth Illinois regiment ) from General Santa Anna " . The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba , which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world 's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s ( all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution ) . The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912 . Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars , including the Netherlands ( formed in 1922 ) , Australia ( 1934 ) , Japan ( 1936 ) , Mexico ( 1937 ) , and Puerto Rico ( 1938 ) . The Japanese major leagues — the Central League and Pacific League — have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States . Japan has a professional minor league system as well , though it is much smaller than the American version — each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams ' four or five .
After World War II , professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations , most prominently Venezuela ( 1946 ) and the Dominican Republic ( 1955 ) . Since the early 1970s , the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues : the Dominican Professional Baseball League , Mexican Pacific League , Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League , and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League . In Asia , South Korea ( 1982 ) , Taiwan ( 1990 ) , and China ( 2003 ) all have professional leagues .
Many European countries have professional leagues as well , the most successful , other than the Dutch league , being the Italian league founded in 1948 . Compared to those in Asia and Latin America , the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal . In 2004 , Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games . The Israel Baseball League , launched in 2007 , folded after one season . The Confédération Européene de Baseball ( European Baseball Confederation ) , founded in 1953 , organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries , as well as national squads . Other competitions between national teams , such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament , were administered by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports , the World Baseball Softball Confederation ( WBSC ) . By 2009 , the IBAF had 117 member countries . Women 's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men 's sport . Since 2004 , the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women 's Baseball World Cup , featuring national teams .
After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games , baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting . It remained part of the 2008 Games . The elimination of baseball
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inate Zakhaev . From his vantage point on the top floor of an abandoned hotel , Price fired upon Zakhaev with a Barrett M82 sniper rifle , but the shot only severed Zakhaev 's arm . Pursued across the city by Zakhaev 's henchmen , Price barely escaped .
A joint task force composed of the SAS , Force Recon , and the Loyalists attempt to capture Zakhaev 's son , Victor , to learn Zakhaev 's whereabouts but as they corner him on the roof of an apartment building , Victor commits suicide . Enraged , Zakhaev retaliates by launching nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles at the U.S. Eastern Seaboard , which could kill 41 million people . The SAS and Force Recon , however , manage to seize the launch facility 's command room and remotely destroy the missiles over the Atlantic Ocean . They escape the facility in military trucks with Zakhaev 's forces in hot pursuit .
An ultranationalist Mi @-@ 24 Hind helicopter destroys a vital bridge and traps the joint force . The ensuing fight with ultranationalists leaves everyone in the joint force either dead or severely wounded . Zakhaev himself arrives and begins killing wounded soldiers when loyalists suddenly destroy his Mi @-@ 24 Hind and join the fray . Zakhaev is shot dead . Loyalist forces start tending to the wounded immediately .
In the outro , the missiles incident and the ultranationalists ' support of Al @-@ Asad are hushed up , thus causing the events of Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 .
= = Development = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was developed by a team of a hundred people , over the course of two years . After Call of Duty 2 , the Infinity Ward team decided to move away from the World War II environment of previous games in the series . This resulted in three game concepts : Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 and Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 . While developing the story for Call of Duty 4 , Infinity Ward chose to avoid referencing current , real @-@ life wars , and keep the series ' common theme of two opposing forces of similar strength . To enhance the realistic feel of the game , the development team attended a live @-@ fire exercise at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms , a training facility in the California desert . This helped the developers to simulate the effects of being near an Abrams tank when it fires . The team also talked with U.S. Marines who were recently in combat to get a feel for the background , emotions , and attitude of Marines in combat . Veterans were also recruited to supervise motion capture sessions and the artificial intelligence design of the game .
The development team designed the online multiplayer component to be balanced and rewarding for new players while still offering something for experienced players . An early idea to implement air support ( air strikes and attack helicopters ) involved players fighting over special zones to access a trigger for air support against enemies . This idea was discarded because it discouraged the type of deathmatch gameplay they intended . The kill streak reward system was put in its place to encourage the improvement of player skills . Players were allowed to select weapons before matches to get accustomed to weapons more easily and minimize weapon hunting . Maps were designed primarily for deathmatch games — the developers felt such designs suited other types of gameplay as well . Map layouts were designed to minimize locations players could hide from enemy gunfire .
= = = Audio = = =
Most of the music for Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was written by British composer Stephen Barton , who had also contributed to film scores by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams , to whom , composed the main theme of the game . Several music tracks from the game are available on Infinity Ward 's " 7 Days of Modern Warfare " website , and some are available at Barton 's own web site . The rap song played during the end credits is performed by Call of Duty 4 's lead animator , Mark Grigsby .
= = = Game engine = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare runs on the IW engine , specifically IW 3 @.@ 0 , featuring true world @-@ dynamic lighting , HDR lighting effects , dynamic shadows and depth of field . Bullet penetration is calculated by the engine , taking into account factors such as surface type and entity thickness . The game runs in a native resolution of 600p on the Xbox 360 and PS3 .
Certain objects , such as cars and some buildings , are destructible . This makes distinguishing cover from concealment important , as the protection provided by objects such as wooden fences and thin walls do not completely protect players from harm . Bullet stopping power is decreased after penetrating an object , and the decrease is dependent on the thickness and surface type of the object . The game makes use of a dynamic physics engine , not implemented in previous Call of Duty titles . Death animations are a combination of pre @-@ set animations and ragdoll physics . Console versions of Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare run at a consistent 60 frames per second , and the Wii version runs at 30 frames per second . Code was included to determine spawning points based on the nearby weapons and the relationship between enemy positions and line of sight to the points . The various criteria are meant to minimize players dying immediately after rejoining a match , or being " spawn @-@ killed " due to players simply waiting for others to " respawn " . However , enemies may still respawn infinitely , a notable feature in Call of Duty game engines .
The game engine has also been used for the development of two other Activision games . An enhanced version of the original engine was used in Call of Duty : World at War , the fifth installment in the Call of Duty series after Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , while a slightly altered version has been used for the James Bond video game Quantum of Solace as well as GoldenEye 007 using a heavily modified version .
= = Marketing and release = =
On April 27 , 2007 , the day before the release of the game 's official trailer , Infinity Ward launched a website called " Charlie Oscar Delta " to provide information on the game . Charlie Oscar Delta features a ranking system that allows users to complete missions to increase their rank and compete for prizes . Charlie Oscar Delta is derived from the NATO phonetic alphabet and the initials of Call of Duty . The first Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare trailer featuring game footage was released on April 28 , 2007 . An Xbox 360 Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare public beta test was announced on August 30 , 2007 . The beta test was designed to test the servers , find glitches , and help balance out the weapons . It was originally only for residents of the US , but was later available to other countries . The beta concluded on September 30 , 2007 . The maximum rank for the beta was initially level 16 , but was increased to level 25 towards the end of the beta . Three multiplayer maps were available for play : Crash , Vacant , and Overgrown . A single @-@ player demo for the PC was released on October 11 , 2007 as a Yahoo ! exclusive download , and is now available for free download . The demo includes one level , " The Bog , " which showcases the advanced night vision and associated graphics capabilities .
= = = Retail versions = = =
The game was released as a standard version and a collector 's edition . The Collector 's Edition contains the standard retail game and a DVD containing a documentary film entitled " Great SAS Missions , " which consists of archive footage of the SAS in action and accounts from former SAS members . The DVD contains a " making @-@ of " featurette and a level walkthrough by the developers . Also included is a limited edition poster and an exclusive hardcover art book featuring never @-@ before @-@ seen concept , development , and final artwork . These elements were packaged in a larger cardboard version of the standard retail box . The collector 's edition was originally only available in the U.S. , but was later released in other countries . A " Game of the Year " edition was later released on PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 . The PlayStation 3 version included the Variety map pack on the disc , and while the Xbox 360 Game of the Year edition initially included an insert in the packaging which could be redeemed on Xbox Live Marketplace to download the Variety map pack , later releases did not contain the inserts , and so were no different from the original release of the game .
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was released for consoles and Windows in North America on November 6 , 2007 , in Australia on November 7 , 2007 , and in Europe on November 9 , 2007 . The Mac OS X version of the game was developed by Aspyr and released on September 26 , 2008 . It was released on the Mac App Store on or Around January 16 , 2011 . It was rated 15 by the BBFC , M for Mature by the ESRB , MA 15 + by the OFLC , 16 + by the PEGI , and 18 by the USK . The Wii port of the game , titled Call of Duty : Modern Warfare : Reflex , was developed by Treyarch and released on November 10 , 2009 , alongside Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 and Call of Duty : Modern Warfare : Mobilized .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
As part of an exclusivity deal between Microsoft and Activision , multiplayer map packs for the Call of Duty franchise , beginning with Modern Warfare , were released first on Xbox 360 . The deal would ultimately last until Black Ops III in 2015 , which introduces a new deal with Sony and PlayStation platforms .
Infinity Ward released the Variety Map Pack for the Xbox 360 on April 4 , 2008 . It includes the multiplayer maps " Killhouse " , " Creek " , " Chinatown " , and " Broadcast " . The same map pack was released for the PlayStation 3 on April 24 , 2008 . The Variety Map Pack was downloaded by over one million people in its first nine days of release , a record for paid Xbox Live downloadable content , valued at US $ 10 million . It was released as a free download for Windows on June 5 , 2008 , sponsored by NVIDIA , along with patch 1 @.@ 6 . A further patch for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game was announced over a year later in August 2009 ; the patch primarily addressed online multiplayer exploits . Patch 1 @.@ 7 was released in June 2008 . This patch can be applied to the Game of the Year edition directly with no prior patches . Earlier versions must have patch 1 @.@ 6 applied first .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare on release received critical acclaim from many video game publications . The gameplay has been cited by reviewers to bring the genre to " a new level of immersion and intensity that we had never seen before . " Official Xbox Magazine said about the multiplayer , " it 's the multiplayer mode that solidifies the game 's instant @-@ classic status " and that " the campaign never lets up . " GameSpot gave a favorable review for Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , saying that the " high quality of that campaign and its terrific multiplayer options make Call of Duty 4 a fantastic package . " X @-@ Play commented that " while it may not have revolutionized the genre , it comes damn close to perfecting it . " GamePro claims that " the amazingly deep multiplayer rivals Halo 3 's in terms of reach and scope . "
The game 's story has received a considerable amount of acclaim from reviewers . GamePro notes that " the intense single @-@ player campaign offers up an action packed experience that features a tremendously compelling narrative ; there are moments in the game that will send chills down your spine . " GameSpot mentioned that the fact the " single @-@ player campaign is over in a flash " as the only major flaw . While IGN described the campaign as " still very linear " like that of its predecessors , " eschewing the concept of sandbox gameplay , " it noted that this resulted in " a much richer , more focused experience " with " beautifully scripted set pieces . " IGN 's Voodoo Extreme similarly remarked that it " virtually plays on a rail , but that 's part of its charm . " In contrast to later entries in the Call of Duty franchise , Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of Zero Punctuation gave the game a positive review , praising how it " never sacrifices gameplay for story , or vice versa " and that it featured " less of the smarmy , black @-@ and @-@ white , ' My Country , ' Tis of Thee ' jingoism that turns me off most war games " .
Nevertheless , the game has also received criticism . Xbox World 360 stated " It 's smoke and mirrors and a host of cheap tricks , " commenting on the notion that the game did not revolutionize the genre . Pelit also remarked that " the structure of the single player game should ... have been updated " and that " barging from one invisible checkpoint to the next throughout the whole campaign just isn 't good enough anymore . "
= = = Wii version = = =
Modern Warfare – Reflex Edition was ported by Treyarch . The Wii version of Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare has fewer features than the other console versions . It does not support split @-@ screen multiplayer , and the graphics are not as developed . However , it supports co @-@ operative gameplay in the campaign on a single screen . At any moment , a second Wii remote can be activated giving the second player their own aiming crosshairs . The game received an aggregated score of 76 % on Metacritic . IGN gave the Wii version of the game , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare – Reflex Edition , a score of 7 @.@ 0 , saying the visuals and pointer controls are not as polished as the Wii version of World at War , though they did mention the customization options and multiplayer are impressive . Official Nintendo Magazine gave it 80 % , praising it for packing everything from its next @-@ gen counterpart , but again criticizing the visuals . GameTrailers gave the game an 8 @.@ 8 , saying that despite some sacrifices , it retains everything good from its original version . Game Informer scored the game at a 6 @.@ 5 , stating that while the game was rather poor graphically , even by Wii standards , the bigger problem was the Wii remote , stating that it did not have enough buttons to support Modern Warfare 's control scheme , and also that it was quite imprecise , contrasting it with the dual analog system used by the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions , and the mouse and keyboard system on the
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Windows version of the game . GameSpot gave the game an 8 @.@ 5 , stating that the online was as addictive as the other versions , they also said that the controls " are precise and customizable enough to let you be all you can be " .
= = = Sales = = =
Before Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was released , it was predicted to sell even more copies than the highly successful Halo 3 ; it had received reviews as high as Halo 3 's , it was launching on three systems as opposed to one for Halo 3 , and demand for the game led to a wide range of retailers only having enough available to satisfy pre @-@ orders . It fulfilled the prediction and the Xbox 360 version became the best @-@ selling video game in the United States from November 2007 to January 2008 according to the NPD Group . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions would go on to sell 1 @.@ 57 million and 444 @,@ 000 units , respectively , in the United States in November 2007 . 1 @.@ 47 million units of the Xbox 360 version were sold in December 2007 ; the game sold 331 @,@ 000 copies for the Xbox 360 and 140 @,@ 000 copies for the PlayStation 3 in January 2008 . The Xbox 360 version was the third best @-@ selling video game of 2007 in the U.S. with 3 @.@ 04 million units sold , behind Halo 3 , which sold 4 @.@ 82 million units , according to the NPD Group . By January 2008 , Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare had sold more than 7 million copies worldwide , and was the best @-@ selling game of 2007 . On June 3 , 2008 , Infinity Ward reported that the game had sold over 10 million units . During a May 2009 conference call , Activision announced that the game has sold 13 million copies , surpassing Super Mario Galaxy as the best selling game released that week of November 2007 . By November 2013 , the game had sold 15 @.@ 7 million copies .
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was widely distributed online in the form of infringing copies . Robert Bowling , Community Manager at Infinity Ward stated , " We pulled some disturbing numbers this past week about the amount of PC players currently playing Multiplayer ... What wasn 't fantastic was the percentage of those numbers who were playing on stolen copies of the game on stolen / cracked CD keys of pirated copies . "
= = = Awards = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare received awards from various gaming sites and publications . Both GameSpot and GameTrailers gave the game the Best Graphics of E3 2007 award , and the Best PlayStation 3 Game of 2007 award , and later ranked it as the third best first @-@ person shooter on its " Top 10 FPS Games Ever ! " list . It gained high praise from both video game magazine GamePro and GameSpy , having been named the Best Overall Game of 2007 by the former , and Game of the Year by the latter . Game Critics also named the game " Best Action Game . " From other authorities such as IGN and X @-@ play , and the Spike Video Game Awards , the game won awards for areas such as Best Sound Design , Best Shooter of 2007 , and Best Military Game . From the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , the game won Console Game of the Year , Action game of the Year , and Overall Game of the Year . From the British Academy Video Games Awards , The game also won Best Gameplay of the Year , Best Story and Character of the Year , and People 's Choice Game of the Year . The game was awarded with the Academy of Video Games Awards Game of the Year 2007 Award . The readers of PlayStation Official Magazine voted it the 7th greatest PlayStation title ever released .
= Thoroughbred =
The Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing . Although the word thoroughbred is sometimes used to refer to any breed of purebred horse , it technically refers only to the Thoroughbred breed . Thoroughbreds are considered " hot @-@ blooded " horses that are known for their agility , speed and spirit .
The Thoroughbred as it is known today was developed in 17th- and 18th @-@ century England , when native mares were crossbred with imported Oriental stallions of Arabian , Barb , and Turkoman breeding . All modern Thoroughbreds can trace their pedigrees to three stallions originally imported into England in the 17th century and 18th century , and to a larger number of foundation mares of mostly English breeding . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the Thoroughbred breed spread throughout the world ; they were imported into North America starting in 1730 and into Australia , Europe , Japan and South America during the 19th century . Millions of Thoroughbreds exist today , and more than 118 @,@ 000 foals are registered each year worldwide .
Thoroughbreds are used mainly for racing , but are also bred for other riding disciplines such as show jumping , combined training , dressage , polo , and fox hunting . They are also commonly crossbred to create new breeds or to improve existing ones , and have been influential in the creation of the Quarter Horse , Standardbred , Anglo @-@ Arabian , and various warmblood breeds .
Thoroughbred racehorses perform with maximum exertion , which has resulted in high accident rates and health problems such as bleeding from the lungs . Other health concerns include low fertility , abnormally small hearts and a small hoof @-@ to @-@ body @-@ mass ratio . There are several theories for the reasons behind the prevalence of accidents and health problems in the Thoroughbred breed , and research is ongoing .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The typical Thoroughbred ranges from 15 @.@ 2 to 17 @.@ 0 hands ( 62 to 68 inches , 157 to 173 cm ) high , averaging 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . They are most often bay , dark bay or brown , chestnut , black , or gray . Less common colors recognized in the United States include roan and palomino . White is very rare , but is a recognized color separate from gray . The face and lower legs may be marked with white , but white will generally not appear on the body . Coat patterns that have more than one color on the body , such as Pinto or Appaloosa , are not recognized by mainstream breed registries . Good @-@ quality Thoroughbreds have a well @-@ chiseled head on a long neck , high withers , a deep chest , a short back , good depth of hindquarters , a lean body , and long legs . Thoroughbreds are classified among the " hot @-@ blooded " breeds , which are animals bred for agility and speed and are generally considered spirited and bold .
Thoroughbreds born in the Northern Hemisphere are officially considered a year older on the first of January each year ; those born in the Southern Hemisphere officially are one year older on the first of August . These artificial dates have been set to enable the standardization of races and other competitions for horses in certain age groups .
= = Terminology = =
The Thoroughbred is a distinct breed of horse , although people sometimes refer to a purebred horse of any breed as a thoroughbred . The term for any horse or other animal derived from a single breed line is purebred . While the term probably came into general use because the English Thoroughbred 's General Stud Book was one of the first breed registries created , in modern usage horse breeders consider it incorrect to refer to any animal as a thoroughbred except for horses belonging to the Thoroughbred breed . Nonetheless , breeders of other species of purebred animals may use the two terms interchangeably , though thoroughbred is less often used for describing purebred animals of other species . The term is a proper noun referring to this specific breed , though often not capitalized , especially in non @-@ specialist publications , and outside the US . For example , the Australian Stud Book , The New York Times , and the BBC do not capitalize the word .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings in England = = =
= = = = Early racing = = = =
Flat racing existed in England by at least 1174 , when four @-@ mile races took place at Smithfield , in London . Racing continued at fairs and markets throughout the Middle Ages and into the reign of King James I of England . It was then that handicapping , a system of adding weight to attempt to equalize a horse 's chances of winning as well as improved training procedures , began to be used . During the reigns of Charles II , William III , Anne , and George I , the foundation of the Thoroughbred was laid . Under James ' grandson , Charles II , a keen racegoer and owner , and James ' great @-@ granddaughter Queen Anne , royal support was given to racing and the breeding of race horses . With royal support , horse racing became popular with the public , and by 1727 , a newspaper devoted to racing , the Racing Calendar , was founded . Devoted exclusively to the sport , it recorded race results and advertised upcoming meets .
= = = = Foundation stallions = = = =
All modern Thoroughbreds trace back to three stallions imported into England from the Middle East in the late 17th and early 18th centuries : the Byerley Turk ( 1680s ) , the Darley Arabian ( 1704 ) , and the Godolphin Arabian ( 1729 ) . Other stallions of oriental breeding were less influential , but still made noteworthy contributions to the breed . These included the Alcock 's Arabian , D 'Arcy 's White Turk , Leedes Arabian , and Curwen 's Bay Barb . Another was the Brownlow Turk , who , among other attributes , is thought to be largely responsible for the gray coat color in Thoroughbreds . In all , about 160 stallions of Oriental breeding have been traced in the historical record as contributing to the creation of the Thoroughbred . The addition of horses of Eastern bloodlines , whether Arabian , Barb , or Turk , to the native English mares ultimately led to the creation of the General Stud Book ( GSB ) in 1791 and the practice of official registration of horses . According to Peter Willett , about 50 % of the foundation stallions appear to have been of Arabian bloodlines , with the remainder being evenly divided between Turkoman and Barb breeding .
Each of the three major foundation sires was , coincidentally , the ancestor of a grandson or great @-@ great @-@ grandson who was the only male descendant to perpetuate each respective horse 's male line : Matchem was the only descendant of his grandsire , the Godolphin Arabian , to maintain a male line to the present ; the Byerley Turk 's male line was preserved by Herod ( or King Herod ) , a great @-@ great @-@ grandson ; and the male line of the Darley Arabian owes its existence to great @-@ great @-@ grandson Eclipse , who was the dominant racehorse of his day and never defeated . One genetic study indicates that 95 % of all male Thoroughbreds trace their direct male line ( via the Y chromosome ) to the Darley Arabian . However , in modern Thoroughbred pedigrees , most horses have more crosses to the Godolphin Arabian ( 13 @.@ 8 % ) than to the Darley Arabian ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) when all lines of descent ( maternal and paternal ) are considered . Further , as a percentage of contributions to current Thoroughbred bloodlines , Curwen 's Bay Barb ( 4 @.@ 2 % ) appears more often than the Byerley Turk ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . The majority of modern Thoroughbreds alive today trace to a total of only 27 or 28 stallions from the 18th and 19th centuries .
= = = = Foundation mares = = = =
The mares used as foundation breeding stock came from a variety of breeds , some of which , such as the Irish Hobby , had developed in northern Europe prior to the 13th century . Other mares were of oriental breeding , including Barb , Turk and other bloodlines , although most researchers conclude that the number of Eastern mares imported into England during the 100 years after 1660 was small . The 19th century researcher Bruce Lowe identified 50 mare " families " in the Thoroughbred breed , later augmented by other researchers to 74 . However , it is probable that fewer genetically unique mare lines existed than Lowe identified . Recent studies of the mtDNA of Thoroughbred mares indicate that some of the mare lines thought to be genetically distinct may actually have had a common ancestor ; in 19 mare lines studied , the haplotypes revealed that they traced to only 15 unique foundation mares , suggesting either a common ancestor for foundation mares thought to be unrelated or recording errors in the GSB .
= = = Later development in Britain = = =
By the end of the 18th century , the English Classic races had been established . These are the St. Leger Stakes , founded in 1776 , the Epsom Oaks , founded in 1779 , and the Epsom Derby in 1780 . Later , the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes and the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes were founded in 1809 and 1814 . The 1 @,@ 000 Guineas and the Oaks are restricted to fillies , but the others are open to racehorses of either sex aged three years . The distances of these races , ranging from 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) , led to a change in breeding practices , as breeders concentrated on producing horses that could race at a younger age than in the past and that had more speed . In the early 18th century , the emphasis had been on longer races , up to 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , that were run in multiple heats . The older style of race favored older horses , but with the change in distances , younger horses became preferred .
Selective breeding for speed and racing ability led to improvements in the size of horses and winning times by the middle of the 19th century . Bay Middleton , a winner of the Epsom Derby , stood over 16 hands high , a full hand higher than the Darley Arabian . Winning times had improved to such a degree that many felt further improvement by adding additional Arabian bloodlines was impossible . This was borne out in 1885 , when a race was held between a Thoroughbred , Iambic , considered a mid @-@ grade runner , and the best Arabian of the time , Asil . The race was over 3 miles ( 4 @,@ 800 m ) , and although Iambic was handicapped by carrying 4 @.@ 5 stone ( 29 kg ; 63 lb ) more than Asil , he still managed to beat Asil by 20 lengths . An aspect of the modern British breeding establishment is that they breed not only for flat racing , but also for steeplechasing . Up until the end of the 19th century , Thoroughbreds were bred not only for racing but also as saddle horses .
Soon after the start of the 20th century , fears that the English races would be overrun with American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds because of the closing of US racetracks in the early 1910s , led to the Jersey Act of 1913 . It prohibited the registration of any horse in the General Stud Book ( GSB ) if they could not show that every ancestor traced to the GSB . This excluded most American @-@ bred horses , because the 100 @-@ year gap between the founding of the GSB and the American Stud Book meant that most American @-@ bred horses possessed at least one or two crosses to horses not registered in the GSB . The act was not repealed until 1949 , after which a horse was only required to show that all its ancestors to the ninth generation were registered in a recognized Stud Book . Many felt that the Jersey Act hampered the development of the British Thoroughbred by preventing breeders in the United Kingdom from using new bloodlines developed outside the British Isles .
= = = In America = = =
The first Thoroughbred horse in the American Colonies was Bulle Rock , imported in 1730 . Maryland and Virginia were the centers of Colonial Thoroughbred breeding , along with South Carolina and New York . During the American Revolution importations of horses from England practically stopped but were restarted after the signing of a peace treaty . Two important stallions were imported around the time of the Revolution ; Messenger in 1788 and Diomed before that . Messenger left little impact on the American Thoroughbred , but is considered a foundation sire of the Standardbred breed . Diomed , who won the Derby Stakes in 1780 , had a significant impact on American Thoroughbred breeding , mainly through his son Sir Archy . John F. Wall , a racing historian , said that Sir Archy was the " first outstanding stallion we can claim as native American . " He was retired from the racetrack because of lack of opponents .
After the American Revolution , the center of Thoroughbred breeding and racing in the United States moved west . Kentucky and Tennessee became notable centers . Andrew Jackson , later President of the United States , was a breeder and racer of Thoroughbreds in Tennessee . Famous match races held in the early 19th century helped popularize horse racing in the United States . One took place in 1823 , in Long Island , New York , between Sir Henry and American Eclipse . Another was a match race between Boston and Fashion in 1838 that featured bets of $ 20 @,@ 000 from each side . The last major match races before the American Civil War were both between Lexington and Lecompte . The first was held in 1854 in New Orleans and was won by Lecompte . Lexington 's owner then challenged Lecompte 's owner to a rematch , held in 1855 in New Orleans and won by Lexington . Both of these horses were sons of Boston , a descendant of Sir Archy . Lexington went on to a career as a breeding stallion , and led the sires list of number of winners for sixteen years , fourteen of them in a row .
After the American Civil War , the emphasis in American racing changed from the older style of four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) races in which the horses ran in at least two heats . The new style of racing involved shorter races not run in heats , over distances from five furlongs up to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) . This development meant a change in breeding practices , as well as the age that horses were raced , with younger horses and sprinters coming to the fore . It was also after the Civil War that the American Thoroughbred returned to England to race . Iroquois became the first American @-@ bred winner of the Epsom Derby in 1881 . The success of American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds in England led to the Jersey Act in 1913 , which limited the importation of American Thoroughbreds into England . After World War I , the breeders in America continued to emphasize speed and early racing age but also imported horses from England , and this trend continued past World War II . After World War II , Thoroughbred breeding remained centered in Kentucky , but California , New York , and Florida also emerged as important racing and breeding centers .
Thoroughbreds in the United States have historically been used not only for racing but also to improve other breeds . The early import Messenger was the foundation of the Standardbred , and Thoroughbred blood was also instrumental in the development of the American Quarter Horse . The foundation stallion of the Morgan breed is held by some to have been sired by a Thoroughbred . Between World War I and World War II , the U.S. Army used Thoroughbred stallions as part of their Remount Service , which was designed to improve the stock of cavalry mounts .
= = = In Europe = = =
Thoroughbreds began to be imported to France in 1817 and 1818 with the importation of a number of stallions from England , but initially the sport of horse racing did not prosper in France . The first Jockey Club in France was not formed until 1833 , and in 1834 the racing and regulation functions were split off to a new society , the Societe d 'Encouragement pour l 'Amelioration des Races de Chevaux en France , better known as the Jockey @-@ Club de Paris . The French Stud Book was founded at the same time by the government . By 1876 , French @-@ bred Thoroughbreds were regularly winning races in England , and in that year a French breeder @-@ owner earned the most money in England on the track . World War I almost destroyed French breeding because of war damage and lack of races . After the war , the premier French race , the Grand Prix , resumed and continues to this day . During World War II , French Thoroughbred breeding did not suffer as it had during the first World War , and thus was able to compete on an equal footing with other countries after the war .
Organized racing in Italy started in 1837 , when race meets were established in Florence and Naples and a meet in Milan was founded in 1842 . Modern flat racing came to Rome in 1868 . Later importations , including the Derby Stakes winners Ellington ( 1856 ) and Melton ( 1885 ) , came to Italy before the end of the 19th century . Modern Thoroughbred breeding in Italy is mostly associated with the breeding program of Federico Tesio , who started his breeding program in 1898 . Tesio was the breeder of Nearco , one of the dominant sires of Thoroughbreds in the later part of the 20th century .
Other countries in Europe have Thoroughbred breeding programs , including Germany , Russia , Poland , and Hungary .
= = = In Australia and New Zealand = = =
Horses arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in 1788 along with the earliest colonists . Although horses of part @-@ Thoroughbred blood were imported into Australia during the late 18th century , it is thought that the first pureblood Thoroughbred was a stallion named Northumberland who was imported from England in 1802 as a coach horse sire . By 1810 , the first formal race meets were organized in Sydney , and by 1825 the first mare of proven Thoroughbred bloodlines arrived to join the Thoroughbred stallions already there . In 1825 , the Sydney Turf Club , the first true racing club in Australia , was formed . Throughout the 1830s , the Australian colonies began to import Thoroughbreds , almost exclusively for racing purposes , and to improve the local stock . Each colony formed its own racing clubs and held its own races . Gradually , the individual clubs were integrated into one overarching organization , now known as the Australian Racing Board . Thoroughbreds from Australia were imported into New Zealand in the 1840s and 1850s , with the first direct importation from England occurring in 1862 .
= = = In other areas = = =
Thoroughbreds have been exported to many other areas of the world since the breed was created . Oriental horses were imported into South Africa from the late 17th century in order to improve the local stock through crossbreeding . Horse racing was established there in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , and Thoroughbreds were imported in increasing numbers . The first Thoroughbred stallions arrived in Argentina in 1853 , but the first mares did not arrive until 1865 . The Argentine Stud Book was first published in 1893 . Thoroughbreds were imported into Japan from 1895 , although it was not until after World War II that Japan began a serious breeding and racing business involving Thoroughbreds .
= = Registration , breeding , and population = =
About 37 @,@ 000 Thoroughbred foals are registered each year in North America , with the largest numbers being registered in the states of Kentucky , Florida and California . Australia is the second largest producer of Thoroughbreds in the world with almost 30 @,@ 000 broodmares producing about 18 @,@ 250 foals annually . Britain produces about 5 @,@ 000 foals a year , and worldwide , there are more than 195 @,@ 000 active broodmares , or females being used for breeding , and 118 @,@ 000 newly registered foals in 2006 alone . The Thoroughbred industry is a large agribusiness , generating around $ 34 billion in revenue annually in the United States and providing about 470 @,@ 000 jobs through a network of farms , training centers and race tracks .
Unlike a significant number of registered breeds today , a horse cannot be registered as a Thoroughbred ( with The Jockey Club registry ) unless conceived by live cover , the witnessed natural mating of a mare and a stallion . Artificial insemination ( AI ) and embryo transfer ( ET ) , though commonly used and allowable in many other horse breed registries , cannot be used with Thoroughbreds . One reason is that a greater possibility of error exists in assigning parentage with AI , and although DNA and blood testing eliminate many of those concerns , AI still requires more detailed record keeping . The main reason , however , may be economic ; a stallion has a limited number of mares who can be serviced by live cover . Thus the practice prevents an oversupply of Thoroughbreds , although modern management still allows a stallion to live cover more mares in a season than was once thought possible . As an example , in 2008 , the Australian stallion Encosta De Lago covered 227 mares . By allowing a stallion to cover only a couple of hundred mares a year rather than the couple of thousand possible with AI , it also preserves the high prices paid for horses of the finest or most popular lineages .
Concern exists that the closed stud book and tightly regulated population of the Thoroughbred is at risk of loss of genetic diversity because of the level of inadvertent inbreeding inevitable in such a small population . According to one study , 78 % of alleles in the current population can be traced to 30 foundation animals , 27 of which are male . Ten foundation mares account for 72 % of maternal ( tail @-@ female ) lineages , and , as noted above , one stallion appears in 95 % of tail male lineages . Thoroughbred pedigrees are generally traced through the maternal line , called the distaff line . The line that a horse comes from will often determine the price paid regardless of the actual talent or potential of the horse .
= = Value = =
Prices of Thoroughbreds vary greatly , depending on age , pedigree , conformation , and other market factors . In 2007 , Keeneland Sales , a United States @-@ based sales company , sold 9 @,@ 124 horses at auction , with a total value of $ 814 @,@ 401 @,@ 000 , which gives an average price of $ 89 @,@ 259 . As a whole for the United States in 2007 , The Jockey Club auction statistics indicated that the average weanling sold for $ 44 @,@ 407 , the average yearling sold for $ 55 @,@ 300 , average sale price for two @-@ year @-@ olds was $ 61 @,@ 843 , broodmares averaged $ 70 @,@ 150 , and horses over two and broodmare prospects sold for an average of $ 53 @,@ 243 . For Europe , the July 2007 Tattersall 's Sale sold 593 horses at auction , with a total for the sale of 10 @,@ 951 @,@ 300 guineas , for an average of 18 @,@ 468 guineas . Also in 2007 , Doncaster Bloodstock Sales , another British sales firm , sold 2 @,@ 248 horses for a total value of 43 @,@ 033 @,@ 881 guineas , making an average of 15 @,@ 110 guineas per horse . Australian prices at auction during the 2007 @-@ 2008 racing and breeding season were as follows : 1 @,@ 223 Australian weanlings sold for a total of $ 31 @,@ 352 @,@ 000 , an average of $ 25 @,@ 635 each . 4 @,@ 903 yearlings sold for a total value of A $ 372 @,@ 003 @,@ 961 , an average of A $ 75 @,@ 853 . Five hundred two @-@ year @-@ olds sold for A $ 13 @,@ 030 @,@ 150 , an average of A $ 26 @,@ 060 , and 2 @,@ 118 broodmares totalled A $ 107 @,@ 720 @,@ 775 , an average of A $ 50 @,@ 860 .
Averages , however , can be deceiving . For example , at the 2007 Fall Yearling sale at Keeneland , 3 @,@ 799 young horses sold for a total of $ 385 @,@ 018 @,@ 600 , for an average of $ 101 @,@ 347 per horse . However , that average sales price reflected a variation that included at least 19 horses that sold for only $ 1 @,@ 000 each and 34 that sold for over $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 apiece .
The highest price paid at auction for a Thoroughbred was set in 2006 at $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for a two @-@ year @-@ old colt named The Green Monkey . Record prices at auction often grab headlines , though they do not necessarily reflect the animal 's future success ; in the case of The Green Monkey , injuries limited him to only three career starts before being retired to stud in 2008 , and he never won a race . Conversely , even a highly successful Thoroughbred may be sold by the pound for a few hundred dollars to become horsemeat . The best @-@ known example of this was the 1986 Kentucky Derby winner Ferdinand , exported to Japan to stand at stud , but was ultimately slaughtered in 2002 , presumably for pet food .
However , the value of a Thoroughbred may also be influenced by the purse money it wins . In 2007 , Thoroughbred racehorses earned a total of $ 1 @,@ 217 @,@ 854 @,@ 602 in all placings , an average earnings per starter of $ 16 @,@ 924 . In addition , the track record of a race horse may influence its future value as a breeding animal .
Stud fees for stallions that enter breeding can range from $ 2 @,@ 500 to $ 500 @,@ 000 per mare in the United States , and from ₤ 2000 pounds to £ 75 @,@ 000 pounds or more in Britain . The record stud fee to date was set in the 1980s , when the stud fee of the late Northern Dancer reached $ 1 million . During the 2008 Australian breeding season seven stallions stood at a stud fee of A $ 110 @,@ 000 or more , with the highest fee in the nation at A $ 302 @,@ 500 .
= = Uses = =
Although the Thoroughbred is primarily bred for racing , the breed is also used for show jumping and combined training because of its athleticism , and many retired and retrained race horses become fine family riding horses , dressage horses , and youth show horses . The larger horses are sought after for hunter / jumper and dressage competitions , whereas the smaller horses are in demand as polo ponies .
= = = Horse racing = = =
Thoroughbred horses are primarily bred for racing under saddle at the gallop . Thoroughbreds are often known for being either distance runners or sprinters , and their conformation usually reflects what they have been bred to do . Sprinters are usually well muscled , while stayers , or distance runners , tend to be smaller and slimmer
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. The size of the horse is one consideration for buyers and trainers when choosing a potential racehorse . Although there have been champion racehorses of every height , from Zenyatta who stood 17 @.@ 2 hands , to Man o ' War and Secretariat who both stood at 16 @.@ 2 hands , down to Hyperion , who was only 15 @.@ 1 , the best racehorses are generally of average size . Larger horses mature more slowly and have more stress on their legs and feet , predisposing them to lameness . Smaller horses are considered by some to be at a disadvantage due to their shorter stride and a tendency of other horses to bump them , especially in the starting gate . Historically , Thoroughbreds have steadily increased in size : the average height of a Thoroughbred in 1700 was about 13 @.@ 3 hands high . By 1876 this had increased to 15 @.@ 3 .
In 2007 , there were 71 @,@ 959 horses who started in races in the United States , and the average Thoroughbred racehorse in the United States and Canada ran 6 @.@ 33 times in that year . In Australia , there were 31 @,@ 416 horses in training during 2007 , and those horses started 194 @,@ 066 times for A $ 375 @,@ 512 @,@ 579 of prize money . During 2007 , in Japan , there were 23 @,@ 859 horses in training and those horses started 182 @,@ 614 times for A $ 857 @,@ 446 @,@ 268 of prize money . In Britain , the British Racing Authority states there were 8 @,@ 556 horses in training for flat racing for 2007 , and those horses started 60 @,@ 081 times in 5 @,@ 659 races .
Statistically , fewer than 50 % of all race horses ever win a race , and less than 1 % ever win a stakes race such as the Kentucky Derby or the Epsom Derby . Any horse who has yet to win a race is known as a maiden .
Horses finished with a racing career that are not suitable for breeding purposes often become riding horses or other equine companions . A number of agencies exist to help make the transition from the racetrack to another career , or to help find retirement homes for ex @-@ racehorses .
= = = Other disciplines = = =
In addition to racing , Thoroughbreds compete in eventing , show jumping and dressage at the highest levels of international competition , including the Olympics . They are also used as show hunters , steeplechasers , and in western riding speed events such as barrel racing . Mounted police divisions employ them in non @-@ competitive work , and recreational riders also use them . Thoroughbreds are one of the most common breeds for use in polo in the United States . They are often seen in the fox hunting field as well .
= = = Crossbreeding = = =
Thoroughbreds are often crossed with horses of other breeds to create new breeds or to enhance or introduce specific qualities into existing ones . They have been influential on many modern breeds , including the American Quarter Horse , the Standardbred , and possibly the Morgan , a breed that went on to influence many of the gaited breeds in North America . Other common crosses with the Thoroughbred include crossbreeding with Arabian bloodlines to produce the Anglo @-@ Arabian as well as with the Irish Draught to produce the Irish Sport Horse . Thoroughbreds are often crossed with various Warmblood breeds due to their refinement and performance capabilities .
= = Health issues = =
Although Thoroughbreds are seen in the hunter @-@ jumper world and in other disciplines , modern Thoroughbreds are primarily bred for speed , and racehorses have a very high rate of accidents as well as other health problems .
One tenth of all Thoroughbreds suffer orthopedic problems , including fractures . Current estimates indicate that there are 1 @.@ 5 career @-@ ending breakdowns for every 1 @,@ 000 horses starting a race in the United States , an average of two horses per day . The State of California reported a particularly high rate of injury , 3 @.@ 5 per 1000 starts . Other countries report lower rates of injury , with the United Kingdom having 0 @.@ 9 injuries / 1 @,@ 000 starts ( 1990 – 1999 ) and the courses in Victoria , Australia , producing a rate of 0 @.@ 44 injuries / 1 @,@ 000 starts ( 1989 – 2004 ) . Thoroughbreds also have other health concerns , including a majority of animals who are prone to bleeding from the lungs ( exercise induced pulmonary hemorrhage ) , 10 % with low fertility , and 5 % with abnormally small hearts . Thoroughbreds also tend to have smaller hooves relative to their body mass than other breeds , with thin soles and walls and a lack of cartilage mass , which contributes to foot soreness , the most common source of lameness in racehorses .
= = = Selective breeding = = =
One argument for the health issues involving Thoroughbreds suggests that inbreeding is the culprit . It has also been suggested that capability for speed is enhanced in an already swift animal by raising muscle mass , a form of selective breeding that has created animals designed to win horse races . Thus , according to one postulation , the modern Thoroughbred travels faster than its skeletal structure can support . Veterinarian Robert Miller states that " We have selectively bred for speeds that the anatomy of the horse cannot always cope with . "
Poor breeding may be encouraged by the fact that many horses are sent to the breeding shed following an injury . If the injury is linked to a conformational fault , the fault is likely to be passed to the next generation . Additionally , some breeders will have a veterinarian perform straightening procedures on a horse with crooked legs . This can help increase the horse 's price at a sale and perhaps help the horse have a sounder racing career , but the genes for poor legs will still be passed on .
= = = Excess stress = = =
A high accident rate may also occur because Thoroughbreds , particularly in the United States , are first raced as 2 @-@ year @-@ olds , well before they are completely mature . Though they may appear full @-@ grown and are in superb muscular condition , their bones are not fully formed . However , catastrophic injury rates are higher in 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds than in 2- and 3 @-@ year @-@ olds . Some believe that correct , slow training of a young horse ( including foals ) may actually be beneficial to the overall soundness of the animal . This is because , during the training process , microfractures occur in the leg followed by bone remodeling . If the remodeling is given sufficient time to heal , the bone becomes stronger . If proper remodeling occurs before hard training and racing begins , the horse will have a stronger musculoskeletal system and will have a decreased chance of injury .
Studies have shown that track surfaces , horseshoes with toe grabs , use of certain legal medications , and high @-@ intensity racing schedules may also contribute to a high injury rate . One promising trend is the development of synthetic surfaces for racetracks , and one of the first tracks to install such a surface , Turfway Park in Florence , Kentucky , saw its rate of fatal breakdowns drop from 24 in 2004 – 05 to three in the year following Polytrack installation . The material is not perfected , and some areas report problems related to winter weather , but studies are continuing .
= = = Medical challenges = = =
The level of treatment given to injured Thoroughbreds is often more intensive than for horses of lesser financial value but also controversial , due in part to the significant challenges in treating broken bones and other major leg injuries . Leg injuries that are not immediately fatal still may be life @-@ threatening because a horse 's weight must be distributed evenly on all four legs to prevent circulatory problems , laminitis , and other infections . If a horse loses the use of one leg temporarily , there is the risk that other legs will break down during the recovery period because they are carrying an abnormal weight load . While horses periodically lie down for brief periods of time , a horse cannot remain lying in the equivalent of a human 's " bed rest " because of the risk of developing sores , internal damage , and congestion .
Whenever a racing accident severely injures a well @-@ known horse , such as the major leg fractures that led to the euthanization of 2006 Kentucky Derby winner Barbaro , or 2008 Kentucky Derby runner @-@ up Eight Belles , animal rights groups have denounced the Thoroughbred racing industry . On the other hand , advocates of racing argue that without horse racing , far less funding and incentives would be available for medical and biomechanical research on horses . Although horse racing is hazardous , veterinary science has advanced . Previously hopeless cases can now be treated , and earlier detection through advanced imaging techniques like scintigraphy can keep at @-@ risk horses off the track .
= Flatline ( song ) =
" Flatline " is a song by English girl group Mutya Keisha Siobhan , which consists of the original line @-@ up of the group Sugababes . Written by the trio alongside British artist Dev Hynes , who also produced it , it was released via digital retailers on 6 September 2013 by Polydor Records , who signed the band in 2012 . It is a synthpop song in which the drums and the male backing vocals get gradually stronger until a climactic part . Lyrically , it addresses the deterioration of a relationship .
Upon its release , " Flatline " received acclaim from music journalists , who favoured its production and the singers ' vocal harmonies . Commercially , the song charted at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart , however , it reached number 14 in Ireland . To promote the song , the group released a music video , directed by Auleta and filmed at Venice Beach . They have also performed " Flatline " at their Sacred Three Tour , and other headlining sets including Scala and G @-@ A @-@ Y.
= = Conception and release = =
In April 2012 , it was reported that the original line @-@ up of the Sugababes had signed a £ 1 million record deal with Polydor Records . In July 2012 , it was officially confirmed that the group had reformed under the name Mutya Keisha Siobhan and were writing songs for a new album under Polydor . The name was officially registered through the European Union on 27 June 2012 .
" Flatline " was written by Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena and Siobhán Donaghy , alongside British musician Dev Hynes . It was entirely developed and recorded in Los Angeles in February 2013 , after composing most of the material for their debut as Mutya Keisha Siobhan . The group specifically went to the city to record a " killer " lead single for their album . Travelling to Los Angeles resulted in the trio composing the song entirely in their first day in the city . Hynes started randomly playing the keyboard and bass , and invited the trio to " vibe with him " . The group pursued a Coldplay @-@ influenced sound for the song 's chorus , however after realizing that their voices were not " manly enough " , Hynes contacted band Spector member Fred Macpherson to sing backing vocals for the track ,
On 4 June 2013 , Mutya Keisha Siobhan announced the title of the song . They later uploaded a one @-@ minute , eleven @-@ second preview of the track to their official SoundCloud page on 13 June . The track was originally scheduled for release in the UK and Ireland on 1 September 2013 , but was then delayed until 15 September for unknown reasons . The release date was then changed a second time , being brought forward to 6 September . The release of the actual song was preceded by Polydor sending an EP to digital retailers , including 4 remixes of the song .
= = Composition = =
Having a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ one seconds ( 3 : 51 ) , " Flatline " is styled in the genres of pop and R & B , and was produced by Dev Hynes . It is composed in the key of G major , and contains a metronome of 128 beats per minute . Musically , it carries out a chord progression of D – Em – Bm – C , while the group members ' vocal ranges go from the notes of G3 to E5 . Lyrically , the song addresses the deterioration of a relationship , which is more visible on the song 's chorus , where the trio sings " I can feel a flatline , that ought to be a wave " .
It commences with a " noodly " guitar riff , set against a 90s @-@ inspired piano @-@ driven R & B melodies and " bubbling " 80s pop beats , which is reminiscent of the production found in American recording artist Solange Knowles ' extended play True — which , much like " Flatline " , was produced entirely by Hynes . Siobhán Donaghy sings the first verse of the track , being followed by Keisha Buchanan , who gives her vocals during the pre @-@ chorus , in which she references the playing cards King and Queen . After the chorus , the second verse is sung by Mutya Buena , and the song eventually enters a crescendo , as the backing vocals get louder and the drums stronger . This section of the song was described by Michael Cragg of The Guardian as being " Florence @-@ esque " , in which the group sings the chorus repeatedly along with several ad @-@ libs . A writer from Fact wrote that the song " build [ s ] from Robyn @-@ style melodrama into fist @-@ pumping stadium fare " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since its release , the song has received widespread critical acclaim . Eve Barlow from NME claimed that it was " worth the 12 @-@ year wait " and dismissed the current Sugababes line @-@ up . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy was extremely positive about the song , awarding it five stars out of five , and commented : " [ It ] isn 't the sort of smack around the face you 'd normally expect but rather one that draws you in slowly but surely before swallowing you whole . " Writing for The Guardian , Michael Cragg said there was " something indescribably captivating " about the song , and likened it to the group 's debut single " Overload " — as the Sugababes . Laura Snapes from Pitchfork Media was enthusiastic about Hynes ' production , classifying it as " immaculate " , and highlighted the group 's vocal harmonies .
Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz called it an " immediately affecting " 2013 song and favoured the use of the word " miscellaneous " on its lyrics . Robbie Daw from the music website Idolator was in sync with the aforementioned comments , calling it a " synthy , handclappy , glorious pop gem that comes just in time for the summer " . Carl Smith of Sugarscape.com deemed " Flatline " " a bit amazing " and believed that the artists ' harmonies could rival the group Little Mix , while noting that the song did not follow any current musical trend . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse opined that the song had " revitalized the very essence " of the Sugababes , named it one of the best of 2013 and commented that it sounded like a newly recorded version of One Touch . Much like previous critics , Michelle Kambasha of DIY highlighted the singers ' harmonies and noted that Hynes had " inject [ ed ] his solid @-@ gold formula " to the song 's production .
Drowned in Sound 's writing staff picked " Flatline " included it in their list of 2013 's best songs on number sixteenth , as did Edge on the Net , that put it on seventh place .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Only entering two European charts , " Flatline " reached number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart , however it peaked at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart . The group denied allegations of it being a " flop " : " I don 't think our song got lost on the radio . I think there were certain things that happened behind the scenes that couldn 't be helped . Our goal was to put a song out that people liked and we think we 've done that " . They also expressed preference in going on tour and releasing an album than having a " throw @-@ away hit " on the charts . " To NME , Buchanan reiterated those sentiments and denied rumours floating at the time that speculated that the group had been dropped by Polydor .
= = Promotion = =
The official lyric video for " Flatline " was released online on 19 July 2013 . It was created by a fan named Jonas , who sent the visual to the group 's Twitter account . One week after , the singers announced that they would make it their official lyric video , and thanked him for the submission . The clip sees the group adopting " mod @-@ style " graphics , as the lyrics are spelled out in the screen in a colourful , 3D way . During their headline set at Scala , a nightclub in London , held on 1 August 2013 , Mutya Keisha Siobhan played various Sugababes @-@ era hits alongside new album songs , and closed the performance with a medley that mixed " Flatline " with select verses of " Push the Button " . On 19 August , it was announced that their first televised performance of " Flatline " would be on Alan Carr : Chatty Man . They eventually performed the single on 6 September episode of the show . Eleven days after , the trio performed the track during their set at gay nightclub G @-@ A @-@ Y. The trio also performed it during their tour , entitled The Sacred Three Tour .
= = Music video = =
The official music video for " Flatline " was shot by fashion photographer KT Auleta at the Venice Beach in Venice , Los Angeles , during the week of 8 — 14 July 2013 . The trio revealed that they had seen her work on the Italian edition of Vogue and thought it was " amazing " , therefore , they picked her to film the visual . The group described the video treatment which Auleta wrote as having " summed up how [ they ] felt about the song " , and further revealed that they opted to film the video in Los Angeles as it was the city in which they wrote " Flatline " with Hynes . The singers teased the music video with pictures of them at the set . The video was ultimately released on 19 August 2013 .
The visual begins with a shot of the three singers walking down a street in Venice Beach , followed by them getting ice cream and being on top of a motorcycle . As the singers lip @-@ sync their verses , the camera zooms in each singer . These are interspersed with clips of the trio standing in front of a wall with several graffitis . Later on , they are seen sitting on chairs on a beach , with " coquettish " sunglasses ; walking near the sea . As the song builds to its last compass , they run to an orange convertible , in which they drive to a desert . They reach the desert and are joined by a marching band , who play the drums heard in the song . The group exits the car and start dancing to the sound of the drums . The very last scene of the music video sees Siobhan driving them away as they have their hands in the air , and the screen fades to black .
For Popjustice , Michael Cragg said that the video did not " help the song " , and negatively regarded that it resembled a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video of a photoshoot .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Tree : A Life Story =
Tree : A Life Story ( or Tree : A Biography in Australia ) is a Canadian non @-@ fiction book written by David Suzuki and Wayne Grady , and illustrated by Robert Bateman . The book profiles the life of a Douglas @-@ fir tree , from seed to maturity to death . The story provides ecological context by describing interactions with other lifeforms in the forest and historical context through parallels with world events that occur during the tree 's 700 years of life . Digressions from the biographical narrative , scattered throughout the book , provide background into related topics , such as the history of botany .
Suzuki was inspired to write a biography of a tree when he noticed a Douglas @-@ fir with an uncharacteristic curve in its trunk and speculated what caused it to grow into that shape . Suzuki studied the topic with the help of a research assistant and solicited Grady to help write the book . Vancouver publishers Greystone Books released the book in September 2004 . In the Canadian market , it peaked at number three in the Maclean 's and the National Post 's non @-@ fiction best seller lists and was nominated for several awards . In February 2005 it was published in Australia by Allen & Unwin . The premise and writing were well received by critics . While several reviewers found that the authors succeeded in using accessible language , others found it too technical .
= = Background = =
Inspiration for the book came from a Douglas @-@ fir tree with a curve in its trunk . While sitting by the tree , at his home on Quadra Island , near Vancouver , David Suzuki realized that even though his family had played on it for years , he did not know how old it was or how its uncharacteristic curve had developed . Suzuki , a science writer and broadcaster , and former zoologist , speculated that the soil might have slid when the tree was young or that another plant might have blocked the sunlight . He thought that the tree must have endured much hardship throughout its life and made a connection between biographies of people and the story of this tree 's life . It also reminded him of an idea he had for a children 's book about interconnectivity of life , especially within plants . Along with a research assistant , he studied the topic . Suzuki started to write a draft but a busy schedule interfered so he sought a collaborator . Science writer and former Harrowsmith editor Wayne Grady agreed to participate . Suzuki provided the research , framework , and some original writing and Grady did most of the writing . Together , Grady in Ontario and Suzuki in Vancouver , went through five drafts . Wildlife artist Robert Bateman was brought into the project through social connections between the wives of Bateman and Suzuki . In creating the book , their intention was to illustrate the complexity and interconnectivity of this ecosystem by focusing on one tree 's role over time .
= = Synopsis = =
The book consists of five chapters : " Birth " , " Taking Root " , " Growth " , " Maturity " , and " Death " . The book opens with acknowledgments and an introduction , and closes with selected references and an index . In the introduction , Suzuki describes the tree at his home and the series of ideas and events that led to the writing of the book . Along with the narrative of the tree 's life , the book includes digressions into related topics , such as the history of botany and animal life in the forest . The tree written about in the book is not any specific Douglas @-@ fir , but rather a generic one .
The first chapter , " Birth " , begins with lightning starting a forest fire . The heat dries the Douglas @-@ fir cones enough for their scales to spread and release winged seeds . Rain water transports one seed to a sunlit area with well @-@ drained soil . Rodents and insectivores , whose food stashes were destroyed in the fire , eat truffles , which survived underground , and leave feces containing nitrogen @-@ fixing bacteria in the soil . Following one dormant winter stage , the seed begins to germinate .
In the second chapter , " Taking Root " , the embryonic root emerges through a small opening in the seed coat and through cell division , aided by plant hormones , it grows downward . Water and nutrients enter the root by osmosis and are transported to the seedling . A symbiotic relationship develops between the roots and the truffles . The roots give its extra sugars to the truffles , which it uses for energy , and the truffles assist the roots ' uptake of water and nutrients . From excess starches and nutrients gathered by the root , a stem similar to the root but surrounded with thin , grayish bark , grows upwards . As the starch reserves are exhausted , its first needles sprout and photosynthesis begins . The tree anchors itself with a deep taproot and a web of roots begin to grow laterally . Some roots develop symbiotic relationships with near @-@ by red alders which excel at nitrogen @-@ fixation but lack the storage capacity that the Douglas @-@ fir can offer . In early April of every year , a new layer grows between the bark and wood . As this new layer takes over transportation of fluids throughout the tree , last year 's layer of cells die and form a ring in the wood .
After about 20 years , the tree begins to develop fertile cones . Buds form where auxins accumulate ; these become either new needles or cones . The buds remain undifferentiated until July and continue to develop throughout the fall and winter . The next year , some buds will open in mid @-@ May exposing a new set of needles . The cone buds on the lower end of the tree while other buds burst open in April releasing a mist of pollen . The cones at the top of the tree open their scales for wind @-@ borne pollen to enter . Within the cone , the pollen fertilizes a seed which is released in September . The quantity and quality of seed production varies year @-@ to @-@ year but a particularly effective crop is produced about every 10 years . Less than 0 @.@ 1 % of seeds survive Douglas squirrels , dark @-@ eyed juncos , and other seed @-@ eating animals .
Over the centuries , the tree grows thicker and taller as successive rings develop around its trunk and new buds grow on the branches . The tree becomes part of an old growth forest with a shaded and damp understory of broadleaf trees , shrubs , and ferns . In the canopy , a mat of dead needles and lichen accumulate on the wide upper branches . Exposed to light , air , and rain , the needles decompose and the mat becomes colonized by insects , fungus , and new plants .
In the opening of the final chapter , " Death " , the tree is 550 years old and stands 80 meters ( 260 feet ) tall . Under the weight of too much snow accumulating on the canopy mat , a branch breaks off . Stresses from a long winter with a dry summer weaken the tree 's immune system . The exposed area where the branch broke becomes infected with insects and fungus . Insect larvae eat the buds and the fungus spreads into the middle of the tree and down to the roots . With its vascular tissue system compromised , the tree diverts nutrients elsewhere , resulting in needles turning orange on the abandoned branches . Death takes years to occur as successive parts are slowly starved of nutrients . As a snag , it becomes home to a succession of animals , like woodpeckers , owls , squirrels , and bats . Eventually the roots rot enough that a rainstorm blows it down . Mosses and fungi grow on the deadfall , followed by colonies of termites , ants , and mites , which all help decompose the remaining wood .
= = Genre and style = =
Tree is a popular science book , intended to profile the life of single tree using terminology targeted at a general audience . The narrative provides ecological context , describing animals and plants that interact with the tree , as well as historical context . Parallels to the tree 's age are made with historical events , like the tree taking root as empirical science was taking root in Europe during the life of 13th century philosopher Roger Bacon . The book is most commonly described , and marketed , as a " biography " . One reviewer grouped it with the 2005 book The Golden Spruce as part of a new genre : an " arbobiography " .
The book is written in the third person , omniscient , style . Grady 's writing moderates Suzuki 's characteristic rhetoric to create writing that is accessible , with a tone described as " a breezy casualness that welcomes the reader " . According to Suzuki , making the book accessible required telling the story from a human perspective , including some anthropomorphism of biological processes .
= = Publication = =
The book was published by Greystone Books , an imprint of Douglas & McIntyre based in Vancouver that specializes in nature , travel , and sports topics . They published the hardcover version of Tree in September 2004 . The book is small , measuring only 19 × 14 cm ( 7 @.@ 6 × 5 @.@ 4 inches ) with 192 pages . Suzuki and Grady promoted it through media interviews and book signing events across Canada . In February 2005 , Allen & Unwin published it in Australia as Tree : A Biography . The Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic released the audio book in April 2006 . Greystone Books published the trade paperback in February 2007 .
= = Reception = =
In the Canadian market , the hardcover edition peaked at number three in the MacLean 's and the National Post 's non @-@ fiction best seller lists . The magazine Science & Spirit published an excerpt in the January – February 2005 edition . It was nominated for the 2004 Canadian Science Writers ' Association 's Science in Society Journalism Award for ' General Audience Book ' , the 2005 B.C. Booksellers ' Choice Award and the 2006 Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries ' Annual Litereature Award for best ' General Interest ' book . The French translation was nominated for the 2006 Governor General 's Awards for best English to French translation .
The premise of a biography for a tree was well received . The writing was called engaging , lyrical , and compelling . Robert Wiersema wrote , " Tree is science writing at its finest . It 's sweeping but focused , keenly aware of both the minutiae and the big picture . ... Although some of the concepts are complex , the writing is always accessible ... Scientific matters are explained in layman 's terms , and the text never bogs down or bottlenecks . " However , some reviewers found the language too technical . In the Montreal Gazette , Bronwyn Chester wrote that the scientific language " dilut [ es ] our feeling and concern for this tree through too much information " . Robert Bateman 's black and white illustrations , while skilled , were said to add little to the narrative .
= Glastonbury Festival =
Glastonbury Festival is a five @-@ day festival of contemporary performing arts that takes place near Pilton , Somerset . In addition to contemporary music , the festival hosts dance , comedy , theatre , circus , cabaret , and other arts . Leading pop and rock artists have headlined , alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas . Films and albums recorded at Glastonbury have been released , and the festival receives extensive television and newspaper coverage . Glastonbury is the largest greenfield festival in the world , and is now attended by around 175 @,@ 000 people , requiring extensive infrastructure in terms of security , transport , water , and electricity supply . The majority of staff are volunteers , helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for good causes .
The festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie , counterculture , and free festival movements . It retains vestiges of these traditions , such as the Green Fields area , which includes sections known as the Green Futures and Healing Fields . After the 1970s , the festival took place almost every year and grew in size , with the number of attendees sometimes being swollen by gatecrashers . Michael Eavis hosted the first festival , then called Pilton Festival
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at Parton Kirk , near Castle Douglas in Galloway close to where he grew up . The extended biography The Life of James Clerk Maxwell , by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor Lewis Campbell , was published in 1882 . His collected works were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge University Press in 1890 .
= = = Personality = = =
As a great lover of Scottish poetry , Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own . The best known is Rigid Body Sings , closely based on " Comin ' Through the Rye " by Robert Burns , which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar . It has the opening lines
Gin a body meet a body
Flyin ' through the air .
Gin a body hit a body ,
Will it fly ? And where ?
A collection of his poems was published by his friend Lewis Campbell in 1882 . Descriptions of Maxwell remark upon his remarkable intellectual qualities being matched by social awkwardness .
Maxwell was an evangelical Presbyterian and in his later years became an Elder of the Church of Scotland . Maxwell 's religious beliefs and related activities have been the focus of a number of papers . Attending both Church of Scotland ( his father 's denomination ) and Episcopalian ( his mother 's denomination ) services as a child , Maxwell later underwent an evangelical conversion in April 1853 . One facet of this conversion may have aligned him with an antipositivist position .
= = Scientific legacy = =
= = = Electromagnetism = = =
Maxwell had studied and commented on electricity and magnetism as early as 1855 when his paper On Faraday 's lines of force was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society . The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday 's work and how the two phenomena were related . He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations with 20 equations in 20 variables . This work was later published as On Physical Lines of Force in March 1861 .
Around 1862 , while lecturing at King 's College , Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light . He considered this to be more than just a coincidence , commenting , " We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena . "
Working on the problem further , Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments ; using the data available at the time , Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310 @,@ 740 @,@ 000 metres per second ( 1 @.@ 0195 × 109 ft / s ) . In his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field , Maxwell wrote , " The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance , and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws " .
His famous equations , in their modern form of four partial differential equations , first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873 . Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair . Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of quaternions and made the electromagnetic potential the centrepiece of his theory . In 1881 Oliver Heaviside replaced Maxwell 's electromagnetic potential field by ' force fields ' as the centrepiece of electromagnetic theory . Heaviside reduced the complexity of Maxwell 's theory down to four differential equations , known now collectively as Maxwell 's Laws or Maxwell 's equations . According to Heaviside , the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be " murdered " . The use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell 's equations .
A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and Peter Guthrie Tait about the relative merits of vector analysis and quaternions . The result was the realisation that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by quaternions if the theory was purely local , and vector analysis became commonplace . Maxwell was proven correct , and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th century mathematical physics .
Maxwell also introduced the concept of the electromagnetic field in comparison to force lines that Faraday described . By understanding the propagation of electromagnetism as a field emitted by active particles , Maxwell could advance his work on light . At that time , Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves , dubbed the luminiferous aether . Over time , the existence of such a medium , permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means , proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the Michelson – Morley experiment . Moreover , it seemed to require an absolute frame of reference in which the equations were valid , with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer . These difficulties inspired Albert Einstein to formulate the theory of special relativity ; in the process Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a stationary luminiferous aether .
= = = Colour vision = = =
As most physicists of the time , Maxwell had a strong interest in psychology . He was particularly interested , following the steps of Isaac Newton and Thomas Young , in the study of colour vision . From 1855 to 1872 , he published at intervals a series of investigations concerning the perception of colour , colour @-@ blindness , and colour theory , and was awarded the Rumford Medal for On the Theory of Colour Vision .
Isaac Newton had demonstrated , using prisms , that white lights , such as sunlight , are composed of a number of monochromatic components which could then be recombined into white light . Newton also showed that an orange paint made of yellow and red could look exactly like a monochromatic orange light , although being composed of two monochromatic yellow and red lights . Hence the paradox that puzzled physicists of the time : two complex lights ( composed of more than one monochromatic light ) could look alike but be physically different , called metameres . Thomas Young later proposed that this paradox could be explained by colours being perceived through a limited number of channels in the eyes , which he proposed to be threefold , the trichromatic color theory . Maxwell used the recently developed Linear algebra to prove Young 's theory . Any monochromatic light stimulating three receptors should be able to be equally stimulated by a set of three different monochromatic lights ( in fact , by any set of three different lights ) . He demonstrated that to be the case , inventing color matching experiments and Colorimetry .
Maxwell was also interested in applying his theory of color perception , namely in colour photography . Stemming directly from his psychological work on colour perception : if a sum of any three lights could reproduce any perceivable colour , then colour photographs could be produced with a set of three colored filters . In the course of his 1855 paper , Maxwell proposed that , if three black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of a scene were taken through red , green and blue filters and transparent prints of the images were projected onto a screen using three projectors equipped with similar filters , when superimposed on the screen the result would be perceived by the human eye as a complete reproduction of all the colours in the scene .
During an 1861 Royal Institution lecture on colour theory , Maxwell presented the world 's first demonstration of colour photography by this principle of three @-@ colour analysis and synthesis . Thomas Sutton , inventor of the single @-@ lens reflex camera , took the picture . He photographed a tartan ribbon three times , through red , green , and blue filters , also making a fourth photograph through a yellow filter , which , according to Maxwell 's account , was not used in the demonstration . Because Sutton 's photographic plates were insensitive to red and barely sensitive to green , the results of this pioneering experiment were far from perfect . It was remarked in the published account of the lecture that " if the red and green images had been as fully photographed as the blue , " it " would have been a truly @-@ coloured image of the riband . By finding photographic materials more sensitive to the less refrangible rays , the representation of the colours of objects might be greatly improved . " Researchers in 1961 concluded that the seemingly impossible partial success of the red @-@ filtered exposure was due to ultraviolet light , which is strongly reflected by some red dyes , not entirely blocked by the red filter used , and within the range of sensitivity of the wet collodion process Sutton employed .
= = = Kinetic theory and thermodynamics = = =
Maxwell also investigated the kinetic theory of gases . Originating with Daniel Bernoulli , this theory was advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath , John James Waterston , James Joule , and particularly Rudolf Clausius , to such an extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt ; but it received enormous development from Maxwell , who in this field appeared as an experimenter ( on the laws of gaseous friction ) as well as a mathematician .
Between 1859 and 1866 , he developed the theory of the distributions of velocities in particles of a gas , work later generalised by Ludwig Boltzmann . The formula , called the Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution , gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature . In the kinetic theory , temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement . This approach generalised the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had been achieved previously . Maxwell 's work on thermodynamics led him to devise the thought experiment that came to be known as Maxwell 's demon , where the second law of thermodynamics is violated by an imaginary being capable of sorting particles by energy .
In 1871 he established Maxwell 's thermodynamic relations , which are statements of equality among the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potentials with respect to different thermodynamic variables . In 1874 , he constructed a plaster thermodynamic visualisation as a way of exploring phase transitions , based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs 's graphical thermodynamics papers .
= = = Control theory = = =
Maxwell published a paper On governors in the Proceedings of Royal Society , vol . 16 ( 1867 – 1868 ) . This paper is considered a central paper of the early days of control theory . Here " governors " refers to the governor or the centrifugal governor used to regulate steam engines .
= = Legacy = =
His name is honoured in several ways :
The maxwell ( Mx ) , a compound derived CGS unit measuring magnetic flux
IEEE Maxwell Award
Maxwell Montes , a mountain range on Venus
The Maxwell Gap in the Rings of Saturn
The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope , the largest submillimetre @-@ wavelength astronomical telescope in the world , with a diameter of 15 metres ( 49 ft )
The James Clerk Maxwell Building of the University of Edinburgh , housing the schools of mathematics , physics and meteorology
The James Clerk Maxwell building at the Waterloo campus of King 's College London , a chair in Physics , and a society for undergraduate physicists are named after him at the university .
The James Clerk Maxwell Centre of the Edinburgh Academy
The Maxwell Centre at the University of Cambridge , dedicated to academia @-@ industry interactions in Physical Sciences and Technology .
A statue on Edinburgh 's George Street
GPU manufacturer Nvidia has named the architecture of its GeForce 900 series after Maxwell
A proposed sculpture called the Star of Caledonia is to pay tribute to James Clerk Maxwell
ANSYS software for electromagnetic analysis , named Maxwell
= = Publications = =
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1873 ) , A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol I , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1873 ) , A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol II , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1881 ) , An Elementary treatise on electricity , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1890 ) , The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol I , Dover Publication
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1890 ) , The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol II , Cambridge , University Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1908 ) , Theory of heat , Longmans Green Co .
Three of Maxwell 's contributions to Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in the Ninth Edition ( 1878 ) : Atom , [ 1 ] Attraction , [ 2 ] , and Ether [ 3 ] ; and three in the Eleventh Edition ( 1911 ) : Capillary Action , [ 4 ] Diagram , [ 5 ] and Faraday , Michael [ 6 ] .
= Ontario Highway 127 =
King 's Highway 127 , commonly referred to as Highway 127 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route begins in Maynooth , connecting Highway 62 north of Bancroft with Highway 60 in the township of South Algonquin , east of Whitney and Algonquin Provincial Park . The entire route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police ( OPP ) .
Highway 127 was designated in late 1955 , generally following the same route as today , with the exception of the northern terminus . During the early 1960s , a new road was constructed east of Whitney , bypassing the old highway for several kilometres . By 1963 , the bypass was complete and Highway 127 was rerouted onto it .
= = Route description = =
Highway 127 is a remote connector highway that lies east of Algonquin Park , the oldest provincial park in Ontario and one of the most frequented camping grounds in the world . It connects the northern end of Highway 62 in Maynooth with Highway 60 east of Whitney . The only community Highway 127 passes through is Lake St. Peter . It passes through large swaths of undeveloped forest on its 39 km ( 24 mi ) journey , and is rather remote ; aside from the towns at the northern and southern terminii , the only named community on Highway 127 is Lake St. Peter .
Like most routes which pass through the Canadian Shield , Highway 127 travels through rock cuts and muskeg @-@ ridden terrain in the midst of dense coniferous forests . There is little agricultural activity along the route . Within Maynooth , Highway 127 serves nearly three times as many vehicles as the rest of the route ; while a daily average of 1800 vehicles use Highway 127 in Maynooth , only 650 travel the length of the route . As with other provincial highways in Ontario , Highway 127 is patrolled by the OPP .
= = History = =
Highway 127 was first designated in 1955 along an existing road between Maynooth and Whitney . The section within the Hastings County was designated on October 19 and the section within Nipissing District on November 16 . The highway was 44 @.@ 3 km ( 27 @.@ 5 mi ) long when it was designated . It was paved as far north as Lake St. Peter , after which it was a gravel road . Over the next several years , the highway was paved north towards Whitney . In the early 1960s , it was decided to bypass to the east of the northernmost section of the highway . Construction began in 1961 and was completed by 1963 , cutting 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) off the length of the route . Aside from minor realignments , the route of Highway 127 has not changed since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 127 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Stanley Bruce =
Stanley Melbourne Bruce , 1st Viscount Bruce of Melbourne , CH , MC , PC , FRS ( 15 April 1883 – 25 August 1967 ) was the eighth Prime Minister of Australia ( 1923 – 29 ) . Bruce made wide @-@ ranging reforms and mounted a comprehensive nation @-@ building program in government , but his controversial handling of industrial relations led to his dramatic defeat at the polls in 1929 . He later pursued a long and influential diplomatic career as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , at the League of Nations and as Chairman of the Food and Agriculture Organization Council .
Born into a wealthy Melbourne family , Bruce studied at the University of Cambridge and spent his early life tending to the importing and exporting business of his late father . He served on the front lines of the Gallipoli Campaign in World War I and returned to Australia wounded in 1917 , becoming a spokesperson for government recruitment efforts . He gained the attention of the Nationalist Party and Prime Minister Billy Hughes , who encouraged a political career . He was elected to parliament in 1918 , becoming treasurer in 1921 and then prime minister in 1923 .
In office Bruce pursued an energetic and diverse agenda . He comprehensively overhauled federal government administration and oversaw its transfer to the new capital city of Canberra . He implemented many reforms to the Australian federal system that strengthened the role of the Commonwealth . He established the Commonwealth Peace Officers and Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , the forerunners of the Australian Federal Police and the CSIRO . His " men , money and markets " scheme was an ambitious attempt to rapidly expand Australia 's population and economic potential through massive government investment and closer ties with Great Britain and the rest of the British Empire . However , his endeavours to overhaul Australia 's industrial relations system brought his government into frequent conflict with the labour movement , and his radical proposal to abolish Commonwealth arbitration in 1929 prompted members of his own party to cross the floor to defeat the government . In the resounding loss at the subsequent election the Prime Minister lost his seat , an event unprecedented in Australia and one that would not occur again until 2007 .
Although he returned to parliament in 1931 , Bruce 's service in the Lyons Government was brief . Instead he pursued an international career , accepting appointment as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom in 1933 . Bruce became an influential figure in British government circles and at the League of Nations , emerging as a tireless advocate for international cooperation on economic and social problems , especially those facing the developing world . Particularly passionate on improving global nutrition , Bruce was one of the key figures in the establishment of the Food and Agriculture Organization , serving as the first chairman of its governing council from 1946 to 1951 . He was elevated to the peerage in 1947 and became the first Australian to sit in the House of Lords , as well as the first Chancellor of the Australian National University . Although his diplomatic career went largely unnoticed in Australia , he continued throughout his life in London to vociferously advocate for Australian interests ( particularly during World War II ) and asked that his remains be returned to Canberra when he died in 1967 .
= = Early life = =
Stanley Melbourne Bruce was born on 15 April 1883 in St Kilda , Victoria , a suburb of Melbourne , and was the youngest of five children . His father , John Munro Bruce , was of Ulster Scottish descent and had emigrated from Ireland to Australia in 1858 at the age of 18 . His mother , Mary Ann Henderson , was Irish and had married her cousin John after emigrating to Australia in 1872 at the age of 24 . John Bruce was a talented businessman with " a flair for buying and selling " , which would secure him a partnership in an established Melbourne importing firm that became known as Paterson , Laing and Bruce in 1868 . As his wealth grew , John became increasingly influential in colonial Victoria 's social and political life . An avid golfer , he was one of the founders of the Royal Melbourne Golf Club . He was prominent in the liberal protectionist political movement within the state , and an early supporter of future prime minister Alfred Deakin . John 's success ensured that Bruce , his sister Mary and brothers Ernest , William and Robert were born into affluence . Shortly after Bruce 's birth the family relocated to the stately Wombalano manor in Toorak . However , John was an aloof and remote figure in the lives of his children , as Bruce later recounted . Despite their family 's Presbyterian faith , Bruce was sent to Melbourne Church of England Grammar School ( now Melbourne Grammar School ) and subsequently Bruce would come to identify principally as Anglican . Bruce was an average student but extremely active in the sporting life of the school and captain of its football team , and then of the school itself in 1901 .
The economic depression of the 1880s and 1890s hit the Bruce family fortunes hard . John Bruce lost much of his fortune in the Victorian bank collapse of 1894 and incurred large debts to buy out his partners in the importing business in 1897 . The family suffered a great deal more tragedy over the coming decades . Stanley 's brother William committed suicide in 1899 , shortly after seeking treatment for mental illness . Just two years later John Bruce took his own life during a business trip to Paris ; he had suffered from depression as a result of the great pressures on his business and finances . His sister Mary endured a long illness before succumbing in 1908 , and his mother died too in 1912 . Finally , Bruce 's beloved brother Ernest shot himself in 1919 , suffering from physical and mental injuries sustained during his military service in World War I.
In the aftermath of his father 's death in 1901 , the family fortunes were at a low ebb and Bruce went into the family business after leaving high school . The young Bruce was ambitious and determined to get an education . With loaned money , he moved to the United Kingdom with his mother and sister and enrolled in Trinity Hall , Cambridge in 1902 . He was a popular if average student , heavily involved in the athletic life of the college , including as a member of the Cambridge rowing crew that won the Boat Race in 1904 . Rowing remained one of his great passions , and he continued to coach crews ( including several for the Henley Royal Regatta ) and write on the subject for much of his life . Ernest Bruce had remained in Australia to take charge of the family 's business interests . In 1906 , he lobbied the directors of the company to have his brother Stanley take over the chairmanship of Paterson , Laing and Bruce , and was ultimately successful . Despite being just 23 , he proved an able chairman , and with Stanley in London managing the exporting and financial interests , and Ernest managing the importation and sales operations in Melbourne , the financial fortunes of the business and the family rapidly recovered . During these years , Bruce also trained and worked as a solicitor and then as a barrister in the London with the firm of Ashurst , Morris , Crisp & Co . His work for the firm took him to Mexico in 1908 and Colombia in 1912 , which fostered an interest in international affairs .
By 1912 Bruce was a wealthy businessman and successful barrister , and it was in this year Ethel Dunlop Anderson traveled to England and was reacquainted with Bruce , whom she had known as a child . Aged 32 , Ethel was of similar Scottish @-@ Irish ancestry and hailed from a prominent squatter family of Victoria . She shared many of Bruce 's interests , especially golf , and his political outlook . They married in July 1913 in a quiet ceremony . Theirs was a close @-@ knit relationship – they would have many acquaintances but a small circle of close friends , and their relationship was one of mutual devotion . But the death of all but one member of his immediate family in just over a decade , and the fact that the Bruces would bear no children of their own , deeply affected Bruce and he " was left with a sense of insecurity and melancholy " for much of his life .
= = Military service , 1914 – 18 = =
Bruce returned briefly to Australia in 1914 , swapping positions within the company with his brother Ernest . World War I broke out in August of that year . Bruce and his brothers sought to enlist in defence of the Empire , but all three of them would choose to serve in the British Army rather than the Australian Imperial Force . It was easier to obtain officer commissions in the British Army and the family had a close association with ( and for many of them , long periods of residency in ) Great Britain . Bruce enlisted and received a commission as lieutenant on 7 February 1915 and was attached to the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers in Egypt , which was then assigned to the British 29th Division . The 29th subsequently joined operations in Turkey along with Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) troops that year under Sir Ian Hamilton , commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) . First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill had devised a strategy of capturing the Dardanelles from Turkey to allow naval access to Allied Russia . However allied naval forces were unable to secure passage through the narrow straits , and the MEF under Hamilton devised a plan to wrest control through amphibious landings . This was the beginning of the now infamous Gallipoli Campaign .
Bruce 's regiment landed at Cape Helles in mid @-@ 1915 , where he fully distinguished himself in the construction of trenches and as an able commander . His battalion suffered heavy casualties over the coming months , and Bruce himself was wounded on 3 June by a shot to the arm , though it was this injury that spared him from a major assault by his battalion on 4 June in which many of his peers perished . He later reflected that he must have been kept on earth for some purpose . He returned to the front lines and his division moved to the new front at Suvla Bay , where it was involved in particularly heavy fighting and sustained trench warfare throughout August and September . Bruce received the Military Cross and the Croix de Guerre for his service during these months , and rose to the rank of captain on 5 August . He was wounded again on 26 September , this time by a shot to the knee , which left him crippled for several years and forced him to return to England to recuperate , while the rest of his regiment were transferred to France after the abandonment of the Gallipoli campaign .
Although it had been the agreement before the war that Ernest would stay and manage Paterson , Laing and Bruce while his brothers were serving , Ernest Bruce decided to enlist in the British Army in 1915 . Hence , in September 1916 Bruce sought to resign his commission and return to Australia to resume management of the family business . The War Office refused his request but granted him leave to return to Australia while recuperating from his injuries . As a decorated soldier on crutches with a gift for public speaking , he was enlisted to become a spokesperson for government recruitment in Australia . His success and popularity in this role brought the attention of the Nationalist League and then Prime Minister Billy Hughes , who lobbied the British government on his behalf and succeeded in convincing the War Office to allow Bruce to relinquish his commission in June 1917 .
Having served with many of his countrymen he returned to Australia with a renewed sense of pride and mission in the country of his birth . But having borne witness to the catastrophic loss of life in the Gallipoli Campaign and the death of most of his army comrades , as well as having suffered through the loss of most of his family , at age 34 Bruce was imbued with " a driving ambition to make something of a life which providence had spared " .
= = Member for Flinders , 1918 – 23 = =
Bruce 's popularity as a speaker for government recruitment efforts also earned him the attention of the National Union of Victoria , an influential group of the Melbourne elite who provided much of the financing for the Nationalist Party of Australia . As Sir William Irvine had recently resigned from parliament to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria , there was to be a by @-@ election for his seat of Flinders in 1918 , which the National Union asked Bruce to stand for . The Nationalist preselection for the seat attracted many candidates , and Sir Edward Mitchell , one of Australia 's leading constitutional lawyers , was presumed to be the front runner . Mitchell proved to be a disappointing speaker , and Bruce won pre @-@ selection with the help of the National Union . A deal arranged by acting Prime Minister William Watt prevented the newly formed Country Party from challenging Bruce in this partly rural seat , which stretched from Dandenong out into the rural areas south and east of Melbourne . In the by @-@ election of 11 May , Bruce easily defeated his Labor opponent Gordon Holmes .
Speaking to the delegates in Dandenong , Bruce summed up his political philosophy :
A plain soldier and business man . I am no politician , nor have I any desire to be one . In the course of my commercial career it has been my fate to have had much experience of politicians and their ways . What I have seen in the course of that experience has given me little respect either for the professional politician or his methods . I am desirous of seeing this country governed in the ways of clear common sense and good sound business principles , and I think that desire of mine is heartily share by the vast majority of the population .
Bruce 's early years in parliament were unremarkable and his energies were primarily focused on the affairs of Paterson , Laing and Bruce . However , he began to attract the attention of his parliamentary colleagues over the matter of the Commonwealth Shipping Line ( CSL ) in 1921 . Nationalist Prime Minister Billy Hughes , now a peace @-@ time leader , had declined in popularity within the party due to his left @-@ wing domestic policies . The CSL had been created by the Hughes government as a state @-@ owned concern to ship Australian goods during World War I when British and domestic commercial shipping were unavailable .
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Tsukamoto said that the radical design changes for Yuna from one game to the other reflected a huge cultural change . Producer Yoshinori Kitase added that they did not want to make Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 feel like an extension of its predecessor , so they changed the clothing of Yuna , Rikku and others ' to make them seem more active . This was accomplished before the story and setting were created . Because Yuna , Rikku and Paine live in a more care @-@ free world , the designers wanted them to be able to dress up , a feature which became key to the gameplay . Scenario writer Kazushige Nojima described her new outfit as a " natural reaction to the heavy stuff she wore in FFX . " Yuna 's singing performance was used to demonstrate the pop feel that the game incorporates . Final Fantasy X director Motomu Toriyama said her personality was the result of not having her bear the responsibility of being a summoner anymore . He added that while " she could be seen as a completely different person , ... deep in her heart , she is the same old Yuna . "
In the Japanese versions of the games Yuna has been voiced by Mayuko Aoki . Hedy Burress provides the character 's voice in the English adaptations of the game . In voicing Yuna , Burress remembers trying to translate Yuna 's duty , respect and honor , but also wanting to retain the gentleness and femininity of her character . When commenting on how the audiences would react to Final Fantasy X , Burress said that she wanted them to participate in the game itself and to " transport them into a completely different world " through the voices .
= = Reception = =
Yuna received positive critical reception for her appearance in Final Fantasy X. Chris Reiter of Gaming Target ranked her as the third best " PlayStation 2 babe " , describing her as " the star heroine whose soft features , kindness , and her unique story makes her one of the better beauties to love . " In 2008 , Chip ranked her as the 13th top " girl of gaming " . In 2012 , Larry Hester of Complex ranked the original version of Yuna as the 20th " hottest " video game character yet . That same year , Heath Hooker of GameZone ranked Yuna the ninth top Final Fantasy character , calling her " one of the strongest female characters in the entire Final Fantasy franchise " and stating " the depth of character Yuna presents to the player is unfathomable and is one reason why she lands on this list . " In 2013 , Complex editors Michael Rougeau and Gus Turner listed Yuna at number 21 on the list of the greatest heroines in video game history. ranked Yuna as the sixth greatest Final Fantasy character of all time . However , PSU.com retrospectively called Yuna an underrated character and stated that she was overlooked due to Auron and Rikku .
GamesRadar listed Yuna as one of the 25 best new characters of the 2000s , describing the romance between her and Tidus as " legendary " and Yuna herself as compassionate , generous and dutiful . Yuna and Tidus were included on the list of " great loves " by Matthew Rorie of GameSpot in 2006 , while AJ Glasser of GamesRadar in 2008 listed them as the second best Square Enix couple . Their kiss scene was declared as number two best in video games by Lisa Foiles of The Escapist , and Yuna 's abortive wedding with Seymour was also ranked as the third memorable matriminy in the history of PlayStation by Official PlayStation Magazine in 2014 .
Yuna 's design change in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 received a mixed reception . Rob Wright of Tom 's Hardware included her among the 50 greatest female characters in video game history . Jeremy Dunham of IGN praised the clothing designs , combining " proven and recognizable Final Fantasy styles " with a " revealing neo @-@ modern fashion sense " , referencing her warrior costume as a stand @-@ out , and also said that English voice actress Hedy Burress ' portrayal seemed more comfortable as opposed to the previous game . Brad Shoemaker of GameSpot praised Burress ' voice acting , saying that it brought her fully to life in accordance with the other changes in the character . The book Packaging Girlhood : Rescuing Our Daughters from Marketers ' Schemes described Yuna 's appearance as being a " sexy MTV video star " , adding that it is a " lesson to girls that being brave , strong , and ready to fight can only last so long - the next adventure is fashion , boyfriends , and sex . " GameSpy 's Raymond " Psylancer " Padilla called her " the video @-@ game vixen of my dreams . " Christian Nutt , also of GameSpy , described Burress ' portrayal of Yuna in X @-@ 2 as superb . Various publications compared Yuna to other fictional characters , including the Charlie 's Angels 's Natalie Cook as portrayed by Cameron Diaz ; and Tomb Raider star Lara Croft , due to her attire and gun @-@ wielding skills . In 2008 , GameDaily listed the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 incarnation of Yuna as one of the top 50 hottest video game women , praising her revealing outfit as well as her alternate costumes . That same year , she was ranked as the tenth on top Final Fantasy character by IGN , commenting that while her original appearance made her " fine eye @-@ candy " and her sending scene was one of the best works by the CG studio Square Visual Works , it was the sequel that gave her more confidence and attitude , as well as " a gratuitously exploitative costume that ranks among the series ' finest bits of fanboy @-@ baiting . "
The character also gained a significant and enduring popularity among the gamer public , especially in Japan . Readers of Game Informer voted Yuna 's relationship with Tidus as the best of 2001 . Yuna was voted the 10th most popular video game character in Japan in a 2008 Oricon poll , as well as 16th in a similar poll by Famitsu 2010 . In a 2010 ASCII Media Works poll in which Japanese fans would vote whose video game or manga character would like to name their children after , Yuna came second in the female category . In official Square Enix polls , Yuna was voted the third most commonly favorite female Final Fantasy character in 2013 and the most popular Final Fantasy heroine in 2014 .
= The Sound of White =
The Sound of White is the debut studio album by Australian pop singer @-@ songwriter Missy Higgins , released 6 September 2004 by Eleven . It won the 2005 ARIA Music Award for Best Female Artist . Higgins had secured recording contracts with Eleven and Warner Bros. while still in high school , after winning a competition for unsigned artists run by radio station Triple J. Her winning song , " All For Believing " , is included on this album . After a backpacking trip in 2002 , Higgins toured and wrote songs during 2003 . She wrote most tracks alone and collaborated on three songs , with Kevin Griffin , Jay Clifford and Clif Magness respectively . The Sound of White was recorded in 2004 with producer John Porter .
Higgins ' first single from the album was " Scar " , released in August ahead of the album . Three more singles were released , " Ten Days " in November , " The Special Two " in April 2005 and " The Sound of White " in August . Critics gave the album mixed reviews and it achieved commercial success , reaching number one on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Albums Chart and , selling over 630 @,@ 000 copies , was accredited platinum nine times . The album was nominated for five ARIA Awards in 2004 and won ' Best Pop Release ' . The following year it was nominated for eight ARIA awards and won five . In 2005 , Higgins won the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) ' Song of the Year ' award for " Scar " .
= = Background and recording = =
In 2001 , while still at high school , Higgins wrote the song " All for Believing " as part of a music assignment . The song won Unearthed , a competition for unsigned artists run by radio station Triple J and was added to their playlist . She was offered recording contracts by Sony and Eleven . She signed with Eleven before setting off in 2002 on a backpacking trip to Europe . She planned to write music during her trip but , leaving her guitar on a train in Spain , only completed one song . While holidaying , " All for Believing " was picked up by Los Angeles ( LA ) radio station KCRW and at the end of her trip , she flew to LA to sign an international recording contract with Warner Bros.
In 2003 , Higgins spent several months touring as a support act for other artists , and writing music for her debut album . She wrote most of the songs alone , and most of them on the piano . She collaborated with Better Than Ezra musician Kevin Griffin on two songs ; " Scar " and " Don 't Ever " . " Ten Days " , inspired by Higgins ' break @-@ up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe , was co @-@ written with Jay Clifford from Jump , Little Children . " The River " was co @-@ written with Clif Magness .
In November , Higgins released a self @-@ titled extended play ( EP ) which contained four songs including " All for Believing " and " Greed for Your Love " , the song she had written in Europe . In 2004 she travelled to the US to work with British musician and record producer John Porter and engineer and mixer Jay Newland . Porter assembled a group of session musicians for the album , including drummer Michael Barker , bassist John Patitucci and cellist Martin Tillman .
= = Release = =
Higgins released her first single from the album , " Scar " , as an EP on 2 August 2004 ; it entered the ARIA Singles Chart at No. 1 . The Sound of White was released in Australia on 6 September . It entered the ARIA Albums Chart at No. 1 and stayed in the top 50 for 85 weeks . It was certified nine times platinum by ARIA . It entered the New Zealand album chart at No. 40 , peaked at No. 19 and remained on the chart for 11 weeks . Three more singles were released from the album . " Ten Days " was released 15 November , entering at No. 14 , later rising to No. 12 . " The Special Two " was released as an EP on 4 April 2005 . It entered the ARIA Singles Chart at No. 2 and stayed on the chart for 19 weeks . " The Sound of White " was released 15 August . It entered the chart at No. 22 and left it after five weeks . The album was released in the United Kingdom on 6 June and the US on 7 June on Reprise ( a label owned by Warner Bros. )
Higgins promoted the album in Australia in October 2004 with her first national tour as a headline act .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
In his 2009 book Playlisted : Everything You Need to Know About Australian Music Right Now , Craig Mathieson said that The Sound of White was lyrically " descriptively giving , often heartbroken and occasionally delusional " .
The album received mixed reviews from American music critics . Christian Hoard and Jonathan Ringen of Rolling Stone were unimpressed by the album . Although they praised the production , they called it " utterly conventional " and said that Higgins was " too bland " to succeed in the US . Allmusic 's Jonathan Widran was more impressed , also praising the album 's production as well as more lightly produced tracks " Don 't Ever " , " Night Minds " and " The Sound of White " . He said " there 's no doubt she 'll be the one up @-@ and @-@ coming singers want to compare themselves to " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Holly George @-@ Warren said that the album was " reminiscent of early Suzanne Vega and Sarah McLachlan " and that it sounded " just right " . Billboard gave the album a positive review , praising Higgins ' use of different genres and noting her " refreshing Melbourne accent " and concluding that it was " tailor @-@ made for lazy summer days " .
= = = Awards = = =
Higgins received six ARIA Awards for The Sound of White . In 2004 , at the 18th Annual ARIA Music Awards , Higgins was nominated for ' Single of the Year ' , ' Best Female Artist ' , ' Breakthrough Artist — Single ' and ' Best Pop Release ' , all for " Scar " . She won the award for ' Best Pop Release ' . Squareyed Films received a nomination for ' Best Video ' for " Scar " . The following year , at the 19th Annual ARIA Music Awards , Higgins received five more awards ; ' Best Female Artist ' ( for " Scar " ) , ' Breakthrough Artist — Album ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' , ' Best Pop Release ' ( for " The Sound of White " )
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on Line was closed to passengers on 6 March 1967 and to goods on 5 September 1969 as part of the wider Beeching Axe , despite a vigorous campaign by local campaigners , including the ( nearby city of Ripon ) city 's MP . Today much of the route of the line through the city ( Ripon ) is now a relief road and although the former station still stands , it is now surrounded by a new housing development . The issue remains a significant one in local politics and there are movements wanting to restore the line . Reports suggest the reopening of a line between Ripon and Harrogate railway station would be economically viable , costing £ 40 million and could initially attract 1 @,@ 200 passengers a day , rising to 2 @,@ 700 . Campaigners call on MPs to restore Ripon railway link .
= = = Legal history = = =
A house of correction opened in 1783 on East Road - it became HM Prison Northallerton , which served ( at different times ) as an adult prison , a Young Offender Institution , and a military prison . The prison closed 2013 .
The Quarter Sessions for the area were held in the town from the 17th century in various buildings including the Tollbooth , the Guild Hall and Vine House , but eventually a courthouse was built in East Road in 1875 as part of the prison complex . This later moved to the town 's Racecourse Lane , and remains the area 's magistrates ' court .
When the Poor Law union system was introduced , a workhouse was established in the town to serve the three parishes in the area . This building is now part of the Friarage Hospital . When in 1856 the North Riding Constabulary was founded , one of the last county forces to be formed , Northallerton was selected as its headquarters , operating initially from premises in East Road .
The earliest records pertaining to Northallerton School ( formerly Northallerton Grammar School ) date from 1323 . Parts of the old school building can be seen adjacent to All Saints ' Church near the north end of High Street . A famous old boy of the school was John Radcliffe ( 1652 – 1714 ) , founder of Oxford 's John Radcliffe Hospital and physician to William of Orange .
= = = Present day = = =
Today Northallerton 's main commercial function is a mixture of light industry , commerce and agricultural services , such as the regular livestock auction market and the production of high @-@ grade manure .
The headquarters of North Yorkshire County Council ( County Hall ) and Hambleton District Council ( the Civic Centre ) are both located in Northallerton ; these serve many parishes in the area . The RPA ( Rural Payments Agency ) was based here until 2014 . The nearby base at RAF Leeming is a major source of employment and income in the area . Northallerton Prison , which used to house young offenders and adults from the North Yorkshire area , closed in 2014 . It once had the world 's largest treadmill .
= = Governance = =
= = = Parish = = =
The ancient parish of Northallerton covered a wide area . It included the townships and chapelries of Romanby , Brompton and Deighton , and the detached part of High Worsall on the River Tees . All of these places became separate civil parishes in the 19th century .
The parish council of Northallerton has exercised its right to be known as the town council . There are 12 town councillors , elected in four wards .
= = = Local government = = =
In 1889 the County of York , North Riding administrative county was formed . In 1894 it was divided into municipal boroughs , urban districts and rural districts . Following a review of local government in 1974 , the North Riding was abolished as an administrative county . The district council of Hambleton was then formed from the merger of the Northallerton Urban District with Bedale Rural District , Easingwold Rural District , Northallerton Rural District , Thirsk Rural District and Croft Rural District . This became part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of North Yorkshire .
Policing in the town remains the responsibility of North Yorkshire Police and firefighting the responsibility of North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service . The fire station at Northallerton is a " Day Crewed " station which operates from 08 : 00 to 18 : 00 each day and on call outside these hours .
The town has been twinned with Ormesson @-@ sur @-@ Marne , a suburb of Paris , France since 1994 .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
Northallerton was formerly a parliamentary borough . Its first representatives were John le Clerk and Stephen Maunsell , who were elected to the parliament of King Edward I in 1298 , but for some reason or other no subsequent return was made until 1640 , when the privilege was again resumed by order of the House of Commons . From 1640 to 1885 The town formed the parliamentary borough of Northallerton , returning two Members of Parliament until 1832 , and one thereafter . Following the Great Reform Act of 1832 , boundaries were extended to include neighbouring Brompton and Romanby and its representation was reduced to a single member . In 1885 the constituency was abolished and was absorbed into the Richmond division of the North Riding . The serving member for Richmond constituency is the Conservative , Rishi Sunak , who has held the seat since 2015 when he succeeded former party leader and Foreign Secretary William Hague . In modern times it has been an ultra @-@ safe seat for the Conservative Party with them having held it continually since 1929 . Richmond is included in the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency for elections to the European Parliament . It currently elects six members using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Northallerton lies north of the Vale of York , just south of County Durham and in the Vale of Mowbray . To the west lie the Pennines , a range of hills which rises to around 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) and to the east lie the North York Moors which rise to around 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) . The proximity of these hills is significant in the climatology of the area . To the west of the town runs the River Wiske which services the River Swale , in turn it is serviced by Brompton Beck , Turker Beck , Willow Beck and North Beck which run through the town . Although small in nature these have been the focus of flash flooding in the town and in Brompton village in recent years .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen classification the British Isles experience a maritime climate characterised by relatively cool summers and mild winters . Compared with other parts of the country , The Vale of York is slightly warmer and sunnier in the summer and colder and frostier in the winter . Owing to its inland position , and sheltered by the Pennines to the west , North Yorkshire is one of the driest counties in the UK , receiving , on average , around 600 mm ( 24 in ) of rain per year . The mean annual daily duration of bright sunshine is three hours and 42 minutes .
There are two distinct local weather phenomena , marked downslope lee winds caused by the proximity of the Pennines , leading to super geostrophic winds which can reach in excess of 60 KT ( 70 mph ) , most commonly in winter and spring . In the winter the presence of a subsidence inversion between the Pennines and the North York Moors can allow dense , persistent fog to form which can last for several days .
The nearest official Met Office weather station to Northallerton is Leeming , about 6 mi ( 10 km ) to the west . Temperature extremes have ranged from 33 @.@ 5 ° C ( 92 @.@ 3 ° F ) during August 1990 , down to − 17 @.@ 9 ° C ( − 0 @.@ 2 ° F ) during December 2010 .
The new 1981 @-@ 2010 ( as apposed to 1971 @-@ 2000 ) averages from the Met Office show how the climate of Leeming has changed dramatically compared with most places in the UK . The average April maximum temperature is only 12 @.@ 3 ° C , compared with 14 @.@ 1 ° C previously . The average yearly temperature has decreased to 9 @.@ 45 ° C compared to 9 @.@ 55 ° C previously and in contrast most places of the UK have become warmer . The days have become cooler and the nights warmer . Winters have become much milder , summers cooler . Leeming now gets an additional 44 @.@ 7 mm of rain per year , although also 62 @.@ 3 more hours of sunshine . The climate of Leeming has generally lost its characteristics of being drier and with more seasonal variation , compared with the rest of the UK . Leeming recorded its warmest December temperature on record in 2015 .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the town of Northallerton had a total resident population of 15 @,@ 741 or 18 @.@ 5 % of the total of Hambleton District . This figure , combined with an area of 23 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , provides Northallerton with a population density figure of 674 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 1 @,@ 750 / sq mi ) . This is higher than the average population density of England ( at 380 / km2 or 984 / sq mi ) .
There are 8 @,@ 203 females and 7 @,@ 538 males , which works out for every 100 females there are 91 @.@ 9 males .
The place of birth of the town 's residents was 98 @.@ 5 % United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 35 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 37 % from other European Union countries , and 0 @.@ 75 % from elsewhere in the world .
Compared with the average demography of England , Northallerton has low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and ethnic minorities and above average numbers of people over 65 years of age .
The following is a table outlining the population change of the town since 1801 , which demonstrates a trend of slow population growth in the 19th century and more rapid growth in the 20th century . In particular over the past 40 years , in which the population of Northallerton has more than doubled . The fall in population between 1851 and 1871 has been attributed to the collapse in coaching as the railways became popular .
= = Education = =
There are six primary schools in Northallerton , a secondary school and a Technology College . After completing primary education children move on to the Northallerton School , a secondary school and sixth form . In addition further adult learning courses are run at the college through the learndirect and Nextstep schemes . The College also runs courses through a Learn Direct centre at the Young Offender 's Institute which is close to the College .
In addition there a number of privately run infant and day care nursery schools in Northallerton .
= = = Northallerton School = = =
Northallerton School 's roots can be traced as far back as 1322 . Originally sited near the Parish Church , its initial role was to train boys in grammar and song . The school flourished in the 17th century under the mastership of Thomas Smelt , and notable alumni of that period include theologian George Hickes , historiographer royal Thomas Rymer , John Radcliffe , doctor to King William of Orange and theologian Thomas Burnet . The school struggled in the 19th century and almost closed at the start of the 20th century with the number of pupils in single figures . However following the 1902 Education Act the North Riding Education Committee resolved to build and restructure the grammar school . To that end a new school was built near the Thirsk Road , which opened in 1909 with 104 pupils , half of whom were girls , the first time that they had been admitted . The school expanded throughout the 20th century . Following the 1944 Education Act , the school entry was based on the Eleven plus exam with all fees and charges being abolished . In 1973 the grammar school merged with the Secondary Modern Allertonshire School , which opened in 1941 , with the Allertonshire taking pupils aged 11 – 14 and the grammar school ages 14 – 18 . By 1976 the comprehensive system was adopted and in 1994 the grammar school was renamed Northallerton College to better reflect the school 's role in the community . In 2015 Northallerton College merged with Allertonshire School to become a full secondary school , and continues to operate over both former school sites .
= = Economy = =
As the county town of North Yorkshire , Northallerton has County Hall , the administrative headquarters for North Yorkshire County Council . The headquarters of Hambleton District Council at Stonecross and North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service on East Road , are also based in Northallerton . Other major employers include the Friarage Hospital which employs around 1 @,@ 400 staff and the Rural Payments Agency has an office here too .
Being the centre of a large rural area it is the focus of agriculture with several businesses servicing the needs of farming . The auction mart regularly holds livestock auctions .
The economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 44 @.@ 3 % in full @-@ time employment , 15 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed , 2 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 2 @.@ 6 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % students without jobs , 15 @.@ 8 % retired , 6 @.@ 5 % looking after home or family , 5 @.@ 3 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 1 % economically inactive for other reasons .
The average price of a house in Northallerton for the 12 @-@ month period ending July 2008 was £ 209 @,@ 082 compared to £ 200 @,@ 433 for North Yorkshire and the national average of £ 178 @,@ 364 .
Europe 's third largest ice cream manufacturer , Richmond Foods , is headquartered in nearby Leeming Bar . It manufactures the popular Fab and Rowntree 's Fruit Pastilles ice lollies .
= = Transport = =
Northallerton was a major stopping point on the coach routes between Scotland and London as it lay on the old Roman road which ran between Scotland and London .
Coaching operations declined in the mid 19th century after the railway was introduced to the town in 1841 . Northallerton railway station which is run by TransPennine Express lies on the East Coast Main Line between Scotland , Newcastle and London .
In addition the railway also serves Cleveland and Durham with routes going on to Middlesbrough and Sunderland .
The Wensleydale Railway is reached by a bus service , operated by Dales & District , which runs from Northallerton to the current terminus of the railway at Leeming Bar , from where trains run to Redmire . It is hoped that eventually passenger trains will connect with the Settle @-@ Carlisle Railway at Garsdale , and that the section of line near Northallerton known as the South Curve can be upgraded to allow trains from Wensleydale to run into Northallerton railway station without reversing onto the main line . At the moment there are some limited goods , engineering and excursion trains using the North Curve .
Two main A roads pass through the town : the A684 runs approximately east @-@ west through the town and acts as a link between the A1 trunk road at Leeming Bar and the A19 at Osmotherley ; the A167 runs approximately north @-@ south between the A1 ( M ) at Darlington and the A1 at Topcliffe . In addition the A168 runs from Wetherby via Thirsk to Northallerton .
The nearest major airport is Durham Tees Valley Airport approximately 15 mi ( 24 km ) north of the town , lying just to the east of Darlington .
= = Sport and culture = =
= = = Sport = = =
= = = = Football = = = =
Northallerton Town FC play in the Northern League , the second oldest football league in the world . Formed sometime before 1895 they have been known as both Northallerton and Northallerton Alliance before settling on their current name . They are the most southerly based team in the league . The team played in many minor leagues before joining the Northern League Division Two on its formation in 1982 . In 1994 the club was declared financially insolvent and closed down
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, and Whitney Port . Upon the conclusion of the fourth season , Port moved to New York City after receiving employment with Diane von Fürstenberg and was commissioned to star in the spin @-@ off The City .
During this time , Conrad wished to leave the series to pursue other career opportunities , though she filmed ten episodes in the following season to close her storylines . After departing halfway through the fifth season , she was replaced by Cavallari , a fellow former Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County cast member . The sixth and final season saw Conrad 's friends Lo Bosworth and Stephanie Pratt , who were respectively featured as supporting roles since the second and third seasons , become primary cast members . Halfway through the season , Montag left the series after the cast looked to disassociate themselves from her uncharacteristic antics .
The aforementioned women 's storylines were largely developed by a number of supporting cast members . Spencer Pratt , originally credited as " Heidi 's boyfriend " and later " Heidi 's husband " , was added in the second season . Also that season , Brody Jenner was introduced as " Spencer 's friend " . After establishing a friendship with Conrad , he became known as " Lauren 's friend " . Jenner was later credited as " Kristin 's ex @-@ boyfriend " when Cavallari assumed Conrad 's position in the fifth season .
In the third season , Frankie Delgado was established as " Brody 's friend " . His title was adjusted as " Lauren 's friend " the following season , and was eventually reverted to " Brody 's friend " during the fifth season . Since the third season , Justin " Justin @-@ Bobby " Brescia was recognized as " Audrina 's ex " , " Audrina 's boyfriend " , or " Audrina 's ex @-@ boyfriend " Holly Montag , credited as " Heidi 's sister " , was added to the series in the fourth season .
In the fifth season , Stacie Hall was introduced to the series as " bartender " when working at The Dime , and later became " the bartender " after the conflict between herself , Montag , and Pratt came to fruition . After the conflict settled , Hall remained on the series as " Kristin 's friend " .
= = = Timeline of cast members = = =
= = = Storylines = = =
In its series premiere , The Hills first introduced Lauren Conrad , who moved from Laguna Beach , California to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry . She and her housemate Heidi Montag originally planned to attend the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising , though the latter left the college after receiving employment with Bolthouse Productions . Montag befriended their neighbor Audrina Patridge , while Conrad bonded with her fellow Teen Vogue intern Whitney Port . The remainder of the first season highlighted romantic relationships , including Montag 's and Patridge 's brief relationships with Jordan Eubanks and Brian Drolet respectively . The season concluded with Conrad 's rejection of a summertime internship in Paris to reunite with her former boyfriend Jason Wahler . Consequentially , Port was offered and accepted the position in Conrad 's place .
By the beginning of the second season , Conrad and Wahler had ended their relationship , while Montag began dating Spencer Pratt . Montag increasingly spent more time with Pratt and neglected her friendship with Conrad , which placed a strain on the pair 's friendship . Consequentially , Conrad strengthened her relationship with her friend Lo Bosworth and took a romantic interest in Pratt 's friend Brody Jenner . Montag and Pratt moved into an apartment together in the season finale , at which point Patridge became Conrad 's new housemate .
In the third season , Conrad ended her friendship with Montag after suspecting that she and Pratt fabricated rumors of a sex tape involving herself and Wahler . The ensuing feud between the women became a central focus of the series , and was carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared . Montag and Pratt became engaged , while Patridge resumed a turbulent romantic relationship with her friend Justin " Justin Bobby " Brescia . After Conrad established companionships with Jenner and his friend Frankie Delgado , Pratt severed ties with both men .
In light of the building feud , Spencer 's sister Stephanie Pratt initially took a disliking to Conrad . However , she later apologized to Conrad for an earlier confrontation , and the pair became friends . Their relationship put a burden on Pratt 's relationship with her brother and Montag , who reacted by beginning to alienate her . Conrad and Port eventually left their positions at Teen Vogue after receiving employment from Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm People 's Revolution . By the end of the season , Conrad and Patridge had moved out of their apartment and purchased a home , with new housemate Bosworth becoming a distancing factor between the former two .
The fourth season saw Patridge reconcile with Bosworth and repair her relationship with Conrad before moving into a separate residence . Holly Montag moved from her hometown of Crested Butte , Colorado into her sister and Pratt 's apartment , which created tension between the sisters and Pratt . Montag was later fired from her job with Bolthouse after becoming drunk during a company event . While vacationing in Mexico , an intoxicated Montag and Pratt elope . In the season finale , Conrad and Montag appear to have reconciled , though Conrad 's suspicions regarding the rumors continued to inhibit a reconciliation . Port eventually relocated to New York City to accept a position with Diane von Fürstenberg .
As the fifth season began , Spencer Pratt developed a flirtatious bond with a local bartender Stacie Hall , to the dismay of Montag . Per Montag 's request to salvage their relationship , Pratt agreed to attend couples ' therapy . As they became re @-@ engaged and decided to officially marry , Conrad initially declined an invitation to the wedding . In an attempt to change her mind , Pratt called Conrad and apologized for spreading the rumors . After much additional deliberation , Conrad made her final appearance on the series during the mid @-@ season finale , where she attended the nuptials and reconciled with Montag .
Kristin Cavallari caught the bouquet at the wedding , and assumed the series ' lead beginning in the second half of the season . She began a casual relationship with Brescia , at which point Patridge severed ties with him . Afterwards , the women developed a feud that continued through the remainder of the season . Meanwhile , Montag and Pratt purchased a new house and clashed over the decision to begin a family ; Montag wished to have children , while Pratt opposed the thought .
Before filming for the sixth season commenced , Montag garnered significant criticism after undergoing ten cosmetic surgery procedures in one day . In the premiere , she traveled to her hometown Crested Butte to unveil the results to her family . After unexpectedly receiving much disapproval , she and her husband Pratt alienated themselves from their relatives . Having later displayed additional instances of erratic and unusual behavior , their respective sisters decided to exclude them from their lives . Having dated several years prior , Cavallari and Jenner become flirtatious once more , though the former was taken aback after the latter started seeing another woman .
Meanwhile , Stephanie Pratt struggled to begin dating after being arrested for driving under the influence , but later became involved in a relationship . Patridge became involved in a brief relationship with singer Ryan Cabrera and settled as friends with Brescia , while Bosworth moved in with her boyfriend Scott .
During the final episode of the series , Cavallari decides to move to Europe . In the final scene , Jenner is shown to be watching the limousine bringing Cavallari to the airport travel down her street . With the camera on Jenner , the Hollywood Hills backdrop is pulled away , while the camera pans back to reveal that the entire scene was filmed on a backlot . In reality , the vehicle had not driven off and Cavallari stepped out of the vehicle to hug Jenner .
An alternate ending to the series was broadcast in August 2013 . The scene depicts Jenner returning to his apartment after seeing Cavallari 's limousine off to Europe . Conrad is revealed to be sitting on his couch , and comforts him that " it 's hard to say goodbye " to a " friend of [ his ] " , before the camera focuses on a smiling Conrad .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Hills was moderately well received among critics . The series ' first season holds a score of 52 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on eight reviews . Robert Abele of LA Weekly complimented the program for being " insanely watchable " , while Variety 's Brian Lowry criticized the storylines as being " as old as they come " . The second season garnered more favorable feedback , with Virginia Heffnernan of The New York Times opining that Conrad " now registers as charm " . After the falling @-@ out between Conrad and Montag in the third season , Heffernan also commented that The Hills " is more convincing than Friends and just about any other comedy about female relationships because — as anyone who has ever been a young woman knows — undying friendships die " .
The decision to replace the departing Conrad with Cavallari halfway through the fifth season was met with a mixed response . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly expressed interest in the route the series would take , writing that the latter would " be fully prepared to stir things up " . After the premiere of the first episode under her lead , a writer from PopSugar criticized Cavallari 's " sassy , bad @-@ girl attitude " for lacking originality and preferred Conrad for " [ keeping ] it real " . In contrast , Amy Kaufman from Los Angeles Times opined that Cavallari was more intriguing than Conrad , whose storylines she felt had been overshadowed as the series progressed .
The original series finale during the sixth season garnered a generally negative critical response . Emily Exton from Entertainment Weekly described it as " probably a bit confusing " for the series ' earlier viewers , in light of the casting adjustments in later seasons . A writer for Gawker criticized that " as the camera zooms out into the South California nothingness , nothing has changed , and neither audience nor cast is for the better " . However , a writer from People was more positive , feeling that the conclusion was a " surprise twist " .
Similarly , critics were ambivalent towards the alternate finale . Jenna Mullins from E ! praised Conrad 's return as being " shocking and glorious at the same time " , and felt that " clearly [ viewers ] should all prefer the ending with Lauren Conrad " . Kaitlin Reilly from Bustle described the suggestion of another love triangle involving Conrad and Cavallari to " [ feel ] vaguely like the ending to a horror movie " in that " it 's starting again " , but nonetheless appreciated the ending as " a wink to loyal fans " . Billy Niles from Zap2It noted that there was " no winking nod to a soundstage " , and opined that " nothing that freaking awesome happened " . Sonya Sorich of the Ledger @-@ Enquirer preferred the original conclusion , commenting that the revised clip was not as " startling " as the first . Lindsey Weber from Vulture suggested that the footage felt like a " total soap opera " in that it seemingly acknowledged that portions of the series were fabricated .
During its run , The Hills received several accolades from media outlets . It was recognized at number 82 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 100 New TV Classics . The series has been labeled as a guilty pleasure by writers for The Huffington Post , MSN , and BuzzSugar .
= = = Scripting allegations = = =
The Hills was often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . In one instance , the president of entertainment for MTV , Brian Graden , commented that the series benefits from the media coverage it receives in between seasons , which he described as a " six @-@ month commercial for the show that doesn 't give away the narrative in full . " He elaborated that MTV wants " viewers to watch Lauren and the girls as the characters we know instead of in a show about being the stars of The Hills " ; the sex tape rumors were consequently presented like a personal conflict between the women , and was intentionally not addressed as a highly publicized controversy .
In 2008 , Patridge noted that a producer offered her a position on the series to become friends with Conrad and Montag . She later appeared on an episode of Chelsea Lately , where Chelsea Handler suggested the program was improvised . When pressed further , Patridge replied , " We 're put in situations where however we 'd react and that 's what comes up [ on TV ] " , and additionally stated that the series was unscripted . In 2008 , Montag and Pratt acknowledged that their Mexican elopement was " entirely symbolic " , while their civil ceremony was filmed after office hours without a county court judge present . Additionally , the Associated Press noted that neither person had filed for a marriage record at the time . An additional source of suspicion arose during the fifth season , where Conrad was shown to be moving out of her house the day prior to Montag and Pratt 's nuptials . However , Conrad and Bosworth had actually left the property several months prior in January , leading to speculation that addressing the wedding as " the next day " was pre @-@ planned .
After leaving The Hills , Conrad appeared on The View in June 2009 , where she was asked how she felt about her apology from Pratt involving the sex tape rumors . She replied , " To be perfectly honest , I wasn 't on the other line of that call [ ... ] I didn 't even know about it until [ afterwards ] , so no , I didn 't get an apology , he 's lying " . At Montag and Pratt 's wedding , it was depicted on the series as if Conrad and Cavallari were displeased with each other 's presence , though the latter commented that they gave each other " a big hug , and that 's it " . She also stated that when she joined The Hills , " It 's work ! And drama sells . I think that 's why they 're bringing me in , because I know what works " .
In February 2011 , Cavallari told Access Hollywood that the cast followed a " schedule " of events to be filmed on a given day , adding , " We only filmed The Hills three days a week , and we did three different scenes each day and a change of clothes to film a specific scene [ ... ] They were pushing it as far as they could go without an actual script ... They give you a schedule like , ' You have lunch with Heidi [ Montag ] at 3 to talk about the party coming up ' or whatever the situation may be " . She had earlier commented that she felt viewers " need to understand it 's all entertainment " and she " would never put [ her ] close friends or a real relationship on a show " .
Cavallari later told Ryan Seacrest that her relationships with Jenner and Brescia were fabricated , and make a point of saying that it was very difficult for her to pretend to be romantically interested in the unattractive and unlikable Brescia . In October 2012 , in an interview with Allure , Conrad stated that while " the story told wasn 't a dishonest one , the way [ the producers ] did it sometimes was " . She elaborated that scenes would be reenacted if cameras were not present for a significant occurrence between cast members , and commented that her relationship with Jenner was " pretty brief " and " definitely [ edited ] to drag it out " . In July 2013 , when discussing the filming of several alternate finale endings , MTV acknowledged that " maybe the term ' reality TV ' didn 't perfectly apply to The Hills " .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
The first season of The Hills maintained a steady viewership of about two million viewers for each weekly episode . During the third season , the series achieved its most @-@ viewed episode , " Paris Changes Everything " , on March 17 , 2008 ; it had attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers in its original airing . However , the fourth season premiere experienced a 25 @-@ percent ratings decline , attracting 2 @.@ 6 million viewers , compared to the 3 @.@ 8 million viewers of the third season finale . The second half of the fifth season , also Cavallari 's first episode as the lead , premiered to 2 @.@ 1 million viewers , suffering a 30 @-@ percent drop from the premiere of the first half . The series finale in July 2010 aired to three million viewers , becoming the peak viewership of the season .
= = Broadcast history = =
The Hills ' first season commenced airing on May 31 , 2006 . The series continued to air on Wednesday evenings until its conclusion on August 2 , 2006 , at which point it had aired ten episodes . The second season was expanded to twelve episodes and premiered on January 15 , 2007 , in its new timeslot on Mondays . The finale aired on April 2 , 2007 . The third season began airing on August 13 , 2007 , where it remained in the timeslot of the previous season . It is the longest season in the series ' history , having broadcast twenty @-@ eight episodes by its finale on May 12 , 2008 . The fourth season premiered on August 18 , 2008 , during the Monday schedule . It consisted of twenty episodes , and concluded on December 22 , 2008 .
Airing of the fifth season was divided into two sections , Part I under Conrad 's lead , and Part II after Cavallari was confirmed to join the series . Part I premiered on April 6 , 2009 in the same timeslot , and concluded after ten episodes on May 31 , 2009 . Part II premiered on September 29 , 2009 and continued to air on Tuesday evenings . The season aired a total of twenty episodes , split into two equal halves , before finishing on December 1 , 2009 . The sixth season also aired on Tuesdays and premiered on April 27 , 2010 . Twelve episodes later , the series ended its run after a total of 102 episodes on July 13 , 2010 . In July 2012 , MTV aired a month @-@ long morning marathon of The Hills , titled " Retro Mania " . The following year , the marathon was renamed " RetroMTV Brunch " , and culminated with the airing of an alternate series finale in August 2013 .
= = = The City = = =
Beginning in 2008 , cast member Whitney Port starred in her own spin @-@ off series The City . The program premiered on December 28 , 2009 , four weeks after the fifth season finale of The Hills . When she appeared on the original series ' earlier seasons , she limited the exposure of her personal life , commenting that focusing on her career would make people " take [ her ] seriously " .
However , during production of The City , Port wanted to feature her private life to emphasize that " [ her ] head is still screwed on straight " . During the first half of the debut season , the program highlighted her transition to New York City after receiving employment from Diane von Fürstenberg . However , Port later left her position and returned to People 's Revolution with Kelly Cutrone .
The series underwent several casting adjustments for the second half of the first season . Port and Olivia Palermo remained , and the program saw the addition of Port 's friend Roxy Olin and Palermo 's co @-@ worker Erin Kaplan . The revamped cast remained for the second season , which premiered after the sixth season of The Hills on April 27 , 2010 . The season documented the deterioration of Port and Olin 's friendship , which culminated with the latter moving out of their shared apartment . The season concluded on July 13 , 2010 , the same evening as the series finale of The Hills .
In October 2010 , Port confirmed that The City
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such as Can . Because of their musical influences and line @-@ up , the band tended to play darker musical themes than other progressive bands , with the possible exception of King Crimson . However , Hammill has stated that the group is still fun to work with , stating " as far as we 're concerned , it 's serious fun , but fun nonetheless . "
Hammill 's lyrics frequently covered themes of mortality , due to his love of science fiction writers such as Robert Heinlein and Philip K. Dick , along with his self @-@ confessed warped and obsessive nature . His voice has been a distinctive component of the band throughout its career . It has been described as " a male Nico " and would later on be cited as an influence by Goth bands in the 1980s .
Unlike several other notable prog rock keyboardists , such as Rick Wakeman or Keith Emerson , Banton considers himself primarily an organist , due to his background in classical and church music , and only ever used that instrument on stage , albeit heavily modified with customised electronics and devices . Hammill said that " Hugh is one of the most instinctive , baffling , and brilliant people I 've known and his intuitive hold on the worlds of music and electronics has always astonished me . " Banton used clonewheel organs during the 2005 reformation , but since 2009 he has used the Hammond XK @-@ 3c , and thinks Hammond have " cracked that sound at long last " .
Although Hammill has written the vast majority of the songs in the band 's catalogue , and all of the lyrics , he is keen to stress that the arrangements of the music comes from all the group 's members . In 1976 , being interviewed for the Melody Maker , he said that " VDGG is a band , a real band ... of course [ it ] is something special , it releases in individual terms parts of us that wouldn 't be aired otherwise . In 2013 , he reiterated , " Some people don 't think Van der Graaf is a democracy , but believe me , it 's entirely democratic , with everyone having very vocal and forceful opinions . "
The band have been compared with Genesis due to being label @-@ mates at Charisma Records , sharing management with Tony Stratton @-@ Smith and performing on the same bill on the " Six Bob Tour " . Hammill and Banton both reject this comparison , with Hammill noting that Genesis were far more driven to be commercially successful , whereas he prefers to release music without interference from record companies . In particular , he has mentioned that while he himself continues to release albums on a regular basis in the 21st century , Peter Gabriel 's " average output has been about 0 @.@ 2 albums a year " .
= = Influence = =
Though the group have generally been commercially unsuccessful outside of early 1970s Italy , they have inspired several notable musicians , including Rush , John Lydon , Marc Almond , Graham Coxon , Luca Prodan , Mark E. Smith , John Frusciante , Bruce Dickinson and Julian Cope . Dickinson , who has been a fan of the band since he saw them at Oundle School aged 13 , said that Hammill was one of his childhood heroes . Coxon is particularly fond of " House With No Door " from H to He , saying the track is " extremely beautiful , with Jackson 's truly lovely sax @-@ and @-@ flute instrumental section . " Almond recalled hearing " Killer " for the first time saying , " I 'd never heard anything like it before . It wasn 't just Peter 's snarling operatic vocal , it was the mix of instruments ... I became an instant fan . " Mentioning their reputation as something of an acquired taste , Lydon said , " There 's a few Van Der Graaf things I like , but I 'm not going to recommend anything to anyone . It might not be for them . Music doesn 't come with a set of guidelines . "
Although generally categorised as a progressive rock group , Cope is keen to distance the band from that movement , stating " Their music was like some Brechtian bar band – the opposite of prog rock , really " . Nevertheless , the band have been acknowledged as an influence on the neo @-@ progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s and featured Marillion as its most successful band . Marillion singer Fish thought highly of Hammill and invited him to be the support on the band 's early tours .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Members = = =
= = = Lineups = = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
The Aerosol Grey Machine ( 1969 )
The Least We Can Do Is Wave to Each Other ( 1970 )
H to He , Who Am the Only One ( 1970 )
Pawn Hearts ( 1971 )
Godbluff ( 1975 )
Still Life ( 1976 )
World Record ( 1976 )
The Quiet Zone / The Pleasure Dome ( 1977 )
Present ( 2005 )
Trisector ( 2008 )
A Grounding in Numbers ( 2011 )
ALT ( 2012 )
Do Not Disturb ( announced to be released on 30 September 2016 )
= CMLL World Middleweight Championship =
The CMLL World Middleweight Championship ( Spanish : Campeonato Mundial peso Medio de CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world championship promoted by the Mexican wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) . While lighter weight classes are regularly ignored in wrestling promotions in the United States , with most emphasis placed on " heavyweights " , more emphasis is placed on the lighter classes in Mexican companies . The official definition of the Middleweight division in Mexico is a person between 82 kg ( 181 lb ) and 87 kg ( 192 lb ) , but the weight limits are not strictly adhered to in recent years . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won or lost competitively but instead , by the decision of the bookers of a wrestling promotion . The title is awarded to a wrestler after he " wins " a match to maintain the illusion that professional wrestling is a competitive sport .
The current CMLL World Middleweight Champion is Dragón Rojo Jr . , having held the title since November 11 , 2011 , which make him the longest reigning champion in the history of the championship . Since its creation in 1991 , there have been 17 individual championship reigns shared between 12 wrestlers . El Dandy is the only wrestler to hold the championship three times and Apolo Dantés had the shortest reign of any champion , 77 days .
= = History = =
The middleweight division was one of the first weight divisions in Mexican Lucha libre to have a specific championship as the Mexican National Middleweight Championship was created in 1933 . When the Mexican Professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( " Mexican Wrestling Enterprise " ; EMLL ) was founded in September 1933 they became one of several Mexican promotions to promote the championship . EMLL later created the " World Middleweight Championship to represent the highest level prize of the middleweight division , higher than the Mexican National Middleweight Championship . In 1952 EMLL joined the National Wrestling Alliance , which mean the title was renamed the NWA World Middleweight Championship .
In the late 1980s EMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA and by 1991 they changed their name to Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( " World Wrestling Council " ; CMLL ) to distance themselves from the NWA . While they left the NWA the promotion kept using the NWA World Middleweight Championship as it had originated in EMLL . Following their name change CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL @-@ branded world championships , including adding the CMLL World Middleweight Championship , the third middleweight championship in the promotion . CMLL held a one @-@ night , eight @-@ man tournament to determine the first middleweight champion on December 18 , 1991 . The tournament final saw Blue Panther defeat El Satánico to become the first CMLL World Middleweight Champion .
In June 1992 Blue Panther was one of may CMLL wrestlers that left the company to join the newly formed Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) , leaving the CMLL World Middleweight Championship vacant . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man battle royal match to reduce the field to two finalists . El Dandy and Negro Casas survived the match and a week later El Dandy defeated Casas to become the second CMLL World Middleweight Champion . The championship has not been vacated since then .
The exodus from CMLL to AAA also meant that CMLL lost control of the Mexican National Middleweight Championship as then @-@ reigning champion Octagón was among the wrestlers that left the promotion . The Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission allowed AAA to take control of the Mexican National Middleweight Championship at that point in time . On August 12 , 2010 , CMLL returned the NWA World Middleweight Championship to the NWA , but immediately replaced it with the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship to keep two " world " level championships in the middleweight division . On May 3 , 2010 Jushin Thunder Liger defeated Negro Casas to win the championship . The match took place in Fukuoka , Fukuaka prefecture , Japan , which was the first time the middleweight championship changed hands outside of Mexico and also marked the first time a non @-@ Mexican wrestler held the championship .
= = Reigns = =
Dragón Rojo Jr. is the current champion having won the title on November 18 , 2011 from Jushin Thunder Liger . This is Dragón Rojo Jr . ' s first reign as middleweight champion , he is the 17th overall champion and also the wrestler who has held the championship the longest , at 1 @,@ 713 days and counting . El Dandy holds the record for most CMLL World Middleweight Championship reigns with three and is one of only three wrestlers to hold the title more than once , the others being Negro Casas and Emilio Charles Jr . Apolo Dantés held the title the shortest amount of time , a total of 77 days .
= = Rules = =
The official definition of the middleweight division in Mexico is from 82 kg ( 181 lb ) and 87 kg ( 192 lb ) . In the 20th century CMLL were generally consistent and strict about enforcing the actual weight limits . However in the 21st century the official definitions has at times been overlooked for certain champions . One example of this was when Mephisto , officially listed as 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , won the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , a weight class with a 82 kg ( 181 lb ) upper limit .
With a total of twelve CMLL promoted championships being labeled as " World " title the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship being promoted as the " main " championship of the promotion . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion , illustrated by Jushin Thunder Liger winning the championship during New Japan Pro Wrestling 's Wrestling Dontaku 2010 in a single @-@ fall match .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
In 1991 , CMLL held an eight @-@ man , one @-@ night tournament to crown the first ever CMLL World Middleweight champion . In the end Blue Panther won the championship by defeating El Satánico .
= = = 1992 = = =
Due to a large number of wrestlers leaving the company in the summer of 1992 the middleweight championship was vacated , forcing CMLL to hold a tournament . They opted to start out with a 16 @-@ man battle royal elimination match as a means to qualify for the final match the following week . Negro Casas and El Dandy outlasted a field of wrestlers that included Guerrero Maya , Águila Solitaria , Ponzona , Guerrero del Futuro , Plata , Espectro de Ultratumba , Espectro Jr . , Oro , Javier Cruz , Kung Fu , Kato Kung Lee , Ringo Mendoza , Bestia Salvaje and Último Dragón . The following week El Dandy defeated Casas to start his first of three championship reigns .
= Shin @-@ shiro ( album ) =
Shin @-@ shiro ( Japanese : シンシロ , Hepburn : Shinshiro , " New White " ) ( Japanese pronunciation : [ ɕinɕiɺo ] ) is the third studio album by Japanese band Sakanaction . It was released on January 21 , 2009 through Victor Entertainment . The release was the band 's first album after relocating to Tokyo and moving to Victor Entertainment 's main roster . Led by the singles " Sen to Rei " and " Native Dancer " , the album became the group 's first release to chart in the top 10 albums on Oricon 's weekly album chart .
Shin @-@ shiro featured a different production approach to the band 's previous albums . Band vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi collaborated with a different member of the band in a two @-@ person demo session for each songs , instead of their previous approach involving all five members working together . This
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all I 'd like to thank those of you that loved watching Mongrels as much as we loved making it . It 's wonderfully reassuring to think that we weren 't mad after all , and that what we find funny , other people do too . I 'd like to believe that there 's room on television for a little show like ours ; one that 's not just another sitcom , one that tries to do things a bit differently and that tries to push a few boundaries here and there . Who knows , maybe we 'll find a that room in the future . I hope it has a minibar . Thank you for watching . Both of you . "
= = Reception = =
Mongrels was given mixed reviews , with some considering its quality to be inconsistent , with a reviewer for tvBite.com saying that the show was " a bit hit and miss " but also that , " even the laugh @-@ free moments have a well @-@ written sheen . " and that the work put into the jokes show . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror wrote : " While most of it is very funny , some of the gags about Harold Shipman completely misjudge the tone . Maybe the age group BBC3 is aimed at reckon anything is fair game for comedy . " The Independent 's Tom Sutcliffe said that : " It does have its laughs , though , because the script isn 't entirely about crass shock value " , but that the sitcom , while aimed at adults , is " not really for grown @-@ ups . " Sam Wollaston of The Guardian was mainly positive about Mongrels , but said that the main reason he thought it was funny was because it depicted " cuddly children 's toys [ ... ] saying things you wouldn 't normally expect cuddly children 's toys to say . Like ' You are such a cock @-@ end ' " , and that , " the novelty will wear off at some point not too far away " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Mongrels won the Royal Television Society Craft and Design Award 2009 – 2010 for " Production Design – Entertainment and Non @-@ Drama " led by production designer Simon Rogers . It was also nominated for the award for " Tape and Film Editing – Entertainment and Situation Comedy " led by film editor Nigel Williams , but lost to Pete versus Life .
In 2011 , Brown won the BAFTA Craft Award for " Break @-@ through Talent " . The series was nominated for the Ursa Major Award for " Best Anthrompomorphic Dramatic Short Work or Series " in 2010 ( series 1 ) and 2011 ( series 2 ) .
In 2012 , Andy Heath & Iestyn Evans won the Royal Television Society Craft and Design Award 2011 / 12 for special effects in Mongrels Series 2 , beating Downton Abbey and Great Expectations in the process .
= = Appearances in other programmes = =
On 13 August 2011 , the cast of Mongrels took part in the first ever Comedy Prom , in which they performed the song " Middle Class is Magical " from the seventh episode of the first series , " Marion The Superfluous Feed Character " . The performance was broadcast live on BBC Radio 3 , and later broadcast on BBC Two on 27 August 2011 .
= = Plagiarism accusations = =
Mongrels has attracted anger from production company Fit2Fill which claimed the BBC " ripped off " their 2001 Channel 4 sitcom Pets . Fit2Fill claimed they received 30 emails from people saying the series were similar , and they once pitched the idea of Pets to then BBC head of comedy Mark Freeland , who also acted as the executive producer of Mongrels .
The producer of Pets , Andrew Barclay said : " We checked the BBC 's Mongrels website this morning and the Beeb do appear to have hired the same puppet builders and puppeteers as Pets . We also notice that Mongrels ' executive producer is Mark Freeland , to whom we did once pitch a Pets follow @-@ up show . "
The co @-@ creator and co @-@ producer of Pets , Brian West , went on to post his views on a BBC blog post about Mongrels . Following this , a telephone conversation between West and Mongrels producer McCrum took place where McCrum , " claimed that no @-@ one from the BBC production team had watched Pets before or during the development and production of their series . " From this West responded that : " We might therefore conclude that any similarities between the two shows is 100 % coincidental . " West left people to judge for themselves whether Pets had been copied .
Afterwards , Andy Heath , a puppet builder who worked for both Mongrels and Pets , said on the same blog that he met Adam Miller in 2002 after he [ Heath ] finished working on Pets in 2000 , to work on Ripley and Scuff . Miller then began developing the idea for Mongrels in 2004 . Heath then went on to say :
" Pets was Pets . Mongrels is Mongrels . If , as a viewer , you can sit down and say they are the same , then there is little point of making any new shows , if the slightest similarity ( puppets and animals ) can be suggested as idea stealing . I am surprised Basil Brush hasn 't been on the blower , as he is a fox , and that must be a copy ! Right ? I worked on both , and know for a fact where they both come from . Two very different ideas . "
= = Merchandise = =
The first series of Mongrels was released on DVD ( region 2 and 4 ) and Blu @-@ ray disc ( region B ) on 16 August 2010 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs featured the unbroadcast pilot amongst their extras . A planned DVD and Blu @-@ ray release of the second series was cancelled , . The DVD release of series two was later rescheduled for October 2012 . The second series was made available on DVD on the 8th of October 2012 in the UK , available separately or as a boxset with series 1 . A Blu @-@ ray release of series 2 should become available soon , but no official date has been set for such a release as of June 2014 . Both series are now available on iTunes and Netflix .
= Vance v. Terrazas =
Vance v. Terrazas , 444 U.S. 252 ( 1980 ) , was a United States Supreme Court decision that established that a United States citizen cannot have his or her citizenship taken away unless he or she has acted with an intent to give up that citizenship . The Supreme Court overturned portions of an act of Congress which had listed various actions and had said that the performance of any of these actions could be taken as conclusive , irrebuttable proof of intent to give up U.S. citizenship . However , the Court ruled that a person 's intent to give up citizenship could be established through a standard of preponderance of evidence ( i.e. , more likely than not ) — rejecting an argument that intent to relinquish citizenship could only be found on the basis of clear , convincing and unequivocal evidence .
= = Background = =
Laurence Terrazas was born in the United States in 1947 . Because Terrazas 's father was Mexican and because Mexico 's citizenship laws then followed the principle of ius sanguinis , Terrazas held Mexican citizenship at birth and because he was born in the United States , Terrazas also held US citizenship under the ius soli of the Fourteenth Amendment ; therefore , Terrazas was a dual citizen of the United States and Mexico at birth .
While enrolled at a Mexican university in 1970 , Terrazas applied for a certificate of Mexican nationality . As part of his application , Terrazas signed a statement renouncing " United States citizenship , as well as any submission , obedience and loyalty to any foreign government , especially to that of the United States of America . "
During subsequent discussions with a US consular official , Terrazas gave conflicting answers as to whether or not he had truly intended to abandon his rights as a US citizen when he applied for his certificate of Mexican nationality . The State Department eventually concluded that he had lost his US citizenship , a decision which Terrazas appealed , first before the State Department 's board of appellate review , and subsequently to the courts .
Before the 1967 Supreme Court ruling in Afroyim v. Rusk , US law had provided for numerous ways for citizens to lose their citizenship . In its Afroyim ruling , the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment barred Congress from revoking anyone 's citizenship without their consent . Specifically , the court held that a law automatically revoking the citizenship of anyone who had voted in a foreign election was unconstitutional and unenforceable . However , US law continued , after Afroyim to list several other " expatriating acts , " the voluntary performance of any of which would result in automatic loss of citizenship .
The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that according to Afroyim v. Rusk , " Congress is constitutionally devoid of the power " to revoke citizenship ; and that Congress had no power to legislate any evidentiary standard for proving Terrazas 's intent to relinquish his citizenship that fell short of a requirement of proof by clear , convincing and unequivocal evidence . The Secretary of State appealed this ruling to the Supreme Court , questioning not only the appellate court 's finding on the required standard of proof , but also challenging the finding that a separate intent to give up citizenship was required ( as opposed merely to the performance of a designated expatriating act ) .
= = Opinion = =
A 5 @-@ 4 majority of the Supreme Court held that it was not enough for the government to prove " the voluntary commission of an act , such as swearing allegiance to a foreign nation , that ' is so inherently inconsistent with the continued retention of American citizenship that Congress may accord to it its natural consequences , i. e . , loss of nationality . ' " Rather , the court held that its 1967 ruling in Afroyim v. Rusk " emphasized that loss of citizenship requires the individual 's ' assent , ' ... in addition to his voluntary commission of the expatriating act " and that " the trier of fact must in the end conclude that the citizen not only voluntarily committed the expatriating act prescribed in the statute , but also intended to relinquish his citizenship . " On that point , the Supreme Court agreed with the 7th Circuit ruling in Terrazas 's favor .
The majority then turned its attention to the question of a standard of proof in loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship cases . Terrazas had argued and the 7th Circuit had agreed that the 14th Amendment , as interpreted in Afroyim , had left Congress without any constitutional authority to set the standard of proof for intent to relinquish citizenship at a level any lower than one of clear and convincing evidence . The Supreme Court majority rejected this claim and held that Congress was within its rights to specify a standard of preponderance of evidence ( more likely than not ) when cases alleging loss of US citizenship were involved .
Finally , the Supreme Court majority upheld the validity of another aspect of the law as enacted by Congress : that the government could assume that a potentially expatriating act had been performed voluntarily and that any claim that a person had acted under duress was up to the person involved to establish by preponderance of evidence .
The Supreme Court did not explicitly rule on whether or not Terrazas had lost his US citizenship ; rather , it remanded the case back to the original trial court ( a Federal District Court in Illinois ) for further proceedings consistent with the court 's ruling .
Although the court 's membership was divided on the question of whether a " preponderance of evidence " standard was sufficient for establishing someone 's intent to give up their U.S. citizenship , all nine judges agreed with the key holding in Afroyim v. Rusk that US citizenship was safeguarded by the Fourteenth Amendment and could not be taken away by an act of Congress from a person without consent .
= = = Dissents = = =
The four justices who disagreed with the majority filed three separate dissenting opinions . All of the dissenting justices supported the Afroyim v. Rusk principle that retention of US citizenship was a constitutionally protected right , and they all agreed ( contrary to the court 's majority ) that Terrazas 's actions should not have led to the loss of his citizenship .
Justice Thurgood Marshall rejected the majority 's decision that an intent to give up citizenship could be established merely by a preponderance of evidence . Arguing that " the Court 's casual dismissal of the importance of American citizenship cannot withstand scrutiny , " he said that he " would hold that a citizen may not lose his citizenship in the absence of clear and convincing evidence that he intended to do so . "
Justice John Paul Stevens also argued that " a person 's interest in retaining his American citizenship is surely an aspect of ' liberty ' of which he cannot be deprived without due process of law " and that " due process requires that a clear and convincing standard of proof be met " in Terrazas 's case or others like it . Additionally , Stevens felt that Congress had not adequately addressed the question of specific intent to relinquish citizenship . " Since we accept dual citizenship , " he wrote , " taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign government is not necessarily inconsistent with an intent to remain an American citizen . Moreover , as now written , the statute cannot fairly be read to require a finding of specific intent to relinquish citizenship . "
Justices William J. Brennan , Jr . , and Potter Stewart argued that since Terrazas was born a dual US / Mexican national , his having taken an oath of allegiance to Mexico was consistent with his being a citizen of the U.S. In Brennan 's words : " The formal oath [ of allegiance to Mexico ] adds nothing to the existing foreign citizenship and , therefore , cannot affect his United States citizenship . " Brennan argued , in addition , that since " Congress has provided for a procedure by which one may formally renounce citizenship " before US consular officials , a procedure that all conceded that Terrazas used , Terrazas was still a US citizen .
= = Subsequent developments = =
After receiving Terrazas 's case from the Supreme Court on remand , the district court again ruled that Terrazas had lost his citizenship . On subsequent appeal , the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals reversed its earlier decision and , this time using a preponderance @-@ of @-@ evidence standard per the instructions of the Supreme Court , ruled against him , finding this time that there was " abundant evidence that plaintiff intended to renounce his United States citizenship when he acquired the Certificate of Mexican Nationality willingly , knowingly , and voluntarily . " since the office of U.S. Secretary of State changed hands twice following the Supreme Court 's ruling in the case , Edmund Muskie replacing Cyrus Vance in 1980 , and Alexander Haig assuming the position in 1981 , the subsequent lower court cases are known as Terrazas v. Muskie and Terrazas v. Haig .
Congress amended the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1986 to specify , as required by Vance v. Terrazas , that a potentially expatriating act may result in loss of citizenship only if it was performed " with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality . "
Although the Terrazas ruling left intact Congress 's right to specify a preponderance @-@ of @-@ evidence standard for judging intent to give up citizenship , the State Department in 1990 adopted a policy that pursues loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship proceedings issues usually only when an individual affirmatively states the intent to relinquish citizenship . When a case involving possible expatriation comes to the attention of a US consular officer , the officer will normally " simply ask the applicant if there was intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship when performing the act . If the answer is no , the consular officer will certify that it was not the person 's intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship and , consequently , find that the person has retained U.S. citizenship . "
A bill was introduced in 2005 , which sought , among other things , to force the State Department to abolish the above policy on loss of citizenship and reinstate its pre @-@ 1990 policy " of viewing dual / multiple citizenship as problematic and as something to be discouraged , not encouraged . " However , the bill never made it to the floor of the House and died in committee when the 109th Congress adjourned .
= Falkner Island =
Falkner Island ( also called Faulkner 's Island ) is a 2 @.@ 87 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 16 ha ) crescent @-@ shaped island located in Long Island Sound 3 miles ( 5 km ) off the coast of Guilford , Connecticut , United States . The island has been visited by the Native Americans for thousands of years . Its Quinnipiac name is " Massancummock " , meaning " the place of the great fish hawks " . In 1641 , Henry Whitfield and the founders of Guilford purchased the island from the Mohegan tribe 's sachem , Uncas , as part of a transaction for the land east of East River . Purchased by the Stone family in 1715 , it remained in the family until it was sold to the government in 1801 .
The Falkner Island Light was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson . The light is the second oldest in Connecticut and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The lighthouse was automated in 1978 , and continues to operate as a navigational aid to the nearby Intracoastal Waterway . The island is part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge and has the fifth @-@ largest colony of nesting roseate terns in the northeastern United States . Much of the island 's land mass has been lost to erosion , down to about 2 @.@ 87 acres ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) from its original 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The United States Army Corps of Engineers reinforced the eastern boundary to slow the advancing deterioration .
= = Name origins = =
The first recorded name of the Falkner Island was coined by the Native Americans . The island name in Quinnipiac was " Massancummock " meaning " the place of the great fish hawks " . The Quinnipiac name did not refer to possession , but instead the usage or resources of the island .
The identity of the first European explorer is unknown , but it was likely the Dutch explorer Adrian Block who sailed through Long Island Sound around 1614 . The United States government credits Block as the discoverer . Early English settlers called it " Falcon Island " , likely stemming from the Native American name . Helander writes that the island was probably named for the osprey , but the English translation to " Falcon " suggesting the presence of the peregrine falcon was one of " simple ignorance " . The island 's name on Dutch maps was " Valcken Eylandt " . The name later evolved to Faulkner Island , perhaps as
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echoes of the Sinfonia antartica in the lamenting voices of the women and in the sound of the sea .
The Bridal Day ( 1938 – 39 ) is a masque , to a scenario by Ursula , combining voice , mime and dance , first performed in 1953 on BBC television . Vaughan Williams later recast it a cantata , Epithalamion ( 1957 ) .
The Pilgrim 's Progress ( 1951 ) , the composer 's last opera , was the culmination of more than forty years ' intermittent work on the theme of Bunyan 's religious allegory . Vaughan Williams had written incidental music for an amateur dramatisation in 1906 , and had returned to the theme in 1921 with the one @-@ act The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains ( finally incorporated , with amendments , into the 1951 opera ) . The work has been criticised for a preponderance of slow music and stretches lacking in dramatic action , but some commentators believe the work to be one of Vaughan Williams 's supreme achievements . Summaries of the music vary from " beautiful , if something of a stylistic jumble " ( Saylor ) to " a synthesis of Vaughan Williams 's stylistic progress over the years , from the pastoral mediation of the 1920s to the angry music of the middle symphonies and eventually the more experimental phase of the Sinfonia antartica in his last decade " ( Kennedy ) .
= = Recordings = =
Vaughan Williams conducted a handful of recordings for gramophone and radio . His studio recordings are the overture to The Wasps , and the ballet Old King Cole ( both made in 1925 ) , Dona Nobis Pacem ( 1936 ) , and the Fourth Symphony ( 1937 ) . Live concert tapings include the Serenade to Music , and the Fifth Symphony , recorded in 1951 and 1952 , respectively . There is a recording of Vaughan Williams conducting the St Matthew Passion with his Leith Hill Festival forces . In the early days of LP in the 1950s Vaughan Williams was better represented in the record catalogues than most British composers . The Record Guide ( 1955 ) contained nine pages of listings of his music on disc , compared with five for Walton , and four apiece for Elgar and Britten .
All the composer 's major works and many of the minor ones have been recorded . There have been numerous complete LP and CD sets of the nine symphonies , beginning with Boult 's Decca cycle of the 1950s , most of which was recorded in the composer 's presence . Although rarely staged , the operas have fared well on disc . The earliest recording of a Vaughan Williams opera was Hugh the Drover , in an abridged version conducted by Sargent in 1924 . Since the 1960s there have been stereophonic recordings of Hugh the Drover , Sir John in Love , Riders to the Sea , The Poisoned Kiss , and The Pilgrim 's Progress . Most of the orchestral recordings have been by British orchestras and conductors , but notable non @-@ British conductors who have made recordings of Vaughan Williams 's works include Herbert von Karajan , Leonard Bernstein , Leopold Stokowski , and , most frequently , André Previn , who conducted the London Symphony Orchestra in the first complete stereo cycle of the symphonies , recorded between 1967 and 1972 . Among the British conductors most closely associated with Vaughan Williams 's music on disc and in concert in the generations after Boult , Sargent and Barbirolli are Vernon Handley , Richard Hickox , Sir Mark Elder and Sir Andrew Davis . Record companies with extensive lists of Vaughan Williams recordings include EMI , Decca , Chandos , Hyperion and Naxos .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Vaughan Williams refused a knighthood at least once , and declined the post of Master of the King 's Music after Elgar 's death . The one state honour he accepted was the Order of Merit in 1935 , which confers no prenominal title : he preferred to remain " Dr Vaughan Williams " . His academic and musical honours included an honorary doctorate of music from the University of Oxford ( 1919 ) ; the Cobbett medal for services to chamber music ( 1930 ) ; the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society ( 1930 ) ; the Collard life fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Musicians ( 1934 , in succession to Elgar ) ; an honorary fellowship of Trinity College , Cambridge ( 1935 ) ; the Shakespeare prize of the University of Hamburg ( 1937 ) ; the Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts ( 1955 ) ; and the Howland memorial prize of Yale University ( 1954 ) .
The Royal College of Music commissioned an official portrait of the composer from Sir Gerald Kelly ( 1952 ) which hangs in the college . The Manchester Art Gallery has a bronze sculpture of Vaughan Williams by Epstein ( 1952 ) and the National Portrait Gallery ( NPG ) has drawings by Joyce Finzi ( 1947 ) and Juliet Pannett ( 1957 and 1958 ) ; versions of a bronze head of the composer by David McFall ( 1956 ) are in the NPG and at the entrance to the Music reading room of the British Library . There is a statue of Vaughan Williams in Dorking , and a bust in Chelsea Embankment Gardens , near his old house in Cheyne Walk .
In 1994 a group of enthusiasts founded the Ralph Vaughan Williams Society , with the composer 's widow as its president and Roy Douglas and Michael Kennedy as vice presidents . The society has sponsored and encouraged performances of the composer 's works including complete symphony cycles and a Vaughan Williams opera festival . The society has promoted premieres of neglected works , and has its own record label , Albion Records .
Composers of the generation after Vaughan Williams reacted against his style , which became unfashionable in influential musical circles in the 1960s ; diatonic and melodic music such as his was neglected in favour of atonal and other modernist compositions . In the 21st century this neglect has been reversed . In the fiftieth anniversary year of his death two contrasting documentary films were released : Tony Palmer 's O Thou Transcendent : The Life of Vaughan Williams and John Bridcut 's The Passions of Vaughan Williams . British audiences were prompted to reappraise the composer . The popularity of his most accessible works , particularly the Tallis Fantasia and The Lark Ascending increased , but a wide public also became aware of what a reviewer of Bridcut 's film called " a genius driven by emotion " . Among the 21st @-@ century musicians who have acknowledged Vaughan Williams 's influence on their development are John Adams , PJ Harvey , Sir Peter Maxwell Davies , Anthony Payne , Wayne Shorter , Neil Tennant and Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage .
After Vaughan Williams 's death , The Times summed up his legacy in a leading article :
[ H ] istorically his achievement was to cut the bonds that from the times of Handel and Mendelssohn had bound England hand and foot to the Continent . He found in the Elizabethans and folk @-@ song the elements of a native English language that need no longer be spoken with a German accent , and from it he forged his own idiom . The emancipation he achieved thereby was so complete that the composers of succeeding generations like Walton and Britten had no longer need of the conscious nationalism which was Vaughan Williams 's own artistic creed . There is now an English music which can make its distinctive contribution to the comity of nations .
= Marvel Trading Card Game =
Marvel Trading Card Game is a video game for the Nintendo DS , PC , and PlayStation Portable . It was developed by Vicious Cycle Software and 1st Playable Productions and published by Konami . The game is based on Upper Deck Entertainment 's Marvel Comics @-@ based collectible card game , and was released across all three platforms in several regions in 2007 .
Marvel Trading Card Game is a virtual card game in which the player chooses to be either a superhero or supervillain in single @-@ player mode . Multiplayer modes are also available . The game follows the rules laid out in Upper Deck 's VS System , used in card games across several franchises including Marvel , DC Comics , and Hellboy .
The game received mixed reviews from critics . It was considered faithful to the physical version , but reviewers commented that it was not accessible to players who weren 't already fans of collectible card games . The handheld versions were criticized for presenting a visual format inappropriate for small screens .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel Trading Card Game is a collectible card game with similarities to other card games , like Magic : The Gathering . The game was designed to portray the VS System rules exactly the same as the physical version , created by baseball card manufacturer Upper Deck Entertainment . Players start each match with a premade deck of cards , from which they draw a number of cards to form a hand . Cards in the hand can be subsequently put into play , and each card represents a character or ability that is played against similar cards possessed by the opponent .
Matches are formatted into segmented turns during which players can act . Each turn a player draws two cards to add to their hand , and cards in a hand can be put onto the playing field . The playing field is made of up individual rows where cards can be placed ; there are six rows for each player . Cards are played by spending " resource points " which act as a form of energy . The more powerful a card is , the more resource points are required to play it . Resource points are gained by specifically assigning any card in the hand to a resource row , and only one card can be made into a resource each turn . More powerful cards , such as Magneto , require a higher available pool of resources and so can only be played in later turns in a match . Once put into play from the player 's hand , a card can be used to provide a benefit to the player or to attack the opponent . Types of cards include characters , such as Onslaught and Namor ; each character has an attack and defense rating that represents how much damage they can inflict and sustain . Other cards include locations and equipment , which can be used to boost the statistics and abilities of characters , and " plot twists " which encompass a wide range of effects , such as forcing an opponent to forfeit some of the cards in their hand . Each player has a life bar that is depleted with each successful attack by an opponent , and a player loses the match when their life bar is empty .
Whenever a card in play is activated or otherwise used , such as resources , it is referred to as " tapped " and is generally unavailable for further use until the next turn . Unlike Magic , however , characters can attack and defend in the same turn , unless they are " stunned " in combat . Damage is calculated by adding the difference between an attacking character 's attack and the defending character 's defense , plus the resource cost of the card . Any damage not absorbed by a defending character is applied to the player 's life total . The location of a card on the playing field can affect its statistics ; in order to attack , characters further away from the opponent must possess a projectile weapon or the ability to fly , for instance . Adjacent characters with a matching team affiliation within the Marvel universe can also reinforce one another 's attack and defense , such as the Spider Friends and X @-@ Men . Cards activating an ability can be countered by the opponent , and these abilities and counters combine to form a " chain " that dictates the order in which their effects are applied .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
Marvel Trading Card Game 's single @-@ player mode allows the player to choose one of two different campaigns ; one for heroes and one for villains . Both campaigns are based around the Sentinels . Each campaign contains six chapters , with each chapter represented by a series of card matches . The chapters are different for heroes and villains with the exception of the final chapter . Some matches have additional requirements for victory beyond reducing an opponent 's health to zero . Completing missions awards the player booster packs and virtual money that can be used to purchase additional cards in the in @-@ game card shop .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Each version of the game offers multiplayer support . The PC version allows players to play over the internet or a local area network . Players can trade cards among one another and participate in matches and tournaments , some of which were sponsored by Kon
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quinty . RAAF Base Uranquinty closed on 18 December 1958 , and No. 1 BFTS commenced operations at Point Cook the following day . Trainee pilots could now expect to fly approximately 85 hours on Winjeels at No. 1 BFTS , followed by 125 hours on Vampires at No. 1 AFTS , and gain a short @-@ service commission as a pilot officer upon graduation . On 31 December 1958 , the Flying Training Squadron at RAAF College , Point Cook , was closed , and graduates undertook their basic flying training at No. 1 BFTS . From 1961 , cadets at the recently established RAAF Academy ( successor to RAAF College ) were given between 25 and 50 hours " motivational flying " at No. 1 BFTS , as practical relief from the " hard grind " of their four years of academic study . By mid @-@ 1964 , the school had a staff of 182 , including 22 flying instructors , and was operating 30 Winjeels . Students were flying 124 hours , including eight at night , over a 40 @-@ week course , and were generally expected to go solo after eight or nine hours in the air .
The pace of flying training increased in the mid @-@ 1960s as the RAAF expanded and enlisted more aircrew to fulfill Australia 's commitment to the Vietnam War . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " It was not uncommon for thirteen aircraft , some flown by inexperienced solo students , to be in the circuit simultaneously at Point Cook , creating something of a ' sink or swim ' environment for the trainees " . The ratio of students to instructors was generally around 3 : 1 ; junior instructors might fly four times a day , plus twice more when night training . By mid @-@ 1967 , No. 1 BFTS had 34 instructors , was operating 40 aircraft , and was logging around 2 @,@ 000 flying hours per month ; its training program necessitated the use of as many as five other airstrips at the nearby RAAF Base Laverton and Bacchus Marsh , to augment the four runways at its home airfield in Point Cook . On 31 December 1968 , No. 1 BFTS was disbanded at Point Cook , re @-@ forming there as No. 1 FTS on 1 January 1969 . At the same time , No. 1 AFTS was disbanded at Pearce and re @-@ formed as No. 2 Flying Training School . Subsequent rationalisation of RAAF flying training saw the disbandment of No. 1 FTS at Point Cook on 31 January 1993 . Initial flight grading and basic instruction has since been conducted by civilian contractors at the Australian Defence Force Basic Flying Training School .
= Maryland Route 363 =
Maryland Route 363 ( MD 363 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for almost all of its length as Deal Island Road , the state highway runs 18 @.@ 30 miles ( 29 @.@ 45 km ) from a dead end on Deal Island east to Mansion Avenue in Princess Anne . MD 363 connects Princess Anne and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) with the communities of Deal Island , Chance , and Dames Quarter on Tangier Sound in northwestern Somerset County . The state highway was constructed starting from Princess Anne around 1920 , and reached Chance in the early 1930s . It was extended to Deal Island when a modern bridge to the island was constructed in 1940 . MD 363 was extended to its present terminus on the island in the late 1950s .
= = Route description = =
MD 363 begins at a dead end in the community of Wenona at the southern end of Deal Island . The state highway heads north , sharply curving before crossing Middle Creek . The road runs through another series of sharp curves through marshland before straightening out and passing St. John 's Methodist Episcopal Church and the old post office building , two examples of buildings on the island preserved as part of the Deal Island Historic District . The route passes a boat ramp accessed from Ralph Abbott Road before a high @-@ level bridge carries it over Upper Thorofare , a strait between Laws Cove and Tangier Sound . On the north side of the bridge , MD 363 intersects MD 363A , the northern approach to the previous bridge to Deal Island , before passing through the community of Chance , the site of Rock Creek Methodist Episcopal Church . After passing Haines Point Road , which leads to a large public boat ramp , the state highway continues northeast across the two branches of Rock Creek and through more marshland before entering Dames Quarter . MD 363 traverses Dames Quarter Creek and passes through Deal Island Wildlife Management Area .
After passing through the wildlife management area , MD 363 heads east on a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) straight through the hamlets of St. Stephens and Monie . The state highway bypasses the village of Oriole , which is accessed by Oriole Back Road from the west and MD 627 ( Oriole Road ) from the east . After passing to the south of Venton , which features the historic home Panther 's Den and All Saints Church , MD 363 traverses the Chesapeake Forest Lands . On the east edge of the forest , the road curves northeast and then east toward Princess Anne , passing farmland , several residential subdivisions , and the Flying W Airport . Immediately after crossing the Manokin River , MD 363 reaches its intersection with US 13 ( Ocean Highway ) . The state highway continues east into the town of Princess Anne as Manokin Avenue , where it reaches its eastern terminus at Mansion Avenue , named for the Teackle Mansion one block to the south . The roadway continues east through the Princess Anne Historic District toward MD 675 ( Somerset Avenue ) in the center of the town .
= = History = =
MD 363 had been built from Princess Anne to the eastern end of the 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) straight by 1921 . The state highway reached Monie by 1923 and Dames Quarter in 1926 . MD 363 was under construction west to Chance in 1930 and completed by 1933 . The state highway 's western terminus remained at Chance until 1940 . MD 363 was extended to the other side of Upper Thorofare when a modern bridge replaced a causeway that had been in place since at least 1903 . The state highway was widened in stages from Princess Anne between 1950 and 1958 , culminating in the extension of MD 363 to Wenona in 1958 . MD 363 originally continued east from its present terminus in Princess Anne along Mansion Avenue and Prince William Street to end at MD 675 . The state highway assumed its present eastern terminus around 1985 . The present bridge across Upper Thorofare was completed in 1987 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Somerset County .
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 363A is a 0 @.@ 06 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) spur that parallels the westbound side of MD 363 just north of the highway 's bridge over Upper Thorofare between the mainland and Deal Island .
= A New System of Domestic Cookery =
A New System of Domestic Cookery , first published in 1806 by Maria Eliza Rundell ( 1745 – 16 December 1828 ) , was the most popular English cookbook of the first half of the nineteenth century ; it is often referred to simply as " Mrs Rundell " , but its full title is A New System of Domestic Cookery : Formed Upon Principles of Economy ; and Adapted to the Use of Private Families .
Mrs Rundell has been called " the original domestic goddess " and her book " a publishing sensation " and " the most famous cookery book of its time " . It ran to over 67 editions ; the 1865 edition had grown to 644 pages , and earned two thousand guineas .
= = Book = =
The first edition of 1806 was a short collection of Mrs Rundell 's recipes published by John Murray . It went through dozens of editions , both legitimate and pirated , in both Britain and the United States , where the first edition was published in 1807 . The frontispiece typically credited the authorship to " A Lady " . Later editions continued for some forty years after Mrs Rundell 's death . The author Emma Roberts ( c . 1794 – 1840 ) edited the 64th edition , adding some recipes of her own .
Sales of A New System of Domestic Cookery helped to found the John Murray publishing empire . Sales in Britain were over 245 @,@ 000 ; worldwide , over 500 @,@ 000 ; the book stayed in print until the 1880s . When Rundell and Murray fell out , she approached a rival publisher , Longman 's , leading to a legal battle .
= = = Contents = = =
The 1865 edition is divided into 35 chapters over 644 pages . It begins with a 2 @-@ page preface . The table of contents lists each recipe under its chapter heading . There is a set of tables of weights , measures , wages and taxes before the main text . There is a full index at the end .
= = = Approach = = =
In contrast to the relative disorder of English eighteenth century cookery books such as Eliza Smith 's The Compleat Housewife ( 1727 ) or Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper ( 1769 ) , Mrs Rundell 's text is strictly ordered and neatly subdivided . Where those books consist almost wholly of recipes , Mrs Rundell begins by explaining techniques of economy ( " A minute account of the annual income and the times of payment should be kept in writing " ) , how to carve , how to stew , how to season , to " Look clean , be careful and nice in work , so that those who have to eat might look on " , how to choose and use steam @-@ kettles and the bain @-@ marie , the meanings of foreign terms like pot @-@ au @-@ feu ( " truly the foundation of all good cookery " ) , all the joints of meat , the " basis of all well @-@ made soups " , so it is page 65 before actual recipes begin .
The recipes are written as direct instructions . Quantities , if given , are incorporated in the text . For example , " Gravy to make Mutton eat like Venison " runs :
Pick a very stale woodcock , or snipe , cut it to pieces ( but first take out the bag from the entrails ) , and simmer with as much unseasoned meat gravy as you will want . Strain it , and serve in the dish .
Basic skills like making pastry are explained separately , and then not mentioned in recipes . Under " Pastry " , Mrs Rundell gives directions for " Rich Puff Paste " , " A less rich Paste " , and " Crust for Venison Pasty " , with variations such as " Raised Crusts for Custards or Fruit " . A recipe for " Shrimp Pie , excellent " then proceeds with the bare minimum indication of quantities and a passing mention of " the paste " :
Pick a quart of shrimps ; if they are very salt , season them with only mace and a clove or two . Mince two or three anchovies ; mix these with the spice , and then season the shrimps . Put some butter at the bottom of the dish , and over the shrimps , with a glass of sharp white wine . The paste must be light and thin . They do not take long baking .
Advice is given on choosing the best supplies in the market . For instance :
Fowls . — If a cock is young , his spurs will be short ; but take care to see they have not been cut or pared , which is a trick often practised . If fresh , the vent will be close and dark .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Monthly Review wrote in 1827 that A New System of Domestic Cookery
is almost too well known to require notice [ i.e. a review ] . Its chief object is , to teach economy in the management of the table ; and this , we think , it accomplishes . We cannot speak in praise of its receipts for the higher kinds of cookery , but we dare say that they will be very much admired by precisely that class of gastronomes whose judgement is worth nothing . "
The review concluded that " though we have no respect for Mrs. Rundell 's salmis , we cordially admire her practical good sense , and applaud her for the production of a useful book " which had been " the pattern of all that have since been published . "
By 1841 the Quarterly Literary Advertiser was able to give as the " Opinions of the Press " , on the 64th edition , paragraphs of favourable reviews from the Worcestershire Guardian ( " the standard work of reference in every private family in English society " ) , the Hull Advertiser ( " most valuable advice upon all household matters " ) , the Derby Reporter ( " a complete guide ... suited to the present advanced state of the art " ) , Keane 's Bath Journal ( " it leaves no room to any rival " ) , the Durham Advertiser ( " No housekeeper ought to be without this book " ) , the Brighton Gazette ( " if further proof be wanting , it may be found in the fact that Mrs. Rundell received from her publisher , Mr. Murray , no less a sum than Two Thousand Guineas for her labour ! ! " ) , the Aylesbury News ( " the peculiarity of the present work is its scientific preface , and an attention to economy as well as taste in giving its directions " ) , the Bristol Mirror ( " far surpasses all its predecessors , and continues to be the best treatise extant concerning the art " ) , the Midland Counties Herald ( " ought to be in the hands of every lady who does not consider it vulgar to look after the affairs of her own household " ) , the Inverness Herald ( " enriched with the latest improvements in gastronomic science " ) and The Scotsman , which ventured
The sixty @-@ fourth edition ! So much for Mrs. Rundell 's portion of the work . Of that portion , after this , we need say nothing . ... Of the additions made by her successor [ Emma Roberts ] , ... she appears to have brought a large amount of experience in the art of cookery to the task , and her name alone is a sufficient guarantee for the utility and excellence of her new receipts .
In 1844 , the Foreign Quarterly Review commented on the 67th edition that
it is exclusively a middle class book , and intended for the rich bourgeoisie . The compiler , Mrs. Rundell , had spent the early part of her life in India , and the last edition of the work is enriched with many receipts of Indian cookery . It is on the whole a succinct and judicious compilation ... For many years , if report speaks truly , it has produced 1000 £ . a year to the publisher " .
= = = Modern = = =
Severin Carrell , writing in The Guardian , calls Mrs Rundell " the original domestic goddess " and her book " a publishing sensation " of the early nineteenth century , as it sold " half a million copies and conquered America " , as well as helping to found the John Murray publishing empire . For all that , Carrell notes , both " the most famous cookery book of its time " and Rundell herself vanished into obscurity .
Elizabeth Grice , writing in The Telegraph , similarly calls Mrs Rundell " a Victorian domestic goddess " , though without " Nigella 's sexual frisson , or Delia 's uncomplicated kitchen manners " . Grice points out that " at 61 , she was too old to act the pouting goddess " to sell her book , but " sell it did , in vast numbers , as a lifeline to cash @-@ strapped middle @-@ class English households that were desperate to keep up appearances but were having trouble with the staff . " She says that compared to Eliza Acton " who could write better " ( as in her 1845 book , Modern Cookery for Private Families ) , and the " ubiquitous " Mrs Beeton , Mrs Rundell " has unfairly slipped from view " .
Alan Davidson , in the Oxford Companion to Food writes that " It did not include many novel features , although it did have one of the first English recipes for tomato sauce . "
= = Editions = =
There have been over 67 editions , success leading to constant revision and extension : the first edition had 344 pages , while the 1865 edition runs to 644 pages including the index . Some landmarks in the book 's publication history are :
" By a Lady . " 1st edition . London : John Murray , 1806 .
( no title page ) Boston : W. Andrews , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " Philadelphia : Benjamin C. Buzby , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " " Second edition " . Boston : Andrews & Cummings , and L. Blake , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , 1808 . " Price Seven Shillings and Sixpence . "
" By a Lady . " New @-@ York : R. McDermut & D. B. Arden , 1814 .
" By a Lady . " 1816 edition , reprinted by Persephone Books , 2008 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , 1824 .
" By a Lady . " London : Thomas Allman , 1840 .
" By a Lady . " 66th edition , John Murray , 1842 .
" By Mrs. Rundell . " From the Sixty @-@ Seventh London Edition . Philadelphia : Carey and Hart , 1844 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , " 245th thousand " , John Murray , 1865 .
= 1885 – 86 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season =
The 1885 – 86 season was the eighth season in the history of West Bromwich Albion Football Club . In what was their inaugural season as a professional club , Albion moved to the Stoney Lane ground after leaving their previous home at Four Acres . The team also changed the colour of its kit , wearing blue and white striped jerseys for the first time . As league football had not been introduced in England at the time , the team competed solely in cup competitions and friendly matches throughout the season , playing 52 matches in total .
West Bromwich Albion won two regional cup competitions in 1885 – 86 . They defeated Walsall Swifts by a single goal in the replayed final of the Birmingham Senior Cup , while in the Staffordshire Senior Cup a replay was again required as Stoke were beaten 4 – 2 following a goalless draw in the original tie . Albion also progressed through seven rounds to reach the FA Cup Final for the first time , becoming the first Midlands team to do so . However , after initially drawing 0 – 0 with Blackburn Rovers , they lost 2 – 0 in the replay .
= = Off the field = =
Football was an amateur game until July 1885 , when the Football Association decided to legalise payments to players . West Bromwich Albion held a committee meeting the following month , at which it was decided that the club should become professional . Albion 's first professionals earned 10 shillings ( 50 pence ) per week , with no training allowance provided .
After deciding not to renew the lease on the Four Acres , Albion moved to their fifth ground , Stoney Lane , in time for the 1885 – 86 season . The ground was located close to the Plough and Harrow public house , which served as the club 's headquarters at the time . Albion took out an initial seven @-@ year lease on the Stoney Lane site , paying an annual rent of £ 28 to its owner , a local undertaker named Mr Webb . The pitch was returfed and levelled , with ashes spread around the perimeter , and a wooden grandstand was built that came to be known as ' Noah 's Ark ' . The ground cost £ 370 to build , a sum that was offset by a number of friendly matches that took place early in the season .
During their early years , West Bromwich Albion had played in whatever coloured kit was available locally . However , at a committee meeting held in September 1885 , the club decreed that blue and white striped jerseys should be adopted on a permanent basis . With the exception of a brief trial of scarlet and blue broad stripes early in the 1889 – 90 season , the team have worn these colours ever since , although initially the blue was of a lighter shade ; the navy blue stripes were not introduced until after the First World War .
Due to the club 's financial situation , the reserve team had their wages halved early on in the season , and by January 1886 the payments made to reserve players were withdrawn altogether , although there was a possibility of them receiving a bonus at the end of the season if funds permitted . This resulted in Albion 's second team refusing to play against Small Heath Alliance and the game was cancelled . Some of the players were suspended as a result of their actions , but were later re @-@ instated .
= = FA Cup = =
In their third season in the FA Cup , West Bromwich Albion were drawn at home in every round prior to the semi @-@ final . In the first two rounds , they defeated Aston Unity 4 – 1 and Wednesbury Old Athletic 3 – 2 .
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The team then received a bye to the fourth round , where they beat Wolverhampton Wanderers by a 3 – 1 scoreline . Old Carthusians were defeated by a single goal in the fifth round . A hat @-@ trick from Jem Bayliss — the first by an Albion player in the FA Cup — contributed to a 6 – 0 quarter @-@ final victory over Old Westminsters , putting the club into the FA Cup semi @-@ final for the first time .
The semi @-@ final took place at Aston Lower Grounds and was against one of Albion 's local rivals , Small Heath Alliance . Albion won 4 – 0 — Arthur Loach and George Woodhall each scoring twice — to become the first Midlands club to reach the FA Cup Final . After the game , Small Heath supporters invaded the pitch and then pelted missiles at vehicles bound for West Bromwich , causing several injuries . In the final , Albion met holders Blackburn Rovers at the Kennington Oval , drawing 0 – 0 . No extra time was played , so a replay was arranged at Derby Cricket Ground , the first time that an FA Cup Final match had taken place outside London . Albion were beaten 2 – 0 as Rovers lifted the FA Cup for the third year in succession . This was the first of three successive FA Cup Finals in which West Bromwich Albion participated .
Source for match details :
= = Birmingham Senior Cup = =
Due to a congested fixture list , Albion fielded a reserve side in the first two rounds of their fifth Birmingham Senior Cup campaign , beating Sparkhill Alliance 6 – 0 and Burton Swifts 4 – 1 . Tommy Green scored a hat @-@ trick in the third round match away at Notts Rangers , as Albion ran out 7 – 2 winners . Burslem Port Vale were defeated 5 – 0 in the semi @-@ final , which took place at a neutral venue , Aston Lower Grounds . The team drew 1 – 1 with Walsall Swifts in the final , which was also at Aston Lower Grounds . The replay took place at the same venue and George Woodhall scored the only goal of the game as Albion won the trophy for the first time .
Source for match details :
= = Staffordshire Senior Cup = =
Albion , taking part in the Staffordshire Senior Cup for the fourth time , defeated Stafford Rangers 4 – 0 in the first round replay ( following a goalless draw ) . In round two , a George Woodhall hat @-@ trick helped to achieve a 5 – 2 win against Leek , after which Albion were handed a bye to the fourth round . They then beat Stoke Free Wanderers 5 – 0 , while in the semi @-@ final Burton Wanderers were defeated 3 – 0 at Stoke 's Victoria Ground . The final took place at the same venue as Stoke themselves provided the opposition . The match finished goalless and Albion won the replay 4 – 2 at Stoney Lane in front of 5 @,@ 500 supporters . Two goals from Jem Bayliss and one each from Tommy Green and George Woodhall gave Albion their second victory in the competition .
Source for match details :
= = Friendlies and benefit matches = =
After the move to Stoney Lane , Albion held four exhibition games to help cover the cost of the ground . The first of these was a 4 – 1 win against Third Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteers on 5 September 1885 , in front of 2 @,@ 122 spectators . Tommy Green scored a hat @-@ trick , including the first goal to be scored at Stoney Lane . As league football had yet to be established , the club also played in a number of other friendly matches throughout the season . Their 31 friendly matches included 21 wins and 9 defeats , while one match against Bolton Wanderers was abandoned with the game still scoreless . Albion 's joint biggest friendly victories of the season were their 7 – 0 wins against Small Heath Alliance , Aston Unity and Halliwell . The season 's heaviest friendly defeat was the 0 – 7 reverse at home to Preston North End . Albion also took part in the Walsall Senior Cup and Birmingham Charity Cup , but entered a reserve team for both competitions .
Source for match details :
= Crewkerne =
Crewkerne / ˈkruːkərn / is a town and electoral ward in Somerset , England , situated 9 miles ( 14 km ) south west of Yeovil and 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of Chard in the South Somerset district close to the border with Dorset . The civil parish of West Crewkerne includes the hamlets of Woolminstone and Henley . The town lies on the River Parrett , A30 road and West of England Main Line railway .
The earliest written record of Crewkerne is in the 899 will of Alfred the Great . After the Norman conquest it was held by William the Conqueror and in the Domesday Survey of 1086 was described as a royal manor . Crewkerne Castle was possibly a Norman motte castle . The town grew up in the late mediaeval period around the textile industry , its wealth preserved in the fifteenth century Church of St Bartholomew . During the 18th and 19th centuries the main industry was cloth making , including webbing , and sails for the Royal Navy .
Local ecological sites include the Bincombe Beeches Local Nature Reserve and the Millwater biological Site of Special Scientific Interest . Crewkerne railway station is served by South West Trains on the main south western railway line . There are local supermarkets and local shops , and some local industry . The town is the birthplace of several notable people and has varied cultural and sporting facilities including those at Wadham Community School .
= = History = =
The name Crewkerne is thought to be derived from Cruc @-@ aera ; from the British cruc - a spur of a hill , and the Old English aera - a house , especially a storehouse . The town was known as Crocern , or Cruaern in the 899 will of Alfred the Great when he left it to his younger son Æthelweard , and by 1066 the manor was held by Edith Swanneck mistress of King Harold . After the Norman conquest it was held by William the Conqueror and the church estate was given to the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes in Caen , Normandy . In the Domesday Survey of 1086 it was described as a royal manor .
In 1499 , John de Combe , a precentor of Exeter Cathedral and former vicar of Crewkerne , founded Crewkerne Grammar School . The school survived until 1904 .
The parish was part of the hundred of Crewkerne .
Crewkerne Castle was possibly a Norman motte castle on a mound to the north @-@ west of the town , which is known as Castle Hill . The town grew up in the late mediaeval period around the textile industry , its wealth preserved in its fifteenth century parish church . It later prospered as a coaching stop in the Georgian period .
The Manor Farmhouse in Henley was built from hamstone in the early 17th century , but possibly incorporates medieval fragments . The building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building . During the 18th and 19th centuries the main industry was cloth making , including webbing , and sails for the Royal Navy .
= = Governance = =
The town council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council ’ s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The parish council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The town falls within the non @-@ metropolitan district of South Somerset , which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , having previously been Crewkerne Urban District . The district council is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . This electoral ward includes Misterton and at the 2011 Census had a population of 7 @,@ 826 .
The Town Hall occupies the lower part of the Victoria Hall in the Market Square . The Hamstone building was rebuilt around 1742 , altered in 1836 , when a south piazza was added after the demolition of the shambles . In 1848 @-@ 9 it became a museum , reading room and library and was remodelled in 1900 by Thomas Benson of Yeovil to create shops and offices . It is a Grade II listed building .
Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , the library , roads , public transport , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning , although fire , police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service , Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service .
It is also part of the Yeovil county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election , and part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
The town lies west of the River Parrett . The main residential areas are around the town centre with Kithill and Park View to the South and Wadham Park to the North .
In the northern outskirts of the town is the Bincombe Beeches 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) Local Nature Reserve. which is managed by the town council and includes a line of beech trees , some of which are between 150 and 200 years old . Between 2002 and 2005 grants were obtained to improve access to the site and support the planting of new trees . The Millwater biological Site of Special Scientific Interest consists of a complex mosaic of pasture , wet grassland , tall @-@ herb fen , standing and running water , Alder and Willow carr .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Crewkerne has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Transport = =
The following major roads pass through Crewkerne :
Northbound : A356 North Street — To A303 for London and North Somerset .
Southbound : A356 South Street- To Maiden Newton and Dorchester .
Westbound : A30 West Street — To Exeter and the South West of England .
Eastbound : A30 East Street — To Yeovil and Salisbury .
Southbound : B3156 Hermitage Street — To Lyme Regis .
Crewkerne railway station is served by South West Trains on the main south western railway line . Trains operate to London Waterloo ( two and a half hours away ) via Salisbury ( 70 minutes ) , and in the opposite direction to Exeter St Davids ( under an hour ) . The station was opened by the London and South Western Railway on 19 July 1860 . It was designed by Sir William Tite and has been designated as a Grade II listed building .
The town is served by Stagecoach South West with buses to Yeovil via Kithill , Misterton and Haselbury Plucknett and Chard . Buses also run to Merriott , South Petherton and Ilminster and Taunton . First Somerset & Avon has service to Bridport via Beaminster and Broadwindsor , Yeovil via East Chinnock and West Coker and Chard .
It is on the route of the Monarch 's Way a 615 @-@ mile ( 990 km ) long @-@ distance footpath in England that approximates the escape route taken by King Charles II in 1651 after being defeated in the Battle of Worcester .
= = Economy = =
Crewkerne is a small market town centre with many cafes , shops and supermarkets . Crewkerne also has a wide selection of public houses . The largest supermarket is the Waitrose store which is around 21 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 2 @,@ 000 m2 ) and opened in November 2008 . All of the large supermarkets are situated around the South Street multi @-@ storey car park . The other smaller supermarkets are Co @-@ operative ( previously Somerfield ) and Lidl .
Ariel Motor Company is based in Crewkerne , and is one of the UK 's smallest automobile companies , with just seven employees , producing fewer than 100 cars per year . It was founded in 1991 and changed its name from Solocrest Ltd in 2001 . The company 's flagship car is the Ariel Atom , an extremely light , high performance car .
= = Religious sites = =
St Bartholomew 's Parish Church stands on high ground to the west of the town . The first Saxon church was founded before the end of the 9th century as a " minster " , or main church of a Saxon royal estate that included an area which later became the parishes of Seaborough , Wayford and Misterton . This church was replaced after the Norman Conquest with a larger stone cruciform building , with a central tower . This was almost completely rebuilt and enlarged in the late 15th and early 16th centuries . This is , for the most part , the church building visible today . It is an excellent example of the Perpendicular style with many unusual and individual features . These include the west front , the nave , the six @-@ light aisle windows and the Tudor @-@ style chapels and windows in the north east corner . The building material is golden @-@ coloured Ham Hill stone , quarried nearby . There is a notable pair of ' green man ' carvings within the church .
No major alterations have been made since the Reformation in the 1530s and 1540s , but there have been many changes to the interior to accommodate various phases of Church of England worship . Among these are an oven used for baking communion bread in the south east corner of the north chapel . During the Civil War , considerable damage was done including the destruction of nearly all of the medieval stained glass . William III of England worshipped in the church following his landing in the Glorious Revolution of 1689 . By the early 19th century , all the medieval furnishings , except the Norman font had disappeared . New pews were made and the west galleries were added in 1808 @-@ 11 . The latest restoration that has left the church interior visible today , took place in the late 19th century ; it was more sympathetic to the church 's architectural character than many Victorian restorations . At this time , the central section of the west gallery was removed to reveal the great west window and the organ was relocated to the south transept . The pews date from around 1900 and have attractive carved bench @-@ ends . The church has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building .
Crewkerne also contains one of very few Unitarian chapels left in the West Country , Crewkerne Unitarian Church , a tiny chapel tucked away on Hermitage Street . The Methodist church on South Street is shared by Roman Catholic and Methodist congregations , following the closure and proposed redevelopment of St Peter 's Catholic Church .
= = Education = =
The two primary schools within Crewkerne are St. Bartholomew 's first school which is located on Kithill and Ashlands which is located in North Street . The middle school is called Maiden Beech Middle School which is located on the B3165 Lyme Road . The school has students from ages 9 to 13 and this is where they do their Key Stage 2 SATS .
Crewkerne Grammar School was situated at DeCombe House , until it closed in the late 1960s , before the Grammar school was combined into St Martins School of Abbey Street . St Martins used to be situated in the High Street , until it moved to its current position in the late 1970s . The Senior and Juniors School section closed in 2003 , and now serves as a pre @-@ school nursery only . The School Gymnasium was located along Gouldsbrook Terrace , and is still undergoing repairs to the floor and roof .
Wadham School has students from 13 to 18 years old and includes those travelling from surrounding villages . In November 2005 , Wadham was placed into Special measures after failing an Ofsted inspection . In June 2007 Wadham successfully left Special Measures , after a full Ofsted inspection showed the school had sufficiently progressed .
= = Culture = =
The Henhayes Centre provides conference facilities and has also featured exhibitions .
Crewkerne and District Museum is part of a wider heritage centre which includes local archives and a meeting room . The museum opened in 2000 in an old house with an 18th @-@ century frontage . It was restored with the help of grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund , Somerset County Council , South Somerset District Council and Crewkerne Town Council . The development of Crewkerne during the 18th and 19th centuries , with particular emphasis on the flax and linen industry is illustrated with a permanent display . Other collections relate to local archaeology , Coins and Medals , Costume and Textiles , Fine Art , Music , Personalities , Science and Technology , Social History , Weapons and War .
= = Sport = =
The Crewkerne Aqua Centre also provides swimming pool and fitness gym facilities to the town , located on the grounds next to Henhayes Park , which used to be the Grammar Schools Playing fields . St. Martins School retained the use of the playing fields until the junior section was closed in 2003 , as regular sports days were a tradition dating back to the Grammar school era in the town . A further sports centre is situated on the Wadham School campus . Crewkerne Cricket Club play in the Dorset Funeral Plan Cricket League , whilst Both Crewkerne Town F.C. and Crewkerne Rangers F.C. play in the Perry Street and District League .
= = Notable residents = =
Thomas Coryat a traveller and writer of the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean age was born in Crewkerne around 1577 . Mathematician John Caswell was also born here . A later traveller Colonel Joshua Fry was born in the town in 1699 before becoming a surveyor , adventurer , mapmaker , soldier , and member of the House of Burgesses , the legislature of the colony of Virginia . Another Englishman from Crewkerne who emigrated to the American Colonies was William Phelps who was born around 1599 and became one of the founders of both Dorchester , Massachusetts and Windsor , Connecticut , foreman of the first grand jury in New England , served most of his life in early colonial government , and played a key role in establishing the first democratic town government in the American colonies . Ralph Reader CBE an actor , theatrical producer and songwriter , best known for staging the original Gang Show , a Variety show for members of the Scouting Movement , was born in Crewkerne in 1903 . The cricketer Michael Barnwell was born in the town in 1943 .
= = Twin towns = =
Crewkerne is twinned with Igny , Essonne and Bures @-@ sur @-@ Yvette in France .
= Ranveer Singh =
Ranveer Singh Bhavnani ( born 6 July 1985 ) is an Indian film actor who appears in Hindi films . After completing a bachelor 's degree from Indiana University , Bloomington , Singh returned to India to pursue a career in film . He made his acting debut in 2010 with a leading role in Yash Raj Films ' romantic comedy Band Baaja Baaraat . The film emerged as a critical and commercial success , earning Singh a Filmfare Award in the Best Male Debut category .
Singh went on to star in the romantic drama Lootera ( 2013 ) , Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's tragic romance Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) , his biggest commercial successes to that point , and in the action @-@ drama Gunday ( 2014 ) . In 2015 , he starred in the ensemble comedy @-@ drama Dil Dhadakne Do ( 2015 ) , and portrayed Bajirao I in the historical romance Bajirao Mastani , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , for which he garnered critical acclaim and won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
= = Early life and background = =
Singh was born on 6 July 1985 into a Sindhi family to Anju and Jagjit Singh Bhavnani . His grandparents , Sunder Singh Bhavnani and Chand Burke , moved to Mumbai from Karachi , Sindh , during the Partition of India . He has an elder sister named Ritika Bhavnani . Singh is the maternal cousin of actress Sonam Kapoor and producer Rhea Kapoor , daughters of actor Anil Kapoor and wife Sunita Kapoor ( née Bhavnani ) . Singh explains that he dropped his surname Bhavnani , since he felt that the name would have been " too long , too many syllables " , thus downplaying his brand as a " saleable commodity " .
Singh always aspired to be an actor , participating in several school plays and debates . Once when he had gone for a birthday party , his grandmother asked him to dance and entertain her . Singh remembers that he suddenly jumped in the lawn and started dancing to the song " Chumma Chumma " from the 1991 action film , Hum . He felt the thrill of performing and was interested in acting and dancing . However , after he joined H.R. College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai , Singh realised that getting a break in the film industry was not at all easy , as it was mostly people with a film background who got these opportunities . Feeling that the idea of acting was " too far @-@ fetched " , Singh focused on creative writing . He went to the United States where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Indiana University .
At university , he decided to take acting classes and took up theatre as his minor . After completing his studies and returning to Mumbai in 2007 , Singh worked for a few years in advertising as a copywriter , with agencies like O & M and J. Walter Thompson . He then worked as an assistant director , but left it to pursue acting . He decided to send his portfolio to directors . He would go for all kinds of auditions , but did not get any good opportunities , while only getting calls for minor roles : " Everything was so bleak . It was very frustrating . There were times I would think whether I was doing the right thing or not . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early work ( 2008 – 11 ) = = =
In January 2010 , Singh was called for an audition by Shanoo Sharma , the head of the casting division for Yash Raj Films . They informed him that it was for a lead role in their film titled Band Baaja Baaraat , a romantic comedy set in the world of wedding planning . Aditya Chopra , the vice president of the company , later saw the audition tapes on video and was impressed by Singh 's acting , and decided that he fit the part of Bittoo Sharma , the hero of the film . However , the director Maneesh Sharma needed some more convincing and he was called for a few more auditions over the next two weeks until they were completely convinced of his caliber . After the two weeks of testing , Singh was confirmed for the role of Bittoo , with Anushka Sharma playing the female lead .
Singh described the role of Bittoo Sharma as a typical Delhi boy . To prepare for the role , he spent time with students at the Delhi University campus . Prior to the release of the film , trade analysts were skeptical of the film 's commercial potential , citing the middling response to Yash Raj Films ' last few productions , the lack of a male star and the fact that the female lead , Anushka Sharma , was by then an " almost @-@ forgotten " actress . However , Band Baaja Baaraat went on to become a sleeper hit . Singh 's portrayal of Bittoo was praised , with Anupama Chopra of NDTV writing that Singh was " pitch perfect in the role of the uncouth but good @-@ hearted small town slacker who is a bit of a duffer when it comes to matters of the heart . The film earned approximately ₹ 214 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) at the domestic box office . At the 56th Filmfare Awards , Singh won the award for Best Male Debut .
Following Band Baaja Baarat , Singh signed on for Ladies vs Ricky Bahl , a romantic
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in the Solar System , and it results in strong latitudinal wind shear .
= = = Orbital resonances = = =
Neptune 's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it , known as the Kuiper belt . The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds , similar to the asteroid belt but far larger , extending from Neptune 's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun . Much in the same way that Jupiter 's gravity dominates the asteroid belt , shaping its structure , so Neptune 's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt . Over the age of the Solar System , certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune 's gravity , creating gaps in the Kuiper belt 's structure . The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example .
There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System . These resonances occur when Neptune 's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object , such as 1 : 2 , or 3 : 4 . If , say , an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits , it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position . The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt , with over 200 known objects , is the 2 : 3 resonance . Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune , and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects , Pluto , is among them . Although Pluto crosses Neptune 's orbit regularly , the 2 : 3 resonance ensures they can never collide . The 3 : 4 , 3 : 5 , 4 : 7 and 2 : 5 resonances are less populated .
Neptune has a number of known trojan objects occupying both the Sun – Neptune L4 and L5 Lagrangian points — gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing Neptune in its orbit , respectively . Neptune trojans can be viewed as being in a 1 : 1 resonance with Neptune . Some Neptune trojans are remarkably stable in their orbits , and are likely to have formed alongside Neptune rather than being captured . The first and so far only object identified as associated with Neptune 's trailing L5 Lagrangian point is 2008 LC18 . Neptune also has a temporary quasi @-@ satellite , ( 309239 ) 2007 RW10 . The object has been a quasi @-@ satellite of Neptune for about 12 @,@ 500 years and it will remain in that dynamical state for another 12 @,@ 500 years .
= = Formation and migration = =
The formation of the ice giants , Neptune and Uranus , has proven difficult to model precisely . Current models suggest that the matter density in the outer regions of the Solar System was too low to account for the formation of such large bodies from the traditionally accepted method of core accretion , and various hypotheses have been advanced to explain their formation . One is that the ice giants were not formed by core accretion but from instabilities within the original protoplanetary disc and later had their atmospheres blasted away by radiation from a nearby massive OB star .
An alternative concept is that they formed closer to the Sun , where the matter density was higher , and then subsequently migrated to their current orbits after the removal of the gaseous protoplanetary disc . This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured , due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans @-@ Neptunian region . The current most widely accepted explanation of the details of this hypothesis is known as the Nice model , which explores the effect of a migrating Neptune and the other giant planets on the structure of the Kuiper belt .
= = Moons = =
Neptune has 14 known moons . Triton is the largest Neptunian moon , comprising more than 99 @.@ 5 % of the mass in orbit around Neptune , and it is the only one massive enough to be spheroidal . Triton was discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself . Unlike all other large planetary moons in the Solar System , Triton has a retrograde orbit , indicating that it was captured rather than forming in place ; it was probably once a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt . It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous rotation , and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration . It will eventually be torn apart , in about 3 @.@ 6 billion years , when it reaches the Roche limit . In 1989 , Triton was the coldest object that had yet been measured in the Solar System , with estimated temperatures of 38 K ( − 235 ° C ) .
Neptune 's second known satellite ( by order of discovery ) , the irregular moon Nereid , has one of the most eccentric orbits of any satellite in the Solar System . The eccentricity of 0 @.@ 7512 gives it an apoapsis that is seven times its periapsis distance from Neptune .
From July to September 1989 , Voyager 2 discovered six moons of Neptune . Of these , the irregularly shaped Proteus is notable for being as large as a body of its density can be without being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity . Although the second @-@ most @-@ massive Neptunian moon , it is only 0 @.@ 25 % the mass of Triton . Neptune 's innermost four moons — Naiad , Thalassa , Despina and Galatea — orbit close enough to be within Neptune 's rings . The next @-@ farthest out , Larissa , was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star . This occultation had been attributed to ring arcs , but when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989 , Larissa was found to have caused it . Five new irregular moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004 . A new moon and the smallest yet , S / 2004 N 1 , was found in 2013 . Because Neptune was the Roman god of the sea , Neptune 's moons have been named after lesser sea gods .
= = = Planetary rings = = =
Neptune has a planetary ring system , though one much less substantial than that of Saturn . The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon @-@ based material , which most likely gives them a reddish hue . The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring , 63 @,@ 000 km from the centre of Neptune , the Le Verrier Ring , at 53 @,@ 000 km , and the broader , fainter Galle Ring , at 42 @,@ 000 km . A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell ; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57 @,@ 000 km .
The first of these planetary rings was detected in 1968 by a team led by Edward Guinan . In the early 1980s , analysis of this data along with newer observations led to the hypothesis that this ring might be incomplete . Evidence that the rings might have gaps first arose during a stellar occultation in 1984 when the rings obscured a star on immersion but not on emersion . Images from Voyager 2 in 1989 settled the issue by showing several faint rings .
The outermost ring , Adams , contains five prominent arcs now named Courage , Liberté , Egalité 1 , Egalité 2 and Fraternité ( Courage , Liberty , Equality and Fraternity ) . The existence of arcs was difficult to explain because the laws of motion would predict that arcs would spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales . Astronomers now estimate that the arcs are corralled into their current form by the gravitational effects of Galatea , a moon just inward from the ring .
Earth @-@ based observations announced in 2005 appeared to show that Neptune 's rings are much more unstable than previously thought . Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2 . In particular , it seems that the Liberté arc might disappear in as little as one century .
= = Observation = =
With an apparent magnitude between + 7 @.@ 7 and + 8 @.@ 0 , Neptune is never visible to the naked eye and can be outshone by Jupiter 's Galilean moons , the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroids 4 Vesta , 2 Pallas , 7 Iris , 3 Juno and 6 Hebe . A telescope or strong binoculars will resolve Neptune as a small blue disk , similar in appearance to Uranus .
Because of the distance of Neptune from Earth , its angular diameter only ranges from 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 arcseconds , the smallest of the Solar System planets . Its small apparent size makes it challenging to study it visually . Most telescopic data was fairly limited until the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground @-@ based telescopes with adaptive optics ( AO ) . The first scientifically useful observation of Neptune from ground @-@ based telescopes using adaptive optics , was commenced in 1997 from Hawaii . Neptune is currently entering its spring and summer season and has been shown to be heating up , with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence . Combined with technological advancements , ground @-@ based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it . Both Hubble and the adaptive @-@ optics telescopes on Earth has made many new discoveries within the Solar System since the mid @-@ 1990s , with a large increase in the number of known satellites and moons around the outer planet , among others . In 2004 and 2005 , five new small satellites of Neptune with diameters between 38 and 61 kilometres were discovered .
From Earth , Neptune goes through apparent retrograde motion every 367 days , resulting in a looping motion against the background stars during each opposition . These loops carried it close to the 1846 discovery coordinates in April and July 2010 and again in October and November 2011 .
Observation of Neptune in the radio @-@ frequency band shows that it is a source of both continuous emission and irregular bursts . Both sources are thought to originate from its rotating magnetic field . In the infrared part of the spectrum , Neptune 's storms appear bright against the cooler background , allowing the size and shape of these features to be readily tracked .
= = Exploration = =
Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that has visited Neptune . The spacecraft 's closest approach to the planet occurred on 25 August 1989 . Because this was the last major planet the spacecraft could visit , it was decided to make a close flyby of the moon Triton , regardless of the consequences to the trajectory , similarly to what was done for Voyager 1 's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan . The images relayed back to Earth from Voyager 2 became the basis of a 1989 PBS all @-@ night program , Neptune All Night .
During the encounter , signals from the spacecraft required 246 minutes to reach Earth . Hence , for the most part , Voyager 2 's mission relied on preloaded commands for the Neptune encounter . The spacecraft performed a near @-@ encounter with the moon Nereid before it came within 4400 km of Neptune 's atmosphere on 25 August , then passed close to the planet 's largest moon Triton later the same day .
The spacecraft verified the existence of a magnetic field surrounding the planet and discovered that the field was offset from the centre and tilted in a manner similar to the field around Uranus . Neptune 's rotation period was determined using measurements of radio emissions and Voyager 2 also showed that Neptune had a surprisingly active weather system . Six new moons were discovered , and the planet was shown to have more than one ring .
The flyby also provided the first accurate measurement of Neptune 's mass which was found to be 0 @.@ 5 percent less than previously calculated . The new figure disproved the hypothesis that an undiscovered Planet X acted upon the orbits of Neptune and Uranus .
After the Voyager 2 flyby mission , the next step in scientific exploration of the Neptunian system , is considered to be a Flagship orbital mission . Such a hypothetical mission is envisioned to be possible in the late 2020s or early 2030s . However , there have been a couple of discussions to launch Neptune missions sooner . In 2003 , there was a proposal in NASA 's " Vision Missions Studies " for a " Neptune Orbiter with Probes " mission that does Cassini @-@ level science . Another , more recent proposal was for Argo , a flyby spacecraft to be launched in 2019 , that would visit Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and a Kuiper belt object . The focus would be on Neptune and its largest moon Triton to be investigated around 2029 . The proposed New Horizons 2 mission ( which was later scrapped ) might also have done a close flyby of the Neptunian system .
= Terry Bywater =
Terrance " Terry " Bywater ( born 28 February 1983 ) is a British wheelchair basketball player . He participated in the 2000 Summer Paralympics , where his team came in fourth place ; in the 2004 Summer Paralympics , where he won a bronze medal and was the highest scorer for Great Britain ; the 2008 Summer Paralympics , winning another bronze medal ; and the 2012 Summer Paralympics , where his team again came in fourth place .
= = Personal = =
Bywater was born on 28 February 1983 in Dormanstown , England and currently lives in Cleveland , North Yorkshire . As of 2009 , he weighs 74 kilograms ( 11 st 9 lb ) and is 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) tall . He was born without a tibia and a fibula in his left leg , which was amputated when he was two . He has a son , Benjamin Bywater .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Bywater began playing wheelchair basketball at the age of 13 at an open day in Middlesbrough with the Teesside Lions . He later played with them . After playing for a year , he was selected for the Great Britain Under @-@ 23 team and began training in 1993 . He made his debut at the Sydney 2000 Summer Paralympics , and finished fourth . He participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where he won a bronze medal , and was the top Great Britain scorer in the event . He currently plays for the Sheffield Steelers . He once played for C. D. Fundosa in Spain , along with many other European clubs . Bywater returned to England so he could play with the Super League Club Sheffield Steelers throughout the 2011 — 12 season . He is a 4 @.@ 5 point player .
His first championships were the 2001 / 2002 European Championships in Amsterdam , Netherlands , where he finished fourth . In 2002 he went to the World Championships in Kitakyushu in Japan , where he finished second ( silver ) . He participated in the 2003 European Championships in Sassari , Italy , and won bronze . He competed in the 2005 European Championships in Paris , France , and won silver . He competed in the 2006 World Championships in Amsterdam and was fifth place , and in 2007 he participated in the European Championships in Wetzlar , Netherlands , and received a silver medal . Two years later , he won bronze in the European Championships of Adana in Turkey . In 2010 , for the first time , he participated in the World Wheelchair Basketball Championships in Birmingham , and was fifth place . He won gold in the 2011 European Championships in Nazareth , Israel . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , the wheelchair basketball team lost to the United States , and finished in fourth position , after losing to Canada , missing out of the finals . He said that not winning a medal at the Paralympics was the " worst moment " of his career .
= Illinois Route 120 =
Illinois Route 120 ( IL 120 ) is a major east – west state highway in northeastern Illinois . It runs from U.S. Route 14 near Woodstock to Illinois Route 131 in Waukegan . It travels a distance of 34 @.@ 48 miles ( 55 @.@ 49 km ) and is one of the few roads that provides direct access from McHenry County to Interstate 94 ( Tri @-@ State Tollway ) in Lake County . Throughout its length , it shifts between two and four lanes as it passes through a setting that consists of open rural areas , as well as larger developments and heavy congestion .
Although small capacity improvements have been made over time , a lengthy two lane section of road in the Grayslake vicinity has yet to see any major expansion . This key segment has been the subject of much delay and debate regarding the greater traffic flow across north @-@ central Lake County . In October 2009 , a special council approved a unified vision for an improvement plan for most of the Lake County portion of Illinois 120 , which includes a long discussed bypass around downtown Grayslake .
= = Route description = =
= = = McHenry County = = =
Beginning at its western terminus at a rural unsignalized intersection with U.S. Route 14 ( Northwest Highway ) , IL 120 starts out as a two lane road just west of the city of Woodstock . This section is known as Washington Street as it heads in a southeast direction and enters the outer residential neighborhoods of Woodstock . In this area , the road curves due east , crosses the Metra Union Pacific / Northwest Line tracks near the station , then briefly heads north before turning once more to the northwest . Immediately after doing so , it passes a signalized intersection with IL 47 ( Seminary Avenue / Eastwood Drive ) before traveling north of the McHenry County Fairgrounds and then heading out of the Woodstock area and back into a prairie setting . The road then curves back to the north and then takes a right turn at an unsignalized intersection where it continues generally east for the remainder of its length .
Before reaching the McHenry area a little more than four miles east , the road passes through two signalized intersections , some light forests , and some sparse residential developments . Now entering the busier city of McHenry , it takes on the name Elm Street and widens to four lanes west of Ringwood Road . Light commercial buildings with neighborhoods behind them line the roadway until the crossing of the McHenry Branch of the Union Pacific / Northwest Line near the McHenry Metra station . At the next intersection , IL 120 meets with IL 31 ( Front Street / Richmond Road ) where they briefly run concurrently for less than a half mile . It next travels over the Fox River , passes by another section of commercial business , and then returns to a quieter setting that features a mix of open areas , neighborhoods , small business , and Lily Lake .
= = = Lake County = = =
Continuing its somewhat rural journey to the east , Illinois 120 becomes known as Belvidere Road as it enters Lake County and the town of Lakemoor which is soon followed by the busy intersection of U.S. Route 12 / Illinois Route 59 ( Rand Road ) . The road then heads into the town of Volo which features land developed with businesses and homes on the south and undeveloped land on the north . This is also where it passes the intersection of the western terminus of IL 60 and then narrows down to two lanes . The road then runs past the Baxter Healthcare facility and proceeds into the Round Lake area where it goes by the Nippersink Forest Preserve on the north and then between two residential developments . For just a slight instance , it travels through Round Lake Park before entering the town of Hainesville where it passes the Metra Milwaukee District / North Line tracks , the eastern terminus of IL 134 , and a few business before going into the more populated city of Grayslake . Neighborhoods and occasional small businesses lie north and south of the road until it crosses Canadian National Railway ( CN ) tracks ( used by the Metra North Central Service ) immediately before an intersection with IL 83 ( Barron Boulevard ) . After passing a shopping plaza on the south , the next stretch of roadway contains a mix of other businesses and residential developments , as well as a branch of the Lake Forest Hospital , while also widening to four lanes on its approach to a major junction with U.S. Route 45 . Past the intersection , the road passes a commercial plaza and again narrows back to two lanes before going by more neighborhoods on the north , and some open areas that contain the Almond Marsh Forest Preserve on the south .
At this point it widens to become a four @-@ lane divided highway west of Almond Road and it enters the southern part of Gurnee where travels near the Merit Club golf course which lies to the south of a " T " intersection with Hunt Club Road . The eastbound approach to this intersection features the only dual @-@ left turn lanes on the entire length of Illinois 120 . The remaining section of highway , although only briefly limited @-@ access , does have limited signalized intersections which keeps traffic flowing at a more constant rate . It first passes under a grade separation at Illinois Route 21 ( Milwaukee Avenue ) and goes over the Des Plaines River before forming an interchange with Interstate 94 ( Tri @-@ State Tollway ) . Only southbound access is permitted to I @-@ 94 ; northbound access is available via IL 21 . It next enters part of the Waukegan area and shortly encounters an at @-@ grade intersection with O 'Plaine Road and then continues with more grade separation at the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP ) tracks and Greenleaf Avenue . Interchanges with IL 43 ( Waukegan Road ) and U.S. Route 41 ( Skokie Highway ) closely follow one another with a brief transition into Park City located between these two junctions . It can be confusing in this area as there is no direct access to northbound US @-@ 41 or southbound IL @-@ 43 , which terminates immediately north at US @-@ 41 . Illinois 120 loses its divided highway status after traveling over the Union Pacific ( UP ) tracks and passing by its last stretch of businesses as it reenters Waukegan . It soon reaches the commercially developed , signalized intersection of Illinois Route 131 ( Green Bay Road ) where it terminates as a state route ; Belvidere Road continues east as a local road .
= = History = =
State Bond Issue ( SBI ) Route 120 originally ran from Havana to Mason City in west @-@ central Illinois . In 1939 this became IL 119 , and in 1951 , U.S. Route 136 . In the meantime , in 1941 Illinois 120 replaced Illinois Route 20 to avoid confusion with nearby U.S. Route 20 . In 1972 , the designation was removed east of IL 131 . During the early 1990s , plans came about to widen 5 @.@ 7 miles of roadway in McHenry and Lake counties . The project extended from River Road in McHenry to east of Illinois 60 . These plans also included the construction of a short southern bypass around the town of Volo . By 1994 , the work had concluded which resulted in four concrete travel lanes , providing easier access between the two counties . In 2000 , a $ 4 @.@ 6 million construction project was completed at the intersection of US @-@ 45 . The improvements that took place to Illinois 120 were : expanding to two lanes in each direction and adding a right turn lane to the eastbound approach . The most recent major construction that has taken place was between August 2007 and July 2008 at the interchange with I @-@ 94 . The work consisted of demolishing the two bridge structures that travel over the tollway and replacing them with new ones .
= = Future = =
In recent years there has been much discussion on how to improve the east – west traffic flow throughout north @-@ central Lake County . IL 120 enters Lake County from the west as a four @-@ lane highway and then downgrades to a two @-@ lane highway less than three miles east , just past IL 60 and later becomes a four lane divided highway west of Hunt Club Road . Since there is heavy traffic from nearby Interstate 94 to the east as well as traffic traveling to and from McHenry County in the west , it seems logical to address this gap which is not yet four lanes . The solution to this problem was agreed to be a 17 @-@ mile improvement from US @-@ 12 to US @-@ 41 , including a 7 @-@ mile southern bypass in Grayslake . This has since become known as the " 120 bypass " .
This project is closely related to another long delayed Lake county transportation project ; the IL 53 extension . The currently stalled project has been planned to extend the limited @-@ access expressway , which carries IL 53 and terminates at Lake @-@ Cook Road , north to connect to the 120 bypass , and then branch off toward U.S. Route 12 to the west and Interstate 94 to the east . If the project were ever built , it would seem necessary that the east – west 120 bypass would be built as a limited @-@ access expressway to connect with the proposed north – south Illinois 53 extension which is also limited @-@ access . The entire scope of this project ; starting on Illinois 120 at Interstate 94 , continuing west on the 120 bypass , and connecting with the Illinois 53 extension would provide a direct route for commuters in northern Lake County to gain access to the western and southwestern Chicago suburbs . Since there have been many delays over the decades on how to proceed with this extension , the 120 bypass project moved forward on its own as an independent project .
In 2006 , a feasibility study got underway by a special corridor planning council which was composed of groups from nearby communities and local government officials and took public input . Initially , the main focus for the public was to provide feedback for the road character or type of road . The alternatives considered were : a four lane roundabout boulevard , four lane signalized boulevard , six lane signalized arterial , and six lane expressway . In December 2008 , it was revealed that the four lane boulevard option was selected in an 11 – 2 vote over an expressway , however it still remained open whether or not roundabouts would be used in place of traffic signals at intersections . The cost of the project was estimated at $ 521 million . In May 2009 , the preferred roadway alignment was selected .
On October 14 , 2009 , the Route 120 Corridor Planning Council Governance Board came to a consensus and approved a unified vision for the project which recommends that the bypass be built as a four lane arterial highway with limited @-@ access . The next step is for the Illinois Department of Transportation to begin a Phase I Preliminary Engineering Study .
In 2012 , the Blue Ribbon Advisory Council revived the 120 expressway alternative as a tollway , rather than a roundabout or signalized boulevard , and proposed the 53 / 120 expressway plan to IDOT as a 4 lane completely below grade tollway with a speed limit of 45 mph with a multi @-@ use path , bioswale grassy median , and landscaped raised berms , in @-@ pavement lighting , all electronic tolling , and innovative interchange designs . Proposed interchanges of Rt 53 : IL Rt 22 - unknown innovative interchange design , Midlothian Rd - design not yet proposed , Peterson Rd - Village of Grayslake proposes a folded diamond interchange to reduce land acquisitions , 120 bypass - Village of Grayslake proposes a triple @-@ stack interchange complex with the highest fly @-@ over ramp at 12 feet above grade , the middle elevation fly @-@ over ramp 10 feet below grade , and the main line beneath to be a tunnel with road surface at 32 feet below grade . Proposed interchanges of Rt 120 : Alleghany Rd - Village of Grayslake proposes a folded diamond interchange to reduce land acquisitions , IL Rt 83 ( Village of Grayslake proposes to be realigned to Atkinson Rd with Rt 83 aligned to a bridge constructed over a railyard and stone business , to pass west of FedEx , pass west of the current 83 alignment at Peterson , and veer back east to join the existing 83 alignment south of Peterson ) , Rt 53 - tunnel , U.S. Rt 45 - Single Point Urban Interchange ( SPUI ) . IDOT is in the Phase I Preliminary Engineering Study , to be completed sometime in 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Divine Intervention ( album ) =
Divine Intervention is the sixth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on September 27 , 1994 , through American Recordings , it was their first album to feature Paul Bostaph , replacing the band 's original drummer Dave Lombardo . The production posed a challenge to the record company , as its marketing situation drew arguments over the album 's explicitness . The band used the Decade of Aggression live album to give them time to decide the album 's style . Since it was released nearly four years after Seasons in the Abyss , vocalist Tom Araya said that there was more time spent on production compared to the band 's previous albums . The cover was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter as a re @-@ imaging of the group 's early " Slayergram " graphic .
Even though so much time was spent on production , Kerry King said that the mixing and mastering should have had more attention . The song 's origins came not only from television shows , but were also inspired by various other things , including Rush Limbaugh , and serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer . In 1998 the album was banned in Germany due to the lyrics of " SS @-@ 3 " , " Circle of Beliefs " , " Serenity in Murder " , " 213 " and " Mind Control " . Divine Intervention received mixed reviews by critics . The album sold 93 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It peaked number eight on the Billboard 200 and charted at number 15 on UK Albums Chart . It was rewarded gold in the United States and Canada . An EP entitled Serenity in Murder was released shortly after the album .
= = Writing and production = =
Tom Araya said that " when we did Divine Intervention , this was the last conference we ever had with a record label where they sat us down and sold us the idea of how they wanted to do " Divine " , and how they were going to do this with the cover ... and all these different ideas for the album . Then one guy looked at us and said , ' But we need a hit song . ' And we said , ' But you 've got eleven songs , and if you can 't find a hit in one of them then you 're shit out of luck because that 's what we 're giving you . ' So we 're like saying to them , ' Right , you write the fucking hit song and we 'll record it . ' That shut the guy up and that was the last time we had any kind of meetings like that ! "
Araya described " For this one , I just kind of got inspired by watching TV . That gave me a whole lot of ideas . The whole idea about the dude with Slayer in his arms was brought about because reality is scarier than anything you can make up . The production of the album posed as a challenge to the record company , " how to market a group whose gore @-@ soaked , extreme music is anathema to radio programmers . " It is the company 's first attempt to " hit the thrash band 's core @-@ audience of rabid enthusiasts with a fan @-@ orientated marketing assault . " Araya related : " We decided to take more time to bring this one together . We actually went into the studio with more written material than the past . We completed three out of seven songs outside the studio . We all sort of felt it was important to do it slowly . After the last tour , we had the intention to take the break . "
= = Composition = =
The College Music Journal said that " the band deals almost exclusively with realism " in the album , and noted that it " shocks and splatters like a severed artery , painting crimson pictures of murders , necrophiliacs , and the ravaged , chaotic world they inhabit " . Both the mixing and mastering were criticized , with guitarist Kerry King saying that the band should have " paid more attention to the mix " , and Araya saying that it " is the one ( if any ) that he would not mind re @-@ mastering " . Neil Strauss from The New York Times explained many of the album 's origins . " 213 " was described as a " love song " by Araya , which was something they had never done before . The song was named after serial killer and sex offender Jeffrey Dahmer 's old apartment number . " Dittohead " , a partial tribute to Rush Limbaugh , begins by criticizing the legal system for " being too lenient on killers " . The song " ended up not denouncing the system but advocating its permissiveness " . " Sex , Murder , Art " was said by TheState.com to feature " roars about a maddening relationship and his ' pleasure in inflicting pain . ' "
King said that the album contained origins relating to " war stories " and " explorations of madness " . It is Paul Bostaph 's first studio album with Slayer , resulting in Alex Henderson of AllMusic saying that it is a " positive , energizing influence on Slayer , which sounds better than ever on such dark triumphs as ' Killing Fields , ' ' Serenity in Murder , ' and ' Circle of Beliefs . ' " Henderson also said that they " focus [ ed ] on the violently repressive nature of governments and the lengths to which they will go to wield power " .
= = Artwork and packaging = =
The album was issued in a clear jewel box with a die @-@ cut cardboard O @-@ card . It included sixteen pages , which fold out to be a poster , which displays the cover art . Both the disc and the disc tray feature — as described by Chris Morris — an " image reflective of the mania displayed by the group 's fans , and exemplary of American frequently deployed shock tactics : a kid carving the band 's name into his arms with a scalpel . " Mike Bone from American Recordings said that " we captured this not only by photography , but with video — him actually doing it . " The front cover was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter , an American artist who would later paint the covers for the other Slayer releases Undisputed Attitude and Live Intrusion . The album sleeve features for the second time the backronym Satan Laughs As You Eternally Rot . This phrase was first used on the vinyl edition of the album Show No Mercy where it was carved into the runout groove of the record .
= = Reception = =
AllMusic said that " instead of doing something calculated like emulating Nirvana or Pearl Jam — or for that matter , Nine Inch Nails or Ministry — Slayer wisely refused to sound like anyone but Slayer . Tom Araya and co. responded to the new environment simply by striving to be the heaviest metal band they possibly could . " By the album 's release date , vocalist Tom Araya considered it to be their best album .
Divine Intervention sold 93 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and by 2002 , it sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was reported that in the same year of its released , Kevin Kirk from the Heavy Metal Shop " ordered 1 @,@
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groups of unemployed men who were paid by the federal government to build roads , hiking trails , and campgrounds for future travelers to the Yellowstone region . Visitation to national forests like Shoshone increased dramatically after World War II with the advent of better roads and accessibility to the region .
= = Forest management = =
Shoshone National Forest is managed by the U.S. Forest Service , an agency within the U.S. Department of Agriculture . The forest is separated into five districts and from 2008 and 2012 had an average staff of 165 employees and an annual operating budget of $ 17 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The headquarters and a visitor center are in Cody , Wyoming and a smaller information center is in Lander , Wyoming . There are local ranger district offices in Cody , Dubois and Lander .
Shoshone National Forest practices conservation of resources , which ensures a sustainable flow of some raw materials from the forest , such as lumber for construction purposes and wood pulp for paper products . The forest averages an annual harvest of 4 @.@ 5 million board @-@ feet of timber for the purposes of commercial log home construction and another 2 @.@ 5 million board @-@ feet of wood collection from dead and down trees that are used for firewood and poles . Additionally , low @-@ scale mineral extraction and oil and gas exploration and recovery are also conducted , though in Shoshone National Forest this has become less common due to a consensus to protect the natural surroundings . Only 8 @,@ 570 acres ( 3 @,@ 470 ha ) of oil and gas leases were filed as of 2013 . More common than logging and mining are the lease options that are offered to ranchers to allow them to graze cattle and sheep . The U.S. Forest Service provides guidelines and enforces environmental regulations to ensure that resources are not overexploited and that necessary commodities are available for future generations , though conservation groups have voiced concerns over the management practices of the leasing program and especially cattle overgrazing problems . Leases for sheep grazing have declined considerably since the 1940s while cattle grazing has remained relatively constant .
= = Natural resources = =
= = = Flora = = =
Shoshone National Forest is an integral part of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , which has 1 @,@ 700 documented species of plants . Since the elevation of the land in the forest ranges from 4 @,@ 600 to 13 @,@ 804 ft ( 1 @,@ 402 to 4 @,@ 207 m ) , which is more than 9 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , the forest has a wide variety of ecosystems . Lower elevations often have sagebrush and grass @-@ dominated vegetation types , while forested areas are dominated by various combinations of tree and shrub species . These include lodgepole pine , which along with Rocky Mountain juniper , and quaking aspen are found at elevations up to 9 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . At higher elevations subalpine fir , Engelmann spruce , whitebark pine and limber pine , are common , each occurring up to timberline . The region above timberline makes up 25 percent of the total acreage of the forest and of that 13 percent is listed as just either barren , rock or ice . The types of plant species is highly dependent on the amount of water available , and trees are more commonly found on higher slopes due to the longer lasting snowfall which keeps the soil moister for a longer time into the summer months . Along lower elevation riparian corridors , cottonwoods and willows are typically dominant . Numerous plant species are endemic to the region including some that are rare . Among them , the whitlow grass , fremont bladderpod , shoshonea , and the north fork Easter daisy provide vivid white and yellow flowers during the spring and summer .
Exotic species of flora that are not native to the region include Canada thistle , Musk thistle , Spotted knapweed , Leafy spurge and Yellow toadflax . These non @-@ native plant species are considered noxious , impacting native plant communities and the species that thrive on them . Native species such as the mountain pine beetle are having an enormous negative impact on some tree species . A survey of the forest performed in 2010 indicated that over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) of timberland had been impacted by insects such as the mountain pine beetle , spruce bark beetle and Douglas fir beetle , and that the insects had killed between 25 and 100 percent of the trees in the impacted areas . The forest service is addressing the situation by performing controlled burns , selling dead trees as firewood , timber harvesting and spraying the highest value areas .
= = = Fauna = = =
Since the migration of the endangered gray wolf into Shoshone National Forest after the successful wolf reintroduction program in the Yellowstone region commenced in the mid @-@ 1990s , all of the known 70 mammal species that existed prior to white settlement still exist in the forest . Altogether , at least 335 species of wildlife call Shoshone National Forest their home , including the largest population of Bighorn sheep and one of the few locations Grizzly bears can still be found in the contiguous U. S ..
At least 700 grizzly bears are believed to exist in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , which includes Shoshone National Forest , with approximately 125 grizzlies in the forest . The grizzly is listed as a threatened species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , and the forest is one of their last strongholds . For what are considered to be " nuisance bears " , non @-@ lethal traps are set to capture them so that they can be relocated to remote areas , away from civilization . In the case of the grizzly , each captured bear is tranquilized and then ear tagged with an identifying number . Each number is registered , and if the bear continues to return to areas where they pose a risk of imminent threat to human safety , they are exterminated . The grizzly recovery efforts implemented by federal agencies have often resulted in major disagreements with local landowners and surrounding municipalities . This situation occurs less frequently with the smaller and less aggressive black bear . An active management program , in conjunction with other National Forests and National Parks within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , works cooperatively to maximize human safety and to ensure habitat protection for both species of endemic bears . Visitors are mandated to store their food in their vehicles or in steel containers found in campgrounds , and bear @-@ proof trash receptacles are located in the front @-@ country zones throughout the forest . In the backcountry , food must be stored some distance from campsites , and other related precautions are enforced to help prevent bad encounters .
The cougar ( mountain lion ) and the gray wolf are large apex predators that inhabit the forest . Since the 1990s wolf reintroduction program in Yellowstone National Park , wolves have migrated into the forest and established permanent packs . Approximately a dozen wolf packs totaling 70 individual wolves were documented in the forest in 2012 . The wolf was delisted as endangered once their population levels had reached management objectives and limited hunting of wolves was permitted in the forest starting in 2012 . Cougars are generally nocturnal and rarely seen but hunting of this species is also allowed in highly regulated harvests . Wolverines are rare and elusive so documentation is often only from their tracks . The Canada lynx was native to the forest , but no known populations may still exist due to the rarity of its primary food source , the Snowshoe hare . Shoshone National Forest is considered critical habitat for lynx recovery since the species is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act and the forest is in their historical range . Other generally carnivorous mammals include coyote , bobcat , weasel , marten , ferret and badger .
Omnivorous mammals such as the raccoon and skunk and herbivore mammal species such as the porcupine and pika , are common to the forest . The beaver is considered a species of special interest to Shoshone National Forest since its dam building activities improve habitat for numerous other species such as the moose , breeding waterfowl , various amphibians and other species dependent on a riparian environment .
Native herbivores such as the moose are found in small numbers near waterways , especially at lower elevations . Moose populations in northwestern Wyoming and other areas of North America have been on the decline since the end of the 20th century , possibly due to a parasite . There were an estimated 739 moose in the forest in 2006 which is almost 300 fewer than there were 20 years earlier . Other ungulate species are much more common and there are over 20 @,@ 000 elk ( also known as wapiti ) and 40 @,@ 000 mule deer . Bighorn sheep and mountain goats inhabit the rocky terrain and highest elevations . During the winter , one of the largest bighorn sheep herds in the lower 48 states congregate in the region around Dubois , Wyoming ; however , their numbers since 1990 have been diminished due to disease transmitted from contact with domesticated sheep and goats . An estimated 5 @,@ 000 bighorn sheep are found throughout the forest and a small but stable population of 200 mountain goats reside in the northernmost portions of the forest . Bison and pronghorn antelope are two other ungulates that live on the forest and have sustainable populations .
An estimated 300 species of birds are found in the forest at least part of the year . Bald eagle , peregrine falcon , Swainson ’ s hawk and the prairie falcon are birds of prey that are relatively common . Waterfowl such as Western grebe , Northern pintail , Great blue heron and Barrow ’ s goldeneye have stable populations and rare sightings of Trumpeter swans are reported. pheasant , ruffed grouse and wild turkey are widely distributed across the open sage lands . Harlequin duck and northern goshawk are generally rare but management plans were implemented to protect various habitats these two species frequent to try and increase their population numbers .
Fish found in Shoshone National Forest include at least six species and subspecies of trout including rainbow , brook and brown trout . The Yellowstone cutthroat trout is widespread throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , but in the forest is mostly limited to the Shoshone River . The mountain whitefish is also found in the Shoshone River , while the burbot is found in two streams in the southern regions of the forest .
There are more than a dozen species of reptiles in the forest including the venomous prairie rattlesnake which can be found at lower elevations . The western painted and the ornate box turtle are turtle species known to exist and about eight species of lizards such as the greater short @-@ horned lizard have been documented . Amphibians such as the Columbia spotted frog and the boreal toad are considered species of concern because of their high susceptibility to disease , habitat loss and human introduced toxins . Boreal toads are found at elevations of between 7 @,@ 380 and 11 @,@ 800 ft ( 2 @,@ 250 and 3 @,@ 600 m ) and the Columbia spotted frog can live at elevations as high as 9 @,@ 480 ft ( 2 @,@ 890 m ) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem .
Exotic species of fauna such as the zebra and quagga mussels and the New Zealand mud snail are invasive species that can greatly impact fish species . Though the mussel species are not known to be in Wyoming , several surrounding regions have reported them . The New Zealand mud snail has been found in the Shoshone River east of the forest . Forest managers have established a preventative program to try to keep these species from entering forest waterways .
= = = Wilderness = = =
The forest contains four areas of pristine wilderness that have remained largely untouched by human activities such as mining , logging , and road and building construction . The four regions include the North Absaroka , Washakie , Fitzpatrick and Popo Agie Wildernesses . Additionally , a small portion of the Absaroka @-@ Beartooth Wilderness extends into the extreme northwestern part of the forest , along the Montana border . In Shoshone National Forest , 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 570 @,@ 000 ha ) , constituting 56 percent of the forest is designated wilderness . The wilderness designation provides a much higher level of land protection and prohibits any alterations by man to the resource .
The Wilderness Act of 1964 enhanced the protection status of remote and / or undeveloped land already contained within federally administered protected areas . Passage of the act ensured that no human improvements would take place aside from those already existing . The protected status in wilderness designated zones prohibits road and building construction , oil and mineral exploration or extraction , and logging , and also prohibits the use of motorized equipment , including even bicycles . The only manner in which people can enter wilderness areas is either on foot or horseback . Hunting and fishing are permitted in the wilderness , just as they are throughout the forest , provided those engaging in such activities have the proper licenses and permits .
= = = Fire ecology = = =
Fire Management officials in Shoshone National Forest recognize that forest fires are a natural part of the ecosystem ; however , this was not always the case . 20th century fire fighting efforts , especially in the first half of that century , emphasized quickly extinguishing all fires , as fire was seen as completely detrimental to a forest . In 1935 , fire management officials established the 10 am rule for all fires on federal lands , which recommended aggressive attack on fires and to have them controlled by 10 am , the day after they are first detected . This was intended to prevent fires from remaining active into the afternoon when the rising temperatures and more turbulent air caused fires to expand and become more erratic . However , this policy led to an increase in fuels because fires were often extinguished before they had a chance to burn out dead and dying old growth . It was in a stand of old growth fir trees in Shoshone National Forest that the Blackwater fire of 1937 killed 15 fighters during a firestorm 35 mi ( 56 km ) west of Cody , Wyoming . The fire was one of the deadliest in terms of forest firefighter deaths in U.S. history .
Between the years 1970 and 2012 , Shoshone National Forest averaged 25 fires annually , of which half were due to natural ignition from lightning , which accounted for 90 percent of the total acreage burned . The remaining acreage that burned was due to campfires that got out of control or from other causes . In Shoshone National Forest , the highest fire incidence is generally in the months of August and September . An average of 2 @,@ 334 acres ( 945 ha ) burns annually , with the worst year in the past century being 1988 , when 194 @,@ 430 acres ( 78 @,@ 680 ha ) burned from fires that had spread from the conflagration that engulfed Yellowstone National Park and the surrounding region . After the Yellowstone region fires of 1988 , an effort to identify areas of similar fire potential was implemented . Fire managers at Shoshone National Forest work with a number of outside agencies to incorporate fire restrictions , fuels management , and a controlled burn plans to reduce the chances of a catastrophic fire . The dead and dying trees which have been killed by various species of bark beetle may have a great impact on future forest fires . Fire managers have stated the worst time for increased fire activity is 1 – 2 years after the trees are killed and then again after the trees have fallen many years later .
= = Geography and geology = =
Shoshone National Forest borders Yellowstone National Park and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest to the west . The Continental Divide demarks the boundary between Shoshone and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forests . Along the Montana border , Shoshone National Forest borders Custer National Forest to the north . Private property , property belonging to the state of Wyoming and lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management form the eastern boundaries . Lastly , the Wind River Indian Reservation also borders on the east , and bisects a smaller southern section which includes the Popo Agie Wilderness and the Washakie Ranger District .
The altitude in the forest ranges from 4 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) near Cody , Wyoming , to 13 @,@ 804 ft ( 4 @,@ 207 m ) at the top of Gannett Peak , an elevation gain of over 9 @,@ 200 ft ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) . Of the three major mountain ranges found in the forest , they are geologically distinct from each other . All of the mountains are a part of the Rocky Mountains . In the northern and central portions of the forest lie the Absaroka Mountains which were named after the Crow Indian tribe . The majority of the Absaroka Mountains are contained within the forest , with the highest peak being Francs Peak at 13 @,@ 158 ft ( 4 @,@ 011 m ) . The peaks of the Absaroka are basaltic in origin , having been the result of volcanic activity estimated to have occurred 50 million years ago during the Eocene epoch . The rocks are composed of mostly andesite and breccias deposited for millions of years during volcanic events and are atop more ancient sedimentary rocks that are considered to have economically viable mineral wealth . Gold was mined from the slopes of Francs Peak between the years 1890 and 1915 , and the small ghost town of Kirwin remains as a legacy of that period . Major tributaries of the Bighorn River , such as the Shoshone and Greybull Rivers , originate in the Absaroka Mountains . Important passes through the Absarokas include Sylvan Pass , which leads to the eastern entrance of Yellowstone National Park ; and Togwotee Pass , which provides access to Jackson Hole and Grand Teton National Park .
In the far north of Shoshone National Forest a small portion of the Beartooth Mountains are located north of the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River . The Beartooths are composed of Precambrian granitic rocks that are amongst the oldest found on Earth . Although often considered a part of the Absaroka Mountains , the Beartooths are distinct in appearance and geologic history . Uplifted approximately 70 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny , the Beartooths consist of vast windswept plateaus and rugged peaks with sheer cliff faces . The Beartooth Highway ( U.S. Highway 212 ) crosses 10 @,@ 974 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) Beartooth Pass , and from there descends to the northeast entrance to Yellowstone National Park .
The Wind River Range is in the southern portion of the forest and is composed primarily of Precambrian granitic rock . Gannett Peak , the tallest mountain in Wyoming , is in the northern part of the range . Altogether eight peaks exceed 13 @,@ 500 ft ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) and 119 rise at least 12 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) above sea level . Fremont Peak , the second highest peak in the range , was originally believed to be the tallest mountain in the Rocky Mountains due to its prominence when viewed from the Oregon Trail by early pioneers . The Wind River Range is popular with mountain climbers because of its solid rock and variety of routes . The Cirque of the Towers in the Popo Agie Wilderness is one of the more popular climbing and hiking destinations , and an estimated 200 different climbing routes are located within the peaks that surround the cirque .
There are over 500 lakes in the forest , and 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of streams and rivers . The Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River is federally designated as a Wild and Scenic River for 22 mi ( 35 km ) through the forest , with cliffs towering up to 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) as the river winds through a gorge . The forest is on the eastern slopes of the Continental Divide , and the rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean basin .
= = = Glaciology = = =
According to the U.S. Forest Service , Shoshone National Forest has the greatest number of glaciers of any National Forest in the Rocky Mountains . The forest recreation guide lists 16 named and 140 unnamed glaciers within the forest , all in the Wind River Range . Forty @-@ four of these glaciers are in the Fitzpatrick Wilderness , centered around the highest mountain peaks . However , the state water board for Wyoming lists only 63 glaciers for the entire Wind River Range , which includes glaciers in adjacent Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest . Researchers claim that for most of the period that glaciers have been known to exist in the forest , that they have been in a state of general retreat , with glacial mass losses of as much as 25 percent between the years 1985 and 2009 .
Reversing the growth of mid @-@ latitude glaciers that occurred during the Little Ice Age ( 1350 – 1850 ) , there has been a world @-@ wide reduction of mountain glacial ice since , with some regions losing as much as 50 percent of their peak ice cover . This can be correlated by examining photographic evidence of glaciers taken over time even with an absence of other means of documentation . The behavior of the glaciers of Shoshone National Forest is consistent with this pattern . In one study of Dinwoody and Gannett Glaciers , during the period from 1958 to 1983 , the thickness of these glaciers was reduced 77 and 61 ft ( 23 and 19 m ) , respectively .
Gannett Glacier , on the northeast slope of Gannett Peak , is the largest single glacier in the U.S. Rocky Mountains . It has reportedly lost over 50 percent of its volume since 1920 with 25 percent of that occurring between the years 1980 @-@ 1999 . Upper Fremont Glacier has been studied more than any other glacier in the Wind River Range . Scientist have obtained ice cores from the Upper Fremont Glacier and found that there have been measurable changes in the atmosphere over the past several hundred years . The Upper Fremont Glacier and the Quelccaya Ice Cap in the Andes of South America both show nearly identical atmospheric records , which indicate a global linkage of atmospheric conditions over time .
The small glaciers in the forest are less able to resist melting than the great ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica . Once a glacier begins retreating , it may fall into disequilibrium and be unable to find mass balance ( accumulation versus melting rate ) at any size . Without a favorable climate change , it will continue to retreat until it disappears . Loss of glacial ice already reduces the summer glacial runoff that supplies water to streams and lakes and provides a cold @-@ water source vital to certain fish and plant species . This , in turn , may have a significant impact on the forest ecosystem over time .
= = Climate = =
Wyoming is an arid state , averaging 12 @.@ 68 inches ( 32 @.@ 2 cm ) of precipitation annually . However , Shoshone National Forest is located in and near some of the largest mountain ranges in the state , and consequently receives anywhere between 15 and 70 in ( 380 and 1 @,@ 780 mm ) annually . Higher elevations in the forest not only get more precipitation than lower elevations , but also have lower overall temperatures , with summertime highs around 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 35 ° F ( 2 ° C ) while lower elevations may be 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) or more warmer on average . Humidity levels throughout the forest are low , especially at higher altitudes . In the middle of the forest at the Wapiti Ranger Station , which is 30 mi ( 48 km ) west of the forest headquarters in Cody , Wyoming , January high and low temperatures are 35 @.@ 8 and 13 @.@ 2 ° F ( 2 @.@ 1 and − 10 @.@ 4 ° C ) , while the July highs and lows are 81 @.@ 4 and 49 @.@ 1 ° F ( 27 @.@ 4 and 9 @.@ 5 ° C ) . The annual precipitation at Wapiti is 10 @.@ 37 in ( 263 mm ) .
Most of the precipitation falls in the winter and early spring , while summer is punctuated with widely scattered thunderstorms . The autumn is usually cool and dry . Due to the altitude and dryness of the atmosphere , vigorous radiative cooling occurs throughout the year , and exceptional daily temperature variances are not uncommon . Consequently , the nights range from very cool in the summer to extremely cold in the winter ; therefore , visitors should always remember to bring along at least a jacket , even during the summer . Records indicate that the highest temperature ever recorded in the forest was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) in 1978 , while the coldest was − 49 ° F ( − 45 ° C ) in 1972 .
= = Recreation = =
Shoshone National Forest receives an average of over half a million visitors a year . Two visitor centers provide orientation , books , maps , and interpretive displays . One visitor center is at the Wapiti Wayside on the Buffalo Bill Cody Scenic Byway , west of Cody , Wyoming and adjacent to the historic Wapiti Ranger Station while the other visitor center is to the south in Lander , Wyoming . There are 30 vehicle access campgrounds in the forest , with up to 54 individual sites per campground . Approximately half of these campgrounds provide running water and restroom facilities and also provide for handicapped accessibility . Referred to as " front country " campgrounds , they also permit recreational vehicle access in most cases . All of the campgrounds are on a first come , first served basis although four campgrounds have sites that can be reserved in advance by contacting the National Reservation Service . Due to the presence of grizzly bears , a few of the campgrounds require what is referred to as " hard @-@ sided " camping only , and tent camping is not permitted .
For some visitors the greater solitude of the backcountry requires using hiking trails to backpacking or horseback riding into more remote destinations . There are dozens of trails which total over 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) located throughout the forest . Many of the trailheads can be accessed at campgrounds , with shorter day hikes available as well . The Continental Divide Trail has a 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) section which passes through the forest and crosses the Continental Divide at Sheridan Pass . There is also the Nez Perce National Historic Trail and the Beartooth Loop National Recreation Trail , both of which are in the northern regions of the forest . Some remote areas can also be accessed by horseback . Trailheads usually provide enough room for horse and pack animal trailers plus personal vehicles . Along forest access roads , all @-@ terrain vehicles ( ATV ) are allowed , but since wilderness areas do not permit access by way of motorized transport , those who wish to visit such areas usually do so either by hiking in or on horseback .
Hunting and fishing are popular recreational activities permitted throughout the forest . Many of the streams and rivers are considered to be " Blue Ribbon Trout Streams " . Though many streams and lakes have excellent opportunities to catch various species of trout , the north and south forks of the Shoshone River , the Greybull River and the Clark 's Fork of the Yellowstone , the only federally designated Wild and Scenic River in Wyoming , are a few of the better locations to reign in a trophy level Rainbow or Yellowstone cutthroat trout . 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of streams and a hundred lakes that can be legally fished from provide plenty of elbow room during even the most crowded of fishing seasons . Hunting and fishing licenses are sponsored by the state of Wyoming and are available through the Wyoming Game and Fish Department .
The southern section of the forest in the Wind River Range is the primary destination for mountain climbers . Nine of the highest 10 peaks in Wyoming are here , and the mountains are primarily of granitic rock with countless cliffs and sheer rock walls . The Cirque of the Towers is particularly popular as it has numerous peaks within a relatively short distance of each other . Two particular climbs on the peaks in the cirque are considered amongst the finest climbing adventures available in the U.S. The Absaroka Range also attracts climbers but not of a technical nature since the rocks are not considered solid enough for good anchoring points . For the tallest peaks in the Wind River Range , the entire summiting effort will take even experienced climbers many days due to the inaccessibility of the region and complexity of the climbing effort .
Winter activities include cross @-@ country skiing and snowmobiling , with 48 mi ( 77 km ) of groomed trails for cross @-@ country skiing and over 300 mi ( 480 km ) for use by snowmobilers . The region around Togwotee Pass allows snowmobilers easy access from paved roads and has snow depths of between 6 to 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) annually at elevations of 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 400 to 3 @,@ 000 m ) , which equates to a long season for winter activities .
= = = Scenic roads = = =
Shoshone National Forest forms the eastern boundary of Yellowstone National Park and the northeastern and eastern entrances to the park are both accessed by way of designated scenic roadways . A federally designated National Scenic Byways All @-@ American Road , the Beartooth Highway ( U.S. Highway 212 ) , weaves through the forest and serves as the northeastern entranceway to Yellowstone National Park . Chief Joseph Scenic Byway ( Wyoming Highway 296 ) connects Cody , Wyoming with the Beartooth Highway and follows the old trail in which Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce tribe attempted to flee the U.S. Cavalry in 1877 . South of there , Buffalo Bill Cody Scenic Byway ( US 14 / 16 / 20 ) heads west from Cody , Wyoming , passes through the forest and crosses Sylvan Pass as it enters Yellowstone . Lastly , the Wyoming Centennial Scenic Byway ( US 26 / 287 ) heads northwest from Dubois , Wyoming , over Togwotee Pass and enters Jackson Hole and Grand Teton National Park . Though the Beartooth Highway is the only one of these four roads that is a National Scenic Byway , all four of them have been designated Wyoming State Scenic Byways by the state of Wyoming .
= = Popular Culture = =
Shoshone National Forest was the setting of the 2016 first person adventure video game , Firewatch .
= Battle of Camperdown =
The Battle of Camperdown ( known in Dutch as the Zeeslag bij Kamperduin ) was a major naval action fought on 11 October
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You just keep wanting to find something that can touch upon the same zeitgeist as this film . "
For Streep , the most significant thing about the film was that " [ t ] his was the first time , on any movie I have ever made , where men came up to me and said , ' I know what you felt like , this is kind of like my life . ' That was for me the most ground @-@ breaking thing about Devil Wears Prada — it engaged men on a visceral level , " she told Indiewire .
= = = Popular culture and society = = =
The film has made a lasting impact on popular culture . Although a TV series based on it was not picked up , in the years after its release The Simpsons titled an episode " The Devil Wears Nada " and parodied some scenes . The American version of The Office began an episode with Steve Carell as Michael Scott imitating Miranda after watching the film on Netflix .
In 2008 , The New York Times wrote that the movie had defined the image of a personal assistant in the public mind . Seven years later , Dissent 's Francesca Mari wrote about " the assistant economy " by which many creative professionals rely on workers so titled to do menial personal and professional tasks for them ; she pointed to The Devil Wears Prada as the best @-@ known narrative of assistantship . The next year , writing about a proposed change in U.S. federal overtime regulations that was seen as threatening to that practice , the Times called it the ' Devil Wears Prada ' economy " , a term other news outlets also used .
On the film 's 10th anniversary , Alyssa Rosenberg wrote in The Washington Post that Miranda anticipated female antiheroines of popular television series of the later 2000s and 2010s such asScandal ; ' s Olivia Pope and Cersei Lannister in Game of Thrones . Like them , she observes , Miranda competently assumes a position of authority often held by male characters , despite her moral failings , that she must defend against attempts to use her personal life to remove her from it , to " prov [ e ] , as a creature of sentiment , that she never belonged there in the first place . " In doing so , however successfully to herself and others , " she has zipped herself into a life as regimented and limited as a skintight pencil skirt . "
" Like many instant classics , Prada benefited from perfect timing " , Variety 's 2016 article observed , attempting to explain the film 's enduring appeal . " It marked the beginning of the democratization of the fashion industry — when the masses started to pay attention to the business of what they wore . " It credited the movie with helping stir interest in the American adaptation of the Colombian television series Ugly Betty , which debuted months after its release .
The film also has been credited with increasing interest in R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue , which followed Wintour and other Vogue editors as they prepared the issue for that month of 2007 . Writing in The Ringer on the tenth anniversary , Alison Herman observed that " The Devil Wears Prada transformed Wintour 's image from that of a mere public figure into that of a cultural icon . " Once known primarily as a fashion editor , she was now " every overlord you 'd ever bitched about three drinks deep at happy hour , only to dutifully fetch her coffee the next day . " Ultimately , the film had effected a positive change in Wintour 's image , Herman argued , " from a tyrant in chinchilla to an idol for the post @-@ Sandberg age . "
= = Possible sequel = =
In 2013 Weisberger wrote a sequel , Revenge Wears Prada . However it does not seem likely that a film version of it , or any sequel , will be made , as the film 's two stars are not eager to do so . Streep , who has never made a sequel to any of her films , has reportedly said that she is not interested in making this one in particular . And while Hathaway admits she 'd be interested in working with the same people , it would have to be " something totally different . " The Devil Wears Prada , she told Variety " might have just hit the right note . It 's good to leave it as it is . "
= = = Similar films = = =
The Intern , 2000 comedy about an overworked and mistreated low @-@ level employee at a New York fashion magazine
Swimming with Sharks , 1994 film starring Kevin Spacey as a tyrannical movie producer and Frank Whaley as his beleaguered assistant
= = = Lists = = =
List of 2006 box office number @-@ one films in Australia
List of 2006 box office number @-@ one films in Japan
List of 2006 box office number @-@ one films in South Korea
List of 2006 box office number @-@ one films in the United Kingdom
List of American comedy films
List of American films of 2006
List of awards and nominations received by Anne Hathaway
List of awards and nominations received by Emily Blunt
List of awards and nominations received by Meryl Streep
List of comedy films of the 2000s
List of fiction works made into feature films ( D – J )
List of film director and composer collaborations
List of films set in New York City
List of films set in Paris
= HIV / AIDS =
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( HIV / AIDS ) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . Following initial infection , a person may not notice any symptoms or may experience a brief period of influenza @-@ like illness . Typically , this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms . As the infection progresses , it interferes more with the immune system , increasing the risk of common infections like tuberculosis , as well as other opportunistic infections , and tumors that rarely affect people who have working immune systems . These late symptoms of infection are referred to as AIDS . This stage is often also associated with weight loss .
HIV is spread primarily by unprotected sex ( including anal and oral sex ) , contaminated blood transfusions , hypodermic needles , and from mother to child during pregnancy , delivery , or breastfeeding . Some bodily fluids , such as saliva and tears , do not transmit HIV . Methods of prevention include safe sex , needle exchange programmes , treating those who are infected , and male circumcision . Disease in a baby can often be prevented by giving both the mother and child antiretroviral medication . There is no cure or vaccine ; however , antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near @-@ normal life expectancy . Treatment is recommended as soon as the diagnosis is made . Without treatment , the average survival time after infection is 11 years .
In 2014 about 36 @.@ 9 million people were living with HIV and it resulted in 1 @.@ 2 million deaths . Most of those infected live in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Between its discovery and 2014 AIDS has caused an estimated 39 million deaths worldwide . HIV / AIDS is considered a pandemic — a disease outbreak which is present over a large area and is actively spreading . HIV is believed to have originated in west @-@ central Africa during the late 19th or early 20th century . AIDS was first recognized by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) in 1981 and its cause — HIV infection — was identified in the early part of the decade .
HIV / AIDS has had a great impact on society , both as an illness and as a source of discrimination . The disease also has large economic impacts . There are many misconceptions about HIV / AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by casual non @-@ sexual contact . The disease has become subject to many controversies involving religion including the Catholic church 's decision not to support condom use as prevention . It has attracted international medical and political attention as well as large @-@ scale funding since it was identified in the 1980s .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
There are three main stages of HIV infection : acute infection , clinical latency and AIDS .
= = = Acute infection = = =
The initial period following the contraction of HIV is called acute HIV , primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome . Many individuals develop an influenza @-@ like illness or a mononucleosis @-@ like illness 2 – 4 weeks post exposure while others have no significant symptoms . Symptoms occur in 40 – 90 % of cases and most commonly include fever , large tender lymph nodes , throat inflammation , a rash , headache , and / or sores of the mouth and genitals . The rash , which occurs in 20 – 50 % of cases , presents itself on the trunk and is maculopapular , classically . Some people also develop opportunistic infections at this stage . Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea , vomiting or diarrhea may occur , as may neurological symptoms of peripheral neuropathy or Guillain @-@ Barre syndrome . The duration of the symptoms varies , but is usually one or two weeks .
Due to their nonspecific character , these symptoms are not often recognized as signs of HIV infection . Even cases that do get seen by a family doctor or a hospital are often misdiagnosed as one of the many common infectious diseases with overlapping symptoms . Thus , it is recommended that HIV be considered in people presenting an unexplained fever who may have risk factors for the infection .
= = = Clinical latency = = =
The initial symptoms are followed by a stage called clinical latency , asymptomatic HIV , or chronic HIV . Without treatment , this second stage of the natural history of HIV infection can last from about three years to over 20 years ( on average , about eight years ) . While typically there are few or no symptoms at first , near the end of this stage many people experience fever , weight loss , gastrointestinal problems and muscle pains . Between 50 and 70 % of people also develop persistent generalized lymphadenopathy , characterized by unexplained , non @-@ painful enlargement of more than one group of lymph nodes ( other than in the groin ) for over three to six months .
Although most HIV @-@ 1 infected individuals have a detectable viral load and in the absence of treatment will eventually progress to AIDS , a small proportion ( about 5 % ) retain high levels of CD4 + T cells ( T helper cells ) without antiretroviral therapy for more than 5 years . These individuals are classified as HIV controllers or long @-@ term nonprogressors ( LTNP ) . Another group consists of those who maintain a low or undetectable viral load without anti @-@ retroviral treatment , known as " elite controllers " or " elite suppressors " . They represent approximately 1 in 300 infected persons .
= = = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome = = =
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) is defined in terms of either a CD4 + T cell count below 200 cells per µL or the occurrence of specific diseases in association with an HIV infection . In the absence of specific treatment , around half of people infected with HIV develop AIDS within ten years . The most common initial conditions that alert to the presence of AIDS are pneumocystis pneumonia ( 40 % ) , cachexia in the form of HIV wasting syndrome ( 20 % ) , and esophageal candidiasis . Other common signs include recurring respiratory tract infections .
Opportunistic infections may be caused by bacteria , viruses , fungi , and parasites that are normally controlled by the immune system . Which infections occur depends partly on what organisms are common in the person 's environment . These infections may affect nearly every organ system .
People with AIDS have an increased risk of developing various viral @-@ induced cancers , including Kaposi 's sarcoma , Burkitt 's lymphoma , primary central nervous system lymphoma , and cervical cancer . Kaposi 's sarcoma is the most common cancer occurring in 10 to 20 % of people with HIV . The second most common cancer is lymphoma , which is the cause of death of nearly 16 % of people with AIDS and is the initial sign of AIDS in 3 to 4 % . Both these cancers are associated with human herpesvirus 8 . Cervical cancer occurs more frequently in those with AIDS because of its association with human papillomavirus ( HPV ) . Conjunctival cancer ( of the layer that lines the inner part of eyelids and the white part of the eye ) is also more common in those with HIV .
Additionally , people with AIDS frequently have systemic symptoms such as prolonged fevers , sweats ( particularly at night ) , swollen lymph nodes , chills , weakness , and unintended weight loss . Diarrhea is another common symptom , present in about 90 % of people with AIDS . They can also be affected by diverse psychiatric and neurological symptoms independent of opportunistic infections and cancers .
= = Transmission = =
HIV is transmitted by three main routes : sexual contact , significant exposure to infected body fluids or tissues , and from mother to child during pregnancy , delivery , or breastfeeding ( known as vertical transmission ) . There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces , nasal secretions , saliva , sputum , sweat , tears , urine , or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood . It is possible to be co @-@ infected by more than one strain of HIV — a condition known as HIV superinfection .
= = = Sexual = = =
The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an infected person . The majority of all transmissions worldwide occur through heterosexual contacts ( i.e. sexual contacts between people of the opposite sex ) ; however , the pattern of transmission varies significantly among countries . In the United States , as of 2010 , most transmission occurred in men who had sex with men , with this population accounting for 65 % of all new cases .
With regard to unprotected heterosexual contacts , estimates of the risk of HIV transmission per sexual act appear to be four to ten times higher in low @-@ income countries than in high @-@ income countries . In low @-@ income countries , the risk of female @-@ to @-@ male transmission is estimated as 0 @.@ 38 % per act , and of male @-@ to @-@ female transmission as 0 @.@ 30 % per act ; the equivalent estimates for high @-@ income countries are 0 @.@ 04 % per act for female @-@ to @-@ male transmission , and 0 @.@ 08 % per act for male @-@ to @-@ female transmission . The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially high , estimated as 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 7 % per act in both heterosexual and homosexual contacts . While the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low , it is still present . The risk from receiving oral sex has been described as " nearly nil " ; however , a few cases have been reported . The per @-@ act risk is estimated at 0 – 0 @.@ 04 % for receptive oral intercourse . In settings involving prostitution in low income countries , risk of female @-@ to @-@ male transmission has been estimated as 2 @.@ 4 % per act and male @-@ to @-@ female transmission as 0 @.@ 05 % per act .
Risk of transmission increases in the presence of many sexually transmitted infections and genital ulcers . Genital ulcers appear to increase the risk approximately fivefold . Other sexually transmitted infections , such as gonorrhea , chlamydia
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0 @,@ 000 ( $ 319 @,@ 308 today ) grant . The grant also included a $ 300 @,@ 000 challenge grant to be met by Newberry Library for the first three years of work . The original plan was to publish a hardcover book by 2001 and then to follow with what at the time was referred to vaguely as " hypermedia " in reference to possible internet and CD @-@ ROM auxiliary products . After Grossman and Keating obtained the initial grant , Reiff , a computer technology expert , and encyclopedia veteran Carol J. Summerfield all became part of the team . The editors sought the advice of Chicago @-@ area librarians who were organized into focus groups to determine the proper components for the planned publication . The editors also organized into task forces of experts in dozens of specialized fields . Early on they sought the expertise of University of Chicago cartographer Michael P. Conzen , who helped develop 56 original maps . Conzen is credited as the cartographic editor .
By 1997 , the text had taken shape and the plan was that the average biographical entry would be 150 words . The longest biographical entries , about 450 words , were written for former Chicago Mayors Harold Washington and Richard J. Daley . Neither Richard M. Daley nor Michael Jordan had entries because only notable deceased persons were included . By 1998 , the editors had settled on the table of contents and begun the job of assigning , editing , fact @-@ checking and re @-@ editing the hundreds of entries , some of them as long as 4000 words . By March 2000 , 1100 of the targeted 1400 entries were completed . Also , the growth of the internet had clarified the vision of an online version of the print edition . In 2000 , the final volume was expected to be 1300 pages set for release in fall 2002 . The internet version was expected the following year . By June 2001 , nearly 1300 of the entries had been submitted and a third had been edited and reviewed for accuracy . The effort had become a $ 2 @.@ 5 million effort and was aspiring towards the success of earlier encyclopedic efforts projecting a fall 2003 publication of a 1 @.@ 3 @-@ million @-@ word 1300 @-@ page edition . At this time , the final electronic form available through the Chicago Historical Society had been conceptualized .
= = Public release = =
By 2001 , two editions of The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History ( 1987 ) had sold 24 @,@ 000 copies ; The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis ( 1994 ) had sold 9000 copies and The Encyclopedia of New York City ( 1995 ) had sold 70 @,@ 000 ( 50 @,@ 000 in its first year ) . Hardcover versions of these works had sold for $ 59 @.@ 95 and up . The commercial success of these other regional encyclopedias made it clear that there is a market for such products . Several university presses released regional encyclopedic publications in 2004 . In April , Rutgers University Press published The Encyclopedia of New Jersey . In September , the University of Nebraska Press published Encyclopedia of the Great Plains . In October , the University of Chicago Press released The Encyclopedia of Chicago . Additionally , Yale University Press was scheduled to publish both Encyclopedia of New England and the second edition of The Encyclopedia of New York City .
Using press releases from the Copley News Service , the book was widely publicized throughout the state of Illinois , and it was even reviewed by The Wall Street Journal . When first published in 2004 , the book was on the USA Today recommended Christmas gifts list . That year it was at the top of the Chicago area bestseller lists at bookstores during the Christmas holiday season . Major funding for the $ 65 list price four @-@ color print version of the publication , which cost $ 1 @.@ 7 million in the end , was provided by the NEH , the MacArthur Foundation , the City of Chicago and the State of Illinois .
= = = Electronic edition = = =
At the time of the print release , the online version , known as the Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago , was being developed to include additional features , which relied on hyperlinks , that were not available in the print edition . At the time , it was expected to be released by the Chicago Historical Society in April 2005 . On May 11 , the Electronic edition , which cost nearly $ 1 million to create and is continuously available for free to the public , was released . It included hundreds of additional entries ( bringing the total to 1766 ) , more than 1000 additional images , video of historic figures and events , and extensive primary source material . The online version includes 1000 more sources than the print edition . The Web site includes many tables and maps that date to the 19th Century . Northwestern University media specialists developed the Web architecture for the electronic version . The electronic edition made Chicago the second major U.S. city ( following Cleveland ) with an extensive Internet encyclopedia dedicated to its history and its release was covered by newspapers throughout the Midwest . The extra features of the online edition would have required 10 @,@ 000 pages to produce in print @-@ edition format . Initially , the online edition was a static version , but updates and adjustments were planned .
= = Critical review = =
USA Today ' referred to it as a good coffee table book . Chicago Tribune journalist Rick Kogan describes this as a massive undertaking with the natural foibles of the human element in it selections and accuracy , and by nature of its attempt to serve as a historical compilation an immediately dated product due to the dynamic nature of the city . However , he feels it is sure to amaze its audience . A Chicago Sun @-@ Times reviewer describes it as a scholarly product that is " easily the most comprehensive reference book on the Chicago region ever published " . The State Journal @-@ Register , the Springfield , Illinois newspaper , reviewers complain that downstate cities and regions are neglected in the book . A Daily Herald review describes it as a book accurately " billed as the city 's most definitive historical reference book " . The Peoria Journal Star notes that although there are complaints about omissions and underserved topics , the online version should quell the demands for further knowledge .
The online version was noted for its " large number of tables and maps that date to the 19th Century " by the Chicago Tribune . Dubuque , Iowa 's Telegraph Herald newspaper and Indiana 's Post @-@ Tribune referenced an Associated Press press release that described the online version as a compilation assembled " with more than Chicagoans in mind " . The Chicago Tribune described the online version as an extension of " the most comprehensive reference book on the Chicago region ever published " that is unlimited by physical bounds .
Journal of American History along with the website History Matters : The U.S. Survey Course on the Web published a review by University of Southern California professor Philip J. Ethington that spoke glowingly about both versions of the encyclopedia describing it as " one of the finest collective works ( with 633 listed authors ) of North American historical scholarship of our era " . They praised it for its breadth and coherence . The online version was noted for its meticulous hyperlinking . The online review was cursory in the sense that it did not realize the expansion of the online version . However , the review notes that the online version provides " powerful and substantive " interactive resources that are not possible in the print edition . The review is especially respectful of the cartographic contributions , which it describes in detail . It dismisses the alphabetical structure of the online version as an unnecessary complication . The review also complains about biographical omissions that necessitate extensive navigation to related articles . The review felt some of the online foibles left open the possibility that the production might get overshadowed by future ventures that leverage the electronic possibilities more fully .
The Chronicle of Higher Education reviewed the Encyclopedia along with several of its peers and mentioned early in the review that the advent of online encyclopedias makes the works much easier to correct and update . However , the availability of online encyclopedias diminished the significance of the print editions according to the review because it made gifting them less significant and it reduced sales at libraries . The review also noted that the online approach is becoming so successful that the state of Georgia has produced the online @-@ only New Georgia Encyclopedia , which started as a 300 @-@ article venture and has blossomed to a 1300 @-@ article work . However , they noted that when the Encyclopedia of Chicago was first released that the local media supported the book ; some Chicago disc jockeys read passages from it on air . It enjoyed successful marketing as both a popular gift item and a must @-@ have for local historians .
= = Content = =
The encyclopedia is composed of 1117 pages that feature over 1400 entries by more than 600 contributors . Additionally , it includes 442 maps , more than 400 vintage photographs , over 250 sketches of " historically significant business enterprises " , a dictionary of Chicago @-@ area businesses , a biographical dictionary and a 21 @-@ page timeline that traces the history of Chicago from 1630 to 2000 .
The 1400 @-@ entry main alphabetical section of the Encyclopedia covers all Chicago neighborhoods , suburbs , and ethnic groups as well as the major cultural institutions . Topics covered include technology and science , architecture , religions , immigration , transportation , business history , labor , music , health and medicine . It is considered the most geographical diverse city encyclopedia of its kind because it fully encompasses the suburbs in eight of the region 's counties . 386 thumbnail maps of neighborhoods and municipalities are complemented by 400 black @-@ and @-@ white photographs plus hundreds of color photographs and thematic maps . There are separate lengthy interpretive essays woven into the alphabetical section on topics such as the built environment , literary images of Chicago , and the city 's sports culture . The Encyclopedia includes a 2000 @-@ entry comprehensive biographical dictionary and a detailed listing of approximately 250 of the city 's historically significant business enterprises . A color insert features a timeline of Chicago history and photo essays exploring nine pivotal years in this history . The photo essays feature the city ’ s urban art and artifacts .
= Matt Kemp =
Matthew Ryan " Matt " Kemp ( born September 23 , 1984 ) is an American professional baseball outfielder for the San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He has been named to two All @-@ Star teams and has won two Gold Glove Awards ( 2009 and 2011 ) and two Silver Slugger Awards ( 2009 and 2011 ) . He began his professional career in the Los Angeles Dodgers organization in 2003 , and played with the Dodgers from 2006 until 2014 .
Kemp was drafted by the Dodgers in the sixth round of the 2003 MLB draft . After four seasons in the minor leagues , he made his major league debut in 2006 . He did not become a full @-@ time player until 2008 , when he took over as the starting center fielder for the Dodgers . In 2011 , Kemp led the National League in runs scored ( 115 ) , total bases ( 353 ) , OPS + ( 171 ) , WAR ( 7 @.@ 8 ) , home runs ( 39 ) , and runs batted in ( 126 ) . Additionally , he became the first player to finish in the top two in both home runs and steals since Hank Aaron in 1963 . He was traded to the Padres after the 2014 season . Primarily a center fielder with the Dodgers , Kemp transitioned to right field with the Padres .
= = Early life and education = =
Kemp is the son of Carl Kemp and Judy Henderson , who never married . He was raised in Oklahoma by his mother , a registered nurse , and grandmother . When he was 13 , his mother had another son , Tyler , who was born prematurely and died at age one .
Kemp attended Midwest City High School in Oklahoma , where he was a standout in basketball and baseball . He was teammates with Shelden Williams on the varsity basketball team that won the state title two years in a row , and the team was ranked third in the nation at one point . Kemp himself was an All @-@ City selection , and averaged 20 points a game .
Kemp , along with Williams and three other teammates , were accused of raping a 19 @-@ year @-@ old woman at the time of a high school all @-@ star basketball tournament on January 20 , 2002 , at the Columbus , Ohio Hyatt hotel . The players were suspended from the team during the investigation . However , the woman did not press charges , and the district attorney opted to not pursue the matter due to a lack of evidence .
Kemp was drafted by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 6th round of the 2003 MLB draft , and signed with the team on June 5 , 2003 , for a $ 130 @,@ 000 signing bonus .
= = Minor leagues = =
Kemp started his professional career for the Gulf Coast Dodgers in 2003 and followed that up with stints with the Columbus Catfish in 2004 and the Vero Beach Dodgers in 2004 – 05 . At Columbus and Vero Beach , Kemp improved his power numbers . After hitting just a single home run in 43 games , Kemp became more of a power hitter . In 2004 with Columbus , he belted 18 home runs to go along with 27 doubles in 122 games , and in 2005 , he belted 27 home runs to go along with 21 doubles in 109 games . He was selected to the Florida State League All @-@ Star team in 2005 , and set Vero Beach franchise records for home runs ( 27 ) and slugging percentage ( .569 ) .
= = Major leagues = =
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Kemp began 2006 with the AA Jacksonville Suns , where he hit .327 with seven homers , 34 runs batted in ( RBIs ) and 11 steals , prompting a promotion to the major league squad . His promotion was spurred by an effort to provide regular rest for center fielder Kenny Lofton and oft injured right field All @-@ Star J. D. Drew .
Kemp made his major league debut with the Los Angeles Dodgers on May 28 , 2006 , against the Washington Nationals . He got his first career major league hit that same game , a single off of Jon Rauch . He hit his first Major League homer on June 1 in his second Dodger Stadium at @-@ bat off the Philadelphia Phillies ' Gavin Floyd . He homered in three straight games from June 1 – 3 against the Phillies and homered twice on June 11 off Colorado Rockies starter Aaron Cook . He also became the first Dodger and fifth major league player to hit four homers in his first 10 days with the team .
After his fast start , Kemp slumped and hit only .234 with no homers from June 14 through July 13 , when he was reassigned to the AAA Las Vegas 51s . He returned to the team when rosters expanded on September 1 . In his second stint in the Majors , Kemp struggled . He batted just .156 with a .182 on @-@ base percentage and a .250 slugging percentage in September and October combined . By season 's end , Kemp showed some power , with seven home runs and speed , with six stolen bases but he struggled with his batting average and getting on base . He batted just .253 and posted an on @-@ base percentage of .289 .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Kemp started the 2007 season on the major league roster but lost his place after suffering a shoulder injury while running into the outfield fence at Dodger Stadium . Upon his return from the injury , he was optioned back to Las Vegas . Returning to Triple @-@ A and playing for the Las Vegas 51s , Kemp played well in his short stint . In just 39 games , he had a .329 batting average , .374 on @-@ base percentage , and a .540 slugging percentage . He hit four home runs , drove in 20 runs , and stole nine bases out of 11 attempts . He was recalled to the Dodgers on June 8 . He enjoyed an outstanding sophomore campaign with the bat batting .342 , clubbing 10 home runs , and driving in 42 runs .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Kemp became the starting right fielder in 2008 . He hit his first career grand slam off of Mark Redman on April 26 against the Colorado Rockies . Kemp drove in the first run of the game for the Dodgers , a sacrifice fly in the first inning that scored Juan Pierre . After driving in 11 runs and stealing 6 bases . He was named " National League Player of the Week " for the week of April 28 – May 4 .
After a knee injury to Andruw Jones , Kemp became the Dodgers ' regular center fielder , moving over from right field . His best month of the season was in July , in which he had a .324 batting average , .402 on @-@ base percentage , .537 slugging percentage to go along with five home runs , 14 RBIs , and 10 stolen bases . That month also sparked Kemp 's career high 19 @-@ game hitting streak , which it lasted from July 9 through August 1 , ending with a hit less performance on August 2 . However , Kemp got back on track the next night by having a three @-@ hit game to go along with a home run . He finished the season with a .290 average , 18 homers and 76 RBI . He was also second on the team in stolen bases with 35 . In addition , he set a Dodgers record with 153 strikeouts in a season . In his first career postseason game , Kemp went 1 for 4 with a double . However , he batted just .154 in the 2008 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) against the Chicago Cubs . Both of his hits went for doubles . In the 2008 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) , against the Philadelphia Phillies , Kemp did better , batting .333 as the Dodgers lost the series to the eventual World Series champions .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Kemp had his first career walk @-@ off hit on June 16 against the Oakland A 's . On September 24 , he became the first player in Dodger history to hit at least .295 , with 25 home runs , 100 RBIs , and 30 steals in one season . He finished the year with .297 , 26 home runs , 101 RBI , and 34 steals ( third in the NL ) . His 10 RBIs in extra innings were the most that a player has driven in extra innings since 1991 and he became the first player to reach double @-@ digits in this category since 1982 .
Kemp hit his first career post @-@ season home run on October 7 in his first at @-@ bat of the 2009 NLDS against the St. Louis Cardinals . After the season , Kemp was selected as a recipient of both the Gold Glove Award and the Silver Slugger Award . He also tied a Dodger record with three grand slams in one season .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Kemp began the 2010 season in excellent fashion , hitting seven home runs in the month of April , including four in four days from April 13 – 16 . On June 1 , Kemp hit his first career walk @-@ off home run against the Arizona Diamondbacks off of relief pitcher J. C. Gutiérrez , giving the Dodgers the only run of the game . Kemp described his first career walk @-@ off home run as " a great feeling " . However , he slumped badly in the second half of the season and finished with a .249 batting average , 28 home runs , 89 RBIs , and 19 steals while playing in all 162 games for the first time in his career . He also broke his own single @-@ season Dodger record for strikeouts , with 170 .
Kemp was the subject of some criticism in 2010 from General Manager Ned Colletti , who called him out publicly early in the season for poor baserunning . Kemp had several embarrassing gaffes on the base paths during the season , and was caught stealing 15 times . With runners in scoring position , he hit seven home runs and drove in 61 runs in 160 at bats . However , he struck out 49 times and batted just .225 in that spot . Against right @-@ handed pitching , he batted just .233 with a .299 on @-@ base percentage , to go along with 22 home runs and 69 RBIs , as opposed to a .295 average against left @-@ handed pitchers .
Kemp hit home runs in five straight games to end the season , the first major league player to accomplish that feat and the first Dodger since Shawn Green in the 2001 season to hit homers in five consecutive games . The only other Dodgers to homer in five consecutive games are Roy Campanella ( 1950 ) , Adrian Gonzalez ( 2014 – 15 ) , and Joc Pederson ( 2015 ) .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
After his much publicized problems on the base paths the previous season , Kemp arrived at spring training early to work with new Dodger coach Davey Lopes on his base running . Kemp announced his intention to steal 40 bases this season and Lopes hoped they would be high percentage steals . At the end of the season , Kemp had the 40 steals and was only caught 11 times , a significant improvement in percentage from the previous year , and his work with Lopes was credited for much of the improvement .
On April 17 , Kemp hit his second career walk @-@ off home run , doing it in the ninth inning off of St. Louis Cardinals closer Ryan Franklin , on a 2 – 2 count that gave the Dodgers a 2 – 1 victory . " In a game against the Atlanta Braves five days later , Kemp hit his second walk @-@ off home run of the season , this time in the 12th inning off of Braves pitcher Cristhian Martínez .
After being one of the league leaders in home runs , stolen bases , RBIs , and batting average during the first half of the season , Kemp was voted as a starter for the National League squad in the 2011 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game in Arizona . He also accepted an invitation to participate in the Home Run Derby at the All @-@ Star Game .
The day before the All @-@ Star Game , Giants ' manager and 2011 NL All @-@ Star Manager , Bruce Bochy , announced his decision to bat Kemp third in the line up . Explaining his decision , Bochy said about Kemp , " He 's a guy with speed , power , a guy that can beat you with a base hit or a long ball . He 's what you call a complete player – tremendous defender , but more so in the 3 @-@ hole , he can do so many things for you . He 's so dangerous . " Kemp , with a single and a walk , became the first Dodger to reach base twice in an All @-@ Star Game since Mike Piazza in 1996 .
Kemp hit his 30th home run of the season on August 26 , and in the process became the second Dodger player of all time to hit at least 30 homers and steal at least 30 bases in the same season ( 30 – 30 club ) . The only other one was Raúl Mondesí in the 1997 and 1999 seasons . He picked up his 40th stolen base on September 17 , becoming the 18th Major Leaguer and first Dodger in history to hit at least 30 homers and steal at least 40 bases . Kemp also scored his 100th run of the season , making him just the 10th L.A. Dodger to score 100 runs and have 100 RBIs in a season , and the first since Jeff Kent in 2005 . He hit his 35th home run on September 21 , making him the 14th Major Leaguer ( and first since Alfonso Soriano in 2006 ) to hit at least 35 home runs and steal at least 35 bases in a season .
On September 20 , the Dodgers announced Kemp was selected by his teammates as the recipient of the 2011 Roy Campanella Award , which is given annually to the Dodger player who best exemplifies the spirit and leadership of the late Roy Campanella . He also won the NL Player of the Week Award for the week of September 19 – 25 , 2011 after he hit .423 ( 11 for 26 ) with nine runs scored and three home runs during that week .
Kemp wound up hitting 39 home runs in 2011 with 126 RBIs , leading the league in both categories , the first Dodger to do so since Dolph Camilli in the 1941 season . He also led the league in runs scored ( 115 ) , total bases ( 353 ) , OPS + ( 171 ) , and WAR ( 10 @.@ 0 ) . He finished second in slugging percentage ( .586 ) , OPS ( .986 ) , extra base hits ( 76 ) , and stolen bases ( 40 , tied ) , and third in batting average ( .324 ) and outfield assists ( 11 )
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2010 , when Malmö FF beat Mjällby AIF 2 – 0 in Allsvenskan before 24 @,@ 148 fans . The game was the last of the season , and the victory secured that year 's league championship for Malmö FF . The record crowd for the stadium as an all @-@ seater was recorded when Sweden beat San Marino 6 – 0 in a Euro 2012 qualifying game on 7 September 2010 . The match was attended by 21 @,@ 083 . The first match played at Swedbank Stadion , a 3 – 0 Allsvenskan victory for Malmö FF against Örgryte IS on 13 April 2009 , attracted 23 @,@ 347 spectators . The highest average attendance for Malmö FF at Swedbank Stadion was in the 2013 Allsvenskan championship winning season when the average attendance was 16 @,@ 093 , the second highest attendance in the league during that year .
The stadium was awarded Stålbyggnadspriset , an award given for innovative use of steel in constructions , by Stålbyggnadsinstitutet in 2009 .
= = Transportation = =
Swedbank Stadion is served by Malmö bus lines 3 , 5 , 6 , and 34 , all of which stop in the vicinity of the stadium . Local transit authority Skånetrafiken also operates dedicated match @-@ day buses , branded as line 84 , which run to the stadium from different areas of Malmö . Due to the central location of the stadium within the city , parking space is limited , and spectators are advised to use public transportation , particularly for more prominent matches . The stadium is also located close to the underground railway station Triangeln , which opened in December 2010 as a part of Citytunneln . The station is served by Pågatåg and Öresund Trains , and is reachable non @-@ stop from many parts of the Öresund Region .
The closest parking location to Swedbank Stadion is " P @-@ huset Stadion " , a parking garage with 440 parking spaces , which was purpose @-@ built for the ground and opened in September 2009 . It is located 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from the stadium , just beside the club 's training ground . There are also various other local parking spaces , and a large number of bicycle stands surrounding the western edge of the stadium .
= Venric Mark =
Venric Emeka @-@ Wococha Mark is an American football running back , return specialist and wide receiver for the Cedar Rapids Titans of the Indoor Football League ( IFL ) . Mark attended 2014 West Texas A & M Buffaloes after previously playing for Northwestern . He has completed his redshirt junior season for the 2013 Northwestern Wildcats team . He was a 2012 College Football All @-@ America Team first team punt returner selection and a 2012 All @-@ Big Ten team second team running back for the 2012 Wildcats . He holds Northwestern records for single @-@ game , single @-@ season and career kickoff return yards as well as the single @-@ game punt return yards record .
In high school , he was a five @-@ time Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools state champion in track and field and an All @-@ State football player . He was recruited by many Division I college football programs .
= = Early years = =
Mark spent his freshman year at Klein Forest High School in Greater Houston . When the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina brought many troubled students to his public high school , he transferred to St. Pius X High School , which is a private one 45 minutes away . As a sophomore at St. Pius , Mark competed in the most events and scored the most points for his high school when it placed fifth in the 2008 Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools ( TAPPS ) Class 6A Track and Field Championship . That year he placed second in the long jump ( 21 feet 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 41 m ) ) ; third in the triple jump ( 42 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 @.@ 09 m ) ) and participated on medal winning 4 × 100 metres relay and 4 × 200 metres relay teams .
As a junior , he was described as a " gifted player " who was expected to be a " future star " for the two @-@ time defending state champion football team . Going into the 2008 state playoffs , Mark had 10 touchdowns as a return specialist and 20 receptions for 504 yards for the 7 – 2 St. Pius Panthers . By the end of his junior year , he had been timed at 4 @.@ 35 seconds in the 40 yard dash and had at least six Division I scholarship offers . Interested programs included Northwestern , Vanderbilt , Rice and Arizona . During the summer prior to his senior year , he increased the bodyweight of his 5 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) frame from 160 pounds ( 72 @.@ 6 kg ) to 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) .
As a senior , he mostly played running back . In the 2009 TAPPS Division I football semifinals , Mark had 102 yards on 16 carries , including two rushing touchdowns and a 33 @-@ yard receiving touchdown . However , he was stopped on fourth and goal to go from the 2 @-@ yard @-@ line with 11 seconds left as the team lost Nolan Catholic High School 36 – 28 . Mark 's senior season statistics were 23 receptions for 242 yards , 92 rushes for 772 yards and 20 total touchdowns ( four on punt and kickoff returns ) . He also had seven touchdowns called back due to penalties . He was honored as a first team All @-@ state selection . As a senior , he had 18 offers from schools including his five finalists : Northwestern , Arizona , Iowa State , Vanderbilt and Colorado as well as Houston , Baylor , UTEP , Virginia and Penn State . He was one of three major Division I National Letter of Intent signees from St. Pius along with Kirk Poston ( defensive end , Colorado ) and Greg Daniels ( defensive end , Texas ) .
After committing to Northwestern , Mark went on to win five gold medals in the 2010 TAPPS Class 5A State Track and Field Championships . He won the 100 meters ( 10 @.@ 96 seconds ) , 200 meters ( 22 @.@ 26 ) , long jump ( 23 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 04 m ) -state record ) and triple jump ( 44 feet 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 13 @.@ 42 m ) ) . He was the anchor of the winning 4 × 100 metres relay ( 43 @.@ 36 ) . Mark was the state championship meet 's elite athlete , scoring 45 of St. Pius ' 86 points . The school finished as runner @-@ up to St. Michael 's Catholic Academy ( 88 points ) in the state championships even though St. Pius ' 4 × 200 metres relay team , which was a favorite , had been disqualified in earlier competition .
= = College career = =
Mark was one of two true freshmen to play in every game for the 2010 Wildcats . On October 23 , he had a 29 @-@ yard end @-@ around run against Michigan State . On November 27 , Mark recorded 273 return yards on nine kickoffs against Wisconsin . This established a Wildcat single @-@ game kickoff return yard record ( 10 shy of a Big Ten Conference record ) and tied the Big Ten record for single @-@ game kickoff returns . It also earned Mark recognition as the Big Ten Special Teams and Freshman co @-@ Player of the Week on November 29 . Rivals.com recognized Mark with selection to its Freshman All @-@ American second team as a punt returner .
As a sophomore for the 2011 team , Mark switched from wide receiver to running back during the season . However , during the game against Michigan , he also played linebacker in order to shadow Denard Robinson . The season ended at the 2011 Meineke Car Care Bowl of Texas against Texas A & M. In the game , Mark recorded 7 kickoff returns for 141 yards . This gave him Northwestern record @-@ setting single @-@ season totals of 40 returns and 915 return yards , surpassing records both set by Jim Pooler in 1974 ( 38 for 807 ) . Mark also scored his first rushing touchdown in the game .
As a junior in 2012 , Mark was a preseason watchlist candidate for the Paul Hornung Award . That year , he tallied 8 100 @-@ yard rushing games , the first 1000 @-@ yard rushing season for Northwestern since Tyrell Sutton in 2006 , and the first unblocked punt return touchdown for Northwestern since Marquice Cole on September 10 , 2005 against Northern Illinois . Northwestern had blocked a punt and returned it for a touchdown in the season opener on August 31 , 2006 against Miami . In addition to scoring a punt return touchdown on September 1 against Syracuse , he broke both the Northwestern single @-@ game punt return yards record ( Lee Gissendaner , 121 vs. 1992 Stanford ) with 134 yards and the 29 @-@ year @-@ old career kickoff yards records ( Ricky Edwards , 1 @,@ 499 , 1983 ) during a career high @-@ tying 281 all @-@ purpose yards effort that earned him Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week . His 82 rushing yards that day was a career high . The subsequent week , he had his first 100 @-@ yard effort when he totaled 123 yards against Vanderbilt on September 8 . Then he scored three rushing touchdowns on September 22 in a 117 @-@ yard effort against South Dakota . He set a new career @-@ high on September 29 when he totaled 139 yards against Indiana . He scored a second punt return touchdown on October 6 against Penn State , making him the first Wildcat to score two punt return touchdowns in the same season ( and second ever ) since Tom Worthington in 1949 . He then set his career high with 182 yards against Minnesota on October 13 .
For his efforts , Mark was named an 2012 All @-@ American first team selection by the Football Writers Association of America , CBS Sports and Sporting News as a punt returner . He was also an honorable mention All @-@ American all @-@ purpose selection by Sports Illustrated . Following the 2012 Big Ten Conference football season , Mark was a second team All @-@ Big Ten selection as a running back by both the coaches and the media . He was one of ten semifinalists for the Doak Walker Award , awarded to the best running back .
Mark was among the 2012 national statistical leaders in both all @-@ purpose yards and rushing yards .
Mark began the 2013 season affected by injury . He did not play special teams and mostly appeared in the August 31 opener against Cal in the fourth quarter . Mark did not play again until October 5 against Ohio State . He was sidelined again two weeks later .
Mark learned in early August 2014 , that he would be
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followed by Japan with almost 65 @,@ 000 units , and Europe with over 55 @,@ 000 Leafs through March 2016 . The European market is led by Norway with over 17 @,@ 000 new units registered through the end of April 2016 , and the U.K. with over 12 @,@ 000 units registered by the end of 2015 .
As an all @-@ electric car , the Nissan Leaf produces no tailpipe pollution or greenhouse gas emissions at the point of operation , and contributes to reduced dependence on petroleum . Among other awards and recognition , the Nissan Leaf won the 2010 Green Car Vision Award , the 2011 European Car of the Year , the 2011 World Car of the Year , and the 2011 – 2012 Car of the Year Japan .
= = Development history = =
Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle , the Nissan Altra at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997 . The Altra EV was produced between 1998 and 2002 , only about 200 vehicles were ever produced , and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as electric utilities . Nissan also developed the Nissan Hypermini , ran a demonstration program and sold limited numbers for government and corporate fleets in Japan between 1999 and 2001 . A small fleet of Hyperminis was also field tested in several cities in California between 2001 and 2005 .
Unveiled in 2009 , the EV @-@ 11 prototype electric car was based on the Nissan Tiida ( Versa in North America ) , but with the conventional gasoline engine replaced with an all @-@ electric drivetrain , and included an 80 kW ( 110 hp ) / 280 N · m ( 210 lb · ft ) electric motor , 24 kWh lithium @-@ ion battery pack rated to have a range of 175 km ( 109 miles ) on the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's LA @-@ 4 or " city " driving cycle , navigation system , and remote control and monitoring via a cellphone connection through Nissan 's secure data center to the car . The technology in the EV @-@ 11 was previously developed and tested in the EV @-@ 01 and EV @-@ 02 test cars , built with an all @-@ electric powertrain that used the Nissan Cube ( Z11 ) as a development mule . The EV @-@ 11 prototype was on display July 26 , 2009 . A week later , on August 2 , 2009 , Nissan unveiled its production version at its Yokohama headquarters and committed to begin retail sales in both the North American market and Japan at end of 2010 .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Design = = =
The Leaf 's frontal style is characterized by a sharp V @-@ shape design with large , up slanting light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) headlights that create a distinctive blue internal reflective design . The headlights also split and redirect airflow away from the door mirrors , which reduces wind noise and aerodynamic drag . The LED low @-@ beam headlights consume less electricity than halogen lamps . Nissan sought to make the Leaf appealing to mainstream drivers by giving it a familiar sedan- and hatchback @-@ like design . The bottom of the car has aerodynamic paneling to reduce drag and improve aerodynamics as much as possible . According to Nissan , the 2011 Leaf has a drag coefficient of Cd = 0 @.@ 29 , which was improved to Cd = 0 @.@ 28 in 2012 ( for the 2013 model year ) .
= = = Powertrain = = =
The Leaf uses an 80 kW ( 110 hp ) and 280 N · m ( 210 ft · lb ) front @-@ mounted synchronous electric motor driving the front axle , powered by a 24 kWh lithium ion battery pack rated to deliver up to 90 kW ( 120 hp ) power .
The pack contains air @-@ cooled , stacked laminated lithium ion manganese oxide batteries .
The 2011 / 12 model Leaf has a top speed of over 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) . Unofficially , 0 to 60 mph ( 0 to 97 km / h ) performance has been tested at 9 @.@ 9 seconds .
= = = Battery = = =
With the 24 kWh electric vehicle battery ( total capacity ; usable battery capacity is about 21 @.@ 3 kWh ) it consists of 48 modules and each module contains four battery cells , a total of 192 cells , and is assembled by Automotive Energy Supply Corporation ( AESC ) – a joint venture between Nissan , NEC and NEC Energy Devices , at Zama , Japan . The battery and control module together weigh 218 kg ( 480 lb ) the specific energy of the cells is 140 W · h / kg .
The Leaf 's design locates the battery , the heaviest part of any EV , below the seats and rear foot space , keeping the center of gravity as low as possible and increasing structural rigidity compared to a conventional five @-@ door hatchback .
The battery pack is expected to retain 70 % to 80 % of its capacity after 10 years but its actual lifespan depends on how often DC fast charging ( 480 volts DC ) is used and also on driving patterns and environmental factors . Nissan said the battery will lose capacity gradually over time but it expects a lifespan of over 10 years under normal use . The 2011 / 12 Leaf 's battery was initially guaranteed by Nissan for eight years or 160 @,@ 000 km ( 100 @,@ 000 miles ) ( see Warranty sub @-@ section below under United States for limitations ) . Nissan stated in 2015 that until then only 0 @.@ 01 percent of batteries , produced since 2010 , had to be replaced because of failures or problems and then only because of externally inflicted damage . Some vehicles have already covered more than 200 @,@ 000 km ( 120 @,@ 000 miles ) with no battery problems . In April 2016 , Nissan estimated that fewer than 5 batteries are replaced per year worldwide ; about 0 @.@ 012 % of all Leafs since introduction . Nissan recycles 15 @-@ 20 batteries per year ; as of 2016 too few to use for stationary energy storage . Nissan plans to offer recycled batteries as 4 @.@ 2 kWh home storage by fall 2016 , called xStorage .
In addition to the main battery , the Leaf also has an auxiliary 12 @-@ volt lead – acid battery that provides power to the car computer systems and accessories such as the audio system , supplemental restraint systems , headlights and windshield wipers . The small solar panel on the Leaf rear spoiler helps to charge this accessory battery . ( In the United States models , only comes with SL trim . )
For the 2011 model year Leafs , Nissan recommended owners perform the following preventive actions to help maximize the lithium @-@ ion battery ’ s useful life and its ability to hold a charge :
Avoid exposing a vehicle to ambient temperatures above 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) for over 24 hours .
Avoid storing a vehicle in temperatures below − 13 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) for over 7 days .
Avoid exceeding 70 % to 80 % state of charge when using frequent ( more than once per week ) fast or quick charging .
Allow the battery charge to go below 80 % before charging .
Avoid leaving the vehicle for over 14 days where the Li @-@ ion battery available charge gauge reaches a zero or near zero ( state of charge ) .
As a result of the controversy regarding several U.S. owners reporting premature loss of battery capacity in places with hot climate , Nissan USA announced in January 2012 , that it will offer an extended battery warranty on the 2013 model year Leaf which includes 2011 and 2012 model years as well . The 2013 Leaf is covered by a " State Of Health " clause which covers gradual capacity loss . This provision allows for the battery pack to either be repaired or replaced if the battery life reduces quicker than anticipated over the eight years warranty period .
Costs
Each battery pack cost Nissan an estimated US $ 18 @,@ 000 at the car 's launch in May 2010 . By 2015 , the battery costs were around US $ 300 / kWh , giving a battery cost of around US $ 5 @,@ 500 for batteries not within the eight year warranty period . Nissan reported that in Europe only 3 of 35 @,@ 000 leaf batteries had failed .
Battery replacement program
In June 2013 , Nissan announced a battery replacement program to go into effect in 2014 . At a cost of about US $ 100 ( ~ € 76 ) per month , Leaf owners can sign up at any time for the program and immediately get a new battery pack with the latest available technology that is compatible with their vehicle . The replacement battery has a full 12 bars ( 100 % ) of capacity . Nissan provides assurance that the replacement pack will maintain at least 9 bars ( 70 % capacity ) or more capacity for the time that they own their car and make monthly payments . The program also provides protection from defects in materials or workmanship for the time they own their Leaf and remain in the battery program . In summary , all batteries installed under this program will have coverage similar to the terms of standard battery coverage under the " Nissan New Electric Vehicle Limited Warranty . "
In June 2014 , Nissan USA announced an updated battery replacement program allowing the outright purchase of a new battery pack for US $ 5 @,@ 499 . The price does not include labor and the trade @-@ in of the old pack is mandatory . Older 2011 – 12 model year Leafs will require a mounting kit to retrofit the new pack for an additional US $ 225 . The new pack will be the same as the one in the 2015 model year Leaf , with the latest battery chemistry which Nissan claims will be more heat tolerant . Financing for the replacement battery was scheduled to be announced by the end of 2014 .
= = = Range = = =
2011 / 2012 model year
The United States Environmental Protection Agency official range is 117 km ( 73 miles ) , much less than the 160 km ( 100 miles ) quoted by Nissan . The Federal Trade Commission , which is supposed to label all alternative fuel vehicles , disagrees with the EPA rating , and considers that the correct range is between 154 to 177 km ( 96 to 110 miles ) . Although the FTC does not conduct its own tests as EPA does , it relies on a standard set by SAE International and the results reported by automakers . The Leaf has a range of 175 km ( 109 miles ) on the New European Driving Cycle .
Based on third @-@ party test drives carried out in the U.S. , reviewers have found that the range available from a single charge can vary up to 40 % in real @-@ world situations ; reports vary from about 100 km ( 62 miles ) to almost 222 km ( 138 miles ) depending on driving style , load , traffic conditions , weather ( i.e. , wind , atmospheric density ) , and accessory use . Nissan tested the Leaf under several scenarios to estimate real @-@ world range figures , and obtained a worst @-@ case scenario of 76 km ( 47 miles ) and a best @-@ case scenario of 222 km ( 138 miles ) . The following table summarizes the results under each scenario tested using EPA 's L4 test cycle and presents EPA rating as a reference :
Consumer Reports tested a 2011 / 12 model Leaf loaner under cold @-@ weather driven as a daily commuter . The average range obtained was 105 km ( 65 miles ) per charge with temperatures varying from 20 to 30 ° F ( − 7 to − 1 ° C ) . The magazine also reported one trip under a temperature of 10 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) that began with the range panel indicator showing 32 km ( 20 miles ) remaining . After 13 km ( 8 miles ) the Leaf drastically lost power and dropped its speed and continued to run slower until the last stretch was completed almost at walking speed . Consumer Reports concluded that the Leaf works as designed under cold temperatures but a more accurate range indicator is desirable .
In June 2011 , Nissan reported , based on data collected through the Leaf 's advanced telematics system , that most Leaf owners in Japan and the United States drive distances less than 100 km ( 60 miles ) per day . Nissan also found that on average owners charge their electric cars for two hours a night , and occasionally some owners drive two days on one charge . In October 2011 , Nissan North America reported that based on a bigger sample of 7 @,@ 500 Leafs on the U.S. roads , the typical driver averages 60 km ( 37 miles ) a day and the average trip length is 11 km ( 7 miles ) , measured as the distance between power on and power off .
In spring 2012 , the Finnish car magazine Tekniikan Maailma tested the Leaf in city driving at temperatures of − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) . They achieved a range of 59 km ( 37 miles ) with cabin and battery heaters on .
2013 model year
According to Nissan , the U.S. 2013 model year Leaf has a more efficient heating system that allows the Leaf to extend its range in cold @-@ weather conditions by 32 to 40 km ( 20 to 25 miles ) . The EPA rating is 121 km ( 75 miles ) from 117 km ( 73 miles ) in the previous models . Nissan explained that actually these ratings are not comparable , because for the 2013 model year the EPA changed the test procedures to calculate range for electric cars . Before 2013 , the agency estimated the range assuming the battery pack was charged to 100 % of its capacity . Nissan estimates that the 2013 Leaf has a 135 km ( 84 miles ) range from a 100 % charge ( Long @-@ Distance Mode charging ) , while the range drops to 106 km ( 66 miles ) for an 80 % charge ( Long @-@ Life Mode charging ) . The new EPA testing procedure considers the average of these two ranges . The increased Long @-@ Distance Mode range comes from improvements to the Leaf ’ s regenerative braking system , an overall weight reduction and enhanced aerodynamics .
The 2013 European version has a certified range of 200 km ( 120 miles ) under the New European Driving Cycle ( NEDC ) , up from 175 km ( 109 miles ) for the 2011 / 12 model .
2014 / 2015 model year
The official EPA range for the 2014 and 2015 model year Leaf , increased from 121 to 135 km ( 75 to 84 miles ) . The difference in range is due to a technicality , as Nissan decided to eliminate the EPA blended range rating , which was an average of the 80 % charge range and the 100 % charge range . For the 2014 model year , only the 100 % charge range figure applies .
2016 model year
Nissan added more battery capacity which increased the range of the car on a full charge . A larger 30 kWh battery is featured on the SL and SV trims , and the S trim kept the smaller 24 kWh battery found in earlier Leafs . The official EPA range for the 2016 Leaf with the 30 kWh battery is 172 km ( 107 miles ) , while the range for Leaf with the smaller 24 kWh is 135 km ( 84 miles ) , the same as the 2014 / 15 model year .
= = = Fuel economy = = =
Under its five @-@ cycle testing , the United States Environmental Protection Agency found the 2011 model Leaf 's energy consumption to be 0 @.@ 212 kWh / km ( 34 kWh / 100 miles ) and rated the Leaf combined fuel economy at 99 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent – MPGe – ( 2 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ) , with an equivalent 106 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ; 127 mpg @-@ imp ) in city driving and 92 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 110 mpg @-@ imp ) on highways .
For the 2013 model year Leaf , Nissan achieved a 15 % improvement of its EPA 's fuel economy combined ratings . According to the EPA , the 2013 Leaf improved its energy consumption to 115 mpg @-@ e ( 30 kW · h / 100 mi ; 18 @.@ 6 kW · h / 100 km ) from 99 mpg @-@ e ( 35 kW · h / 100 mi ; 22 kW · h / 100 km ) , giving 129 mpg @-@ e ( 27 kW · h / 100 mi ; 16 @.@ 6 kW · h / 100 km ) in city driving and 102 mpg @-@ e ( 34 kW · h / 100 mi ; 21 kW · h / 100 km ) on highways .
According to the EPA , the 2014 and 2015 model year Leafs have an energy consumption of 30 kWh / 100 miles , for a combined city / highway rating of 114 mpg @-@ e ( 30 kW · h / 100 mi ; 18 @.@ 7 kW · h / 100 km ) ; 126 MPGe ( 27 @.@ 3 kW · h / 100 mi ; 17 @.@ 0 kW · h / 100 km ) city and 101 MPGe ( 34 @.@ 0 kW · h /
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100 mi ; 21 @.@ 2 kW · h / 100 km ) highway .
The 2016 Leaf with the smaller 24 kWh battery has the same ratings and energy consumption as the 2014 / 15 models , while the trims with the larger 30 kWh has the same energy consumption of 30 kWh / 100 miles , but was rated 112 MPGe ( 30 @.@ 7 kW · h / 100 mi ; 19 @.@ 1 kW · h / 100 km ) for combined city / highway ; 124 MPGe ( 27 @.@ 7 kW · h / 100 mi ; 17 @.@ 2 kW · h / 100 km ) city and 101 MPGe ( 34 @.@ 0 kW · h / 100 mi ; 21 @.@ 2 kW · h / 100 km ) highway .
= = = Operating costs = = =
According to Consumer Reports , as of December 2011 , the Nissan Leaf has an out @-@ of @-@ pocket operating cost of 3 @.@ 5 cents per mile ( 2 @.@ 19 ¢ per km ) while the heavier Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3 @.@ 8 cents per mile ( 2 @.@ 38 ¢ per km ) . These costs are based on the U.S. national average electricity rate of 11 cents per kWh and energy consumption was estimated from their own tests . The consumer magazine also compared the Leaf with the most fuel @-@ efficient hybrid and gasoline @-@ powered cars as tested by Consumer Reports . The results are summarized in the following table , and the analysis found that the Leaf operating cost is much less than half of the gasoline @-@ powered cars for trips up to 110 km ( 70 miles ) , which is close to the Leaf 's maximum range . The Volt while on EV mode has a close cost per mile but as the distance is larger than its electric range of 56 km ( 35 miles ) , the Leaf advantage is similar to the other cars . Consumer Reports also noted that even with a much higher electric rate of 19 cents per kWh , such as rural Connecticut , the Leaf still cost about 20 % less to operate than the Prius and around 50 % less than the Corolla .
According to Nissan , the operating cost of the Leaf in the U.K. is 1 @.@ 75 pence per mile ( 1.09p per km ) when charging at an off @-@ peak electricity rate , while a conventional gasoline @-@ powered car costs more than 10 pence per mile ( 6.25p per km ) . These estimates are based on a national average of British Gas Economy 7 rates as of January 2012 , and assumed 7 hours of charging overnight at the night rate and one hour in the daytime charged at the Tier @-@ 2 daytime rate .
Leaf owners in Japan are liable for yearly annual taxes due to the vehicles exterior dimensions that are not in compliance with Japanese Government dimension regulations for cars in the " compact " classification . This is offset by the tax incentives Japanese consumers receive for a vehicle with no tailpipe emissions .
= = = = Payback time = = = =
According to Edmunds.com , the price premium paid for the Leaf , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , may take a long time for consumers to recover in fuel savings . In February 2012 , Edmunds compared the mid @-@ sized Leaf ( priced at US $ 28 @,@ 550 ) with the compact gasoline @-@ powered Nissan Versa ( priced at US $ 19 @,@ 656 ) and found that the payback period for the Leaf is 9 years for gasoline at US $ 3 per gallon , 7 years at US $ 4 per gallon , and drops to 5 years with gasoline prices at US $ 5 per gallon . Considering gasoline prices by early 2012 , the break even period is 7 years . These estimates assume an average of 24 @,@ 000 km ( 15 @,@ 000 miles ) annual driving and vehicle prices correspond to Edmunds.com 's true market value estimates . For the same two vehicles , the U.S. EPA estimates the Leaf 's annual fuel cost at US $ 612 while the Versa 's annual fuel cost is US $ 1 @,@ 860 . EPA estimates are based on 45 % highway and 55 % city driving , over 15 @,@ 000 annual miles ; gasoline price of US $ 3 @.@ 72 per gallon and electricity price of US $ 0 @.@ 12 per kWh .
In a similar comparison carried out in April 2012 , by TrueCar.com for The New York Times , the analysis found that at a gasoline price of US $ 3 @.@ 85 per gallon , the payback period required for the Leaf to compensate the nearly US $ 10 @,@ 000 difference in purchase versus a Nissan Versa , takes 8 @.@ 7 years . The analysis assumes an average of 15 @,@ 000 miles driven a year , a fuel economy of 33 @.@ 6 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ; 40 @.@ 4 mpg @-@ imp ) for the Versa , priced at US $ 18 @,@ 640 , and a Leaf price of US $ 28 @,@ 421 , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax . The payoff time drops to 6 years if gasoline is priced at US $ 5 per gallon . The newspaper also reported that according to the March 2012 Lundberg Survey , gasoline prices would need to reach US $ 8 @.@ 53 a gallon for the Leaf to be competitive with a similar gasoline @-@ powered car in the 6 years an average person owns a car , while the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid requires a gasoline price of US $ 12 @.@ 50 a gallon to break even .
= = = = Total cost of ownership = = = =
According to a study published in June 2013 , by the Electric Power Research Institute , the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles . For comparison , the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average US distance per trip distribution . The study took into account the manufacturer 's suggested retail price , taxes , credits , destination charge , electric charging station , fuel cost , maintenance cost , and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf .
= = = Environmental footprint = = =
In February 2014 , the Automotive Science Group ( ASG ) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life @-@ cycle of over 1 @,@ 300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America . The study found that among advanced automotive technologies , the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life @-@ cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four @-@ person occupancy . The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life . For the assessment , the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014 .
= = = Recharging = = =
Recharging receptacles vary between models . The Leaf , with the SL option , has two charging receptacles : a standard SAE J1772 @-@ 2009 connector for level 1 and 2 charging ( 120 / 220 volts AC ) and a JARI high @-@ voltage DC connector designed by TEPCO for DC fast charging ( 500 volts DC 125 amps ) using the CHAdeMO protocol .
Models with an on @-@ board 3 @.@ 6 kW charger can be fully recharged from empty in 8 hours from a 220 / 240 @-@ volt 30 amp supply ( 5 @.@ 2 kW allowable draw ) that can provide the on @-@ board charger its full 3 @.@ 6 kW of usable power . Models with an on @-@ board 6 @.@ 6 kW charger can be fully recharged from empty in 4 hours from a 220 / 240 @-@ volt 40 amp supply ( 7 @.@ 7 kW allowable draw ) that can provide the on @-@ board charger its full 6 @.@ 6 kW of usable power . A third option is to use the supplied EVSE cable from a standard 220 / 240V AC outlet , taking around 12 hours for a full recharge drawing 10A .
In North America and Japan using a standard household outlet ( 120 @-@ volt , 15 amp breaker , 12 amp maximum allowable draw , 1 @.@ 4 kW ) and the 7 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 25 ft ) cable included by Nissan , the Leaf will regain approximately 5 miles of range per hour . This type of charging is ideal for the commuter that can plug into standard outlets at home and at work during the typical 21 hours a day that the typical North American car is parked . It is also useful for emergency charging from any ubiquitous 120 @-@ volt outlet just about anywhere in North America .
United States electrical regulations require a 240 @-@ volt charging station to be permanently wired unless proper interlock mechanisms are available to ensure the charging current can be safely turned on and off . Nissan selected AeroVironment to supply its charging dock and installation services in North America ( see the United States section below for more details ) .
For models with DC fast charging , a battery pack can be charged from fully discharged to 80 % capacity in about 30 minutes . Nissan developed its own 500 @-@ volt DC fast charger that went on sale in Japan for ¥ 1 @,@ 470 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 16 @,@ 800 ) in May 2010 . Nissan warns that if fast charging is the primary way of recharging , then the normal and gradual battery capacity loss is about 10 % more than regular 220 @-@ volt charging over a 10 @-@ year period . Other companies make compatible charging stations , and companies and local government have various initiatives to create networks of public charging stations ( see electric vehicle network ) .
= = = Technology = = =
The Nissan Leaf employs an advanced telematics system called CarWings which originally was only available in Japan . The system sends and receives data via a built @-@ in GPRS radio similar to the connectivity of mobile phones . Carwings is connected any time the car is in range of a cell tower and it makes possible several user functionalities , such as position and possible range on a map and which charging stations are available within range . The system also tracks and compiles statistics about distance traveled and energy consumption and produces daily , monthly and annual reports of these and several other operational parameters . All information is available in the Leaf 's digital screens . Through a smart phone application or secure web page , owners can remotely turn on the air @-@ conditioner or heater as well as reset charging functions even when the vehicle is powered down . This remote functionality can be used to pre @-@ heat or pre @-@ cool the car prior to use while it is still charging so that less energy from the battery is used for climate control . An on @-@ board timer can also be pre @-@ programmed to recharge batteries at a set time such as during off @-@ peak rates . The Leaf 's SL trim has a small solar panel at the rear of the roof / spoiler that can trickle charge the auxiliary battery .
= = = Safety = = =
NHTSA rates the 2011 and 2012 model years , as 5 stars overall . The 2013 and 2014 model years rating , is 4 stars overall due to lower scores for passengers in front and side tests .
The Nissan Leaf won the " Top Safety Pick " awarded by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in 2011 . The Leaf received top ratings of " Good " for front , side , and rear impact crash tests , and also on rollover protection . All injury measurements except one were rated good , indicating a low risk of significant injuries in crashes according to the scale of severity employed in the IIHS ’ s testing . The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) awarded the Leaf the highest five star car safety rating , earning the following ratings for each criteria :
Accident and rescue handling
In December 2010 , Nissan published a guide for first responders that details procedures for handling a damaged 2011 Leaf at the scene of an accident . The steps include a manual high @-@ voltage system shutdown , subsequent to the assumed automatic disconnects , built into the car 's safety systems . Rescue personnel are instructed by Nissan to disconnect both the high voltage and 12 V systems before performing any first response actions .
The Nissan Leaf 's battery pack is shielded from crash damage by structural steel reinforcement . To prevent shock and fire hazards , the Leaf has a battery safety system that is activated in a crash that involves the airbags . The airbag control unit sends a signal which mechanically disconnects the high voltage from the vehicle .
In December 2011 , Nissan reported , as an indication of the Leaf safety performance , that none of the around two dozen Leafs that were destroyed during the March 2011 tsunami caught fire and their batteries remained intact . As of December 2011 , no fires after a crash have been reported in the U.S. associated with the Leaf or other plug @-@ in electric cars available in the market .
Warning sounds
Due to significant noise reduction typical of electric vehicles that travel at low speeds , the 2011 Leaf includes digital warning sounds , one for forward motion and another for reverse , to alert pedestrians , the blind , and others of its presence . For this purpose Nissan created the Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians ( VSP ) system , which was also used in Nissan Fuga hybrid . The system developed makes a noise easy to hear for those outside in order to be aware of the vehicle approaching , but the warning sounds do not distract the car occupants inside . Nissan explained that during the development of the sound , they studied behavioral research of the visually impaired and worked with cognitive and acoustic psychologists . The sine @-@ wave sound system sweeps from 2 @.@ 5 kHz at the high end to a low of 600 Hz , an easily audible range across age groups . Depending on the speed and if the Leaf is accelerating or decelerating , the sound system makes sweeping , high @-@ low sounds . The sound system ceases operation when the Nissan Leaf reaches 30 km / h ( 18 @.@ 6 mph ) and engages again as car slows to under 25 km / h ( 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . For the 2011 model , the driver could turn off sounds temporarily through a switch inside the vehicle , but the system automatically reset to " On " at the next ignition cycle . The system is controlled through a computer and synthesizer in the dash panel , and the sound is delivered through a speaker in the front driver ’ s side wheel well . Nissan removed the ability to disable the pedestrian alert between model year 2011 and 2012 in anticipation of the U.S. ruling to be issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration .
After the new sounds were publicized , the U.S. National Federation of the Blind commented that " while it was pleased that the alert existed , it was unhappy that the driver could turn it off . " The Leaf 's electric warning sound had to be removed for cars delivered in the U.K. , as the country 's law mandates that any hazard warning sound must be capable of being disabled between 11 : 00 pm and 6 : 00 am , and the Leaf 's audible warning system does not allow for such temporary deactivation .
= = = 2013 model = = =
Japanese market
In November 2012 , Nissan announced the specifications of the updated 2013 model Leaf destined for the Japanese market . The improved version delivers a range increase of 14 % on the Japanese cycle , allowing the travel distance on a full charge to go from 200 to 228 km ( 124 to 142 miles ) . Besides adjusting the regenerative braking to improve power generation , Nissan reduced the Leaf weight by integrating the electric motor , inverter , and AC / DC converter , achieving a combined weight reduction for those parts of 10 % . Also , lighter parts were used throughout , and an improved battery module and more integrated electronic units have together reduced the car mass by over 77 kg ( 170 lb ) , 5 % of the previous version .
The 2013 Leaf has a larger trunk , with its volume increased from 330 to 370 litres ( 11 @.@ 6 to 13 cu ft ) . The extra space was freed by moving a downsized charger from the back of the car to the front . Other improvements include a new gauge that tells the driver how much battery capacity is remaining by percentage , and a long @-@ life battery mode is now available in any charging mode , which charges the battery to 80 % to improve pack life . Also , Nissan will introduce in the Japanese market a lower price entry @-@ level model with less equipment , called the S trim . This model will be priced at just under ¥ 2 @.@ 5 million ( around US $ 29 @,@ 700 ) , almost half a million yen ( approximately US $ 5 @,@ 950 ) cheaper than the previous year ’ s entry price .
American market
The 2013 model year Leaf destined for the U.S. market has several key improvements similar to the Japanese version , better range , faster charging capabilities , a more efficient cabin heater , and a lower starting price . According to Nissan USA , several of the changes seek to address shortcomings of previous versions of the Leaf , and feedback from Leaf owners was taken into consideration . The 2013 model year Leaf delivers a higher range than the 2012 model with the same 24 kWh battery pack . The efficiency gains come from a combination of improvements to aerodynamics through tweaks to the front fascia that allowed a reduction of the drag coefficient ; a more efficient heater ; the addition of a driver @-@ selected B @-@ mode that increases regenerative braking ; and energy / range management .
The 2013 model year offers a dashboard display of the battery ’ s state of charge on a percentage basis , as has been demanded by Leaf owners . A 6 @.@ 6 @-@ kW onboard charger , available as an extra @-@ cost option on the base model , reduces charging times using 240 @-@ volt power . This improvement means adding about 32 km ( 20 miles ) in an hour of charging , rather than about 19 km ( 12 miles ) that took with the 3 @.@ 6 @-@ kW charger on 2012 models . A complete charge from empty to full takes about four hours , instead of seven hours .
The charge port area now comes with a light not provided on earlier models , and the ability to open the port door from inside the car or by using the key fob . The onboard charger in all 2013 Leafs has also been reduced in size and relocated to a new position under the hood , which increases cargo volume . The new base trim level is called the Leaf S model , and is the result of a strategy for affordability . The S trim replaces the LED headlights with less expensive projector beams , and uses 16 @-@ inch steel wheels with plastic covers rather than alloy wheels . The base trim does not include the navigation system and the remote connectivity that allows drivers to turn on the climate control and monitor battery charging remotely using a smartphone . New features , including LED headlamps , fog lights , 17 @-@ inch alloy wheels and leather seating , are reserved for the higher @-@ end SL trim . Additional premium upgrades to the SL trim include a Bose seven @-@ speaker audio system and around view monitor , which puts cameras in front , in back and on the side mirrors for parking assistance .
The new base @-@ level 2013 Nissan Leaf S starts at US $ 28 @,@ 800 , the mid @-@ level Leaf SV at US $ 31 @,@ 820 , and the high @-@ end Leaf SL trim starts at US $ 34 @,@ 840 . All prices have a mandatory US $ 850 destination fee added .
European market
The 2013 European version has many of the same improvements of the Japanese and U.S. versions , including an extended range , greater recyclability , more interior space , better charging performance , and more equipment . Also three versions will be available : Visia , Acenta and Tekna . The Visia version has a lower starting price than the previous model , and the Tekna model features even more standard equipment than the 2011 / 12 Leaf . The European version was unveiled at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show , and production of the 2013 model began in March 2013 at the Sunderland plant in the U.K. , and sales started in June 2013 . The price of the 2013 Leaf produced in Sunderland is lower than the one built in Japan , and to further reduce the purchase price by GB £ 5 @,@ 000 , Nissan offered a battery leasing option for all trims produced at Sunderland . The leasing option is also available in several European countries , reducing the purchase price by € 5 @,@ 900 . This measure , among others , helped to reduce the sales price in Germany , for instance , from roughly € 37 @,@ 000 in April 2012 ( with battery ) to roughly € 24 @,@ 000 in July 2013 ( excluding battery lease of € 79 per month ) .
= = = 2014 model = = =
American market
The 2014 model year Leaf went on sale in December 2013 , in the United States . The 2014 Leaf is largely the same as the 2013 model year , except :
RearView Monitor will now be standard on all trims
Updated EV @-@ IT functionality with voice destination entry and SMS readout
= = Production = =
As of March 2013 , Nissan has an installed capacity to produce 250 @,@ 000 Leafs per year , 150 @,@ 000 at Smyrna , U.S. , 50 @,@ 000 at Oppama , Japan , and 50 @,@ 000 at Sunderland , England .
= = = Oppama , Japan = = =
The first vehicles sold in the U.S. were produced at Nissan ’ s plant in Oppama , Japan , which started production on October 22 , 2010 . The plant has an annual production capacity of 50 @,@ 000 vehicles . Production of the electric car was disrupted for several months beginning in March 2011 due to the earthquake and tsunami in Japan , and as a result , Nissan announced it was not able to reach its 2011 production target of 50 @,@ 000 Leafs . Nissan expected to increase sales in 2012 to 40 @,@ 000 units from 20 @,@ 000 in 2011 , as production returned to normal output and the Leaf became available in more European countries and more regional markets in the U.S.
With cumulative sales of more than 49 @,@ 000 Leafs through December 2012 , Nissan achieved only a 22 % increase in sales during 2012 , which according with Nissan CEO Carlos Ghosn " was a disappointment for us . " Mr Ghosn cited the adverse dollar @-@ yen exchange rate as one of the factors affecting the Leaf price . He also said that they realized the price of the original Leaf models was a problem , and the decision to drop the price on the 2013 model year Leaf by 18 % is possible due to the start of U.S. production of the battery car on the new assembly line in Smyrna , Tennessee , which will reduce production costs . Nissan has also taken other steps to improve production efficiency and lower component costs – especially for the battery pack , the single @-@ costliest part of an electric vehicle .
= = = Smyrna , U.S. = = =
Commercial U.S. production began in January 2013 , at Nissan 's manufacturing facility in Smyrna , Tennessee . This plant was modified with a US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion loan granted by the US Department of Energy to allow the manufacturing plant to produce the Nissan Leaf and its advanced batteries . The Smyrna plant is expected to produce up to 150 @,@ 000 vehicles and 200 @,@ 000 battery packs annually . Nissan planned to unveil the upgraded 2013 model year version Nissan Leaf for the North American market in December 2012 , once production of the electric car had begun in the Smyrna plant , but rescheduled the introduction of the 2013 model to January 2013 , during the North American International Auto Show . The Smyrna plant began producing lithium @-@ ion cells in December 2012 . These cells are used in the battery pack of the 2013 model year Leaf built at the adjacent assembly plant . The cell fabrication factory in Smyrna is the largest plant in the U.S. that builds automotive @-@ scale lithium @-@ ion batteries , and it can produce batteries for up to 200 @,@ 000 electric vehicles a year . Leaf production in the Smyrna plant began in January 2013 , sharing the production line with the Altima mid @-@ size sedan and Maxima full @-@ size sedan .
= = = Sunderland , United Kingdom = = =
Production of the Leaf at Nissan 's plant in Sunderland , England , began in March 2013 . Nissan benefited from a GB £ 20 @.@ 7 million grant from the British government and up to GB £ 220 million from the European Investment Bank . The plant has the capacity to produce 60 @,@ 000 lithium @-@ ion batteries and 50 @,@ 000 Leafs a year . The U.K. produced Leaf is destined for the European market . In January 2013 Nissan announced an immediate price reduction of GB £ 2 @,@ 500 or € 3 @,@ 000 for the Japanese @-@ made Leaf model sold in the U.K. and other European markets . The price of the 2013 Leaf produced in Sunderland is lower than the model built in Japan , and Nissan is offering a battery leasing option for the three trims produced at Sunderland , which further reduces the purchase price by GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in the U.K. , and € 5 @,@ 900 in the other European countries where the leasing option is available . The first retail delivery of a 2013 Leaf built in the Sunderland plant took place in the U.K. in late May 2013 .
= = = Guangdong , China = = =
In March 2013 , the Chinese government announced that a partnership between Nissan and Dongfeng Motor to build Leafs is being planned . The initial production line will be able to produce 10 @,@ 000 units per year until it is upgraded to 50 @,@ 000 units by 2015 .
= = Markets and sales = =
Nissan officially introduced the Leaf in a ceremony held at its global headquarters in Yokohama on December 3 , 2010 . The first US customer delivery took place in Northern California on December 11 , 2010 and the first delivery in Japan took place at the Kanagawa Prefecture on December 22 . Deliveries to individual customers began in Ireland in February 2011 , in the U.K. in March 2011 , and in France in August 2011 . Deliveries to corporate customers began in Portugal in December 2010 , in the Netherlands in March 2011 , and in Canada in July 2011 . Retail deliveries began in Spain and Norway in September 2011 in Switzerland in November 2011 , and in Germany in January 2012 . As of June 2015 , the Leaf is available in 46 countries in four continents .
Since December 2010 , Nissan sold 49 @,@ 117 Leafs worldwide during its first two years in the market , making the Leaf the world 's best @-@ selling highway @-@ capable electric car ever . With global sales of more than 22 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , the Leaf surpassed the Mitsubishi i MiEV as the best selling all @-@ electric car in history . Global sales during 2012 reached 26 @,@ 973 Leafs , a rise of 22 % over 2011 sales , led by Japan with 11 @,@ 115 units , an 8 % increase over 2011 sales ; followed by the United States with 9 @,@ 819 units representing a 1 @.@ 5 % rise over 2011 sales . During the first half of 2012 , the Leaf had a market share of 49 % of global sales of all @-@ electric cars . The sales milestone of 50 @,@ 000 units delivered worldwide was reached by mid February 2013 . A total of 47 @,@ 716 Leafs were sold during 2013 , up 77 % from 2012 .
As of mid January 2014 , and just after three years in the market , global sales totalled 100 @,@ 000 units , capturing a 45 % market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010 . During 2014 a total of 61 @,@ 507 Leafs were sold worldwide . Global sales totaled over 158 @,@ 000 units at the end of 2014 . Global Leaf sales passed the 200 @,@ 000 unit milestone in December 2015 . Total sales totaled 43 @,@ 651 units worldwide in 2015 , down 29 % from 2014 . The leading market in 2015 was the United States with 17 @,@ 269 units sold , down 42 @.@ 8 % from 2014 , followed by the European market with 15 @,@ 630 units .
Almost 220 @,@ 000 Leafs have been sold worldwide by mid @-@ April 2016 , making the Nissan Leaf the world 's all @-@ time best @-@ selling highway @-@ capable electric car in history . As of April 2016 , the United States continued to rank as the top selling market with 93 @,@ 309 units sold , followed by Japan with 64 @,@ 635 units through March 2016 , the European market with 55 @,@ 408 through March 2016 , and Canada with 3 @,@ 571 units sold through April 2016 . The European market is led by Norway with 17 @,@ 199 new units registered up until April 2016 , followed by the U.K. with 12 @,@ 433 units registered through December 2015 .
Battery leasing option
Initially the Leaf was sold in all markets including the battery pack and is not compatible with the QuickDrop battery swapping feature developed by its alliance partner Renault . In April 2013 , Nissan announced that sales of the 2013 Leaf will begin in the U.K. in June 2013 , and it will offer a battery leasing option for the three available trims . Pricing for the battery leasing in the U.K. starts at GB £ 70 ( US $ 108 ) a month for a 36 @-@ month lease limited no more than 12 @,@ 100 km ( 7 @,@ 500 miles ) a year , with a maximum of GB £ 129 ( US $ 198 ) a month for a 12 @-@ month lease with no more than 24 @,@ 000 km ( 15 @,@ 000 miles ) driven . The battery leasing option lowers the price of the level entry model to GB £ 20 @,@ 990 ( US $ 32 @,@ 230 ) before applying the Plug @-@ in Car Grant .
In several European countries , except Norway , Finland , Iceland , Ireland and the Baltic markets , the leasing option will also be offered , resulting in a purchase price reduction of € 5 @,@ 900 . The battery monthly charge starts at € 79 ( US $ 103 ) for a 36 @-@ month lease limited no more than 12 @,@ 500 km ( 7 @,@ 800 miles ) a year , with a maximum of € 142 ( US $ 186 ) a month for a 12 @-@ month lease with no more than 25 @,@ 000 km ( 16 @,@
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his right would leave his army exposed and outflanked , Wellesley ordered a detachment of British cavalry under Colonel Patrick Maxwell consisting of the 19th Light Dragoons and elements of the 4th and 5th Madras Native Cavalry into action . From their position at the rear , the cavalry dashed directly towards the 74th 's square , crashed into the swarming attackers and routed them . Maxwell pressed his advantage and continued his charge into the Maratha infantry and guns on the left , driving them backwards and across the Juah " with great slaughter " .
= = = Culmination = = =
A number of Maratha gunners who had feigned death when the British advanced over their position re @-@ manned their guns and began to pour cannon fire into the rear of the 74th and Madras infantry . Wellesley ordered his four sepoy battalions to re @-@ form and ward off any threat from the Maratha infantry and cavalry while the 78th were sent back to retake the Maratha gun line . Wellesley , meanwhile , galloped back to 7th Madras Native Cavalry , which had been held back in reserve to the east , and led a cavalry charge from the opposite direction . The gunners again stood their ground but were eventually driven from their guns and this time it was ensured that all those who remained were dead .
While Wellesley was preoccupied with re @-@ taking the gun line , Pohlmann rallied his infantry and redeployed them into a semicircle with their backs to the Juah ; their right flank across the river and their left in Assaye . However , most of the Maratha cannon , which had inflicted heavy losses on Wellesley 's infantry , had been captured or lay abandoned on the battlefield . Reluctant to join the fray , the Maratha cavalry lingered in the distance to the west . Most were Pindarries : loosely organised and lightly armed horsemen whose traditional role was to cut down fleeing enemy troops , harass convoy lines and carry out raids into enemy territory . They were not trained to attack well @-@ formed infantry or heavily armed European cavalry , and did not play a further part in the battle .
With the remanned Maratha artillery silenced , Wellesley turned his attention to Pohlmann 's reformed infantry . Although Maxwell had suffered heavy losses , he had rallied his cavalry and returned to the field of battle . Wellesley ordered him to charge the Maratha left flank , while the infantry moved forward as a single line to meet the centre and right . The cavalry spurred forward but were met with a volley of canister shot which struck Maxwell , killing him instantly . Their momentum lost , the cavalry did not complete their charge but veered away from the Maratha line at the last moment . The British and Madras infantry marched on against the Maratha position but Pohlmann 's men , their morale low , did not wait for the attack and instead retreated northwards across the Juah . Descriptions differ as to the manner of their departure : Maratha sources claim the line marched away from the battlefield in an orderly manner on Pohlmann 's orders but British accounts claim the Maratha infantry fled in an uncontrolled panic . Berar 's irregulars inside Assaye , now leaderless and having witnessed the fate of the regular infantry , abandoned the village and marched off northwards at around 18 : 00 , followed shortly afterwards by the Maratha cavalry . Wellesley 's troops , however , were exhausted and in no condition to pursue and the native allied cavalry which had remained on the south bank of the Kailna and had not been engaged , refused to pursue without the support of the British and Madras cavalry .
= = Aftermath = =
East India Company and British Army casualties amounted to 428 killed , 1138 wounded and 18 missing ; a total of 1 @,@ 584 – over a third of the force engaged in combat . The 74th and the picket battalion were decimated ; from a strength of about 500 , the 74th lost ten officers killed and seven wounded , and 124 other ranks killed and 270 wounded . The pickets lost all their officers except their commander , Lieutenant Colonel William Orrock , and had only about 75 men remaining . Of the ten officers forming the general 's staff , eight were wounded or had their horses killed . Wellesley himself lost two horses ; the first was shot from underneath him and the second was speared as he led the charge to re @-@ capture the Maratha gun line . The number of Maratha casualties is more difficult to ascertain . Despatches from British officers give a figure of 1 @,@ 200 dead and many more wounded but some modern historians have estimated a total of 6 @,@ 000 dead and wounded . The Marathas also surrendered seven stands of colours , large amounts of stores and ammunition and 98 cannon – most of which were later taken into service by the East India Company . Although Scindia and Berar 's army was not finished as a fighting force , several of Scindia 's regular infantry battalions and artillery crews had been destroyed . Their command structure had also been damaged : many of their European officers , including Colonel Pohlmann and Major Dupont , surrendered to the Company – which had offered amnesty to Europeans in the service of the Maratha armies – or deserted and sought employment with other native chieftains .
The sound of the guns at Assaye was heard by Stevenson who immediately broke up his camp 10 miles ( 16 km ) miles to the west in an attempt to join the battle . However , he was misled by his guide and marched first on Borkardan before he reached the battlefield on the evening of 24 September . Suspecting that his guide had intentionally led him astray , Stevenson later had him hanged . He remained with Wellesley to assist with the wounded – troops were still being carried from the battlefield four days after the engagement – until ordered to recommence the pursuit of the Maratha army on 26 September . Wellesley remained to the south while he established a hospital at Ajanta and awaited reinforcements from Poona . Two months later , he combined with Stevenson to rout Scindia and Berar 's demoralised and weakened army at Argaon , and shortly afterwards stormed Berar 's fortress at Gawilghur . These victories , coupled with Lieutenant General Lake 's successful campaign in the north , induced the two Maratha chiefs to sue for peace .
Wellesley later told Stevenson that " I should not like to see again such a loss as I sustained on the 23rd September , even if attended by such a gain " , and in later life he referred to Assaye as " the bloodiest for the numbers that I ever saw " . Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Munro , the Company 's district collector at Mysore , was critical of the high proportion of casualties and questioned Wellesley 's decision not to wait for Stevenson . He wrote to Wellesley : " I am tempted to think that you did it with a view of sharing the glory with the smallest numbers " . In response , Wellesley politely rebuffed Munro 's accusations and defended his action as necessary because he had received and acted upon incorrect intelligence regarding the Maratha position . Assaye was 34 @-@ year @-@ old Wellesley 's first major success and despite his anguish over the heavy losses , it was a battle he always held in the highest estimation . After his retirement from active military service , the Duke of Wellington ( as he later became known ) considered Assaye the finest thing he ever did in the way of fighting even when compared to his later military career .
Lord Mornington and his Council lauded the battle as a " most brilliant and important victory " , and presented each of the Madras units and British regiments involved in the engagement with a set of honorary colours . The British regiments and native units were also awarded the Assaye battle honour and most were later given permission to adopt an Assaye elephant as part of their insignia . A public monument was also erected by the East India Company at Fort William , Calcutta to commemorate the victory . The 74th Regiment of foot later became known as the Assaye regiment due to their stand at the battle and their modern @-@ day successors , the Royal Highland Fusiliers ( 2 SCOTS ) , still celebrate the anniversary of the battle each year . Of the native infantry battalions , only the Madras Sappers survive in their original form in the Indian Army but they no longer celebrate Assaye as it has been declared a repugnant battle honour by the Government of India .
= = In fiction = =
Cornwell , Bernard , Sharpe 's Triumph : Richard Sharpe and the Battle of Assaye , September 1803 , HarperCollins , 1998 , ISBN 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 225630 @-@ 4 . The book includes most of the important events of the battle , although mostly focusing on the British forces with Indian regiments generally in the background . Building on the real events , Wellington loses a third horse and is tipped into the enemy ranks where he is saved by Sharpe , who in doing so earns his commission as an officer . The battle is mentioned numerous times throughout the series as a personal achievement for both Sharpe and Wellington ( whose careers progress in parallel ) , and whenever characters from 78th or other highland infantry units appear , as Sharpe feels their actions at Assaye were a testament to their courage and discipline .
= Denial ( Sugababes song ) =
" Denial " is a song by English girl group the Sugababes from their fifth studio album , Change ( 2007 ) . Coinciding with the commencement of the group 's 2008 Change Tour , it was released on 10 March 2007 as the album 's fourth and final single . V V Brown wrote " Denial " for the band while she was on London Underground 's Victoria line , and attempted to " get into their mindsets " in the process . The Sugababes and the song 's producers , Flex Turner and Elliot Malloy , co @-@ wrote it . Composed of staccato verses , a harmonious chorus and a solo middle eight , " Denial " is a Europop and soft rock song that samples " Standing in the Way of Control " by The Gossip .
The song received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards its composition , but became a commercial success throughout Europe , where it peaked at number one on the Czech Singles Chart , number four on the Austrian Singles Chart , and within the top twenty on the charts in Germany , Hungary , Ireland , and Switzerland . It reached number 15 on the UK Singles Chart . Harvey B @-@ Brown directed the song 's music video , which was inspired by Vogue and contains fashion editorial characteristics . The Sugababes performed " Denial " on Ant & Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway , at the 2008 Oxegen Festival , and during their Change Tour .
= = Development and release = =
English singer and songwriter V V Brown wrote " Denial " while she was on London Underground 's Victoria line . Brown told Metro that songs she writes for enjoyment come sponteneously to her . She composed " Denial " specifically for the Sugababes , and attempted to " get into their mindsets " in the process . The song was submitted to the group and received by their management ; the band enjoyed the song and subsequently recorded it for their fifth studio album Change . Brown described its transferral to the band as " validation that I 'd truly found who I am in both territories as a song writer , as a producer , as a writer and as an artist " .
The Sugababes and the song 's producers and programmers , Flex Turner and Elliot Malloy , received co @-@ writing credits on the song . " Denial " was mixed by Jeremy Wheatley at Twenty One Studios , London , with assistance from Richard Edgeler . The song 's instruments were provided by Pete Boxsta Martin and Wheatley . When Metro questioned Brown about her feelings towards the group 's ownership of the song , she responded : " When you write songs for other people you ’ ve got to let it go , it becomes their property , they have to interpret it in the way they feel . You can ’ t be too precious about it otherwise you wouldn ’ t have given it away in the first place . "
" Denial " was confirmed for release in January 2008 as the fourth and final single from Change , and the Sugababes ' 21st single overall . Island Records released " Denial " as a digital download in the United Kingdom on 10 March 2008 . The CD single was made available on 17 March 2008 . Its release coincided with the commencement of the group 's Change Tour , which began on 13 March 2008 in Brentwood , Essex . " Denial " was released as a CD single in Germany on 25 April 2008 . In October 2007 , the Sugababes performed a cover version of " Hey There Delilah " by the Plain White T 's on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge as the B @-@ side to " Denial " . " Denial " was remixed by American disc jockey Ian Carey .
= = Composition = =
" Denial " is a midtempo Europop song with elements of soft rock . Its instrumentation is provided by a guitar , a keyboard , drums and synthesizers . The song contains a sample of the bass hook from " Standing in the Way of Control " by The Gossip . Kim Dawson of the Daily Star compared the song 's bassline to that featured in " One Minute " , a song from Kelly Clarkson 's album My December . The opening of " Denial " is evocative of David Bowie 's song " Fashion " , although it soon transitions into the sound of songs performed by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue . " Denial " is composed of soft rock staccato verses , which are proceeded by a melancholic and harmonious pop chorus . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine commented upon the song 's compositional transition , writing : " ' Denial ' rides its elastic bassline to a transcendent , melodically @-@ inspired chorus " . The group 's harmonies are backed by warm synthesizers and 1980s soft rock music . The song contains a solo middle eight performed by group member Heidi Range , and is opened with the line " I see the way the wind blows like open minds for us " . " Denial " explores themes of unrequited love , as noted by Peter Murphy from Hot Press .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Alexis Petridis of The Guardian classified " Denial " as a " beautifully @-@ crafted bulletproof pop song " , while Manchester Evening News ' Sarah Walters described the track as " a steamy , disco hit " . Levine from Digital Spy rated the song four out of five stars ; he regarded it as " brilliantly addictive " , and " bouncier than a Labrador puppy on Ritalin , but classy too " . Birmingham Mail critic Sean Coleman commended the Sugababes ' emotion and harmonious vocal performance on the song , which he considered the standout from Change . Fraser McAlpine of BBC gave " Denial " a full five @-@ star rating , and highlighted the Sugababes ' vocal performance accompanied by the " raw , brittle emotion " in the song . The BBC 's ChartBlog team listed the song on their " 2008 's finest five " list , describing the chorus as " the cherry on the cake " . Andreas Borcholte from German news magazine Der Spiegel positively highlighted it in comparison to the album 's filler tracks .
The song also received negative responses . A journalist from the Stornoway Gazette called it " disposable " despite the " undeniably lovely " harmonies , and stated that the song would have no impact on the quality of Change if it did not appear on the album . Tom Young of BBC wrote that the track " stumbles awkwardly " owing to the sample of " Standing in the Way of Control " . A writer from The Scotsman criticised it as substandard , noting its " clunking sexual imagery " and " bewildering observation " in the middle eight . Entertainment Ireland critic Lauren Murphy dismissed the song as " garden @-@ variety pop " and wrote that it suggests the Sugababes " may be losing their magic touch " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Denial " debuted on the UK Singles Chart on 8 March 2008 at number 64 , based on digital downloads from Change . The song rose from number 34 to number 15 in the issue dated 22 March 2008 with sales of 9 @,@ 580 copies . It held this position for two consecutive weeks , while overall it charted for 11 weeks . By April 2010 , the single had sold approximately 90 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , placing it 16th on the group 's list of best @-@ selling songs . The song had similar success on the Irish Singles Chart , where it debuted at number 50 and peaked at number 18 in the issue dated 20 March 2008 . The single spent ten weeks on the chart . " Denial " performed best on the Czech Singles Chart , where it first appeared at number 92 , and , eighteen weeks after its debut , peaked at number one for two consecutive weeks . Overall , the single spent 62 non @-@ consecutive weeks in the chart .
" Denial " entered the Austrian Singles Chart on 9 May 2008 at number seven , and reached number four two weeks later . It appeared in the chart for 21 weeks , and was placed 43rd on Austria 's list of best @-@ performing singles of 2008 . " Denial " became the Sugababes ' highest @-@ charting non @-@ lead single on the German Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 11 . The song debuted at number 71 on the Swiss Singles Chart in the issue dated 6 April 2008 and reached number 14 three weeks later . Overall , it spent 23 weeks on the chart . " Denial " peaked at number 20 on the Hungarian Singles Chart and ranked 47th on its 2008 list of best @-@ performing songs . The song peaked at number 21 on Slovakian Singles Chart , for two non @-@ consecutive weeks . " Denial " charted at number 40 on the Danish Singles Chart , while on the Netherlands ' Mega Single Top 100 chart it reached number 61 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Denial " was directed by Harvey B @-@ Brown . It was his first solo video project , following the discontinuation of his 18 @-@ year partnership with Carolyn Corben . The video was produced by Francesca Barnes , while Tom Gander served as the art director . It was shot in various formats , including 16 mm film , Bolex , Super 8 film and three still cameras . Aman King , a smoke artist from Golden Square , collaborated with Brown to devise treatments of the stills . Multiple film effects were used in the video , including colour correction , vignetting and film grain , with the intention of creating visuals inspired by Vogue . It premiered on the Sugababes ' official website on 7 January 2008 .
Brown stated that he wanted to " redefine " the group and conceptualise a new image that would represent his perception of their personas . He described the band as " extremely style @-@ savvy " and motivated them to be bold , uninhibited and experimental . The video takes influences from styles of fashion editorial and features the Sugababes in various costumes and guises . Their outfits were created with many fabrics , in addition to newspapers , plastic bin bags and florist 's cellophane . Overall , there were 13 costume changes . Scenes for the video were shot in a wide range of environments and locations , including a fire escape , loading bay , and storage cupboard .
" I shot the video like [ a ] fashion editorial , using every inch of the studio , including the fire escape , the gantry and the loading bay . I even did a couple of shots with the girls in the storage cupboard where the studio lighting stands were kept . And whilst I was shooting one outfit on one girl , I would be getting the next outfit and set ready . "
Digital Arts called the video " a sumptuously over @-@ the @-@ top affair " and wrote that the effects created " luxuriant , opulent visuals that capture the buzz , attitude and posing of a high @-@ fashion shoot " . Coleman from the Birmingham Mail described it as " amazing " . The video became one of the Sugababes ' favourites to shoot , and inspired them to wear more daring and dramatic outfits on their Change Tour in 2008 . According to London Evening Standard , the group managed to adopt a more sophisticated and mature style with the assistance from various stylists .
= = Live performances = =
" Denial " was one of three songs from Change that the Sugababes performed at London 's indig02 on 14 September 2007 . The performance was part of a gig to promote the release of the album 's lead single " About You Now " . They performed " Denial " in March 2008 on the eighth season of the British television show Ant & Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway . The song was included on the set list for the group 's 2008 Change Tour . Their performance at the Newcastle City Hall attracted a positive response from Kat Keogh of The Journal , who wrote that the song " slotted in neatly " amongst the group 's more well @-@ known songs . The Sugababes performed " Denial " at the 2008 Oxygen Festival as part of a set list , which included their number @-@ one singles such as " Freak like Me " , " Round Round " , " Hole in the Head " and " Push the Button " , in addition to other tracks from Change . Midway through the gig , technical difficulties with their microphones arose and the trio were forced to delay their performance while the issue was fixed . The band performed " Denial " in July 2009 at the Riverside Cricket Ground , County Durham as part of a set list .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriter – Heidi Range , Keisha Buchanan , Amelle Berrabah , Flex Turner , Elliot Malloy , Vanessa Brown
Production – Elliot Malloy , Flex Turner
Programming – Elliot Malloy , Flex Turner
Guitar – Flex Turner
Keyboard and drum programming – Pete Boxsta Martin , Jeremy Wheatley
Mixing – Jeremy Wheatley
Mixing ( assistant ) – Richard Edgeler
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Change .
= = Charts = =
= Film Booking Offices of America =
Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) ( also known as FBO Pictures Corporation ) was an American film studio of the silent era , a producer and distributor of mostly low @-@ budget films . The business began in 1918 as Robertson @-@ Cole ( U.S. ) , the American division of a British import – export company and Robertson @-@ Cole was formed by the English @-@ born Harry F. Robertson and the American Rufus Sidman Cole . Robertson @-@ Cole bought the Hallmark Exchanges ( formerly the Mutual Exchanges that became known as Exhibitors @-@ Mutual Exchanges ) from Frank J. Hall in 1920 . Exhibitors @-@ Mutual / Hallmark had distributed Robertson @-@ Cole product , and acquiring the exchanges gave them the right to distribute their own films plus Hall 's product , with the exception of Charlie Chaplin reissues he had the rights to .
Robertson @-@ Cole initiated movie production in the United States in 1920 . That year , it incorporated Robertson @-@ Cole Studios , Inc. and bought 460 acres in Santa Monica , California to establish a studio . The property , which became known as the " R.C. Ranch " , enabled Robertson @-@ Cole to centralize movie production , which previously had been scattered . The movie company had relied on equipment rentals to produce motion pictures . Two years later , a corporate reorganization led to the company 's new name , with FBO becoming the official name of the distributing operation and Robertson @-@ Cole Pictures Corp. the name of the production operation . In 1923 , the studio contracted with Western actor Fred Thomson , who would soon emerge as one of Hollywood 's most popular stars . Thomson was just one of numerous screen cowboys with whom FBO became identified .
The studio , whose core market was America 's small towns , also put out many romantic melodramas , non @-@ Western action pictures , and comedic shorts . In 1926 , financier Joseph P. Kennedy led a group that acquired the company . In June 1928 , using RCA Photophone technology , FBO became only the second Hollywood studio to release a feature @-@ length " talkie . " A few months later , Kennedy and RCA chief David Sarnoff arranged the merger that created RKO , one of the major studios of Hollywood 's Golden Age .
= = Business history = =
= = = Foundation and identity = = =
The company that would become FBO began as the U.S.-based movie subsidiary of the British importer , exporter , and film distributor Robertson @-@ Cole . This organization was similar in structure to the French Pathé Exchange company , a subsidiary of the French Pathé Frères company . From its U.S. headquarters in New York City , R @-@ C Pictures , as it was sometimes known , first entered the American film distribution market . In 1919 , the company forged an alliance with Exhibitors Mutual Distributing , a corporate descendant of the Mutual Film studio . The first of R @-@ C 's own feature productions to be released was The Wonder Man , directed by John G. Adolfi and starring Georges Carpentier , which debuted May 29 , 1920 . With its move into production , Robertson @-@ Cole established a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 5 @-@ hectare ) studio in Los Angeles 's fortuitously named Colegrove district , then adjacent to but soon to be subsumed by Hollywood . In January 1921 , Robertson @-@ Cole absorbed Hallmark Pictures , which had acquired the Exhibitors Mutual interests the previous year . The first official Robertson @-@ Cole production shot at the new studio was a February 1921 release , The Mistress of Shenstone , directed by Henry King and starring beautiful Pauline Frederick , a former Paramount and Goldwyn star . That year , the British owners of the studio entered into a working relationship with Joseph P. Kennedy , father of future U.S. president John F. Kennedy . Joseph Kennedy was then a broker at the New York banking firm of Hayden , Stone , as well as the owner of Maine – New Hampshire Theatres , a small chain of movie houses . Though he failed to arrange the sale R @-@ C 's general partners were looking for , Kennedy 's involvement with the studio was far from over .
In 1922 , Robertson @-@ Cole underwent a major reorganization as the company 's founders departed , though the corporation remained under majority British ownership . The flagship U.S. distribution business changed its name to Film Booking Offices of America , a banner under which R @-@ C had released more than a dozen independent productions . The West Coast studio apparently continued to make films under the Robertson @-@ Cole name for some time , but FBO ultimately became the primary identity of the business for production as well as distribution . Between the 1922 reorganization and October 1923 , one of the company 's new American investors , Pat Powers , was effectively in command . Powers had previously led his own filmmaking company , part of the multiple merger that created the large Universal studio in 1912 . Powers apparently changed the name of Robertson @-@ Cole / FBO to the Powers Studio for a brief period , though there is no record of the company ever having produced or released a film under that banner . In 1923 , the studio launched a series of boxing @-@ themed shorts , Fighting Blood , starring George O 'Hara . He would become an FBO mainstay , often paired with Alberta Vaughn , in such comedy series as The Pacemakers ( 1925 ) . Most of O 'Hara 's and Vaughn 's films for the studio were two @-@ reelers — a measure of film length indicating a running time of about twenty minutes .
Now a fully independent businessman , Joseph Kennedy joined the FBO board of directors in 1923 , as well . By this time , the studio was owned by Graham 's of London , a banking firm , and Powers was succeeded by H.C.S. Thomson , a Graham 's operative . Before leaving the board the following year , Kennedy put together a major distribution and production deal between FBO and leading Western star Fred Thomson . B. P. Fineman became the studio 's production chief in 1924 ; Evelyn Brent , his wife , moved over from Fox to become FBO 's top dramatic star . In April 1925 , FBO vice @-@ president Joseph I. Schnitzer signed Thomson to a new contract paying him $ 10 @,@ 000 a week ( equivalent to approximately $ 134 @,@ 934 in 2016 dollars ) . Thomson was now the highest paid of all cowboy actors , surpassing even the renowned Tom Mix . The deal also gave Thomson his own independent production unit at the studio .
As a distributor , FBO 's roster of films was about half independent and foreign productions , half its own studio output . At the height of its activity ( 1923 – 28 ) , it released an average of around 110 features and shorts a year , focusing on distribution to small @-@ town exhibitors and independent theater chains ( that is , those not owned by one of the major Hollywood studios ) . As a production company , Film Booking Offices concentrated on low @-@ budget movies , with an emphasis on Westerns , romantic melodramas , and comedy shorts . From its first productions in early 1920 through late 1928 , when it was dissolved in a merger , the company produced approximately 400 films under the brand of either Robertson @-@ Cole Pictures or FBO Pictures . Between 1924 and 1926 , several higher @-@ end productions were made under the rubric of Gothic Pictures . The studio 's top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line movies , aimed at major exhibition venues beyond the reach of most FBO films , were sometimes marketed as FBO " Gold Bond " pictures . Without the backing of large corporate interests , nor the security of its own theater chain , the company faced cash @-@ flow difficulties during its earlier years . Short @-@ term loans at high interest rates posed a significant financial drain .
= = = Kennedy takes command = = =
While still at Hayden , Stone , Kennedy had boasted to a colleague , " Look at that bunch of pants pressers in Hollywood making themselves millionaires . I could take the whole business away from them . " In 1925 , he set out to do so , forming his own group of investors led by wealthy Boston lawyer Guy Currier and including Filene 's department store owner Louis Kirstein and Union Stockyards and Armour and Company owner Frederick H. Prince . In August 1925 , Kennedy traveled to England with an offer to buy a controlling stake in Film Booking Offices for $ 1 million . The bid was initially rejected , but in February 1926 , FBO 's owners decided to take the money . In short order , Kennedy moved his family from Massachusetts to New York City to focus on running his new business . He swiftly addressed the company 's perennial cash @-@ flow problems , arranging lines of credit and issuing stock in a business division he established , the Cinema Credit Corporation . By March , he was traveling to Hollywood . The president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association , Will Hays , was delighted by the new face on the scene — in Hays 's eyes , Kennedy signified both a desirable image for the industry and Wall Street 's faith in its prospects . Hays heralded Kennedy as " exceedingly American " ( historian Cari Beauchamp explains the connotation : " not Jewish , " in contrast to most of the studio heads ) , while celebrating Kennedy 's " background of lofty and conservative financial connections , an atmosphere of much home and family life and all those fireside virtues of which the public never hears in the current news from Hollywood . "
Fineman and Brent both departed FBO around the time of the purchase . Kennedy appointed Edwin King as the studio 's production chief , but the new owner took a personal hand in guiding the company creatively as well as financially . Kennedy soon brought stability to FBO , making it one of the most reliably profitable outfits in the minor leagues of the Hollywood studio system . Westerns remained the studio 's backbone , along with various action pictures and romantic scenarios ; as Kennedy put it , " Melodrama is our meat . " During this period , the average production cost of FBO features was around $ 50 @,@ 000 , and few were budgeted at anything more than $ 75 @,@
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that Thomson had reached the peak of his popularity and seeing a financial opportunity for FBO — arranged a four @-@ picture deal with Paramount Pictures , one of the major Hollywood studio . The deal essentially ceded Thomson to the rival studio . For FBO 's guarantee of $ 75 @,@ 000 in financing per picture , Thomson would star in Paramount productions . In return , Paramount would return the $ 75 @,@ 000 in financing plus an additional $ 100 @,@ 000 to FBO and pay Thomson 's $ 15 @,@ 000 a week salary .
In 1928 , Kennedy replaced Thomson by signing Tom Mix , whose contract with William Fox 's Fox Film Corporation had expired . Mix played hard @-@ to @-@ get , threatening to move to Argentina to make films or joining the circus , but eventually , he signed with FBO but eventually left for Universal due to salary disputes with the studio . He said of Kennedy that he was a " tight @-@ assed , money @-@ crazed son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch " .
FBO 's second @-@ biggest long @-@ running Western star was Tom Tyler . According to a June 1927 report in Moving Picture World :
With Tom Tyler rapidly taking the place recently vacated by Fred Thomson , F.B.O. ' s program of western pictures is taking a place second to none in the industry .... Tyler has made rapid strides during his two years with F.B.O. and with his horse ' Flash ' and dog ' Beans ' has become one of the leading favorites on the screen .
In addition to these three big names there was also Harry Carey , still a major star when he made several films for the studio in 1922 – 23 . The other cowboy stars of FBO included Bob Custer , Bob Steele , and teenager Buzz Barton .
= = = Canine stars = = =
One of the studio 's most reliable Western headliners was a dog : Ranger . The fabled Strongheart starred in FBO 's White Fang ( 1925 ) , and Rin Tin Tin had one of his earliest roles in My Dad ( 1922 ) .
= = = Short subjects and animation = = =
FBO 's many shorts — the popular George O 'Hara and Alberta Vaughn series , and scores of others — are largely forgotten . Of particular historical interest are two independently produced series of slapstick comedies with important performers : FBO put out several shorts in 1924 – 25 made by Joe Rock and starring Stan Laurel , before his famous partnership with Oliver Hardy . In 1926 – 27 , the company distributed more than a dozen shorts by innovative comedian / animator Charles Bowers .
In addition to the work of Charles Bowers , FBO was a distributor of other significant animated films . Between 1924 and 1926 , FBO released the work of John Randolph Bray 's cartoon studio , including the " Dinky Doodle " series created by Walter Lantz . From 1925 to 1927 , the studio put out approximately three dozen animated adaptations of George Herriman newspaper comics directed by William Nolan , featuring characters from Herriman 's famed Krazy Kat strip . FBO picked up the Krazy Kat cartoons from the distribution team of Margaret Winkler and her husband , Charles Mintz . In 1926 , FBO struck a deal with the Winkler – Mintz operation for another series , one that , like Bowers ' shorts , involved both animation and a live performer : the " Alice Comedies , " of which FBO would put out over two dozen , were created by two young animators , Ub Iwerks and Walt Disney .
= = = Notable films and filmmakers = = =
Kennedy had no illusions about his studio 's place in the realm of cinematic art . A journalist once complimented him on FBO 's recent output : " You have had some good pictures this year . " Kennedy jocularly inquired , " What the hell were they ? " In her history of RKO , author Betty Lasky points to the pre @-@ Kennedy Broken Laws ( 1924 ) , directed by Roy William Neill and starring Dorothy Davenport ( again billed as Mrs. Wallace Reid ) as exemplifying the rare " unforgettable picture of the higher caliber " put out by FBO .
Among the studio 's action movies , one standout production was a 1927 Tarzan picture . Author Edgar Rice Burroughs declared , " If you want to see the personification of Tarzan of the Apes as I visualize him , see the film Tarzan and the Golden Lion with Mr. James Pierce . " The Film Daily reviewer wrote that the movie " has a rather new order of thrills and atmosphere that might prove distinctly attractive . " The two @-@ reeler West of Hot Dog ( 1924 ) , according to historian Simon Louvish , contains " one of Stan [ Laurel ] ' s finest gags , " involving a level of cinematic technique that bears comparison to Buster Keaton 's classic Sherlock , Jr .
Some of the studio 's most impressive releases were foreign productions . In 1927 , FBO picked up for U.S. distribution a celebrated Austrian biblical spectacular made three years earlier : Die Sklavenkönigin ( The Slave Queen , aka Moon of Israel ) had already won its director , Michael Kertész , a job with Warner Bros. In Hollywood , he would change his name to Michael Curtiz . Una Nueva y gloriosa nación ( 1928 ) , the most successful film in the history of Argentine silent cinema , was shot in Hollywood and distributed in the United States by FBO as The Charge of the Gauchos .
One of the two cinematographers of Una Nueva y gloriosa nación was Nicholas Musuraca , who established his career at Film Booking Offices . With RKO , Musuraca would become one of Hollywood 's most respected cinematographers .
Among FBO 's other offscreen talent , the best known director to work regularly at the studio was Ralph Ince , younger brother of famous filmmaker Thomas H. Ince . Pulling double duty on occasion , Ralph Ince starred in four of the fourteen films he made for FBO . One production in which Ince served in both capacities was particularly well received : Chicago After Midnight ( 1928 ) was described by the New York Times as " [ a ] n unusually well @-@ acted and adroitly directed underworld story . " After The Mistress of Shenstone , Henry King directed two more R @-@ C films with Pauline Frederick , also in 1921 : Salvage and The Sting of the Lash . Tod Browning directed two Gothic Pictures specials in 1924 starring Evelyn Brent : The Dangerous Flirt and Silk Stocking Sal .
From 1921 to 1924 , William Seiter directed a half @-@ dozen FBO releases , some produced directly for the studio , others independently . Between 1922 and 1926 , Emory Johnson produced and directed at least eight films for FBO . Historian William K. Everson has pointed to Seiter and Johnson as two of the overlooked directorial talents of the silent era .
Screenwriter Frances Marion , who would win two Oscars in the 1930s , penned ten of the FBO pictures starring her husband , Fred Thomson . Editor Pandro S. Berman , son of a major FBO stockholder , cut his first film for the studio at the age of twenty @-@ two ; he would go on to renown as an RKO producer and production chief . Famed RKO costume designer Walter Plunkett was also an FBO graduate .
= C @-@ 66 ( Michigan county highway ) =
C @-@ 66 is a county @-@ designated highway in the US state of Michigan running about 28 miles ( 45 km ) across the northern tip of the Lower Peninsula . The roadway starts in the unincorporated community of Cross Village in Emmet County at an intersection with M @-@ 119 and C @-@ 77 . It follows Levering Road through rural areas to an interchange with Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) west of Cheboygan . The eastern terminus is at an intersection with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) and M @-@ 27 in downtown Cheboygan . The first roadways along what is now C @-@ 66 were in place by the early 20th century . Segments were paved by 1936 , although some reverted to a gravel surface during World War II . The full roadway was paved by the mid @-@ 1950s , and the C @-@ 66 moniker was designated on the roadway in the early 1970s .
= = Route description = =
The roadway starts at a junction with M @-@ 119 ( Lake Shore Drive ) and C @-@ 77 ( State Road ) in the community of Cross Village near Lake Michigan in Emmet County . C @-@ 66 travels southward for about 300 feet ( 91 m ) concurrently along C @-@ 77 to the intersection with Levering Road . From there , C @-@ 66 turns eastward on Levering Road , leaving town . The landscape outside of town is mostly woodland with scattered fields . Except for a jog near Hill Road in Bliss Township , Levering Road is a straight road running due east . C @-@ 66 intersects C @-@ 81 ( Pleasantview Road ) in a clearing before entering the community of Levering . The county road passes through some residential areas and by a baseball field before meeting US 31 . C @-@ 66 turns south to run concurrently along US 31 for about a quarter mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) before turning eastward again .
Levering Road continues easterly leaving town south of Sherett Lake . East of the intersection with Ingleside Road , C @-@ 66 crosses into Cheboygan County . The roadway curves to the northeast before returning to a due eastward course north of Munro Lake along the Hebron – Munro township line .. The landscape changes to include more farm fields once road passes the lake . C @-@ 66 intersects I @-@ 75 at exit 326 along the latter . On the east side of the interchange , Levering Road passes Sea Shell City , a tourist trap , and turns northeastward into Hebron Township . C @-@ 66 then turns easterly again before it crosses into Beaugrand Township , taking the additional name Cheboygan Road . The roadway crosses branches of the Little Black River and passes to the south of the Cheboygan County Airport . East of the airport , C @-@ 66 enters the city of Cheboygan and follows State Street into town ; this area is residential in nature . State Street crosses the North Central State Trail , a rail trail , before turning to the southeast . The roadway passes into the northern end of downtown near several smaller businesses .. C @-@ 66 terminates at a four @-@ way intersection with Main Street one block west of the Cheboygan River ; this intersection also marks the northern terminus of M @-@ 27 . As a county @-@ designated highway , C @-@ 66 is maintained by the Emmet and Cheboygan county road commissions ( ECRC , CCRC ) in their respective counties .
= = History = =
Roadways along the route of Levering Road in Cheboygan County existed as far back as 1902 in Hebron and Munro townships ; the section south of the township line was not yet built at the time . By 1927 , Levering Road extended across the tip of the Lower Peninsula ; near the Hebron – Beaugrand township line in Cheboygan County , the county road made a jog to follow what is now Wollangur and Hill roads . In 1930 , the ECRC paved Levering Road between US 31 and the county line and the CCRC paved the roadway in Beaugrand Township . By mid 1936 , it was paved from a point between Cross Village and the Pleasantview Road intersection to the county line in Emmet County as well as the Beaugrand Township section in Cheboygan County . During World War II , the counties reverted most of Levering Road to a gravel surface ; pavement in Emmet County started east of Pleasantview Road instead of west , and Cheboygan County had no sections paved . At the same time , the new roadway was opened to bypass Wollangur and Hill roads .
In late 1949 or early 1950 , the ECRC repaved Levering Road westward back to the point between Cross Village and Pleasantview Road that had been paved before the war . In late 1951 or early 1952 , the CCRC paved its section of Levering Road . In late 1954 or early 1955 , the ECRC completed paving all of Levering Road in its jurisdiction . The county @-@ designated highway system was created around after October 5 , 1970 . The C @-@ 66 designation was first shown on the 1971 state map following the routing used today .
= = Major intersections = =
= Banquo =
Lord Banquo / ˈbæŋkwoʊ / , Thane of Lochaber , is a character in William Shakespeare 's 1606 play Macbeth . In the play , he is at first an ally to Macbeth ( both are generals in the King 's army ) and they are together when they meet the Three Witches . After prophesying that Macbeth will become king , the witches tell Banquo that he will not be king himself , but that his descendants will be . Later , Macbeth in his lust for power sees Banquo as a threat and has him murdered ; Banquo 's son , Fleance , escapes . Banquo 's ghost returns in a later scene , causing Macbeth to react with alarm during a public feast .
Shakespeare borrowed the character of Banquo from Holinshed 's Chronicles , a history of Britain published by Raphael Holinshed in 1587 . In Chronicles Banquo is an accomplice to Macbeth in the murder of the king , rather than a loyal subject of the king who is seen as an enemy by Macbeth . Shakespeare may have changed this aspect of his character in order to please King James , who was thought at the time to be a descendant of the real Banquo . Critics often interpret Banquo 's role in the play as being a foil to Macbeth , resisting evil where Macbeth embraces it . Sometimes , however , his motives are unclear , and some critics question his purity . He does nothing to accuse Macbeth of murdering the king , even though he has reason to believe Macbeth is responsible .
= = Source = =
Shakespeare often used Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles of England , Scotland , and Ireland — commonly known as Holinshed 's Chronicles — as a source for his plays , and in Macbeth he borrows from several of the tales in that work . Holinshed portrays Banquo as a historical figure : he is an accomplice in Mac Bethad mac Findlaích 's ( Macbeth 's ) murder of Donnchad mac Crínáin ( King Duncan ) and plays an important part in ensuring that Macbeth , not Máel Coluim mac Donnchada ( Malcolm ) , takes the throne in the coup that follows . Holinshed in turn used an earlier work , the Scotorum Historiae ( 1526 – 7 ) by Hector Boece , as his source . Boece 's work is the first known record of Banquo and his son Fleance ; and scholars such as David Bevington generally consider them fictional characters invented by Boece . In Shakespeare 's day , however , they were considered historical figures of great repute , and the king , James I , based his claim to the throne in part on a descent from Banquo . The House of Stuart was descended from Walter fitz Alan , the first High Steward of Scotland , and he was believed to have been the grandson of Fleance and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn 's daughter , Nesta verch Gruffydd . In reality Walter fitz Alan was the son of Alan fitz Flaad , a Breton knight .
Unlike his sources , Shakespeare gives Banquo no role in the King 's murder , making it a deed committed solely by Macbeth and his wife . Why Shakespeare 's Banquo is so different from the character described by Holinshed and Boece is not known , though critics have proposed several possible explanations . First among them is the risk associated with portraying the king 's ancestor as a murderer and conspirator in the plot to overthrow a rightful king , as well as the author 's desire to flatter a powerful patron . But Shakespeare may also simply have altered Banquo 's character because there was no dramatic need for another accomplice to the murder . There was , however , a need to provide a dramatic contrast to Macbeth ; a role that many scholars argue is filled by Banquo . Similarly , when Jean de Schelandre wrote about Banquo in his Stuartide in 1611 , he also changed the character by portraying him as a noble and honourable man — the critic D. W. Maskell describes him as “ … Schelandre 's paragon of valour and virtue ” — probably for reasons similar to Shakespeare 's .
Banquo 's role in the coup that follows the murder is harder to explain . Banquo 's loyalty to Macbeth , rather than Malcolm , after Duncan 's death makes him a passive accomplice in the coup : Malcolm , as Prince of Cumberland , is the rightful heir to the throne and Macbeth a usurper . Daniel Amneus , however , argues that when Ross and Angus bring King Duncan 's praise , and the news that Macbeth has been granted the title of Thane of Cawdor , the " greater honor " he ascribes to Macbeth is actually his title as Prince of Cumberland . If Macbeth , rather than Malcolm , is Prince of Cumberland then Macbeth would be next in line to the throne and no coup would be needed , effectively removing this ambiguity from Banquo 's character .
= = Role in the play = =
Banquo is in a third of the play 's scenes , as both a human and a ghost . As significant as he is to the plot , he has fewer lines than the relatively insignificant Ross , a Scottish nobleman who survives the play . In the second scene of the play , King Duncan describes the
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the early 1830s . A doctor , he practiced in Salem and married there in 1831 . Helen 's father , David Leonard , had moved his family west from Assonet , Massachusetts , in 1818 , but died en route to Vincennes , Indiana , and Helen relocated to Salem in 1830 to teach school . Charles was not successful in Salem , and moved , with his wife and children , to Warsaw , Illinois , in 1841 .
John attended the local schools , and in 1849 his uncle Milton Hay invited John to live at his home in Pittsfield , Pike County , and attend a well @-@ regarded local school , the John D. Thomson Academy . Milton was a friend of Springfield attorney Abraham Lincoln , and had read law in the firm Stuart and Lincoln . In Pittsfield , John first met John Nicolay , who was at the time a 20 @-@ year @-@ old newspaperman . Once John Hay completed his studies there , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old was sent to live with his grandfather in Springfield , and attend school there . His parents and uncle Milton ( who financed the boy 's education ) sent him to Brown University in Providence , Rhode Island , alma mater of his late maternal grandfather .
= = = Student and Lincoln supporter = = =
Hay enrolled at Brown in 1855 . Although he enjoyed college life , he did not find it easy : his Western clothing and accent made him stand out ; he was not well prepared academically and was often sick . Hay gained a reputation as a star student , and became a part of Providence 's literary circle that included Sarah Helen Whitman and Nora Perry . He wrote poetry , and experimented with hashish . Hay received his Master of Arts degree in 1858 , and was , like his grandfather before him , Class Poet . He returned to Illinois . Milton Hay had moved his practice to Springfield , and John became a law clerk in his firm , where he could study law .
Milton Hay 's firm was one of the most prestigious in Illinois . Lincoln maintained offices next door and was a rising star in the new Republican Party . Hay recalled an early encounter with Lincoln :
He came into the law office where I was reading ... with a copy of Harper 's Magazine in hand , containing Senator Douglas 's famous article on Popular Sovereignty . [ whether residents of each territory ] could decide on slavery ] Lincoln seemed greatly roused by what he had read . Entering the office without a salutation , he said : " This will never do . He puts the moral element out of this question . It won 't stay out . "
Hay was not a supporter of Lincoln for president until after his nomination in 1860 . Hay then made speeches and wrote newspaper articles boosting Lincoln 's candidacy . When Nicolay , who had been made Lincoln 's private secretary for the campaign , found he needed help with the huge amounts of correspondence , Hay worked full @-@ time for Lincoln for six months .
Lincoln was elected . Nicolay , who continued as Lincoln 's private secretary , recommended that Hay be hired to assist him at the White House . Lincoln is reported to have said , " We can 't take all Illinois with us down to Washington " but then " Well , let Hay come " . Kushner and Sherrill were dubious about " the story of Lincoln 's offhand appointment of Hay " as fitting well into Hay 's self @-@ image of never having been an office @-@ seeker , but " poorly into the realities of Springfield politics of the 1860s " — Hay must have expected some reward for handling Lincoln 's correspondence for months . Hay biographer John Taliaferro suggests that Lincoln engaged Nicolay and Hay to assist him , rather than more seasoned men , both " out of loyalty and surely because of the competence and compatibility that his two young aides had demonstrated " . Historian Joshua Zeitz argues that Lincoln was moved to hire Hay when Milton agreed to pay his nephew 's salary for six months .
= = American Civil War = =
= = = Secretary to Lincoln = = =
Milton Hay desired that his nephew go to Washington as a qualified attorney , and John Hay was admitted to the bar in Illinois on February 4 , 1861 . On February 11 , he embarked with President @-@ elect Lincoln on a circuitous journey to Washington . By this time , several Southern states had seceded to form the Confederate States of America in reaction to the election of Lincoln , seen as an opponent of slavery . When Lincoln was sworn in on March 4 , Hay and Nicolay moved into the White House , sharing a shabby bedroom . As there was only authority for payment of one presidential secretary ( Nicolay ) , Hay was appointed to a post in the Interior Department at $ 1 @,@ 600 per year , seconded to service at the White House . They were available to Lincoln 24 hours a day . As Lincoln took no vacations as president and worked seven days a week , often until 11 pm ( or later , during crucial battles ) the burden on his secretaries was heavy .
Hay and Nicolay divided their responsibilities : Nicolay tending to assist Lincoln in his office and in meetings , while Hay dealt with the correspondence , which was very large . Both men tried to shield Lincoln from office @-@ seekers and others who wanted to meet with the President . Unlike the dour Nicolay , Hay , with his charm , escaped much of the hard feelings from those denied Lincoln 's presence . Abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson described Hay as " a nice young fellow , who unfortunately looks about seventeen and is oppressed with the necessity of behaving like seventy " . Hay continued to write , anonymously , for newspapers , sending in columns calculated to make Lincoln appear a sorrowful man , religious and competent , giving of his life and health to preserve the Union . Similarly , Hay served as what Taliaferro deemed a " White House propagandist " , in his columns explaining away losses such as that at First Manassas in July 1861 .
Despite the heavy workload — Hay wrote that he was busy 20 hours a day — he tried to make as normal a life as possible , eating his meals with Nicolay at Willard 's Hotel , going to the theatre with Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln , and reading Les Misérables in French . Hay , still in his early 20s , spent time both in barrooms and at cultured get @-@ togethers in the homes of Washington 's elite . The two secretaries often clashed with Mary Lincoln , who resorted to various stratagems to get the dilapidated White House restored without depleting Lincoln 's salary , which had to cover entertainment and other expenses . Despite the secretaries ' objections , Mrs. Lincoln was generally the victor , and managed to save almost 70 % of her husband 's salary in his four years in office .
After the death of Lincoln 's 11 @-@ year @-@ old son Willie in February 1862 ( an event not mentioned in Hay 's diary or correspondence ) , " it was Hay who became , if not a surrogate son , then a young man who stirred a higher form of parental nurturing that Lincoln , despite his best intentions , did not successfully bestow on either of his surviving children " . According to Hay biographer Robert Gale , " Hay came to adore Lincoln for his goodness , patience , understanding , sense of humor , humility , magnanimity , sense of justice , healthy skepticism , resilience and power , love of the common man , and mystical patriotism " . Speaker of the House Galusha Grow stated , " Lincoln was very much attached to him " ; writer Charles G. Halpine , who knew Hay then , later recorded that " Lincoln loved him as a son " .
Hay and Nicolay accompanied Lincoln to Gettysburg , Pennsylvania , for the dedication of the cemetery there , where were interred many of those who fell at the Battle of Gettysburg . Although they made much of Lincoln 's brief Gettysburg Address in their 1890 multi @-@ volume biography of Lincoln , Hay 's diary states " the President , in a firm , free way , with more grace than is his wont , said his half @-@ dozen lines of consecration . "
= = = Presidential emissary = = =
Lincoln sent Hay away from the White House on various missions . In August 1861 , Hay escorted Mary Lincoln and her children to Long Branch , New Jersey , a resort on the Jersey Shore , both as their caretaker and as a means of giving Hay a much @-@ needed break . The following month , Lincoln sent him to Missouri to deliver a letter to Union General John C. Frémont , who had irritated the President with military blunders and by freeing local slaves without authorization , endangering Lincoln 's attempts to keep the border states in the Union .
In April 1863 , Lincoln sent Hay to the Union @-@ occupied South Carolina coast to report back on the ironclad vessels being used in an attempt to recapture Charleston Harbor . Hay then went on to the Florida coast . He returned to Florida in January 1864 , after Lincoln had announced his Ten Percent Plan , that if ten percent of the 1860 electorate in a state took oaths of loyalty and to support emancipation , they could form a government with federal protection . Lincoln considered Florida , with its small population , a good test case , and made Hay a major , sending him to see if he could get sufficient men to take the oath . Hay spent a month in the state during February and March 1864 , but Union defeats there reduced the area under federal control . Believing his mission impractical , he sailed back to Washington .
In July 1864 , New York publisher Horace Greeley sent word to Lincoln that there were Southern peace emissaries in Canada . Lincoln doubted that they actually spoke for Confederate President Jefferson Davis , but had Hay journey to New York to persuade the publisher to go to Niagara Falls , Ontario , to meet with them and bring them to Washington . Greeley reported to Lincoln that the emissaries lacked accreditation by Davis , but were confident they could bring both sides together . Lincoln sent Hay to Ontario with what became known as the Niagara Manifesto : that if the South laid down its arms , freed the slaves , and reentered the Union , it could expect liberal terms on other points . The Southerners refused to come to Washington to negotiate .
= = = Assassination of Lincoln = = =
By the end of 1864 , with Lincoln reelected and the victorious war winding down , both Hay and Nicolay let it be known that they desired different jobs . Soon after Lincoln 's second inauguration in March 1865 , the two secretaries were appointed to the US delegation in Paris , Nicolay as consul and Hay as secretary of legation . Hay wrote to his brother Charles that the appointment was " entirely unsolicited and unexpected " , a statement that Kushner and Sherrill found unconvincing given that Hay had spent hundreds of hours during the war with Secretary of State William H. Seward , who had often discussed personal and political matters with him , and the close relationship between the two men was so well known that office @-@ seekers cultivated Hay as a means of getting to Seward . The two men were also motivated to find new jobs by their deteriorating relationship with Mary Lincoln , who sought their ouster , and by Nicolay 's desire to wed his intended — he could not bring a bride to his shared room at the White House.They remained at the White House pending the arrival and training of replacements .
Hay did not accompany the Lincolns to Ford 's Theatre on the night of April 14 , 1865 , but remained at the White House , drinking whiskey with Robert Lincoln . When the two were informed that the President had been shot , they hastened to the Petersen House , a boarding house where the stricken Lincoln had been taken . Hay remained by Lincoln 's deathbed through the night and was present when he died . Hay saw , at the moment of Lincoln 's death , " a look of unspeakable peace came upon his worn features " . He heard War Secretary Edwin Stanton 's declaration , " Now he belongs to the ages . "
According to Kushner and Sherrill , " Lincoln 's death was for Hay a personal loss , like the loss of a father ... Lincoln 's assassination erased any remaining doubts Hay had about Lincoln 's greatness . " In 1866 , in a personal letter , Hay deemed Lincoln , " the greatest character since Christ " . Taliaferro noted that " Hay would spend the rest of his life mourning Lincoln ... wherever Hay went and whatever he did , Lincoln would always be watching " .
= = Early diplomatic career = =
Hay sailed for Paris at the end of June 1865 . There , he served under U.S. Minister to France John Bigelow . The workload was not heavy , and Hay found time to enjoy the pleasures of Paris . When Bigelow resigned in mid @-@ 1866 , Hay , as was customary , submitted his resignation , though he was asked to remain until Bigelow 's successor was in place , and stayed until January 1867 . He consulted with Secretary of State William H. Seward , asking him for " anything worth having " . Seward suggested the post of Minister to Sweden , but reckoned without the new president , Andrew Johnson , who had his own candidate . Seward offered Hay a job as his private secretary , but Hay declined , and returned home to Warsaw .
Initially happy to be home , Hay quickly grew restive , and he was glad to hear , in early June 1867 , that he had been appointed secretary of legation to act as chargé d 'affaires at Vienna . He sailed for Europe the same month , and while in England visited the House of Commons , where he was greatly impressed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , Benjamin Disraeli . The Vienna post was only temporary , until Johnson could appoint a chargé d 'affaires and have him confirmed by the Senate , and the workload was light , allowing Hay , who was fluent in German , to spend much of his time traveling . It was not until July 1868 that Henry Watts became Hay 's replacement . Hay resigned , spent the remainder of the summer in Europe , then went home to Warsaw .
Unemployed again , in December 1868 Hay journeyed to the capital , writing to Nicolay that he " came to Washington in the peaceful pursuit of a fat office . But there is nothing just now available " . Seward promised to " wrestle with Andy for anything that turns up " , but nothing did prior to the departure of both Seward and Johnson from office on March 4 , 1869 . In May , Hay went back to Washington from Warsaw to press his case with the new Grant administration . The next month , due to the influence of his friends , he obtained the post of secretary of legation in Spain .
Although the salary was low , Hay was interested in serving in Madrid both because of the political situation there — Queen Isabella II had recently been deposed — and because the U.S. Minister was the swashbuckling former congressman , General Daniel Sickles . Hay hoped to assist Sickles in gaining U.S. control over Cuba , then a Spanish colony . Sickles was unsuccessful and Hay resigned in May 1870 , citing the low salary , but remaining in his post until September . Two legacies of Hay 's time in Madrid were magazine articles he wrote that became the basis of his first book , Castilian Days , and his lifelong friendship with Sickles 's personal secretary , Alvey A. Adee , who would be a close aide to Hay at the State Department .
= = Wilderness years ( 1870 – 97 ) = =
= = = Tribune and marriage = = =
While still in Spain , Hay had been offered the position of assistant editor at the New @-@ York Tribune — both the editor , Horace Greeley , and his managing editor , Whitelaw Reid , were anxious to hire Hay . He joined the staff in October 1870 . The Tribune was the leading reform newspaper in New York , and through mail subscriptions , the largest @-@ circulating newspaper in the nation . Hay wrote editorials for the Tribune , and Greeley soon proclaimed him the most brilliant writer of " breviers " ( as they were called ) that he had ever had .
With his success as an editorial writer , Hay 's duties expanded . In October 1871 , he journeyed to Chicago after the great fire there , interviewing Mrs. O 'Leary , whose cow was said to have started the blaze , describing her as " a woman with a lamp [ who went ] to the barn behind the house , to milk the cow with the crumpled temper , that kicked the lamp , that spilled the kerosene , that fired the straw that burned Chicago " . His work at the Tribune came as his fame as a poet was reaching its peak , and one colleague described it as " a liberal education in the delights of intellectual life to sit in intimate companionship with John Hay and watch the play of that well @-@ stored and brilliant mind " . In addition to writing , Hay was signed by the prestigious Boston Lyceum Bureau , whose clients included Mark Twain and Susan B. Anthony , to give lectures on the prospects for democracy in Europe , and on his years in the Lincoln White House .
By the time President Grant ran for reelection in 1872 , Grant 's administration had been rocked by scandal , and some disaffected members of his party formed the Liberal Republicans , naming Greeley as their candidate for president , a nomination soon joined in by the Democrats . Hay was unenthusiastic about the editor @-@ turned @-@ candidate , and in his editorials mostly took aim at Grant , who , despite the scandals , remained untarred , and who won a landslide victory in the election . Greeley died only weeks later , a broken man . Hay 's stance endangered his hitherto sterling credentials in the Republican Party .
By 1873 , Hay was wooing Clara Stone , daughter of Cleveland multimillionaire railroad and banking mogul Amasa Stone . The success of his suit ( they married in 1874 ) made the salary attached to office a small consideration for the rest of his life . Amasa Stone needed someone to watch over his investments , and wanted Hay to move to Cleveland to fill the post . Although the Hays initially lived in John 's New York apartment and later in a townhouse there , they moved in June 1875 to Stone 's ornate home on Cleveland 's Euclid Avenue , " Millionaire 's Row " , and a mansion was quickly under construction for the Hays next @-@ door . The Hays had four children , Helen Hay Whitney , Adelbert Barnes Hay , Alice Evelyn Hay Wadsworth Boyd , and Clarence Leonard Hay . Their father proved successful as a money manager , though he devoted much of his time to literary and political activities , writing to Adee that " I do nothing but read and yawn " .
On December 29 , 1876 , a bridge over Ohio 's Ashtabula River collapsed . The bridge had been built from metal cast at one of Stone 's mills , and was carrying a train owned and operated by Stone 's Lake Shore and Michigan Railway . Ninety @-@ two people died ; it was the worst rail disaster in American history up to that point . Blame fell heavily on Stone , who departed for Europe to recuperate and left Hay in charge of his businesses . The summer of 1877 was marked by labor disputes ; a strike over wage cuts on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad soon spread to the Lake Shore , much to Hay 's outrage . He blamed foreign agitators for the dispute , and vented his anger over the strike in his only novel , The Bread @-@ Winners ( 1883 ) .
= = = Return to politics = = =
Hay remained disaffected from the Republican Party in the mid @-@ 1870s . Seeking a candidate of either party he could support as a reformer , he watched as his favored Democrat , Samuel Tilden , gained his party 's nomination , but his favored Republican , James G. Blaine , did not , falling to Ohio Governor Rutherford B. Hayes , whom Hay did not support during the campaign . Hayes 's victory in the election left Hay an outsider as he sought a return to politics , and he was initially offered no place in the new administration . Nevertheless , Hay attempted to ingratiate himself with the new President by sending him a gold ring with a strand of George Washington 's hair , a gesture that Hayes deeply appreciated . Hay spent time working with Nicolay on their Lincoln biography , and traveling in Europe . When Reid , who had succeeded Greeley as editor of the Tribune , was offered the post of Minister to Germany in December 1878 , he turned it down and recommended Hay . Secretary of State William M. Ev
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; on 14 February Shackleton ordered men on to the ice with ice @-@ chisels , prickers , saws and picks , to try and force a passage , but the labour proved futile . Shackleton did not at this stage abandon all hope of breaking free , but was now contemplating the " possibility of having to spend a winter in the inhospitable arms of the pack " .
= = = = Drift of Endurance = = = =
On 21 February 1915 Endurance , still held fast , drifted to her most southerly latitude , 76 ° 58 ′ S. Thereafter she began moving with the pack in a northerly direction . On 24 February Shackleton realised that they would be held in the ice throughout the winter , and ordered ship ’ s routine abandoned . The dogs were taken off board and housed in ice @-@ kennels or " dogloos " , and the ship ’ s interior was converted to suitable winter quarters for the various groups of men — officers , scientists , engineers , and seamen . A wireless apparatus was rigged , but their location was too remote to receive or transmit signals .
Shackleton was aware of the recent example of Wilhelm Filchner 's ship , the Deutschland , which had become icebound in the same vicinity three years earlier . After Filchner 's attempts to establish a land base at Vahsel Bay failed , his ship Deutschland was trapped on 6 March 1912 , about 200 miles ( 320 km ) off the coast of Coats Land . Six months later , at latitude 63 ° 37 ’ , the ship broke free , then sailed to South Georgia apparently none the worse for its ordeal . Shackleton thought that a similar experience might allow Endurance to make a second attempt to reach Vahsel Bay in the following Antarctic spring .
In February and March the rate of drift was very slow . At the end of March Shackleton calculated that the ship had travelled a mere 95 miles ( 153 km ) since 19 January . However , as winter set in the speed of the drift increased , and the condition of the surrounding ice changed . On 14 April Shackleton recorded the nearby pack " piling and rafting against the masses of ice " — if the ship was caught in this disturbance " she would be crushed like an eggshell " . In May , as the sun set for the winter months , the ship was at 75 ° 23 ′ S , 42 ° 14 ′ W , still drifting northwards . It would be at least four months before spring brought the chance of an opening of the ice , and there was no certainty that Endurance would break free in time to attempt a return to the Vahsel Bay area . Shackleton now considered the possibility of finding an alternative landing ground on the western shores of the Weddell Sea , if that coast could be reached . " In the meantime " , he wrote , " we must wait " .
In the dark winter months of May , June and July , Shackleton was concerned to maintain fitness , training and morale . Although the scope for activity was limited , the dogs were exercised ( and on occasion raced competitively ) , men were encouraged to take moonlight walks , and aboard ship there were attempted theatricals . Special occasions such as Empire Day ( 24 May ) were duly celebrated . The first signs of the ice breaking up occurred on 22 July . On 1 August , in a south @-@ westerly gale with heavy snow , the ice floe began to disintegrate all around the ship , the pressure forcing masses of ice beneath the keel and causing a heavy list to port . The position was perilous ; Shackleton wrote : " The effects of the pressure around us was awe @-@ inspiring . Mighty blocks of ice [ ... ] rose slowly till they jumped like cherry @-@ stones gripped between thumb and finger [ ... ] if the ship was once gripped firmly her fate would be sealed " . This danger passed , and the succeeding weeks were quiet . During this relative lull the ship drifted into the area where , in 1823 , Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer Wasp reported seeing a coastline which he identified as " New South Greenland " . There was no sign of any such land ; Shackleton concluded that Morrell had been deceived by the presence of large icebergs .
On 30 September the ship sustained what Shackleton described as " the worst squeeze we had experienced " . Worsley described the pressure as like being " thrown to and fro like a shuttlecock a dozen times " . On 24 October , the starboard side was forced against a large floe , increasing the pressure until the hull began to bend and splinter , so that water from below the ice began to pour into the ship . When the timbers broke they made noises which sailors later described as being similar to the sound of " heavy fireworks and the blasting of guns " . The supplies and three lifeboats were transferred to the ice , while the crew attempted to shore up the boat 's hull and pump out the incoming sea , but after a few days , on 27 October 1915 , and in freezing temperatures below − 15 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship . The position at abandonment was 69 ° 05 ′ S , 51 ° 30 ′ W. The wreckage remained afloat , and over the following weeks the crew salvaged further supplies and materials , including Hurley 's photographs and cameras that had initially been left behind . From around 550 plates Hurley chose the best 150 , the maximum that could be carried , and smashed the rest .
= = = = Camping on the ice = = = =
With the loss of the ship the transcontinental plans were abandoned , and the focus shifted to that of survival . Shackleton 's intention now was to march the crew westward , to one or other of several possible destinations . His first thought was for Paulet Island , where he knew there was a hut containing a substantial food depot , because he had ordered it 12 years earlier while organising relief for Otto Nordenskiöld ’ s stranded Swedish expedition . Other possibilities were Snow Hill Island , which had been Nordenskiöld ’ s winter quarters and which was believed to contain a stock of emergency supplies , or Robertson Island . Shackleton believed that from one of these islands they would be able to reach and cross Graham Land , and get to the whaling outposts in Wilhelmina Bay . He calculated that on the day Endurance was abandoned they were 346 miles from Paulet Island . Worsley calculated the distance to Snow Hill Island to be 312 miles ( 500 km ) , with a further 120 miles ( 190 km ) to Wilhelmina Bay . He believed the march was too risky ; they should wait until the ice carried them to open water , and then escape in the boats . Shackleton overruled him .
Before the march could begin , Shackleton ordered the weakest animals to be shot , including the carpenter Harry McNish 's cat , Mrs. Chippy , and a pup which had become a pet of the surgeon Macklin . The company set out on 30 October 1915 , with two of the ship 's lifeboats carried on sledges . Problems quickly arose , as the condition of the sea ice around them worsened . According to Hurley the surface became " a labyrinth of hummocks and ridges " , in which barely a square yard was smooth . In three days the party managed to travel barely two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , and on 1 November Shackleton abandoned the march ; they would make camp and await the break @-@ up of the ice . They gave the name " Ocean Camp " to the flat and solid @-@ looking floe on which their aborted march had ended , and settled down to wait . Parties continued to revisit the Endurance wreck , which was still drifting with the ice a short distance from the camp . More of the abandoned supplies were retrieved until , on 21 November 1915 , the ship finally slipped beneath the ice .
The ice was not drifting fast enough to be noticeable , although by late November the speed was up to seven miles a day . By 5 December they had passed 68 ° S , but the direction was turning slightly east of north . This was taking them to a position from which it would be difficult to reach Snow Hill Island , although Paulet Island , further north , remained a possibility . It was about 250 miles ( 400 km ) away , and Shackleton was anxious to reduce the length of the lifeboat journey that would be necessary to reach it . Therefore , on 21 December he announced a second march , to begin on 23 December .
Conditions , however , had not improved since the earlier attempt . Temperatures had risen and it was uncomfortably warm , with men sinking to their knees in soft snow as they struggled to haul the boats through the pressure ridges . On 27 December ship ’ s carpenter Harry McNish rebelled and refused to work . He argued that Ship ’ s Articles had lapsed since Endurance ’ s sinking , and that he was no longer under orders . Shackleton ’ s firm remonstrance finally brought the carpenter to heel , but the incident was never forgotten . Two days later , with only seven and a half miles ’ ( 12 km ) progress achieved in seven back @-@ breaking days , Shackleton called a halt , observing : " It would take us over three hundred days to reach the land " . The crew put up their tents and settled into what Shackleton called " Patience Camp " , which would be their home for more than three months .
Supplies were now running low . Hurley and Macklin were sent back to Ocean Camp to recover food that had been left there to lighten the sledging teams ’ burden . On 2 February 1916 Shackleton sent a larger party back , to recover the third lifeboat . Food shortages became acute as the weeks passed , and seal meat , which had added variety to their diet , now became a staple as Shackleton attempted to conserve the remaining packaged rations . In January , all but two teams of the dogs ( whose overall numbers had been depleted by mishaps and illness in the preceding months ) were shot on Shackleton ’ s orders , because the dogs ' requirements for seal meat were excessive . The final two teams were shot on 2 April , by which time their meat was a welcome addition to the rations . Meanwhile , the rate of drift became erratic ; after being held at around 67 ° for several weeks , at the end of January there was a series of rapid north @-@ eastward movements which , by 17 March , brought Patience Camp to the latitude of Paulet Island , but 60 miles ( 97 km ) to its east . " It might have been six hundred for all the chance we had of reaching it across the broken sea @-@ ice " , Shackleton recorded .
The party now had land more or less continuously in sight . The peak of Mount Haddington on James Ross Island remained in view as the party drifted slowly by . They were too far north for Snow Hill or Paulet Island to be accessible , and Shackleton 's chief hopes were now fixed on two remaining small islands at the northern extremity of Graham Land . These were Clarence Island and Elephant Island , around 100 miles ( 160 km ) due north of their position on 25 March . He then decided that Deception Island might be a better target destination . This lay far to the west , towards the South Shetland Islands chain , but Shackleton thought it might be attainable by island @-@ hopping . Its advantage was that it was sometimes visited by whalers , and might contain provisions , whereas Clarence Island and Elephant Island were desolate and unvisited . To reach any of these destinations would require a perilous journey in the lifeboats , once the floe upon which they were drifting finally broke up . Earlier , the lifeboats had been named after the expedition ’ s three chief financial sponsors : James Caird , Dudley Docker and Stancomb Wills .
= = = = Lifeboat journey to Elephant Island = = = =
The end of Patience Camp was signalled on the evening of 8 April , when the floe suddenly split . The camp now found itself on a small triangular raft of ice ; a break @-@ up of this would mean disaster , so Shackleton readied the lifeboats for the party ’ s enforced departure . He had now decided they would try , if possible , to reach the distant Deception Island because a small wooden church had been reportedly erected for the benefit of whalers . This could provide a source of timber that might enable them to construct a seaworthy boat . At 1 pm on 9 April the Dudley Docker was launched , and an hour later all three boats were away . Shackleton himself commanded the James Caird , Worsley the Dudley Docker , and navigating officer Hubert Hudson was nominally in charge of the Stancomb Wills , though because of his precarious mental state the effective commander was Tom Crean .
The boats were surrounded by ice , dependent upon leads of water opening up , and progress was perilous and erratic . Frequently the boats were tied to floes , or dragged up on to them , while the men camped and waited for conditions to improve . Shackleton was wavering again between several potential destinations , and on 12 April rejected the various island options and decided on Hope Bay , at the very tip of Graham Land . However , conditions in the boats , in temperatures sometimes as low as − 20 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) , with little food and regular soakings in icy seawater , were wearing the men down , physically and mentally . Shackleton therefore decided that Elephant Island , the nearest of the possible refuges , was now the most practical option .
On 14 April the boats lay off the south @-@ east coast of Elephant Island , but could not land as the shore consisted of perpendicular cliffs and glaciers . Next day the James Caird rounded the eastern point of the island , to reach the northern lee shore , and discovered a narrow shingle beach . Soon afterwards , the three boats , which had been separated during the previous night , were reunited at this landing place . It was apparent from high tide markings that this beach would not serve as a long @-@ term camp , so the next day Wild and a crew set off in the Stancomb Wills to explore the coast for a safer site . They returned with news of a long spit of land , seven miles ( 11 km ) to the west . With minimum delay the men returned to the boats and transferred to this new location , which they later christened Cape Wild .
= = = = Voyage of the James Caird = = = =
Elephant Island was remote , uninhabited , and rarely visited by whalers or any other ships . If the party was to return to civilization it would be necessary to summon help . The only realistic way this could be done was to adapt one of the lifeboats for an 800 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) voyage across the Southern Ocean , to South Georgia . Shackleton had abandoned thoughts of taking the party on the less dangerous journey to Deception Island , because of the poor physical condition of many of his party . Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands was closer than South Georgia , but could not be reached , as this would require sailing against the strong prevailing winds .
Shackleton selected the boat party : himself , Worsley as navigator , Crean , McNish , John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy . On instructions from Shackleton , McNish immediately set about adapting the James Caird , improvising tools and materials . Frank Wild was to be left in charge of the Elephant Island party , with instructions to make for Deception Island the following spring , should Shackleton not return . Shackleton took supplies for only four weeks , knowing that if land had not been reached within that time the boat would be lost .
The 22 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 85 m ) James Caird was launched on 24 April 1916 . The success of the voyage depended on the pin @-@ point accuracy of Worsley 's navigation , using observations that would have to be made in the most unfavourable of conditions . The prevailing wind was helpfully north @-@ west , but the heavy sea conditions quickly soaked everything in icy water . Soon ice settled thickly on the boat , making her ride sluggishly . On 5 May a north @-@ westerly gale almost caused the boat 's destruction as it faced what Shackleton described as the largest waves he had seen in twenty @-@ six years at sea . On 8 May South Georgia was sighted , after a 14 @-@ day battle with the elements that had driven the boat party to their physical limits . Two days later , after a prolonged struggle with heavy seas and hurricane @-@ force winds to the south of the island , the party struggled ashore at King Haakon Bay .
= = = = South Georgia crossing = = = =
The arrival of the James Caird at King Haakon Bay was followed by a period of rest and recuperation , while Shackleton pondered the next move . The populated whaling stations of South Georgia lay on the northern coast . To reach them would mean either another boat journey around the island , or a land crossing through its unexplored interior . The condition of the James Caird , and the physical state of the party , particularly Vincent and McNish , meant that the crossing was the only realistic option .
After five days the party took the boat a short distance eastwards , to the head of a deep bay which would be the starting point for the crossing . Shackleton , Worsley and Crean would undertake the land journey , the others remaining at what they christened " Peggotty Camp " , to be picked up later after help had been obtained from the whaling stations . A storm on 18 May delayed their start , but by two o 'clock the following morning the weather was clear and calm , and an hour later the crossing party set out .
Without a map , the route they chose was largely conjectural . By dawn they had ascended to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) and could see the northern coast . They were above Possession Bay , which meant they would need to move eastward to reach their intended destination of Stromness . This meant the first of several backtrackings that would extend the journey and frustrate the men . At the close of that first day , needing to descend to the valley below them before nightfall , they risked everything by sliding down a mountainside on a makeshift rope sledge . There was no question of rest — they travelled on by moonlight , moving upwards towards a gap in the next mountainous ridge . Early next morning , 20 May , seeing Husvik Harbour below them , they knew that they were on the right path . At seven o 'clock in the morning they heard the steam whistle sound from Stromness , " the first sound created by an outside human agency that had come to our ears since we left Stromness Bay in December 1914 " . After a difficult descent , which involved passage down through a freezing waterfall , they at last reached safety .
Shackleton wrote afterwards : " I have no doubt that Providence guided us ... I know that during that long and racking march of thirty @-@ six hours over the unnamed mountains and glaciers it seemed to me often that we were four , not three " . This image of a fourth traveller — echoed in the accounts of Worsley and Crean — was taken up by T. S. Eliot in his poem The Waste Land .
= = = = Rescue = = = =
Shackleton 's first task , on arriving at the Stromness station , was to arrange for his three companions at Peggoty Camp to be picked up . A whaler was sent round the coast , with Worsley aboard to show the way , and by the evening of 21 May all six of the James Caird party were safe .
It took four attempts before Shackleton was able to return to Elephant Island to rescue the party stranded there . He first left South Georgia a mere three days after he had arrived in Stromness , after securing the use of a large whaler , The Southern Sky , which was laid up in Husvik Harbour . Shackleton assembled a volunteer crew , which had it ready to sail by the morning of 22 May . As the vessel approached Elephant Island they saw that an impenetrable barrier of pack ice had formed , some 70 miles ( 110 km ) from their destination . The Southern Sky was not built for ice breaking , and retreated to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands .
On reaching Port Stanley , Shackleton informed London by cable of his whereabouts , and requested that a suitable vessel be sent south for the rescue operation . He was informed by the Admiralty that nothing was available before October , which in his view was too late . Then , with the help of the British Minister in Montevideo , Shackleton obtained from the Uruguayan government the loan of a tough trawler , Instituto de Pesca No. 1 , which started south on 10 June . Again the pack thwarted them . In search of another ship , Shackleton , Worsley and Crean travelled to Punta Arenas , in Chile , where they met Allan MacDonald , the British owner of the schooner Emma . McDonald equipped this vessel for a further rescue attempt , which left on 12 July , but with the same negative result — the pack defeated them yet again . Shackleton later named a glacier after McDonald on the Brunt Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea . After problems arose in identifying this glacier , a nearby ice rise was renamed the McDonald Ice Rumples .
By now it was mid @-@ August , more than three months since Shackleton had left Elephant Island . Shackleton begged the Chilean Government to lend him Yelcho , a small steam tug that had assisted Emma during the previous attempt . The Government agreed , and on 25 August Yelcho , captained by Luis Pardo , set out for Elephant Island . This time , as Shackleton records , providence favoured them . The seas were open , and the ship was able to approach close to the island , in thick fog . At 11 : 40 am on 30 August the fog lifted , the camp was spotted and , within an hour , all the Elephant Island party were safely aboard , bound for Punta Arenas .
= = = = On Elephant Island = = = =
After Shackleton left with the James Caird , Frank Wild took command of the Elephant Island party , some of whom were in a low state , physically or mentally : Lewis Rickinson had suffered a suspected heart attack ; Blackborow was unable to walk , due to frostbitten feet ; Hudson was mentally depressed . The priority for the party was a permanent shelter against the rapidly approaching southern winter . On the suggestion of Marston and Lionel Greenstreet , a hut ( nicknamed the " Snuggery " ) was improvised by upturning the two boats and placing them on low stone walls , to provide around five feet of headroom . By means of canvas and other materials the structure was made into a crude but effective shelter .
Wild initially estimated that they would have to wait one month for rescue , and refused to allow long @-@ term stockpiling of seal and penguin meat because this , in his view , was defeatist . This policy led to sharp disagreements with Thomas Orde @-@ Lees . Orde @-@ Lees was not a popular man , and his presence apparently did little to improve the morale of his companions , unless it was by way of being the butt of their jokes .
As the weeks extended well beyond his initial optimistic forecast , Wild established and maintained routines and activities to relieve the tedium . A permanent lookout was kept for the arrival of the rescue ship , cooking and housekeeping rotas were established , and there were hunting trips for seal and penguin . Concerts were held on Saturdays , and anniversaries celebrated , but there were growing feelings of despondency as time passed with no sign of the ship . The toes on Blackborow 's left foot became gangrenous from frostbite , and on 15 June had to be amputated by the surgeons Macklin and James McIlroy in the candle @-@ lit hut . Using the very last of the chloroform that had survived in the medical supplies , the whole procedure took 55 minutes , and was a complete success .
By 23 August , it seemed that Wild ’ s no @-@ stockpiling policy had failed . The surrounding sea was dense with pack ice that would halt any rescue ship , food supplies were running out and no penguins were coming ashore . Orde @-@ Lees wrote : " We shall have to eat the one who dies first [ ... ] there ’ s many a true word said in jest " . Wild ’ s thoughts were now turning seriously to the possibility of a boat trip to Deception Island — he planned to set out on 5 October , in the hoping of meeting a whaling ship — when , on 30 August 1916 , the ordeal ended suddenly with the appearance of Shackleton and Yelcho .
= = = Ross Sea Party = = =
Aurora left Hobart on 24 December 1914 , having been delayed in Australia by financial and organizational problems . The arrival in Mc
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Venezuela . There was little action in this sector ; Nariño 's forces were mainly engaged around Popayán in the south @-@ west , where the Spanish had a large garrison . Rafter reports positively on MacGregor 's conduct in Socorro , writing that " by the introduction of the European system of tactics , [ he ] considerably improved the discipline of the troops " , but some under his command disliked him . An official in Cúcuta , the district capital , expressed utter contempt for MacGregor in a letter to a friend : " I am sick and tired of this bluffer , or Quixote , or the devil knows what . This man can hardly serve us in New Granada without heaping ten thousand embarrassments upon us . "
While MacGregor was in the New Granadian service , Bolívar raised a force of Venezuelan exiles and local troops in the port of Cartagena , and captured Caracas on 4 August 1813 . The royalists quickly rallied and crushed Bolívar 's second republic in mid @-@ 1814 . Nariño 's New Granadian nationalists surrendered around the same time . MacGregor withdrew to Cartagena , which was still in revolutionary hands , and at the head of native troops destroyed hamlets , local infrastructure and produce to prevent the Spanish from using them . A Spanish force of about 6 @,@ 000 landed in late August 1815 and , after repeatedly failing to overcome the 5 @,@ 000 defenders , deployed to subdue the fortress by blockade . Sinclair records that MacGregor played an " honourable , though not conspicuous " part in the defence . By November there remained in Cartagena only a few hundred men capable of fighting . The defenders resolved to use the dozen gunboats they had to break through the Spanish fleet to the open sea , abandoning the city to the royalists ; MacGregor was chosen as one of the three commanders of this operation . On the night of 5 December 1815 the gunboats sailed out into the bay , blasted their way through the smaller Spanish vessels and , avoiding the frigates , made for Jamaica . All the gunboats escaped .
= = = Venezuela , under Bolívar = = =
The British merchant class in Jamaica that had shunned MacGregor on his first arrival in 1812 now welcomed him as a hero . The Scotsman entertained many dinner parties with embellished accounts of his part in the Cartagena siege , leading some to understand that he had personally headed the city 's defence . One Englishman toasted the " Hannibal of modern Carthage " . Around New Year 1816 , MacGregor and his wife made their way to Santo Domingo ( today the Dominican Republic ) , where Bolívar was raising a new army . Bolívar received MacGregor back into the Venezuelan Army with the rank of brigadier @-@ general , and included him in an expeditionary force that left Aux Cayes ( now Les Cayes ) on 30 April 1816 . MacGregor took part in the capture of the port town of Carúpano , as second @-@ in @-@ command of Manuel Piar 's column , but is not mentioned in the record of the battle prepared by Bolívar 's staff . After the Spanish were driven from many central Venezuelan towns , MacGregor was sent to the coast west of Caracas to recruit native tribesmen in July 1816 . On 18 July , eight days after the numerically superior royalists countered and broke Bolívar 's main force at La Cabrera , MacGregor resolved to retreat hundreds of miles east to Barcelona .
Two pursuing royalist armies harried MacGregor constantly as he retreated across country , but failed to break his rearguard . With no carts and only a handful of horses , the Scotsman was forced to leave his wounded where they fell . Late on 27 July MacGregor 's way east was obstructed by a royalist force at Chaguaramas , south of Caracas and about a third of the distance to Barcelona . MacGregor led his men in a furious charge that prompted a Spanish retreat back into Chaguaramas , then continued towards Barcelona . The Spanish remained in the town until 30 July , giving MacGregor two days ' head start , and caught up with him only on 10 August . The Scotsman deployed his 1 @,@ 200 men , mostly native archers , behind a marsh and a stream — the Spanish cavalry were bogged down in the marsh , while the archers repelled the infantry with volleys of arrows . After three hours MacGregor charged and routed the royalists . MacGregor 's party was helped the rest of the way east to Barcelona by elements of the main revolutionary army . They arrived on 20 August 1816 , after 34 days ' march .
In Rafter 's view , this marked " the zenith of MacGregor 's celebrity " in South America . He had , according to his biographer Frank Griffith Dawson , " led his troops with brilliant success " ; Sinclair agrees , calling the march a " remarkable feat " demonstrating " genuine military skill " . With Bolívar back in Aux Cayes , overall command of the republican armies in Venezuela had been given to Piar . MacGregor and Piar had several disagreements over the next two months regarding the strategic conduct of the war — according to the American historian David Bushnell , the Scottish general probably " r [ an ] afoul of personal and factional rivalries within the patriot camp " . In early October 1816 MacGregor left with Josefa for Margarita Island , about 24 miles ( 39 km ) off eastern Venezuela , where he hoped to enter the service of General Juan Bautista Arismendi . Soon afterwards he received an acclamatory letter from Bolívar : " The retreat which you had the honour to conduct is in my opinion superior to the conquest of an empire ... Please accept my congratulations for the prodigious services you have rendered my country " . MacGregor 's march to Barcelona would remain prominent in the South American revolutionary narrative for years .
= = = Florida republic ; Amelia Island affair = = =
Arismendi proposed to MacGregor that capturing one of the ports in East or West Florida , which were then Spanish colonies , might provide an excellent springboard for republican operations elsewhere in Latin America . MacGregor liked the idea and , after an abortive attempt to recruit in Haiti , sailed with Josefa to the United States to raise money and volunteers . In early 1817 , soon after he left , a further congratulatory letter from Bolívar arrived in Margarita , promoting MacGregor to divisional general , awarding him the Orden de los Libertadores ( Order of the Liberators ) and asking him to return to Venezuela . MacGregor remained ignorant of this for two years . On 31 March 1817 , in Philadelphia , MacGregor received a document from three men calling themselves the " deputies of free America " — Lino de Clemente , Pedro Gual and Martin Thompson , each of whom claimed to speak for one or more of the Latin American republics — in which the Scottish general was called upon to take possession of " both the Floridas , East and West " as soon as possible . Florida 's proposed fate was not specified ; MacGregor presumed that the Floridians , who were mostly of non @-@ Spanish origin , would seek US annexation and that the US would quickly comply . He thus expected at least covert support from the US government .
In the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , South Carolina and particularly Savannah , Georgia , MacGregor raised not only several hundred armed men for this enterprise , but also $ 160 @,@ 000 by the sale of " scripts " to investors , promising them fertile acres in Florida or their money back with interest . He determined to first attack Amelia Island , an anarchic community of pirates and other criminals containing about 40 % of East Florida 's population ( recorded as 3 @,@ 729 in 1815 ) . Expecting little to no resistance from the tiny Spanish garrison there , MacGregor left Charleston with fewer than 80 men , mostly US citizens , in one ship . He led the landing party personally on 29 June 1817 , with the words : " I shall sleep either in hell or Amelia tonight ! " The Spanish commander at Fort San Carlos , with 51 men and several cannon , vastly overestimated the size of MacGregor 's force and surrendered without either side firing a shot .
Few of Amelia 's residents came out to support MacGregor , but at the same time there was little resistance ; most simply left for mainland Florida or Georgia . MacGregor raised a flag showing a green cross on a white field — the " Green Cross of Florida " — and issued a proclamation on 30 June urging the island 's inhabitants to return and support him . This was largely ignored , as was a second proclamation in which MacGregor congratulated his men on their victory and exhorted them to " free the whole of the Floridas from Tyranny and oppression " . Morale among the troops plummeted when MacGregor prohibited looting . MacGregor announced a " Republic of the Floridas " under a government headed by himself , attempted to tax the local pirates ' booty at an " admiralty court " , and tried to raise money by seizing and selling dozens of slaves found on the island . Most of his recruits were still in the US ; American authorities prevented most of them from leaving port , and MacGregor was able to muster only 200 on Amelia . His officers clamoured for an invasion of mainland Florida , but he insisted they did not have enough men , arms or supplies . Bushnell suggests that MacGregor 's backers in the US may have promised him more support in these regards than they ultimately provided . Eighteen men sent to reconnoitre around St Augustine in late July 1817 were variously killed , wounded or captured by the Spanish . Discipline among MacGregor 's troops — paid first in " Amelia dollars " he had printed , and later not at all — disintegrated .
As Spanish forces congregated on the mainland opposite Amelia , MacGregor and most of his officers decided on 3 September 1817 that the situation was hopeless and that they would abandon the venture . MacGregor announced to the men that he was leaving , explaining vaguely that he had been " deceived by my friends " , and turned command over to one of his subordinates , a former Pennsylvania congressman called Jared Irwin . With an angry crowd looking on and hurling insults at him , MacGregor boarded the Morgiana with his wife on 4 September . He waited offshore for a few days , then left on the schooner Venus on 8 September 1817 . Two weeks later the MacGregors arrived at Nassau in the Bahamas , where MacGregor arranged the striking of commemorative medallions bearing the Green Cross motif and the Latin inscriptions Amalia Veni Vidi Vici ( " Amelia , I Came , I Saw , I Conquered " ) and Duce Mac Gregorio Libertas Floridarium ( " Liberty for the Floridas under the leadership of MacGregor " ) . He made no attempt to repay those who had funded the Amelia expedition . Irwin 's troops defeated two Spanish assaults and were then joined by 300 men under Louis @-@ Michel Aury , who held Amelia for three months before surrendering to American forces who held the island " in trust for Spain " until the Florida Purchase in 1819 .
Press reports of the Amelia Island affair were wildly inaccurate , partly because of misinformation disseminated by MacGregor himself — his sudden departure , he claimed , was because he had sold the island to Aury for $ 50 @,@ 000 . Josefa gave birth to her and MacGregor 's first child , a boy named Gregorio , in Nassau on 9 November 1817 . The owner of the Venus , an ex @-@ captain of the British Corps of Colonial Marines called George Woodbine , pointed to the British Legions being raised by the Latin American revolutionaries in London , and suggested that MacGregor could recruit and command such a force himself . Excited by the idea of leading British troops again after years in command of colonials , tribesmen and miscellaneous adventurers , MacGregor sailed for home with Josefa and Gregorio and landed in Dublin on 21 September 1818 . He thence made his way back to London .
= = = Porto Bello = = =
The third Venezuelan republic 's envoy in the British capital borrowed £ 1 @,@ 000 for MacGregor to engage and transport British troops for service in Venezuela , but the Scotsman squandered these funds within a few weeks . A London financier , an old friend of MacGregor 's called Thomas Newte , took responsibility for the envoy 's debt on the condition that the general instead take troops to New Granada . MacGregor funded his expedition through the sale of commissions at rates cheaper than those offered by the British Army , and assembled enlisted men through a network of recruiters across the British Isles , offering volunteers huge financial incentives . MacGregor sailed for South America on 18 November 1818 aboard a former Royal Navy brigantine , renamed the Hero ; 50 officers and over 500 troops , many of them Irish , followed the next month . They were critically under @-@ equipped , having virtually no arms or munitions .
The men came close to mutiny at Aux Cayes in February 1819 when MacGregor failed to produce the 80 silver dollars per man on arrival promised by his recruiters . MacGregor persuaded South American merchants in Haiti to support him with funds , weapons and ammunition , but then procrastinated and gave the order to sail for the island of San Andrés , off the Spanish @-@ controlled Isthmus of Panama , only on 10 March . Going first to Jamaica to arrange accommodation for Josefa and Gregorio , MacGregor was almost arrested there on charges of gun @-@ running . He joined his troops on San Andrés on 4 April . The delay had led to renewed dissension in the ranks that the stand @-@ in commander Colonel William Rafter had difficulty containing . MacGregor restored morale by announcing that they would set out to attack Porto Bello on the New Granadian mainland the following day .
Colonel Rafter disembarked with 200 men near Porto Bello on 9 April , outflanked a roughly equal force of Spanish defenders during the night , and marched into Porto Bello without a fight on 10 April . MacGregor , watching from one of the ships with Woodbine — to whom he had given the rank of colonel — quickly came ashore when he sighted Rafter 's signal of victory , and , as usual , issued a flowery proclamation : " Soldiers ! Our first conquest has been glorious , it has opened the road to future and additional fame . " Rafter urged MacGregor to march on Panama , but MacGregor did not make much in the way of plans to continue the campaign . He devoted most of his attention to the particulars of a new chivalric order of his design , the emblem of which would be a Green Cross . The troops became mutinous again after more promised money failed to materialise — MacGregor eventually paid each man $ 20 , but this did little to restore discipline .
The lack of patrolling by MacGregor 's troops allowed the Spanish to march straight into Porto Bello early on 30 April 1819 . MacGregor was still in bed when the Spaniards found his riflemen drilling in the main square and opened fire . Awoken by the noise , MacGregor threw his bed and blankets from the window onto the beach below and jumped out after them , then attempted to paddle out to his ships on a log . He passed out and would probably have drowned had he not been picked up and brought aboard the Hero by one of his naval officers . MacGregor would claim that on regaining consciousness he immediately raised his standard over the Hero , then despatched runners to Rafter ordering him not to surrender . The version of events favoured by Sinclair is that Rafter received orders to this effect only after he had himself contacted MacGregor on the Hero . Rafter , in the fort with 200 men , kept up a steady barrage and waited for his commander to fire on the royalists from the ships — but to the colonel 's astonishment MacGregor instead ordered his fleet to turn about and made for the high seas . Abandoned , Colonel Rafter and the remnants of MacGregor 's army had no choice but to surrender ; most of the surviving officers and troops entered miserable existences in captivity . Rafter was ultimately shot with 11 other officers for conspiring to escape .
= = = Rio de la Hacha = = =
Making his way first to San Andrés , then Haiti , MacGregor conferred invented decorations and titles on his officers and planned an expedition to Rio de la Hacha in northern New Granada . He was briefly delayed in Haiti by a falling @-@ out with his naval commander , an officer called Hudson . When the naval officer fell ill , MacGregor had him put ashore , seized the Hero — which Hudson owned — and renamed her El MacGregor , explaining to the Haitian authorities that " drunkenness , insanity and mutiny " by his captain had forced him to take the ship . MacGregor steered the hijacked brigantine to Aux Cayes , then sold her after she was found to be unseaworthy . Waiting for him in Aux Cayes were 500 officers and enlisted men , courtesy of recruiters in Ireland and London , but he had no ships to carry them and little in the way of equipment . This was remedied during July and August 1819 , first by the arrival of his Irish recruiter Colonel Thomas Eyre with 400 men and two ships — MacGregor gave him the rank of general and the Order of the Green Cross — and then by the appearance of war materiel from London , sent by Thomas Newte on a schooner named Amelia .
MacGregor bombastically announced his intention to liberate New Granada , but then hesitated . The lack of action , rations or pay for weeks prompted most of the British volunteers to go home . MacGregor 's force , which had comprised 900 men at its peak ( including officers ) , had dwindled to no more than 250 by the time he directed the Amelia and two other vessels to Rio de la Hacha on 29 September 1819 . His remaining officers included Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Michael Rafter , who had bought a commission with the hope of rescuing his brother William . After being driven away
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894 @-@ 1965 ) - printmaker and painter
Kazuki Kuriyama ( 1963- ) - songwriter and producer
Atsuhiro Mitsuhara ( 1980- ) - baseball player
Nobuo Okishio ( 1927 @-@ 2003 ) - economics professor
Shiko Saito ( 1901 @-@ 1961 ) - actor
Takatōriki Tadashige ( 1967- ) - sumo wrestler
上原みなみ ( 1969- ) - television presenter and Kobe city councillor
Miyuki Utsumi ( 1957- ) - singer
Knock Yokoyama ( 1932 @-@ 2007 ) - comedian and politician
= Scarygirl =
Scarygirl ( also stylized as ScaryGirl ) is an adventure @-@ platformer video game for the Xbox 360 's Xbox Live Arcade , PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network and the personal computer . Prior to being adapted as a console and PC game , Scarygirl was a graphic novel by Nathan Jurevicius , a Flash game , and a downloadable title for the PlayStation Portable . Developed by TikGames and published by Square Enix , Scarygirl was released on January 18 , 2012 with an ESRB rating of 10 + .
Scarygirl places the player in control of a girl who is sent from her home to a far @-@ away city on a rescue mission . The girl is able to jump , grapple , and hover her way though seven game worlds , either alone or with another player in a cooperative multiplayer mode . Combat is handled through combining strings of light and heavy attacks , with grapple @-@ based attacks becoming available once enemies take enough damage . Roundly praised for Jurevicius ' art , ScaryGirl received otherwise mixed reviews upon its release . Critics found fault with both the control scheme and its combat system , although boss battles did receive some praise .
= = Gameplay = =
Scarygirl is a side @-@ scrolling adventure game with platforming and action components . Players control the protagonist Scarygirl as she navigates and fights through twenty @-@ one stages spread across seven distinct worlds . The game uses a 2.5D visual style and employs parallax scrolling to create visual depth .
Outside of combat , Scargirl navigates the game world by running , jumping , gliding , and using her tentacle arm to grapple onto objects . Scarygirl eventually gains access to a feather attachment that can replace the hook on her tentacle arm , allowing Scarygirl to hover and reach otherwise inaccessible locations . Stages contain deadly traps that have to be avoided , often by grappling over them , and most stages contain at least two paths through the stage , although after choosing one the option to backtrack and take the other route exists . Crystals , which can be used to purchase combat upgrades for both combat and exploration , and heart fragments , which increase Scarygirl 's maximum health , are scattered throughout stages . In order to get all of the crystals and heart fragments , players will have to traverse both paths through stages that have more than one path .
In combat , Scarygirl has light and heavy attacks , which can be strung together to form combos . Heavy attacks have the ability to launch enemies in the air . After enemies take a certain amount of damage , they can be grappled and thrown or used to bludgeon other enemies . Additional moves are available for purchase using crystals , such as a grappling attack that heals Scarygirl or an attack that turns Scarygirl 's tentacle into a club with a smashing attack . Additional weapons , which replace the hook at the end of Scarygirl 's tentacle arm , are also available for purchase , and include an anchor and a fan . Scarygirl charges a meter when she attacks , and is able to enter a " Rage Mode " once it is fully charged . In rage mode Scarygirl gains the ability to eat enemies , restoring her own health in the process .
Scarygirl does not have an online component , but does support two player cooperative multiplayer . The second player is able to drop in or out of the game at any time , and plays as Bunniguru . Bunniguru is faster than Scarygirl and has a different , martial arts inspired , set of moves in combat , but lacks Scarygirl 's ability to grapple .
= = Plot = =
In the game , the player controls Scarygirl , a young girl with an eye patch , a sewn @-@ shut mouth and a hook @-@ capped tentacle for one arm . The girl , an orphan , was raised and cared for by Blister , an intelligent , mustached octopus that built the girl a tree house to live in . Plagued by recurring nightmares that featured a mysterious man , the girl consults Bunnyguru , a rabbit that lives in the bottom of the tree where the girl makes her home . Bunniguru offers a vision of a city far away from the girl 's home . The girl is then sent by Blister into a forest to investigate why the Tree of Life is losing its leaves , where she discovers that one of the keepers of the forest has been kidnapped and taken to the city from Bunnyguru 's vision , and becomes tasked with seeing to the keeper of the forest 's safe return .
= = Reception = =
Scarygirl received mixed reviews upon its release . The game received a Metacritic score of 66 for the PlayStation 3 and a 63 for the Xbox 360 . Critics praised the game 's visuals , with Nathan Meunier of GamesRadar stating that the game " really stands out " as one of the " more visually impressive and creatively designed downloadable offerings " in recent years . Peter Eykemans of IGN wrote that " the art highlights the journey " and that " the overall aesthetics are beautiful " . Edge Magazine , in a highly critical review , called the game " successful only as an interactive showcase of Jurevicius ' art " . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer , in a review that was much kinder to the game overall , also called the art and animation " the strongest aspects of the game " . Several reviewers compared the game 's visuals to the style developed by Tim Burton .
The gameplay itself was viewed in a significantly harsher light . Several critics took issue with the controls , which were viewed as imprecise , both in the platforming and in the combat phases of the game . Reviewers took issue with various parts of the combat system . Several reviewers found combat against large groups of enemies to be frustrating . Jason Venter of GameSpot singled out a specific combat stage taking place on an airship as particularly demonstrative of the game 's shortcomings in combat , calling the scenario " cheap " . Venter did , however , have praise for the game 's boss battles , which he described as " a nice change of pace because victory relies more on pattern memorization and intuition than manic combat " . Edge Magazine echoed the praise for the boss battles , and both reviews lamented that such segments were not more common .
Reviews were mixed on the co @-@ op mode . While reviewers praised Bunnyguru 's martial arts @-@ inspired moveset , they did not like Bunnyguru 's inability to grapple , which limits the second player 's utility in some situations . Edge Magazine also complained that even when there were two players playing , the camera would always center on Scarygirl , even if that meant that Bunnyguru wound up off screen . Reviews were also mixed for the exploration and collection aspects of the game . Parkin of Eurogamer described these aspects by stating that : " Branching paths through levels add the illusion of depth but , for players who wish to collect 100 per cent of the gems in a stage , trekking backwards and forwards through a level is an inelegant slog " . Peter Eykemans of IGN found that the game 's branching paths created difficulty for players seeking to gain a rating of " perfection " , but goes on to recommend the game to people that enjoy searching for collectables .
= The World 's Greatest Tag Team =
The World 's Greatest Tag Team is a professional wrestling tag team , which also used the name Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team . The team consisted of Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin . Originally formed in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , they started out captained by Kurt Angle , during which time they were known as Team Angle . They also wrestled for several other independent promotions .
Haas and Benjamin made their debut on the SmackDown ! brand in December 2002 , and won the WWE Tag Team Championship in February 2003 . After losing the championship in May , Haas and Benjamin were fired from Team Angle , and changed their name to The Best Damn Tag Team Period , before settling on The World 's Greatest Tag Team . They won the championship back in July , and their second reign lasted for two months . They continued to compete on SmackDown ! , until March 2004 , when Benjamin was moved to the Raw brand as part of the Draft Lottery .
The team reformed in December 2006 on the Raw brand , and competed against numerous teams , although they were unsuccessful in winning the World Tag Team Championship . The team was split again in November 2007 , when Benjamin moved to the ECW brand , but later reformed briefly back on SmackDown in May 2009 . In 2010 , the team reformed on the independent circuit , and began competing regularly for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) , where they are former two @-@ time ROH World Tag Team Champions .
= = History = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Initial run ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
The tag team made their debut on the December 26 , 2002 edition of WWE 's SmackDown ! . Paul Heyman introduced Benjamin and Haas under the name Team Angle as a " gift " to his top client Kurt Angle . Team Angle quickly involved themselves in a scripted rivalry with Chris Benoit and Edge , defeating them on January 30 , 2003 to become the number one contenders for the WWE Tag Team Championship .
The following week , on February 6 , they won the WWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Los Guerreros . They continued their rivalry with Benoit , facing him and Brock Lesnar at No Way Out in a handicap match , where they teamed with their mentor Angle in a losing effort . After a successful title defense at WrestleMania XIX against Los Guerreros and the team of Chris Benoit and Rhyno , Team Angle lost the championship to Eddie Guerrero and his new partner Tajiri at Judgment Day on May 18 in a ladder match . Shortly afterwards , on June 12 , Angle confronted Benjamin and Haas about the losing streak they had been in for a couple of weeks , and , after they blamed him for losing the Tag Team Championship and began to question his leadership , he fired them both from Team Angle . For a few weeks they wrestled against Angle , both in singles matches and in tag team matches .
Soon after the breakup , Benjamin and Haas referred to themselves as The Best Damn Tag Team Period and then The Self @-@ Proclaimed World 's Greatest Tag Team , or The World 's Greatest Tag Team for short . They went on to recapture the WWE Tag Team Championship from Eddie Guerrero and Tajiri on July 3 . Following their win , they competed against the teams of Rey Mysterio and Billy Kidman and The APA , before losing the championship to the reformed Los Guerreros team two months later on September 18 . After their loss The World 's Greatest Tag Team continued competing against Los Guerreros in an attempt to regain the championship , but were unsuccessful .
In early 2004 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team began a scripted rivalry with The APA , and beat them at the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view . Following their loss , The World 's Greatest Tag Team mocked The APA , leading to The APA attacking them . Both the team of Scotty Too Hotty and Rikishi and the Basham Brothers also got involved in the brawl , leading to a fatal four @-@ way match at WrestleMania XX for the WWE Tag Team Championship . At WrestleMania , Scotty Too Hotty and Rikishi retained the championship .
= = = = Split ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = =
The group stayed together until March 22 , 2004 when , during the Draft Lottery , Benjamin was drafted to the Raw brand , breaking up The World 's Greatest Tag Team . On the Raw brand Benjamin was quickly added to the WWE Intercontinental Championship picture , first challenging for it at Bad Blood in June 2004 against Randy Orton . He eventually won the championship at Taboo Tuesday in October by defeating Chris Jericho , and held the championship for approximately eight months , eventually losing it to Carlito in June 2005 . He held the championship twice more during 2006 .
After Benjamin 's draft , Haas gained Miss Jackie as a valet and teamed with Rico to win the WWE Tag Team Championship on April 22 , 2004 . After a brief spell in singles competition , Haas joined forces with Hardcore Holly briefly , before being released from WWE in July 2005 . Haas wrestled in the independent circuit for nearly a year , wrestling in Jersey All Pro Wrestling and other independent promotions before returning to WWE on the Raw brand in April 2006 .
= = = = Reformation on Raw ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
On April 17 , 2006 , Haas returned to WWE as part of the Raw brand , defeating his former tag team partner , Benjamin , the very same night . On the December 4 episode of Raw , after Benjamin pinned Super Crazy , Haas entered the ring , berated Crazy , and celebrated with a bewildered Benjamin . The next week , Benjamin announced The World 's Greatest Tag Team was officially back in a segment with Cryme Tyme . They defeated The Highlanders in a match later that same night . They then started a scripted rivalry with Cryme Tyme , but were largely unsuccessful , including a tag team turmoil match at New Year 's Revolution . They finally pinned Cryme Tyme , however , ending their undefeated streak , on the January 29 , 2007 episode of Raw .
On April 2 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team was unsuccessful in defeating the team of Ric Flair and Carlito , but defeated them in a rematch on April 16 when Haas distracted Carlito , allowing Benjamin to gain the win . They won again two weeks later when Carlito turned on Flair , attacking him and allowing The World 's Greatest Tag Team to win via countout . They then challenged the Hardy Boyz for the World Tag Team Championship at One Night Stand in a ladder match , but were unsuccessful .
Following this , The World 's Greatest Tag Team began a rivalry with Paul London and Brian Kendrick after losing to the duo in their debut match on Raw . A few weeks later , London defeated Benjamin in a singles match , however , on the July 23 episode of Raw , The World 's Greatest Tag Team got a tag team win over London and Kendrick to end the rivalry . For this match they were announced as The ( Self @-@ Proclaimed ) World 's Greatest Tag Team , having been previously using simply The World 's Greatest Tag Team since their reformation .
Following this , Benjamin and Haas competed against the teams of Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes and Super Crazy and Jim Duggan until November , when the team was disbanded due to Benjamin joining the ECW roster . Benjamin was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2008 Supplemental Draft .
= = = = Sporadic reformations ( 2009 ) = = = =
On April 15 , 2009 , Haas was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On the May 8 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin accompanied Haas to the ring for his match against John Morrison , hinting at a possible reunion . The following week on the May 15 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin and Haas unofficially reunited and competed against John Morrison and CM Punk in a losing effort . At Judgment Day , Haas escorted Benjamin to the ring for his match against Morrison . On June 29 , Benjamin was traded back to the ECW brand . On February 28 , 2010 , WWE announced that Haas had been released from his contract , and two months later , on April 22 , WWE announced that Benjamin had also been released .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On August 2 , 2010 , Ring of Honor announced that Haas and Benjamin would reform as a tag team , at Glory By Honor IX on September 11 , 2010 , to wrestle the ROH World Tag Team Champions The Kings of Wrestling ( Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli ) . The duo later stated that they would collectively be known as Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team . At Glory By Honor IX Haas and Benjamin were defeated by Hero and Castagnoli in a non – title match . On December 8 , 2010 , Haas and Benjamin returned to Ohio Valley Wrestling , more than seven years after their previous match for the promotion . In their return match they defeated The Elite ( Adam Revolver and Ted McNaler ) . The following day they took part in their first Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings , defeating the Bravado Brothers ( Harlem and Lance ) . The following day , at the second set of television tapings , Haas and Benjamin defeated the All Night Express of Kenny King and Rhett Titus , before participating in an eight @-@ man tag team match , in which Haas and Benjmain teamed with the Briscoe Brothers against the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Xpress . The match ended in a no contest . On December 18 at the Final Battle 2010 pay @-@ per @-@ view , Haas and Benjamin announced that in 2011 they would be wrestling regularly for Ring of Honor . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , 9th Anniversary Show , on February 26 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Briscoe Brothers in the main event of the evening to earn another shot at the Kings of Wrestling and the ROH World Tag Team Championship .
On April 1 , at Honor Takes Center Stage Night One , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Kings of Wrestling to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 26 at Best in the World 2011 , Haas and Benjamin successfully defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship in a four @-@ way match against the Briscoe Brothers , the Kings of Wrestling and the All Night Express . On December 23 , Haas and Benjamin lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the Briscoe Brothers at the Final Battle 2011 pay @-@ per @-@ view , turning heel during the match . On May 12 , 2012 at Border Wars , Hass and Benjamin regained the ROH World Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers . On June 24 at Best in the World 2012 , Haas and Benjamin lost the title to Kenny King and Rhett Titus .
Shortly after their loss , Benjamin was suspended in storyline , to explain his absence while wrestling in Japan . Benjamin returned at the Death Before Dishonor X pay @-@ per @-@ view , accompanying Haas and Rhett Titus in a tag team championship match . Following Death Before Dishonor , Haas and Benjamin would continue to feud with Titus and his new tag team partner B.J. Whitmer defeating them at Glory By Honor XI . They defeated them again in a street fight at Final Battle . Benjamin was released from ROH in December 2012 . He made one more appearance for ROH on February 2 , 2013 , when Haas turned on him during an ROH World Tag Team Championship match against the Briscoe Brothers .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2014 ) = = =
On November 15 , 2014 , Jersey All Pro Wrestling 's 18th Anniversary Show , Benjamin , Haas , and Angle ( collectively known as Team Angle ) reunited again . Haas and Benjamin defeated Chris Sabin and Teddy Hart in the main event of the show .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Wrestling 's Greatest Finisher ( Double belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex )
Signature moves
Atomic drop by Haas followed by a superkick by Benjamin
Broken Arrow ( Leapfrog body guillotine )
Star Spangled Banner ( Double hip toss dropped into a backbreaker )
Superkick by Benjamin into a German suplex by Haas
Managers
Kurt Angle
Paul Heyman
Eric Bishoff
Entrance themes
" Medal " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; Used while part of Team Angle )
" Heroes " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Mess You Up " by Maurice Davis Band ( ROH )
" T.N.T. ( Live ) " by AC / DC ( ROH )
" Hot Stakes " by Crushpile ( ROH )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
Danny Davis Invitational Tag Team Tournament ( 2015 ) – Haas and Benjamin
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 2003 )
Ring of Honor
ROH World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – Haas and Benjamin
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Championship ( 1 time ) – Angle
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – Haas and Benjamin
= Premastication =
Premastication , pre @-@ chewing , or kiss feeding is the act of chewing food for the purpose of physically breaking it down in order to feed another that is incapable of masticating the food by themselves . This is often done by the mother or relatives of a baby to produce baby food capable of being consumed by the child during the weaning process . The chewed food in the form of a bolus is transferred from the mouth of one individual to another , either directly mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth , via utensils , hands , or is further cooked or processed prior to feeding .
The behaviour was common throughout human history and societies and observed in non @-@ human animals . While premastication is less common in present @-@ day Western societies it was commonly practiced , and is still done in more traditional cultures . Although the health benefits of premastication are still being actively studied , the practice appears to confer certain nutritional and immunological benefits to the infant , provided that the caretaker is in good health and not infected by pathogens .
= = Behavioural roots = =
Premastication and mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth feeding in humans is postulated to have evolved from the regurgitation of food from parent to offspring or male to female ( courtship feeding ) and has been observed in numerous mammals and animals of other species . For instance , food begging behaviour observed in young wolves , wild dogs and certain gulls species , which involves the young approaching the beak or mouth of the adult with their own whereupon gaping their mouths or nuzzling , the adult would regurgitate portions of food to feed the young . However , in the aforementioned animals , this nuzzling behaviour and other types of mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth contact are also used for bonding , socialization , and courtship .
= = = In apes = = =
Young orangutans also beg for food by such contact and accordingly their caretakers regurgitate to feed them . Indeed , behaviours of mouth to mouth feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in anthropoid great apes such as gorillas , orangutans , and chimpanzees . All of this supports the idea that human behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods , either directly or indirectly from the mouth , have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great apes .
= = = Human kiss precursor = = =
In all human cultures premastication / kiss @-@ feeding or kissing between mother and infant has been observed in all with kissing believed to be a socially ritualized form of feeding premasticated food . There is high similarity in the execution of kiss @-@ feeding and human kisses ( e.g. French kiss ) ; in the former , the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother 's food and tongue in sucking movements , and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food . In fact , observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of kissing and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship @-@ based feeding behaviours .
= = History and culture = =
Written records of premastication have been found in Ancient Egypt , though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non @-@ human ancestors . For instance , in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers medical papyrus , a mother was instructed to give a medical remedy to a child through premastication . In the fifth century A.D. Roman culture , premastication of infants ' food by caretakers was also common , though the lack of sanitation along with the practice contributed to infant mortality . Infants in Medieval Europe were fed an assortment of mashed , premasticated food or bread softened with liquids .
Due to attitudes in Western medicine in the 1940s and 1950s , Native American and Fijian cultures and societies were strongly dissuaded from premastication due to concerns about the hygiene of the practice . However , the lack of knowledge regarding premastication and its prohibition by missionaries and doctors instead caused severe anemia in the infants of the population , or resulted in malnourished infants and children deprived of nourishment .
Although less prevalent in modern post @-@ industrial Western societies , the offering of premasticated foods to infants is found in many traditional cultures and offers their infant numerous benefits . In North America , premastication is still commonly used by Black and Hispanic mothers , and commonly used by women of Inuit and Aleut peoples .
In many human cultures , the act of premastication and direct mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection , known as kiss feeding . In the Manus cultures of the Admiralty Islands , the act of premastication has been used by a women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her . Some human cultures such as the people of Papua New Guinea in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food , with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of Europeans . This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of kissing and French kissing .
Many Western societies have strong aversions toward premastication , which have been compared to their similar criticisms and aversion towards breastfeeding in previous generations for similar rationale , with the same societies finding breastfeeding to be a disagreeable practice performed only by the uneducated lower classes or untempered foreign cultures . For instance , in the late 1800s the medical community of Texas was embroiled in a debate on premastication , with those supporting the practice arguing its benefits and those against it stating that it is " filthy and replusive and ... barbaric " .
= = Health = =
The act of premastication is commonly found in all human societies and populations , although it is less prevalent in some than others . The evolution and selective advantage of premastication behaviours is that it supplements the infant diet of breast milk by providing access to more macro- and micro @-@ nutrients . Although disease can be transmitted through saliva in the pre @-@ chewed foods , the benefits conferred outweighed any risks of the practice during the evolution of human behaviour . Furthermore , discouraging premastication as prevention to disease transmittion may prove as disastrous an infant public health policy as when infants breastfeeding was discouraged in the late 1980s and early 1990s . In the end , the potential benefits and pitfalls of this practice greatly depend on the dietary and medical circumstances of the mother and child . The true scope of the benefits of premastication and its prevalences in differenct societies is still under active research , though there appears to be some consensus on the nutritional benefits of the practice .
= = = Advantages = = =
= = = = Breastmilk supplement = = = =
Premastication is complementary to breastfeeding in the health practices of infants and young children , providing large amounts of carbohydrate and protein nutrients not always available through breast milk , and micronutrients such as iron , zinc , and vitamin B12 which are essential nutrients present mainly in meat . Compounds in the saliva , such as haptocorrin also help increase B12 availability by protecting the vitamin against stomach acid .
= = = = Infant intake of heme iron = = = =
Meats such as beef were likely premasticated during human evolution as hunter @-@ gatherers . This animal @-@ derived bioinorganic iron source is shown to confer benefits to young children ( two years onwards ) by improving growth , motor , and cognitive functions . In earlier times , premastication was an important practice that prevented infant iron deficiency .
Meats provide Heme iron that are more easily absorbed by human physiology and higher in bioavailability than non @-@ heme irons sources , and are recommended sources of iron for infants .
= = = = Anti @-@ allergy and immunological benefits = = = =
The infant can benefit from immunological resistance to infections and immunological hypersensitivity such as asthma can be inhibited through the antimicrobial , anti @-@ inflammatory , growth factors , and nutrient transporters in the mother 's saliva . Related to the hygiene hypothesis , it is postulated that early childhood exposure to rich microflora from premastication may be important in priming the immune system and reducing allergic responses .
Premastication may itself promote the development of infant immune systems through antibody generators in the mother 's saliva , which help prevent the development of allergies in the infant . Early infant feeding of premasticated foods such as eggs and nuts alongside breastfeeding could help promote immune tolerance and help moderate allergic responses . The practice of premastication is postulated to play an important role in the development of oral immunotolerance and help prevent the occurrence of autoimmune diseases in the infant . Although the rise in allergic and autoimmune diseases in Western societies has not been directly linked to the decrease of premastication in these same societies , researchers believe that these two phenomena are related .
= = = = Parental enzymes = = = =
Premasticated foods allow for better infant digestion through the presence of saliva enzymes lacking in infants . Alpha @-@ amylase from maternal saliva aids in digestion of starches fed to a baby . This may be important in the developed nations since " ... milk supplements containing starch are used frequently and if these are introduced into feeds at an early stage , digestion of the starch will require the action of salivary amylase ... " Children being fed mainly plant based diets by vegetarian parents also benefit from the more prevalent and different types of digestive enzymes in premasticated food . Fat digesting lingual lipase in adult saliva can also help infant digestion and fat absorption since infants generally do not produce
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enough of these enzymes in their digestive tracts to efficiently process the fats they consume .
= = = Disadvantages = = =
= = = = Transmission of diseases = = = =
Premastication can transmit a wide range of diseases and pathogens from infected parents to their infants through the parents ' saliva and open mouth ulcers , including HIV @-@ AIDS as well as possibly hepatitis B virus and Helicobacter pylori . Given the prevalence of HIV in populations of lower @-@ income and poorer nation @-@ states who practice premastication extensively , the practice is likely an important method for transmission of the virus in their populations . In Chile , the practice is also associated with HIV transmission from caregivers who were unaware of their infection to children under their care .
Some state that since most mothers in the West will already know if they are carrying HIV or other serious infectious agents , mothers exercising caution who wish to breastfeed or premasticate for their children should not be dissuaded by experts who use science to justify their own personal disapproval .
= = = = Establishment of cavity causing bacteria = = = =
The widespread belief that dental caries causing bacteria from the mother 's oral ecology can be transmitted to the infant through the saliva , resulting in bacterial colonization and a strong predisposition to tooth decay in the child was already falsified by a voluminous study in 1994 . Instead , it was found that children develop a higher resistance to caries if there are frequent mother – infant salivary contacts .
= Quebec Expedition =
The Quebec Expedition , or the Walker Expedition to Quebec , was a British attempt to attack Quebec in 1711 in Queen Anne 's War , the North American theatre of the War of Spanish Succession . It failed because of a shipping disaster on the Saint Lawrence River on 22 August 1711 , when seven transports and one storeship were wrecked and some 850 soldiers drowned ; the disaster was at the time one of the worst naval disasters in British history .
The expedition was planned by the administration of Robert Harley , and was based on plans originally proposed in 1708 . Harley decided to mount the expedition as part of a major shift in British military policy , emphasizing strength at sea . The expedition 's leaders , Admiral Hovenden Walker and Brigadier @-@ General John Hill , were chosen for their politics and connections to the crown , and its plans were kept secret even from the Admiralty . Despite the secrecy , French agents were able to discover British intentions and warn authorities in Quebec .
The expedition expected to be fully provisioned in Boston , the capital of colonial Massachusetts , but the city was unprepared when it arrived , and Massachusetts authorities had to scramble to provide even three months ' supplies . Admiral Walker also had difficulty acquiring experienced pilots and accurate charts for navigating the waters of the lower Saint Lawrence . The expedition reached the Gulf of Saint Lawrence without incident , but foggy conditions , tricky currents , and strong winds combined to drive the fleet toward the northern shore of the Saint Lawrence near a place now called Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Anglais , where the ships were wrecked . Following the disaster , Walker abandoned the expedition 's objectives and returned to England . Although the expedition was a failure , Harley continued to implement his " blue water " policy .
= = Background = =
In 1710 , late in the War of Spanish Succession , a mixed force of British regulars and American colonists captured the French fort at Port Royal on the northwestern coast of Acadia ( present @-@ day Annapolis Royal , Nova Scotia ) . Francis Nicholson , the leader of the expedition , brought news of the victory to London , where he and Jeremiah Dummer , who represented the Province of Massachusetts Bay in London , lobbied for an expedition against the heartland of New France , Quebec .
The British government , however , was in some turmoil , and in August 1710 , the ministry of Lord Godolphin fell . Queen Anne replaced him with Robert Harley , a political opponent of the Duke of Marlborough , who had also fallen out of favour . Harley wanted to change Britain 's military strategy , implementing a " blue water " policy that emphasized strength at sea , at the cost of a reduced army . He also sought to blunt Marlborough 's continuing influence with a victory of his own devising . To these ends , he authorised expeditions by land and sea to capture Quebec ; however , he fell ill , so most of the work of organisation was done by his Secretary of State , Henry St. John ( the future Lord Bolingbroke ) .
The basic plan followed one first proposed by Samuel Vetch in 1708 for the 1709 campaign season , with the main thrust to be a naval expedition carrying a combined force of regular army forces and provincial militia . Rear Admiral of the White Sir Hovenden Walker was given overall command of the expedition , with Brigadier John Hill in command of the land forces . Walker , who was promoted to admiral in March , had led a squadron on an expedition to the West Indies earlier in the war that had failed to produce significant results , and may have been chosen due to his friendship with St. John and his Tory sympathies . St. John probably chose Hill to curry favour at court : he was the brother of Queen Anne 's confidante Abigail Masham . The duchess of Marlborough , presumably echoing the opinions of her husband , wrote of Hill that " he was no good as a soldier " . Five regiments from Marlborough 's force in Flanders were added to two from Britain to build a force of some 5 @,@ 000 land troops . This force sailed from ports in southern England in April and May 1711 . Its destination was a tightly guarded secret : Walker was not immediately informed of its destination , nor were the Lords of the Admiralty informed , and it was provisioned only with sufficient supplies for a typical voyage in European waters in an attempt to mislead spies .
= = Boston = =
Francis Nicholson arrived in Boston in early June 1711 with news and details of the expedition plans , and a meeting of provincial governors was quickly arranged in New London , Connecticut . The naval expedition was to include provincial militia raised in the New England colonies , while Nicholson led a provincial force raised in provinces from Connecticut to Pennsylvania up the Hudson River and down Lake Champlain to Montreal . The provincial forces that were to go with Walker 's expedition were led by Samuel Vetch , who became the governor of Nova Scotia in 1710 . They consisted of 1 @,@ 500 men , most from Massachusetts , with smaller contingents from New Hampshire and Rhode Island .
The fleet arrived in Boston on 24 June , and the troops were disembarked onto Noddle 's Island ( the present @-@ day location of Logan International Airport ) . The size of the force was , according to historian Samuel Adams Drake , " the most formidable that had ever crossed the Atlantic under the English flag . " Since the fleet had left with insufficient supplies , its organizers expected it to be fully provisioned in Boston . Since the number of soldiers and sailors outnumbered the population of Boston at the time , this proved a daunting task . Laws were passed to prevent merchants from price @-@ gouging , but sufficient provisions were eventually acquired . Additional laws were passed penalizing residents found harbouring deserters from the fleet ; apparently the attraction of colonial life was sufficient that this was a significant problem during the five weeks the expedition was in Boston .
During the expedition 's sojourn in Boston , Walker attempted to enlist pilots experienced in navigating the Saint Lawrence River . To his dismay , none were forthcoming ; even Captain Cyprian Southack , reputed to be one of the colony 's best navigators , claimed he had never been beyond the river 's mouth . Walker intended to rely principally on a Frenchman he had picked up in Plymouth prior to the fleet 's departure . Samuel Vetch , however , deeply distrusted the Frenchman , writing that he was " not only an ignorant , pretending , idle , drunken Fellow " , but that he " is come upon no good Design " . Following this report , Walker also forced a Captain Jean Paradis , the captain of a captured French sloop , to serve as navigator . The charts Walker accumulated were notably short in details on the area around the mouth the Saint Lawrence , as was the journal Sir William Phips kept of his 1690 expedition to Quebec , which Walker also acquired . Walker interviewed some participants in the Phips expedition , whose vague tales did nothing to relieve his concerns about what he could expect on the river . These concerns prompted him to detach his largest and heaviest ships for cruising duty , and he transferred his flag to the 70 @-@ gun Edgar .
= = Disaster = =
On 30 July , the fleet set sail from Boston . It consisted of a mix of British and colonial ships , including nine ships of war , two bomb vessels , and 60 transports and tenders . It carried 7 @,@ 500 troops and about 6 @,@ 000 sailors . By 3 August the fleet reached to coast of Nova Scotia , and Samuel Vetch piloted the fleet around Cape Breton and Cape North and into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
On the morning of the 18 August , just as the expedition was about to enter the Saint Lawrence River , the wind began to blow hard from the northwest , and Walker was forced to seek shelter in Gaspé Bay . On the morning of the 20th , the wind veered to the southeast , and he was able to advance slowly past the western extremity of Anticosti Island before it died down and thick fog blanketed both shore and fleet . By the 22nd , the wind had freshened from the southeast , and there were intermittent breaks in the fog , but not sufficient to give sight of land . At this point the fleet was west of Anticosti at a point where the Saint Lawrence was about 70 miles ( 110 km ) wide , but it narrowed noticeably at a point where the river 's North Shore made a sharp turn , running nearly north @-@ south . This area , near what is now called Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Anglais , includes a number of small islands , including Île @-@ aux @-@ Oeufs ( Egg Island ) , and numerous rocky shallows . After consulting his pilots , Walker gave the signal to head the fleet roughly southwest at about 8 : 00 pm .
Walker had thought he was in mid @-@ stream when he issued the order . In fact , he was about seven leagues ( about 20 miles ( 32 km ) ) north of his proper course , and in the grasp of strong currents which steered his ships towards the northwest . Aided by an easterly wind , the fleet was gradually closing on the north @-@ south shore near Île @-@ aux @-@ Oeufs . When Captain Paddon reported to Walker that land had been sighted around 10 : 30 pm , presumably dead ahead , Walker assumed that the fleet was approaching the south shore , and ordered the fleet to wear , and bring @-@ to on the other tack , before he went to bed . This manoeuvre put the fleet onto a more northerly heading . Some minutes later , an army captain named Goddard roused Walker , claiming to see breakers ahead . Walker dismissed the advice and the man , but Goddard returned , insisting that the admiral " come upon deck myself , or we should certainly be lost " .
Walker came on deck in his dressing gown , and saw that the ship was being driven toward the western lee shore by the east wind . When the French navigator came on deck , he explained to Walker where he was ; Walker immediately ordered the anchor cables cut , and beat against the wind to escape the danger . Two of the warships , Montague and Windsor , had more difficulty , and ended up anchored for the night in a precarious situation , surrounded by breakers . Throughout the night , Walker heard sounds of distress , and at times when the fog lifted , ships could be seen in the distance being ground against the rocks . One New Englander wrote that he could " hear the shrieks of the sinking , drowning , departing souls . " Around 2 : 00 am the wind subsided , and then shifted to the northwest , and most of the fleet managed to stand away from the shore .
It took three days to discover the full extent of the disaster , during which the fleet searched for survivors . Seven transports and one supply ship were lost . Walker 's initial report was that 884 soldiers perished ; later reports revised this number down to 740 , including women attached to some of the units . Historian Gerald Graham estimates that about 150 sailors also perished in the disaster . After rescuing all he could , Walker and Hill held a war council on 25 August . After interviewing a number of the pilots , including Samuel Vetch , the council decided " that by reason of the Ignorance of the Pilots abord the Men of War " , the expedition should be aborted . Vetch openly blamed Walker for the disaster : " The late disaster cannot , in my humble opinion , be anyways imputed to the difficulty of navigation , but to the wrong course we steered , which most unavoidably carried us upon the north shore . "
The fleet sailed down the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and came to anchor at Spanish River ( now the harbour of Sydney , Nova Scotia ) on 4 September , where a council was held to discuss whether or not to attack the French at Plaisance . Given the lateness of the season , insufficient supplies to overwinter in the area , and rumours of strong defences at Plaisance , the council decided against making the attack , and sailed for England .
= = Return = =
Francis Nicholson 's land expedition learned of the naval disaster when it was encamped near Lake George ; Nicholson aborted the expedition . He was reported to be so angry that he tore off his wig and threw it to the ground .
The expedition 's fortunes did not improve on the return voyage . Walker had written to New York requesting the HMS Feversham and any available supply ships to join him ; unbeknownst to him , the Feversham and three transports ( Joseph , Mary , and Neptune ) were wrecked on the coast of Cape Breton on 7 October with more than 100 men lost . The fleet returned to Portsmouth on 10 October ; Walker 's flagship , the Edgar , blew up several days later , possibly due to improper handling of gunpowder . Walker lost a number of papers as a result , and claimed that the journal of William Phips was lost in the blast .
Despite the magnitude of the expedition 's failure , the political consequences were relatively mild . The failure was an early setback in Robert Harley 's " blue water " policy , which called for the aggressive use of the navy to keep England 's enemies at bay ; however , Harley continued to implement it , withdrawing further resources from European military campaigns . Since the project had been organised by the current government , it was also not interested in delving deeply into the reasons for its failure . Walker was sympathetically received by the queen , and both he and Hill were given new commands . Walker eventually wrote a detailed and frank account of the expedition , based on his memory as well as surviving journals and papers ; it is reprinted in Graham . Walker was stripped of his rank in 1715 ( amid a larger change of power including the accession of King George I ) , and died in 1728 .
Popular sentiment in England tended to fault the colonies for failing to properly support the expedition , citing parsimony and stubbornness as reasons . These sentiments were rejected in the colonies , where Nicholson and Governor Dudley instead blamed Walker . The relations between the military leadership and the colonial populations was not always cordial during the army 's stay outside Boston , and foreshadowed difficult relations between civilians and military occupiers in the political conflicts that preceded the American Revolutionary War . One of Hill 's officers wrote of the " ill Nature and Sowerness of these People , whose Government , Doctrine , and Manners , whose Hypocracy and canting , are unsupportable " , and further commented that unless they were brought under firmer control , the colonists would " grow more stiff and disobedient every Day . " Colonists noted with some disgust the fact that both Walker and Hill escaped censure for the expedition 's failure .
= = French actions = =
Authorities in France were alerted as early as March 1711 that Nicholson was organising an expedition against Quebec . They also knew the composition of Hill 's force , but were apparently unaware of his destination until July . The Governor @-@ general of New France , the marquis de Vaudreuil , sent Louis Denys de La Ronde to Boston ostensibly to oversee a prisoner exchange in early June . La Ronde also had secret instructions that he was to try to convince authorities to withhold support from expeditions sent from England . La Ronde , who coincidentally arrived in Boston on 8 June , the same day as Nicholson , was apparently unsuccessful in his attempts to influence British colonial opinion . Nicholson became suspicious of his behaviour and eventually had him arrested . When copies of his secret instructions were found aboard a captured French vessel and brought to Boston , La Ronde was held in Boston until November .
Governor Vaudreuil was warned again in August that expeditions against Quebec and Montreal were being organised . He called out his militia , rallied local Indians , and prepared his defences as best he could , putting the whole colony on a war footing . In mid @-@ October word reached Quebec that large ships were approaching , heightening tensions further . It turned out they were French , and on board was a scout Vaudreuil had sent downriver on 19 September to watch for the British fleet . The scout reported finding the wreckage of seven ships and an estimated 1 @,@ 500 bodies . Although locals were already plundering through the wreckage , the colony organised a formal salvage operation that recovered items like anchors , chains , tents , and cannons ; the items recovered were auctioned .
= = Fleet = =
The fleet is listed in the order of sail drawn up by Admiral Walker . Ships generally sailed two abreast .
= USS New Mexico ( BB @-@
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1984 , nearly 90 % became infected with HIV . At the time of his diagnosis , his T @-@ cell count had dropped to 25 ( a healthy individual without HIV will have around 500 – 1200 ) . Doctors predicted White had only six months to live .
After the diagnosis , White was too ill to return to school , but by early 1985 he began to feel better . His mother asked if he could return to school , but was told by school officials that he could not . On June 30 , 1985 , a formal request to permit re @-@ admittance to school was denied by Western School Corporation superintendent James O. Smith , sparking a legal battle that lasted for eight months .
= = Battle with schools = =
Western Middle School in Russiaville faced enormous pressure from many parents and faculty to ban White from the campus after his diagnosis became widely known . 117 parents ( from a school of 360 total students ) and 50 teachers signed a petition encouraging school leaders to ban White from school . Due to the widespread fear and ignorance of AIDS , the principal and later the school board succumbed to this pressure and banned White . The White family filed a lawsuit seeking to overturn the ban . The Whites initially filed suit in the U.S. District Court in Indianapolis . The court , however , declined to hear the case until administrative appeals had been resolved . On November 25 , an Indiana Department of Education officer ruled that the school must follow the Indiana Board of Health guidelines and that White must be allowed to attend school .
The ways in which HIV spread were not fully understood in the 1980s . Scientists knew it spread via blood and was not transmittable by any sort of casual contact , but as recently as 1983 , the American Medical Association had thought that " Evidence Suggests Household Contact May Transmit AIDS " , and the belief that the disease could easily spread persisted . Children with AIDS were still rare : at the time of White 's rejection from school , the Centers for Disease Control knew of only 148 cases of pediatric AIDS in the United States . Many families in Kokomo believed his presence posed an unacceptable risk . When White was permitted to return to school for one day in February 1986 , 151 of 360 students stayed home . He also worked as a paperboy , and many of the people on his route canceled their subscriptions , believing that HIV could be transmitted through newsprint .
The Indiana state health commissioner , Dr. Woodrow Myers , who had extensive experience treating AIDS patients in San Francisco , and the Centers for Disease Control both notified the board that White posed no risk to other students , but the school board and many parents ignored their statements . In February 1986 , the New England Journal of Medicine published a study of 101 people who had spent three months living in close but non @-@ sexual contact with people with AIDS . The study concluded that the risk of infection was " minimal to nonexistent , " even when contact included sharing toothbrushes , razors , clothing , combs and drinking glasses ; sleeping in the same bed ; and hugging and kissing .
When White was finally readmitted in April , a group of families withdrew their children and started an alternative school . Threats of violence and lawsuits persisted . According to White 's mother , people on the street would often yell , " we know you 're queer " at Ryan . The editors and publishers of the Kokomo Tribune , which supported White both editorially and financially , were also ridiculed by members of the community and threatened with death for their actions .
White attended Western Middle School for eighth grade for the entire 1986 – 87 school year , but was deeply unhappy and had few friends . The school required him to eat with disposable utensils , use separate bathrooms , and waived his requirement to enroll in a gym class . Threats continued . When a bullet was fired through the Whites ' living room window ( no one was home at the time ) , the family decided to leave Kokomo . After finishing the school year , his family moved to Cicero , Indiana , where White enrolled at Hamilton Heights High School , located in Arcadia , Indiana . On August 31 , 1987 , a " very nervous " White was greeted by school principal Tony Cook , school system superintendent Bob G. Carnal , and a handful of students who had been educated about AIDS and were unafraid to shake White 's hand .
= = National spokesman = =
The publicity of White 's trial catapulted him into the national spotlight , amidst a growing wave of AIDS coverage in the news media . Between 1985 and 1987 , the number of news stories about AIDS in the American media doubled . While isolated in middle school , White appeared frequently on national television and in newspapers to discuss his tribulations with the disease . Eventually he became known as a poster child for the AIDS crisis , appearing in fundraising and educational campaigns for the syndrome . White participated in numerous public benefits for children with AIDS . Many celebrities appeared with White , starting during his trial and continuing for the rest of his life , to help publicly destigmatize socializing with people with AIDS . Singers John Cougar Mellencamp , Elton John and Michael Jackson , actor Matt Frewer , diver Greg Louganis , President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan , Surgeon General Dr. C. Everett Koop , businessman Donald Trump ( who also paid for White 's medical expenses ) , Indiana University basketball coach Bobby Knight and basketball player Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar all befriended White . He also was a friend to many children with AIDS or other potentially debilitating conditions .
For the rest of his life he appeared frequently on Phil Donahue 's talk show . His celebrity crush , Alyssa Milano of the then @-@ popular TV show Who 's the Boss ? , met White and gave him a friendship bracelet and a kiss . Elton John loaned Jeanne White $ 16 @,@ 500 to put toward a down payment on the Cicero home , and rather than accept repayment , placed the repaid money into a college fund for Ryan 's sister . In high school White drove a red Mustang convertible , a gift from Michael Jackson . Despite the fame and donations , White stated that he disliked the public spotlight , loathed remarks that seemingly blamed his mother or his upbringing for his illness , and emphasized that he would be willing at any moment to trade his fame for freedom from the disease .
In 1988 , White spoke before the President 's Commission on the HIV Epidemic . White told the commission of the discrimination he had faced when he first tried to return to school , but how education about the disease had made him welcome in the town of Cicero . White emphasized his differing experiences in Kokomo and Cicero as an example of the power and importance of AIDS education .
In 1989 , ABC aired the television movie The Ryan White Story , starring Lukas Haas as Ryan , Judith Light as Jeanne and Nikki Cox as his sister Andrea . White had a small cameo appearance in the film , playing a boy also suffering from HIV who befriends Haas . Others in the film included Sarah Jessica Parker as a sympathetic nurse , George Dzundza as his doctor , and George C. Scott as White 's attorney , who legally argued against school board authorities . Nielsen estimated that the movie was seen by 15 million viewers . Some residents of Kokomo felt that the movie portrayed their entire town in an unfairly negative light . After the film aired , the office of Kokomo mayor Robert F. Sargent was flooded with complaints from across the country , although Sargent had not been elected to the office during the time of the controversy .
By early 1990 , White 's health was deteriorating rapidly . In his final public appearance , he hosted an after @-@ Oscars party with former president Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan in California . Although his health was deteriorating , White spoke to the Reagans about his date to the prom and his hopes of attending college .
= = Death = =
On March 29 , 1990 , White entered Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis with a respiratory infection . As his condition deteriorated , he was placed on a ventilator and sedated . He was visited by Elton John and the hospital was deluged with calls from well @-@ wishers . White died on April 8 , 1990 .
Over 1 @,@ 500 people attended White 's funeral on April 11 , a standing @-@ room only event held at the Second Presbyterian Church on Meridian Street in Indianapolis . White 's pallbearers included Elton John , football star Howie Long and Phil Donahue . Elton John performed " Skyline Pigeon " at the funeral . The funeral was also attended by Michael Jackson and First Lady Barbara Bush . On the day of the funeral , former President Ronald Reagan wrote a tribute to White that appeared in The Washington Post . Reagan 's statement about AIDS and White 's funeral were seen as indicators of how greatly White had helped change perceptions of AIDS .
White is buried in Cicero , close to the home of his mother . In the year following his death , his grave was vandalized on four occasions . As time passed , White 's grave became a shrine for his admirers .
= = Legacy = =
White was one of a handful of highly visible people with AIDS in the 1980s and early 1990s who helped change the public perception of the disease . White , along with actor Rock Hudson , was one of the earliest public faces of AIDS . Along with later public figures who became associated with HIV / AIDS , such as the Ray brothers , Magic Johnson , Arthur Ashe , The Brady Bunch 's Robert Reed , Tim Richmond , Kimberly Bergalis , Elizabeth Glaser , Liberace and Freddie Mercury , White helped to increase public awareness that HIV / AIDS was a significant epidemic .
Numerous charities formed around White 's death . The Indiana University Dance Marathon , started in 1991 , raises money for the Riley Hospital for Children . Between 1991 and 2013 , this event helped raise over $ 16 million for children at Riley . The money raised has also helped found the Ryan White Infectious Disease Clinic at the hospital to take care of the nation 's sickest children . White 's personal physician , with whom he was close friends , Dr. Martin Kleiman , became the Ryan White Professor of Pediatrics at Indiana University School of Medicine in Indianapolis . In a 1993 interview , prominent gay rights and AIDS activist Larry Kramer said , " I think little Ryan White probably did more to change the face of this illness and to move people than anyone . And he continues to be a presence through his mom , Jeanne White . She has an incredibly moving presence as she speaks around the world . "
In 1992 , White 's mother founded the national nonprofit Ryan White Foundation . The foundation worked to increase awareness of HIV / AIDS @-@ related issues , with a focus on hemophiliacs like Ryan White , and on families caring for relatives with the disease . The foundation was active throughout the 1990s , with donations reaching $ 300 @,@ 000 a year in 1997 . Between 1997 and 2000 , however , AIDS donations declined nationwide by 21 % , and the Ryan White Foundation saw its donation level drop to $ 100 @,@ 000 a year . In 2000 , White 's mother closed the foundation , and merged its remaining assets with AIDS Action , a larger charity . She became a spokeswoman for AIDS activism and continues to arrange speaking events through the site devoted to her son , ryanwhite.com. White 's high school , Hamilton Heights , has had a student @-@ government sponsored annual Aids Walk , with proceeds going to a Ryan White Scholarship Fund .
White 's death inspired Elton John to create the Elton John AIDS Foundation . White also became the inspiration for a handful of popular songs . Elton John donated proceeds from " The Last Song , " which appears on his album The One , to a Ryan White fund at Riley Hospital . Michael Jackson dedicated the song " Gone Too Soon " from his Dangerous album to White , as did 1980s pop star Tiffany with the song " Here in My Heart " on her New Inside album . In November 2007 , The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis opened an exhibit called " The Power of Children : Making a Difference , " which remains a sobering , featured exhibit and continues to develop , while it features White 's bedroom and belongings alongside similar tributes to Anne Frank and Ruby Bridges .
= = = Ryan White and public perception of AIDS = = =
In the early 1980s , AIDS was known as gay @-@ related immune deficiency , because the disease had first been identified among primarily homosexual communities in New York City and San Francisco . At the start of the HIV / AIDS epidemic in the United States , the disease was thought to be a " homosexual problem " and was largely ignored by policy makers . White 's diagnosis demonstrated to many that AIDS was not exclusive to LGBT , minority , and poor people . In his advocacy for AIDS research , White always rejected any criticism of homosexuality , although not gay himself .
White was seen by some as an " innocent victim " of the AIDS epidemic . White and his family strongly rejected the language of " innocent victim " because the phrase was often used to imply that gays with AIDS were " guilty " . White 's mother told The New York Times ,
Ryan always said , ' I 'm just like everyone else with AIDS , no matter how I got it . ' And he would never have lived as long as he did without the gay community . The people we knew in New York made sure we knew about the latest treatments way before we would have known in Indiana . I hear mothers today say they 're not gonna work with no gay community on anything . Well , if it comes to your son 's life , you better start changing your heart and your attitude around .
= = = Ryan White CARE Act = = =
In August 1990 , four months after White 's death , Congress enacted The Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency ( CARE ) Act ( often known simply as the Ryan White CARE Act ) , in his honor . The act is the United States ' largest federally funded program for people living with HIV / AIDS . The Ryan White CARE Act funds programs to improve availability of care for low @-@ income , uninsured and under @-@ insured victims of AIDS and their families .
Ryan White programs are " payers of last resort , " which subsidize treatment when no other resources are available . The act was reauthorized in 1996 , 2000 , 2006 and 2009 and remains an active piece of legislation today . The program provides some level of care for around 500 @,@ 000 people a year and , in 2004 , provided funds to 2 @,@ 567 organizations . The Ryan White programs also provide funding and technical assistance to local and state primary medical care providers , support services , healthcare provider and training programs .
The Ryan White CARE Act was set to expire on September 30 , 2009 , although efforts began to obtain an extension to the act . The Ryan White HIV / AIDS Treatment Extension Act of 2009 was signed on October 30 , 2009 by President Barack Obama , who announced that implementation was progressing on repeal of the ban on travel and immigration to the U.S. by individuals with HIV that had been passed by Congress .
= Public Storage =
Public Storage is an American international self storage company headquartered in Glendale , California that is run as a real estate investment trust ( REIT ) . It is the largest brand of self @-@ storage services in the US . In 2008 , it was the largest of four publicly traded storage REITs . There are more than 2 @,@ 200 Public Storage self @-@ storage locations in the US , Canada and Europe . It also owns 42 percent of an office parks subsidiary , sells packing supplies , and provides other services . As a REIT , it is owned by real estate investors , who receive more than 90 percent of the company 's profits as a return @-@ on @-@ investment .
Public Storage Inc. was founded in 1972 by B. Wayne Hughes and Kenneth Volk Jr . It grew to 1 @,@ 000 locations by 1989 , using funding from investors in real estate limited partnerships ( RELPs ) . The private company was re @-@ structured as a publicly traded REIT in 1995 , when Storage Equities merged with Public Storage and adopted its name . In 2006 it acquired Shurgard Storage Centers in a $ 5 @.@ 5 billion transaction .
The company has been criticized for mold problems at many of its facilities , poor security resulting in burglaries , and sale of insurance policies that do not pay valid claims .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The idea for Public Storage was conceived by Southern California real estate developer B. Wayne Hughes in the early 1970s . During a trip to Texas , he observed that local real estate developers were doing well creating mini @-@ storage facilities outside of Dallas and Houston ; he brought the self @-@ storage concept back with him to California . Hughes partnered with Kenneth Volk and the two founded Public Storage in August 1972 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 initial investment , at first calling it " Private Storage Spaces Inc . "
The first warehouse was built in 1972 in El Cajon , California . According to Hughes , consumers thought " Private Storage " meant the storage units were not available to the public , so the name was changed to " Public Storage " to match the " PS " acronym already on documents and signs . The founders initially planned to build the storage warehouses as a temporary source of income until the land became more valuable and could be redeveloped for another use .
Within three months , the first location was breaking even with a 35 percent occupancy . In comparison to real estate investments in apartments or office space , the units were rented for a similar price per square foot but cost 35 to 50 percent less to build and maintain . A property management subsidiary called Public Storage Management Inc. was formed in 1973 . By 1974 , 20 locations had been built .
= = = Real Estate Limited Partnership financing = = =
Hughes disliked loans , so he financed the purchase and development of new properties primarily through real estate limited partnerships ( RELPs ) . At first , Public Storage built warehouses and sold them to independent RELPs for a development fee . The company 's own RELP , called Public Storage Partners Ltd , was formed in 1975 and closed its first deal for $ 3 million in investments two years later . Public Storage paid cash to acquire property and build a self @-@ storage facility , then used the property 's income to pay investors back and earn a portion as profit . Public Storage Inc. also earned revenues from a portion of each deal that was made .
Early investors earned three to four times their money back due to increasing property values in Southern California , high occupancy rates , and increasing storage rental prices . By the mid @-@ 1980s , Public Storage was raising $ 200 to $ 300 million in investments each year . The RELP format allowed Public Storage to continue building more locations in the 1970s and 1980s when most of the industry had halted growth because of higher interest rates on loans . In the mid @-@ 1980s , co @-@ founder Volk retired and his interest in Public Storage was purchased by Hughes . Forbes estimated that by this time the company was worth $ 800 million .
Investment funding was used to build mini @-@ storage warehouses nationally beyond California , targeting the 39 largest US cities . Public Storage opened self @-@ storage locations in close proximity , so multiple construction sites could share a development office , and to justify local television advertising . Public Storage 's growth slowed in the mid @-@ 1980s as new competition increased the cost of property and slowed the increase in rental prices to consumers . Poor weather and difficult labor markets outside of California delayed development projects ; the company also made poor investments in office parks . Interest in real estate investing also diminished .
By the late 1980s , the company opened its 1,000th Public Storage location and the company was three times larger than its nearest competitor in the US market . By 1989 , $ 2 @.@ 7 billion had been invested from 200 @,@ 000 investors . Public Storage helped popularize the use of self @-@ storage businesses as a real estate investment vehicle and became one of the longest @-@ running RELP investment vehicles . By 1991 , Public Storage had set up more than 150 RELPs and real estate investment trusts ( REITs ) .
= = = Real Estate Investment Trust ( REIT ) = = =
According to Financial World , by 1989 the real estate limited partnership ( RELP ) market that Public Storage relied on for funding " all but vanished " . A book by Public Storage Inc. said the Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the tax benefits of RELPs and was followed by " a tough time for real estate companies . " In December 1990 , five of its partnerships were converted to Real Estate Investment Trusts ( REITs ) in December . It also began consolidating its partnerships and acquiring many of the companies in which it held an interest .
Storage Equities was founded by Public Storage in 1980 to purchase self @-@ storage facilities . It was one of 17 self @-@ storage REITs that Public Storage held an interest in . Between 1992 and 1995 , Storage Equities paid Public Storage $ 31 million in management and consulting fees . In 1995 , Public Storage and its subsidiaries were merged with its self @-@ storage REIT , Storage Equities Inc . , and re @-@ structured as a single REIT called Public Storage Inc . One analyst said the acquisition capitalized on conflict of interest concerns , while Hughes said the merger was set up to alleviate them .
In 1995 , the company spun @-@ off its box , locks , and packing and moving supplies business into the PS Orangeco subsidiary ; Public Storage said this was done to avoid the risk of losing the company 's tax @-@ free REIT status if too large a portion of the company 's business is no longer related to real estate . This frustrated institutional investors that can only invest in real estate companies and could no longer invest in the new non @-@ real estate subsidiaries . By 1998 , Public Storage had $ 141 million in quarterly revenues , $ 2 billion in assets and 1 @,@ 200 facilities in 38 states . Later that year , Public Storage acquired a competing storage company called Storage Trust Realty in a $ 600 million transaction .
= = = Recent history = = =
Public Storage grew steadily in the early 2000s and was added to the S & P 500 in 2005 . In 2006 it acquired Shurgard Storage Centers in a transaction totaling $ 5 @.@ 5 billion , acquiring 624 locations , including 141 in Europe . Public Storage had attempted to acquire the company in 2000 and again in 2005 , but its offers were rejected . The company has continued to make numerous acquisitions , such as a March 2010 purchase of 30 locations from A @-@ American Self Storage .
= = Operations = =
Public Storage is the largest self @-@ storage brand in the US . As of 2014 , there were 2 @,@ 250 Public Storage locations in North America and 193 locations in Europe ; European locations are operated by Shurgard Europe , which Public Storage owns 49 percent of . There are also 2 @,@ 546 office parks operated by PS Business Parks , which Public Storage owns a 42 percent interest in . The largest self @-@ storage business in Canada is operated by a separate company that is allowed to use the Public Storage brand .
Self @-@ storage locations tend to be in dense clusters in major cities , especially near freeways and intersections . Public Storage has very few employees for a company of its size . Customer access to each storage location is automated . Some locations have a husband @-@ wife couple that live on @-@ site and are paid close to minimum wage to monitor the facility .
= = = Failure to pay rental fees = = =
The contents of a storage unit are put up for auction if the rental fees are not paid for sixty days . Although the TV show Storage Wars created increased interest in the auctions , most units do not contain anything of substantial economic value . Sometimes auctioning the renter 's property can result in disputes between Public Storage and the renter . In 2007 , a customer 's belongings were auctioned for non @-@ payment while he was serving the US military in Iraq . After receiving negative publicity , Public Storage apologized and gave him $ 8 @,@ 000 as compensation for his sold belongings .
= = = Theft , insurance and damages = = =
In 2005 , Public Storage said in a public filing that there had been " an increasing number of claims and litigation against owners and managers of rental properties relating to moisture infiltration , which can result in mold or other property damage . " The company 's rental contract says it is not responsible for the storage unit 's contents , even if damage is caused by defects in the unit , and The Wall Street Journal reported that there were " surprisingly few remedies " for theft or property damage at self @-@ storage facilities .
Many Public Storage customers have filed complaints with the Better Business Bureau regarding insurance policies sold by Public Storage representatives , after experiencing burglaries of their storage units then having their insurance claims denied . Investigative journalists from TV news stations in California , Kansas , and Washington have reported on difficulties consumers had when filing insurance claims for burglaries with Willis and The New Hampshire Insurance Company , which are affiliated with Public Storage . For example , claims have been denied because the storage unit had an intact lock ; affiliated insurance companies cited insufficient evidence of forced entry , though burglars often replace the unit 's lock in an attempt to conceal the burglary . Insurance commissioners in two states have criticized the practices of insurance companies affiliated with Public Storage . An ongoing class action lawsuit alleges Public Storage misleads consumers into thinking that insurance premiums are charged at cost , whereas a substantial amount of those premiums are retained as profits by Public Storage . Sales of these insurance policies do have a high profit , but generate less than five percent of the company 's total revenue .
= = Financials = =
Public Storage is a " self @-@ administered , self @-@ managed " real estate investment trust ( REIT ) . A REIT is an organization that primarily purchases and operates real estate investments and returns at least 90 percent of its incomes to investors . It combines the capital of a large number of investors for real estate projects . As of 2008 , Public Storage was the largest of four publicly traded self @-@ storage REITs . As of 2013 , it had a profit margin of 50 percent , the third @-@ highest in the S & P 500 . Public Storage has risen 17 % annually , including dividends over the past 20 years ( as of Q1 2016 ) . This is a growth rate which is double the S & P 500 .
More than 90 percent of Public Storage 's revenues are from its self @-@ storage operations ; it also provides insurance , packing products , and has a 44 percent interest in PS Business Parks . In 1984 , PS Reinsurance was formed to sell insurance for a storage unit 's contents . In 1995 , PS Orangeco was created as a subsidiary , selling boxes , packaging , truck rentals , and other moving supplies .
= WAVES =
The United States Naval Reserve ( Women 's Reserve ) , better known under the acronym WAVES for Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service , was the World War II women 's branch of the United States Naval Reserve . It was established on 21 July 1942 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by the president on 30 July 1942 . This authorized the U.S. Navy to accept women into the Naval Reserve as commissioned officers and at the enlisted level , effective for the duration of the war plus six months . The purpose of the law was to release officers and men for sea duty and replace them with women in shore activities . Mildred H. McAfee became the first director of the WAVES . She was commissioned a lieutenant commander in the Navy on 3 August 1942 , and was the first woman commissioned as an officer in the U.S. Naval Reserve ( she was later promoted to commander and then to captain ) . McAfee , on leave as President of Wellesley College , was an experienced educator and highly respected in her field .
The notion of women serving in the Navy was not widely supported in the Congress or by the Navy , although some members did support the need for uniformed women during wartime . Nonetheless , the persistence of several women laid the groundwork for success . The Women 's Armed Services Integration Act allowing women to serve in the Navy became a reality , in large measure , through the efforts of the Navy 's Women 's Advisory Council , Margaret Chung , and Eleanor Roosevelt , the First Lady of the United States who would later become the United States Representative to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights .
The age for officer candidates was between 20 and 49 , with a college degree , or two years of college and two years of equivalent professional or business experience . The enlisted age requirements were between 20 and 35 , with a high school or business diploma , or equivalent experience . WAVES were primarily white , but 72 African @-@ American women did eventually serve on a fully integrated basis . The Navy 's indoctrination of most WAVE officer candidates took place at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts , and was designated the U.S. Naval Reserve Midshipmen 's School . Specialized training for officers was held on several college campuses and at various naval facilities . Most enlisted members received recruit training at Hunter College , in The Bronx , and became the U.S. Naval Training Center ( WR ) , the Bronx . After recruit training , some women attended specialized training courses on college campuses and at naval facilities .
WAVES served at 900 shore stations in the United States , to include Alaska , Hawaii , and Puerto Rico and many entered fields previously held by men . As general line officers , Officer WAVES initially served in administrative and support roles , although many later served as attorneys ( the Navy 's JAG Corps was not established until 1967 ) and engineers . Many enlisted women became aviation mechanics , aerographers , air traffic controllers , parachute riggers , hospital corpsmen and radiomen , but most worked in the administrative / clerical and supply fields such as yeomen , personnelmen , disbursing clerks and storekeepers . The WAVES ' peak strength was 86 @,@ 291 members .
The WAVES left behind a legacy of accomplishment . Upon demobilization , accolades came from many sources . The Secretary of the Navy , James Forrestal , Fleet Admiral Ernest King , and Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz all commended the WAVES for their contributions to the war effort .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In May 1941 , Representative Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts introduced the bill in the U.S. Congress to establish a Women 's Auxiliary Army Corps ( WAAC ) . " As the word auxiliary suggests , women would serve not in the Army , but with it . " As such , women were deprived of full military status and denied the benefits of their male counterparts . Opposition delayed the passage of the bill until May 1942 . At the same time , the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics believed the Navy would eventually need women in uniform , and had asked the Bureau of Naval Personnel , headed by Rear Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , to propose legislation , as it had done during World War I , authorizing women to serve in the Navy . Nimitz was not considered an advocate for bringing women into the Navy , nor was he about to change course . Soon , the Navy Department began receiving inquires whether WAAC legislation for the Navy might be imminent . In response , the head of the U.S. Naval Reserve expressed the view that the Civil Service would be able to supply any extra personnel that might be needed .
The response did not put the questions to rest . On 9 December 1941 , Representative Rogers telephoned Nimitz and asked him whether the Navy was interested in a bill that would allow the Navy to use women similar to that of the WAAC legislation . In her book , Lady in the Navy , Joy Bright Hancock quotes his reply : " I advised Mrs. Rogers that at the present time I saw no great need for such a bill ... " Nevertheless , within days Nimitz was in touch with all Navy Department bureaus asking them to assess their needs for an equivalent to the WAAC . With few exceptions , the responses were negative . Yet , Congressional inquiries continued to increase about the Navy 's plan for women .
Then on 2 January 1942 , the Bureau of Personnel , in an about face , recommended to the Secretary of the Navy , Frank Knox , that Congress be asked to authorize a women 's organization . The following month , Knox recommended a women 's branch as part of the Naval Reserve . The director of the Bureau of the budget said no , but would agree to the Navy adapting legislation similar to the WAAC – where women were with , but not in the Navy . This was unacceptable to Knox and the standoff began . Still , the Bureau of Aeronautics continued to believe there was a place for women in the Navy , and appealed
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, where he played football from 1993 to 1996 . During this first season at Michigan , he only made one field goal . Following the 1993 season , he was suspended from the team for violating team rules . He remained on suspension while police investigated a convenience store theft . After making a 47 @-@ yard field goal in his only attempt as a freshman , he lost the kicking job to Erik Lovell in spring practice . Lovell handled the kicking duties in the 1994 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season opener and Hamilton did not get the starting assignment until immediately before the second game . Lovell missed an extra point in the opener , which gave Hamilton his second chance . Thus , before the second game of his sophomore season , he had not recorded any field goals that season and still had a career total of one . However , during the September 10 , 1994 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game against third @-@ ranked Notre Dame , he made four field goals and two extra point conversions , including the game @-@ winning 42 @-@ yarder with two seconds remaining . Notre Dame called a timeout to ice Hamilton , but it inadvertently helped Michigan , which had prematurely packed away the kicking net on its sidelines . The field goal redeemed Hamilton for a missed tackle on a kickoff return , which he felt would have cost his team the game . For his performance , the Big Ten named him the Special Teams Player of the Week . Michigan fans still remember Hamilton for this game , and regularly congratulate him for the kick . Two games later , he had a three @-@ field goal game in the Big Ten Conference opener against Iowa . Hamilton had another four @-@ field goal outing later in the season against Illinois . This earned him another Player of the Week recognition .
He was named to the 1994 College Football All @-@ America and 1994 All @-@ Big Ten teams . Hamilton was a first team All @-@ American selection by the Walter Camp Football Foundation and second team selection by the Associated Press and the Football News . Despite NFL alumni that include Jay Feely , Hayden Epstein and Ali Haji @-@ Sheikh , Hamilton remains the school 's only All @-@ American placekicker . During the 1994 football season , Hamilton established the current Big Ten single @-@ season record for successful field goals at 25 , which has since been tied three times , . The Big Ten was talented at the placekicker position that season , with four of the twenty semifinalists for the Lou Groza Award being from the conference ( Hamilton , Illinois ' Chris Richardson , Minnesota 's Mike Chalberg and Northwestern 's Sam Valenzisi ) . Hamilton won the NCAA statistical championship for field goal kickers that season . He also set Michigan 's single season kick point record with 101 in 1994 .
During the 1995 season , one of his more important field goals for the Wolverines came in the 5 – 0 victory over Purdue . However , when Northwestern beat Michigan at Michigan Stadium , 19 – 13 , for its first victory there since 1959 , Hamilton missed a key 37 @-@ yard field goal . His 1995 total of 19 field goals ranked second in Michigan history , behind only his own 1994 total . Garrett Rivas tied that single @-@ season total twice , but no one has unseated Hamilton from first and second place .
He also helped the 1996 team take a 9 – 0 halftime lead and converted an extra point to give them a 16 – 0 lead in what would eventually be a loss to Northwestern , 17 – 16 . His most notable scoring in 1996 gave Michigan essential fourth @-@ quarter points in a 27 – 20 victory over Indiana . He earned his third Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week honors following a 13 – 9 victory over Ohio State in the Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry game on November 23 , 1996 . He put the team ahead , 10 – 9 , on the last play of the third quarter and added a key field goal with 1 : 19 remaining . A two @-@ time finalist for the Lou Groza Award , Hamilton finished his career as the all @-@ time Wolverine leader in field goals made ( 63 ) and field goals attempted ( 82 ) . Before his career ended , he became the ninth Wolverine to accumulate over 200 points .
Hamilton holds the Michigan record for consecutive field goals made ( 14 ) as well as outright or shared school records for single @-@ game ( 5 ) , single @-@ season ( 30 ) and career ( 82 ) field goal attempts . His career field goals made record ( 63 ) was eclipsed by Garrett Rivas in 2006 by one . Hamilton was a three @-@ time Big Ten All @-@ Academic selection ( 1993 , 1995 , 1996 ) . He was also a three @-@ time Big Ten Conference Special Teams Player of the Week ( 9 / 12 / 94 , 10 / 10 / 94 , 11 / 25 / 96 ) . His 14 consecutive field goals mark was one short of Vlade Janakievski 's Big Ten record , which has since been broken . Hamilton 's 63 career field goals were two short of Todd Gregoire 's Big Ten record , which has since been broken .
= = Professional career = =
Hamilton joined the AFL 's Grand Rapids Rampage in 1998 , for which he played two seasons . During these , he had modest success as a field goal kicker connecting on 31 of 88 attempts ( 35 @.@ 2 % ) . In his first season , he also caught a touchdown pass . He then played in 2000 with the Carolina Cobras and in 2001 with the Milwaukee Mustangs , where he posted 11 of 42 ( 26 @.@ 2 % ) and 18 of 47 ( 38 @.@ 3 % ) field goal performances . While with the Cobras , Hamilton played against the Los Angeles Avengers in the first AFL game played at the Staples Center on April 20 , 2000 .
In 2002 , he joined the Avengers for which he had his best years as a professional , making at least half of his field goal attempts each season . Hamilton was second among kickers in the AFL in scoring in 2003 . Following his strong performance , he signed with the NFL 's Seattle Seahawks , where he competed against Josh Brown . After Brown was perfect in both four field goal and seven extra point attempts in the first three preseason games , Hamilton was released about three weeks later , and he returned to play for Los Angeles again . Hamilton was the top @-@ scoring kicker in the AFL in 2004 . In August 2004 , he signed with the Chicago Bears , where he battled Paul Edinger for the kicking duties . Bears head coach Lovie Smith noted Hamilton 's skill at onside kicks . In terms of distance , Hamilton had a slight edge with his average kick three yards deep in the end zone compared with Edinger 's goal line average . However , Edinger was perfect on six field goals and two extra points in the first three preseason games , and Hamilton missed his only exhibition game field goal attempt , a 36 @-@ yarder on August 27 . The team waived him a few days later . He was again the top @-@ scoring kicker in the AFL in 2005 . That year , he eclipsed Jay Taylor 's AFL record for single @-@ season field goal percentage , which had been 72 % , with a 74 @.@ 4 % 29 for 39 performance . Hamilton started the season with eleven consecutive field goals , giving him a total of twelve in a row for a league record . He earned a couple of NFL tryouts . Hamilton first signed with the St. Louis Rams in July 2005 prior to training camp . He played for them during the 2005 exhibition season . He made the team 's final points with a field goal in an August 12 , 1995 17 – 13 preseason victory over the Chicago Bears . For the preseason , he made his only field goal and all six extra points . Nonetheless , the Rams decided to retain Jeff Wilkins who had been their kicker since 1997 . Hamilton then signed with the Detroit Lions for their practice squad in September of the 2005 NFL season . He appeared in one NFL game for Detroit , but missed his only point after touchdown attempt , which was blocked by Alfonso Boone . He also executed a couple of kickoffs , and he made the tackle on Jerry Azumah 's 33 @-@ yard return to the 37 @-@ yard line on one in the third quarter . He was activated to replace Jason Hanson who suffered a hamstring injury , which ended Hanson 's consecutive games streak at 209 . However , Hamilton was released later that month . Hamilton returned to the AFL for Los Angeles , and he led the AFL 's kickers in scoring again in 2006 . This earned Hamilton his second consecutive AFL 's " Kicker of the Year " title and second consecutive First Team All @-@ Arena League selection . His 2006 point total is 2nd in AFL history to his own 2005 total . He signed with the Rams again before training camp , and he played for them in exhibition games during 2006 . He made four of six field goals ( including a 48 @-@ yarder ) and four of five extra points during the preseason . Again the Rams kept Wilkins . Hamilton returned to the AFL for his final season in Los Angeles . He ranked third in kicker scoring in the AFL for Los Angeles in 2007 . He joined the Dallas Desperados for 2008 . He spent the 2011 season with the Dallas Vigilantes . In 2012 , Hamilton was assigned to the Philadelphia Soul . By the time of his assignment he was the AFL ’ s all @-@ time leader in field goals made ( 188 ) , extra points made ( 1 @,@ 082 ) and scoring by a kicker ( 1 @,@ 646 points ) .
= = Personal life = =
In a May 2004 article , the Los Angeles Times reported that , less than 15 hours after a 53 – 52 overtime loss to the Georgia Force at Staples Center , Hamilton 's wife , Heather , delivered the couple 's first child , a boy named Tate . Hamilton has served as a personal trainer for other kickers .
= Gigha =
The Isle of Gigha ( / ˈɡiːə / ; Scottish Gaelic : Giogha ) is a small island off the west coast of Kintyre in Scotland . The island forms part of Argyll and Bute and has a usually resident population of about 160 people . The climate is mild with higher than average sunshine hours and the soils are fertile .
Gigha has a long history , having been inhabited continuously since prehistoric times . It may have had an important role during the Kingdom of Dalriada and is the ancestral home of Clan MacNeill . It fell under the control of the Norse and the Lords of the Isles before becoming incorporated into modern Scotland and saw a variety of conflicts during the medieval period .
The population of Gigha peaked at over 700 in the eighteenth century , but during the 20th century the island had numerous owners , which caused various problems in developing the island . By the beginning of the 21st century resident numbers had fallen to only 98 . However a " community buy @-@ out " in 2002 has transformed the island , which now has a growing population and a variety of new commercial activities to complement farming and tourism .
Attractions on the island include Achamore Gardens and the abundant wildlife , especially seabirds . There have been numerous shipwrecks on the surrounding rocks and skerries .
= = Etymology = =
The Hebrides have been occupied by the speakers of at least four languages since the Iron Age , and many of the names of these islands have more than one possible meaning as a result . Many modern authorities hold that the name " Gigha " is probably derived either from the Norse Guðey or from Gud @-@ øy , meaning either " good island " or " God island " . The Norse historical text Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar explicitly calls the island Guðey .
Despite this , Keay and Keay ( 1994 ) and Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) suggest the Gaelic name is derived instead from Gjáey , meaning " island of the geo " or " cleft " . However , Norse gjá normally shows up in Gaelic in the form of geodha . Czerkawaska ( 2006 ) also notes that the isle is called " Gug " in a charter of 1309 and also appears as " Gega " on some old maps and speculates that a possible pre @-@ Norse derivation is from the Gaelic Sheela na Gig , a female fertility symbol . Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) also offers the possibility of Gydha 's isle after the Norse female name .
A Gigha resident is a Gioghach , also nicknamed a gamhainn ( " stirk " ) . Although the most widespread pronunciation of the Gaelic name Giogha is [ kʲi.ə ] , the Southern dialects preserve the fricative : [ kʲiɣa ] in Kintyre and [ kʲɯɣɑ ] in Argyllshire .
= = Geography and geology = =
Gigha lies 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) off the coast of Kintyre and is 9 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) long in a roughly north @-@ south direction and a maximum of 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) wide . The total area is 1 @,@ 395 ha ( 3 @,@ 447 acres ) and the highest elevation of Creag Bhàn reaches only 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . The rocky central spine is composed of epidiorite with basalt intrusions .
The main settlement is Ardminish which is on the south east coast and offers a small anchorage in the sheltered Ardminish Bay . Further to the north is Druimyeon Bay and beyond that West and East Tarbert Bays which ( as their names imply ) lie astride a small isthmus .
The climate is mild with higher than average sunshine hours and minimum temperatures , and lower than average days of ground frost for Scotland . Annual rainfall is typically between 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) and 1 @,@ 290 millimetres ( 51 in ) .
= = = Surrounding islands = = =
Cara Island lies just offshore to the south , the smaller Craro island lies to the west and Gigalum to the south east . A sandy spit connects Gigha to Eilean Garbh in the north @-@ west . To the north are the rocks called An Dubh Sgeir ( a common name meaning " black rock " ) and Gamhna Giogha . The Sound of Gigha separates Gigha and its attendant isles from mainland Kintyre .
To the west and north west respectively , are the two large islands of Islay and Jura . South west are Rathlin Island and the north of Ireland , which can be seen from Gigha on clear days . Between Jura and Gigha are the rocks of Na Cuiltean and Skervuile Lighthouse . Between Gigha and Port Ellen on Islay is the Isle of Texa . Eilean Mòr , and the Isle of Danna are little further up the Argyll coast to the north .
There are also many small rocks and skerries ( small rock islands ) in the seas around Gigha . Asked by a tourist if he knew where they all were , local resident Willie McSporran ( see below ) replied " No , but I know where they aren 't and that 's good enough for me " .
= = History = =
Gigha has been inhabited continuously since prehistoric times , and there are several standing stones on the island . There are many other archaeological sites , including cairns , standing stones , duns and an ogham stone near to Kilchattan , which has not been deciphered .
In the Early Historic Period The domain of the Cenél nGabraín appears to have been centred on Kintyre and Knapdale and may have included Arran , Jura and Gigha . The title king of Kintyre is used of a number of presumed kings of the Cenél nGabrain . This would have made Gigha part of Dalriada .
There is some evidence to show that the island might have been the seat of power for Conall mac Comgall , King of Dalriada , in the mid to late 6th century . The Annals of Tigernach refer to a Battle of Delgon ( later Cindeglen ) in 574 , and this has been identified as taking place on Gigha , then referred to as Eilean da Ghallagan , although other sources believe the battle took place in Kintyre .
= = = Norse period = = =
Nearby Islay was a centre for Norse control over the Hebrides , and Gigha was later part of the Kingdom of the Isles . The island 's name appears to be Norse in origin , although its meaning is disputed , and there are several other Norse placenames in the vicinity , such as Gigalum ( i.e. " Gigha - holm " ) and Cnoc Haco ( possibly " Haakon 's hill " ) .
In 1849 , a Viking grave was found at East Tarbert Bay , which revealed a number of artefacts , including a bronze weighing balance dated to the 10th century .
Prior to the Battle of Largs , Haakon IV of Norway is said to have visited the island . According to Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar ( " The Saga of Haakon Haakonsson " ) written by Icelander Sturla Þórðarson in the 1260s :
King Haco sailed afterwards south to Guðey before Kintyre where he anchored . There King John met him ; he came in the ship with Bishop Thorgil . King Haco desired him to follow his banner as he should do . But King John excused himself . He
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said he had sworn an oath to the Scottish King , and held of him more lands than of the Norwegian Monarch ; he therefore entreated King Haco to dispose of all those estates which he had conferred upon him . King Haco kept him with him some time , and endeavoured to incline his mind to fidelity . Many laid imputations to his charge . King Haco indeed had before received bad accounts of him from the Hebrides ; for John Langlife @-@ son came to the King , while he was sailing west from Shetland , and told him the news that John King of the Hebrides , breaking his faith , had turned to the Scottish Monarch . King Haco , however , would not believe this till he had found it so .
During King Haco 's stay at Guðey an Abbot of a monastery of Greyfriars waited on him , begging protection for their dwelling , and Holy Church : and this the King granted them in writing .
Friar Simon had lain sick for some time . He died at Guðey . His corpse was afterwards carried up to Kintire where the Greyfriars interred him in their Church . They spread a fringed pall over his grave , and called him a Saint .
= = = John of Islay = = =
After Edward Balliol 's coup against the Bruce regime in 1333 , he attempted to court John of Islay , Lord of the Isles . In 1336 , Edward confirmed the territories which the Islay lords had acquired in the days of Robert I and awarded John the lands of Kintyre , Knapdale , Gigha , Colonsay , Mull , Skye , Lewis , and Morvern , previously held by magnates still loyal to the Bruces . John , however , never provided Edward with real assistance . Although Balliol 's deposition and the restoration of the House of Bruce meant that the grants made to John were void , his pre @-@ 1336 possessions were confirmed by King David II in 1343 . Moreover , in 1346 , John inherited the great Lordship of Garmoran through his brother @-@ in @-@ law Raghnall MacRuaridh . This meant that John 's dominions now included all of the Hebrides except Skye , and all of the western seaboard from Morvern to Loch Hourn .
= = = Clan MacNeill = = =
Gigha is the ancestral home of the Clan MacNeill , which possesses its own tartan and Clan badge , both distinctly different from those of the larger and better known Clan MacNeil of Barra ( spelt with one " l " in English ) who share the same Chief .
The origin of the MacNeills of Taynish , Gigha and Colonsay is obscure . They were hereditary keepers of Castle Sween under the Lords of the Isles during the 15th and 16th centuries . The MacNeill of Gigha , was known as the " chief and principal of the clan and surname of Macneils " in 1530 . However , as the power of the Campbells grew and spread into the Inner Hebrides , the influence of the MacNeills of Gigha decreased . At about this time the MacNeils on the more remote island of Barra , far removed from Campbell power , began to grow in prominence and for a long time since have been regarded as " Chief of the Clan and Name " .
In 1449 Alexander , Lord of the Isles granted part of the island to Torquil MacNeill of Taynish , the remainder being owned by the monks of Paisley . In 1493 the whole island came under MacNeill control and it remained in their hands , with various brief interludes , until the 19th century . This prize was by no means without its hazards . In 1530 the notorious pirate Ailean nan Sop murdered MacNeill of Taynish and numerous island residents . A dozen years later the title deeds were lost when eleven gentlemen of Gigha were slain by raiders .
= = = Medieval conflict = = =
In 1554 the MacNeills relinquished their Gigha holdings to the MacDonalds , but if anything the conflicts intensified . In 1567 Gigha was " ravaged " by the Macleans of Duart . By 1587 , atrocities committed between warring West Highland clans had escalated to such an extent that Parliament devised what is known as the General Band in an effort to quell hostilities . Despite the Governments actions to secure the peace , about this time Lachlan Mor MacLean of Duart ravaged the MacDonald islands of Islay and Gigha , slaughtering 500 — 600 men . Maclean of Duart then besieged Angus MacDonald of Dunivaig and the Glens at his Castle Dunivaig on Islay .
The siege was only lifted when MacDonald of Dunivaig agreed with MacLean of Duart to surrender half of his lands on Islay . However , despite his agreement with the MacLeans , MacDonald of Dunivaig then invaded the MacLean islands of Mull , Tiree , Coll and Luing . Angus MacDonald of Dunivaig was aided in the action by Donald Gorm Mor MacDonald of Sleat and the MacDonalds of Clanranald , MacIains of Ardnamurchan , MacLeods of Lewis , MacNeills of Gigha , MacAlisters of Loup and the Macfies of Colonsay . Supporting MacLean of Duart were the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan , MacNeils of Barra , MacKinnons of Strathrodle and the MacQuarries of Ulva .
In 1590 , Angus of Islay sold out to John Campbell of Cawdor , a junior cousin of the Earl of Argyll . In a move that may well have been pre @-@ arranged Campbell then immediately resold back to Neil MacNeill of Taynish . The church at Kilchattan that dates from this period has some " intricately carved medieval grave slabs " .
= = = 17th century = = =
Visiting in the late 17th century Martin Martin wrote :
This isle is for the most part arable , but rocky in other parts ; the mould is brown and clayey , inclining to red ; it is good for pasturage and cultivation . The corn growing here is oats and barley . The cattle bred here are cows , horses , and sheep . There is a church in this island called Kilchattan , it has an altar in the east end , and upon it a font of stone which is very large , and hath a small hole in the middle which goes quite through it . There are several tombstones in and about this church ; the family of the Macneils , the principal possessors of this isle , are buried under the tombstones on the east side the church , where there is a plot of ground set apart for them . Most of all the tombs have a two @-@ handed sword engraven on them , and there is one that has the representation of a man upon it ... This isle affords no wood of any kind , but a few bushes of juniper on the little hills .
William II of Scotland visited the island in 1689 , the MacNeill remaining loyal to the crown both then and in the ' 45 .
= = = Modern period = = =
In the eighteenth century the population of Gigha peaked at over 600 , but had declined to just under 400 by the close of the 19th century . After half of millennium of association , the MacNeills sold the isle for £ 49 @,@ 000 to James Williams Scarlett , a nephew of James Scarlett , 1st Baron Abinger in 1865 . His son , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William James Scarlett built the mansion house of Achamore and Gigha remained in the family 's hands until 1919 .
During the 20th century the island had various other owners . Major John Allen bought the island from the Scarletts and sold it to the Richard Hamer in 1937 , before passing ownership during World War II to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Somerset de Chair , who in turn sold to Sir James Horlick in 1944 . Horlick is recalled as a generous owner who encouraged dairy farming and created the gardens of Achamore . David Landale then purchased it from the Horlick estate in 1973 retaining it until 1989 , during which time he created a fish farm , which now specialises in halibut with a growing international reputation . Over the years little further development took place and some owners are recalled less fondly . The island briefly passed into the hands of Malcolm Potier , a property developer , and subsequently to Derek Holt and his family prior to the sale to the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . By the 1960s resident numbers had fallen to 163 and by the beginning of the 21st century the population was reduced to only 98 and the housing stock was in poor condition .
Overview of population trends
Note : The figures for 1755 – 1841 include Cara .
= = Community buy @-@ out = =
The challenges created by private landlords came to an end in March 2002 when the islanders managed , with help from grants and loans from the National Lottery and Highlands and Islands Enterprise , to purchase the island for £ 4 million . They now own it through a development trust called the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . As a result , 15 March , the day when the purchase went through , is celebrated as the island 's " independence day " . £ 1 million of the financial support was in the form of a short @-@ term loan . The money to pay this loan back was largely raised by selling Achamore House ( but not the gardens ) to Don Dennis , a businessman from California . Dennis now operates a flower essences importing business and a boat tours company from the house , which is also rented out as a bed and breakfast business . An additional £ 200 @,@ 000 was raised by the islanders through various fundraising ventures , allowing the loan to be paid back to the Scottish Land Fund on 15 March 2004 . Since the community buy out several other private businesses have sprung up on Gigha providing a boost to the local economy , including the multi @-@ award winning Boathouse Café Bar . The island 's population and economy has begun to recover as a result of these activities .
= = Economy = =
Gigha 's economy is largely dependent on livestock farming , tourism and some limited fishing . There have been some moves to diversify the economy since the community buy @-@ out . There is also a fish farm on the island , and small @-@ scale fishing .
365 hectares ( 900 acres ) of arable land are farmed and relative to its size it is the most fertile and productive island in Scotland . Ayrshire cattle are kept on the island and goat 's cheese is also produced . The Achamore creamery was closed during the 1980s , but has been successively revived .
In October 2006 it was announced that the population had reached 150 - a rise of more than 50 per cent since the 2002 buy @-@ out . Willie McSporran , former chairman of the Heritage Trust , was quoted as saying : " The trust turned 300 years of population decline on its head by encouraging new development and the growth of the local economy . A sign of the surge of people wanting to relocate to Gigha is that we are struggling to meet the demand for housing despite building 18 new homes . " The issues of island ownership are not unique to Gigha and consequently the island has been highlighted in an edition of the BBC series , Countryfile .
In 2010 the historian James Hunter stated that the transfer of ownership had brought about " a spectacular reversal of Gigha 's slide towards complete population collapse " and suggested that the UK Government should learn lessons from Gigha and other community buy @-@ outs to inform their " Big Society " plans . Between 2001 and the 2011 census the island 's population grew by over 45 % . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = = Wind turbines = = =
The Heritage Trust set up Gigha Renewable Energy Ltd. to buy and operate three Vestas V27 wind turbines , known locally as The Dancing Ladies or Creideas , Dòchas is Carthannas ( Gaelic for Faith , Hope and Charity ) . They were commissioned on 21 January 2005 and are capable of generating up to 675 kW of power . Revenue is produced by selling the electricity to the grid via an intermediary called Green Energy UK . Gigha residents control the whole project and profits are reinvested in the community .
= = = Transport and infrastructure = = =
There is an unmanned grass landing strip running east / west near the southern end of the island , requiring prior permission for landing . It is one of the closest airstrips to Glasgow International Airport , typically a 20- to 30 @-@ minute flight away for small aircraft .
A Caledonian MacBrayne ferry service links the island 's only village , Ardminish , to Tayinloan on the Kintyre peninsula of the Scottish mainland . This in turn links to the A83 road .
There is a primary school on the island , but secondary pupils must go to the Mainland for education . Ardminish has the pier , post office and shop . The island 's postcode is PA41 .
= = = Attractions = = =
Attractions on the island include the 20 @.@ 2 hectares ( 50 acres ) Achamore Gardens , begun in 1945 by Sir James Horlick and known for its rhododendrons and azaleas , the many sandy beaches and the thirteenth century St Catan 's Chapel ruins . There is also a nine @-@ hole golf course .
= = Wildlife = =
Because it is set on the eastern shores of the Atlantic Ocean , Gigha attracts a wide variety of sea birds such as guillemot and eider , which breed on Eilean Garbh . Inland , ducks such as mallard , teal , wigeon and pochard can be found along with heron , snipe , pheasant and red grouse . The hooded crow and jackdaw are present in considerable numbers , but geese are only occasional visitors . Mammals are under @-@ represented ; there are no red deer , stoat , weasel , red fox or hare . In the mid @-@ 20th century Gigha had eight boats engaged in fishing for cod and lobster , but commercial activity ceased some time ago .
= = Shipwrecks = =
Gigha 's coasts have seen numerous wrecks . In August 1886 the Staffa ran aground on Cath Sgier west of Craro . The ship remained on the reef in calm overnight conditions and all crew and 21 passengers were rescued the following morning . On 8 April 1894 the steamship Udea was lost on the same rocks with a cargo of coal and iron . Owned by David MacBrayne , she was en route from Glasgow to Lewis at the time . On 16 September 1940 the British steam liner Aska was bombed by a German aircraft south of Gigha whilst carrying French troops from Gambia . Twelve crewmen died in the attack and 75 survivors were successfully picked up by trawlers . On fire , the Aska drifted onto Cara and was wrecked there . Four years later the Mon Cousu was deliberately sunk in the Sound of Gigha and used for bombing practice . In 1991 the Russian factory ship Kartli was hit by two freak waves off Islay and ran aground at Port Ban after the crew were evacuated . Forty seven crew members were air @-@ lifted to safety but four men were killed in the accident .
= = Culture = =
Gigha had a vigorous tradition of harping , represented mainly by the family called Mac an Bhreatnaigh ( Galbraith ) , who were active in Gigha and Kintyre , and it is thought that their descendants were in Gigha until at least 1685 . In the 1990s it was reported that many of the island 's resident spoke Gaelic although the numbers have declined significantly in recent years .
= = = Gaelic = = =
Gigha has historically been a very strong Gaelic speaking area . Both in the 1901 and 1921 census , the island was reported to be over 75 % Gaelic speaking . By 1971 , it had dropped to the 25 @-@ 49 @.@ 9 % range . In the 2001 census , the percentage of Gaelic speakers had dropped to 14 % .
Gigha Gaelic was studied extensively by N.M. Holmer in the 1930s , who noted features such as its weak svarabhakti .
In 2008 , Henri Macaulay of Gigha Gallery received funding from the Gaelic development body , Bord na Gàidhlig , to run a series of Gaelic @-@ learning weekends on the island as a combined cultural @-@ revival and tourism @-@ development initiative . Conversation and music form the backbone of the weekends . They run through the winter months .
= = Notable residents = =
Seamus McSporran who managed to do 14 jobs during the 31 years of his working life - at the same time . He has also featured in a 2006 English as a foreign or second language study book and in the widely used English textbooks for adults New Headway Elementary and New Headway Elementary 3rd Edition
Willie McSporran , MBE the first chairman of the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . He is the brother of Seamus .
Giolla Críost Brúilingeach , mid 15th century harper .
Vie Tulloch , noted sculptor and the island 's oldest resident until her death in 2011 .
= Heinkel He 111 =
The Heinkel He 111 was a German aircraft designed by Siegfried and Walter Günter at Heinkel Flugzeugwerke in 1934 . Through development it was described as a " wolf in sheep 's clothing " because the project masqueraded the machine as civilian transport , though from conception the Heinkel was intended to provide the nascent Luftwaffe with a fast medium bomber .
Perhaps the best @-@ recognised German bomber due to the distinctive , extensively glazed " greenhouse " nose of later versions , the Heinkel He 111 was the most numerous Luftwaffe bomber during the early stages of World War II . The bomber fared well until the Battle of Britain , when its weak defensive armament was exposed . Nevertheless , it proved capable of sustaining heavy damage and remaining airborne . As the war progressed , the He 111 was used in a variety of roles on every front in the European theatre . It was used as a strategic bomber during the Battle of Britain , a torpedo bomber in the Atlantic and Arctic , and a medium bomber and a transport aircraft on the Western , Eastern , Mediterranean , Middle Eastern , and North African Front theatres .
The He 111 was constantly upgraded and modified , but became obsolete during the latter part of the war . The German Bomber B project was not realised which forced the Luftwaffe to continue operating the He 111 in combat roles until the end of the war . Manufacture of the He 111 ceased in September 1944 , at which point , piston @-@ engine bomber production was largely halted in favour of fighter aircraft . With the German bomber force virtually defunct , the He 111 was used for logistics .
Production of the Heinkel continued after the war as the Spanish @-@ built CASA 2 @.@ 111 . Spain received a batch of He 111H @-@ 16s in 1943 along with an agreement to licence @-@ build Spanish versions . Its airframe was produced in Spain under licence by Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA . The design differed significantly in powerplant only , eventually being equipped with Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engines . The Heinkel 's descendant continued in service until 1973 .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Design conception = = =
After its defeat in World War I , Germany was banned from operating an air force by the Treaty of Versailles . German re @-@ armament began earnestly in the 1930s and was initially kept secret because it violated the treaty . Consequently , the early development of military bombers was disguised as a development program for civilian transport aircraft .
Among those designers seeking to benefit from German re @-@ armament was Ernst Heinkel . Heinkel decided to create the world 's fastest passenger aircraft , a goal met with scepticism by Germany 's aircraft industry and political leadership . Heinkel entrusted development to Siegfried and Walter Günter , both fairly new to the company and untested .
In June 1933 Albert Kesselring visited Heinkel 's offices . Kesselring was head of the Luftwaffe Administration Office : at that point Germany did not have a State Aviation Ministry but only an aviation commissariat , the Luftfahrtkommissariat . Kesselring was hoping to build a new air force out of the Flying Corps being constructed in the Reichswehr and required a modern force of aircraft . Kesselring convinced Heinkel to move his factory from Warnemünde to Rostock and turn it over to mass production with a force of 3 @,@ 000 employees . Heinkel began work on the new design , which garnered urgency as the American Lockheed 12 , Boeing 247 and Douglas DC @-@ 2 began to appear .
Features of the He 111 were apparent in the Heinkel He 70 . The first single @-@ engined He 70 Blitz ( " Lightning " ) rolled off the line in 1932 and the type immediately started breaking records . In the normal four @-@ passenger version its speed reached 380 km / h ( 230 mph ) , when powered by a 447 kW ( 600 hp ) BMW VI engine . The He 70 was designed with an elliptical wing , which the Günther brothers had already incorporated into the Bäumer Sausewind before they joined Heinkel . This wing design became a feature in this and many subsequent designs they developed . The He 70 drew the interest of the Luftwaffe , which was looking for an aircraft with dual bomber and transport capabilities .
The He 111 was a twin @-@ engine version of the Blitz , preserving the elliptical inverted gull wing , small rounded control surfaces and BMW engines , so that the new design was often called the Doppel @-@ Blitz ( " Double Lightning " ) . When the Dornier Do 17 displaced the He 70 , Heinkel needed a twin @-@ engine design to match its competitors . Heinkel spent 200 @,@ 000 man hours designing the He 111 . The fuselage length was extended to just over 17 @.@ 4 m / 57 ft ( from 11 @.@ 7 m / 38 ft 4 ½ in ) and wingspan to 22 @.@ 6 m / 74 ft ( from 14 @.@ 6 m / 48 ft ) .
= = = First flight = = =
The first He 111 flew on 24 February 1935 , piloted by chief test pilot Gerhard Nitschke , who was ordered not to land at the company 's factory airfield at Rostock @-@ Marienehe ( today 's Rostock @-@ Schmarl neighbourhood ) , as this was considered too short , but at the central Erprobungstelle Rechlin test facility . He ignored these orders and landed back at Marienehe . He said that the He 111 performed slow manoeuvres well and that there was no danger of overshooting the runway . Nitschke also praised its high speed " for the period " and " very good @-@ natured flight and landing characteristics " , stable during cruising , gradual descent and single @-@ engined flight and having no nose @-@ drop when the undercarriage was operated . However , during the second test flight Nitschke revealed there was insufficient longitudinal stability during climb and flight at full power and the aileron controls required an unsatisfactory amount of force .
By the end of 1935 , prototypes V2 V4 had been produced under civilian registrations D @-@ ALIX , D @-@ ALES and D @-@ AHAO . D @-@ ALES became the first prototype of the He 111 A @-@ 1 on 10
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January 1936 , and received recognition as the " fastest passenger aircraft in the world " , as its speed exceeded 402 km / h ( 250 mph ) . The design would have achieved a greater total speed had the 1 @,@ 000 hp DB 600 engine that powered the Messerschitt Bf 109 's tenth through thirteenth prototypes been available . However , Heinkel was forced initially to use the 650 hp BMW VI liquid @-@ cooled engine .
During the war , British test pilot Eric Brown evaluated many Luftwaffe aircraft . Among them was a He 111 H @-@ 1 of Kampfgeschwader 26 which was forced to land at the Firth of Forth on 9 February 1940 . Brown described his impression of the He 111s unique greenhouse nose :
The overall impression of space within the cockpit area and the great degree of visual sighting afforded by the Plexiglas panelling were regarded as positive factors , with one important provision in relation to weather conditions . Should either bright sunshine or rainstorms be encountered , the pilot 's visibility could be dangerously compromised either by glare throwback or lack of good sighting .
Taxiing was easy and was only complicated by rain , when the pilot needed to slide back the window panel and look out to establish direction . On take off , Brown reported very little " swing " and the aircraft was well balanced . On landing , Brown noted that approach speed should be above 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) and should be held until touch down . This was to avoid a tendency by the He 111 to drop a wing , especially on the port side .
= = = Competition = = =
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Dornier Flugzeugwerke and Junkers competed with Heinkel for Ministry of Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtministerium , abbreviated RLM ) contracts . The main competitor to the Heinkel was the Junkers Ju 86 . In 1935 , comparison trials were undertaken with the He 111 . At this point , the Heinkel was equipped with two BMW VI engines while Ju 86A was equipped with two Jumo 205Cs , both of which had 492 kW ( 660 hp ) . The He 111 had a slightly heavier takeoff weight of 8 @,@ 220 kg ( 18 @,@ 120 lb ) compared to the Ju 86 's 8 @,@ 000 kg ( 17 @,@ 640 lb ) and the maximum speed of both aircraft was 311 km / h ( 193 mph ) . However the Ju 86 had a higher cruising speed of 177 mph ( 285 km / h ) , 9 mph ( 14 km / h ) faster than the He 111 . This stalemate was altered drastically by the appearance of the DB 600C , which increased the He 111 's power by 164 kW ( 220 hp ) . The Ministry of Aviation awarded both contracts , and Junkers sped up development and production at a breathtaking pace , but the financial expenditure for the Junkers was huge . In 1934 @-@ 1935 , 3 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 RM ( 4 ½ % of annual turnover ) was spent . The Ju 86 appeared at many flight displays all over the world which helped sales to the Ministry of Aviation and abroad . Dornier , which was also competing with their Do 17 , and Heinkel were not as successful . However , in production terms , the He 111 was more prominent with 8 @,@ 000 examples produced against just 846 Ju 86s and was therefore the Luftwaffe 's most numerous type at the beginning of the Second World War .
= = Basic design = =
The design of the He 111 A @-@ L initially had a conventional stepped cockpit , with a separate pair of windscreen @-@ like panels just for the pilot and co @-@ pilot . The introduction of the P variant triggered a complete re @-@ design of the cockpit . The He 111P , and subsequent production variants , were fitted with a fully glazed cockpits , laterally asymmetric nose , with the port side having the greater curvature for the pilot , offsetting the bombardier to starboard . The resulting stepless cockpit , which was a feature on a number of German bomber designs during the war years in varying shapes and formats , no longer had the separate windscreen panels for the pilot . The pilot had to view their exterior flight environment through the same bullet @-@ like glazing that was used by the bombardier and navigator . The pilot was seated on the left and the navigator / bomb aimer on the right . The navigator went forward to the prone bomb @-@ aiming position , or could tilt his chair to one side so that he could move into the rear of the aircraft . There was no cockpit floor below the pilot 's feet — the rudder pedals being on arms — giving very good visibility below . Sliding and removable panels were manufactured into the nose glazing to allow the pilot , navigator and or bomb aimer to exit the aircraft quickly , without a time @-@ consuming retreat into the fuselage .
The fuselage contained two major bulkheads . The cockpit was at the front of the first bulkhead . The nose was fitted with a rotating machine gun mount which was offset to allow the pilot a better field of forward vision . The cockpit was fully glazed , with the exception of the lower right section , which acted as a platform for the bombardier @-@ gunner to be positioned . The commonly @-@ used Lotfernrohr @-@ series bombsight penetrated through the cockpit floor into a protective housing on the external side of the cockpit area .
Between the forward and rear bulkhead was the bomb bay , which was constructed with a double @-@ frame to strengthen it for carrying the bomb load . The space between the bomb bay and rear bulkhead was used up by Funkgerät radio equipment and contained the dorsal and flexible casemate ventral gunner positions . The rear bulkhead contained a hatch which allowed access into the rest of the fuselage which was held together by a series of stringers . The wing was a two spar design . The fuselage was formed of stringers to which the fuselage skin was riveted . Internally the frames were fixed only to the stringers which made for simpler construction but at the loss of some rigidity .
The wings ' leading edges were swept back to a point inline with the engine nacelles , while the trailing edges were angled forward slightly . The wing contained two 700 L ( 190 US gal ) fuel tanks between the inner wing main spars , while at the head of the main spar the oil coolers were fitted . Between the outer spars , a second pair of reserve fuel tanks were located carrying an individual capacity of 910 L ( 240 US gal ) of fuel . The outer trailing edges were formed by the ailerons and flaps , which were met by smooth wing tips which curved forward into the leading edge . The outer leading edge sections were installed in the shape of a curved " strip nosed " rib , which was positioned ahead of the main spar . Most of the interior ribs were not solid , with the exception of the ribs located between the rear main spar and the flaps and ailerons . This was of solid construction , though even they had lightening holes .
The control systems also had some innovations . The control column was centrally placed and the pilot sat on the port side of the cockpit . The column had an extension arm fitted and had the ability to be swung over to the starboard side in case the pilot was incapacitated . The control instruments were located above the pilot 's head in the ceiling which allowed viewing and did not block the pilot 's vision . The fuel instruments were electrified . The He 111 used the inner fuel tanks closest to the wing root . The outer tanks acted as reserve tanks . The pilot was alerted to the fuel level when the tank had 100 L ( 26 US gal ) left . A manual pump was available in case of electrical or power failure , but the delivery rate of just 4 ½ L ( 1 @.@ 2 US gal ) per minute demanded that the pilot fly at the lowest possible speed and just below 3 @,@ 048 m ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . Fortunately , the He 111 handled well at low speeds .
The defensive machine gun positions were located in the glass nose , the flexible ventral , dorsal and lateral positions in the fuselage , and all offered a significant field of fire . The design of the nose allowed the machine gun position to be moved 10 ° upwards from the horizontal and 15 ° downwards . The gun could traverse some 30 ° laterally . Both the dorsal and ventral machine guns could move up and downwards by 65 ° . The dorsal position could move the 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 machine gun 40 ° laterally , but the ventral Bola @-@ mount 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) twinned @-@ up MG 81Z machine guns could be moved 45 ° laterally . Each MG 81 single machine gun mounted in the side of the fuselage in " waist " positions , could move laterally by 40 ° , and could move upwards from the horizontal by 30 ° and downwards by 40 ° .
= = Early civilian variants = =
= = = He 111C = = =
The first prototype , He 111 V1 ( W.Nr. 713 , D @-@ ADAP ) , first flew from Rostock @-@ Marienehe on 24 February 1935 . It was followed by the civilian @-@ equipped V2 and V4 in May 1935 . The V2 ( W.Nr. 715 , D @-@ ALIX ) used the bomb bay as a four @-@ seat " smoking compartment " , with another six seats behind it in the rear fuselage . V2 entered service with Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1936 , along with six other newly built versions known as the He 111C . The He 111 V4 was unveiled to the foreign press on 10 January 1936 . Nazi propaganda inflated the performance of the He 111C , announcing its maximum speed as 400 km / h ( 249 mph ) , in reality its performance standing at 360 km / h ( 224 mph ) . The He 111 C @-@ 0 was a commercial version and took the form of the V4 prototype design . The first machine , designated D @-@ AHAO " Dresden " . It was powered by the BMW VI engine and could manage a range ( depending on the fuel capacity ) of 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) to 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 mi ) and a maximum speed of 310 km / h ( 193 mph ) . The wing span on the C series was 22 @.@ 6 m ( 74 ft 1 ¾ in ) . The fuselage dimensions stood at 17 @.@ 1 m ( 56 ft 1 ¾ in ) in the He 111 V1 , but changed in the C to 17 @.@ 5 m ( 57 ft 5 in ) . The Jumo 205 diesel @-@ type powerplant engine replaced the BMW VI . Nevertheless , the maximum speed remained in the 220 – 240 km / h ( 137 – 149 mph ) bracket . This was increased slightly when the BMW 132 engines were introduced .
A general problem existed in powerplants . The He 111 was equipped with BMW VI glycol @-@ cooled engines . The German aviation industry lacked powerplants that could produce more than 600 hp . Engines of suitable quality were kept for military use , frustrating German airline Luft Hansa and forcing it to rely on the BMW VI or 132s .
= = = He 111G = = =
The He 111G was an upgraded variant and had a number of differences to its predecessors . To simplify production the leading edge of the wing was straightened , like the bomber version . Quite a few different engine types were used , among them the BMW 132 , BMW VI , DB 600 and DB601A . Some C variants had been upgraded with the new wing modifications . A new BMW 132H engine was also used in a so @-@ called Einheitstriebwerk ( unitary powerplant ) . These radial engines were used in the Junkers Ju 90 and the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 . The wing units and engines were packed together as complete operating systems , allowing for a quick change of engine . The He 111G was the most powerful as well as the fastest commercial version . The G @-@ 0 was given the BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 ZU . Later variants had their powerplants vary . The G @-@ 3 for example was equipped with the BMW 132 . The G @-@ 4 was powered by DB600G inverted @-@ vee 950 hp ( 710 kW ) engines and the G @-@ 5 was given the DB601B with a top speed of 410 km / h ( 255 mph ) . By early 1937 , eight G variants were in Lufthansa service . The maximum number of He 111s in Lufthansa service was 12 . The He 111 operated all over Europe and flew flights as far away as South Africa . Commercial development ended with the He 111G .
= = Military variants = =
= = = He 111 A - D = = =
The initial reports from the test pilot , Gerhard Nitschke , were favourable . The He 111 's flight performance and handling were impressive although it dropped its wing in the stall . As a result , the passenger variants had their wings reduced from 25 m ( 82 ft ) to 23 m ( 75 ft ) . The military aircraft - V1 , V3 and V5 - spanned just 22 @.@ 6 m ( 74 @.@ 1 ft ) . The prototypes were equipped with 431 kW ( 578 hp ) BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 V12 in @-@ line engines , succeeded by745 kW ( 999 hp ) DB 600 engines .
The first prototypes were underpowered , as they were equipped with 431 kW ( 578 hp ) BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 V12 in @-@ line engines . This was eventually increased to 745 kW ( 999 hp ) with the fitting of the DB ( Daimler @-@ Benz ) 600 engines into the V5 , which became the prototype of the " B " series .
Only 10 He 111 A @-@ 0 models based on the V3 were built , but they proved to be underpowered and were eventually sold to China . The type had been lengthened by 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) due to the added 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 machine gun in the nose . Another gun position was installed on top of the fuselage , and another in a ventral position as a " dustbin " exposed turret , which could retract . The bomb bay was divided into two compartments and could carry 680 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of bombs . The problem with these additions was that the weight of the aircraft reached 8 @,@ 200 kg ( 18 @,@ 080 lb ) . The He 111 's performance was seriously reduced ; in particular , the BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 Z engines were not now powerful enough . The increased length also altered the 111 's aerodynamic strengths and reduced its excellent handling on takeoffs and landings .
The crews found the aircraft difficult to fly , and its top speed was reduced significantly . Production was shut down after the pilots reports reached the Ministry of Aviation . However , a Chinese delegation was visiting Germany and they considered the He 111 A @-@ 0 fit for their needs and purchased seven machines .
The first He 111B made its maiden flight in the autumn of 1936 . The first production batch rolled off the production lines that summer , at Rostock . Seven B @-@ 0 pre @-@ production aircraft were built , bearing the Werknummern ( Works numbers ) 1431 to 1437 . The B @-@ 0s were powered by DB 600C engines fitted with variable pitch airscrews . The screws increased output by 149 kW ( 200 hp ) . The B @-@ 0 had a MG 15 machine gun installed in the nose . The B @-@ 0 could also carry 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 310 lb ) in their vertical cells . The B @-@ 1 had some minor improvements . The installation of the revolving gun @-@ mount in the nose and a flexible Ikaria turret under the fuselage . After improvements , the RLM ordered 300 He 111 B @-@ 1s ; the first were delivered in January 1937 . In the B @-@ 2 variant , engines were upgraded to the supercharged 634 kW ( 850 hp ) DB 600C , or in some cases , the 690 kW ( 925 hp ) 600G . The B @-@ 2 began to roll off the production lines at Oranienburg in 1937 . The He 111 B @-@ 3 was a modified trainer . Some 255 B @-@ 1s were ordered . However , the production orders were impossible to fulfill and only 28 B @-@ 1s were built . Owing to the production of the new He 111E , only a handful of He 111 B @-@ 3s were produced . Due to insufficient capacity , Dornier , Arado and Junkers built the He 111B series at their plants in Wismar , Brandenburg and Dessau , respectively . The B series compared favourably with the capacity of the A series . The bomb load increased to 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) , while there was also an increase in maximum speed and altitude to 215 mph ( 344 km / h ) and 22 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 700 m )
In late 1937 , the D @-@ 1 series entered production . However , the DB 600Ga engine with 781 kW ( 1 @,@ 047 hp ) planned for this variant was instead allocated to Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110 production lines . Heinkel then opted to use Junkers Jumo engines , and the He 111 V6 was tested with Jumo 210 G engines , but was judged underpowered . However , the improved 745 kW ( 999 hp ) Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 powerplant prompted the cancellation of the D series altogether and concentration on the design of the E series .
= = = He 111 E = = =
The pre @-@ production E @-@ 0 series were built in small numbers . Fitted with Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines loaded with retractable radiators and exhaust systems . The variant could carry 1 @,@ 700 kg ( 3 @,@ 748 lb ) of bombs giving it a take off weight of 10 @.@ 300 kg ( 22 @,@ 707 lbs ) . The development team for the Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines managed to increase engine power to 930 hp ( 690 kW ) , subsequently the He 111 E @-@ 1s bomb load capacity increased to 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) and a top speed of 242 mph ( 390 km / h ) .
The E @-@ 1 variant with Jumo 211A @-@ 1 engines was developed in 1937 , the He 111 V6 being the first production variant . The E @-@ 1 had its original powerplant , the DB 600 replaced with the Jumo 210 Ga engines . The more powerful Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines desired by the Ministry of Aviation were not yet ready for installation . Another trial aircraft , He 111 V10 ( D @-@ ALEQ ) was to be fitted with two oil coolers necessary for the Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 installation .
The E @-@ 1s came off the production line in February 1938 , in time for a number of these aircraft to serve in the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War in March 1938 . The RLM thought that because the E variant could outrun enemy fighters in Spain , there was no need to upgrade the defensive weaponry , which would prove a mistaken in later years .
The fuselage bomb bay used four bomb racks , in later versions eight modular standard bomb racks designed to carry one SC 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb or four SC 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs each in nose up orientation . These modular standard bomb racks were a common feature on the first generation of Luftwaffe bombers , but it turned out that they limited the ordnance selection to bombs of only two sizes . These racks were abandoned in later designs .
The E @-@ 2 series was not produced , and was dropped in favour of producing the E @-@ 3 with only a few modifications , such as external bomb racks . Its design features were distinguished by improved FuG radio systems . The E @-@ 3 series was equipped with the Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 for the duration of the series which packed 1 @,@ 100 hp ( 820 kW ) .
The E @-@ 4 variant was fitted with external bomb
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5 km / h ( 295 mph ) at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) and a cruise speed of 370 km / h ( 230 mph ) , although a full bomb load reduced this figure to 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) . The design was implemented in 1937 because pilot reports indicated problems with visibility . The pilot 's seat could actually be elevated , with the pilot 's eyes above the level of the upper glazing , complete with a small pivoted windscreen panel , to get the pilot 's head above the level of the top of the " glass tunnel " for a better forward view for takeoffs and landings . The rear @-@ facing dorsal gun position , enclosed with a sliding , near @-@ clear view canopy , and for the first time , the ventral Bodenlafette rear @-@ facing gun position , immediately aft of the bomb bay , that replaced the draggy " dustbin " retractable emplacement became standard , having been first flown on the He 111 V23 , bearing civil registration D @-@ ACBH .
One of Heinkel 's rivals , Junkers , built 40 He 111Ps at Dessau . In October 1938 , the Junkers Central Administration commented :
Apparent are the externally poor , less carefully designed components at various locations , especially at the junction between the empennage and the rear fuselage . All parts have an impression of being very weak .... The visible flexing in the wing must also be very high . The left and right powerplants are interchangeable . Each motor has an exhaust @-@ gas heater on one side , but it is not connected to the fuselage since it is probable that ... the warm air in the fuselage is not free of carbon monoxide ( CO ) . The fuselage is not subdivided into individual segments , but is attached over its entire length , after completion , to the wing centre section . Outboard of the powerplants , the wings are attached by universal joints . The latter can in no way be satisfactory and have been the cause of several failures .
The new design was powered by the DB 601 Ba engine with 1 @,@ 175 PS The first production aircraft reached Luftwaffe units in Fall 1938 . In May 1939 , the P @-@ 1 and P @-@ 2 went into service with improved radio equipment . The P @-@ 1 variant was produced with two DB 601Aa powerplants of 1 @,@ 150 hp ( 860 kW ) . It had self @-@ sealing fuel tanks . The P @-@ 1 featured a semi @-@ retractable tail wheel to decrease drag . Armament consisted of a MG 15 in the nose , and a sliding hood for the fuselage 's dorsal B @-@ Stand position . Installation of upgraded FuG III radio communication devices were also made and a new ESAC @-@ 250 / III vertical bomb magazine was added . The overall takeoff weight was now 13 @,@ 300 kg ( 29 @,@ 321 lb ) .
The P @-@ 2 , like the later P @-@ 4 , was given stronger armour and two MG 15 machine guns in " waist " mounts on either side of the fuselage and two external bomb racks . Radio communications consisted of FuG IIIaU radios and the DB601 A @-@ 1 replaced the 601Aa powerplants . The Lotfernrohr 7 bombsights , which became the standard bombsight for German bombers , were also fitted to the P @-@ 2 . The P @-@ 2 was also given " field equipment sets " to upgrade the weak defensive armament to four or five MG 15 machine guns . The P @-@ 2 had its bomb capacity raised to 4 ESA @-@ 250 / IX vertical magazines . The P @-@ 2 thus had an empty weight of 6 @,@ 202 kg ( 13 @,@ 272 lb ) , a loaded weight increased to 12 @,@ 570 kg ( 27 @,@ 712 lb ) and a maximum range of 2 @,@ 100 km ( 1 @,@ 305 mi ) .
The P @-@ 3 was powered with the same DB601A @-@ 1 engines . The aircraft was also designed to take off with a land catapult ( KL @-@ 12 ) . A towing hook was added to the fuselage under the cockpit for the cable . Just eight examples were produced , all without bomb equipment .
The P @-@ 4 contained many changes from the P @-@ 2 and P @-@ 3 . The jettisonable loads were capable of considerable variation . Two external SC 1800 kg ( 3 @,@ 960 lb ) bombs , two LMA air @-@ dropped anti @-@ shipping mines , one SC 1 @,@ 800 kg plus four SC 250 kg ; or one SC 2 @,@ 500 kg external bomb could be carried on an ETC Rüstsatz rack . Depending on the load variation , an 835 L fuel and 120 L oil tank could be added in place of the internal bomb bay . The armament consisted of three defensive MG 15 machine guns. later supplemented by a further three MG 15s and one MG 17 machine gun . The radio communications were standard FuG X ( 10 ) , Peil G V direction finding and FuBI radio devices . Because of the increase in defensive firepower , the crew numbers increased from four to five . The empty weight of the P @-@ 4 increased to 6 @,@ 775 kg ( 14 @,@ 936 lb ) , and the full takeoff weight increased to 13 @,@ 500 kg ( 29 @,@ 762 lb ) owing to the mentioned alterations .
The P @-@ 5 was powered by the DB601A . The variant was mostly used as a trainer and at least twenty @-@ four production variants were produced before production ceased . The P @-@ 5 was fitted with meteorological equipment , and was used in Luftwaffe weather units .
Many of the He 111 Ps served during the Polish Campaign . With the Junkers Ju 88 experiencing technical difficulties , the He 111 and the Do 17 formed the backbone of the Kampfwaffe . On 1 September 1939 , Luftwaffe records indicate the Heinkel strength at 705 ( along with 533 Dorniers ) .
The P @-@ 6 variant was the last production model of the He 111 P series . In 1940 , the Ministry of Aviation abandoned further production of the P series in favour of the H versions , mostly because the P @-@ series ' Daimler @-@ Benz engines were needed for Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110 fighter production . The remaining P @-@ 6s were redesignated P @-@ 6 / R2s and used as heavy glider tugs . The most notable difference with previous variants was the upgraded DB 601N powerplants .
The P @-@ 7 variant 's history is unclear . The P @-@ 8 was said to have been similar to the H @-@ 5 fitted with dual controls . The P @-@ 9 was produced as an export variant for the Hungarian Air Force . Due to the lack of DB 601E engines , the series was terminated in summer 1940 .
= = He 111H and its variants = =
= = = He 111 H @-@ 1 to H @-@ 10 = = =
The H variant of the He 111 series was more widely produced and saw more action during World War II than any other Heinkel variant . Owing to the uncertainty surrounding the delivery and availability of the DB 601 engines , Heinkel switched to b820 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) Junkers Jumo 211 powerplants , whose somewhat greater size and weight were regarded as unimportant considerations in a twin @-@ engine design . When the Jumo was fitted to the P model it became the He 111 H.
The He 111 H @-@ 1 was fitted with a standard set of three 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 machine guns and eight SC 250 250 kg ( 550 lb ) or 32 SC 50 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs . The same armament was used in the H @-@ 2 which started production in August 1939 . The P @-@ series was gradually replaced on the eve of war with the new the H @-@ 2 , powered by improved Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 engines of 820 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) . A count on 2 September 1939 revealed that the Luftwaffe had a total of 787 He 111s in service , with 705 combat ready , including 400 H @-@ 1 and H @-@ 2s that had been produced in a mere four months . Production of the H @-@ 3 , powered by the 895 kW ( 1 @,@ 200 hp ) Jumo 211 D @-@ 1 , began in October 1939 . Experiences during the Polish Campaign led to an increase in defensive armament . MG 17s were fitted whenever possible and the number of machine guns was increased to seven . The two waist positions received an additional MG 15 or 17 , and on some variants a belt @-@ fed MG 17 was even installed in the tail .
After the Battle of Britain , smaller scale production of the H @-@ 4s began . The H @-@ 4 was virtually identical to the He 111 P @-@ 4 with the DB 600s swapped for the Jumo 211D @-@ 1s . Some also used the Jumo 211H @-@ 1 . This variant also differed from the H @-@ 3 in that it could either carry 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) of bombs internally or mount one or two external racks to carry one 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) or two 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 210 lb ) bombs . As these external racks blocked the internal bomb bay doors , a combination of internal and external storage was not possible . A PVR 1006L bomb rack was fitted externally and an 835 L ( 221 US gal ) tank added to the interior spaces left vacant by the removal of the internal bomb @-@ bay . The PVR 1006L was capable of carrying a SC 1000 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 210 lb ) bomb . Some H @-@ 4s had their PVC racks modified to drop torpedoes . Later modifications enabled the PVC 1006 to carry a 2 @,@ 500 kg ( 5 @,@ 510 lb ) " Max " bomb . But 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) " Hermann " or 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) " Satans " were used more widely .
The H @-@ 5 series followed in February 1941 , with heavier defensive armament . Like the H @-@ 4 , it retained a PVC 1006 L bomb rack to enable it to carry heavy bombs under the fuselage . The first ten He 111 H @-@ 5s were pathfinders , and selected for special missions . The aircraft sometimes carried 25 kg flashlight bombs which acted as flares . The H @-@ 5 could also carry heavy fire bombs , either heavy containers or smaller incendiary devices attached to parachutes . The H @-@ 5 also carried LM A and LM B aerial mines for anti @-@ shipping operations . After the 80th production aircraft , the PVC 1006 L bomb rack was removed and replaced with a heavy @-@ duty ETC 2000 rack , enabling the H @-@ 5 to carry the SC 2500 " Max " bomb , on the external ETC 2000 rack , which enabled it to support the 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) bomb .
Some H @-@ 3 and H @-@ 4s were equipped with barrage balloon cable @-@ cutting equipment in the shape of cutter installations forward of the engines and cockpit . They were designated H @-@ 8 , but later named H8 / R2 . These aircraft were difficult to fly and production stopped . The H @-@ 6 initiated some overall improvements in design . The Jumo 211 F @-@ 1 engine of 1 @,@ 007 kW ( 1 @,@ 350 hp ) increased its speed while the defensive armament was upgraded with one 20 mm MG FF cannon in the nose position , one MG 15 in the ventral turret , and in each of the fuselage side windows ( optional ) . Some H @-@ 6 variants carried tail @-@ mounted MG 17 defensive armament . The performance of the H @-@ 6 was much improved . The climb rate was higher and the machine could reach a slightly higher ceiling of 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 200 ft ) . When heavy bomb loads were added , this ceiling was reduced to 6 @,@ 500 m ( 20 @,@ 800 ft ) . The weight of the H @-@ 6 increased to 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 600 lb ) . Some H @-@ 6s received Jumo 211F @-@ 2s which improved a low @-@ level speed of 226 mph ( 365 km / h ) . At an altitude of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 200 ft ) the maximum speed was 270 mph ( 435 km / h ) . If heavy external loads were added , the speed was reduced by 21 @.@ 75 mph ( 35 km / h ) .
Other designs of the mid @-@ H series included the He 111 H @-@ 7 and H @-@ 8 . The airframes were to be rebuilds of the H @-@ 3 / H @-@ 5 variant . Both were designed as night bombers and were to have two Jumo 211F @-@ 1s installed . The intention was for the H @-@ 8 to be fitted with cable @-@ cutting equipment and barrage ballon deflectors on the leading edge of the wings . The H @-@ 7 was never built .
The H @-@ 9 was intended as a trainer with dual control columns . The airframe was a H @-@ 1 variant rebuild . The powerplants consisted of two JumoA @-@ 1s or D @-@ 1s . The H @-@ 10 was also designated to trainer duties . Rebuilt from an H @-@ 2 or H @-@ 3 airframe , it was installed with full defensive armament including 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 and 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 81Z machine guns . It was to be powered by two Jumo 211A @-@ 1s , D @-@ 1s or F @-@ 2s .
= = = Later H variants , H @-@ 11 to H @-@ 20 = = =
In the summer of 1942 , the H @-@ 11 , based on the H @-@ 3 was introduced . With the H @-@ 11 , the Luftwaffe had at its disposal a powerful medium bomber with heavier armour and revised defensive armament . The drum @-@ fed 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 was replaced with a belt @-@ fed 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 in the now fully enclosed dorsal position ( B @-@ Stand ) ; the gunner in the latter was now protected with armoured glass . The single MG 15 in the ventral C @-@ Stand or Bola was also replaced , with a belt @-@ fed 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 81Z with much higher rate of fire . The beam positions originally retained the single MG 15s
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, but the H @-@ 11 / R1 replaced these with twin MG 81Z as well ; this latter arrangement was standardized in November 1942 . The port internal ESAC bomb racks could be removed , and an 835 L ( 221 US gal ) fuel tanks installed in its place . Many H @-@ 11s were equipped with a new PVC rack under the fuselage , which carried five 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bombs . Additional armour plating was fitted around crew spaces , some of it on the lower fuselage and could be jettisoned in an emergency . Engines were two 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) Junkers Jumo 211F @-@ 2 , allowing this variant to carry a 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) payload to a range of 2 @,@ 340 km ( 1 @,@ 450 mi ) . Heinkel built 230 new aircraft of this type and converted 100 H @-@ 3s to H @-@ 11s by the summer of 1943 .
The third mass production model of the He 111H was the H @-@ 16 , entering production in late 1942 . Armament was as on the H @-@ 11 , with some differences . The 20 mm MG FF cannon was deleted , as the H @-@ 16s were seldom employed on low @-@ level missions , was replaced with a single MG 131 in a flexible installation in the nose ( A @-@ Stand ) . On some aircraft , designated He 111 H @-@ 16 / R1 , the dorsal position was replaced by a Drehlafette DL 131 electrically powered turret , armed with a single MG 131 . The two beam and the aft ventral positions were provided with MG 81Zs , as on the H @-@ 11 . The two 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) Jumo 211 F @-@ 2 provided a maximum speed of 434 km / h ( 270 mph ) at 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 690 ft ) ; cruising speed was 390 km / h ( 242 mph ) , service ceiling was 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) .Funkgerät ( FuG ) radio equipment . FuG 10P , FuG 16 , FuBl Z and APZ 6 were fitted for communication and navigation at night , while some aircraft received the FuG 101a radio altimeter . The H @-@ 16 retained its eight ESAC internal bomb cells ; four bomb cells , as on previous versions could be replaced by a fuel tank to increase range . ETC 2000 racks could be installed over the bomb cell openings for external weapons carriage . Empty weight was 6 @,@ 900 kg ( 15 @,@ 210 lb ) and the aircraft weighed 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 860 lb ) fully loaded for take off . German factories built 1 @,@ 155 H @-@ 16s between the end of 1942 and the end of 1943 ; in addition , 280 H @-@ 6s and 35 H @-@ 11s were updated to H @-@ 16 standard . An undetermined number of H variants were fitted with the FuG 200 Hohentwiel . The radar was adapted as an anti @-@ shipping detector for day or night operations .
The last major production variant was the H @-@ 20 , which entered into production in early 1944 . It was planned to use two 1 @,@ 305 kW ( 1 @,@ 750 hp ) Junkers Jumo 213E @-@ 1 engines , turning three @-@ blade , Junkers VS 11 wooden @-@ bladed variable @-@ pitch propellers . It would appear this plan was never developed fully . Though the later H @-@ 22 was given the E @-@ 1 , the F @-@ 2 remained the H @-@ 20s main power plant . Heinkel and its licensees built 550 H @-@ 20s through the summer of 1944 , while 586 H @-@ 6s were upgraded to H @-@ 20 standard .
In contrast to the H @-@ 11 and H @-@ 16 the H @-@ 20 , equipped with two Jumo 211F @-@ 2s , had more powerful armament and radio communications . The defensive armament consisted of one MG 131 in an A @-@ Stand gun pod for the forward mounted machine gun position . One rotatable Drehlafette DL 131 / 1C ( or E ) gun mount in the B @-@ stand was standard and later MG 131 machine guns were added . Navigational direction @-@ finding gear was also installed . The Peil G6 was added to locate targets and the FuBI 2H blind landing equipment was built in to help with night operations . The radio was a standard FuG 10 , TZG 10 and FuG 16Z for navigating to the target . The H @-@ 20 also was equipped with barrage balloon cable @-@ cutters . The bomb load of the H @-@ 20 could be mounted on external ETC 1000 racks , or four ESAC 250 racks . The sub variant H @-@ 20 / R4 could carry 20 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs as external loads .
= = = He 111Z = = =
The He 111Z Zwilling was a design that entailed the merging of two He 111s . The design was originally conceived to tow the Messerschmitt Me 321 glider . Initially , four He 111 H @-@ 6s were modified . This resulted in a twin @-@ fuselage , five @-@ engine aircraft . They were tested at Rechlin in 1941 , and the pilots rated them highly . A batch of 10 were produced and five were built from existing H @-@ 6s . The machines were joined by a centre wing formed by two sections 6 @.@ 15 m ( 20 ft ) in length . The powerplants were five Jumo 211F engines at 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) each . Total fuel capacity was 8 @,@ 570 L ( 2 @,@ 260 US gal ) . This was increased with the addition of four 600 L ( 160 US gal ) drop tanks . It could tow a Gotha Go 242 glider or Me 321 for up to 10 hours at cruising speed . It could also remain airborne if the three central powerplants failed . The He 111 Z @-@ 2s and Z @-@ 3s were also planned as heavy bombers carrying 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) of bombs and having a range of 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . The ETC extensions allowed for a further four 600 L ( 160 US gal ) drop tanks to be installed .
The He 111 Z @-@ 2 could carry four Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ shipping guided missiles , which were guided by the FuG 203b Kehl III missile control equipment . With this load the He 111Z had a range of 1 @,@ 094 km ( 680 mi ) and a speed of 314 km / h ( 195 mph ) . Its maximum bombload was 7 @,@ 200 kg ( 15 @,@ 870 lb ) . To increase power the five Jumo 211F @-@ 2 powerplants were to be fitted with Hirth TK 11 superchargers . The armament was the same as the H @-@ 6 with the addition of one 20 mm MG 151 / 20 in a rotating gun @-@ mount on the centre section . The variant did not display any convincing ( stable ) flight performance .
The layout of the He 111Z had the pilot and his controls in the port fuselage only . Only the controls themselves and essential equipment remaining in the starboard section . The aircraft had a crew of seven ; a pilot , first mechanic , radio operator and gunner in the port fuselage , and the observer , second mechanic and gunner in the starboard fuselage .
The Z @-@ 3 was to be a reconnaissance version and was to have additional fuel tanks increasing its range to 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Production was due to take place in 1944 , just as bomber production was being abandoned . The long @-@ range variant designs failed to come to fruition . The He 111Z was to have been used in an invasion of Malta in 1942 and as part of an airborne assault on the Soviet cities Astrakhan and Baku in the Caucasus in the same year . During the Battle of Stalingrad their use was cancelled due to insufficient airfield capacity . Later in 1943 it helped evacuate German equipment and personnel from the Caucasus region and during the Allied invasion of Sicily attempted to deliver reinforcements to the island .
During operations , the He 111Z did not have enough power to lift a fully loaded Me 321 . The He 111s in RATO ( rocket assisted takeoff ) units were supplemented by rocket pods . Two were mounted beneath each fuselage and one underneath each wing . This added 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) in weight , but gave additional thrust to the engines . The pods were then released by parachute after takeoff .
The He 111Z 's operational history was minimal . One such machine was caught by RAF fighter aircraft over France on 14 March 1944 . The He 111Z was towing a Gotha Go 242 , and was shot down . Eight were shot down or destroyed on the ground in 1944 .
= = Production = =
To meet demand for numbers , Heinkel constructed a factory at Oranienburg . On 4 May 1936 , construction began , and exactly one year later the first He 111 rolled off the production line . The Ministry of Aviation Luftwaffe administration office suggested that Ernst Heinkel lend his name to the factory . The " Ernst Heinkel GmbH " was established with a share capital of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks ( RM ) . Heinkel was given a 150 @,@ 000 RM share . The factory itself was built by , and belonged to , the German state .
From this production plant , 452 He 111s and 69 Junkers Ju 88s were built in the first year of the war . German production for the Luftwaffe amounted to 808 He 111s by September 1939 . According to Heinkel 's memoirs , a further 452 were built in 1939 , giving a total of 1 @,@ 260 . But " 1940s production suffered extreme losses during the Battle of Britain , with 756 bombers lost " . Meanwhile , the He 111 's rival - the Ju 88 - had increased production to 1 @,@ 816 aircraft , some 26 times the number from the previous year . Losses were also considerable the previous year over the Balkans and Eastern Fronts . To compensate , He 111 production was increased to 950 in 1941 . In 1942 , this increased further to 1 @,@ 337 He 111s . The Ju 88 production figures were even higher still , exceeding 3 @,@ 000 in 1942 , of which 2 @,@ 270 were bomber variants . In 1943 , He 111 increased to 1 @,@ 405 aircraft . But the Ju 88 still outnumbered it in production terms as its figures reached 2 @,@ 160 for 1943 . The Allied bomber offensives in 1944 and in particular Big Week failed to stop or damage production at Heinkel . Up until the last quarter of 1944 , 756 Heinkel He 111s had been built , while Junkers produced 3 @,@ 013 Ju 88s , of which 600 were bomber versions . During 1939 @-@ 1944 , a total of 5 @,@ 656 Heinkel He 111s were built compared to 9 @,@ 122 Ju 88s . As the Luftwaffe was now on the strategic defensive , bomber production and that of the He 111 was suspended . Production in September 1944 , the last production month for the He 111 , included 118 bombers . Of these 21 Junkers Ju 87s , 74 Junkers Ju 188s , 3 Junkers Ju 388s and 18 Arado Ar 234s were built . Of the Heinkel variants , zero Heinkel He 177s were produced and just two Heinkel He 111s were built .
= = = Exports = = =
In 1937 , 24 He 111 F @-@ 1s were bought by the Turkish Air Force . The Turks also ordered four He 111 G @-@ 5s . China also ordered 12 He 111 A @-@ 0s , but at a cost 400 @,@ 000 Reichsmark ( RM ) . The aircraft were crated up and transported by sea . At the end of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish Air Force acquired 59 He 111 " survivors " and a further six He 111s in 1941 @-@ 1943 . Bulgaria was given one He 111 H @-@ 6 , Romania received 10 E @-@ 3s , 32 H @-@ 3s and 10 H @-@ 6s . Two H @-@ 10s and three H @-@ 16s were given to Slovakia , Hungary was given 3 He 111Bs and 12 @-@ 13 He 111s by 6 May 1941 . A further 80 P @-@ 1s were ordered , but only 13 arrived . Towards the end of 1944 , 12 He 111Hs were delivered . The Japanese were due to receive 44 He 111Fs , but in 19
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38 the agreement was cancelled .
= = Operational history = =
The Heinkel He 111 served on all the German military fronts in the European Theatre of World War II . Beginning the war as a medium bomber it supported the German campaigns in the field until 1943 when , owing to Western Allied and Soviet air superiority , it reverted to a transport aircraft role .
German @-@ built He 111s remained in service in Spain after the end of the Second World War , being supplemented by Spanish licence @-@ built CASA 2.111s from 1950 . The last two German @-@ built aircraft remained in service until at least 1958 .
= = Variants = =
= = Operators = =
= = = Military operators = = =
Bulgaria
Bulgarian Air Force
China
Chinese Nationalist Air Force
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovak Air Force operated one aircraft post @-@ war .
Germany
Luftwaffe
Hungary
Royal Hungarian Air Force
Romania
Royal Romanian Air Force
Slovakia
Slovak Air Force
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Forces operated several captured He 111s during World War II .
Spanish State
Spanish Air Force .
Turkey
Turkish Air Force operated 24 He 111F @-@ 1s , with first deliveries in 1937 , and remaining in use until 1944 .
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force operated various captured variants during and after the war for evaluation purposes i.e. to discover strengths and weaknesses .
United States
United States Army Air Forces operated several captured aircraft after the war . One pictured H @-@ 20 - 23 , may be the aircraft currently on display at the RAF Museum Hendon , minus the Drehlafette DL 131 turret .
= = = Civil operators = = =
China
Central Air Transport Corporation ( CATC ) operated a single ex @-@ air force He 111A re @-@ fitted with Wright Cyclone radial engines .
Germany
Deutsche Luft Hansa operated 12 aircraft .
Romania
Unknown civilian user operated one converted bomber . The registration of the He 111 was YR @-@ PTP . It is unknown whether this was a German or Romanian designation . Works , or factory number is unknown .
= = Survivors = =
Only four original German built He 111 survivors are on display or stored in museums around the world ( not including major sections ) :
He 111 E @-@ 3 ( code 25 + 82 ) , Wk Nr 2940 with the " conventional " cockpit is on display at the Museo del Aire , Madrid , Spain .
A mostly complete He 111 P @-@ 2 ( 5J + CN ) , Werknummer 1526 of 5.Staffel / Kampfgeschwader 54 ( KG 54 — Bomber Wing 54 ) , is on display at the Royal Norwegian Air Force Museum at Gardermoen , part of the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection . The 5J Geschwaderkennung code on the aircraft is usually documented as being that of either I. Gruppe / KG 4 or KG 100 with B3 being KG 54 's equivalent code throughout the war .
A He 111 H @-@ 20 ( Stammkennzeichen of NT + SL ) , Wk Nr 701152 , a troop @-@ carrying version is on display at the RAF Museum Hendon , London . Appropriated by USAAF pilots in France at the end of the war , it was left in Britain following the unit 's return to the US , and taken on by the RAF .
In 2005 , another He 111 was salvaged from a Norwegian lake and has since been moved to Germany for restoration .
= = Specifications = =
= = = He 111 H @-@ 6 = = =
Data from Heinkel He 111 : A Documentary History
General characteristics
Crew : 5 ( pilot , navigator / bombardier / nose gunner , ventral gunner , dorsal gunner / radio operator , side gunner )
Length : 16 @.@ 4 m ( 53 ft 9 ½ in )
Wingspan : 22 @.@ 60 m ( 74 ft 2 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 00 m ( 13 ft 1 ½ in )
Wing area : 87 @.@ 60 m ² ( 942 @.@ 92 ft ² )
Empty weight : 8 @,@ 680 kg ( 19,136lb lb )
Loaded weight : 12 @,@ 030 kg ( 26 @,@ 500 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 864 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Jumo 211F @-@ 1 or 211F @-@ 2 liquid @-@ cooled inverted V @-@ 12 , 986 kW ( 1 @,@ 300 hp ( F @-@ 1 ) or 1 @,@ 340 ( F @-@ 2 ) ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 440 km / h ( 273 mph )
Range : 2 @,@ 300 km ( 1 @,@ 429 mi ) with maximum fuel
Service ceiling : 6 @,@ 500 m ( 21 @,@ 330 ft )
Rate of climb : 20 minutes to 5 @,@ 185 m ( 17 @,@ 000 ft )
Wing loading : 137 kg / m ² ( 28 @.@ 1 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : .082 kW / kg ( .049 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : up to 7 × 7 @.@ 92 mm MG 15 or MG 81 machine guns , ( 2 in the nose , 1 in the dorsal , 2 in the side , 2 in the ventral ) some of them replaced or augmented by
1 × 20 mm MG FF cannon ( central nose mount or forward ventral position )
1 × 13 mm MG 131 machine gun ( mounted dorsal and / or ventral rear positions )
Bombs : 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) in the main internal bomb bay .
Up to 3 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 900 lb ) could be carried externally . External bomb racks blocked the internal bomb bay . Carrying bombs externally increased weight and drag and impaired the aircraft 's performance significantly . Carrying the maximum load usually required rocket @-@ assisted take @-@ off .
= = = He 111 C @-@ 0 = = =
Data from Black Cross Volume 4 : Heinkel He 111
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 17 @.@ 5 m ( 57 ' 5 " )
Wingspan : 22 @.@ 60 m ( 74 ft 2 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 10 m ( 13 ' 5 ⅜ " )
Wing area : 87 @.@ 60 m ² ( 942 @.@ 92 ft ² )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 11,905lb lb )
Loaded weight : 9 @,@ 610 kg ( 21 @,@ 186 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × BMW VI liquid @-@ cooled inverted V @-@ 12 , ( 660 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 310 km / h ( 193 mph )
Range : 2 @,@ 400 ( 1 @,@ 491 mi )
Service ceiling : 4 @,@ 800 m ( 15 @,@ 750 ft )
Wing loading : 109 @.@ 7 kg / m ² ( 22 @.@ 45 lb / ft ² )
= = Notable appearances in media = =
The He 111 is the most @-@ often portrayed German bomber in Second World War @-@ related shows ( often using its Spanish @-@ built CASA 2 @.@ 111 cousin as stand in ) , with the quintessential example being the movie Battle of Britain .
= Lad , A Dog ( film ) =
Lad : A Dog is a 1962 American dramatic film based on the 1919 novel Lad : A Dog written by Albert Payson Terhune . Starring Peter Breck , Peggy McCay , Carroll O 'Connor , and Angela Cartwright , the film blends several of the short stories featured in the novel , with the heroic Lad winning a rigged dog show , saving a handicapped girl from a snake , and capturing a poacher who killed his pups and injured one of his owners . Warner Brothers purchased the film rights for the novel from Vanguard Productions , and acquired the film rights for the other two Lad novels from the late Terhune 's wife .
Aram Avakian was initially selected to be the film 's director , but when he continually refused to do a sentimental @-@ type dog story , he was replaced by Leslie H. Martinson . Lillie Hayward and Roberta Hodes wrote the screenplay for the film , adapting several of the short stories from the novel to create a single narrative , and adding in an all @-@ purpose villain . The film was released on June 6 , 1962 . The studio hoped it would be successful enough to be followed by a second film and a television series . Though praised by fans and modern reviewers , contemporary critiques felt Terhune 's work did not translate well to film and it was considered a low budget , B @-@ movie . It was released to home video in 1995 .
= = Plot = =
Purebred rough collie Lad and his owners , Stephen ( Peter Breck ) and Elizabeth Tremayne ( Peggy McCay ) , are visited by their wealthy neighbor Hamilcar Q. Glure ( Carroll O 'Connor ) and his 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Angela ( Angela Cartwright ) , who is crippled from polio . While Lad befriends the girl , Glure invites the Tremaynes to show the prize @-@ winning Lad at his upcoming dog show . However , Glure is jealous of Lad 's success and has rigged one event to have such specialized rules that he believes only his recently purchased high @-@ priced , English @-@ trained collie can win . During the competition , which involves directing the dogs through a tricky set of a maneuvers , Lad is able to complete the course , while Glure 's champion does not recognize the hand signals Glure makes while holding a cigar .
Later , Lad saves Glure 's daughter Angela from a poisonous snake by knocking her backwards to get her out of harm 's way , then fighting and killing the snake , getting bitten in the process . Her nurse ( Alice Pearce ) initially does not see the snake , and begins beating Lad for " attacking " the little girl . Distraught , Angela stands and walks for the first time since her illness to stop the nurse 's abuse of her friend . Lad disappears for three days , reappearing covered in mud but cured of the poison .
After his return , Lad is bred with another prize @-@ winning collie , Lady , and they have two male puppies which are named Little Lad & Wolf . Angela is allowed her choice of one as a present to her when they are old enough to leave their mother & she chooses Little Lad . However , Jackson White ( Jack Daly ) , a poacher Lad fought and chased off the property before , sets fire to barn out of vengeance . Elizabeth is injured and Little Lad is killed but not Wolf . Lad later aids in capturing White when he breaks into the house to try to steal Lad 's gold trophy from the dog show . Angela is initially inconsolable over the loss of her puppy Little Lad , and refuses to have anything to do with Wolf . After he is nearly lost in another accident , she changes her mind and accepts Wolf as her new dog .
= = Production = =
Max J. Rosenberg , of Vanguard Productions , purchased the film rights for Albert Payson Terhune 's Lad : A Dog from publisher E.P. Dutton , then later sold the rights to Warner Brothers . When the studio learned of the other two Lad novels , Further Adventures of Lad and Lad of Sunnybank , they were concerned to learn that Dutton had the rights to only the first novel , as they were hoping the film would be successful enough to develop a sequel and possibly a television series . Executive Bruce Chapman negotiated for the film rights for the other two novels with Anice Terhune , the late wife of the author . She set up a foundation , Terhune Lad Stories , Inc , to negotiate the rights for other two novels . All told , Warner paid $ 25 @,@ 000 for the rights to all three books , though the bulk of the funds went to Dutton .
Warner Brothers initially hired Aram Avakian , a " talented , aggressive young ex @-@ film editor " known for his avant @-@ garde tendencies , to direct the film . The studio wanted a sentimental dog story that played true to the novel , which Avakian opposed . In a 1969 Life interview , Avakian stated that he " wanted to make a kind of pop , camp thing that wouldn 't be a complete ordeal for parents " while everyone else involved in the production wanted " Dick , Jane and Doggie " . Jack Warner , then head of the studio , eventually fired him , bringing the more conventional Leslie H. Martinson to complete the film . Peter Breck and Peggy McCay were cast as Lad 's owners , renamed to Stephen and Elizabeth Tremayne . Veteran actor Carroll O 'Connor was hired to play the pompous and newly wealthy Hamilcar Q. Glure , with the role of his daughter played by Angela Cartwright , a noted young actress who had starred in The Danny Thomas Show . To cast the role of Lad , a talent search was conducted , eventually resulting in the selection of a collie from the San Fernando Valley who was credited simply as " Lad " . The film is set in a modified version of the Place , with Pompton Lake reduced to a river with a large dock . The house , though similar to the real Terhune home , even including duplicates of the stone lions on the veranda , was built on a scale three times larger than the original .
Well @-@ known screenwriter Lillie Hayward , and newcomer Roberta Hodes , were hired to adapt the novel for film . They combined several of the stories from the novel , modifying characters to create a single flowing narrative . For example , the crippled girl who was a neighbor girl in the original novel became Glure 's daughter . Noting Terhune 's frequent disdain for the Ramapough Mountain Indians , they named the film 's villain Jackson White , a play on the nickname used to refer to those people . White became the catch all villain of the film , who poaches deer , sets fire to the Tremayne barn , and break into the house to try to steal a gold trophy won by Lad .
Lad : A Dog was released to theaters on June 6 , 1962 . The 98 minute film was released to VHS format on January 31 , 1995 .
= = Reception = =
The film was considered to be a " B @-@ movie " with its low production budget . Terhune biographer Irving Litvag praised O 'Connor 's performance as Glure , feeling his talent made him " seem human " and " a person of dignity and love " versus Terhune 's " overdrawn and exaggerated " silly character . He felt the setting and cinematography was " typical Hollywood overstatement " , and that as a whole found that Terhune 's " sentimental writing " did not do well in film form , calling the resulting film " cloying " and a " minor , unsung film . " However , he noted that fans of the novels seemed to thoroughly enjoy the film , suspecting part of it was the " handsome collie " found to play the titular role , and seeing the names of the beloved collies they knew on the screen . A New York Times reviewer called it a " bucolic drama of no discernible merit " . The Monthly Film Bulletin praised the dog actors , but felt the film was " stultifyingly mawkish , with a touch of supposed humor contributed by an allegedly English chauffeur " . Bob Ross , of the Tampa Tribune , considered it to be an " earnest , well @-@ acted story " . Leonard Maltin felt it was a " genuine if schmaltzy " adaptation of the novel .
= Christ Episcopal Church ( Waltham , Massachusetts ) =
Christ Church is a historic Episcopal church at 750 Main Street in Waltham , Massachusetts . The church is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts , and was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
The church was founded in 1848 , but a local hall was used for services until a wooden church was built in 1849 . The wooden structure eventually proved inadequate and a larger church designed by Peabody and Stearns was built of local fieldstone at the current location between 1897 and 1898 .
The church contains stained glass windows produced by several noteworthy manufacturers , including Clayton and Bell , Charles Connick , Louis Comfort Tiffany , and Donald MacDonald . Eight rectors have served the church since its founding .
= = History = =
The community of Christ Church was founded in 1848 by Albert C. Patterson , an Episcopal clergyman and missionary who identified the growing industrial city of Waltham as an ideal place to build a church . The new Episcopal community met in Rumford Hall ( later Waltham City Hall ) until a Gothic wooden church was completed on Central Street in Waltham in 1849 . The land for the church and much of its funding was provided by founding member J.S. Copley Greene .
Christ Church 's first rector was the Rev. Thomas F. Fales , from St. Paul 's Episcopal Church in Brunswick , Maine . Fales remained the church 's rector for more than 40 years , until retiring in 1890 . During this time , Christ Church 's membership grew from 15 members to more than 400 .
At about the time Fales retired , the church outgrew the Central Street building . In 1892 , the parish bought land with the intent of building a larger church at 750 Main Street . In 1895 , the old church building was sold to a French Canadian Roman Catholic community . Christ Church held services in Waltham 's Maynard Hall until the new building could be completed .
In 1896 , after four years of planning , the architectural firm of Peabody and Stearns was hired to design the new structure and construction began in the early months of 1897 . Philanthropist and Christ Church senior warden Robert Treat Paine , Jr. signed the contract for construction , and financed much of the building with his own fortune . Philanthropist sisters and Christ Church parishioners Harriet Sarah and Mary Sophia Walker also contributed significantly to the funding .
The first service in the completed building was held on June 17 , 1898 . That Sunday , the retired Rev. Fales delivered the church 's inaugural sermon from the wooden pulpit that was his gift to the new building .
The church is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts , and was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
= = Architecture and design = =
Christ Church was designed by Peabody and Stearns , masters of American Shingle style architecture , and was constructed of native Waltham fieldstone in the English Country style . The inspiration for the church 's stone exterior came indirectly from architect H. H. Richardson , who was also a friend and Harvard classmate of Robert Treat Paine , Jr . When Paine remodeled and expanded his Waltham home in 1883 , it was Richardson who designed the residence that would become Stonehurst , a Shingle style mansion built of glacial stones quarried on site from Paine 's estate . Richardson died in 1886 and played no part in the planning of Christ Church , but it was his Stonehurst design that inspired Robert Treat Paine , Jr. to use the same stones from his property for the exterior of the church .
The church features several stained glass windows of significance . The east window , by Clayton and Bell , was a gift from Robert Treat Paine , Jr. in memory of his wife , Lydia Lyman Paine , who died in 1897 during the construction of the church . At Paine 's request , his wife 's likeness was incorporated into the left panel of the window as a red @-@ clad figure kneeling before Christ . The west window , designed by Charles Connick , pays homage to Waltham 's manufacturing history . In addition to images of Ruth , Solomon , and Noah — all industrious figures in the Bible — the window features rivets , a bicycle wheel , a watch escapement , a Metz car , and other symbols that reference Waltham 's industrial character . Along the south wall is a signed Tiffany window , designed by Tiffany artist Frederick Wilson . The window depicts the Nativity , and was given to the church in 1908 by John H. Storer in memory of Frank Henry Perkins and Mary Ella Perkins . Also along the south wall is a window by noted Boston stained glass artist Donald MacDonald . This work , given in memory of Harriet K. Parmenter , depicts the Easter scene of the risen Christ revealing himself to Mary Magdalene .
= = Rectors = =
Since its founding , eight clergy have been elected by the Christ Church parish to serve as rector :
The Rev. Thomas F. Fales ( 1849 – 1890 )
The Rev. Herbert Noel Cunningham ( 1890 – 1895 )
The Rev. Hubert Wetmore Wells ( 1896 – 1900 )
The Rev. Francis Ellsworth Webster ( 1901 – 1930 )
The Rev. George O. Ekwall ( 1930 – 1960 )
The Rev. John S. Kromer ( 1961 – 1970 )
The Rev. William R. Mawhinney ( 1971 – 1999 )
The Rev. Sara H. Irwin ( 2009 – present )
Note : In the intervening years listed above , a priest @-@ in @-@ charge appointed by the bishop served as the leader of the church .
= Raven banner =
The raven banner ( Old Norse : hrafnsmerki ; Middle English : hravenlandeye ) was a flag , possibly totemic in nature , flown by various Viking chieftains and other
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Upon its release , Persuasion at first failed to attract many critical reviews . This changed when Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility were released in late 1995 to great success in the UK . Their reception lifted the earlier film out of obscurity , as Austen 's popularity became apparent among critics . Persuasion garnered highly positive reviews from major film critics , and critical review website Rotten Tomatoes has since calculated a rating of 83 % , which refers to the percentage of positive reviews . Caryn James of The New York Times deemed it a " critic 's pick " , praising " a cast completely in sync with Austen 's warm but piercing style " . Jay Carr of The Boston Globe highlighted Root 's performance , calling it " a heart @-@ stoppingly reticent yet glorious debut " .
In a contribution for The Washington Post , Desson Howe said " there 's a wonderful , unhurried delicacy about Persuasion ... as if everyone concerned with the production knows that , if given time and patience , Austen 's genius will emerge . Thanks to assured performances , exacting direction and , of course , inspired writing , it does , in subtle , glorious ways " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critic Ken Tucker graded the film with an " A – " , saying it " should enthral even those who haven 't read " the novel . Tucker concluded that the film was " the sort of passionate yet precise comedy that reminds me why Austen remains such a vital writer " . Susan Ostrov Weisser , a professor of nineteenth @-@ century literature , called the film a " faithful parade of Austen 's world " , and praised Root as the film 's " crown jewel " for playing a " fiercely intelligent , regretful , and frustrated Anne Elliot with subtlety and nuance " . In 2008 , James Rampton of The Independent rated it the fourth best Austen adaptation of all time .
When reviewing , film critics often compared the respective adaptations of Persuasion and Sense and Sensibility . Thompson 's film received more recognition and accolades from Hollywood , while Michell 's production gained the admiration of up @-@ market critics , who felt it was a more authentic and thoughtful representation of Austen 's world . Janet Maslin of The New York Times , for instance , wrote that Sense and Sensibility " can 't match the brilliant incisiveness of the more spartan Persuasion , still the most thoughtful new Austen adaptation " . The Los Angeles Times characterised Persuasion as " the most authentically British version and the one closest to the spirit of the novels " and Sense and Sensibility as " the audience @-@ friendly Hollywood version of Austen , easygoing and aiming to please " . Time magazine named them both the best films of 1995 , referring to Persuasion as " reserved " and Sense and Sensibility as " more bustling " . Higson , when analysing both productions , felt Persuasion captured a sense of " gritty realism " that would influence such later Austen adaptations as Mansfield Park ( 1999 ) and Becoming Jane ( 2007 ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Adlington Hall =
For Adlington Hall , Lancashire see Adlington Hall , Lancashire
Adlington Hall is a country house near Adlington , Cheshire . The oldest part of the existing building , the Great Hall , was constructed between 1480 and 1505 ; the east wing was added in 1581 . The Legh family has lived in the hall and in previous buildings on the same site since the early 14th century . After the house was occupied by Parliamentary forces during the Civil War , changes were made to the north wing , including encasing the Great Hall in brick , inserting windows , and installing an organ in the Great Hall . In the 18th century the house was inherited by Charles Legh who organised a series of major changes . These included building a new west wing , which incorporated a ballroom , and a south wing with a large portico . It is possible that Charles Legh himself was the architect for these additions . He also played a large part in planning and designing the gardens , woodland and parkland , which included a number of buildings of various types , including a bridge known as the Chinese Bridge that carried a summerhouse .
The hall was reconstructed and reduced in size in 1928 . The work included demolition of much of the west wing , building a screen wall to fill the gap , and removing parts of the south wing . During the 19th and early 20th centuries the gardens , parkland and woodland became overgrown , and the condition of some of the buildings in them deteriorated . From the middle of the 20th century , work has been undertaken to restore some of the parkland and its buildings , and to create new formal gardens near the hall .
Adlington Hall is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . The stable block has been converted for modern uses ; part of it is listed at Grade II * , and the rest is at Grade II . The grounds contain eleven Grade II listed buildings , and the grounds themselves have been designated at Grade II * on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . The hall is open to the public for visits and guided tours , and parts of the building can be hired for weddings and social functions .
= = History = =
The first known building on the site was a Saxon hunting lodge for Earl Edwin . After the Norman conquest the estate was given to Hugh Lupus , and it remained in the possession of the Norman earls until 1221 , when it passed to the Crown . Henry III granted the manor to Hugh de Corona . Hugh 's son Thomas , who had no children , granted it to his sister Ellen , who married John de Legh of Booth in the early 14th century during the reign of Edward II , after which it became the ancestral home of the Leghs of Adlington . Originally the hall consisted of timber @-@ framed buildings on three or four sides of a courtyard surrounded by a moat . The Great Hall , on the north side of the courtyard , was built between 1480 and 1505 for Thomas Legh I. The east wing and porch were added for Thomas Legh III in 1581 . During the Civil War the hall was held by Colonel Thomas Legh for the Royalists but was taken twice , in 1642 and in 1644 , by the Parliamentary forces . The hall was returned to the Leghs in 1656 , and the north front was restored in 1660 . Between 1665 and 1670 the north wing was rebuilt for Thomas Legh IV . Windows were inserted and along with the Great Hall , excluding the porch , it was encased in brick .
The estate was inherited in 1739 by Charles Legh , who embarked on a major programme of reconstruction , transforming the hall " from a medium @-@ sized Tudor house into a large Georgian manor " . He built a new west wing , which contained a dining room , a drawing room , a library , and a ballroom , the last occupying the whole length of the first floor . He then rebuilt the south wing , connecting it with the new west wing and the older Tudor east wing . At each end of the south wing was a pavilion with a canted bay on its south front . The west pavilion contained the southern end of the ballroom , and the east pavilion housed a chapel . During this time the stable block and other buildings were constructed in the grounds . The architect responsible for this work is unknown , although it has been suggested that the design was by Charles himself . A major reconstruction took place in 1928 under the direction of the architect Hubert Worthington . Much of the west wing was demolished , removing the ballroom but retaining the drawing and dining rooms . To avoid leaving a gap exposing the courtyard , Worthington filled it with a screen wall containing a corridor linking the west and south wings . He decorated this with quoins , cornices and sash windows . The projecting pavilions at the ends of the south front were also demolished . In the 1960s the stable block was converted into mews flats . Between 2004 and 2009 the east wing was restored .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The plan of the hall consists of four ranges or wings arranged as a quadrangle around a courtyard , and comprises a mixture of architectural styles . The north and east wings are in 15th- and 16th @-@ century black @-@ and @-@ white timber framing , and the south and west wings are in brick dating from the middle of the 18th century . The north front is in brick with stone quoins enclosing the timber @-@ framing . It is irregular , in two or three storeys with six gables . It contains a mixture of 12- and 16 @-@ pane sash windows , and two Venetian windows . On the courtyard side is a two @-@ storey timber @-@ framed porch bearing a long inscription dated 1581 . The east wing is timber @-@ framed , with close studding , on a rubble stone plinth . It contains mullioned and transomed windows , a small oriel window , and 12- and 16 @-@ pane sash windows . There is also a two @-@ storey staircase turret . The south wing is in Flemish bond brick with sandstone dressings . It is symmetrical , in two and three storeys , and 13 bays . It is set on a low stone plinth , and has rusticated quoins . In the centre is a portico rising to the full height of the building . This consists of four plain Ionic columns each of which is carried on an octagonal pedestal . It has a frieze bearing the inscription " CHARLES & HESTER LEGH 1757 " , and its pediment contains the Legh arms . Behind the portico are two round @-@ arched windows and a round @-@ arched door on the ground floor , over which is a window with a Palladian pediment . On each side of the portico are 12 @-@ pane sash windows under flat rusticated heads . Only the left and right ends of the west wing are still present , and they are joined by a screen wall . Inside the courtyard , on the south and west sides , is a cloister .
= = = Interior = = =
The major part of the north wing is occupied by the medieval Great Hall . This has a hammer @-@ beam roof , with carvings of angels that were added at a later date . The roof is plastered , but has been painted in such a way that it appears to be panelled . At the end that would have originally been occupied by the high table is " the finest canopy in the county " , according to the authors of the Buildings of England series . This is " a rare wooden version of the cloths of estate hung over the high table in the Middle Ages to give splendour to the appearance of the Lord of the Manor " . It consists of five tiers of panels , divided by oak ribs into 60 compartments , each of which is painted with the arms of Cheshire families . At the intersections of the ribs , instead of bosses , there are carved letters spelling out an inscription including the date 1505 . At one time the scheme may have been greater , as an account dated 1611 records a display of over 180 coats of arms . Under the canopy is a mural of Hector and Andromache . The side walls contain murals depicting the history of Troy . The latter had been painted over until they were revealed in 1859 , when the family were playing with a shuttlecock and damaged the overlying plaster . The other end of the hall is supported by a spere truss formed by two giant oak trunks , carved into an octagonal shape and covered in panels . Within the spere truss is an organ ( see below ) . To the sides of the organ are murals depicting , on one side Arabella Hunt , and on the other Saint Cecilia playing a harp . Below the murals were the doors to the buttery and pantry . Both doors are now blocked , replaced by panels carved with animals and foliage . Also in the Great Hall is a fireplace decorated with the head of Apollo .
In the west wing are the surviving rooms from Charles Legh 's extension , the dining room on the ground floor and the drawing room above it . Both rooms are panelled and decorated in Classical style , with pediments over the doors and chimneypieces . The dining room is the simpler of the two , and contains a white marble fireplace that has been dated to 1742 . The fireplace in the drawing room is also in white marble but is more elaborate , carved with scrolls , garlands , and a profile of Minerva . This room also contains giant Corinthian pilasters . Above its doors are wood @-@ carvings in the style of William Kent , depicting the heads of Bacchus , Ceres , Flora , and Neptune . The rooms in the south wing include family sitting rooms decorated with Rococo style ceilings , and Gothic and Chinoiserie motifs . Also in the rooms of this wing are items moved from the demolished parts of the west wing . The east wing contains service rooms .
= = Organ = =
The organ was installed in the Great Hall in the late 17th century . There is some dispute in respect of the precise date of installation and the builder . It was probably built in about 1670 , and has been attributed to Bernard " Father " Smith , but " no conclusive evidence has come to light either to substantiate or to dismiss this theory " . It has two manuals , no pedals , and fourteen speaking stops . It includes three 17th @-@ century reed stops , which is a rarity for the time . The organ was " remade " in about 1680 by Christian Smith , and rebuilt in 1741 – 42 by Glyn and Parker . In 1958 – 59 it was restored by Noel Mander , at which time it had been derelict for a century or more . The organ has a " very fine Renaissance case " , in two tiers . In the lower tier are the two manual keyboards over which is a row of pipes . The upper tier consists of five panels containing pipes , which are flanked by Corinthian pilasters . Over the top is a large curved hood containing gilded statues of putti playing trumpets , and a coat of arms celebrating the marriage of John Legh to Isabella Robartes in 1693 . The hall 's website states it is " without doubt England 's most important surviving instrument from the late 17th century " . It has been awarded a Historic Organ Certificate . The organ was filmed and recorded for the documentary The Elusive English Organ .
The composer Handel was a friend of the Legh family and played the organ in 1741 or 1742 . He also composed the music for a hunting song , the words of which had been written by Charles Legh . There is a tradition that Handel composed The Harmonious Blacksmith at the hall , but it is not possible to confirm this .
= = Grounds = =
The hall is surrounded by a landscape park and woodland , covering in total about 160 acres ( 65 ha ) . In addition to the buildings in the grounds , Charles Legh played a large part in designing the layout of the gardens in the 18th century . Over the years parts of the grounds have become overgrown , and the condition of the buildings has deteriorated . Since the 1950s work has been carried out to improve the grounds , and to develop parts of the gardens in a more modern style . To the north of the house a rose garden has been created and , beyond that a yew maze .
To the southeast of the hall is the stable block which partly surrounds a courtyard . It has a south front of nine bays , the middle three of which project forwards and have a pediment carried on four large Doric pilasters . The block originally had a cupola , but this has been removed . A formal garden has been built between the east wing and the stable block . Standing in this garden is a lead statue of a reclining , naked male figure , said to be Father Tiber , the river god . This formerly stood in the Wilderness garden . On the wall behind the statue are two carved unicorn heads , the emblem of the Legh family . These formerly stood on pillars at the eastern entrance to the grounds . The statues have been designated as a Grade II listed building . A Grade II building is one that is " nationally important and of special interest " . To the south of the formal garden is a stone statue of Napoleon carved by George Turner and dated 1837 . To the west of the hall is a ha @-@ ha in rubble sandstone dating from the 18th century . It was built to act as a barrier between the west side of the garden and the deer park beyond it , and is listed Grade II . Immediately to the south of the hall is a circular lawn , in the centre of which is a sundial that probably dates from about 1825 . Constructed in ashlar buff sandstone and standing on a pair of circular steps , it consists of an octagonal base with a partly fluted baluster supporting an octagonal moulded capstone . The capstone carries a copper plate inscribed with Roman numerals and the initials " TL " , and has a simple triangular gnomon . The sundial is also listed Grade II . Leading south from the lawn is a walk known as the Lime Avenue , which is entered through gates dated 1688 . The gates are in wrought iron and the piers in ashlar buff gritstone ; these are again listed Grade II . The avenue leads to another Grade II listed building , a structure known as the Shell House , so @-@ called because its interior is decorated with shells and coloured mirrors . It is a single @-@ storey cottage constructed in red brick with buff sandstone dressings . The roof is in stone @-@ slate and the chimney is brick . The wall is in brick with a stone coping . In front of Shell Cottage another sundial , also listed Grade II . This was probably built in the early 18th century for John Legh , and moved to its present position in the middle of that century . It is thought that the pillar on which it stands was originally a Saxon cross base . The octagonal copper plate is inscribed with Roman numerals , the longitude of Adlington , and John Legh 's initials . To the front of the Shell House is another walk , known as the Yew Walk . At the back and side of the house is a rockery . To the south and west of the Shell House is a wooded area known as the Wilderness , through which runs the River Dean ( or Dene ) . Many of the winding paths created by Charles Legh in the Wilderness are now overgrown , and some of the buildings are in a poor condition , or have collapsed into ruin . One building still in good condition is the Tig House , a small square pavilion overlooking the river , an early example of a building in the Chinoiserie style . It is constructed in red brick and partly clad in black and white timber framing . It has a stone @-@ slate pyramidal roof with a wooden finial , and is listed Grade II . Near to this is the a bridge known as the Chinese Bridge crossing the river , but the summerhouse which once stood on the bridge is no longer present . Another structure in the Wilderness is the Temple of Diana . This is a circular temple with a dome constructed in ashlar buff sandstone . It stands on a stylobate which supports six Doric columns and an entablature . The structure is listed Grade II . This appears to be in good condition , but in the early 2000s was said to be suffering from damp . Other buildings known as the Rathouse and the Hermitage , have been damaged by falling trees . At the north entrance to the grounds is a pair of gate piers that are listed Grade II . The piers are in rusticated ashlar sandstone and are surmounted by ball finials . The gates are iron and are similar to those at the end of the lime avenue . At the other end of the grounds , at the site of the former south approach , is a pair of sandstone gate piers dating from the middle of the 18th century . They originally carried the carved unicorn heads that are now in the formal garden , and were left isolated when the route of the turnpike road was moved . They are listed Grade II .
= = Present day = =
Adlington Hall stands in open countryside to the west of the village of Adlington , Cheshire , England . It was designated a Grade I listed building on 25 July 1952 . Grade I listing means that the building is acknowledged to be " of exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . The hall is still privately owned by the Legh family , who live in the hall . It is open to the public and for guided tours for groups at advertised times . The Great Hall and the Hunting Lodge are available to be hired for weddings and social functions . The south wing of the stable block has been converted into eight flats and is known as The Mews . It has been designated as a Grade II * listed building . Grade II * listing applies to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . The east wing is listed Grade II and has been converted into two flats and tea rooms . The landscape park has been registered at Grade II * in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . Designation as Grade II * on the Register means that the site is " particularly important , of more than special interest " .
= County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State =
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State , 470 U.S. 226 ( 1985 ) , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning aboriginal title in the United States . The case , sometimes referred to as Oneida II , was " the first Indian land claim case won on the basis of the Nonintercourse Act . "
The Supreme Court held that Indian tribes have a common law cause of action for possessory land claims based upon aboriginal title , that the Nonintercourse Act did not preempt that cause of action , and that the cause of action was not barred by a statute of limitations , abatement , implicit federal ratification , or nonjusticiability . Four dissenting justices would have held for the counties on the defense of laches , a question which the majority did not reach , but expressed doubts about .
Furthermore , the Court held that , due to the Eleventh Amendment , federal courts could not exercise ancillary jurisdiction over cross @-@ claims by counties against states . Although only two other justices agreed with the entirety of Justice Powell 's majority opinion , Brennan and Marshall agreed with Parts I @-@ IV and VI ( the Oneida 's claims against the counties ) and Burger , White , and Rehnquist agreed with Part V ( the counties claims against the state ) , thus forging separate majorities .
The case is often referred to as Oneida II because it is the second of three times the Oneida Indian Nation reached the Supreme Court in litigating its land rights claims . It followed Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( Oneida I ) ( 1974 ) , holding that there was federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction , and was followed by City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York ( 2005 ) , rejecting the tribe 's attempt in a later lawsuit to re @-@ assert tribal sovereignty over parcels of land re @-@ acquired by the tribe in fee simple .
= = Background = =
This was the second time the Supreme Court had granted certiorari to the Oneida 's land claim . Over a decade earlier , in Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) , the Supreme Court had allowed the same suit to proceed by unanimously holding that there was federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction to hear the claim . Since then , Justices William O. Douglas and Potter Stewart had departed , replaced by John Paul Stevens and Sandra Day O 'Connor .
On remand , the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York had found the counties liable to the Oneida for wrongful possession of their lands , awarded damages of $ 16 @,@ 694 , plus interest , representing the fair rental value of the land in question for the 2 @-@ year period specified in the complaint . Finally , the District Court required New York state to indemnify the counties . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed .
The Supreme Court granted certiorari " to determine whether an Indian tribe may have a live cause of action for a violation of its possessory rights that occurred 175 years ago , " ultimately agreeing with the District Court and Second Circuit that the tribe may . On appeal , the counties did not dispute the District Court 's findings that the Oneida held aboriginal title to the lands in question , and that the 1795 conveyances of the lands to the state violated the Nonintercourse Act . The counties instead argued that the Nonintercourse Act preempted the Oneida 's cause of action , that any cause of action was time barred , nonjusticable , and abated , and that any conveyance was ratified by the federal government .
= = Change of counsel = =
The case was initiated by George Shattuck of Bond , Schoeneck & King ( BS & K ) , on a contingency fee basis rather than as a pro bono matter . The retainer agreement between the firm and the tribe , approved ( as required ) by the Department of the Interior , provided that the firm would litigate the tribe 's Nonintercourse Act claim only against the government and would not sue private land owners ; another firm was handling the tribe 's claim before the Indian Claims Commission .
Shattuck argued Oneida I alone before the Supreme Court . The Native American Rights Fund ( NARF ) , which had assisted initially assisted the firm , served as co @-@ counsel in the trial after the Oneida I decision and took over completely on the second appeal . The NARF also filed another suit behalf of the Oneidas , pressing the Oneida 's possessory claims against landowners over additional lands .
As of March 2011 , BS & K had yet to receive any attorney 's fees from the tribe . On July 11 , 2011 , the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York ruled that BS & K was entitled to $ 5 @,@ 174 @.@ 54 in fees ; the district court reduced the fees to that number after finding that BS & K had breached its duty of loyalty to the Oneida 's by also representing the Canadian claimants .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The majority opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell , Jr. recognized the Oneida 's federal common law cause of action , and rejected all the counties ' affirmative defenses .
Cause of action
The Second Circuit held that the Oneida 's had both a federal common law cause of action and an implied cause of action under the Nonintercourse Act of 1793 ( the version that governed the 1795 transaction ) . The Supreme Court did not reach the statutory question because it held that " the Indians ' common @-@ law right to sue is firmly established . " The court recognized that " [ n ] umerous decisions of this Court prior to Oneida I recognized at least implicitly that Indians have a federal common @-@ law right to sue to enforce their aboriginal land rights , " citing a string of examples back to Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) . The court concluded :
[ W ] e hold that the Oneidas can maintain this action for violation of their possessory rights based on federal common law .
As to the Nonintercourse Act , the Court held that it did not preempt the cause of action because " [ t ] he Nonintercourse Act of 1793 does not speak directly to the question of remedies for unlawful conveyances of Indian land . " The court noted that the Act " did not establish a comprehensive remedial plan for dealing with violations of Indian property rights " and that there was " no indication in the legislative history that Congress intended to pre @-@ empt common @-@ law remedies . " Because the Act contained no remedial provisions , and because subsequent Congressional enactments contemplated possessory land suits by Indians , the Court found that preemption was not indicated . The court reviewed its recent aboriginal title decisions , and reiterated its statement in Oneida I that the Act merely " put in statutory form what was or came to be the accepted rule . "
Statute of limitations
Where there is no statute of limitations for a federal cause of action , the general rule is to borrow the analogous state statute of limitations unless such would be inconsistent with the underlying federal policies . However , here , the Court held that " borrowing of a state limitations period in these cases would be inconsistent with federal policy . " Reviewing Congressional actions in the context of the Indian Claims Commission , the Court concluded that " It would be a violation of Congress ' will were we to hold that a state statute of limitations period should be borrowed in these circumstances . "
Laches
The majority noted that the four dissenting justices would have barred the Oneida 's claim under laches . However , the majority noted that " we do not reach this issue today " because the District Court had ruled against the counties laches defense , and the counties had not raised the issue in the Second Circuit . In a footnote , the majority opined that " application of the equitable defense of
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validly extinguished , and thus did not disturb its holding in Oneida II .
On remand , the district court held that , although the counties could tax the Oneida , due to tribal sovereign immunity , they could not foreclose on land held by the tribe in satisfaction of these unpaid taxes . The Second Circuit affirmed , but two of the judges urged the Supreme Court to overrule some of its tribal sovereign immunity precedents . After the Supreme Court granted certiorari , the tribe passed an ordinance consenting to taxation , and the Court vacated and remanded .
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 2d Cir . 2010 )
Oneida I and Oneida II were litigated as test cases by both sides ; the Oneidas suit against the counties for 200 years of damages was stayed pending its resolution . After settlement efforts , that suit resumed in 2000 . In a similar suit by a different tribe , the Second Circuit adopted the view of the four dissenting Oneida II justices in Cayuga Indian Nation of New York v. Pataki ( 2005 ) . The same laches defense defeated the larger Oneida claim . The Oneida and the United States petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari on May 16 , 2011 . The Court denied certiorari on October 17 , with Justices Ginsburg and Sotomayor dissenting from the denial .
= University of the Philippines Los Baños =
The University of the Philippines Los Baños ( also referred to as UPLB , UP Los Baños , or Elbi ) is a public university located in the towns of Los Baños and Bay in the province of Laguna , some 64 kilometers southeast of Manila . It traces its roots to the UP College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) , which was founded in 1909 by the American colonial government to promote agricultural education and research in the Philippines . American botanist Edwin Copeland served as its first dean . UPLB was formally established in 1972 following the union of UPCA with four other Los Baños and Diliman @-@ based University of the Philippines ( UP ) units .
The university has played an influential role in Asian agriculture and biotechnology due to its pioneering efforts in plant breeding and bioengineering , particularly in the development of high @-@ yielding and pest @-@ resistant crops . In recognition of its work , it was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding in 1977 . Nine research centers are recognized as Centers of Excellence by presidential decree . UPLB hosts a number of local and international research centers , including the International Rice Research Institute ( IRRI ) , ASEAN Center for Biodiversity , World Agroforestry Centre , and the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture ( SEARCA ) .
In late 2015 , as a testament of its leadership in agricultural education and development studies , the university signed a memorandum of agreement with Nagoya University to host the Nagoya University Asian Satellite Campus ( NUASC ) through the UPLB Graduate School . The agreement makes the Philippines the eighth country to host the NUASC through which the Transnational Doctoral Programs for Leading Professionals in Asian Countries will be implemented . It will enable Filipino doctoral candidates to enroll in NU doctoral programs without having to be physically present in Nagoya for the whole duration of the course . Nagoya 's Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences and Graduate School of International Development will offer the doctorates in bioagricultural sciences and international development , respectively , through the said facility .
UPLB offers more than 100 degree programs in various disciplines through its nine colleges and two schools . As of Academic Year 2012 @-@ 2013 the Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) has accredited nine academic units as Centers of Excellence and two as Centers of Development , giving UPLB the largest number of Centers of Excellence ( research and academic units combined ) among all universities in the country .
UPLB alumni have been recognized in a wide range of fields . They include 13 scientists awarded the title National Scientist of the Philippines , members of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC , the joint winner of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) , Palanca Award winners , as well as political and business leaders .
= = History = =
UPLB was originally established as the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) on 6 March 1909 , by the UP Board of Regents . Edwin Copeland , an American botanist and Thomasite from the Philippine Normal College in Manila , served as its first dean . Classes began in June 1909 with five professors , and 12 students initially enrolled in the program . The Forestry School was established a year later .
During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines , UPCA was closed and the campus converted into an internment camp for allied nationals and a headquarters of the Japanese army . For three years , the college was home to more than 2 @,@ 000 civilians , mostly Americans , that were captured by the Japanese . In 1945 , as part of the liberation of the Philippines , the US Army sent 130 11th Airborne Division paratroopers to Los Baños to rescue the internees . Only four paratroopers and two Filipino guerrillas were killed in the raid . However , Japanese reinforcements arrived two days later , destroying UPCA facilities and killing some 1 @,@ 500 Filipino civilians in Los Baños soon afterwards .
UPCA became the first unit of the University of the Philippines to close after the war when it resumed classes on 25 July 1999 , with Leopoldo Uichangco as dean . However , only 125 ( 16 percent ) of the original students enrolled . It was even worse for the School of Forestry , which only had nine students . Likewise , only 38 professors returned to teach . UPCA used its ₱ 470 @,@ 546 ( US $ 10 @,@ 800 ) share in the Philippine @-@ US War Damage Funds ( released in 1947 ) for reconstruction .
Further financial endowments from the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) and the Mutual Security Agency ( MSA ) allowed the construction of new facilities , while scholarship grants , mainly from the Rockefeller Foundation and the International Cooperation Administration , helped fund training of UPCA faculty . From 1947 to 1958 , a total of 146 faculty members had been granted MS and PhD scholarships in US universities .
Dioscoro Umali became UPCA dean in 1959 . Umali 's administration oversaw the creation of IRRI , SEARCA ( of which he was the first director ) , and the Department of Food Science and Technology . New facilities were also constructed under his Five @-@ Year Development Program .
In 1972 , UPCA requested Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos to allow the college to secede from the University of the Philippines due to the alleged withholding of its budget and the disapproval of curricular proposals . However , UP President Salvador P. Lopez strongly opposed the idea . A survey found that there was very little support for complete independence at UPCA . As a compromise , Lopez proposed the transformation of UP into a system of autonomous constituent universities . Finally , on 20 November 1972 , Presidential Decree No. 58 was signed , establishing UPLB as UP 's first autonomous campus , with UPCA , College of Forestry , Agricultural Credit and Cooperatives Institute , Dairy Training and Research Institute , and the Diliman @-@ based Agrarian Reform Institute as its first academic units . New colleges and research centers were created over the next few years , while the College of Veterinary Medicine was likewise transferred to UPLB from UP Diliman .
In 2010 Chancellor Luis Rey Velasco 's administration oversaw the implementation of a policy allowing for larger lecture classes to improve the " absorptive capacity " of the university by more than 500 students and to give them better access to some of the more seasoned professors . It increased the class size of 25 to 40 students to a much larger 120 to 175 for general education and foundation courses . The policy has been criticized by various groups in UPLB .
= = Campus = =
The UPLB campus consists of 14 @,@ 665 ha ( 36 @,@ 240 acres ) spread across the provinces of Laguna , Negros Occidental , and Quezon . UPLB 's equipment and facilities are worth some ₱ 11 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 260 million ) according to official estimates .
= = = Los Baños campus = = =
The 1 @,@ 098 ha ( 2 @,@ 710 @-@ acre ) Los Baños campus houses UPLB 's academic facilities , as well as experimental farms for agriculture and biotechnology research . The more prominent buildings in the Los Baños campus , such as the Dioscoro L. Umali Hall , Main Library , and Student Union were designed by National Artist for Architecture Leandro Locsin . Other notable landmarks include the iconic Oblation , Alumni Plaza , Freedom Park , and Baker Memorial Hall .
UPLB is designated as caretaker of the 4 @,@ 347 ha ( 10 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) Makiling Forest Reserve ( often referred to as the " upper campus , " in contrast to the " lower campus " set at the foot of Makiling ) . It houses facilities of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources , College of Public Affairs , and the University Health Service , among others . The reserve is home to diverse flora and fauna , and has more tree species than the continental United States ( an area 32 times bigger than the Philippines ) . It serves as an outdoor laboratory for students , mainly from the College of Forestry and Natural Resources .
= = = Land grants = = =
UPLB has three major land grants : the Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant , La Carlota Land Grant , and Laguna Land Grant .
The 5 @,@ 719 ha ( 14 @,@ 130 @-@ acre ) Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant is located in the towns of Real , Quezon , and Siniloan , Laguna , and was acquired in February 1930 . It covers some portions of the Sierra Madre mountain range , and currently hosts the university ’ s Citronella and lemongrass plantations . The 705 ha ( 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) La Carlota Land Grant is situated in Negros Occidental , a province in the Western Visayas region . Acquired in May 1964 , it houses the PCARRD @-@ DOST La Granja Agricultural Research Center , which serves as a research center for various upland crops . Meanwhile , the 3 @,@ 336 ha ( 8 @,@ 240 @-@ acre ) Laguna Land Grant located in Paete , Laguna , also acquired in 1964 , is mostly undeveloped . Numerous parties have expressed interest in developing the land grants ; however , UPLB has not entertained the potential investors due to the " lack of a solid development plan . "
= = Organization and administration = =
As part of the University of the Philippines System , UPLB is governed by the 11 @-@ person UP Board of Regents , which is jointly chaired by the head of the Commission on Higher Education and the UP president .
The Board of Regents has the authority to approve the institution , merger , and abolition of degree programs as recommended by the UP president . It also has the power to confer degrees . The UP president , who is appointed by the Board of Regents , is the university 's chief executive officer and the head of the faculty .
UPLB is administered by a chancellor who is elected by the UP Board of Regents to a three @-@ year term . The chancellor may only serve for up to two terms . Under him are five vice @-@ chancellors specializing in administration , community affairs , instruction , planning and development , and research and extension .
The current chancellor is Fernando C. Sanchez , the ninth to hold the office . He assumed the post on 28 October 2014 .
UPLB , through the UP System , is a member of the Association of Pacific Rim Universities , a consortium of leading research universities in the Asia @-@ Pacific region .
= = = Funding = = =
UPLB 's endowment totaled some ₱ 4 billion ( US $ 90 million ) in 2010 , broken down into cash reserves ( ₱ 1 @.@ 7 billion / US $ 40 million ) , investments ( ₱ 745 million / US $ 17 million ) and national government subsidy ( ₱ 1 @.@ 19 billion / US $ 30 million ) .
This amount includes research funding from other sources , which was valued at ₱ 233 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 37 million ) in 2010 . The biggest source was Philippine government agencies , at ₱ 136 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 13 million ) , with the PCASTRD @-@ DOST as the largest contributor . This represents a 32 percent decrease from the previous year . Meanwhile , contributions from international and local private agencies increased 101 percent and 71 percent respectively . In all , outside sources contributed some ₱ 98 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 26 million ) .
To prepare for its centennial year , UPLB launched several Centennial Fund campaigns , the largest being the Centennial Building Fund , which aims to raise ₱ 2 billion ( US $ 46 @.@ 1 million ) for the " construction , repair and maintenance of academic buildings and dormitories " . Other Centennial Funds include the Centennial Celebration Fund and the Centennial Artists Endowment fund .
= = = Student government = = =
The University Student Council ( USC ) is the " highest governing body of all UPLB students . " Together with college student councils ( CSCs ) , it assembles as the Student Legislative Chamber and acts as the highest policy @-@ making body of the USC . The USC is composed of a chairperson , vice @-@ chairperson , 10 councilors , a representative for each college / school with less than 500 students , and an additional college representative for every 500 students in excess of
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player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces . Both agreed on the concept .
Asteroids was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a vector game , in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor . Rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics , but Logg , experienced in vector graphics , suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming . The hardware is chiefly a MOS 6502 executing the game program , and QuadraScan , a high @-@ resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an " XY display system " and the " Digital Vector Generator ( DVG ) " .
The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering , Atari 's off @-@ campus research lab in Grass Valley , California , in 1978 . Cyan gave it to Delman , who finished the design and first used it for Lunar Lander . Logg received Delman 's modified board with five buttons , 13 sound effects , and additional RAM , and used it to develop Asteroids . The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches , and it was " linked up " to a monitor .
Logg modeled the player 's ship , the five @-@ button control scheme , and the game physics after Spacewar ! , which he had played as a student at the University of California , Berkeley , but made several changes to improve playability . The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor , and was configured to move with thrust and inertia . The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg 's right thumb , which he was dissatisfied with , as he had a problem " tak [ ing ] his hand off the thrust button . " Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game . Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy 's Star Fire .
The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other . A steadily decreasing timer that shortens intervals between saucer attacks was employed to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers . The minimalist soundtrack features a " heartbeat " sound effect , which quickens as the game progresses . The game did not have a sound chip , so Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board .
A prototype of Asteroids was well received by several Atari staff and engineers , who would " wander between labs , passing comment and stopping to play as they went . " Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype , so he created a second prototype specifically for staff to play . Atari went to Sacramento , California for testing , setting up prototypes of the game in local arcades to measure its potential success . The company also observed veteran players and younger players during focus group sessions at Atari itself . A group of old players familiar with Spacewar ! struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick , whereas younger players accustomed to Space Invaders noted they get no break in the game . Logg and other Atari engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Asteroids was immediately successful upon release . It displaced Space Invaders by popularity in the United States and became Atari 's best selling arcade game of all time , with over 70 @,@ 000 units sold . Atari earned an estimated $ 150 million in sales from the game , and arcade operators earned a further $ 500 million from coin drops . Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game , Lunar Lander , but demand for Asteroids was so high " that several hundred Asteroids games were shipped in Lunar Lander cabinets . " Asteroids was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players .
The saucer in the original game design was supposed to take a shot as soon as it appeared . This action was altered so there would be a delay before the saucer shoots , leading to " lurking " from players . Lurking is a strategy in which the player uses thrust to keep the ship in motion , leaves 1 or 2 asteroids undamaged , and hunts for saucers , allowing the player to pick off as many 1 @,@ 000 @-@ point UFOs as possible and play indefinitely on a single credit . Since the saucer could only shoot directly at the player 's position on the screen , the player could " hide " at the opposite end of the screen and shoot across the screen boundary , while remaining relatively safe . Complaints from operators losing revenue due to lurking led to the creation of an EPROM restricting such chances . Usage of the names of Saturday Night Live characters " Mr. Bill " and " Sluggo " to refer to the saucers in an Esquire article about the game led to Logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the " Mr. Bill Trademark . "
Asteroids received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg 's magnum opus . Brett Alan Weiss , writing for Allgame , likened the monochrome vector graphics to minimalism and viewed its sound effects as memorable . Weiss found its overall design to be near @-@ perfect and cites the intensity and controls as elements that make the game addicting . He admitted the game is easily understandable and " holds up extremely well over time . " William Cassidy , writing for GameSpy 's " Classic Gaming " , noticed its innovations , including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores , and commented , " the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well . " Asteroids was ranked fourth on Retro Gamer 's list of " Top 25 Arcade Games " ; the Retro Gamer staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game . Entertainment Weekly named Asteroids one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 . It was added to the Museum of Modern Art 's collection of video games . By contrast , in March 1983 the Atari 8 @-@ bit port won sixth place in Softline 's Dog of the Year awards " for badness in computer games " , Atari division , based on reader submissions .
The gameplay in Asteroids was imitated by many games that followed , mostly " Asteroid clones " . By December 1981 BYTE observed that " If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery , then [ Atari 's Asteroids has ] a lot to be proud of ... Its popularity has inspired numerous imitations " , including eight for personal computers . The Mattel Intellivision title Astrosmash was conceived as Avalanche ! after Meteor ! did not take up the cartridge 's entire ROM space . Meteor ! , an Asteroids clone , was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit and Avalanche ! was released as Astrosmash . The resultant game borrows elements from Asteroids and Space Invaders , both which also influenced Defender and Gravitar , two popular and often cloned arcade games.Quality Software 's Asteroids in Space ( 1980 ) , another Asteroids clone , was one of the best selling games for the Apple II and was voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978 @-@ 80 by Softalk magazine . Others include Acornsoft 's Meteors , Moons of Jupiter for the Commodore VIC @-@ 20 , and MineStorm for the Vectrex .
= = Arcade sequels = =
Released in 1981 , Asteroids Deluxe is the first sequel to Asteroids . Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg 's involvement . The onscreen objects were tinted blue , and hyperspace was replaced by a shield that depleted if used . The asteroids rotate , and the added killer satellite enemy breaks apart into three smaller ships when hit that home in on the player 's position . The arcade machine 's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop . The game is much harder than the original and does not allow saucers to be hunted — a common strategy for Asteroids high scores .
It was followed by Owen Rubin 's Space Duel in 1982 , featuring colorful geometric shapes and co @-@ op multiplayer gameplay .
In 1987 's Blasteroids , Ed Rotberg added " power @-@ ups , ship morphing , branching levels , bosses , and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower . " Blasteroids uses raster graphics instead of vectors .
= = Ports = =
Asteroids has been ported to multiple platforms , including much of Atari 's hardware ( Atari 2600 and 8 @-@ bit computers in 1981 , Atari 7800 in 1987 , Atari Lynx in 1994 ) and many other platforms . Released in 1981 , the 2600 port was the first game to use bank switching , a technique developed by Carl Nielsen 's group of engineers that increased available ROM space from 4 KB to 8 KB . Brad Stewart , the programmer tasked to work on the port , used bank switching to complete the game . A port for the Atari 5200 , identical to the Atari 8 @-@ bit computer version , was in development in 1982 , but was not published .
The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and features co @-@ operative play . The asteroids receive colorful textures , and the " heartbeat " sound effect remains intact . The game was included as part of the Atari Lynx title Super Asteroids & Missile Command , and featured in the original Microsoft Arcade compilation in 1993 , the latter with four other Atari video games : Missile Command , Tempest , Centipede , and Battlezone .
Activision made an enhanced version of Asteroids for PlayStation , Nintendo 64 , Microsoft Windows , and the Game Boy Color in
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1998 . Doug Perry , writing for entertainment and video game journalism website IGN , praised the high @-@ end graphics – with realistic space object models , backgrounds , and special effects – for making Asteroids " a pleasure to look at " while being a homage to the original arcade version . The Atari Flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 the arcade versions of Asteroids .
Published by Crave Entertainment on December 14 , 1999 , Asteroids Hyper 64 is the Nintendo 64 port of Asteroids . The game 's graphics were upgraded to 3D , with both the ship and asteroids receiving polygon models along static backgrounds , and it was supplemented with weapons and a multiplayer mode . IGN writer Matt Casamassina was pleased that the gameplay was faithful to the original but felt the minor additions and constant " repetition " was not enough to make the port " warrant a $ 50 purchase . " He was disappointed about the lack of music and found the sound effects to be of poor quality .
In 2001 , Infogrames released Atari Anniversary Edition for the Sega Dreamcast , PlayStation , and PC compatibles . Developed by Digital Eclipse , it included emulated versions of Asteroids and other old Atari games . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot criticized the Dreamcast version for its limitations , such as the presentation of vector graphics on a low resolution television set , which obscures the copyright text in Asteroids . The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of Asteroids , along with Asteroids Deluxe , were included in Atari Anthology for both Xbox and PlayStation 2 .
Released on November 28 , 2007 , the Xbox Live Arcade port of Asteroids has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense " throttle monkey " mode . Both Asteroids in its arcade and 2600 versions and Asteroids Deluxe were ported to Microsoft 's Game Room download service in 2010 . Glu Mobile released a mobile phone port of the game with supplementary features as well as the original arcade version .
Asteroids was included on Atari Greatest Hits Volume 1 for the Nintendo DS . Craig Harris , writing for IGN , noted that the Nintendo DS 's small screen can not properly display details of games with vector graphics .
= = Highest score = =
On November 13 , 1982 , 15 @-@ year @-@ old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill , New Jersey , set a world record of 41 @,@ 336 @,@ 440 points on the arcade game Asteroids , beating the 40 @,@ 101 @,@ 910 point score set by Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach on February 6 , 1982 . In 1998 , to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment , the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002 , when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989 . In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27 , 2002 , Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran 's family , commemorating the Asteroid Champion 's achievement . On April 6 , 2010 , John McAllister broke Safran 's record with a high score of 41 @,@ 338 @,@ 740 in a 58 @-@ hour Internet livestream .
= = Film adaptation = =
In 2009 , Universal Studios obtained the rights to adapt Asteroids into a film , with Matthew Lopez as the scriptwriter and Lorenzo di Bonaventura as the producer . Universal will create the story from scratch , as done with Battleship , a film based on the Hasbro board game of the same name .
= Apollo 16 =
Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the United States Apollo space program , the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon and the first to land in the lunar highlands . The second of the so @-@ called " J missions , " it was crewed by Commander John Young , Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly . Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12 : 54 PM EST on April 16 , 1972 , the mission lasted 11 days , 1 hour , and 51 minutes , and concluded at 2 : 45 PM EST on April 27 .
John Young and Charles Duke spent 71 hours — just under three days — on the lunar surface , during which they conducted three extra @-@ vehicular activities or moonwalks , totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes . The pair drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle ( LRV ) , the second produced and used on the Moon , 26 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 16 @.@ 6 mi ) . On the surface , Young and Duke collected 95 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 211 lb ) of lunar samples for return to Earth , while Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly orbited in the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) above to perform observations . Mattingly spent 126 hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit . After Young and Duke rejoined Mattingly in lunar orbit , the crew released a subsatellite from the Service Module ( SM ) . During the return trip to Earth , Mattingly performed a one @-@ hour spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the Service Module .
Apollo 16 's landing spot in the highlands was chosen to allow the astronauts to gather geologically older lunar material than the samples obtained in the first four landings , which were in or near lunar maria . Samples from the Descartes Formation and the Cayley Formation disproved a hypothesis that the formations were volcanic in origin .
= = Crew = =
Mattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13 , but was exposed to the measles through Duke , at that time on the back @-@ up crew for Apollo 13 , who had caught it from one of his children . He never contracted the illness , but was nevertheless removed from the crew and replaced by his backup , Jack Swigert , three days before the launch . Young , a captain in the United States Navy , had flown on three spaceflights prior to Apollo 16 : Gemini 3 , Gemini 10 and Apollo 10 , which orbited the Moon . One of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966 , Duke had never flown in space before Apollo 16 . He served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a Capsule Communicator ( CAPCOM ) for Apollo 11 .
= = = Backup crew = = =
Although not officially announced , the original backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise ( CDR ) , William R. Pogue ( CMP ) and Gerald P. Carr ( LMP ) , who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19 . However , after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were finalized in September 1970 this crew would not rotate to a lunar mission as planned . Subsequently , Roosa and Mitchell were recycled to serve as members of the backup crew after returning from Apollo 14 , while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4 .
= = = Support crew = = =
Anthony W. England
Karl G. Henize
Henry W. Hartsfield , Jr .
Robert F. Overmyer
Donald H. Peterson
= = = Mission insignia = = =
The insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red , white and blue shield , representing the people of the United States , over a gray background representing the lunar surface . Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector , orbiting the Moon . On its gold @-@ outlined blue border , there are 16 stars , representing the mission number , and the names of the crew members : Young , Mattingly , Duke . The insignia was designed from ideas originally submitted by the crew of the mission .
= = Planning and training = =
= = = Landing site selection = = =
Apollo 16 was the second of the Apollo type J missions , featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle , increased scientific capability , and lunar surface stays of three days . As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface , the last two missions ( the other being Apollo 17 ) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some uncertainties in understanding the Moon 's properties . Although previous Apollo expeditions , including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 , obtained samples of pre @-@ mare lunar material , before lava began to upwell from the Moon 's interior and flood the low areas and basins , none had actually visited the lunar highlands .
Apollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material that had been ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin . Likewise , Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium , visiting the basin 's edge . There remained the possibility , because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin , that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium . Several members of the scientific community remarked that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanic processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon . They had hoped that scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer .
Two locations on the Moon were given primary consideration for exploration by the Apollo 16 expedition : the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus . At Descartes , the Cayley and Descartes formations were the primary areas of interest in that scientists suspected , based on telescopic and orbital imagery , that the terrain found there was formed by magma more viscous than that which formed the lunar maria . The Cayley Formation 's age was approximated to be about the same as Mare Imbrium based on the local frequency of impact craters . The considerable distance between the Descartes site and previous Apollo landing sites would be beneficial for the network of geophysical instruments , portions of which were deployed on each Apollo expedition beginning with Apollo 12 .
At the Alphonsus , three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance : the possibility of old , pre @-@ Imbrium impact material from within the crater 's wall , the composition of the crater 's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller " dark halo " craters . Geologists feared , however , that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact , thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre @-@ Imbrium material . There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective had already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions , as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained .
It was decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site . Following the decision , the Alphonsus site was considered the most likely candidate for Apollo 17 , but was eventually rejected . With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission , the Descartes site was determined to be safe enough for a manned landing . The specific landing site was between two young impact craters , North Ray and South Ray craters – 1 @,@ 000 and 680 m ( 3 @,@ 280 and 2 @,@ 230 ft ) in diameter , respectively – which provided " natural drill holes " which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site , thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew .
After selecting the landing site for Apollo 16 , sampling the Descartes and Cayley formations , two geologic units of the lunar highlands , was determined by mission planners to be the primary sampling interest of the mission . It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism , but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission .
= = = Training = = =
In preparing for their mission , in addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training , Young and Duke , along with backup commander Fred Haise , underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface . During these trips , they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter . In July 1971 , they visited Sudbury , Ontario , Canada for geology training exercises , the first time U.S. astronauts did so . Geologists chose the area because of a 60 mi ( 97 km ) wide crater created about 1 @.@ 8 billion years ago by a large meteorite . The Sudbury Basin shows evidence of shatter cone geology familiarizing the Apollo crew with geologic evidence of a meteor impact . During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suits , but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and scientist @-@ astronaut Anthony W. England , practicing procedures they would use on the lunar surface .
In addition to the field geology training , Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits , adapt to the reduced lunar gravity , collect samples , and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle . They also received survival training and preparation for other technical aspects of the mission .
Command Module pilot Mattingly also received training in recognizing geological features from orbit by flying over the field areas in an airplane , and trained to operate the Scientific Instrument Module from lunar orbit .
= = Mission highlights = =
= = = Launch and outbound trip = = =
The launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month from March 17 to April 16 . This was the first launch delay in the Apollo program due to a technical problem . During the delay , the space suits , a spacecraft separation mechanism and batteries in the Lunar Module ( LM ) were modified and tested . There were concerns that the explosive mechanism designed to separate the docking ring from the Command Module ( CM ) would not create enough pressure to completely sever the ring . This , along with a dexterity issue in Young 's space suit and fluctuations in the capacity of the Lunar Module batteries , required investigation and trouble @-@ shooting . In January 1972 , three months before the planned April launch date , a fuel tank in the Command Module was accidentally damaged during a routine test . The rocket was returned to the Vertical Assembly Building ( VAB ) and the fuel tank replaced , and the rocket returned to the launch pad in February in time for the scheduled launch .
The official mission countdown began on Monday , April 10 , 1972 , at 8 : 30 AM , six days before the launch . At this point the Saturn V rocket 's three stages were powered up and drinking water was pumped into the spacecraft . As the countdown began , the crew of Apollo 16 was participating in final training exercises in anticipation of a launch on April 16 . The astronauts underwent their final preflight physical examination on April 11 . On April 15 , liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants were pumped into the spacecraft , while the astronauts rested in anticipation of their launch the next day .
The Apollo 16 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12 : 54 PM EST on April 16 , 1972 . The launch was nominal ; the crew experienced vibration similar to that of previous crews . The first and second stages of the Saturn V rocket performed nominally ; the spacecraft entered orbit around Earth just under 12 minutes after lift @-@ off . After reaching orbit , the crew spent time adapting to the zero @-@ gravity environment and preparing the spacecraft for Trans Lunar Injection ( TLI ) , the burn of the third @-@ stage rocket that would propel them to the Moon . In Earth orbit , the crew faced minor technical issues , including a potential problem with the environmental control system and the S @-@ IVB third stage 's attitude control system , but eventually resolved or compensated for them as they prepared to depart towards the Moon . After two orbits , the rocket 's third stage reignited for just over five minutes , propelling the craft towards the Moon at about 22 @,@ 000 mph ( 35 @,@ 000 km / h ) . Six minutes after the burn of the S @-@ IVB , the Command / Service Module , containing the crew , separated from the rocket and traveled for 15 m ( 49 ft ) before turning around and retrieving the Lunar Module from inside the expended rocket stage . The maneuver , known as transposition , went smoothly and the LM was extracted from the S @-@ IVB . Following transposition and docking , the crew noticed the exterior surface of the Lunar Module was giving off particles from a spot where the LM 's skin appeared torn or shredded ; at one point , Duke estimated they were seeing about five to ten particles per second . The crew entered the Lunar Module through the docking tunnel connecting it with the Command Module to inspect its systems , at which time they did not spot any major issues . Once on course towards the Moon , the crew put the spacecraft into a rotisserie " barbecue " mode in which the craft rotated along its long axis three times per hour to ensure even heat distribution about the spacecraft from the Sun . After further preparing the craft for the voyage , the crew began the first sleep period of the mission just under 15 hours after launch .
By the time Mission Control issued the wake @-@ up call to the crew for flight day two , the spacecraft was about 98 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 181 @,@ 000 km ) away from the Earth , traveling at about 5 @,@ 322 ft / s ( 1 @,@ 622 m / s ) . As it was not due to arrive in lunar orbit until flight day four , flight days two and three were largely preparatory days , consisting of spacecraft maintenance and scientific research . On day two , the crew performed an electrophoresis experiment , also performed on Apollo 14 , in which they attempted to prove the higher purity of particle migrations in the zero @-@ gravity environment . The remainder of day two included a two @-@ second mid @-@ course correction burn performed by the Command / Service Module 's Service Propulsion System engine to tweak the spacecraft 's trajectory . Later in the day , the astronauts entered the Lunar Module for the second time in the mission to further inspect the landing craft 's systems . The crew reported they had observed additional paint peeling from a portion of the LM 's outer aluminum skin . Despite this , the crew discovered that the spacecraft 's systems were performing nominally . Following the LM inspection , the crew reviewed checklists and procedures for the following days in anticipation of their arrival and the Lunar Orbit Insertion burn . Command Module Pilot Mattingly reported a " gimbal lock " warning light , indicating the craft was not reporting an attitude . Mattingly alleviated this by realigning the guidance system using the Sun and Moon . At the end of day two , Apollo 16 was about 140 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 260 @,@ 000 km ) away from Earth .
At the beginning of day three , the spacecraft was about 157 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 291 @,@ 000 km ) away from the Earth . The velocity of the craft steadily decreased , as it had not yet reached the lunar sphere of gravitational influence . The early part of day three was largely housekeeping , spacecraft maintenance and exchanging status reports with Mission Control in Houston . The crew performed the Apollo light flash experiment , or ALFMED , to investigate " light flashes " that were seen by the astronauts when the spacecraft was dark , regardless of whether or not their eyes were open , on Apollo lunar flights . This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles . During the second half of the day , Young and Duke again entered the Lunar Module to power it up and check its systems , and perform housekeeping tasks in preparation for lunar landing . The systems were found to be functioning as expected . Following this , the crew donned their space suits and rehearsed procedures that would be used on landing day . Just before the end of flight day three at 59 hours , 19 minutes , 45 seconds after liftoff , while 178 @,@ 673 nautical miles ( 330 @,@ 902 km ) from the Earth and 33 @,@ 821 nautical miles ( 62 @,@ 636 km ) from the Moon , the spacecraft 's velocity began increasing as it accelerated towards the Moon after entering the lunar sphere of influence .
After waking up on flight day four , the crew began preparations for the maneuver that would brake the spacecraft into orbit around the Moon , or lunar orbit insertion . At a distance of 11 @,@ 142 nautical miles ( 20 @,@ 635 km ) from the Moon , the Scientific Instrument Module ( SIM ) bay cover was jettisoned . At just over 74 hours into the mission , the spacecraft passed behind the Moon , losing direct contact with Mission Control . While over the far side of the Moon , the Command / Service Module 's Service Propulsion System engine burned for 6 minutes and 15 seconds , braking the spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon with a low point ( pericynthion ) of 58 @.@ 3 and a high point ( apocynthion ) of 170 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 108 @.@ 0 and 315 @.@ 6 km , respectively ) . After entering lunar orbit , the crew began preparations for the Descent Orbit Insertion ( DOI ) maneuver to further modify the spacecraft 's orbital trajectory . The maneuver was successful , decreasing the craft 's pericynthion to 10 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 19 @.@ 8 km ) . The remainder of flight day four was spent making observations and preparing for activation of the Lunar Module , undocking , and landing the next day .
= = = Lunar surface = = =
The crew continued preparing for Lunar Module activation and undocking shortly after waking up to begin flight day five . The boom that extended the mass spectrometer out from the Command / Service Module 's Scientific Instruments Bay was stuck in a semi @-@ deployed position . It was decided that Young and Duke would visually inspect the boom after undocking from the CSM in the LM . They entered the LM for activation and checkout of the spacecraft 's systems . Despite entering the LM 40 minutes ahead of schedule , they completed preparations only 10 minutes early due to numerous delays in the process . With the preparations finished , they undocked in the LM Orion from Mattingly in the Command / Service Module Casper 96 hours , 13 minutes , 13 seconds into the mission . For the rest of the two crafts ' passes over the near side of the Moon , Mattingly prepared to shift Casper to a circular orbit while Young and Duke prepared Orion for the descent to the lunar surface . At this point , during tests of the CSM 's steerable rocket engine in preparation for the burn to modify the craft 's orbit , a malfunction occurred in the engine 's backup system . According to mission rules , Orion would have then re @-@ docked with Casper , in case Mission Control decided to abort the landing and use the Lunar Module 's engines for the return trip to Earth . After several hours of analysis , however , mission controllers determined that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could proceed with the landing . As a result of this , powered descent to the lunar surface began about six hours behind schedule . Because of the delay , Young and Duke began their descent to the surface at an altitude higher than that of any previous mission , at 20 @.@ 1 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 9 nmi ) . At an altitude of about 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , Young was able to view the landing site in its entirety . Throttle @-@ down of the LM 's landing engine occurred on time and the spacecraft tilted forward to its landing orientation at an altitude of 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . The LM landed 270 m ( 890 ft ) north and 60 m ( 200 ft ) west of the planned landing site at 104 hours , 29 minutes , and 35 seconds into the mission , at 2 : 23 : 35 UTC on April 21 .
After landing , Young and Duke began powering down some of the LM 's systems to conserve battery power . Upon completing their initial adjustments , the pair configured Orion for their three @-@ day stay on the lunar surface , removed their space suits and took initial geological observations of the immediate landing site . They then settled down for their first meal on the surface . After eating , they configured the cabin for their first sleep period on the Moon . The landing delay caused by the malfunction in the Command / Service Module 's main engine necessitated significant modifications to the mission schedule . Apollo 16 would spend one less day in lunar orbit after surface exploration had been completed to afford the crew contingency time to compensate for any further problems and to conserve expendables . In order to improve Young 's and Duke 's sleep schedule , the third and final moonwalk of the mission was trimmed from seven hours to five .
The next morning , flight day five , Young and Duke ate breakfast and began preparations for the first extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) , or moonwalk . After the pair donned and pressurized their space suits and depressurized the Lunar Module cabin , Young climbed out onto the " porch " of the LM , a small platform above the ladder . Duke handed Young a jettison bag full of trash to dispose of on the surface . Young then lowered the equipment transfer bag ( ETB ) , containing equipment for use during the EVA , to the surface . Young descended the ladder and , upon setting foot on the lunar surface , became the ninth human to walk on the Moon . Upon stepping onto the surface , Young expressed his sentiments about being there : " There you are : Mysterious and Unknown Descartes . Highland plains . Apollo 16 is gonna change your image . I 'm sure glad they got ol ' Brer Rabbit , here , back in the briar patch where he belongs . " Duke soon descended the ladder and joined Young on the surface , becoming the tenth and youngest human to walk on the Moon , at age 36 . After
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Labeling Ishaan an example of " dyslexic savant syndrome " , he especially praised the growth of Ishaan 's artistic talents after receiving help and support from Nikumbh , and deemed it the " most important ( and joyous ) neurocognitive phenomenon " of the film . This improvement highlights cosmetic neurology , a " major and therapeutically important issue " in cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology .
Likewise , in their article " Wake up call from ' Stars on the Ground ' " for the Indian Journal of Psychiatry , T. S. Sathyanarayana Rao and V. S. T. Krishna wrote that the film " deserves to be vastly appreciated as an earnest endeavor to portray with sensitivity and empathetically diagnose a malady in human life " . They also felt it blended " modern professional knowledge " with a " humane approach " in working with a dyslexic child . However , the authors believed the film expands beyond disabilities and explores the " present age where everyone is in a restless hurry " . The pair wrote , " This film raises serious questions on mental health perspectives . We seem to be heading to a state of mass scale mindlessness even as children are being pushed to ' perform ' . Are we seriously getting engrossed in the race of ' achievement ' and blissfully becoming numb to the crux of life i.e. , experiencing meaningful living in a broader frame rather than merely existing ? " The film depicts how " threats and coercion are not capable of unearthing rich human potentialities deeply embedded in children " , and that teachers should instead map their strengths and weakness . With this in mind , the author felt that Khan " dexterously drives home the precise point that our first priority ought to be getting to know the child before making any efforts to fill them with knowledge and abilities " . Overall , the pair found a " naive oversimplification " in the film . With India " only recently waking to recognizing the reality and tragedy of learning disability " , however , they " easily [ forgave the film 's fault ] under artistic license " .
= = = Public response = = =
The film raised awareness of the issue of dyslexia , and prompted more open discussions among parents , schools , activists , and policymakers . Anjuli Bawa , a parent @-@ activist and founder of Action Dyslexia Delhi , said that the number of parents who visit her office increased tenfold in the months following the film 's release . Many began taking a more proactive approach by contacting her after noticing problems , rather than using her as a last resort . Gupte himself received " many painful letters and phone calls " from Indian parents . He noted , " Fathers weep on the phone and say they saw the film and realized that they have been wrong in the way they treated their children . This is catharsis . "
These reactions have also brought about a change in policies . The film , only ten days after its debut , influenced the Central Board of Secondary Education to provide extra time to special children — including the visually impaired , physically challenged and dyslexic — during exams . In 2008 , Mumbai 's civic body also opened 12 classrooms for autistic students . In Chandigarh , the education administration started a course to educate teachers on how to deal with children with learning disabilities .
= = = Accolades = = =
Among its many awards , Taare Zameen Par won the Filmfare Best Film Award for 2008 , as well as the National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare . Khan 's directorial role and Safary 's performance were recognized at the 2008 Zee Cine Awards , 2008 Filmfare Awards , and 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards .
= = = = 2009 Academy Awards submission and Slumdog Millionaire = = = =
Taare Zameen Par was initially acclaimed as India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film , but after it failed to progress to the short list , a debate began in the Indian media as to why Indian films never win Academy Awards . Speculation for the reasons behind Taare Zameen Par 's failed bid included Rediff.com 's Arthur J. Pai 's observation that it lacked mainstream media attention ; AMPAS jury member Krishna Shah criticised its length and abundance of songs .
Khan claimed that he was " not surprised " that Taare Zameen Par was not included in the Academy Award shortlist , and argued , " I don ’ t make films for awards . I make films for the audience . The audience , for which I have made the film , really loved it and the audiences outside India have also loved it . What I am trying to say is that film has been well loved across the globe and that for me it is extremely heartening and something that I give very high value to . "
The Indian news media also frequently compared Taare Zameen Par 's nomination failure with the British film Slumdog Millionaire 's multiple Academy Award nominations and wins , and noted that other Indian films in the past were overlooked . Film critic Rajeev Masand argued that it is difficult to compare the two films and noted that Slumdog Millionaire was being marketed in a way that Indian films such as Taare Zameen Par could not compete with . In this context , Slumdog Millionaire actor Mahesh Manjrekar stated , " I ’ m sad that Aamir ’ s Taare Zameen Par didn ’ t make it to the final round of the Oscars . I thought it to be way better than Slumdog [ Millionaire ] ... , without taking away anything from Boyle and the kids . But , Indian movies are underestimated there . "
= = = Home media = = =
UTV Home Entertainment released the film on DVD in India on 25 July 2008 . It was launched at Darsheel Safary 's school , Green Lawns High School , in Mumbai . Aamir Khan , Tisca Chopra , Vipin Sharma , Sachet Engineer , and the rest of the cast and crew were present . In his speech , Khan stated , " Darsheel is a very happy child , full of life and vibrant . I am sure it 's because of the way his parents and teachers have treated him . I must say Darsheel 's principal Mrs. Bajaj has been extremely supportive and encouraging . The true test of any school is how happy the kids are and by the looks of it , the children here seem really happy . "
Walt Disney Company Home Entertainment , which acquired 33 percent of UTV Software Communications , bought the DVD rights for distribution in North America , the United Kingdom , and Australia for ₹ 70 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 0 million ) . This marked " the first time an international studio has bought the video rights of an Indian film . " Retitling it Like Stars on Earth , Disney released the film in Region 2 on 26 October 2009 , in Region 1 on 12 January 2010 , and in Region 4 on 29 March 2010 . A three @-@ disc set , the Disney version features the original Hindi audio soundtrack with English subtitles or another dubbed in English , as well as bonus material such as audio commentary , deleted scenes , and the musical soundtrack .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for Taare Zameen Par was released on 4 November 2007 under the label T @-@ Series . The music is mainly composed by Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy , with lyrics by Prasoon Joshi . However , " Mera Jahan " was scored by Shailendra Barve and written by Gupte , with the latter also composing " Ishaan 's Theme . " Joshi received the National Film Award for Best Lyrics , and Shankar Mahadevan won the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer for " Maa . "
Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama praised the variety of genres present in the soundtrack and the lack of remixes . He gave it an overall rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , calling it a " zero compromise album " that " stays true to the film 's spirit " . Planet Bollywood 's Atta Khan rated it 9 out of 10 , noting that the soundtrack " unquestionably lives up to all expectations " . He felt that it maintained an " all round polished nature " and " is destined to become a classic " . Although he , too , enjoyed the musical variety , he believed the composers overused the guitar and synthesizers . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the soundtrack a score of 3 out of 5 , commenting , " Taare Zameen Par isn 't your regular soundtrack about fluttering hearts and sleepless nights . What makes these delicate and whimsical creations special is their underlying innocence . "
= = DVD references = =
Khan , Aamir ( 12 January 2010 ) . Like Stars on Earth DVD commentary ( DVD ) . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment .
Various ( 12 January 2010 ) . Like Stars on Earth Bonus Disc : The Making ... ( DVD ) . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment .
= Boiling frog =
The boiling frog is an anecdote describing a frog slowly being boiled alive . The premise is that if a frog is put suddenly into boiling water , it will jump out , but if it is put in cold water which is then brought to a boil slowly , it will not perceive the danger and will be cooked to death . The story is often used as a metaphor for the inability or unwillingness of people to react to or be aware of threats that rise gradually .
While some 19th @-@ century experiments suggested that the underlying premise is true if the heating is sufficiently gradual , according to contemporary biologists the premise is false : a submerged frog gradually heated will jump out .
= = The science = =
As part of advancing science , several experiments observing the reaction of frogs to slowly heated water took place in the 19th century . In 1869 , while doing experiments searching for the location of the soul , German physiologist Friedrich Goltz demonstrated that a frog that has had its brain removed will remain in slowly heated water , but an intact frog attempted to escape the water when it reached 25 ° C.
Other experiments showed that frogs did not attempt to escape gradually heated water . An 1872 experiment by Heinzmann demonstrated that a normal frog would not attempt to escape if the water was heated slowly enough , which was corroborated in 1875 by Fratscher .
Goltz raised the temperature of the water from 17 @.@ 5 ° C to 56 ° C in about ten minutes , or 3 @.@ 8 ° C per minute , in his experiment which prompted normal frogs to attempt to escape , whereas Heinzmann heated the frogs over the course of 90 minutes from about 21 ° C to 37 @.@ 5 ° C , a rate of less than 0 @.@ 2 ° C per minute . In " On the Variation of Reflex Excitability in the Frog induced by changes of Temperature " ( 1882 ) William Thompson Sedgwick writes : " in one experiment by Scripture the temperature was raised at a rate of 0 @.@ 002 ° C per second , and the frog was found dead at the end of 2 ½ hours without having moved . "
In 1888 Sedgwick explained the apparent contradiction between the results of these experiments as a consequence of different heating rates used in the experiments : " The truth appears to be that if the heating be sufficiently gradual , no reflex movements will be produced even in the normal frog ; if it be more rapid , yet take place at such a rate as to be fairly called ' gradual ' , it will not secure the response of the normal frog under any circumstances " .
Modern sources tend to dispute that the phenomenon is real . In 1995 , Professor Douglas Melton , of the Harvard University Biology department , said , " If you put a frog in boiling water , it won 't jump out . It will die . If you put it in cold water , it will jump before it gets hot — they don 't sit still for you . " Dr. George R. Zug , curator of reptiles and amphibians at the National Museum of Natural History , also rejected the suggestion , saying that " If a frog had a means of getting out , it certainly would get out . "
In 2002 Dr. Victor H. Hutchison , Professor Emeritus of Zoology at the University of Oklahoma , with a research interest in thermal relations of amphibians , said that " The legend is entirely incorrect ! " . He described how the critical thermal maximum for many frog species has been determined by contemporary research experiments : as the water is heated by about 2 ° F , or 1 @.@ 1 ° C , per minute , the frog becomes increasingly active as it tries to escape , and eventually jumps out if the container allows it .
= = Use = =
= = = As metaphor = = =
The boiling frog story is generally offered as a metaphor cautioning people to be aware of even gradual change lest they suffer eventual undesirable consequences . It may be invoked in support of a slippery slope argument as a caution against creeping normality . It is also used in business to reinforce that change needs to be gradual to be accepted . Oppositely , the expression " boiling frog syndrome " is sometimes used as shorthand to invoke the pitfalls of standing pat .
The story has been retold many times and used to illustrate widely varying viewpoints . Among them : in 1960 about sympathy towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War ; in 1980 about the impending collapse of civilization anticipated by survivalists ; in the 1990s about inaction in response to climate change and staying in abusive relationships . It has also been used by libertarians to warn about slow erosion of civil rights .
In the 1996 novel The Story of B , environmentalist author Daniel Quinn spends a chapter on the metaphor of the boiling frog , using it to describe human history , population growth and food surplus . Pierce Brosnan 's character Harry Dalton mentioned it in the 1997 disaster movie Dante 's Peak in reference to the accumulating warning signs of the volcano 's reawakening . Al Gore used a version of the story in a New York Times op ed , in his presentations and the 2006 movie An Inconvenient Truth to describe ignorance about global warming . In the movie version the frog is rescued before it is harmed . This use of the story was referenced ironically by writer / director Jon Cooksey in the title of his 2010 comedic documentary How to Boil a Frog .
Christopher Brookmyre used Boiling a Frog as the title of his novel that used gradual political corruption as a background to the thriller .
Law professor and legal commentator Eugene Volokh commented in 2003 that regardless of the behavior of real frogs , the boiling frog story is useful as a metaphor , comparing it to the metaphor of an ostrich with its head in the sand . Economics Nobel laureate and New York Times op @-@ ed writer Paul Krugman used the story as a metaphor in a July 2009 column , while pointing out that real frogs behave differently . Journalist James Fallows has been advocating since 2006 for people to stop retelling the story , describing it as a " stupid canard " and a " myth " . But following Krugman 's column , he declared " peace on the boiled frog front " and said that using the story is fine as long as you point out it 's not literally true .
= = = In philosophy = = =
In philosophy the boiling frog story has been used as a way of explaining the sorites paradox . It describes a hypothetical heap of sand from which individual grains are removed one at a time , and asks if there is a specific point when it can no longer be defined as a heap .
= SMS Magdeburg =
SMS Magdeburg ( " His Majesty 's Ship Magdeburg " ) was a lead ship of the Magdeburg class of light cruisers in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Her class included three other ships : Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund . Magdeburg was built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen from 1910 to August 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship after her commissioning until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was brought to active service and deployed to the Baltic .
In the Baltic , Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war against the Russians on 2 August , when she shelled the port of Libau . She participated in a series of bombardments of Russian positions until late August . On the 26th , she participated in a sweep of the entrance to the Gulf of Finland ; while steaming off the Estonian coast , she ran aground off the island of Odensholm and could not be freed . A pair of Russian cruisers appeared and seized the ship . Fifteen crew members were killed in the brief engagement . They recovered three intact German code books , one of which they passed to the British . The ability to decrypt German wireless signals provided the British with the ability to ambush German units on several occasions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland . The Russians partially scrapped Magdeburg while she remained grounded before completely destroying the wreck .
= = Design = =
Magdeburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Bussard " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 13 May 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Magdeburg carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship . Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was assigned to the Baltic Sea , under the command of Rear Admiral Robert Mischke . Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war with Russia on 2 August when she shelled the Russian port of Libau while Augsburg laid a minefield outside the harbor . The Russians had in fact already left Libau , which was seized by the German Army . The minefield laid by Augsburg was poorly marked and hindered German operations more than Russian efforts . Magdeburg and the rest of the Baltic forces then conducted a series of bombardments of Russian positions , including one ten days later , on 12 August , where Magdeburg shelled the Dagerort lighthouse . On 17 August , Magdeburg , Augsburg , three destroyers , and the minelayer Deutschland encountered a pair of powerful Russian armored cruisers , Admiral Makarov and Gromoboi . The Russian commander , under the mistaken assumption that the German armored cruisers Roon and Prinz Heinrich were present , did not attack and both forces withdrew .
Prince Heinrich , the overall commander of the Baltic naval forces , replaced Mischke with Rear Admiral Behring . Behring ordered another operation for 26 August to sweep for Russian reconnaissance forces in the entrance to the Gulf of Finland . Early that morning , Magdeburg ran aground off the lighthouse at Odensholm on the Estonian coast . Her escorting destroyer , V.26 , attempted to pull her free but was unable to do so and began taking off part of Magdeburg 's crew . While the evacuation was going on , the Russian cruisers Bogatyr and Pallada appeared and shelled the stranded cruiser . The Germans destroyed the forward section of the ship , but could not complete her destruction before the Russians reached the ship . Fifteen crew members from Magdeburg were killed in the attack . The German code books were also not destroyed ; the Russians were able to recover three of the books along with the current encryption key . They passed one copy to the British Royal Navy via a pair of Russian couriers on 13 October . The Russian Navy partially scrapped the ship in situ and eventually destroyed the wreck .
The capture of the code books proved to provide a significant advantage for the Royal Navy . The Admiralty had recently created a deciphering department known as Room 40 to process intercepted German wireless signals . With the code books and cipher key , the British were able to track the movements of most German warships ; this information could be passed on to the Admiral John Jellicoe , the commander of the Grand Fleet . This allowed the British to ambush parts of or the entire German fleet on several occasions , most successfully at the Battles of Dogger Bank in January 1915 and Jutland in May 1916 .
= Russian battleship Potemkin =
The Russian battleship Potemkin ( Russian : Князь Потёмкин Таврический , Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheskiy , " Prince Potemkin of Tauris " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy 's Black Sea Fleet . She became famous when the crew rebelled against the officers in June 1905 ( during that year 's revolution ) , now viewed as a first step towards the Russian Revolution of 1917 . The mutiny later formed the basis of Sergei Eisenstein 's 1925 silent propaganda film The Battleship Potemkin .
After the mutineers sought asylum in Constanța , Romania , and the Russians recovered the ship , her name was changed to Panteleimon . She accidentally sank a Russian submarine in 1909 and was badly damaged when she ran aground in 1911 . During World War I , Panteleimon participated in the Battle of Cape Sarych in late 1914 . She covered several bombardments of the Bosphorus fortifications in early 1915 , including one where she was attacked by the Turkish battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim – Panteleimon and the other Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts present drove her off before she could inflict any serious damage . The ship was relegated to secondary roles after the first dreadnought battleship entered service in late 1915 . She was by then obsolete and was reduced to reserve in 1918 in Sevastopol .
Panteleimon was captured when the Germans took Sevastopol in May 1918 and was handed over to the Allies after the Armistice in November 1918 . Her engines were destroyed by the British in 1919 when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . She was abandoned when the Whites evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and was finally scrapped by the Soviets in 1923 .
= = Design and construction = =
= = = Planning = = =
Planning began in 1895 for a new battleship that would utilize a slipway slated to become available at the Nikolayev Admiralty Shipyard in 1896 . The Naval Staff and the commander of the Black Sea Fleet , Vice Admiral K. P. Pilkin , agreed on a copy of the Peresvet @-@ class battleship design , but they were overruled by General Admiral Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich . The General Admiral decided that the long range and less powerful 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns of the Peresvet class were inappropriate for the narrow confines of the Black Sea , and ordered the design of an improved version of the battleship Tri Sviatitelia instead . The improvements included a higher forecastle to improve the ship 's seakeeping qualities , Krupp cemented armour and Belleville boilers . The design process was complicated by numerous changes demanded by various departments of the Naval Technical Committee . The ship 's design was finally approved on 12 June 1897 , although design changes continued to be made that slowed the ship 's construction .
= = = Construction and sea trials = = =
Construction of Potemkin began on 27 December 1897 and she was laid down at the Nikolayev Admiralty Shipyard on 10 October 1898 . She was named in honour of Prince Grigory Potemkin , a Russian soldier and statesman . The ship was launched on 9 October 1900 and transferred to Sevastopol for fitting out on 4 July 1902 . She began sea trials in September 1903 and these continued , off and on , until early 1905 when her gun turrets were completed .
= = Description = =
Potemkin was 371 feet 5 inches ( 113 @.@ 2 m ) long at the waterline and 378 feet 6 inches ( 115 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 73 feet ( 22 @.@ 3 m ) and a maximum draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 900 long tons ( 13 @,@ 100 t ) , 420 long tons ( 430 t ) more than her designed displacement of 12 @,@ 480 long tons ( 12 @,@ 680 t ) . Potemkin 's crew consisted of 26 officers and 705 enlisted men .
= = = Power = = =
The ship had a pair of three @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each of which drove one propeller , that had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 900 kW ) . Twenty @-@ two Belleville boilers provided steam to the engines at a pressure of 15 atm ( 1 @,@ 520 kPa ; 220 psi ) . The eight boilers in the forward boiler room were oil @-@ fired and the remaining 14 were coal @-@ fired . During her sea trials on 31 October 1903 , she reached a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . Leaking oil caused a serious fire on 2 January 1904 that caused the navy to convert her boilers to coal firing at a cost of 20 @,@ 000 rubles . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 3 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 900 km ; 3 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of four 40 @-@ calibre 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in twin gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The electrically operated turrets were derived from the design of those used by the Petropavlovsk @-@ class battleships . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and their rate of fire was very slow , only one round every four minutes during gunnery trials . They fired a 745 @-@ pound ( 337 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 792 ft / s ( 851 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 10 ° the guns had a range of 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Potemkin carried 60 rounds for each gun .
The sixteen 45 @-@ calibre , six @-@ inch ( 1
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52 mm ) Canet Pattern 1891 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were mounted in casemates . Twelve of these were placed on the sides of the hull and the other four were positioned at the corners of the superstructure . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 4 lb ( 41 @.@ 46 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° . The ship stowed 160 rounds per gun .
Smaller guns were carried for close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats . These included fourteen 50 @-@ calibre Canet QF 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns : four in hull embrasures and the remaining 10 mounted on the superstructure . The ship carried 300 shells for each gun . They fired an 11 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) to a maximum range of 7 @,@ 005 yards ( 6 @,@ 405 m ) . She also mounted six 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . Four of these were mounted in the fighting top and two on the superstructure . They fired a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 00 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) .
Potemkin had five underwater 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes : one in the bow and two on each broadside . She carried three torpedoes for each tube . While the model of torpedo in use changed over time , the first torpedo that the ship would have been equipped with was the M1904 . It had a warhead weight of 150 pounds ( 70 kg ) and a speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) with a maximum range of 870 yards ( 800 m ) .
In 1907 , telescopic sights were fitted for the 12 @-@ inch and 6 @-@ inch guns . Either later that year , or in 1908 , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 8 ft 2 in ) rangefinders were installed . The bow torpedo tube was removed in 1910 – 11 as was the fighting top . The following year , the main gun turret machinery was upgraded and the guns were modified to improve their rate of fire to one round every 40 seconds .
Two 57 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were mounted on the ship 's superstructure on 3 – 6 June 1915 and they were supplemented by two 75 mm AA guns , one on top of each turret , probably during 1916 . In February of that year , the ship 's four remaining torpedo tubes were removed . At some point during World War I , her 75 mm guns were also removed .
= = = Protection = = =
The maximum thickness of the Krupp cemented armour waterline belt was nine inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to eight inches ( 203 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered 237 feet ( 72 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship 's length and two @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) plates protected the waterline to the ends of the ship . The belt was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , of which 5 feet ( 2 m ) was below the waterline , and tapered down to a thickness of five inches ( 127 mm ) at its bottom edge . The main part of the belt terminated in seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
Above the belt was the upper strake of six @-@ inch armour that was 156 feet ( 47 @.@ 5 m ) long and closed off by six @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The upper casemate protected the six @-@ inch guns and was five inches thick on all sides . The sides of the turrets were ten inches ( 254 mm ) thick and they had a two @-@ inch roof . The conning tower 's sides were nine inches thick . The nickel @-@ steel armour deck was two inches thick on the flat amidships , but 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick on the slope connecting it to the armour belt . Fore and aft of the armoured citadel , the deck was three inches ( 76 mm ) to the bow and stern . In 1910 – 11 , additional one @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) armour plates were added fore and aft ; their exact location is unknown , but they were probably used to extend the height of the two @-@ inch armour strake at the ends of the ship .
= = Service = =
= = = The mutiny = = =
During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , many of the Black Sea Fleet 's most experienced officers and enlisted men were transferred to the ships in the Pacific to replace losses . This left the fleet with primarily raw recruits and less capable officers . With the news of the disastrous Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 morale dropped to an all @-@ time low , and any minor incident could be enough to spark a major catastrophe . Taking advantage of the situation , plus the disruption caused by the ongoing riots and uprisings , the Central Committee of the Social Democratic Organization of the Black Sea Fleet , called " Tsentralka " , had started preparations for a simultaneous mutiny on all of the ships of the fleet , although the timing had not been decided .
On 27 June 1905 , Potemkin was at gunnery practice near Tendra Island off the Ukrainian coast when many enlisted men refused to eat the borscht made from rotten meat partially infested with maggots . The uprising was triggered when Ippolit Giliarovsky , the ship 's second in command , allegedly threatened to shoot crew members for their refusal . He summoned the ship 's marine guards as well as a tarpaulin to protect the ship 's deck from any blood in an attempt to intimidate the crew . Giliarovsky was killed after he mortally wounded Grigory Vakulinchuk , one of the mutiny 's leaders . The mutineers killed seven of the Potemkin 's eighteen officers , including Captain Evgeny Golikov , and captured the torpedo boat Ismail ( No. 627 ) . They organized a ship 's committee of 25 sailors , led by Afanasi Matushenko , to run the battleship .
The committee decided to head for Odessa flying a red flag and arrived there later that day at 22 : 00 . A general strike had been called in the city and there was some rioting as the police tried to quell the strikers . The following day the mutineers refused to land armed sailors to help the striking revolutionaries take over the city , preferring instead to await the arrival of the other battleships of the Black Sea Fleet . Later that day the mutineers aboard the Potemkin captured a military transport , Vekha , that had arrived in the city . The riots continued as much of the port area was destroyed by fire . On the afternoon of 29 June , Vakulinchuk 's funeral turned into a political demonstration and the army attempted to ambush the sailors who participated in the funeral . In retaliation , the ship fired two six @-@ inch shells at the theatre where a high @-@ level military meeting was scheduled to take place , but missed .
The government issued an order to send two squadrons to Odessa either to force the Potemkin crew to give up or sink the battleship . Potemkin sortied on the morning of 30 June to meet the three battleships Tri Sviatitelia , Dvenadsat Apostolov , and Georgii Pobedonosets of the first squadron , but the loyal ships turned away . The second squadron arrived with the battleships Rostislav and Sinop later that morning , and Vice Admiral Aleksander Krieger , acting commander of the Black Sea Fleet , ordered the ships to proceed to Odessa . Potemkin sortied again and sailed through the combined squadrons as Krieger failed to order his ships to fire . Captain Kolands of Dvenadsat Apostolov attempted to ram Potemkin and then detonate his ship 's magazines , but he was thwarted by members of his crew . Krieger ordered his ships to fall back , but the crew of Georgii Pobedonosets mutinied and joined Potemkin .
The following morning , loyalist members of Georgii Pobedonosets retook control of the ship and ran it aground in Odessa harbor . The crew of Potemkin , together with Ismail , decided to sail for Constanța later that day where they could restock food , water and coal . The Romanians refused to provide the supplies , backed by the presence of their small protected cruiser Elisabeta , so the ship 's committee decided to sail for the small , barely defended port of Theodosia in the Crimea where they hoped to resupply . The ship arrived on the morning of 5 July , but the city 's governor refused to give them anything other than food . The mutineers attempted to seize several barges of coal the following morning , but the port 's garrison ambushed them and killed or captured 22 of the 30 sailors involved . They decided to return to Constanța that afternoon .
Potemkin reached its destination at 23 : 00 on 7 July and the Romanians agreed to give asylum to the crew if they would disarm themselves and surrender the battleship . Ismail 's crew decided the following morning to return to Sevastopol and turn themselves in , but Potemkin 's crew voted to accept the terms . Captain Negru , commander of the port , came aboard at noon and hoisted the Romanian flag and then allowed the ship to enter the inner harbor . Before the crew disembarked , Matushenko ordered that the Potemkin 's Kingston valves be opened so Potemkin would sink to the bottom .
= = = Later service = = =
When Rear Admiral Pisarevsky reached Constanța on the morning of 9 July , he found the Potemkin half sunk in the harbor and flying the Romanian flag . After several hours of negotiations with the Romanian Government , the battleship was handed over to the Russians . Later that day , the Saint Andrew 's flag was raised over the battleship . She was then easily refloated by the navy , but the salt water had damaged her engines and boilers . She left Constanța on 10 July , having to be towed back to Sevastopol , where she arrived on 14 July . The ship was renamed Panteleimon ( Russian : Пантелеймон ) , after Saint Pantaleon , on 12 October 1905 . Some members of Panteleimon 's crew joined a mutiny that began aboard the cruiser Ochakov in November , but it was easily suppressed as both ships had been earlier disarmed .
Panteleimon received an experimental underwater communications set in February 1909 . Later that year , she accidentally rammed and sank the submarine Kambala at night on 11 June , killing the 16 crewmen aboard the submarine .
While returning from a port visit to Constanța in 1911 , Panteleimon ran aground on 2 October . It took several days to refloat her and make temporary repairs , and the full extent of the damage to her bottom was not fully realized for several more months . The ship participated in training and gunnery exercises for the rest of the year ; a special watch was kept to ensure that no damaged seams were opened while firing . Permanent repairs , which involved replacing her boiler foundations , plating , and a large number of her hull frames , lasted from 10 January to 25 April 1912 . The navy took advantage of these repairs to overhaul her engines and boilers .
= = = World War I = = =
Panteleimon , flagship of the 1st Battleship Brigade , accompanied by the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Evstafi , Ioann Zlatoust , and Tri Sviatitelia , covered the pre @-@ dreadnought Rostislav while she bombarded Trebizond on the morning of 17 November 1914 . They were intercepted the following day by the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim ( the ex @-@ German SMS Goeben ) and the light cruiser Mdilli on their return voyage to Sevastopol in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych . Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy ; the capital ships initially did not spot each other . Although several other ships opened fire , hitting the Goeben once , Panteleimon held fire because her turrets could not see the German ships before they disengaged .
Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav bombarded Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of the Bosphorus on 18 March 1915 , the first of several attacks intended to divert troops and attention from the ongoing Gallipoli Campaign , but fired only 105 rounds before sailing north to rejoin Panteleimon , Ioann Zlatoust and Evstafi . Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav were intended to repeated the bombardment the following day , but were hindered by heavy fog . On 3 April , Yavuz Sultan Selim and several ships of the Turkish navy raided the Russian port at Odessa ; the Russian battleship squadron sortied to intercept them . The battleships chased Yavuz Sultan Selim the entire day , but were unable to reach effective gunnery range and were forced to break off the chase . On 25 April Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav repeated their bombardment of the Bosporus forts . Tri Sviatitelia , Rostislav and Panteleimon bombarded the forts again on 2 and 3 May . This time a total of 337 main gun rounds were fired in addition to 528 six @-@ inch shells between the three battleships .
On 9 May 1915 , Tri Sviatitelia and Panteleimon returned to bombard the Bosphorus forts , covered by the remaining pre @-@ dreadnoughts . Yavuz Sultan Selim intercepted the three ships of the covering force , although no damage was inflicted by either side . Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon rejoined their consorts and the latter scored two hits on Yavuz Sultan Selim before she broke off the action . The Russian ships pursued her for six hours before giving up the chase . On 1 August , all of the Black Sea pre @-@ dreadnoughts were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the more powerful dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya entered service . On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover while Ioann Zlatoust and Pantelimon bombarded Zonguldak and Evstafi shelled the nearby town of Kozlu . The ship bombarded Varna twice in October 1915 ; during the second bombardment on 27 October , she entered Varna Bay and was unsuccessfully attacked by two German submarines stationed there .
Panteleimon supported Russian troops in early 1916 as they captured Trebizond and participated in an anti @-@ shipping sweep off the northwestern Anatolian coast in January 1917 that destroyed 39 Ottoman sailing ships . On 13 April 1917 , after the February Revolution , the ship was renamed Potemkin @-@ Tavricheskiy ( Russian : Потёмкин @-@ Таврический ) , and then on 11 May renamed Borets za svobodu ( Russian : Борец за свободу – Freedom Fighter ) .
= = = Reserve and decommissioning = = =
She was placed in reserve in March 1918 and was captured by the Germans at Sevastopol in May . They handed the ship over to the Allies in December 1918 after the Armistice . The British wrecked her engines on 19 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using her against the White Russians . Thoroughly obsolete by this time , the ship was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . Borets za svobodu was scrapped beginning in 1923 , although she was not stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate effects of the mutiny are difficult to assess . It may have influenced Tsar Nicholas II 's decisions to end the Russo @-@ Japanese War and accept the October Manifesto , as the mutiny demonstrated that his régime no longer had the unquestioning loyalty of the military . The mutiny 's failure did not stop other revolutionaries from inciting insurrections later that year , including the Sevastopol Uprising . Vladimir Lenin , leader of the Bolshevik Party , called the 1905 Revolution , including the Potemkin mutiny , a " dress rehearsal " for his successful revolution in 1917 . The Communists seized upon it as a propaganda symbol for their party and unduly emphasized their role in the mutiny . In fact , Matushenko explicitly rejected the Bolsheviks because he and the other leaders of the mutiny were Socialists of one type or another and cared nothing for Communism .
The mutiny was memorialized most famously by Sergei Eisenstein in his 1925 silent film Battleship Potemkin , although the French silent film " La Révolution en Russe " ( " Mutiny on a Man @-@ of @-@ War in Odessa " or " Revolution in Odessa " , 1905 ) , directed by Ferdinand Zecca or Lucien Nonguet ( or both ) , was the first film to depict the mutiny , preceding Eisenstein 's far more famous film by 20 years . Filmed shortly after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War of 1917 – 22 , with the derelict battleship Dvenadsat Apostolov standing in for the broken @-@ up Potemkin , Eisenstein recast the mutiny into a predecessor of the November Revolution of 1917 that swept the Bolsheviks to power . He emphasized their role , and implied that the mutiny failed because Matushenko and the other leaders were not better Bolsheviks . Eisenstein made other changes to dramatize the story , ignoring the major fire that swept through Odessa 's dock area while Potemkin was anchored there , combining the many different incidents of rioters and soldiers fighting into a famous sequence on the steps ( today known as Potemkin Stairs ) , and showing a tarpaulin thrown over the sailors to be executed .
In accordance with the Marxist doctrine that history is made by collective action , not individuals , Eisenstein forbore to single out any person in his film , but rather focused on the " mass protagonist " . Soviet film critics hailed this approach , including the dramaturge and critic , Adrian Piotrovsky , writing for the Leningrad newspaper " Krasnaia gazeta " :
The hero is the sailors ' battleship , the Odessa crowd , but characteristic figures are snatched here and there from the crowd . For a moment , like a conjuring trick , they attract all the sympathies of the audience : like the sailor Vakulinchuk , like the young woman and child on the Odessa Steps , but they
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communication purposes in a case report or conference , and nothing more .
= = IQ classification tables for current tests = =
There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English @-@ speaking world . Not all report test results as " IQ " , but most now report a standard score with a median score level of 100 . When a test @-@ taker scores higher or lower than the median score , the score is indicated as 15 standard score points higher or lower for each standard deviation difference higher or lower in the test @-@ taker 's performance on the test item content .
= = = Wechsler Intelligence Scales = = =
The Wechsler intelligence scales were originally developed from earlier intelligence scales by David Wechsler . The first Wechsler test published was the Wechsler – Bellevue Scale in 1939 . The Wechsler IQ tests for children and for adults are the most frequently used individual IQ tests in the English @-@ speaking world and in their translated versions are perhaps the most widely used IQ tests worldwide . The Wechsler tests have long been regarded as the " gold standard " in IQ testing . The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Fourth Edition ( WAIS – IV ) was published in 2008 by The Psychological Corporation . The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth Edition ( WISC – V ) was published in 2014 by The Psychological Corporation , and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence — Fourth Edition ( WPPSI – IV ) was published in 2012 by The Psychological Corporation . Like all current IQ tests , the Wechsler tests report a " deviation IQ " as the standard score for the full @-@ scale IQ , with the norming sample median raw score defined as IQ 100 and a score one standard deviation higher defined as IQ 115 ( and one deviation lower defined as IQ 85 ) .
Psychologists have proposed alternative language for Wechsler IQ classifications . Note especially that the term " borderline " , which implies being very close to being intellectually disabled , is replaced in the alternative system by a term that doesn 't imply a medical diagnosis .
= = = Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale Fifth Edition = = =
The current fifth edition of the Stanford – Binet scales ( SB5 ) was developed by Gale H. Roid and published in 2003 by Riverside Publishing . Unlike scoring on previous versions of the Stanford – Binet test , SB5 IQ scoring is deviation scoring in which each standard deviation up or down from the norming sample median score is 15 points from the median score , IQ 100 , just like the standard scoring on the Wechsler tests .
= = = Woodcock – Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities = = =
The Woodcock – Johnson III NU Tests of Cognitive Abilities ( WJ III NU ) was developed by Richard W. Woodcock , Kevin S. McGrew and Nancy Mather and published in 2007 by Riverside . Note that the WJ III classification terms are not applied to the same score ranges as for the Wechsler or Stanford – Binet tests .
= = = Kaufman Tests = = =
The Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 1993 by American Guidance Service . Kaufman test scores " are classified in a symmetrical , nonevaluative fashion " , in other words the score ranges for classification are just as wide above the median as below the median , and the classification labels do not purport to assess individuals .
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children , Second Edition was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 2004 by American Guidance Service .
= = = Cognitive Assessment System = = =
The Das @-@ Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System test was developed by Jack Naglieri and J. P. Das and published in 1997 by Riverside .
= = = Differential Ability Scales = = =
The Differential Ability Scales Second Edition ( DAS – II ) was developed by Colin D. Elliott and published in 2007 by Psychological Corporation . The DAS @-@ II is a test battery given individually to children , normed for children from ages two years and six months through seventeen years and eleven months . It was normed on 3 @,@ 480 noninstitutionalized , English @-@ speaking children in that age range . The DAS @-@ II yields a General Conceptual Ability ( GCA ) score scaled like an IQ score with the median standard score set at 100 and 15 standard score points for each standard deviation up or down from the median . The lowest possible GCA on the is DAS – II is 44 , and the highest is 175 .
= = = Reynolds Intellectual Ability Scales = = =
Reynolds Intellectual Ability Scales ( RIAS ) were developed by Cecil Reynolds and Randy Kamphaus . The RIAS was published in 2003 by Psychological Assessment Resources .
= = Historical IQ classification tables = =
Lewis Terman , developer of the Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scales , based his English @-@ language Stanford – Binet IQ test on the French @-@ language Binet – Simon test developed by Alfred Binet . Terman believed his test measured the " general intelligence " construct advocated by Charles Spearman ( 1904 ) . Terman differed from Binet in reporting scores on his test in the form of intelligence quotient ( " mental age " divided by chronological age ) scores after the 1912 suggestion of German psychologist William Stern . Terman chose the category names for score levels on the Stanford – Binet test . When he first chose classification for score levels , he relied partly on the usage of earlier authors who wrote , before the existence of IQ tests , on topics such as individuals unable to care for themselves in independent adult life . Terman 's first version of the Stanford – Binet was based on norming samples that included only white , American @-@ born subjects , mostly from California , Nevada , and Oregon .
Rudolph Pintner proposed a set of classification terms in his 1923 book Intelligence Testing : Methods and Results . Pintner commented that psychologists of his era , including Terman , went about " the measurement of an individual 's general ability without waiting for an adequate psychological definition . " Pintner retained these terms in the 1931 second edition of his book .
Albert Julius Levine and Louis Marks proposed a broader set of categories in their 1928 book Testing Intelligence and Achievement . Some of the terminology in the table came from contemporary terms for classifying individuals with intellectual disabilities .
The second revision ( 1937 ) of the Stanford – Binet test retained " quotient IQ " scoring , despite earlier criticism of that method of reporting IQ test standard scores . The term " genius " was no longer used for any IQ score range . The second revision was normed only on children and adolescents ( no adults ) , and only " American @-@ born white children " .
A data table published later as part of the manual for the 1960 Third Revision ( Form L @-@ M ) of the Stanford – Binet test reported score distributions from the 1937 second revision standardization group .
David Wechsler , developer of the Wechsler – Bellevue Scale of 1939 ( which was later developed into the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ) popularized the use of " deviation IQs " as standard scores of IQ tests rather than the " quotient IQs " ( " mental age " divided by " chronological age " ) then used for the Stanford – Binet test . He devoted a whole chapter in his book The Measurement of Adult Intelligence to the topic of IQ classification and proposed different category names from those used by Lewis Terman . Wechsler also criticized the practice of earlier authors who published IQ classification tables without specifying which IQ test was used to obtain the scores reported in the tables .
In 1958 , Wechsler published another edition of his book Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence . He revised his chapter on the topic of IQ classification and commented that " mental age " scores were not a more valid way to score intelligence tests than IQ scores . He continued to use the same classification terms .
The third revision ( Form L @-@ M ) in 1960 of the Stanford – Binet IQ test used the deviation scoring pioneered by David Wechsler . For rough comparability of scores between the second and third revision of the Stanford – Binet test , scoring table author Samuel Pinneau set 100 for the median standard score level and 16 standard score points for each standard deviation above or below that level . The highest score obtainable by direct look @-@ up from the standard scoring tables ( based on norms from the 1930s ) was IQ 171 at various chronological ages from three years six months ( with a test raw score " mental age " of six years and two months ) up to age six years and three months ( with a test raw score " mental age " of ten years and three months ) . The classification for Stanford – Binet L @-@ M scores does not include terms such as " exceptionally gifted " and " profoundly gifted " in the test manual itself . David Freides , reviewing the Stanford – Binet Third Revision in 1970 for the Buros Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook ( published in 1972 ) , commented that the test was obsolete by that year .
The first edition of the Woodcock – Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities was published by Riverside in 1977 . The classifications used by the WJ @-@ R Cog were " modern in that they describe levels of performance as opposed to offering a diagnosis . "
The revised version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( the WAIS @-@ R ) was developed by David Wechsler and published by Psychological Corporation in 1981 . Wechsler changed a few of the boundaries for classification categories and a few of their names compared to the 1958 version of the test . The test 's manual included information about how the actual percentage of persons in the norming sample scoring at various levels compared to theoretical expectations .
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K @-@ ABC ) was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 1983 by American Guidance Service .
The fourth revision of the Stanford – Binet scales ( S @-@ B IV ) was developed by Thorndike , Hagen , and Sattler and published by Riverside Publishing in 1986 . It retained the deviation scoring of the third revision with each standard deviation from the median being defined as a 16 IQ point difference . The S @-@ B IV adopted new classification terminology . After this test was published , psychologist Nathan Brody lamented that IQ tests had still not caught up with advances in research on human intelligence during the twentieth century .
The third edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( WAIS @-@ III ) used different classification terminology from the earliest versions of Wechsler tests .
= = Classification of low @-@ IQ individuals = =
The earliest terms for classifying individuals of low intelligence were medical or legal terms that preceded the development of IQ testing . The legal system recognized a concept of some individuals being so cognitively impaired that they were not responsible for criminal behavior . Medical doctors sometimes encountered adult patients who could not live independently , being unable to take care of their own daily living needs . Various terms were used to attempt to classify individuals with varying degrees of intellectual disability . Many of the earliest terms are now considered very offensive .
In current medical diagnosis , IQ scores alone are not conclusive for a finding of intellectual disability . Recently adopted diagnostic standards place the major emphasis on adaptive behavior of each individual , with IQ score just being one factor in diagnosis in addition to adaptive behavior scales , and no category of intellectual disability being defined primarily by IQ scores . Psychologists point out that evidence from IQ testing should always be used with other assessment evidence in mind : " In the end , any and all interpretations of test performance gain diagnostic meaning when they are corroborated by other data sources and when they are empirically or logically related to the area or areas of difficulty specified in the referral . "
In the United States , a holding by the Supreme Court in the case Atkins v. Virginia , 536 U.S. 304 ( 2002 ) bars states from imposing capital punishment on persons with mental retardation , defined in subsequent cases as persons with IQ scores below 70 . This legal standard continues to be actively litigated in capital cases .
= = Classification of high @-@ IQ individuals = =
= = = IQ classification and genius = = =
Francis Galton ( 1822 – 1911 ) was a pioneer in investigating both eminent human achievement and mental testing . In his book Hereditary Genius , writing before the development of IQ testing , he proposed that hereditary influences on eminent achievement are strong , and that eminence is rare in the general population . Lewis Terman chose " ' near ' genius or genius " as the classification label for the highest classification on his 1916 version of the Stanford – Binet test . By 1926 , Terman began publishing about a longitudinal study of California schoolchildren who were referred for IQ testing by their schoolteachers , called Genetic Studies of Genius , which he conducted for the rest of his life . Catherine M. Cox , a colleague of Terman 's , wrote a whole book , The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses , published as volume 2 of The Genetic Studies of Genius book series , in which she analyzed biographical data about historic geniuses . Although her estimates of childhood IQ scores of historical figures who never took IQ tests have been criticized on methodological grounds , Cox 's study was thorough in finding out what else matters besides IQ in becoming a genius . By the 1937 second revision of the Stanford – Binet test , Terman no longer used the term " genius " as an IQ classification , nor has any subsequent IQ test . In 1939 , Wechsler specifically commented that " we are rather hesitant about calling a person a genius on the basis of a single intelligence test score . "
The Terman longitudinal study in California eventually provided historical evidence on how genius is related to IQ scores . Many California pupils were recommended for the study by schoolteachers . Two pupils who were tested but rejected for inclusion in the study because of IQ scores too low for the study grew up to be Nobel Prize winners in physics , William Shockley , and Luis Walter Alvarez . Based on the historical findings of the Terman study and on biographical examples such as Richard Feynman , who had an IQ of 125 and went on to win the Nobel Prize in physics and become widely known as a genius , the current view of psychologists and other scholars of genius is that a minimum level of IQ , no lower than about IQ 125 , is strictly necessary for genius ; but that level of IQ is sufficient for development of genius only when combined with the other influences identified by Cox 's biographical study : opportunity for talent development along with the characteristics of drive and persistence . Charles Spearman , bearing in mind the influential theory that he originated of conceiving intelligence as made up of a " general factor " as well as " special factors " more specific to particular mental tasks , may have summed up the research the best when he wrote in 1927 , " Every normal man , woman , and child is , then , a genius at something , as well as an idiot at something . "
= = = IQ classification and giftedness = = =
A major point of consensus among all scholars of intellectual giftedness is that there is no generally agreed definition of giftedness . Although there is no scholarly agreement about identifying gifted learners , there is a de @-@ facto reliance on IQ scores for identifying participants in school gifted education programs . In practice , many school districts in the United States use an IQ score of 130 , including about the upper 2 or 3 percent of the national population , as a cut @-@ off score for inclusion in school gifted programs .
As long ago as 1937 , Lewis Terman pointed out that error of estimation in IQ scoring increases as IQ score increases , so that there is less and less certainty about assigning a test @-@ taker to one band of scores or another as one looks at higher bands . Current IQ tests also have large error bands for high IQ scores . As an underlying reality , such distinctions as those between " exceptionally gifted " and " profoundly gifted " have never been well established . All longitudinal studies of IQ have shown that test @-@ takers can bounce up and down in score , and thus switch up and down in rank order as compared to one another , over the course of childhood . Some test @-@ givers claim that IQ classification categories such as " profoundly gifted " are meaningful , but those are based on the obsolete Stanford – Binet Third Revision ( Form L @-@ M ) test . The highest reported standard score for most IQ tests is IQ 160 , approximately the 99.997th percentile ( leaving aside the issue of the considerable error in measurement at that level of IQ on any IQ test ) . IQ scores above this level are dubious as there are insufficient normative cases upon which to base a statistically justified rank @-@
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the songs of the humpback whale .
The meat , blubber , baleen , and oil of baleen whales have traditionally been used by the indigenous peoples of the Arctic . Once relentlessly hunted by commercial industries for these products , cetaceans are now protected by international law . However , the North Atlantic right whale is ranked critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Besides hunting , baleen whales also face threats from marine pollution and ocean acidification . It has been speculated that man @-@ made sonar results in strandings . They have rarely been kept in captivity , and this has only been attempted with juveniles or members of one of the smallest species .
= = Taxonomy = =
Baleen whales are cetaceans classified under the parvorder Mysticeti , and consist of four extant families : Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Balaenopteridae ( rorquals ) , Cetotheriidae ( pygmy right whale ) , and Eschrichtiidae ( gray whale ) . Balaenids are distinguished by their enlarged head and thick blubber , while rorquals and gray whales generally have a flat head , long throat pleats , and are more streamlined than Balaenids . Rorquals also tend to be longer than the latter . Cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and artiodactyls are now classified under the order Cetartiodactyla , often still referred to as Artiodactyla ( given that the cetaceans are deeply nested with the artiodactyls ) . The hippopotamus and pygmy hippopotamus are the closest living relatives to baleen whales , aside from toothed whales , and together with cetaceans form the suborder Whippomorpha .
= = = Classification = = =
Balaenidae consists of two genera : Eubalaena ( right whales ) and Balaena ( the bowhead whale , B. mysticetus ) . Balaenidae was thought to have consisted of only one genus until studies done through the early 2000s reported that bowhead whales and right whales are morphologically ( different skull shape ) and phylogenically different . According to a study done by H. C. Rosenbaum ( of the American Museum of Natural History ) and colleagues , the North Pacific ( E. japonica ) and Southern right ( E. australis ) whales are more closely related to each other than to the North Atlantic right whale ( E. glacialis ) .
Rorquals consist of two genera ( Balaenoptera and Megaptera ) and nine species : the fin whale ( B. physalus ) , the Sei whale ( B. borealis ) , Bryde 's whale ( B. brydei ) , Eden 's whale ( B. edeni ) , the blue whale ( B. musculus ) , the common minke whale ( B. acutorostrata ) , the Antarctic minke whale ( B. bonaerensis ) , Omura 's whale ( B. omurai ) , and the humpback whale ( M. novaeangliae ) . In a 2012 review of cetacean taxonomy , Alexandre Hassanin ( of the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle ) and colleagues suggested that , based on phylogenic criteria , there are four extant genera of rorquals . They recommend that the genus Balaenoptera be limited to the fin whale , have minke whales fall under the genus Pterobalaena , and have Rorqualus contain the Sei whale , Bryde 's whale , Eden 's whale , the blue whale , and Omura 's whale .
Cetotheriidae consists of only one living member : the pygmy right whale ( Caperea marginata ) . The first descriptions date back to the 1840s of bones and baleen plates resembling a smaller version of the right whale , and was named Balaena marginata . In 1864 , it was moved into the genus Caperea after a skull of another specimen was discovered . Six years later , the pygmy right whale was classified under the family Neobalaenidae . Despite its name , the pygmy right whale is more genetically similar to rorquals and gray whales than to right whales . A study published in 2012 , based on bone structure , moved the pygmy right whale from the family Neobalaenidae to the family Cetotheriidae , making it a living fossil ; Neobalaenidae was elevated down to subfamily level as Neobalaeninae .
Eschrichtiidae consists of only one living member : the gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) . The two populations , one in the Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan and the other in the Mediterranean Sea and East Atlantic , are thought to be genetically and physiologically dissimilar . The gray whale is traditionally placed as the only living species in its genus and family . However , DNA analysis by studies , such as the one by Takeshi Sasaki ( of the Tokyo Institute of Technology ) and colleagues , indicates certain rorquals , such as the humpback whale , Megaptera novaeangliae , and the fin whale , Balaenoptera physalus , are more closely related to the gray whale than they are to some other rorquals , such as the minke whale , Balaenoptera acutorostrata .
= = = Etymology = = =
The taxonomic name " Mysticeti " ( / ˈmɪstʌsɛtiː / ) apparently derives from a translation error in early copies of Aristotle 's Historia Animalium ( in Ancient Greek ) , in which " ὁ μῦς τὸ κῆτος " ( ho mus to kētos , " the mouse , the whale so called " ) was mistakenly translated as " ὁ μυστικῆτος " ( ο mustikētos , " the Mysticetus " ) , which D. W. Rice ( of the Society for Marine Mammalogy ) in his 1998 work assumed was an ironic reference to the animals ' great size . An alternate name for the parvorder is " Mystacoceti " ( from Greek μύσταξ " mustache " + κῆτος " whale " ) , which , although obviously more appropriate and occasionally used in the past , has been superseded by " Mysticeti " ( junior synonym ) .
Mysticetes are also known as baleen whales because of the presence of baleen . These animals rely on their baleen plates to sieve plankton and other small organisms from the water . The term " baleen " ( Middle English baleyn , ballayne , ballien , bellane , etc . ) is an archaic word for " whale " , derived from the Latin word balæna .
Right whales got their name because of whalers preferring them over other species ; they were essentially the " right whale " to catch .
= = = Differences between families = = =
Rorquals use throat pleats to expand their mouth which allows them to feed more effectively . However , rorquals need to build up water pressure in order to expand their mouth , leading to a lunge @-@ feeding behavior . Lunge @-@ feeding is where a whale rams a bait ball ( a swarm of small fish ) at high speeds . Rorquals generally have a streamlined physique to reduce drag in the water while doing this . Balaenids rely on their huge head , as opposed to the rorquals ' throat pleats , to feed effectively . This feeding behavior allows them to grow very big and bulky , without the necessity for a streamlined body . They have callosities , unlike other whales , with the exception of the bowhead whale . Rorquals have a higher proportion of muscle tissue and tend to be negatively buoyant , whereas right whales have a higher proportion of blubber and are positively buoyant . The gray whale is easily distinguished from other extant cetaceans by its sleet @-@ gray color , a dorsal ridge ( knuckles on the back ) , and its gray @-@ white scars left from parasites . Like in the rorquals , their throat pleats increase the capacity of their throat , allowing them to filter larger volumes of water at once . Gray whales are bottom @-@ feeders , meaning they sift through sand to get their food . They usually turn on their side and scoop up sediment into their mouth and filter out benthic creatures like amphipods , which leaves a noticeable mark on their head . The pygmy right whale is easily confused with minke whales because of their similar characteristics , such as its small size , throat pleats , dark gray top , light gray bottom , and a light eye @-@ patch .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
Mysticeti split from Odontoceti ( toothed whales ) 34 million years ago during the Eocene . Their evolutionary link to archaic toothed cetaceans ( Archaeoceti ) remained unknown until the extinct Janjucetus hunderi was discovered in the early 1990s in Victoria , Australia . Like a modern baleen whale , Janjucetus had baleen in its jaw and had very little biosonar capabilities . However , its jaw also contained teeth , with incisors and canines built for stabbing and molars and premolars built for tearing . These early mysticetes were exceedingly small compared to modern baleen whales , with species like Mammalodon measuring no greater than 10 feet ( 3 m ) . It is thought that their size increased with their dependence on baleen . The discovery of Janjucetus and others like it suggests that baleen evolution went through several transitional phases . Species like Mammalodon colliveri had little to no baleen , while later species like Aetiocetus weltoni had both baleen and teeth , suggesting they had limited filter feeding capabilities ; later genera like Cetotherium had no teeth in their mouth , meaning they were fully dependent on baleen and could only filter feed .
Fucaia buelli is the earliest mysticete , dating back to 33 million years ago ( mya ) . Measuring only 6 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 m ) , it is the smallest extant baleen whale . It is only known from its teeth ; they suggest a suction feeding behavior , much like that of beaked whales . Like other early toothed mysticetes , or " archaeomysticetes " , F. buelli had heterodont dentition . Archaeomysticetes from the Oligocene are the Mammalodontidae ( Mammalodon and Janjucetus ) from Australia . They were small with shortened rostra , and a primitive dental formula ( 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 3 ) . In baleen whales , enlarged mouths adapted for suction feeding evolved before specializations for bulk filter feeding . In the toothed Oligocene mammalodontid Janjucetus , the symphysis is short and the mouth enlarged , the rostrum is wide , and the edges of the maxillae are thin , indicating an adaptation for suction feeding . The aetiocetid Chonecetus still had teeth , but the presence of a groove on the interior side of each mandible indicates the symphysis was elastic , which would have enabled rotation of each mandible , an initial adaptation for bulk feeding like in modern mysticetes .
The lineages of rorquals and right whales split almost 20 mya . It is unknown where this occurred , but it is generally believed that they , like their descendants , followed plankton migrations . These primitive mysticetes had lost their heterodont dentition in favor of baleen , and are believed to have lived on a specialized benthic , plankton , or copepod diet like modern mysticetes . Mysticetes experienced their first radiation in the mid @-@ Miocene . Balaenopterids grew bigger during this time , with species like Balaenoptera sibbaldina rivaling the blue whale in terms of size . It is thought this radiation was caused by global climate change and major tectonic activity ( the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ) .
The first toothless ancestors of Mysticetes appeared before the first radiation in the late Oligocene . Eomysticetus and others like it showed no evidence in the skull of echolocation abilities , suggesting they mainly relied on their eyesight for navigation . The eomysticetes had long , flat rostra that lacked teeth and had external nares located halfway up the dorsal side of the snout . Though the palate is not well @-@ preserved in these specimens , they are thought to have had baleen and been filter feeders . Miocene baleen whales were preyed upon by larger predators like killer sperm whales and Megalodon .
= = Anatomy = =
= = = Motion = = =
When swimming , baleen whales rely on their flippers for locomotion in a wing @-@ like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles . Flipper movement is continuous . While doing this , baleen whales use their tail fluke to propel themselves forward through vertical motion while using their flippers for steering , much like an otter . Some species leap out of the water , which may allow them to travel faster . Because of their great size , baleen whales are not flexible or agile like dolphins , and none can move their neck because of the fused cervical vertebrae ; this sacrifices speed for stability in the water . The hind legs are enclosed inside the body , and are thought to be vestigial organs . However , a 2014 study suggests that the pelvic bone serves as support for whale genitalia .
Rorquals , needing to build speed to feed , have several adaptions for reducing drag , including a streamlined body ; a small dorsal fin , relative to its size ; and lack of external ears or long hair . The fin whale , the fastest among baleen whales , can travel at 23 miles per hour ( 37 km / h ) . While feeding , the rorqual jaw expands to a volume that can be bigger than the whale itself ; to do this , the mouth inflates . The inflation of the mouth causes the cavum ventrale , the throat pleats on the underside stretching to the navel , to expand , increasing the amount of water that the mouth can store . The mandible is connected to the skull by dense fibers and cartilage ( fibrocartilage ) , allowing the jaw to swing open at almost a 90 ° angle . The mandibular symphysis is also fibrocartilaginous , allowing the jaw to bend which lets in more water . To prevent stretching the mouth too far , rorquals have a sensory organ located in the middle of the jaw to regulate these functions .
= = = External anatomy = = =
Baleen whales have two flippers on the front , near the head
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deficit was later adjusted to 21 seats . The distribution of seats was initially predicted to be 307 to the Conservatives , 255 to Labour , 59 to the Liberal Democrats and 29 to the other parties , but these figures were later updated with a minor adjustment in Labour 's favour . The apparently poor prospects for the Liberal Democrats were a surprise to commentators , as many previous opinion polls had indicated they would receive more seats . A later BBC exit poll published at 5 : 36am on Friday 7 May predicted the Conservatives on 306 , 20 short of an overall majority , with Labour on 262 , and the Liberal Democrats on 55 .
At 9 : 41am on 7 May , the BBC confirmed a " hung parliament " , as it was by then impossible for the Conservative party to gain the number of seats needed to form a majority government . 326 seats were required for a technical majority , but only 323 were necessary for a practical majority , as the five Sinn Féin MPs were expected to boycott the House of Commons . At that time the Conservatives stood at 290 seats , Labour at 247 and Liberal Democrats at 51 . The final results put the Conservatives on 306 seats , Labour on 258 , and the Liberal Democrats on 57 .
Of the 532 seats contested in England , the Conservatives won an absolute majority of 61 seats and secured an average swing of 5 @.@ 6 % from Labour . The last seat to be elected , Thirsk and Malton , was contested on 27 May because one of the candidates died . All of Scotland 's 59 seats were won by the parties that won them at the 2005 election , with Labour regaining the two seats they lost in by @-@ elections since 2005 . Labour increased its share of the vote by 2 @.@ 5 % and the Conservatives by 0 @.@ 9 % , giving a swing from the Conservatives to Labour of 0 @.@ 8 % . The Conservatives won only one Scottish constituency , while the SNP – which had hoped to increase its share of seats from seven to 20 – failed to make any headway .
40 seats were contested in Wales , where the Conservative share rose from three seats to eight , taking one from the Liberal Democrats and four from Labour . Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru gained one extra seat , Arfon , from Labour . Overall , Labour lost four seats but remained the biggest party in Wales with 26 seats . 18 seats were contested in Northern Ireland , where both Irish nationalist parties , Sinn Féin and the SDLP , held their seats , the unionist UUP ( in an electoral pact with the Conservatives ) lost their only seat and the DUP lost a seat . This left the nationalist parties with eight seats , the unionist parties with eight seats ( all DUP ) , the Alliance Party with one seat and an independent unionist with one seat . It was the first time since the Partition of Ireland that unionist parties had failed to secure a majority of Northern Ireland 's Westminster seats in a general election .
= = Initial statements and negotiations = =
With no single party having achieved an overall majority , the 2010 general election resulted in the first hung parliament since 1974 . When it became clear that no party would achieve the outright majority needed to form the next government , the three main party leaders made public statements offering to discuss the options for putting together an administration with the other parties . Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg called on Prime Minister Gordon Brown and Conservative leader David Cameron to act " in the national interest and not out of narrow party political advantage " . However , having stated before the election that the party with the most seats should have the initial say on forming a government , Clegg announced his intention to begin talks with the Conservative Party . Speaking outside the Liberal Democrat headquarters he said : " It is now for the Conservative Party to prove that it is capable of seeking to govern in the national interest . " Brown said he intended to play his part in securing " a stable , strong and principled government " , and indicated his willingness to speak with both Clegg and Cameron on how to achieve this , saying : " What we have seen are no ordinary election results . " But shortly after , Cameron held a press conference at which he invited the Liberal Democrats to talks , saying : " I want to make a big , open and comprehensive offer to the Liberal Democrats . I want us to work together in tackling our country 's big and urgent problems - the debt crisis , our deep social problems and our broken political system . "
Under the constitutional rules governing protocol in the event of a hung parliament , Brown , as the sitting Prime Minister , would remain in office until a new government could be formed , a process which could continue without resolution until the State Opening of Parliament , which was scheduled for 25 May . On Brown 's instructions , Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus O 'Donnell had updated the protocol for dealing with a hung parliament earlier in the year . Following confirmation that no party had achieved an overall majority , Brown authorised O 'Donnell to begin the process . Four @-@ member teams of civil servants were sent to liaise with the main political parties to facilitate negotiations .
Cameron 's willingness to hold talks with the Liberal Democrats was interpreted by BBC News political editor Nick Robinson as hinting at the possibility that Liberal Democrat MPs could serve as part of a Cabinet . On the afternoon of 7 May , Cameron and Clegg spoke by telephone and had what the BBC reported as a " very constructive " conversation . By that evening exploratory talks between teams of senior representatives from the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives had begun . The Liberal Democrats team consisted of Chris Huhne , Danny Alexander , Andrew Stunell and David Laws , while George Osborne , William Hague , Oliver Letwin and Ed Llewellyn made up the Conservative team .
= = Further talks = =
By the morning of Saturday 8 May , talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats were fully underway . A 70 @-@ minute meeting at Admiralty House in Westminster was described by both parties as being " constructive and amicable " , and another meeting was scheduled for the following day . At a private meeting that evening , Cameron and Clegg held the first of a series of talks to discuss the negotiations . Members of the Liberal Democrat Parliamentary Party had earlier met at Local Government House to discuss the coalition talks .
One of the chief issues that the Liberal Democrats wished to address in any coalition agreement was that of electoral reform , and as Party members debated the negotiations , a 1 @,@ 000 strong crowd of protesters from the pressure group 38 Degrees gathered outside . Amid chants of " Fair votes now " and " We want to speak to Nick " , Clegg briefly left the meeting to accept a petition and told the protesters , " Reforming politics is one of the reasons I went into politics . " After the meeting , a Liberal Democrats negotiator , David Laws , said members had " endorsed in full " the strategy outlined by Clegg that the Conservatives should have first choice in negotiations on forming a government . Clegg also met with the Party 's federal executive , which also endorsed Clegg 's decision .
8 May 2010 was the 65th anniversary of V.E. Day – which marked the victory of the Allied Forces over Nazi Germany and the end of the Second World War in Europe – and celebrations were held to mark the occasion . The leaders of all three parties attended a ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , a duty which normally falls to the Prime Minister . After the ceremony , Brown flew to his family home in Scotland , but remained ready to negotiate with the Liberal Democrats if no deal with the Conservatives was reached . Labour denied reports of a heated telephone conversation between Brown and Clegg , and support among Brown 's Cabinet colleagues remained strong , but one backbencher , John Mann , urged Brown to step aside as Labour leader before the party conference in September , arguing that Brown 's continued leadership " rules out the credibility of a Lib / Lab pact " .
= = Negotiations continue = =
On Sunday 9 May , senior negotiators from the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives embarked on six hours of talks at the Cabinet Office , which were described as " very positive and productive " . William Hague emerged from the discussions to say , " The issues that we have covered have included political reform , economic issues and reduction of the deficit , banking reform , civil liberties , environmental issues . So , we 've had good discussions about all of those areas . We are agreed that a central part of any agreement that we make will be economic stability and the reduction of the budget deficit , but each negotiating team is now going to report to our party leaders . "
As the negotiations were taking place , Gordon Brown returned to Downing Street and held a meeting with Nick Clegg at the Foreign Office for talks . A Downing Street spokesman later confirmed the talks , together with the previous evening 's telephone conversation between Brown and Clegg , which was described as " an amicable discussion . " However , Paddy Ashdown – a previous Liberal Democrat leader – offered a different view of the Brown @-@ Clegg conference call , telling the BBC it " was a diatribe , a rant , and that Gordon Brown was threatening in his approach to Nick Clegg . " Following the success of the talks between their two parties , Clegg and Cameron held a second round of face @-@ to @-@ face discussions at Westminster that evening , lasting 45 minutes .
While negotiations continued to form the next administration , the business of government continued with the previous incumbents . In this respect Chancellor Alistair Darling flew to Brussels to attend a meeting of European finance ministers . In London , Brown held meetings with Business Secretary Peter Mandelson , his deputy leader Harriet Harman , Secretary of State for Energy Ed Miliband and Tony Blair 's former special adviser Alastair Campbell . Brown also sent an email to party activists in which he thanked them for their work during the election campaign . It concluded " The past few days have seen us enter a political landscape not considered possible a few short weeks ago - with the outcome of the election leading to no single party able to form a majority government . My duty as prime minister has been to seek to resolve this situation . " Several senior Labour backbenchers , including MP George Howarth called on Brown to step down .
= = Labour enters the picture = =
Monday 10 May saw another day of talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats , but at a meeting with his MPs , Nick Clegg was urged to give assurances over offers which were being made by David Cameron 's team . They also wished him to continue negotiations with Labour . During the day it emerged that senior Labour and Liberal Democrat representatives had held discussions about forming a coalition , but that one of the barriers to this was the continued presence of Gordon Brown as Prime Minister . At 5.00pm that afternoon Brown announced that he would step down as Labour leader by September . In a statement he said that he intended to " [ A ] sk the Labour Party to set in train the processes needed for its own leadership election . " The statement went on to say , " I would hope that it would be completed in time for the new leader to be in post by the time of the Labour Party conference . I will play no part in that contest , I will back no individual candidate . " He also urged any prospective candidates for the position to wait until coalition negotiations were complete before announcing their candidacy . Following this announcement , formal talks began between Labour and the Liberal Democrats , but many in the Party felt that a Labour @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition was an unrealistic prospect since it would still fall short of the 326 seats needed to form a majority government , with 315 seats to the Conservatives ' 306 . Labour MP Graham Stringer said , " I don 't think it makes sense in the arithmetic – the numbers don 't add up . " However , in his account of Labour 's negotiations with the Liberal Democrats , Andrew Adonis – who participated in the talks – writes that the general consensus among members of Gordon Brown 's cabinet was that talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats would reach an impasse . " [ The ] process would turn to our favour once the Tories and Lib Dems had rehearsed the extent of their differences " .
With Labour now attempting to form its own coalition government , the Conservatives promised the Liberal Democrats a referendum on changing the voting mechanism to the Alternative Vote ( AV ) system . In response Labour said that it would introduce AV then hold a public referendum to approve it . In a statement outlining his decision to negotiate with Labour , Clegg said that although his party had made progress with the Conservatives , they had not " reached a comprehensive partnership agreement for a full Parliament " and negotiating with Labour was the " responsible thing to do " .
The possibility of some SNP involvement in a Labour @-@ led government materialised when Angus Robertson , the SNP 's leader in the House of Commons suggested its MPs would be willing to join Labour , the Liberal Democrats , Plaid Cymru and MPs from other smaller parties to form a rainbow coalition . It was reported on 10 May that a meeting to discuss this scenario was held between Robertson , the SNP Chief Whip Stewart Hosie and Cabinet Office officials the previous evening . However , Labour 's Douglas Alexander said he could not foresee a situation in which Labour could enter into government with the SNP because the two parties had " fundamental differences " , and he made it clear that no senior Labour officials had been approached by anyone from the SNP .
= = Coalition deal reached = =
By 11 May , the possibility of a deal between the Liberal Democrats and Labour was looking unlikely . Talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats continued , and after concluding that he would not be able to form a government , Brown announced his resignation that evening . He also resigned as leader of the Labour Party with immediate effect . He then left Downing Street with his wife and their children , and drove to Buckingham Palace where he tendered his resignation to the Queen and advised her to call for David Cameron . Cameron became Prime Minister one hour after the Queen accepted Brown 's resignation , and arrived at Downing Street with his wife , Samantha shortly afterwards . In his first address outside 10 Downing Street , he announced his intention to form a coalition government , the first since the Second World War , with the Liberal Democrats . Cameron appointed Nick Clegg as Deputy Prime Minister . Cameron met with his MPs in the Committee Room of the House of Commons at 10.00pm , where he was greeted with cheering that could be heard from the central hall of the Commons .
Cameron later told a BBC documentary that he had not expected to become Prime Minister , and the coalition agreement had not yet been completed when Brown resigned . Speaking on the programme , Five Days That Changed Britain , broadcast on 29 July , he said that when he went to meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace , the coalition deal had not been finalised . Formally , the monarch can only invite a prospective Prime Minister to form a Government ; the shape of the Government is for the new Prime Minister to decide . William Hague said that as Cameron travelled to the Palace , the coalition agreement was still being completed and signed .
Shortly after midnight on 12 May 2010 , the Liberal Democrats emerged from a meeting of their Parliamentary party and Federal Executive to announce that the coalition deal had been " approved overwhelmingly " , meaning that David Cameron would lead a coalition government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrats . Later that day , the two parties jointly published the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition agreement specifying the terms of the deal . Cameron appointed his first Cabinet , which included several senior Conservative and Liberal Democrat figures . From the Conservatives , George Osborne became Chancellor of the Exchequer , William Hague was named as Foreign Secretary and Oliver Letwin was appointed as Minister of State for the Cabinet Office . Liberal Democrat appointments included Danny Alexander as Secretary of State for Scotland , Chris Huhne as Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , and David Laws became Chief Secretary to the Treasury .
Cameron and Clegg gave their first joint press conference in the Downing Street Rose Garden on the afternoon of 12 May , telling journalists the purpose of their government would be " [ T ] o give our country the strong , stable and decisive leadership we need " . The new Parliamentary session began with the State Opening of Parliament on 25 May . Cameron attended his first Prime Minister 's Questions as Prime Minister on Wednesday 2 June .
Labour became the Party of Opposition , and with Brown 's departure , Harriet Harman became its acting leader . On 18 May 2010 Labour 's National Executive Committee announced the details of the leadership election . Ed Miliband was elected as the party 's new leader at its annual national conference on 25 September 2010 .
= German battleship Bismarck =
Bismarck was the first of two Bismarck @-@ class battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . Named after Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the primary force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 , the ship was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in July 1936 and launched in February 1939 . Work was completed in August 1940 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Bismarck and her sister ship Tirpitz were the largest battleships ever built by Germany , and two of the largest built by any European power .
In the course of the warship 's eight @-@ month career under its sole commanding officer , Capt. Ernst Lindemann , Bismarck conducted only one offensive operation , in May 1941 , codenamed Rheinübung . The ship , along with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , was to break into the Atlantic Ocean and raid Allied shipping from North America to Great Britain . The two ships were detected several times off Scandinavia , and British naval units were deployed to block their route . At the Battle of the Denmark Strait , Bismarck engaged and destroyed the battlecruiser HMS Hood , the pride of the Royal Navy , and forced the battleship HMS Prince of Wales to retreat ; Bismarck was hit three times and suffered an oil leak from a ruptured tank .
The destruction of Hood spurred a relentless pursuit by the Royal Navy involving dozens of warships . Two days later , heading for the relative safety of occupied France , Bismarck was attacked by obsolescent Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal ; one scored a hit that rendered the battleship 's steering gear inoperable . In her final battle the following morning , Bismarck was neutralised by a sustained bombardment from a British fleet , was scuttled by her crew , and sank with heavy loss of life . Most experts agree that the battle damage would have caused her to sink eventually . The wreck was located in June 1989 by Robert Ballard , and has since been further surveyed by several other expeditions .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Bismarck was ordered under the name Ersatz Hannover ( " Hannover replacement " ) , a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Hannover , under contract " F " . The contract was awarded to the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , where the keel was laid on 1 July 1936 at Helgen IX . The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 and during the elaborate ceremonies was christened by Dorothee von Löwenfeld , granddaughter of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the ship 's namesake . Adolf Hitler made the christening speech . Fitting @-@ out work followed the launch , during which time the original straight stem was replaced with a raked " Atlantic bow " similar to those of the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships . Bismarck was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940 for sea trials , which were conducted in the Baltic . Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann took command of the ship at the time of commissioning .
Bismarck displaced 41 @,@ 700 t ( 41 @,@ 000 long tons ) as built and 50 @,@ 300 t ( 49 @,@ 500 long tons ) fully loaded , with an overall length of 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) and a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) . The battleship was Germany 's largest warship , and displaced more than any other European battleship , with the exception of HMS Vanguard , commissioned after the end of the war . Bismarck was powered by three Blohm & Voss geared steam turbines and twelve oil @-@ fired Wagner superheated boilers , which developed a total of 148 @,@ 116 shp ( 110 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 01 knots ( 55 @.@ 58 km / h ; 34 @.@ 53 mph ) on speed trials . The ship had a cruising range of 8 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 430 km ; 10 @,@ 210 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Bismarck was equipped with three FuMO 23 search radar sets , mounted on the forward and stern rangefinders and foretop .
The standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted men . The crew was divided into twelve divisions of between 180 and 220 men . The first six divisions were assigned to the ship 's armament , divisions one to four for the main and secondary batteries and five and six manning anti @-@ aircraft guns . The seventh division consisted of specialists , including cooks and carpenters , and the eighth division consisted of ammunition handlers . The radio operators , signalmen , and quartermasters were assigned to the ninth division . The last three divisions were the engine room personnel . When Bismarck left port , fleet staff , prize crews , and war correspondents increased the crew complement to over 2 @,@ 200 men . Roughly 200 of the engine room personnel came from the light cruiser Karlsruhe , which had been lost during Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway . Bismarck 's crew published a ship 's newspaper titled Die Schiffsglocke ( The Ship 's Bell ) ; this paper was only published once , on 23 April 1941 , by the commander of the engineering department , Gerhard Junack .
Bismarck was armed with eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two super @-@ firing turrets forward — " Anton " and " Bruno " — and two aft — " Caesar " and " Dora " . Secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 guns , sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . Bismarck also carried four Arado Ar 196 reconnaissance floatplanes , with a single large hangar and a double @-@ ended catapult . The ship 's main belt was 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 100 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , respectively . The 38 cm ( 15 in ) turrets were protected by 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) thick faces and 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
On 15 September 1940 , three weeks after commissioning , Bismarck left Hamburg to begin sea trials in Kiel Bay . Sperrbrecher 13 escorted the ship to Arcona on 28 September , and then on to Gotenhafen for trials in the Gulf of Danzig . The ship 's power @-@ plant was given a thorough workout ; Bismarck made measured @-@ mile and high speed runs . As the ship 's stability and manoeuvrability were being tested , a flaw in her design was discovered . When attempting to steer the ship solely through altering propeller revolutions , the crew learned that Bismarck could be kept on course only with great difficulty . Even with the outboard screws running at full power in opposite directions , they generated only a slight turning ability . Bismarck 's main battery guns were first test @-@ fired in late November . The tests proved she was a very stable gun platform . Trials lasted until December ; Bismarck returned to Hamburg , arriving on 9 December , for minor alterations and the completion of the fitting @-@ out process .
The ship was scheduled to return to Kiel on 24 January 1941 , but a merchant vessel had been sunk in the Kiel Canal and prevented use of the waterway . Severe weather hampered efforts to remove the wreck , and Bismarck was not able to reach Kiel until March . The delay greatly frustrated Lindemann , who remarked that " [ Bismarck ] had been tied down at Hamburg for five weeks ... the precious time at sea lost as a result cannot be made up , and a significant delay in the final war deployment of the ship thus is unavoidable . " While waiting to reach Kiel , Bismarck hosted Captain Anders Forshell , the Swedish naval attaché to Berlin . He returned to Sweden with a detailed description of the ship , which was subsequently leaked to Britain by pro @-@ British elements in the Swedish Navy . The information provided the Royal Navy with its first full description of the vessel , although it lacked important facts , including top speed , radius of action , and displacement .
On 6 March , Bismarck received the order to steam to Kiel . On the way , the ship was escorted by several Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and a pair of armed merchant vessels , along with an icebreaker . At 08 : 45 on 8 March , Bismarck briefly ran aground on the southern shore of the Kiel Canal ; she was freed within an hour . The ship reached Kiel the following day , where her crew stocked ammunition , fuel , and other supplies and applied a coat of dazzle paint to camouflage her . British bombers attacked the harbour without success on 12 March . On 17 March , the old battleship Schlesien , now used as an icebreaker , escorted Bismarck through the ice to Gotenhafen , where the latter continued combat readiness training .
The Naval High Command ( Oberkommando der Marine or OKM ) , commanded by Admiral Erich Raeder , intended to continue the practice of using heavy ships as surface raiders against Allied merchant traffic in the Atlantic Ocean . The two Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships were based in Brest , France , at the time , having just completed Operation Berlin , a major raid into the Atlantic . Bismarck 's sister ship Tirpitz rapidly approached completion . Bismarck and Tirpitz were to sortie from the Baltic and rendezvous with the two Scharnhorst @-@ class ships in the Atlantic ; the operation was initially scheduled for around 25 April 1941 , when a new moon period would make conditions more favourable .
Work on Tirpitz was completed later than anticipated , and she was not commissioned until 25 February ; the ship was not ready for combat until late in the year . To further complicate the situation , Gneisenau was torpedoed in Brest and damaged further by bombs when in drydock . Scharnhorst required a boiler overhaul following Operation Berlin ; the workers discovered during the overhaul that the boilers were in worse condition than expected . She would also be unavailable for the planned sortie . Attacks by British bombers on supply depots in Kiel delayed repairs to the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper . The two ships would not be ready for action until July or August . Admiral Günther Lütjens , Flottenchef ( Fleet Chief ) of the Kriegsmarine , chosen to lead the operation , wished to delay the operation at least until either Scharnhorst or Tirpitz became available , but the OKM decided to proceed with the operation , codenamed Operation Rheinübung , with a force consisting of only Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen . At a final meeting with Raeder in Paris on 26 April , Lütjens was encouraged by his commander @-@ in @-@ chief to proceed and he eventually decided that an operation should begin as soon as possible to prevent the enemy gaining any respite .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
On 5 May , Adolf Hitler and Wilhelm Keitel , with a large entourage , arrived to view Bismarck and Tirpitz in Gotenhafen . The men were given an extensive tour of the ships , after which Hitler met with Lütjens to discuss the upcoming mission . On 16 May , Lütjens reported that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen were fully prepared for Operation Rheinübung ; he was therefore ordered to proceed with the mission on the evening of 19 May . As part of the operational plans , a group of eighteen supply ships would be positioned to support Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Four U @-@ boats would be placed along the convoy routes between Halifax and Britain to scout for the raiders .
By the start of the operation , Bismarck 's crew had increased to 2 @,@ 221 officers and enlisted men . This included an admiral 's staff of nearly 65 and a prize crew of 80 sailors , who could be used to crew transports captured during the mission . At 02 : 00 on 19 May , Bismarck departed Gotenhafen and made for the Danish straits . She was joined at 11 : 25 by Prinz Eugen , which had departed the previous night at 21 : 18 , off Cape Arkona . The two ships were escorted by three destroyers — Z10 Hans Lody , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z23 — and a flotilla of minesweepers . The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters . At around noon on 20 May , Lindemann informed the ship 's crew via loudspeaker of the ship 's mission . At approximately the same time , a group of ten or twelve Swedish aircraft flying reconnaissance encountered the German force and reported its composition and heading , though the Germans did not see the Swedes .
An hour later , the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat . Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters , stating : " Two large ships , three destroyers , five escort vessels , and 10 – 12 aircraft passed Marstrand , course 205 ° / 20 ' . " The OKM was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland , though both Lütjens and Lindemann believed operational secrecy had been lost . The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham , the British naval attaché to Sweden , who transmitted the information to the Admiralty . The code @-@ breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent , as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters . A pair of Supermarine Spitfires was ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the flotilla .
German aerial reconnaissance confirmed that one aircraft carrier , three battleships , and four cruisers remained at anchor in the main British naval base at Scapa Flow , which confirmed to Lütjens that the British were unaware of his operation . On the evening of 20 May , Bismarck and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast ; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north . The following morning , radio @-@ intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast . At 7 : 00 on the 21st , the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft , which quickly departed . Shortly after 12 : 00 , the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord , where the ships ' crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard " outboard grey " worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic .
When Bismarck was in Norway , a pair
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, the video , which is noted for opening up many job opportunities for dancers in the US , also featured 18 professional dancers and four breakdancers . Besides Jackson , Peters and Vincent Paterson , the cast included Michael DeLorenzo , Stoney Jackson , Tracii Guns , Tony Fields , Peter Tramm , Rick Stone and Cheryl Song .
The video was written and directed by Bob Giraldi , produced by Antony Payne and Mary M. Ensign through production company GASP . The second video released for the Thriller album , it was choreographed by Michael Peters who also performed , alongside Vincent Paterson , as one of the two lead dancers . Despite some sources claiming otherwise , Jackson was involved in creating some parts of the choreography . Jackson asked Giraldi , at the time already an established commercial director but who had never directed a music video , to come up with a concept for the " Beat It " video because he really liked a commercial Giraldi had directed for WLS @-@ TV in Chicago about a married couple of two elderly blind people who instead of running from a run @-@ down neighborhood all the other white people had fled from , chose to stay and throw a block party for all the young children in the area . Contrary to popular belief , the concept of the video was not based on the Broadway musical West Side Story ; in reality Giraldi drew inspiration from his growing up in Paterson , New Jersey .
The video had its world premiere on MTV during prime time on March 31 , 1983 though it should be noted that neither Beat It nor Billie Jean was , as is often claimed , the first music video by an African @-@ American artist to be played on MTV . Soon after its premiere the video was also running on other video programs including BET 's Video Soul , SuperStation WTBS 's Night Tracks , and NBC 's Friday Night Videos . In fact , Beat It was the first video shown on the latter 's first ever telecast on July 29 , 1983 .
The video opens with the news of a fight circulating at a diner . This scene repeats itself at a pool hall , where gang members arrive via foot , forklift , and out of sewers , while the video 's titular song begins to play . The camera cuts to a scene of Jackson lying on a bed , revealing he 's the one singing contemplating the senseless violence . The singer notices rival gangs and leaves . Michael Jackson dons a red leather J. Parks brand jacket , and dances his way towards the fight through the diner and pool hall . A knife fight is taking place between the two gang leaders in a warehouse . They dance battle for an interlude of music until MJ arrives ; the singer breaks up the fight and launches into a dance routine . The video ends with the gang members joining him in the dance , agreeing that violence is not the solution to their problems .
The video received recognition through numerous awards . The American Music Awards named the short film their Favorite Pop / Rock Video and their Favorite Soul Video . The Black Gold Awards honored Jackson with the Best Video Performance award . The Billboard Video Awards recognised the video with 7 awards ; Best Overall Video Clip , Best Performance by a Male Artist , Best Use of Video to Enhance a Song , Best Use of Video to Enhance an Artist 's Image , Best Choreography , Best Overall Video and Best Dance / Disco 12 " . The short film was ranked by Rolling Stone as the No. 1 video , in both their critic 's and reader 's poll . The video was later inducted into the Music Video Producer 's Hall of Fame .
The music video of the song appears on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits – HIStory , HIStory on Film , Volume II , Number Ones , on the bonus DVD of Thriller 25 and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Live performances = =
On July 14 , 1984 , Jackson performed " Beat It " live with his brothers during The Jacksons ' Victory Tour . The brothers were joined on stage by Eddie Van Halen , who played the guitar in his solo spot . The song became a signature song of Jackson ; the singer performed it on all of his world tours : Bad , Dangerous and HIStory . The October 1 , 1992 Dangerous Tour performance of " Beat It " was included on the DVD of the singer 's Michael Jackson : The Ultimate Collection box set . The DVD was later repackaged as Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour . Jackson also performed the song on the Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Special , a concert celebrating the musician 's thirtieth year as a solo performer . The performance featured Slash as the song 's guest guitarist .
A highlight of Jackson 's solo concert tour performances of the song is that would he would begin the song on a cherry picker ( which he would also later use with " Earth Song " during the HIStory World Tour ) after performing Thriller . Another live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 . The song would have also been performed as part of the This Is It concerts which were cancelled due to Jackson 's death .
= = Legacy = =
Michael Jackson 's " Beat It " has been cited as one of the most successful , recognized , awarded and celebrated songs in the history of pop music ; both the song and video had a large impact on pop culture . The song is said to be a " pioneer " in black rock music , and is considered one of the cornerstones of the Thriller album . Eddie Van Halen has been praised for adding " the greatest guitar solo " , aiding " Beat It " into becoming one of the biggest selling singles of all time .
Shortly after its release , " Beat It " was included in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti @-@ drunk driving campaign , " Drinking and Driving Can Kill a Friendship " . The song was also included on the accompanying album . Jackson collected an award from President Ronald Reagan at the White House , in recognition for his support of the campaign . Reagan stated that Jackson was " proof of what a person can accomplish through a lifestyle free of alcohol or drug abuse . People young and old respect that . And if Americans follow his example , then we can face up to the problem of drinking and driving , and we can , in Michael 's words , ' Beat It ' . "
Frequently listed in greatest song polling lists , " Beat It " was ranked as the world 's fourth favorite song in a 2005 poll conducted by Sony Ericsson . Over 700 @,@ 000 people in 60 different countries cast their votes . Voters from the UK placed " Billie Jean " at No. 1 , ahead of " Thriller " , with a further five of the top ten being solo recordings by Jackson . In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine placed " Beat It " in the 337th spot on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . The song was featured in the films Back to the Future Part II , Zoolander and Undercover Brother . When re @-@ released , as part of the Visionary campaign in 2006 , " Beat It " charted at No. 15 in the UK . The song has been used in TV commercials for companies like Budweiser , eBay , Burger King , Delta Air Lines , Game Boy , Coldwell Banker and the NFL . On the City Guys episode of season 3 's " Face the Music " , Jamal says to Slick Billy West , played by Sherman Hemsley , " Well Gone Michael Jackson and Beat It " which was in the final scene . The song also appeared in the 2008 music game , Guitar Hero World Tour , as the last song in the vocal career . Notably , in this game , the vocalist will perform the same dance routine performed by Jackson on the video and live performances when singing the final verse . The song is featured on the dancing game Michael Jackson : The Experience .
= = Track listing = =
12 " Maxi ( Epic TA 3258 )
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Burn This Disco Out " – 3 : 38
" The Jacksons – Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough ( Live Version ) " – 4 : 22
12 " Single
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Working Day And Night " – 5 : 14
12 " Mexican Promo of Bille Jean
" Billie Jean " – 6 : 22
" Largate ( Beat It ) " – 5 : 41
7 " Single ( Epic A 318402 )
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Get on the Floor " – 4 : 44
Visionary Single
CD
" Beat It "
" Beat It " ( Moby 's Sub Remix )
DVD
" Beat It " ( Video )
= = Personnel = =
Performance
Michael Jackson – lead vocals , background vocals , drum case beater
Paul Jackson , Jr . – rhythm guitar
Steve Lukather – lead guitar , bass guitar
Eddie Van Halen – guitar solo
Steve Porcaro – synthesizer , synthesizer programming
Greg Phillinganes – Rhodes , synthesizer
Bill Wolfer – keyboards
Tom Bahler – Synclavier
Jeff Porcaro – drums
Production
Michael Jackson – writing , composition , co @-@ production , rhythm and vocal arrangement
Quincy Jones – production , rhythm arrangement
Greg Smith – synergy
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Beat It 2008 = =
For Thriller 25 , The Black Eyed Peas singer will.i.am remixed " Beat It " . The song , titled " Beat It 2008 " , featured additional vocals by fellow Black Eyed Peas member Fergie . Upon its release in 2008 , the song reached No. 26 in Switzerland , the Top 50 in Sweden and No. 65 in Austria . This was the second remixed version of " Beat It " to get an official release , following Moby 's Sub Mix which was released on the " Jam " and " Who Is It " singles in 1992 , as well as the " They Don 't Care About Us " single in 1996 ( and re @-@ released as part of the Visionary campaign . )
= = = Reception = = =
" Beat It 2008 " received generally unfavorable reviews from music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone claimed that the song was a " contender for the year 's most pointless musical moment " . AllMusic criticized Fergie for " parroting the lyrics of " Beat It " back to a recorded Jackson " . Blender 's Kelefa Sanneh also noted that the Black Eyed Peas singer traded lines with Jackson . " Why ? " , she queried . Todd Gilchrist was thankful that the remix retained Eddie Van Halen 's " incendiary guitar solo " , but added that the song " holds the dubious honor of making Jackson seem masculine for once , and only in the context of Fergie 's tough @-@ by @-@ way @-@ of @-@ Kids Incorporated interpretation of the tune " . Tom Ewing of Pitchfork Media observed that Fergie 's " nervous reverence is a waste of time " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Remix credits = = =
Written and composed by Michael Jackson
Remix drums : will.i.am
Remix keyboards and synths : will.i.am
Remix engineered by will.i.am and Kerin
Remix produced and mixed by Michael Jackson and will.i.am
Remix recorded in November 2007
= = Fall Out Boy version = =
American rock band Fall Out Boy covered " Beat It " . The studio version was digitally released on March 25 , 2008 by Island Records as the only single from the band 's first live album , Live in Phoenix ( 2008 ) . The song features a guitar solo by John Mayer , which was performed by Eddie Van Halen in the original song . In the United States , the song peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached No. 21 on the defunct @-@ Billboard Pop 100 chart , also charting internationally . The band has since regularly incorporated it in their set list at their shows .
= = = Background , recording and release = = =
In early 2008 it was announced that Fall Out Boy were to cover " Beat It " for their Live in Phoenix album . The band had previously performed the song at venues such as Coors Amphitheatre and festivals such as the Carling Weekend in Leeds . Bassist Pete Wentz , who has claimed to have an obsession with Jackson , stated that prior to recording the song , he would only watch Moonwalker . It was also announced that John Mayer was to add the guitar solo previously played by Eddie Van Halen .
The band 's lead singer / guitarist Patrick Stump stated that the band had not planned to cover the song . " Basically , I just started playing the riff in sound @-@ check one day , and then we all started playing it , and then we started playing it live , and then we figured we 'd record it and put it out with our live DVD . " Bassist Pete Wentz added that the band had not originally intended for the song to be released as a single either . " ' Beat It ' seemed like a song that would be cool and that we could do our own take on " , he said . Having spent time deciding on a guitarist for the song , Wentz eventually called John Mayer to add the guitar solo . " We were trying to think about who is a contemporary guitar guy who 's going to go down as a legend " , Wentz later noted .
Upon its digital release as a single in April 2008 , Fall Out Boy 's cover of " Beat It " became a mainstay on iTunes ' Top 10 chart . The song peaked at No. 8 in Canada , becoming another top 10 hit in the region . It also charted at No. 13 in Australia , No. 14 in New Zealand , No. 75 in Austria and No. 98 in the Netherlands .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for Fall Out Boy 's " Beat It " was directed by Shane Drake and was made in homage to Jackson . " I think when you 're doing a Michael Jackson cover , there 's this expectation that you 're going to do one of his videos verbatim , " Stump said . " What we decided to do was kind of inspired by Michael Jackson and the mythology of him . There are specific images that are reference points for us , but at any given point , it 's not any of his videos . It 's kind of all of his videos , all at once , but on a Fall Out Boy budget , so it 's not quite as fancy . " The costumes for the video were similar to the originals . " My costume is this take on one of the guys from Michael Jackson 's original ' Beat It ' video , like , the guy who plays the rival dancer , " Wentz said during the filming of the video . The music video featured numerous cameos , including a karate class / dance session being taught by Tony Hale , Donald Faison and Joel David Moore dressed up like Michael Jackson . The short film later received a MTV Video Music Award nomination for Best Rock Video .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
In 1984 , parodist " Weird Al " Yankovic released his parody song " Eat It " . Yankovic recorded the song with Jackson 's permission . The song 's music video mocked the " Beat It " short film scene @-@ for @-@ scene , with Yankovic mimicking Jackson 's dance moves in a clumsy fashion . Jackson received royalties from Yankovic due to the strong similarities .
= Myotis alcathoe =
Myotis alcathoe is a European bat in the genus Myotis . Known only from Greece and Hungary when it was first described in 2001 , its known distribution has since expanded to Spain , England , Sweden , and Azerbaijan , among other countries . It is similar to the whiskered bat ( Myotis mystacinus ) and other species and is difficult to distinguish from them . However , its brown fur is distinctive and it is clearly different in characters of its karyotype and DNA sequences . Although some genetic data suggest that it is related to Geoffroy 's bat ( Myotis emarginatus ) , other analyses do not support a close relationship between M. alcathoe and any other species .
With a forearm length of 30 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 21 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) and body mass of 3 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 19 oz ) , Myotis alcathoe is a small bat . The fur is usually reddish @-@ brown on the upperparts and brown below , but more grayish in juveniles . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the ear ) is short , as is the ear itself , and the inner side of the ear is pale at the base . The wings are brown and the baculum ( penis bone ) is short and broad . M. alcathoe has a very high @-@ pitched echolocation call , with a frequency that falls from 120 kHz at the beginning of the call to about 43 kHz at the end .
Usually found in old @-@ growth deciduous forest near water , Myotis alcathoe forages high in the canopy and above water and mostly eats flies . The animal roosts in cavities high in trees . Although there are some winter records from caves , it may also spend the winter in tree cavities . Several parasites have been recorded on M. alcathoe . The IUCN Red List assesses Myotis alcathoe as " Data Deficient " , but it is considered threatened in several areas because of its rarity and vulnerability to habitat loss .
= = Taxonomy = =
The whiskered bat ( Myotis mystacinus ) and similar species in Eurasia ( collectively known as " whiskered bats " ) are difficult to distinguish from each other ; for example , the distantly related Brandt 's bat ( Myotis brandtii ) was not recognized as distinct from M. mystacinus until the 1970s . Small , unusual M. mystacinus @-@ like bats were first recorded in Greece in the 1970s , but it was not until the advent of genetic studies that these bats could be confirmed as representing a distinct species , named Myotis alcathoe . In 2001 , the species was described by German zoologists Otto von Helversen and Klaus @-@ Gerhard Heller on the basis of specimens from Greece and Hungary . Although it also differs from other whiskered bats by morphological characters , Myotis alcathoe is most clearly distinct in its genetics , including DNA sequences and the location of the nucleolus organizer regions . Two studies used microsatellites markers on european whiskered bats : the first one used West @-@ europeans smples and recovered three well @-@ defined species clusters for M. alcathoe , M. brandtii and M. mystacinus , the other one , conducted in Poland , suggesting a high level of hybridization with other whiskered bats that would further complicates attempts to identify M. alcathoe morphologically .
Von Helversen and Heller argued that none of the old names now considered synonyms of M. mystacinus could apply to M. alcathoe , because these names all have their type localities in western or central Europe . However , the more recent discovery of M. alcathoe further to the west renders it possible that an older name may be discovered . In addition , Russian researcher Suren Gazaryan has suggested that the name caucasicus Tsytsulina , 2000 ( originally proposed for a subspecies of M. mystacinus from the Caucasus ) may prove to be applicable to M. alcathoe ; in that case , the species would be renamed Myotis caucasicus . The species may have remained undetected in Germany for so long because bat researchers did not sample its preferred habitats and would dismiss unusual @-@ looking whiskered bats as being abnormal M. mystacinus or M. brandtii .
On the basis of mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis , Myotis alcathoe first appeared close to Geoffroy 's bat ( Myotis emarginatus ) of southern Europe , North Africa , and southwestern Asia . However , a study of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene incorporating many Myotis species did not support this relationship , and could not place M. alcathoe securely at a specific position among Eurasian Myotis . Two groups with slightly divergent mitochondrial DNA sequences ( separated by 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 4 % sequence divergence ) are distinguishable within the species , which probably correspond to different glacial refugia where M. alcathoe populations survived the last glacial period . One , known as the " Hungarian " group , has been recorded from Spain , France , Austria , Hungary , and Slovakia , and probably corresponds to a refugium in Iberia ; the other , the " Greek " group , is known only from Greece and Slovakia .
The specific name , alcathoe , refers to Alcathoe , a figure from Greek mythology who was turned into a bat when she refused the advances of the god Dionysus . She was associated with gorges and small streams , the preferred habitat of Myotis alcathoe in Greece . In their original description , von Helversen and colleagues described her as a nymph , and the common name " nymph bat " has therefore been used for this species . However , none of the classical sources speak of Alcathoe as a nymph ; instead , she was a princess , the daughter of King Minyas of Orchomenos . Therefore , Petr Benda recommended in 2008 that the common name " Alcathoe bat " or " Alcathoe myotis " be used instead . Other common names include " Alcathoe 's bat " and " Alcathoe whiskered bat " .
= = Description = =
Myotis alcathoe is the smallest European Myotis species . The fur is brownish on the upperparts , with a reddish tone in old specimens , and a slightly paler gray @-@ brown below . Younger animals may be completely gray @-@ brown . The brown fur distinguishes adult M. alcathoe from other whiskered bats , but juveniles cannot be unambiguously identified on the basis of morphology . M. alcathoe is similar to Daubenton 's bat ( Myotis daubentonii ) and M. emarginatus in color . On the upper side of the body , the hairs are 6 to 8 mm long and have dark bases and brown tips . The hairs on the lower side of the body are only slightly paler at the tip than at the base .
The face and the upper lips are reddish to pink , not dark brown to black as in M. mystacinus . Although most of the face is hairy , the area around the eyes is bare . The nostrils are heart @-@ shaped , and their back end is broad , as in M. brandtii , not narrow as in M. mystacinus . Several glands are present on the muzzle , most prominently in reproductively active males . The ears are brown and are lighter on the inside than the outside . There is a notch at the edge of the ear , and the pointed tragus ( a projection inside the ear that is present in some bats ) extends up to this notch ; the tragus is longer , extending beyond the notch , in both M. brandtii and M. mystacinus . The base of the inner side of the ear is white ; it is much darker in M. mystacinus . The feet and the thumbs are very small . The small size of the ear , tragus , feet , and thumb distinguishes M. alcathoe from the slightly larger M. mystacinus and M. brandtii , but the feet are relatively larger than in M. mystacinus .
The wings are brown , but lighter than those of M. mystacinus . The plagiopatagium ( the portion of the wing between the last digit and the hindlegs ) is attached to the fifth toe . The tail extends only about 1 mm beyond the back margin of the uropatagium ( the portion of the wing membrane between the hindlegs ) . The calcar , a cartilaginous spur supporting the uropatagium , is slender . With a width around 1 @.@ 3 mm , the penis is narrow , and it lacks a broadened tip ( except in one Croatian specimen ) . The baculum ( penis bone ) is about 0 @.@ 5 mm long . The short and broad shape of this bone distinguishes M. alcathoe from M. brandtii as well as M. ikonnikovi .
The skull is similar in shape to that of M. mystacinus and M. brandtii , but the front part of the braincase is higher . The second and third upper premolars ( P2 and P3 ) are tiny and pressed against the upper canine ( C1 ) and fourth premolar ( P4 ) . The canine is less well @-@ developed than in M. mystacinus . There is a clear cusp present on the side of the P4 . The accessory cusp known as the protoconule is present on each of the upper molars when they are unworn . M. mystacinus lacks the P4 cusp and the protoconules on the molars , but M. brandtii has an even larger cusp on P4 .
As usual in Myotis species , Myotis alcathoe has a karyotype consisting of 44 chromosomes , with the fundamental number of chromosomal arms equal to 52 . However , a 1987 study already found that M. alcathoe ( then called " Myotis sp . B " ) differs from both M. mystacinus and M. brandtii in the pattern of active nucleolus organizer regions on the chromosomes . M. alcathoe also differs from other Myotis species in the sequences of the mitochondrial genes 12S rRNA and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 by at least 5 % and 13 % , respectively .
Myotis alcathoe has the highest @-@ frequency echolocation call of any European Myotis . In open terrain , the call has an average duration of 2 @.@ 5 ms , but it may be up to 4 ms long . At the beginning , its frequency is around 120 kHz , but it then falls fast , subsequently falls slightly slower , and at the end falls faster again . The call reaches its highest amplitude at around 53 kHz . It terminates at around 43 to 46 kHz ; this characteristic is especially distinctive . In different experiments , the time between calls was found to be around 85 and 66 ms , respectively . The high @-@ pitched call may be an adaptation to the animal 's occurrence in dense vegetation .
Head and body length is about 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and wingspan is around 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Forearm length is 30 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 21 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) , tibia length is 13 @.@ 5 to 15 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 53 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) , hindfoot length is 5 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 23 in ) , and body mass is 3 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 19 oz ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Although Myotis alcathoe was initially known only from Greece and Hungary and was thought to be restricted to southeastern Europe , records since then have greatly expanded its range , and it is now known from Spain and England to Sweden and European Turkey . In several European countries , focused searches were conducted to detect its occurrence . Its habitat generally consists of moist , deciduous , mature forest near streams , for example in ravines or in alluvial forest ( forest near a river ) , where there are many decaying trees that the bat can use as roosting sites . In Germany , its preferred habitat consists of mixed deciduous forest . In the south of the continent , it usually occurs in mountain ranges , but the factors affecting its distribution in the north are less well known . Its range appears to be similar in shape to those of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and R. hipposideros ) and Myotis emarginatus . It may yet be found in other European countries , such as the Benelux countries , Ireland , and Moldova . Although there are abundant records from some areas , such as France and Hungary , the species appears to be rare in most of its range .
Known records are as follows :
Albania
A single specimen was caught in 2006 in a forest of planes ( Platanus orientalis ) and poplars ( Populus spp . ) next to a small stream . M. mystacinus was recorded at the same place .
Austria
Three specimens of Myotis alcathoe were recorded in Burgenland , southeastern Austria , in 2006 . They were caught near fishponds in a region dominated by oak ( Quercus petraea ) and hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) .
Azerbaijan
The species was recorded around 2009 .
Belgium
The species is known from the 31 of July 2011 in two places around the city of Rochefort .
Bulgaria
The species is known from six localities in the south and west of the country ; the first record dates from 2003 . Habitats include river and mountain forests .
Caucasus
Bats collected in the Russian part of the Caucasus and in Abkhazia ( a breakaway part of Georgia ) from 2003 to 2009 may represent Myotis alcathoe . They are small and morphometrically distinct from other local Myotis mystacinus @-@ like bats . The affinity of these bats to M. alcathoe has recently been confirmed by the genetic and morphological analyses .
Croatia
In 2003 , Myotis alcathoe was recorded here on the basis of two specimens ; three additional specimens were found in 2004 .
Czech Republic
Here , the species was recorded at nine sites clustered in three regions , with the first record dating from 2001 , in addition to records from roadkilled specimens at three further sites . The typical habitat was mature oak @-@ hornbeam forest near water with dead , decaying trees , at altitudes ranging from 170 to 390 m ( 560 to 1 @,@ 280 ft ) . Both M. mystacinus and M. brandtii occur in some of the same places in this country . M. alcathoe has a limited , patchy distribution within the country , but reaches a high abundance in suitable habitat .
France
Myotis alcathoe was informally recognized in France in 2000 as a small Myotis similar to Myotis mystacinus , the " Murin cantalou " ; in 2002 , it was realized that this bat represents Myotis alcathoe . A large number of sites are known , mostly in the north of the country . The species reaches altitudes of up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It is usually found close to water , but it has been found in a variety of habitats , including farmlands , swamps , forests , and wooden grounds . In late summer and autumn , it occurs in caves .
Germany
The species is known from two different areas in the country . In 2005 and 2006 , specimens were caught in an old moist forest near the Rhine in western Baden @-@ Württemberg . Two other bats were found in highway tunnels close to this site . The species is also known from the Kyffhäuser hill range of Thuringia in central Germany , an island of relatively warm habitat with some unusual wildlife . There , bats were caught near a spring in a karst landscape amid oak @-@ dominated deciduous forest . The species was also recorded in deciduous forest at a former Soviet military training site in eastern Thuringia . Myotis alcathoe has also been recorded in the nearby states of Saxony @-@ Anhalt and Saxony , where it occurs in mixed deciduous forest . Many Saxony @-@ Anhalt records are from near water . However , the species was also recorded in the center of the city of Chemnitz in Saxony .
Greece
The species has been recorded in the Pindus and Rhodopi Mountains of central and northern Greece . Here , Myotis alcathoe is usually found in stands of plane or alder trees next to small streams in ravines . The bat hunts close to the trees , within the stand . It is often found together with the lesser horseshoe bat and with M. mystacinus .
Hungary
Myotis alcathoe is not uncommon in the mountain forests of northeastern Hungary . It has been found at brooks and lakes in oak , beech , alder , and hornbeam ( Carpinetum ) forests at 230 to 670 m ( 750 to 2 @,@ 200 ft ) altitude . Both M. brandtii and M. mystacinus occur together with M. alcathoe there .
Italy
Myotis alcathoe has been recorded in beech forest in Majella National Park in the region of Abruzzo . Additional specimens of Myotis alcathoe have been identified in Italy using molecular methods . In December 2013 its presence has been confirmed in the protected area of Appennino Lucano National Park ( Basilicata ) .
Latvia
A small Myotis was captured at a cave in Latvia between 2007 and 2010 ; pending genetic testing , it is suspected to be M. alcathoe . However , this record had not been confirmed in the subsequent national report to EUROBATS in 2014 .
Luxembourg
A single male was caught in 2011 and confirmed as M. alcathoe on the basis of genetic data . Elsewhere in the country it has been recorded on the basis of acoustic data .
Poland
The species was recorded in four caves in southern Poland in 2005 and 2006 , and later at several other sites in the south of the country . It is known from 182 to 1 @,@ 294 m ( 597 to 4 @,@ 245 ft ) above sea level , most often in beech forest ( Fagus sylvatica ) , but also in several other forest types .
Romania
A single Myotis alcathoe was captured in 2007 in a nature reserve in the eastern Carpathians ; the reserve contains riverine and conifer forest . The species was additionally recorded in a forested valley containing a small stream in Alba County .
Serbia
The species was reported on the basis of three specimens shortly before 2009 , but is probably rare .
Slovakia
Here , Myotis alcathoe is known from a single site , a cave in old deciduous forest at 525 m ( 1 @,@ 722 ft ) altitude .
Slovenia
A single specimen was recorded in Slovenia in 2007 .
Spain
In Catalonia , the species is known from six sites , ranging from sea level to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) altitude . It is known in beech and riverine forest and was first recorded in 2006 . The species is known from three sites in La Rioja , where it was recorded in 2004 , and occurs amidst beech and riverine forest at 790 to 1 @,@ 390 m ( 2 @,@ 590 to 4 @,@ 560 ft ) altitude . It has also been found at seven localities in Navarre , with the first record dating from 2004 . There , it occurs in beech and oak forest at altitudes from 140 to 980 m ( 460 to 3 @,@ 220 ft ) . In Galicia , it is known from three localities at 300 to 680 m ( 980 to 2 @,@ 230 ft ) above sea level .
Sweden
The species was recorded at five sites in the south of the country , starting in 2008 , on the basis of echolocation calls .
Switzerland
Myotis alcathoe has been recorded from the Col du Marchairuz in the Jura Mountains ( canton of Vaud ) . The species is acoustically detected in 2003 in the canton of Geneva , and subsequent captures led to the discovery of the first breeding sites for the country .
Turkey
Eight individuals have been caught at
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= = = Handling , temperament and socialization = = =
If handled correctly early in life , guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried , and seldom bite or scratch . They are timid explorers and often hesitate to attempt an escape from their cage even when an opportunity presents itself . Still , they show considerable curiosity when allowed to walk freely , especially in familiar and safe terrain . Guinea pigs that become familiar with their owner will whistle on the owner 's approach ; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors , where their food is most commonly stored . In Switzerland , owning a single guinea pig is considered harmful to its well @-@ being and forbidden by law .
= = = Appearance , coat and grooming = = =
Domesticated guinea pigs occur in many breeds , which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America . These varieties vary in hair and color composition . The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair ( also known as the American ) , which have a short , smooth coat , and the Abyssinian , whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks , or rosettes . Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie ( or Silkie ) , both straight longhair breeds , and the Texel , a curly longhair . Grooming of guinea pigs is primarily accomplished using combs or brushes . Shorthair breeds are typically brushed weekly , while longhair breeds may require daily grooming .
= = = Clubs and associations = = =
Cavy clubs and associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide . The American Cavy Breeders Association , an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders ' Association , is the governing body in the United States and Canada . The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in the United Kingdom . Similar organizations exist in Australia ( Australian National Cavy Council ) and New Zealand ( New Zealand Cavy Council ) . Each club publishes its own standard of perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing .
= = = Allergies to pet guinea pigs = = =
Allergic symptoms , including rhinitis , conjunctivitis , and asthma , have been documented in laboratory animal workers who come into contact with guinea pigs . Allergic reactions following direct exposure to guinea pigs in domestic settings have also been reported . Two major guinea pig allergens , Cav p I and Cav p II , have been identified in guinea pig fluids ( urine and saliva ) and guinea pig dander . People who are allergic to guinea pigs are usually allergic to hamsters and gerbils , as well . Allergy shots can successfully treat an allergy to guinea pigs , although treatment can take up to 18 months .
= = Cultural and media influence = =
As a result of their widespread popularity , especially in households with children , guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media . Some noted appearances of the animal in literature include the short story " Pigs Is Pigs " by Ellis Parker Butler , which is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence . Two guinea pigs held at a railway station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are " pigs " or " pets " for the purpose of determining freight charges . Butler 's story , in turn , inspired the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Trouble With Tribbles " , written by David Gerrold . In the Golden Hamster Saga books , two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso are modern @-@ day thespians ( named after Enrico Caruso ) who serve as secondary characters , and often irritate the main character , Freddy Auratus , who strongly dislikes their acting antics .
= = = In children 's literature = = =
The Fairy Caravan , a novel by Beatrix Potter , and Michael Bond 's Olga da Polga series for children , both feature guinea pigs as the protagonist . Another appearance is in The Magician 's Nephew by C. S. Lewis : in the first ( chronologically ) of his The Chronicles of Narnia series , a guinea pig is the first creature to travel to the Wood between the Worlds . In Ursula Dubosarsky 's Maisie and the Pinny Gig , a little girl has a recurrent dream about a giant guinea pig , while guinea pigs feature significantly in several of Dubosarsky 's other books , including the young adult novel The White Guinea Pig and The Game of the Goose .
= = = In film and television = = =
Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television . In the TV movie Shredderman Rules , the main character and the main character 's crush both have guinea pigs which play a minor part in the plot . A guinea pig named Rodney , voiced by Chris Rock , was a prominent character in the 1998 film Dr. Dolittle , and Linny the Guinea pig is a co @-@ star on Nick Jr . ' s Wonder Pets . Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s , notably for Egg Banking plc , Snapple , and Blockbuster Video . The Blockbuster campaign is considered by some guinea pig advocates to have been a factor in the rise of caging guinea pigs and rabbits together . In the South Park season 12 episode " Pandemic 2 : The Startling " , giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes rampage over the Earth . The 2009 Walt Disney Pictures movie G @-@ Force features a group of highly intelligent guinea pigs trained as operatives of the U.S. government . A video game based on the movie was also released . A guinea pig named Bugsy appears in the 2008 film Bedtime Stories . A guinea pig named Cashew features prominently in the second season of the U.S. adaptation of House of Cards .
= = Scientific research = =
The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century , when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures . In 1780 , Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter , a device used to measure heat production . The heat from the guinea pig 's respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter , showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion , similar to a candle burning . Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century , through the experiments of Louis Pasteur , Émile Roux , and Robert Koch . Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space flight several times , first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9 , 1961 – with a successful recovery . China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers .
In English , the term ' guinea pig ' is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation , or any experiment or test in modern times . This dates back to the early 20th century ; the Oxford English Dictionary notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913 . In 1933 , Consumers Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Guinea Pigs , extending the metaphor to consumer society . The book became a national bestseller in the United States , thus further popularizing the term , and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement . The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel The Guinea Pigs by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism . Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century ; about 2 @.@ 5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s , but that total decreased to about 375 @,@ 000 by the mid @-@ 1990s . As of 2007 , they constitute about 2 % of the current total of laboratory animals . In the past , they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents ; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions , or anaphylaxis . Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation . Since the middle 20th century , they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats . This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents , although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study , especially regarding coat color . In 2004 , the U.S. ' s National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig .
The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases . Common uses included identification of brucellosis , Chagas disease , cholera , diphtheria , foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , glanders , Q fever , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and various strains of typhus . They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis , since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria . Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which , like humans and other primates , cannot synthesize vitamin C , but must obtain it from their diet , they are ideal for researching scurvy . From the accidental discovery in 1907 that scurvy could be induced in guinea pigs , to their use to prove the chemical structure of the " ascorbutic factor " in 1932 , the guinea pig model proved a crucial part of vitamin C research .
Complement , an important component for serology , was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig . Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation , and are a suitable species for the generation of anti @-@ insulin antibodies . Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals , the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation , a role usually played by growth hormone . Additionally , guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and , because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia , of pre @-@ eclampsia in human females . Their placental structure is similar to that of humans , and their gestation period can be divided into trimesters that resemble the stages of fetal development in humans .
Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains . Aside from the common American or English stock , the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin @-@ Hartley ; these English strains are albino , although pigmented strains are also available . Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research , such as immune system molecular biology . Of the inbred strains that have been created , the two still used with any frequency are , following Sewall Wright 's designations , " Strain 2 " and " Strain 13 " .
Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s , particularly for dermatological studies . A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979 . An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978 , and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982 . Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds , and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as " skinny pigs " .
= = As food = =
= = = South America = = =
Guinea pigs ( called cuy , cuye , or curí ) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes . Traditionally , the animal was reserved for ceremonial meals by indigenous people in the Andean highlands , but since the 1960s , it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people . It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia , particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands ; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador ( mainly in the Sierra ) and Colombia . Because guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly , they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals , such as pigs and cattle ; moreover , they can be raised in an urban environment . Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income , and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large @-@ scale municipal fairs . Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol , and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken . The animal may be served fried ( chactado or frito ) , broiled ( asado ) , or roasted ( al horno ) , and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee . Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy , a soup dish . Pachamanca or huatia , a process similar to barbecueing , is also popular , and is usually served with corn beer ( chicha ) in traditional settings .
Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year , and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on guinea pig . The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru . A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy ( " collecting the cuys " ) is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru , and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima . It is a syncretistic event , combining elements of Catholicism and pre @-@ Columbian religious practices , and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints . The exact form the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town ; in some localities , a sirvinti ( servant ) is appointed to go from door to door , collecting donations of guinea pigs , while in others , guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight . Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities , and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures . In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador , guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo , which is a community meal , and the Octava , where castillos ( greased poles ) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars , from which several guinea pigs may be hung . The Peruvian town of Churin has an annual festival which involves dressing guinea pigs in elaborate costumes for a competition .
Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat , and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve cuy as a delicacy . Peruvian research universities , especially La Molina National Agrarian University , began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger @-@ sized guinea pigs . Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America , to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable . In the 1990s and 2000s , the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe , Japan , and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of these countries in northern South America .
= = = Sub @-@ Saharan Africa = = =
Many efforts have also been made to promote guinea pig husbandry in developing countries of West Africa , where they occur more widely than generally known because they are usually not covered by livestock statistics . However , it has not been known when and where the animals have been introduced to Africa . In Cameroon , they are widely distributed . In the Democratic Republic of the Congo , they can be found both in peri @-@ urban environments as well as in rural regions , for example , in South Kivu . They are also frequently held in rural households in Iringa Region of southwestern Tanzania .
= = = Western culture = = =
Nevertheless , as a food source , guinea pigs are generally considered taboo in other countries in America and Europe . In reality television , guinea pig meat has been consumed as an exotic dish by such Western celebrity chefs as Andrew Zimmern ( for his show Bizarre Foods ) , Anthony Bourdain in No Reservations , and Jeff Corwin in his show Extreme Cuisine .
= Jimmy Speirs =
James Hamilton Speirs ( 22 March 1886 – 20 August 1917 ) , commonly known as Jimmy Speirs , was a Scottish footballer who represented his country on one occasion , scored the winning goal in the 1911 FA Cup Final , and received the Military Medal during the First World War .
Born in Glasgow , he was one of six children , and worked as a clerk while playing youth football for Annandale . He started his adult football career with local junior team Maryhill , where he played for less than a season , before he moved to Rangers in 1905 . He spent three years with the club , but won only the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup , before he joined a third Glasgow side Clyde . After one season , he left Clyde and Scotland , and joined Bradford City for their second season in the First Division . His greatest success came in his second season with Bradford , when he was the club 's captain and goalscorer in their FA Cup Final victory of 1911 , in a team featuring eight Scottish @-@ born players .
He spent another two seasons with Bradford City , before he joined Leeds City , but after two seasons , the First World War broke out . League football continued for one more season , at the end of which Speirs returned to Glasgow . Married with two young children , Speirs would have been exempt from conscription , but he volunteered to join the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders in 1915 . He was promoted to lance corporal , corporal and sergeant , and won the Military Medal for bravery in the field , but was killed during the Battle of Passchendaele in August 1917 , at the age of 31 .
= = Early life = =
Jimmy Speirs was born on 22 March 1886 in the Govan area of Glasgow , Scotland , to James Hamilton Speirs senior and Janet Shields Speirs ( née McLean ) . He was the fifth of six children , following the births of siblings Maggie , Archibald , Annie and John . The youngest of the family was Robert , born in 1888 . By 1901 , the family had moved to nearby Govanhill , and Jimmy worked as a clerk . It was in Govanhill that Speirs ' football ability was first shown , when he played in the junior football circuit on the black ash pitches of Glasgow , for Annandale , during summer tournaments .
= = Football career = =
= = = Scotland = = =
An inside forward , Speirs moved to Maryhill in the Glasgow Junior League in 1905 . Maryhill , whose Lochburn Park ground was five miles north of Speirs ' home , were among the top sides in the junior leagues , and lifted 13 trophies in eight seasons at the turn of the 20th century . The 1904 – 05 team contained six junior internationals , and the side won three titles that season . Speirs ' first recorded scoring appearance was on 29 April 1905 , when his two goals helped Maryhill beat Parkhead 2 – 0 . Speirs scored again in a 3 – 3 draw against Ashfield in the Glasgow Junior Cup final , and scored the only goal of the replay to help Maryhill win the competition . Maryhill also won the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup and the league title although it is unknown if Speirs played in the cup final or picked up a league winners medal .
At the end of the season , Speirs and junior international John McFie both moved across Glasgow to First Division side Rangers , who had finished second to city rivals Celtic after losing out in a title play @-@ off . Speirs did not make his full debut until 25 September 1905 , when Rangers lost 5 – 0 to Heart of Midlothian at Ibrox . Speirs scored his first Rangers goal two weeks later during the next league game in a 4 – 1 win away to Port Glasgow . In his first season , Speirs scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 Scottish Cup first round victory over Second Division Arthurlie , and won the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup , during which he scored twice in both the semi @-@ final and final . However , Rangers could only finish fourth in the league , with Celtic retaining the title . Rangers improved to third place the following season as Speirs finished joint top scorer with 13 goals , but Celtic again were league winners . Celtic also defeated Rangers 3 – 0 in the Scottish Cup in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans . Rangers ' only trophy that season was the successful defence of the Merchants ' Charity Cup , but Speirs did not play . In 1907 – 08 , Celtic once again finished top , with Rangers in third , and knocked their rivals out of the Scottish Cup . The two teams also met in the final of the Glasgow Cup , with Celtic winning in the second replay . Speirs was limited to 13 games , none of which Rangers lost , and he left after playing 62 matches , from which he scored 29 goals . During his final days with Rangers , he also won his only cap for Scotland , in a 2 – 1 win over Wales on 7 March 1908 . Speirs won a representative cap 11 days later , when he played and scored for Glasgow during an inter @-@ city fixture with Sheffield . The game finished 2 – 2 .
In the summer of 1908 , after three years with Rangers , Speirs moved to another Glasgow @-@ based club , Clyde , which also played in the First Division . Clyde 's Shawfield Park ground was three miles from Speirs ' home in Govanhill , in the Rutherglen area of the city , where Speirs ' grandparents and father lived . Clyde had finished 17th in 1907 – 08 , one point ahead of bottom side Port Glasgow . Speirs played only 14 league games for Clyde but helped them to their highest league position of third , three points behind winners Celtic . Clyde also lost to Celtic in the Scottish Cup semi @-@ final , following a replay . It was Speirs ' only season with Clyde , during which he scored a total of 10 goals from 20 appearances .
= = = Bradford City = = =
Speirs left his native Scotland during the summer of 1909 , to head for Yorkshire and sign for Bradford City , under the management of his countryman Peter O 'Rourke . It would be City 's second season in the First Division following their promotion in 1907 – 08 , and O 'Rourke wanted to strengthen his side after they narrowly avoided relegation in their first season in the top flight . He assembled a team which contained several Scottish players , and also brought in England international outside right Dicky Bond . Speirs made his debut on the opening day of the 1909 – 10 season , as City lost 1 – 0 to Manchester United . His first goal came three months later , in a 3 – 1 victory over Sunderland , during the middle of a ten @-@ game undefeated spell . Speirs played in all 38 games during his first season , scoring six times , as City finished seventh . He also played in both the club 's FA Cup games that season , scoring in a 4 – 2 victory over Notts County in the first round .
It was the following season when Speirs wrote his name in the club 's record books , with his performance in the same competition . He played 25 league games , scoring seven goals , to help City to fifth place , a position which the club has not yet bettered . The club also reached the FA Cup Final in the same season , with Speirs playing in all but one of the games along the way , scoring in a 2 – 1 second round victory over Norwich City . Speirs , along with Frank Thompson and George Robinson , was censured by the Football Association following a scramble for the match ball at the end of the semi @-@ final victory against Blackburn Rovers . Speirs was captain of the side and in the days up to the final he wrote to his opposite number , Colin Veitch . The contents of his letter are not known , but in his reply , Veitch said Speirs had " expressed in sound terms the true spirit of comradeship , and the proper sentiments one would expect to see associated with the sportsman , and the sport " . Speirs led out a team which contained eight Scots for the final at the Crystal Palace on 22 April 1911 against Newcastle United . The game ended in a 0 – 0 draw , in what was described as a " decidedly dull and uneventful game " . The final replay was played four days later at Old Trafford , Manchester , with City making one change to the team , bringing in Bob Torrance for fellow Scottish defender Willie Gildea . After 15 minutes , Speirs scored what turned out to be the only goal of the game to win the cup . Robinson shot at goal , but the wind caught the ball , which was headed on by Frank Thompson . Speirs himself headed the ball at goal , and Newcastle 's goalkeeper Jimmy Lawrence was distracted by City striker Frank O 'Rourke and the ball rolled into the net . Speirs lifted the newly @-@ cast trophy , which had been made by Bradford jewellers Fattorinis , and displayed it on the club 's victory parade later that evening in Bradford . The following day , Speirs was pictured on the front page of the Daily Mirror newspaper , holding the cup .
The club 's attempt to defend the victory came to an end after six consecutive clean sheets , when they were defeated 3 – 2 by Barnsley with Speirs scoring one of the goals . However , he was limited to ten league games , not playing from September until March , and finished the season with seven goals . They included his second senior hat @-@ trick during a 5 – 1 victory over Sheffield Wednesday on 30 March 1912 . Speirs started the following season , but after playing 13 of the first 15 games , he left . He had played 96 games in total , scoring 33 goals .
= = = Leeds City = = =
Speirs joined neighbours Leeds City , which played in the Second Division , for a fee of £ 1 @,@ 400 in December 1912 , becoming one of Herbert Chapman 's first signings . Speirs ' debut came on 28 December in a 3 – 2 defeat to Fulham , and although his first goal did not come until his fifth game against Bradford ( Park Avenue ) , Speirs finished second highest scorer with 10 goals , behind Billy McLeod . Their goals helped Leeds finish in sixth position , 10 points off the promotion places . The following season , Leeds came closer to promotion , but despite Speirs , as captain , scoring 12 goals and McLeod netting 27 , they came fourth , two points behind Park Avenue in the second promotion spot . Despite the outbreak of the First World War in June 1914 , league football continued , but Leeds lost their first four games of the season and were unable to recover , finishing a lowly 15th . Speirs scored the only goal of the West Riding Cup final against Hull City on 11 November 1914 to give what was Leeds City 's only ever trophy before the club was expelled from the league in 1919 and subsequently dissolved . League football was suspended at the end of the season , and the last game of Speirs ' career was a 2 – 0 defeat to Barnsley on 24 April 1915 . He played 73 league games for Leeds , scoring 32 goals .
In total , Speirs had played 226 league games , a further 30 Scottish and English FA Cup games , and several other appearances in other cup competitions . During his career , he scored 92 league goals , and 12 senior cup goals .
= = First World War = =
At the end of the 1914 – 15 season , Speirs returned to his native Glasgow and enlisted in the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders on 17 May 1915 . Conscription was a year away , from which Speirs would have been exempt because he was married with two young children . Private S / 18170 Speirs was posted to the regiment 's headquarters in Inverness where he joined the 3rd Battalion , a reserve battalion , for training . He was appointed to the position of Lance Corporal while on training , and after the British troops suffered heavy casualties , Speirs was posted overseas on 29 May 1916 . The following month , he was promoted to the position of Corporal . Later the same year , he wounded his elbow , from either a gunshot or shrapnel injury . In April 1917 , Speirs took part in the Second Battle of Arras , for which he was awarded the Military Medal for bravery in May 1917 , before he was promoted to Sergeant in June . The following month , he returned home to Scotland on leave , but he soon returned to France and was killed during the Battle of Passchendaele on or about 20 August 1917 , aged 31 . He is buried at Dochy Farm New British Cemetery , near Ypres in Belgium .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
Speirs married Elizabeth Lennox Maben , known as Bessie , on 24 October 1906 in Maben 's father 's home in Glasgow . On 11 December 1907 , the couple 's first child , James Hamilton Speirs , was born . Speirs , who had still been recorded as a clerk at the time of the wedding , was now listed as a spirit dealer 's stocktaker . Their second child , Elizabeth Maben Speirs , known as Betty , was born on 6 August 1912 .
Speirs was also a freemason . He was initiated into The Lodge Saint Vincent Sandyford No 553 , based in Glasgow , on 11 March 1908 , just four days after he had made his only Scottish appearance . When his football career took him away from Glasgow , Speirs maintained links with the lodge . He became a Master Mason , then a life member on 12 February 1913 .
Following Speirs ' death , Bessie remarried during the 1920s and moved to the south of England with Betty and her new husband . His son remained in Scotland but later emigrated to Canada . In 2003 , his family auctioned Speirs ' 1911 FA Cup winning medal with his Military Medal and service medal . The FA Cup medal was sold for £ 26 @,@ 210 , a record for a cup medal . His daughter 's family 's descendants
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350 soldiers from detachments across the country participating . Amid concerns about the ability of the economy of the fledgling nation of Papua New Guinea to finance a large military capability on its own , and with the need to maintain a CMF @-@ type unit in the army of an independent PNG being questionable , the PNGVR was ultimately disbanded on 1 December 1973 , leaving the PIR as the only infantry unit in the new Papua New Guinea Defence Force . Although the decision to disband the unit was much debated within the Army at the time — and strongly resisted by the PNGVR Association — it had been felt that training a volunteer force without the considerable assistance of the ARA that had previously been available would be impossible after independence , while the possible destabilising effect a locally recruited unit might have was also a concern as the regional bases of the PNGVR might have provided a source of power in areas disaffected by the central government in Port Moresby . The PNGVR Queen 's and Regimental Colours were subsequently laid up at the Australian War Memorial on Anzac Day 1974 .
= = Battle honours = =
The NGVR was awarded the following battle honours :
Second World War : Rabaul , Wau , South West Pacific 1942 – 43 .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the NGVR :
Second World War
Lieutenant Colonel C.R. Field ( 1939 – 41 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.M. Edwards ( 1941 – 43 )
Post War
Lieutenant Colonel N.R. McLeod ( 1950 )
Lieutenant Colonel E. F. Madden ( 1951 – 53 )
Lieutenant Colonel T.W. Young ( 1953 – 55 )
Lieutenant Colonel J.K. Lynch ( 1955 – 57 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.H. Wansley ( 1957 )
Major D.H.C. Lloyd ( 1957 )
Lieutenant Colonel J.K. Murdoch ( 1958 – 60 )
Lieutenant Colonel R.T. Eldridge ( 1960 – 62 )
Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Newman ( 1962 – 65 )
Lieutenant Colonel M.A. Bishop ( 1965 – 68 )
Lieutenant Colonel K.E. Gallard ( 1968 – 71 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.A. Harrington ( 1971 – 72 )
Lieutenant Colonel P. Cole ( 1972 – 73 )
= Tropical Storm Andrea ( 2013 ) =
Tropical Storm Andrea brought flooding to Cuba , the Yucatan Peninsula , and portions of the East Coast of the United States in June 2013 . The first tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season , Andrea originated from an area of low pressure in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on June 5 . Despite strong wind shear and an abundance of dry air , the storm strengthened while initially heading north @-@ northeastward . Later on June 5 , it re @-@ curved northeastward and approached the Big Bend region of Florida . Andrea intensified and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on June 6 . A few hours later , the storm weakened slightly and made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida later that day . It began losing tropical characteristics while tracking across Florida and Georgia . Andrea transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over South Carolina on June 7 , though the remnants continued to move along the East Coast of the United States , until being absorbed by another extratropical system offshore Maine on June 10 .
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the precursor to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . In Cuba , the storm brought flooding , especially in Pinar del Río Province . Over 1 @,@ 000 people fled their homes , mainly along the Cuyaguateje River . A tornado was also spawned in the area , damaging three homes . In Florida , the storm brought heavy rainfall to some areas , causing localized flooding . There were nine tornadoes in Florida , the worst of which touched down in The Acreage and downed power lines and trees , causing significant roof damage to several houses ; there was also one injury . After Andrea transition into an extratropical storm , the remnants that also spawned one tornado in North Carolina , though damage was minor . Additionally , minor flooding was reported in some areas of the Northeastern United States . Three fatalities occurred due to weather @-@ related traffic accidents in Virginia and New Jersey . There was a direct death reported after a surfer in South Carolina went missing and was presumed to have drowned . The remnants of Andrea also brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada , causing thousands of power outages in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick .
= = Meteorological history = =
At the end of May 2013 , a broad and diffuse cyclonic disturbance developed over eastern Mexico and northern Central America , incorporating the remnants of eastern Pacific Hurricane Barbara . As a tropical wave approached from the east , an inverted trough developed on the northern edge of the active region on June 2 , setting the stage for the formation of a weak surface low pressure system over the southern Gulf of Mexico the next day . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system in their Tropical Weather Outlooks , bulletins issued every six hours regarding the probability of tropical cyclone formation within 48 hours . A nearby upper trough created unfavorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis , subjecting the low to wind shear and abundant dry air that kept it indistinct and disorganized . On June 5 , the environment became less hostile , and the system began to improve in structure .
On June 5 , a Hurricane Hunters flight found a closed center and winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . In response , the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Andrea later that day , while centered about 310 miles ( 500 km ) southwest of St. Petersburg , Florida . Due to somewhat unfavorable conditions , significant strengthening was initially considered unlikely . Early on June 6 , deep convection was displaced well to the east and southeast of the center as a result of wind shear up to 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) . Despite this , Andrea intensified to attain peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) at 1200 UTC that day . Thereafter , unfavorable conditions , including dry air entrainment caused the storm to weaken slightly . At 2200 UTC on June 6 , Andrea made landfall in Dixie County , Florida about 10 miles ( 15 km ) south of Steinhatchee . Simultaneously , the storm attained its minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
After moving inland on June 6 , the NHC noted that extratropical transition was likely within 24 hours and that it " could occur sooner if the convective structure does not improve . " By later on June 7 , most of the convection became displaced to the northwest due to dry air . Around that time , the storm began accelerating northeastward at 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) due to an approaching mid @-@ latitude trough . Based on ground observations and Doppler radar , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1800 UTC on June 7 , while located over northeastern South Carolina . The remaining thunderstorms around Andrea became indistinguishable from those associated with a frontal zone over North Carolina . Due to a policy created in response to Hurricane Sandy , the NHC continued to issue advisories on the remnants of Andrea as it remained a threat to the East Coast of the United States . On June 8 , it moved rapidly northeastward across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . Because gale @-@ force winds were located well to the southeast of the center , the NHC ceased advisories on the remnants of Andrea . Upon reaching the Gulf of Maine , the extratropical remnants of Andrea were absorbed by another extratropical low pressure area around 0000 UTC on June 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Multiple tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted along both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States in association with Tropical Storm Andrea . At 2200 UTC on June 5 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Boca Grande to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River in Florida . Additionally , a tropical storm watch was put into effect for Flagler Beach , Florida to Surf City , North Carolina . At 0900 UTC on June 6 , the tropical storm warning was extended from the mouth of the Ochlockonee River to Indian Pass , Florida . Simultaneously , another tropical storm warning was issued from Flagler Beach , Florida to Cape Charles Light in Virginia . Early on June 7 , the tropical storm warning on the Gulf Coast of Florida was expanded to include Boca Grande to the Steinhatchee River in Florida , before being canceled a few hours later . At 0900 UTC on June 7 , the tropical storm warning from Flagler Beach to Surf City was modified to Altamaha River , Georgia to Cape Charles Light . Throughout that day , the tropical storm warning was progressively retracted northward , with the southern terminal being at the Savannah River in Georgia at 1200 UTC , the Santee River in South Carolina at 1500 UTC , the Little River Inlet in South Carolina at 1800 UTC , and finally Surf City at 2100 UTC . Early on June 8 , all tropical cyclone warings and watches were discontinued .
The United States Coast Guard urged marine interests and boaters in Florida , Georgia , and South Carolina to take precaution to protect their lives and vessels . In Florida , the Gulf Islands National Seashore closed their campground and a beach front road . Additionally , several states parks were closed and campers were evacuated . At Pensacola Beach , condominium associations asked residents to remove furniture from high balconies due to the anticipation of strong winds . A state of emergency was issued for Taylor County , where two shelters were opened .
= = Impact = =
Becoming a tropical storm on June 5 , Andrea marked the fourth consecutive season with a named storm in the month of June , following Hurricane Alex in 2010 , Tropical Storm Arlene in 2011 , and Hurricane Chris and Tropical Storm Debby in 2012 . This was over a month earlier than the 1966 – 2009 average date of the first named storm , July 9 .
The precursor disturbance to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain on the Yucatán Peninsula in a 24 @-@ hour period . In Cuba , the Civil Defense issued a weather alarm for Pinar del Río Province from June 5 to June 6 . There was also a lower @-@ level " alert " in the adjacent provinces of Artemisa and Mayabeque . Over 1 @,@ 000 people fled their homes due to flooding , especially along the Cuyaguateje River in Pinar del Río Province . The city of Las Martinas received more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours ; a few other locations reported over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain . Of the 24 dams in Pinar del Río Province , six had already filled by June 5 . The disturbance spawned a tornado in that area , which damaged three homes .
= = = Florida = = =
Along the Florida coast , storm surge produced by Andrea remained relatively minor , with surge heights ranging from 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 – 1 @.@ 22 m ) across the state 's Gulf coast . These measurements peaked in Cedar Key , where a station documented a storm surge height of 4 @.@ 08 ft ( 1 @.@ 24 m ) ; the same station recorded a storm tide height of 6 @.@ 26 ft ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) . The highest wind measurement was at a mesonet site in Davis Islands , which observed sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) . A total of 10 tornadoes were spawned in Florida . Near Myakka City , a tornado damaged the roofs of three single family homes , six pole barns , and four outbuildings . One horse and six chickens were killed , and another horse and two dogs were injured . Significant piles of debris and downed power lines covered State Road 70 in Myakka City . Damage was estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 . Another twister spawned in Sun City Center downed trees and damaged lanais , fascia and shingles . Damage reached approximately $ 36 @,@ 000 .
Andrea dropped locally heavy rainfall in some areas of West Central Florida , with a Community Collaborative Rain , Hail and Snow Network ( CoCoRaHS ) station observing 6 @.@ 17 inches ( 157 mm ) inches of precipitation near Chiefland . Minor street flooding was reported in several counties . Near the city of Coachman , the weight of saturated leaves on the roof of a dog kennel at the Pinellas County Humane Society caused a large section of the roof to collapse . In East Central Florida , the storm produced about 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) of rain , with isolated totals of 5 – 6 inches ( 130 – 150 mm ) over a three @-@ day period in Orange , Osceola , and Volusia counties . In North Florida , the storm spawned a tornado at the Naval Station Mayport in Jacksonville . A number of " non @-@ critical " structures suffered minor impact , while other buildings experienced damaged roofs and broken windows . Strong winds were also observed in the area , with gusts up to 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) at the Jacksonville Beach Pier ; this was the strongest wind gust associated with the storm . Another tornado was spawned on Amelia Island in Fernandina Beach , though it caused minimal damage .
Of the ten tornadoes in Florida , three were spawned in the southern portions of the state . In The Acreage , an EF @-@ 1 tornado caused minor to moderate roof damage to several homes , mainly in the form of shingles and roof covering torn off . Numerous trees were uprooted or snapped near the trunk , along with several branches falling ; this resulted in broken windows in several homes . At one home , the garage door was damaged , causing the door to blow in , which in turn led to the roof being damaged above the garage . An 85 @-@ year @-@ old woman was injured after being struck by a falling branch of an oak tree , which broke through her bedroom window . A few vehicles were moved from their original locations , while a 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) boat was flipped on its side . Another tornado in Belle Glade damaged an awning and downed trees and several power lines . Further south , a tornado touched down in Broward County and entered Palm Beach County before lifting back up ; it resulted in no damage .
A convective band associated with Tropical Storm Andrea moved slowly across South Florida , prompting flash flood warnings for Broward and Miami @-@ Dade County Counties . Precipitation peaked at 14 @.@ 27 inches ( 362 mm ) in North Miami Beach , 13 @.@ 96 inches ( 355 mm ) of which fell in a 24 @-@ hour period . Roads became impassable in the Waterways community in Aventura , leaving over 50 vehicles disabled . In nearby Golden Beach , hundreds of people became stranded in their vehicles , according to city officials . At the Biscayne Bay Campus of Florida International University , 11 @.@ 71 inches ( 297 mm ) of rain was observed . A number of stalled vehicles and impassable roads were reported in North Miami , while 24 families were forced to evacuate due to flooding . Further north in Broward County , the city of Hollywood was particularly hard hit , with 9 inches ( 230 mm ) of rain observed . Several vehicles became disabled after retention ponds overflowed .
= = = Elsewhere in North America = = =
Along the coast of Alabama , 13 swimmers were rescued due to strong rip currents . In Georgia , the storm brought gusty winds to the coast , reaching 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) at Fort Pulaski . Wind damage was minor , limited to mostly downed trees and power lines in several counties ; in Chatham County , a falling tree struck a house . Generally light rainfall was reported across much of southern and eastern Georgia , though up to 5 @.@ 34 inches ( 136 mm ) fell near Richmond Hill . In Chatham County , a portion of U.S. Route 25 was temporarily closed due to flooding . Along the coast of South Carolina , a storm surge of 3 @.@ 55 feet ( 1 @.@ 08 m ) was observed in Beaufort County . A surfer in Horry County went missing and was later presumed to have drowned . In several counties along the coast or just inland , trees and power lines were downed . Andrea dropped light rainfall in the state , peaking at 4 @.@ 9 inches ( 120 mm ) near Cordova .
The storm brought significant amounts of rainfall to North Carolina in short periods of time , with a peak amount of 7 @.@ 41 inches ( 188 mm ) near Cameron . In Raleigh , 5 @.@ 14 inches ( 131 mm ) of rain fell in 24 hours , which broke the highest daily precipitation record for the city . Additionally , this total exceeded the average rainfall amount for the month of June . Many streams , creeks , and river overflowed in eastern North Carolina , resulting in numerous street closures in several counties . The Crabtree Valley Mall in Raleigh was closed after the parking lots became inundated . A number of low @-@ lying and creek @-@ side communities in Apex , Cary , Clayton , Durham , and Raleigh were flooded . A tornado was spawned near Varnamtown , where it downed several trees and damaged a large storage building .
The storm produced over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain in southeastern Virginia , with up to 7 @.@ 73 inches ( 196 mm ) in Williamsburg . Several roads in Accomack County were left impassable due to high water . One indirect death occurred due to a car accident in southwestern Virginia on June 7 . In Maryland , rainfall in the eastern portion of the state was generally between 3 and 6 inches ( 76 and 152 mm ) . Poor drainage in some areas resulted in multiple road closures in Caroline and Talbot counties , the latter of which reported about 20 roads shutdown . Radar estimates of precipitation in Delaware were between 2 and 4 inches ( 51 and 102 mm ) , while 5 @.@ 19 inches ( 132 mm ) was observed in Smyrna . Flash flooding occurred in areas of poor drainage , causing several road closures , especially in central Delaware . Radar estimates of precipitation in eastern Pennsylvania ranged from 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) , with a peak of 4 @.@ 09 inches ( 104 mm ) in Langhorne . There , the Neshaminy Creek reached 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above flood stage . In Delaware County , flooding was reporting along the Chester Creek .
Heavy rainfall was reported in New Jersey , amounting to more than 5 in ( 130 mm ) in Oceanport . The heavy precipitation resulted in traffic jams and caused flooding along the Millstone and Raritan rivers . Three car accidents were blamed on the storm , two of which were fatal . Numerous roads flooded across the state , leading to several high @-@ water rescues . Overflowing rivers and streams in Bergen and Union counties flooded low @-@ lying and poor drainage areas . The Rockaway River at Boonton reached 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage from the afternoon of June 8 until the following morning . Winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) downed some trees and power lines , leaving 500 – 2 @,@ 000 residences without power . A plane traveling from Palm Beach , Florida to Boston , Massachusetts had to make an emergency landing at Newark Liberty International Airport after being struck by lightning . In New York , 4 @.@ 77 inches ( 121 mm ) fell at Central Park in New York City in only a few hours , causing flash flooding in some areas . Train 3 on the New York City Subway briefly suspended service from 96th Street station to the 148th Street station .
In Connecticut , the storm dropped up to 6 @.@ 64 inches ( 169 mm ) in Gales Ferry , causing flash flooding in Fairfield and New London counties . About 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) of precipitation fell throughout Rhode Island , flooding many streets , several basements , and stranding a number of cars , particularly in Providence County . An exit ramp of Interstate 95 in Providence was flooded with 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) of water . An estimated 3 and 5 inches ( 76 and 127 mm ) of precipitation fell in eastern Massachusetts . A number of roads were inundated in Bristol County , including Routes 24 and 79 and the ramps onto Interstate 95 . Many cars were stranded in about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in Fall River . Several basements were flooded in New Bedford , while several streets were flooded or left impassable . Elsewhere in New England , light rainfall was observed in Maine , New Hampshire , and Vermont .
As a post @-@ tropical cyclone , Andrea brought rain and gale @-@ force winds to Atlantic Canada . Officials closed the Confederation Bridge to high @-@ profile vehicles due to the blustery conditions . More than 4 @,@ 000 customers in Nova Scotia and parts of New Brunswick lost power as the storm moved through on June 8 .
= Triple H =
Paul Michael Levesque ( born July 27 , 1969 ) , better known by his ring name Triple H ( an abbreviation of his previous debut name Hunter Hearst Helmsley ) , is an American professional wrestler , corporate executive , and actor . He is the Executive Vice President of Talent , Live Events , & Creative of WWE , creator of WWE NXT , and the founder and senior producer of NXT . He is married into the McMahon family , which maintains majority ownership of WWE . In addition to his corporate role , Levesque makes regular appearances on WWE television as an authority figure and former wrestler .
Levesque entered several bodybuilding contests after graduating high school in 1987 . He commenced his professional wrestling career in the International Wrestling Federation ( IWF ) in 1992 , under the ring name Terra Ryzing , and won his first championship , the IWF Heavyweight Championship . He joined World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in 1994 , where he was soon repackaged as Jean @-@ Paul Lévesque , a French Canadian aristocrat . In 1995 , Levesque moved to the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now WWE ) , where he became Hunter Hearst Helmsley and , later , Triple H. In 1997 , Triple H co @-@ founded the influential D @-@ Generation X stable , which became a major element of the WWF 's " Attitude Era " . After winning his first WWF Championship and beginning a storyline marriage with Stephanie McMahon in 1999 , Triple H became a regular main event wrestler ( in 2003 , Levesque married McMahon in real life ) . Over the next two decades , he would win a total of 14 world championships and lead stables The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction , Evolution , and The Authority , with whom he continues to perform . From 2010 onwards , Triple H began wrestling on a part @-@ time basis as he took on a greater behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role within WWE .
In the course of his career , Levesque has held a total of 25 championships , including nine WWF / E Championships and five World Heavyweight Championships . He is the seventh Triple Crown Champion and the second Grand Slam Champion in WWF / E history . Triple H was also the winner of the 1997 King of the Ring tournament , and the 2002 and 2016 Royal Rumbles . He has headlined WrestleMania , WWE 's flagship pay @-@ per @-@ view , seven times , thus tying Hulk Hogan 's record .
Outside of professional wrestling , he has made numerous guest appearances in film and on television , including the lead role in the WWE Studios production The Chaperone .
= = Early life = =
Levesque was born in Nashua , New Hampshire . He watched wrestling for the first time when he was five , a match involving Chief Jay Strongbow . Levesque began to take up bodybuilding at the age of 14 , because he wanted to look like professional wrestlers . Levesque attended Nashua South High School , where he played baseball and basketball . Following his graduation from high school in 1987 , Levesque continued to enter several bodybuilding competitions , and was crowned Mr. Teenage New Hampshire in 1988 at the age of 19 . While working as a manager at Gold 's Gym in Nashua , New Hampshire , Levesque was introduced to world champion powerlifter , Ted Arcidi , who at the time was employed with the WWE . Eventually , after numerous attempts , Levesque persuaded Arcidi to introduce him to former pro wrestler and trainer , Killer Kowalski , who owned and ran a professional wrestling training school based in Malden , Massachusetts . In early 1992 , Levesque enrolled in Kowalski 's wrestling school , where he began to train as a professional wrestler .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1992 – 1994 ) = = =
Levesque was trained to wrestle by Killer Kowalski at his school in Malden , Massachusetts . His class mates included fellow future WWF wrestlers Chyna and Perry Saturn . Levesque made his professional debut on March 24 , 1992 in Kowalski 's promotion , the International Wrestling Federation ( IWF ) , performing as Terra Ryzing . In July 1992 , Levesque defeated Mad Dog Richard to win the IWF Heavyweight Championship .
Levesque wrestled for various promotions on the East Coast independent circuit until 1994 . During this period , he was managed by John Rodeo .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
In early 1994 , Levesque signed a one @-@ year contract with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . In his first televised match , Levesque debuted as a villain named Terror Risin ' , defeating Keith Cole . His ring name was soon modified to Terra Ryzing , which he used until mid @-@ 1994 , when he was renamed Jean @-@ Paul Lévesque . This gimmick referred to his surname 's French origins and he was asked to speak with a French accent , as he could not speak French . During this time , he began using his finishing maneuver , the Pedigree .
Levesque had a brief feud with Alex Wright that ended at Starrcade 1994 with Wright pinning him . Between late 1994 and early 1995 , Levesque briefly teamed with Lord Steven Regal , whose upper class British persona was similar to Levesque 's character . The team was short @-@ lived , however , as Levesque left for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in January 1995 after WCW turned down his request to be promoted as a singles competitor .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = The Connecticut Blueblood ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = = =
In a modified version of his gimmick in WCW , Levesque started his WWF career as a " Connecticut Blueblood " . According to Levesque , JJ Dillion originally gave him the name of Reginald DuPont Helmsley , but Levesque asked for a name to play with the first letters ; management ultimately agreed to his suggestion of Hunter Hearst Helmsley . He appeared in taped vignettes , in which he talked about how to use proper etiquette , up until his wrestling debut on the April 30 , 1995 episode of Wrestling Challenge . He made his WWF pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at SummerSlam , where he defeated Bob Holly . In the fall of 1995 , Levesque began a feud with the hog farmer Henry O. Godwinn , culminating in an infamous Hog Pen match at In Your House 5 : Seasons Beatings , where Levesque was victorious .
Although he was highly promoted in the first few months after his debut , Levesque 's career stalled during 1996 , starting off with a feud with Duke " The Dumpster " Droese following a loss during the Free for All at 1996 Royal Rumble . Up until that event , his angle included appearing on television each week with a different female valet ( which included Playboy Playmates Shae Marks and Tylyn John ) . Sable was his valet at WrestleMania XII , and after his loss to The Ultimate Warrior , as part of the storyline , he took his aggressions out on her . The debuting Marc Mero – her real @-@ life husband – came to her rescue , starting a feud between the two wrestlers .
On June 1 , 1996 , Helmsley appeared on an episode of Superstars in a match against Marty Garner . When Levesque attempted to perform the Pedigree , Garner mistook the maneuver for a double underhook suplex and tried to jump up with the move , causing him to land squarely on top of his head and suffer neck damage . Garner sued the WWF , eventually settling out of court and later discussed the incident in an appearance on The Montel Williams Show .
Levesque was known backstage as one of the members of The Kliq , a stable of wrestlers including ; Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , Sean Waltman and Scott Hall , who were known for influencing Vince McMahon and the WWF creative team . It has been claimed that he was scheduled to win the 1996 King of the Ring tournament , but the victory was instead awarded to Stone Cold Steve Austin after the Madison Square Garden Incident , in which the Kliq broke character after a match to say goodbye to the departing Nash and Hall . Despite the punishment , Helmsley did have success following the MSG Incident . Mr. Perfect became his manager and he won the Intercontinental Championship for the first time on October 21 , 1996 , defeating Marc Mero . When Mr. Perfect left the WWF , his departure was explained to be a result of Helmsley turning his back on his manager as soon as he won the Intercontinental Championship . Levesque held the belt for nearly four months before dropping it to Rocky Maivia on the February 13 , 1997 special episode of Monday Night Raw , called Thursday Raw Thursday . For a very brief time , Helmsley was accompanied by Mr. Hughes , who was his storyline bodyguard . After losing the Intercontinental title , he feuded with Goldust , defeating him at WrestleMania 13 . During their feud , Chyna debuted as his new bodyguard .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = = =
Helmsley was being highlighted again in 1997 , winning the 1997 King of the Ring tournament by defeating Mankind in the finals . Later that year , Shawn Michaels , Helmsley , Chyna and Rick Rude formed D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) . This stable became known for pushing the envelope , as Michaels and Helmsley made risqué promos – using the catchphrase " Suck It " and a " crotch chop " hand motion , – and sarcastically derided Bret
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Hart and Canada . By that point , Helmsley had fully dropped the " blueblood snob " gimmick , appearing in T @-@ shirts and leather jackets . During this period , his ring name was shortened to simply Triple H. Even after the DX versus Hart Foundation storyline ended , Helmsley continued to feud with the sole remaining Hart family member Owen Hart over the European Championship . This ended in a match between the two at WrestleMania XIV , with the stipulation that Chyna had to be handcuffed to then @-@ Commissioner Sgt. Slaughter . Helmsley won after Chyna threw powder into Slaughter 's eyes , momentarily " blinding " him and allowing her to interfere in the match .
After WrestleMania , Michaels was forced into temporary retirement due to a legitimate back injury sustained at the Royal Rumble , with Triple H taking over the leadership position in DX , claiming that his now @-@ former associate had " dropped the ball " . He introduced the returning X @-@ Pac the night after WrestleMania and joined forces with The New Age Outlaws . As 1998 went along , DX became more popular , turning the group from villains to fan favorites . During this time , Levesque adopted an entrance gimmick of asking the crowd " Are you ready ? I said , are you ready ? " , followed by a parody of rival promotion WCW 's ring announcer Michael Buffer 's famous catch @-@ phrase , " Let 's get ready to rumble " , substituting the word " rumble " with the DX slogan , " suck it " . Also during this time , he began a feud with the leader of the Nation of Domination and rising WWF villain , The Rock . This storyline rivalry eventually led to a feud over the Intercontinental Championship , which Triple H won in a ladder match at SummerSlam . He did not hold the title long , however , as he was sidelined with a legitimate knee injury . When The Rock won the WWF Championship at Survivor Series , the rivalry between the two continued , as DX fought The Corporation stable , of which The Rock was the main star . Triple H received a shot at the WWF Championship on the January 25 , 1999 Raw Is War in an " I Quit " match against The Rock , but the match ended when Triple H was forced to quit or see his aide Chyna chokeslammed by Kane . This began a new angle for Triple H , as Chyna betrayed him by attacking him after the match and joining The Corporation .
At WrestleMania XV , Triple H lost to Kane after Chyna interfered on his behalf , and she was thought to have rejoined DX . Later on in the night , he betrayed his long @-@ time friend and fellow DX member X @-@ Pac by helping Shane McMahon retain the European Championship and joined The Corporation. turning heel in the process . In April , he started to move away from his DX look , taping his fists for matches , sporting new and shorter wrestling trunks , and adopting a shorter hairstyle . Levesque 's gimmick changed as he fought to earn a WWF Championship opportunity . After numerous failed attempts at winning the championship , Triple H and Mankind challenged then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin to a triple threat match at SummerSlam , which featured Jesse " The Body " Ventura as the special guest referee . Mankind won the match by pinning Austin . The following night on Raw Is War , Triple H defeated Mankind to win his first WWF Championship .
Triple H dropped the WWF Championship to Mr. McMahon on the September 16 , 1999 episode of SmackDown ! before regaining it at Unforgiven in a Six @-@ Pack Challenge that included Davey Boy Smith , Big Show , Kane , The Rock , and Mankind . He defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin at No Mercy before dropping the title to Big Show at Survivor Series . Triple H then continued his feud with Mr. McMahon by marrying his daughter , Stephanie McMahon . He then defeated McMahon at Armageddon . As a result of the feud , an angle with Triple H and Stephanie began which carried the WWF throughout the next seventeen months ; together they were known as The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction .
= = = = McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
By January 2000 , Triple H had dubbed himself " The Game " , implying that he was on top of the wrestling world ( as in not merely the " best in the game " , but that he was in fact " the game " ) and was nicknamed " The Cerebral Assassin " by Jim Ross ( " The Game " nickname was originally intended for Owen Hart , with Triple H adopting the nickname in honor of Owen ) . On the January 3 episode of Raw Is War , Triple H defeated Big Show to win his third WWF championship .
Triple H feuded with Mick Foley in early 2000 . They both fought at the Royal Rumble in a Street Fight Match for the WWF Championship , which Triple H won after performing two Pedigrees on Foley . The feud ended at No Way Out in a Hell in a Cell , where Triple H retained the title and forced Foley to retire . Triple H pinned The Rock at WrestleMania 2000 to retain the title , but lost it at Backlash to The Rock , thus ending his reign at 118 days . He regained it three weeks later , in an Iron Man match at Judgment Day , only to lose it back to The Rock at King of the Ring . Triple H then entered a storyline with Chris Jericho , who upset Triple H by defeated him for the WWF Championship on the April 17 episode of Raw Is War before the title was returned to Triple H because of a fast count made by referee Earl Hebner , and Jericho 's reign is not being recognized . Their feud culminated in a Last Man Standing match at Fully Loaded which was won by Triple H. Afterwards , Triple H entered a feud with Kurt Angle , initially over the WWF Championship , but then as a love triangle between himself , Angle , and Stephanie . Both Triple H and Angle wrestled for the WWF Championship against The Rock at SummerSlam , but The Rock retained the title after Angle received a legit concussion during a botched Pedigree on a commentary table by Triple H. The feud culminated at Unforgiven , where Triple H defeated Angle with a Pedigree after a low blow from McMahon .
After a brief run as a face that saw him defeating Chris Benoit at No Mercy , Triple H reverted to his heel persona and restarted his feud with Stone Cold Steve Austin when it emerged that Triple H had paid off Rikishi to run down Austin at Survivor Series , causing him to take a year off . While in the storyline Triple H said he had done it in order to shield Austin from the WWF Championship and end his career , in reality Austin 's previous neck injuries started bothering him again , forcing him to have surgery . In November 2000 , Triple H and Austin had a match at Survivor Series that ended when Triple H tried to trick Austin into coming into the parking lot to run him over again , only to have Austin lift his car up with a forklift and flip the car onto its roof 10 feet high . Triple H returned a few weeks later to attack Austin , and their feud continued into 2001 and ended in a Three Stages of Hell match in which Triple H defeated Austin . In 2001 , Triple H also feuded with The Undertaker , who defeated him at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven . The night after WrestleMania , Triple H interfered in a steel cage match between Austin ( who had just won the WWF Championship ) and The Rock where he joined forces with Austin and double teamed on The Rock , forming a tag team called The Two @-@ Man Power Trip . Triple H then defeated Chris Jericho for his third Intercontinental Championship on the April 5 SmackDown ! , and won it for a fourth time two weeks later by defeating Jeff Hardy . Triple H then became a world tag team champion by winning the WWF Tag Team Championship for the first time at Backlash when he and Austin defeated Kane and The Undertaker in a " Winner Take All " tag team match . As Triple H was still Intercontinental Champion , the win made him a double champion .
During the May 21 , 2001 episode of Raw Is War , he suffered a legitimate and career @-@ threatening injury . In the night 's main event , he and Austin were defending the WWF Tag Team Championship against Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit . At one point , Jericho had Austin trapped in the Walls of Jericho and Triple H ran in to break it up , but just as he did , he suffered a tear in his left quadriceps muscle , causing it to come completely off the bone . Despite his inability to place any weight on his leg , Triple H was able to complete the match . He even allowed Jericho to put him in the Walls of Jericho , a move that places considerable stress on the quadriceps . The tear required an operation , which was performed by orthopedic surgeon Dr. James Andrews . This injury brought an abrupt end to the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era , as the rigorous rehabilitation process kept Triple H out of action for over eight months , completely missing The Invasion storyline .
= = = = Evolution ( 2002 – 2005 ) = = = =
Triple H returned to Raw as a face on January 7 , 2002 at Madison Square Garden . He won the Royal Rumble and received an Undisputed WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X8 , where Triple H defeated Chris Jericho for the Undisputed WWF Championship . After holding the title for a month , Triple H dropped it to Hulk Hogan at Backlash . Triple H then became exclusive to the SmackDown ! roster due to the WWF draft lottery and continued to feud with Jericho , culminating in a Hell in a Cell match at Judgment Day , which Triple H won . On the June 6 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! , Triple H defeated Hogan in a # 1 contender match for the Undisputed WWF Championship at the King of the Ring against The Undertaker , but was unsuccessful at the event .
In the interim , between the Royal Rumble and WrestleMania , the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction was brought to an official on @-@ screen conclusion . By the time he returned , Triple H 's on @-@ screen marriage to Stephanie McMahon was faltering , so Stephanie faked a pregnancy in order to get him back on her side . When he learned that it was fake , he dumped her publicly on Raw when they were supposed to renew their wedding vows . Stephanie aligned with Jericho afterward , but she was forced to leave after losing a triple threat match on Raw the night after WrestleMania when she was pinned by Triple H. The divorce , and thus the storyline , was finalized at Vengeance .
Meanwhile , Shawn Michaels had made his return to WWE and joined the New World Order ( nWo ) . Michaels and Kevin Nash planned to bring Triple H over to Raw in order to put him into the group . Mr. McMahon , however , disbanded the nWo following several backstage complications and brought in Eric Bischoff as the Raw general manager . One of Bischoff 's first intentions was to follow up on the nWo 's plan and bring Triple H over to the Raw roster . Triple H went to the Raw brand , reuniting with Michaels , but on July 22 he turned on Michaels by performing a Pedigree on him during what was supposed to be a DX reunion , turning heel once again . The following week , Triple H smashed Michaels ' face into a car window to prove that Michaels was weak . These events led to the beginning of a
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6 ) , bass ( 4 ) , percussion ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 ) , gubgubbi ( 9 ) , drums ( 4 ) , backing vocals ( 2 – 6 , 8 , 9 )
Tom Scott – saxophones ( 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 8 ) , flute ( 7 , 9 ) , horn arrangements ( 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 8 ) , organ ( 1 )
Billy Preston – electric piano ( 5 , 7 , 8 ) , organ ( 9 ) , piano ( 9 )
Willie Weeks – bass ( 3 , 5 , 7 – 9 )
Andy Newmark – drums ( 5 , 7 – 9 ) , percussion ( 8 )
Jim Keltner – drums ( 3 , 6 , 7 )
Robben Ford – electric guitar ( 1 , 2 ) , acoustic guitar ( 7 )
Jim Horn – flute ( 7 , 9 )
Chuck Findley – flute ( 7 , 9 )
Emil Richards – percussion ( 7 , 9 )
Ringo Starr – drums ( 3 , 6 )
Klaus Voormann – bass ( 6 )
Gary Wright – piano ( 6 )
Nicky Hopkins – piano ( 3 )
Roger Kellaway – piano ( 1 , 2 ) , organ ( 2 )
Max Bennett – bass ( 1 , 2 )
John Guerin – drums ( 1 , 2 )
Ron Wood – electric guitar ( 6 )
Alvin Lee – electric guitar ( 6 )
Mick Jones – acoustic guitar ( 6 )
Derrek Van Eaton – backing vocals ( 7 )
Lon Van Eaton – backing vocals ( 7 )
= = Chart positions = =
= = Shipments and sales = =
= Galaxy Game =
Galaxy Game is a space combat arcade game developed in 1971 as one of the last games created in the early history of video games . Created by Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck , it was one of the first coin @-@ operated video games ; its initial prototype display in September 1971 at the Tresidder student union building at Stanford University was only a month after a similar display of a prototype of Computer Space , making it the second known video game to charge money to play . Galaxy Game is an expanded version of the 1962 Spacewar ! , potentially the first video game to spread to multiple computer installations . It features two spaceships , " the needle " and " the wedge " , engaged in a dogfight while maneuvering in the gravity well of a star . Both ships are controlled by human players .
The initial prototype , which cost Pitts and Tuck US $ 20 @,@ 000 to build , was composed of a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP @-@ 11 minicomputer attached by a cable to a wooden console with a monitor , controls , and seats . It charged players 10 cents per game or 25 cents for three , and drew crowds " ten @-@ deep " . The pair built a second prototype , replacing the first in the student union building in June 1972 . It featured the capability to play multiple games simultaneously on four monitors , though due to space restrictions only two consoles with monitors were actually installed . These consoles had a blue fiberglass casing , and the PDP @-@ 11 was housed inside one of the consoles . By the time of its installation , the pair had spent US $ 65 @,@ 000 on the project , but were unable to make the game commercially viable . The second prototype remained in the student union building until 1979 , when the display processor became faulty . It was restored and placed in the Stanford computer science department in 1997 , then moved to the Computer History Museum in 2000 , where it remains .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of the 1970s , video games existed almost entirely as novelties passed around by programmers and technicians with access to computers , primarily at research institutions and large companies . One of these games was Spacewar ! , created in 1962 for the Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer by Steve Russell and others in the programming community at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The two @-@ player game has the players engage in a dogfight between two spaceships , set against the backdrop of a starfield , with a central star exerting gravitational force upon the ships . The game was copied to several of the early minicomputer installations in American academic institutions after its initial release , making it potentially the first video game to be available outside a single research institute . Spacewar was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely recreated on other minicomputer and mainframe computers of the time , later migrating to early microcomputer systems . Early computer scientist Alan Kay noted in 1972 that " the game of Spacewar blossoms spontaneously wherever there is a graphics display connected to a computer , " and contributor Martin Graetz recalled in 1981 that as the game initially spread it could be found on " just about any research computer that had a programmable CRT " . Although the game was widespread for the era , it was still very limited in its direct reach : the PDP @-@ 1 was priced at US $ 120 @,@ 000 and only 55 were ever sold , most without a monitor , which prohibited the original Spacewar or any game of the time from reaching beyond a narrow , academic audience . The original developers of Spacewar considered ways to monetize the game , but saw no options given the high price of the computer it ran on .
In 1966 , Stanford University student Bill Pitts , who had a hobby of exploring the steam tunnels and buildings of the campus , broke into a building he found out to be the location of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Project , which held a DEC PDP @-@ 6 time @-@ sharing computer system with 20 Teletype consoles connected to it . Fascinated by the computer and having taken several introductory computer classes , Pitts convinced the head of the project , Lester Earnest , to let him use the computer after hours . Soon , Pitts had ceased going to classes , instead spending his nights in the computer lab interacting with the graduate and postgraduate students and playing Spacewar on the PDP @-@ 6 . Pitts often played against Hugh Tuck , a student at California Polytechnic State University who was a friend from high school . During one Spacewar session that took place , depending on the source , between 1966 and 1969 , Tuck remarked that a coin @-@ operated version of the game would be very successful . Such a device was still unfeasible due to the cost of computers , and the pair did not pursue the project . In 1971 , however , Pitts , who by then had graduated and was working at Lockheed as a PDP @-@ 10 programmer , learned of the 1970 DEC PDP @-@ 11 , which was sold for around US $ 14 @,@ 000 . While this was still too high for a commercially viable product , as most electronic games in arcades cost around US $ 1 @,@ 000 at the time , Tuck and Pitts felt it was low enough to build a prototype to determine interest and optimal per @-@ game pricing .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Galaxy Game , like Spacewar , involves two monochrome spaceships called " the needle " and " the wedge " , each controlled by a player , attempting to shoot one another while maneuvering on a two @-@ dimensional plane in the gravity well of a star , set against the backdrop of a starfield . The ships fire torpedoes , which are not affected by the gravitational pull of the star . The ships have a limited number of torpedoes and a limited supply of fuel , which is used when the player fires his thrusters . Torpedoes are fired one at a time , and there is a cooldown period between launches . The ships follow Newtonian physics , remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating , though the ships can rotate at a constant rate without inertia .
Each player controls one of the ships and must attempt to shoot down the other ship while avoiding a collision with the star . Flying near the star can provide a gravity assist to the player at the risk of misjudging the trajectory and falling into the star . If a ship moves past one edge of the screen , it reappears on the other side in a wraparound effect . A hyperspace feature , or " panic button " , can be used as a last @-@ ditch means to evade enemy torpedoes by moving the player 's ship to another location on the screen after disappearing for a few seconds , but the reentry from hyperspace occurs at a random location , and there is an increasing probability of the ship exploding with each use . Player controls include clockwise and counterclockwise rotation , forward thrust , firing torpedoes , and hyperspace . Galaxy Game features , as improvements over the original , optional modifications to the game to have faster ships , faster torpedoes , to remove the star and its gravitational field or reverse the gravity to push away from the star , and to remove the wraparound effect . The movement of the ships was controlled with a joystick , while the torpedoes , hyperspace , and game options are controlled via a panel of buttons .
= = Development = =
After deciding to begin work on a coin @-@ operated version of Spacewar , the pair , with assistance from Tuck 's family , bought a PDP @-@ 11 and started working on a prototype . They spent a total of US $ 20 @,@ 000 to build a single arcade machine for two players , like the original Spacewar , deciding to price the game at ten cents per play or 25 cents for three games , with the winner of a match given a free game . They used a PDP @-@ 11 / 20 version of the PDP @-@ 11 ( US $ 14 @,@ 000 ) , a Hewlett @-@ Packard 1300A Electrostatic Display ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) , and spent the remainder on the coin acceptors , joysticks , wiring , and casing . Pitts build the computer hardware and handled the programming , while Tuck , a mechanical engineer , designed the enclosing cabinet . The display adapter for the monitor was built by Ted Panofski , the coin acceptors were sourced from jukebox manufacturer Rowe International , and the joysticks found at a military surplus store as remainders from B @-@ 52 bomber controls . The code for the game was based on a version of Spacewar running on a PDP @-@ 10 in the Stanford artificial intelligence lab , but modified with additional features .
Pitts and Tuck renamed their product from Spacewar to Galaxy Game due to anti @-@ war sentiment and founded a company called Computer Recreations in June 1971 to operate the game as it neared completion . The development of the prototype machine took around three and a half months . By August , they were finishing the final touches and had gotten permission to place the machine at the Tresidder student union building at Stanford as a test site . It was then that they received a call from Nolan Bushnell , who had heard of their project and wanted to show them his similar project he was working on .
Bushnell had also played Spacewar during the 1960s and wanted to make an arcade game version of it , but had gone in a different technological direction . He and Ted Dabney had initially started with a US $ 4 @,@ 000 Data General Nova computer which they thought would be powerful enough to run multiple simultaneous games of Spacewar ; when it turned out to not be , they had started investigating replacing the computer hardware with custom @-@ built parts . They had soon discovered that while a general @-@ purpose computer cheap enough for an arcade game would not be powerful enough to run enough games of Spacewar to be profitable , a computer purpose @-@ built for solely running one game could be made for as low as US $ 100 . By August 1971 when Bushnell called Tuck and Pitts , he and Dabney had already displayed a prototype of their Computer Space game in a bar near Stanford and had found a commercial manufacturer for the game in Nutting Associates . They were curious about what Tuck and Pitts had done to make a commercially competitive version of the game , but were relieved , though also somewhat disappointed , to find that they had not solved that problem yet .
Tuck and Pitts , on the other hand , while impressed with Bushnell 's hardware were not impressed with the game itself . They felt that Computer Space , a single @-@ player game without the central gravity well of the original game , was a pale imitation of Spacewar , while their own Galaxy Game was a superior adaptation of the game . A few weeks later , in September 1971 , the Galaxy Game prototype debuted . The veneered walnut console , complete with seats for players , was located on the second floor of the building and connected to the PDP @-@ 11 in the attic by a 100 @-@ foot cable . It was very successful ; Pitts later said that the machine attracted crowds of people " ten @-@ deep " watching the players . They briefly attached a second monitor hanging above the console so that the watchers could more easily see the game . The low prices meant that they did not come close to making back the price of the PDP @-@ 11 , but they were excited by the game 's reception and had not intended the prototype to be profitable . As the initial Galaxy Game prototype was displayed to the public one month after the first Computer Space prototype , it is believed to be the second video game to charge money to play .
As a result of the reception to Galaxy Game , Pitts and Tuck started work on an expanded prototype . For the second machine , they built a full blue fiberglass casing for the consoles , improved the quality of the joysticks with the help of an machine shop , and modified the computer with a newer display processor to support up to four games at once on different monitors — either multiple simultaneous separate games or up to four players playing the same game on two screens . They also placed the PDP @-@ 11 inside one of the consoles rather than in a separate location . While the original plan had been to work on driving down the development costs after the initial prototype , the popularity of the game convinced the pair to instead focus on making a better machine that could run multiple games to recoup the upfront investment . The new version was installed in a cafe in the student union building in June 1972 , though with only two monitors due to space restrictions . The original Galaxy Game prototype was displayed at several locations around the area , but was not as successful as it had been at the student union building . By the time the second prototype was completed the pair had spent US $ 65 @,@ 000 on the project and had no feasible way of making up the cost with the machine or commercial prospects for a wider release . Pitts later explained that he and Tuck had been focused on the engineering and technical challenges of producing a faithful coin @-@ operated Spacewar game and paid little attention to the business side of the project ; he felt that Computer Space had been more commercially successful because Bushnell had focused more on the business side of his idea than the technical .
= = Legacy = =
The second Galaxy Game prototype remained on display in the Tresidder building until May 1979 , when it was removed due to the display processor becoming unreliable . Throughout its time on display , it remained popular , with " ten to twenty people gathered around the machines most Friday and Saturday nights when school was in session . " Pitts later claimed that by the time the machine was removed , it had managed to make back the original investment . After its removal , the machine was dismantled , with the computer parts stored in an office and the casing outdoors . The unit was restored in 1997 with a recreated display processor and put on display for several years in the computer science department at Stanford with two consoles attached for free use by students . Due to issues with space and maintenance , in 2000 it was moved into the Computer History Museum in Mountain View , California , in the displayed storage section . In August 2010 , the museum loaned the console to Google to be placed at their headquarters campus at the request of Pitts — who wanted the game to be played as well as displayed — due to a discussion with senior vice president Jonathan Rosenberg , who had been hired as a 13 year old by Tuck and Pitts in the mid @-@ 1970s to keep the machine cleaned . It has since returned to the museum as a playable exhibit .
= William Johnstone Hope =
Vice Admiral Sir William Johnstone Hope , GCB ( 16 August 1766 – 2 May 1831 ) was a prominent and controversial British Royal Navy officer and politician in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Britain , whose career experienced fleet actions , disputes with royalty , party politics and entry to both Russian and British orders of chivalry . A popular officer , Hope served with Nelson , Duncan and Lord Keith through several campaigns , making connections which enabled him to secure a lengthy political career after his retirement from the Royal Navy in 1804 due to ill @-@ health . After 26 years in Parliament , Hope was largely inactive and instead served as a Lord of the Admiralty and commissioner of Greenwich Naval Hospital . Hope died in 1832 after 55 years of naval and political service and was buried in the family plot in Scotland .
= = Early life = =
William Johnstone Hope was born the third son of John Hope and his wife Mary Breton . The Hopes were descendants of the first Earl of Hopetoun and maintained strong political links with the family ; his brothers were also prominent figures , Charles Hope later became Lord Granton and Sir John Hope served as a brigadier under Wellington in the Peninsular War .
Hope was educated at Edinburgh High School between 1774 and 1776 and the following year , aged 12 , he entered the Royal Navy as a midshipman in HMS Weazel , a sloop commanded by his uncle Captain Charles Hope . As his uncle 's protégé , William traveled with his relative thorough various commands , serving during the American Revolutionary War off the Home , Lisbon and Newfoundland Stations . In 1782 he was promoted to lieutenant and left his uncle , taking a position on the frigate HMS Daedalus in Newfoundland . At the conclusion of the war , Hope returned home on Daedalus and remained on her until 1785 when his uncle returned him to his own ship , now the guardship HMS Sampson at Plymouth .
In 1786 , Hope 's career suffered a blow when he was stationed aboard the frigate HMS Pegasus , commanded by Prince William Henry . Hope and Prince William fell out badly and in less than a year Hope had been transferred to the frigate HMS Boreas , at that time commanded by Captain Horatio Nelson , with whom Hope had good relations . Two years later , Hope was transferred to HMS Adamant at the request of Sir Richard Hughes . When Hughes reached flag rank in 1790 whilst stationed in Newfoundland , he promoted Hope to commander and gave him command of Adamant .
= = = French Revolutionary War = = =
Hope continued in command of small ships for several years , pausing in 1792 to marry his distant cousin , Lady Anne Hope Johnstone . The couple would have two daughters and four sons before Anne 's death in 1818 . In 1794 , Hope was in command of HMS Incendiary , a fireship of the Channel Fleet attached to Lord Howe 's force sent to engage the French . In March , Hope was given his step to post captain , taking command of the ship of the line HMS Bellerophon , the flagship of Admiral Thomas Pasley .
Hope was still in command of the Bellerophon three months later when he was heavily engaged in the van of Howe 's fleet at the Glorious First of June , when an equally sized French fleet was defeated 200 miles out in the Atlantic Ocean . At the start of 1795 , Hope joined HMS Tremendous , but within two months was requested onboard HMS Venerable by Admiral Duncan . However , while visiting aboard a Russian ship in 1796 , Hope suffered a serious accidental head injury that left him an invalid for two years , consequently missing Duncan 's victory at the Battle of Camperdown .
Returning from his long convalescence , Hope was again requested by Duncan and commanded his flagship HMS Kent for the next three years . In 1799 , the Kent was Duncan 's flagship in supporting the Anglo @-@ Russian invasion of the Batavian Republic , with Hope being present at the surrender of the Dutch fleet in Texel to the Royal Navy . Sent to Britain with the dispatches proclaiming the surrender , Hope was lauded by both the British and Russian courts , King George III presenting him with £ 500 and Ts
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Muppet Caper as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , and others
The Muppets Take Manhattan as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , Ernie , and others
Christmas Eve on Sesame Street as Kermit the Frog and Ernie
Emmet Otter 's Jug @-@ Band Christmas as Kermit the Frog , Harvey Beaver , Howard Snake , and Mayor Harrison Fox
Sesame Street Presents Follow That Bird as Ernie and Kermit the Frog
Fraggle Rock as Cantus the Minstrel and Convincing John
Big Bird in China as Ernie
Little Muppet Monsters as Kermit the Frog ( live @-@ action puppet only ) , Dr. Teeth
The Tale of the Bunny Picnic as the Dog
The Muppets : A Celebration of 30 Years as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , Ernie , Harry the Hipster , and others
The Christmas Toy as Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Box and Kermit the Frog
A Muppet Family Christmas as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , Ernie , Guy Smiley , Baby Kermit , Baby Rowlf , and others
Sing @-@ Along , Dance @-@ Along , Do @-@ Along as Rowlf the Dog , Penguins , and Kermit the Frog
Sesame Street : 20 and Still Counting as Ernie , Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppets at Walt Disney World as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Link Hogthrob , and The Swedish Chef
Muppet * Vision 3D as Kermit the Frog , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , Rowlf the Dog , and others
= = Archive = =
The moving image collection of Jim Henson is held at the Academy Film Archive . The collection contains the film work of Jim Henson and the Jim Henson Company .
= Glacier Peak =
Glacier Peak or Dakobed ( known in the Sauk Indian dialect of Lushootseed as " Tda @-@ ko @-@ buh @-@ ba " or " Takobia " ) is the most isolated of the five major stratovolcanoes ( composite volcanoes ) of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the U.S state of Washington . Located in the Glacier Peak Wilderness , the volcano is visible from the west in Seattle , and from the north in the higher areas of eastern suburbs of Vancouver such as Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam . The volcano is the fourth tallest peak in Washington state , and not as much is known about it compared to other volcanoes in the area . Local Native Americans have recognized Glacier Peak and other Washington volcanoes in their histories and stories . When foreign explorers reached the region , they learned basic information about surrounding landforms , but did not initially understand that Glacier Peak was a volcano . Positioned in Snohomish County , the volcano is only 70 miles ( 110 km ) northeast of Seattle . The only volcano closer to Seattle is Mount Rainier , but as Glacier Peak is set farther into the Cascades and almost 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) shorter , it is less noticeable than Mount Rainier .
Glacier Peak is one of the most active of Washington 's volcanoes . The volcano formed during the Pleistocene epoch , about one million years ago , and since the most recent ice age , it has produced some of largest and most explosive eruptions in the state . When continental ice sheets retreated from the region , Glacier Peak began to erupt regularly , erupting explosively five times in the past 3 @,@ 000 years . It has erupted repeatedly during at least six periods ; two of these eruptions have been among the largest in Washington .
= = Geology = =
Remnants of past , prehistoric lava domes are main components of the summit of the volcano , in addition to its false summit , Disappointment Peak . Past pyroclastic flow deposits are easily visible in river valleys near the volcano , likely caused by lava dome collapse , along with ridges found east of the summit consisting of ash cloud remains . On its western flank , the volcano also has a lahar , or mudflow deposit , which runs for about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) into the White Chuck River Valley around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . 10 other pyroclastic flow deposits are visible , all identified as relatively 10 @,@ 000 years old . There is also a considerably newer mudflow , about 5 @,@ 500 years old , which covers an area of 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) between the same river valley , along with two small incidents both under 3 @,@ 000 years old . Another lahar , of unidentified age , was rich in oxyhornblende dacite ; and continued for 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) into the Sauk River .
There are also ash cloud deposits on the opposite eastern flank of the volcano . Studies of the mountain have to date been unable to find any correspondence with pyroclastic flows , but several past mudflows have been identified . In the Dusty Creek , located by the mountain , there is a lahar at least 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) thick , containing pyroclastic flow deposits and other mudflows . However , this large mudflow is part of a 300 metres ( 980 ft ) thick concentration of past incidents at the volcano that spans the Dusty and Chocolate Creek . In the area at least ten cubic kilometers of lithic debris are contained . Tephra deposits are for the most part constrained to the left flank of the volcano , and at least nine past incidents have been identified . These form several layers of tephra constructing the mountain . Smaller eruptions involving tephra occurred between 6 @,@ 900 @-@ 5 @,@ 500 years ago , 3 @,@ 450 – 200 years ago , and as recent as 316 – 90 years ago .
On the mountain , three additional cinder cones , Dishpan Gap , Indian Pass , and White Chuck , are located about 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) up . The volcano has also caused such thermal events such as hot springs . There were three hot springs on the mountain : Gamma , Kennedy , and Sulphur , but Kennedy Hot Springs was destroyed and buried in a slide .
= = = Tectonic setting = = =
The volcano is located in Washington , and is one of the five major stratovolcanoes there . Situated in the Cascade Volcanic Arc , the volcano was created by subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate . Convergence between the two continues at a rate of 4 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year . This range has been volcanically active for about 36 million years , and the rocks that make up its volcanoes are between 55 and 42 million years old . Eruptions within the range are irregular and do not occur all at once . In an attempt to organize the volcanoes by age , scientists typically divide them into the High Cascades , younger volcanoes , and the Western Cascades , consisting of the older volcanoes . However , the vents in Washington are all of different ages so none of its volcanoes are included in either of the sections .
= = History = =
Around the area , there were many Native Americans , and along with other Washington volcanoes , the mountain was recognized by them as a spirit . When European @-@ American explorers reached the area , they learned about the mountain , though only partially , through local legends . Although the local people described Glacier Peak as a vital part of their storytelling and beliefs ; when other volcanoes in the area were mapped , Glacier Peak was left out . In 1850 natives mentioned the volcano to naturalist George Gibbs saying that the volcano had once " smoked " . In 1898 the volcano was finally documented on a map .
Native Americans also used the area around the Cascades for their agriculture , leading them to often congregate in the region . As a result , gold miners eventually reached the area in the 1870s @-@ 1890s , searching for resources and rich land . The first white man recorded to observe the mountain — Daniel Lindsley — was an employee of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company searching for possible railroad routes when he saw it in 1870 .
= = Eruptive history = =
Despite its elevation of 10 @,@ 541 feet ( 3 @,@ 213 m ) , Glacier Peak is a small stratovolcano . Its relatively high summit is a consequence of its location atop a high ridge , but its volcanic portion extends only 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 500 – 1 @,@ 000 m ) above the underlying ridge . Another Cascade Arc volcano with similar geomorphology is the Mount Meager massif in southwestern British Columbia , Canada , which is situated on a 1 @,@ 300 ft ( 400 m ) ridge of nonvolcanic , crystalline and metamorphic rock .
Of the five major volcanoes in Washington , only Glacier Peak and Mount St. Helens have had large eruptions in the past 15 @,@ 000 years . Since both volcanoes generate magma of dacitic origin , the viscous magma builds up since it cannot flow through the eruptive vent . Gradually , the pressure grows , culminating in an explosion that ejects materials such as tephra , which in its simplest form , is ash .
Tephrochronology and radiocarbon dating indicate that Glacier Peak eruptions occurred in 1700 AD ± 100 years , 1300 AD ± 300 years , 900 AD ± 50 years , 200 AD ± 50 years , 850 BC , 3150 BC , and in 3550 BC . The Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) for three of these was 2 to 4 , small compared to the 5 of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . They were characterized mainly by a central vent eruption , followed by an explosive eruption . These eruptions varied in outcome ; some produced lahars , some pyroclastic flows , and others lava domes .
A little more than 13 @,@ 000 years ago , a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years . Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows . Mixed with snow , ice and water , these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers , filling their valleys with deep deposits . Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River ( at that time an outlet of the Sauk River ) and Skagit Rivers . In Arlington , 60 miles ( 97 km ) downstream , lahars deposited seven feet of sediment . Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near Darrington led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk / Skagit Rivers . Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to Puget Sound . A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally . However , most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere , and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles . Deposits from this congregation were as thick as 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) near Chelan and 0 @.@ 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) near Missoula , Montana .
Since these events , Glacier Peak has produced several lahars . The largest events were 5 @,@ 900 and 1 @,@ 800 years ago and were associated with dome @-@ building eruptions . In both cases , the lahars traveled down the Skagit River to Puget Sound .
= = = Hazards = = =
When lahars reach populated areas , they can bury structures and people . An example was the Armero tragedy at Nevado del Ruiz where 23 @,@ 000 died from an enormous mudflow . Lahars from Glacier Peak pose a similar threat to the small communities of Darrington and Concrete and a lesser threat to the larger and rapidly growing towns of Mount Vernon and Burlington , as well as other communities along the lower Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers . A 2005 study conducted by the United States Geological Survey identified nine Cascade volcanoes , including Glacier Peak , as " very @-@ high @-@ threat volcanoes with inadequate monitoring " . At the time of the study , only one seismometer was installed on Glacier Peak that had not " worked in two years " .
= = Glaciers = =
Eleven significant glaciers cover Glacier Peak . When C.E. Rusk first saw these glaciers in 1906 they were beginning to retreat , but were still very advanced . The average retreat of Glacier Peak glaciers from the Little Ice Age to the 1958 positions was 5 @,@ 381 feet ( 1 @,@ 640 m ) . Richard Hubley noted that North Cascade glaciers began to advance in the early 1950s , after 30 years of rapid retreat . The advance was in response to a sharp rise in winter precipitation and a decline in summer temperature beginning in 1944 . Ten of the fifteen glaciers around Glacier Peak advanced , including all of the glaciers directly on the mountain 's slopes . Advances of Glacier Peak glaciers ranged from 50 to 1 @,@ 575 feet ( 15 to 480 m ) and culminated in 1978 . All eleven Glacier Peak glaciers that advanced during the 1950 – 79 period emplaced identifiable maximum advance terminal moraines . From 1984 to 2005 , the average retreat of eight Glacier Peak glaciers from their recent maximum positions was 1 @,@ 017 feet ( 310 m ) . Milk Lake Glacier , on the north flank of the mountain , melted away altogether in the 1990s .
= = Recreation = =
The Pacific Crest Trail passes near Glacier Peak . The Suiattle River crossing is a well known feature on the Pacific Crest Trail ( PCT ) as it passes through the area . The Suiattle PCT crossing used to have a bridge crossing until it was flooded out by storms in late 2003 .
The first person to climb the mountain was Thomas Gerdine , along with a group of United States Geological Survey scientists , in 1897 . The volcano is also available to skiers . To reach the mountain itself , it takes 5 miles of walking along the White Chuck River Trail ( Forest Service Trail No. 643 ) and up the Sitkum Glacier . The trail is reached via Forest Service Road No. 23 . Mainly , the slopes consist of black diamonds for both the ascent and descent .
= Henry Nock =
Henry Nock ( 1741 – 1804 ) was a British inventor and engineer of the Napoleonic period , best known as a gunsmith . Nock produced many innovative weapons including the screwless lock and the seven @-@ barrelled volley gun , although he did not invent the latter despite it commonly being known as the Nock gun . He was a major supplier to the military during the Napoleonic wars . His high quality duelling pistols and double @-@ barrelled shotguns were much sought after and it is largely through Nock that the latter became the weapon of choice for hunters .
As well as supplying the military and civilian markets , Nock made expensive pieces for the aristocracy and royalty and was an appointed gunmaker to the king . Nock 's business eventually became Wilkinson Sword , a company which today makes razor blades and other shaving equipment , and , until very recently , made ceremonial officer 's swords for the British Army .
= = Guns = =
Nock produced many innovative weapons . In 1793 he made a double @-@ barrelled pistol with a removable stock for the Royal Horse Artillery . However , this weapon was impractical with the stock removed and was usually used as a carbine . In 1797 Nock put into production a 9 @-@ inch pistol ( pattern 1796 ) for heavy dragoons with a calibre matching their carbines . Some of these pistols had a novel lock designed by Nock , originally intended for an abandoned musket design requested by the Duke of Richmond in 1786 while serving as Master @-@ General of the Ordnance . The new lock could be dismantled by removable pins rather than the previous more cumbersome and time @-@ consuming screws . The pattern 1796 had no butt @-@ plate and the ramrod was stored in the holster rather than attached to the barrel . This feature made it unpopular with users and many guns were modified to take a conventional swivel ramrod .
The name of Nock is perhaps best known today for the multi @-@ barrelled Nock gun due to it being featured in several films . These include uses of this volley gun by the characters Patrick Harper in Sharpe and Jim Bowie in The Alamo . Nock was the manufacturer , but not the inventor , of this weapon . Despite its portrayal in film , this weapon was not very practical as a hand weapon due its very severe recoil , often causing injuries , and the time needed to reload the seven barrels . It was necessary to abandon the rifling of the early prototypes and reduce the charge to keep this problem manageable . Intended as a naval weapon fired from the rigging to repel boarders on the deck , it was retired by the Royal Navy in 1804 . Nock also produced some experimental rotating multi @-@ barrelled guns to fire one barrel at a time .
In his own day , Nock was most well known for his double @-@ barrelled shotguns . He was not the first to make weapons in such a format , but their high quality and Nock 's many innovations led to shotguns becoming highly popular as a hunting gun , especially after Nock became gun maker to the king . Nock was also well known for his duelling pistols .
Nock made weapons covering the whole field from pistols to muskets . The great variety is perhaps illustrated by his coach blunderbuss which , like naval pistols , had a more corrosion resistant brass barrel . Such weapons were intended to be used at short range and did not take a large enough charge to require iron barrels . Nock continued to innovate until his death – late in life he was making breech loading muskets .
= = Career = =
Nock started out as a locksmith , but he took out a patent for a gun lock in 1775 . Nock was not yet enrolled in the Worshipful Company of Gunmakers and could not trade under his own name . He formed Nock , Jover & Co. with William Jover , a Master of the Gunmakers Company and the patent bore Jover 's name as well as Nock 's along with one John Green . War with the American colonies provided a strong market for Nock 's products .
James Wilson came to Nock in 1779 to make the prototypes for his volley gun design . Nock won the subsequent competitive bid for the production of the gun . The weapon is consequently commonly referred to as the Nock gun . Nock also produced some volley guns and volley pistols for the civilian market but in very small numbers . This included a set of these weapons for the Royal Household which is still in the Queen 's collection today . This set is not standard production . It has , for instance , silver mounts by Mark Bock , a London silversmith .
Following the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War , there was a fall in the demand for military small arms . In this period Nock turned to the civilian market , but also had profitable orders for locks for light to medium calibre ( 3 – 12 pounder ) naval guns .
In 1784 Nock finally became a Freeman of the Gunmakers Company . A few years later the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars ensured that Nock was not short of government business . The Duke of Richmond preferred Nock over his competitors for his innovations , particularly the screwless lock . Nock began delivering muskets in 1792 but orders for the regular army dried up because Nock 's non @-@ standard design took too long to make and used a different calibre ammunition . Thereafter Nock concentrated on supplying muskets to local militia preparing for an expected invasion . In 1804 the government placed a contract with Nock to replace all the Nock locks on their stock of Duke of Richmond pattern muskets with standard ones . Although the Nock locks were recognised as being superior , the need for standardisation took precedence .
In 1789 Nock was appointed gunmaker @-@ in @-@ ordinary to King George III , largely as a result of his patented breech for hunting guns and other inventions . In 1802 Nock became Master of the Gunmakers Company .
= = Legacy = =
Nock 's will was generous to his employees , he specified that his business was to be continued for six months for their benefit . He also left as much as £ 100 ( inflation adjusted £ 7 @,@ 900 ) to some employees .
A nephew of Henry , Samuel Nock , was an apprentice under him . Samuel also proved to be inventive , holding a patent himself . Samuel became Gunmaker @-@ in @-@ Ordinary in succession to George III , George IV , William IV and Victoria and in 1836 became a Master of the Gunmakers Company . However , Henry Nock 's own business was continued by his foreman and son @-@ in @-@ law James Wilkinson . Wilkinson became Gunmaker @-@ in @-@ Ordinary to the king in 1805 . Contracts with the East India Company ensured the success of the business . The name became James Wilkinson & Son around 1818 when James ' son Henry joined . Henry died in 1864 but the company continued making firearms and bladed weapons and became known as Wilkinson Sword . A series of new laws in the UK , starting with the Pistols Act 1903 , restricted the sale of firearms to the public . This pushed the company into changing direction and they henceforth concentrated on razor blades and other domestic products . They continued to produce swords for the British Army and for royal ceremonial purposes until 2005 when the sword manufacturing plant in Acton , West London , was closed . The company continues to make shaving and gardening products .
= Eddie Bayers =
Eddie Bayers ( born January 28 , 1949 ) is an American session drummer who has played on 150 gold and platinum albums . He received the Academy of Country Music ' Drummer of the Year Award ' for eight straight years , and has three times won the Nashville Music Awards ' Drummer of the Year ' . He is also a member of two bands : The Players , and The Notorious Cherry Bombs .
= = Early life = =
The son of a career military man , Bayers moved around as a child , originally from Maryland then spending time in Nashville , North Africa , Oakland , and Philadelphia . His early musical training was as a classical pianist studying Bach , Beethoven , and Mozart . During his college years in Oakland , California he jammed with future stars Jerry Garcia , and Tom and John Fogerty and developed an appreciation for the creative aspects of music . After a short stint in a New Jersey show band he decided to move to Nashville .
= = Session work = =
Arriving in Nashville in 1973 , Bayers became the house keyboard player at the Carousel Club where he met drummer Larrie Londin who inspired him to take up drumming . His drumming was influenced by soul drummers such as Al Jackson , Jr. and Clyde Stubblefield . He became the staff drummer at Audio Media Studios along with guitarist Paul Worley , keyboardist Dennis Burnside , and bassist Jack Clement playing on records by Tanya Tucker , John Denver , Ricky Skaggs and George Strait . He has since worked with the likes of The Beach Boys , Garth Brooks , Glen Campbell , Kenny Chesney , Peter Frampton , Vince Gill , Rebecca Lynn Howard , Julio Iglesias , Alan Jackson , Elton John , Mark Knopfler , Uncle Kracker , Bob Seger , Sting , Steve Winwood , and Trisha Yearwood . He has also produced Rosanne Cash 's album Interiors , A Glen Campbell Christmas , and the soundtrack for A Thing Called Love .
= = Bands = =
= = = The Players = = =
In 2002 Bayers formed a band , The Players , with fellow studio musicians Brent Mason , Paul Franklin , John Hobbs , Michael Rhodes . The group released a live DVD , Live in Nashville , featuring their own performances along with guest appearances by Peter Frampton , Shawn Colvin , Travis Tritt , Vince Gill , and Jim Horn .
= = = The Notorious Cherry Bombs = = =
Bayers replaced his former mentor , drummer Larrie Londin , in a reunited Notorious Cherry Bombs for a 2003 ASCAP Country Awards dinner . The band decided
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1972 and went to the states for ratification . Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968 , though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election . Nevertheless , he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had .
= = = Space policy = = =
After a nearly decade @-@ long national effort , the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20 , 1969 , with the flight of Apollo 11 . Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk . He called the conversation " the most historic phone call ever made from the White House " .
Nixon , however , was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) at the high level seen through the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon . NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981 . Nixon , however , rejected both proposals due to the expense . Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969 , because unmanned spy satellites were shown to be a more cost @-@ effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective .
On March 7 , 1970 , Nixon announced the end of the Kennedy @-@ Johnson era 's massive efforts in the space race , stating " We must think of [ space activities ] as part of a continuing process ... and not as a series of separate leaps , each requiring a massive concentration of energy . Space expenditures must take their proper place within a rigorous system of national priorities ... What we do in space from here on in must become a normal and regular part of our national life and must therefore be planned in conjunction with all of the other undertakings which are important to us . " He then cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle .
On May 24 , 1972 , Nixon approved a five @-@ year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program , culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space .
= = = Reelection , Watergate scandal , and resignation = = =
= = = = 1972 presidential campaign = = = =
Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment . The Democratic " Solid South " had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions . Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners . Nixon 's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace 's candidacy . Through his first term , he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies , such as his desegregation plans , that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites , encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the Civil Rights era . He nominated two Southern conservatives , Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell to the Supreme Court , but neither was confirmed by the Senate .
Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5 , 1972 , effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection . Virtually assured the Republican nomination , the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy ( brother of the late president ) , but he was largely removed from contention after the 1969 Chappaquiddick incident . Instead , Maine Senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner , with South Dakota Senator George McGovern in a close second place .
On June 10 , McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination . The following month , Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention . He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive . McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights . With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization , McGovern was perceived as standing for " amnesty , abortion and acid " . McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate , Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton , dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received treatment for depression . Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle , and was reelected on November 7 , 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history . He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote , losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia .
= = = = Watergate = = = =
The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration . Those activities included " dirty tricks , " or bugging the offices of political opponents and the harassment of activist groups and political figures . The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington , D.C. on June 17 , 1972 . The Washington Post picked up on the story ; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as " Deep Throat " — later revealed to be Mark Felt , associate director at the FBI — to link the men to the Nixon administration . Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics , calling news articles biased and misleading . A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re @-@ elect President Nixon , and later the White House , was involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats . Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution ; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing .
In July 1973 , White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office . These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox ; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes , citing executive privilege . With the White House and Cox at loggerheads , Nixon had Cox fired in October in the " Saturday Night Massacre " ; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski . In November , Nixon 's lawyers revealed that an audio tape of conversations , held in the White House on June 20 , 1972 , featured an 18 ½ minute gap . Rose Mary Woods , the President 's personal secretary , claimed responsibility for the gap , alleging that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape , though her tale was widely mocked . The gap , while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President , cast doubt on Nixon 's statement that he had been unaware of the cover @-@ up .
Though Nixon lost much popular support , even from his own party , he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office . He insisted that he had made mistakes , but had no prior knowledge of the burglary , did not break any laws , and did not learn of the cover @-@ up until early 1973 . On October 10 , 1973 , Vice President Agnew resigned — unrelated to Watergate — and was convicted on charges of bribery , tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as Governor of Maryland . Nixon chose Gerald Ford , Minority Leader of the House of Representatives , to replace Agnew .
On November 17 , 1973 , during a televised question and answer session with the press , Nixon said , " People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook . Well , I 'm not a crook . I 've earned everything I 've got . "
The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974 , and in April 1974 Nixon announced the release of 1 @,@ 200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides . The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9 , 1974 , which were televised on the major TV networks . These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment . On July 24 , the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes , not just selected transcripts , must be released .
The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President , ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes ; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due , and paid $ 465 @,@ 000 in back taxes in 1974 .
Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations , Nixon hoped to fight the charges . However , one of the new tapes , recorded soon after the break @-@ in , demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place , and had approved plans to thwart the investigation . In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the " Smoking Gun Tape " on August 5 , 1974 , Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement , stating that he had a lapse of memory . He met with Republican congressional leaders soon after , and was told he faced certain impeachment in the House and had , at most , only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate — far fewer than the 34 he needed to avoid removal from office .
= = = = Resignation = = = =
In light of his loss of political support and the near @-@ certainty of impeachment , Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9 , 1974 , after addressing the nation on television the previous evening . The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television . Nixon stated that he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president , Gerald Ford . Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency , especially in foreign policy . He defended his record as president , quoting from Theodore Roosevelt 's 1910 speech Citizenship in a Republic :
Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed , but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena , " whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood , who strives valiantly , who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming , but who does actually strive to do the deed , who knows the great enthusiasms , the great devotions , who spends himself in a worthy cause , who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst , if he fails , at least fails while daring greatly " .
Nixon 's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators , with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing . It was termed " a masterpiece " by Conrad Black , one of his biographers . Black opined that " What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president , Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue . He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office . "
= = Later years and death = =
= = = Pardon and illness = = =
Following his resignation , the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente , California . According to his biographer , Aitken , after his resignation , " Nixon was a soul in torment " . Congress had funded Nixon 's transition costs , including some salary expenses , though reducing the appropriation from $ 850 @,@ 000 to $ 200 @,@ 000 . With some of his staff still with him , Nixon was at his desk by 7 a.m. — with little to do . His former press secretary , Ron Ziegler , sat with him alone for hours each day .
Nixon 's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished . The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon , though it would be unpopular in the country . Nixon , contacted by Ford emissaries , was initially reluctant to accept the pardon , but then agreed to do so . Ford , however , insisted on a statement of contrition ; Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document . Ford eventually agreed , and on September 8 , 1974 , he granted Nixon a " full , free , and absolute pardon " , which ended any possibility of an indictment . Nixon then released a statement :
I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate , particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national
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have been entitled by the victorious Pharnavaz as aznauri ( i.e. , nobles ) after Azon ( this etymology is false , however ) .
The main threads of Pharnavaz 's story - a fatherless boy hidden and raised in a remote mountains , a forgotten lineage , his dreams , sacral kingship , solar imagery , the hunt , discovery of cave @-@ concealed treasure etc. are reminiscent of legends about Iran 's founding kings , like Cyrus the Great and Ardashir I. Pharnavaz 's self @-@ anointment may have a Sasanian inspiration , as some early Shahanshahs crowned themselves .
= = Reign = =
In the ensuing battle , Azon is defeated and killed , and Pharnavaz becomes the king of Kartli at the age of 27 . He is reported to have acknowledged the suzerainty of the Seleucids , the Hellenistic successors of Alexander in the Middle East , who are afforded by the Georgian chronicles the generic name of Antiochus .
Pharnavaz is also said to have patterned his administration upon an " Iranian " model .
Pharnavaz had introduced a military @-@ administrative organization based on a network of regional governors or eristavi . The insignia of the eristavi , received from the king , constituted a sceptre , a special signet ring , belt and armament . Iberia had in total seven eristavis , in Colchis , Kakheti , Khunani ( modern @-@ day northern Azerbaijan ) , Samshvilde ( Kvemo Kartli ) , Tsunda ( included Javakheti , Kola and Artaani ) , Odzrkhe and Klarjeti . The kingdom had one spaspet who was under the direct control of the royal power based in Inner Kartli . Eristavates mimicked aspects of Achaemenid satrapies and Seleucid strategoi . The major motive of later historian of the chronicles was to convince posterity that the basic political structure of Kartli was created by the very first Georgian monarch in the wake of Wars of Alexander the Great ; was of Achaemenid administrative system and had remained stable throughout Hellenistic , Parthian and Sasanian times . In this way , the long @-@ term viability and stability of the Georgian realm are established .
The hierarchic structure created by Pharnavaz was the following : king ; commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( spaspet ) of the royal army ; eristavis ; middle commanders ( atasistavis tsikhistavis ) of the garrisons stationed in the royal strongholds ; junior commanders ( asistavis ) who were the younger sons of the aristocratic families ; mercenary professional warriors from the neighboring countries and all the soldiers organized around the entire kingdom .
It is evident that the division of Iberia by Pharnavaz into saeristavos served first and foremost a military aim , namely the organization of people for the purpose of defence . This organization was not so much directed against other countries . Back then the total population of the kingdom would have been , including foreign captives and the population of the tributary areas , about 600 @,@ 000 , which could raise a fairly big army not less than 100 @,@ 000 . According to Strabo the Iberian army numbered 70 @-@ 80 @,@ 000 so it appears that each saeristavo had 10 @,@ 000 soldiers .
While Georgian and Classical evidence makes the contemporaneous Kartlian links with the Seleucids plausible ( Toumanoff has even implied that the kings of Kartli might have aided the Seleucids in holding the resurgent Orontids of Armenia in check ) , Pharnavaz 's alleged reform of the eristavi fiefdoms is most likely a back @-@ projection of the medieval pattern of subdivision to the remote past .
Pharnavaz is then reported to have embarked on social and cultural projects ; he supervised two building projects : the raising of the idol Armazi – reputedly named after him – on a mountain ledge and the construction of a similarly named fortress .
Pharnavaz made alliances with various North Caucasian peoples during his reign , to whom he called upon for help against both Macedonia and internal foes . He took a Durdzuk woman in marriage , in order to consolidate the alliance of Iberia with the Durdzuks , who helped him consolidate his reign against his unruly vassals . Similarly he married his sister to a Sarmatian chief .
According to the Georgian royal annals he also created the Georgian script and made the Georgian language an official language of the kingdom :
The chronicles report Pharnavaz 's lengthy reign of 65 years .
Upon his death , he was buried in front of the idol Armazi and worshipped . His son Saurmag succeeded him to the throne .
Pharnavaz 's grave is undisclosed so far . One of the last monarchs who visited his grave to adorn it and pay his respects was King Mirian III . Pharnavaz 's very burial in front of idol Armazi suggests a Hellenistic deification of the early monarchs of Iberia .
= = Pharnavaz and Arrian 's Pharasmanes = =
Several modern scholars have been tempted to make identification between the Pharnavaz of the medieval Georgian tradition and the Pharasmanes of the Greco @-@ Roman historian Arrian , a 2nd @-@ century AD author of The Anabasis of Alexander . Arrian recounts that " Pharasmanes ( Фαρασμάνης ) , king of the Chorasmians " , visited Alexander the Great with 1500 horseman , and pledged his support should Alexander desire to campaign to the Euxine lands and subdue Colchians , whom Pharasmanes names as his neighbors . Apart from the similarity of the names of Pharasmanes and Pharnavaz ( both names are apparently based on the same root , the Iranian farnah ) , it is interesting to note that the king of Chorasmia in Central Asia reports Colchis ( today ’ s western Georgia , i.e. , the western neighbor of ancient Kartli / Iberia ) to be a neighboring country . Some Georgian scholars have suggested that the Greek copyists of Arrian might have confused Chorasmia with Cholarzene ( Chorzene ) , a Classical rendering of the southwest Georgian marchlands ( the medieval Tao @-@ Klarjeti ) , which indeed bordered with Colchis and Pontus .
According to Arrian :
= = Legacy = =
The Bagrationi dynasty claimed descent directly from Pharnavaz . During the continuity of monarchy in Georgia , the Georgian kings presented themselves as heirs to the Kingdom of Iberia founded by King Pharnavaz .
In Tbilisi there is a King Pharnavaz Street , Avenue , and also a statue of Pharnavaz . Also , there are streets named after Pharnavaz in Batumi , Kutaisi , Khashuri , Gori , Gurjaani , Sachkhere , Zestaponi and others . Some buildings , including schools and hotels , also bear his name , as well as about five hundred Georgians .
= Mycena vitilis =
Mycena vitilis , commonly known as the snapping bonnet , is a species of inedible mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . It is found in Europe and North America , where it grows on the ground among leaves in damp places , especially under alder . The small pale gray to whitish fruit bodies are usually attached to small sticks buried in the leaves and detritus . They are distinguished by their long , slender stems that root into the ground , and by the grooved cap that reaches diameters of up to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) . The grayish @-@ white gills on the underside of the cap are distantly spaced , and adnately attached to the stem . M. vitilis contains strobilurin B , a fungicidal compound with potential use in agriculture .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
First described as Agaricus vitilis by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838 , it was assigned to Mycena vitilis in 1872 by Lucien Quélet . The white @-@ bodied variant Mycena vitilis var. corsica has been described from Italy , and differs from the main species by its white fruit bodies and differing measurements for several microscopic characters . Carleton Rea named another variety amsegetes ( meaning " field by the roadside " ) , which differs from the type variety by its " obsoletely umbonate " cap , its shorter and thicker stem , and its typical habitat of meadows and roadsides . The name " Mycena filopes " has also been confusingly applied to this species by some authors , although M. filopes ( Bull . ) P. Kumm. is a species that is recognized as being distinct from M. vitilis " .
The specific epithet vitilis is derived from the Latin word for " good for tying or binding with " , or " plaited " . The mushroom 's common name is the " snapping bonnet " . In his 1871 Handbook of British Fungi , Mordecai Cubitt Cooke called it the " flexile Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. vitilis is initially conic or bell @-@ shaped , but flattens out in maturity , and typically reaches dimensions of up to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) . When young , the cap margin is pressed against the stem , but as the cap expands it becomes bell @-@ shaped or somewhat umbonate , and the margin flattens out or curves inward . The cap surface is initially hoary but soon becomes polished and slimy when moist , or shiny when dry . The cap margin is even , and has slight grooves that mark the position of the gills underneath . The cap color is beige ( sometimes with a grayish tinge ) with paler margins , fading to pale gray or nearly white in age . Occasionally , the mushroom cap has a strong brownish tint when fresh . Moist mushrooms have a slightly sticky surface . The flesh is thin but pliant , grayish or pallid , cartilaginous , and lacks any distinctive odor and taste .
The gills are attached by a tooth and are narrowly adnate , close to subdistant , narrow , equal , white or grayish , and with edges concolorous and often slightly eroded . Berkeley noted that the gills " vary a good deal in colour , and are sometimes very dark " . The stem is 6 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long , 1 @.@ 5 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , equal in width throughout , cartilaginous and tough . The stem color is brown with a tinge of pink , and the color lightens towards the top . It is usually straight but often curved toward the base , and roots into in the debris , or is attached to sticks . Smith has noted that in optimal weather conditions , " robust " forms may be found that are " strict and rigid in their appearance . " The buried portion of the stem is covered with thick , stiff whitish hairs , and is surrounded with a thin subgelatinous layer , which causes it to be slimy to the touch . Its color is initially bluish @-@ black , soon gray , nearly the same color as the cap , with the apex somewhat fibrous @-@ striate . The mushroom is inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , hyaline , amyloid , and measure 9 – 11 by 5 – 6 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not differentiated or are occasionally present near the gill edge and similar to cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) . The cheilocystidia , which measure 32 – 46 by 8 – 14 μm , are tapered on either end and can have two to several obtuse fingerlike projections arising from the apex . The gill flesh stains vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . The subhymenium ( the tissue layer directly underneath the hymenium ) is made of narrow , interwoven hyphae , with the central portion composed of long , cylindrical , and moderately broad cells . The flesh of the cap has a fairly thick subgelatinous pellicle , a well @-@ differentiated hypoderm , and a filamentous tramal body . All except the pellicle stain vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena vitilis are found growing scattered or in groups on debris in hardwood or mixed conifer and hardwood forests . Along the Pacific Coast it is sometimes abundant in Red alder slashes . In eastern North America it is quite commonly found growing in the autumn months of October and November with M. semivestipes and M. pullata . The fungus is widely distributed in Europe ( for example , Britain , Germany , Italy , Norway , Poland , Portugal ) .
= = Chemistry = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena vitilis contain the chlorinated compound strobilurin B. Strobilurins are aromatic compounds produced by some fungi that help them secure resources by giving them an advantage against other competing fungi . They have been investigated for potential use as lead compounds for agricultural fungicides .
= Can 't Stop Won 't Stop ( Usher song ) =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a song recorded by American recording artist Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Written and produced by Will " will.i.am " Adams and Keith Harris , the song contains an interpolation of the bridge to Billy Joel 's 1983 hit single " Uptown Girl " . Musically , " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a eurodance and dance @-@ pop song that incorporates elements of dubstep .
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's production , but dismissed its lyrics . Additionally , similarities between " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " and Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " were noted . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 22 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 9 @,@ 374 digital copies .
= = Background = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " was written by William M. Joel , Keith Harris and William Adams . The production of the song was helmed by Harris and Adams under his stage name will.i.am. Adams had previously written and produced Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " . " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " contains a portion of Joel 's single " Uptown Girl " ( An Innocent Man , 1983 ) . Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded the song at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank , while Jacob Dennis served as recording assistant . It was mixed by Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow at Paper V.U. Studios North Hollywood with Jaime Martinez serving as a mixing assistant . The track 's producers Harris and Adams provided the complete instrumentation of " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " .
= = Composition = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a eurodance and dance @-@ pop song that incorporates dubstep elements with a length of three minutes and 51 seconds . According to Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media , " even though the track opens builds like a arena anthem , but instead of exploding into oblivion after the breakdown it splits into a fizzy and wonky slap of a beat . " PopCrush 's Trent Fitzgerald compared " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " to Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " . Ryan Hadfield of Time wrote that , " ' Can ’ t Stop Won ’ t Stop ' and ' Scream ' are aggressively seductive club songs " and drew comparisons to Usher 's single " Yeah ! " ( Confessions , 2004 ) and his collaboration with French disk jockey David Guetta entitled " Without You " ( Nothing but the Beat , 2011 ) . Billboard 's Erika Ramirez concluded that " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is built around " synth @-@ heavy hook " and was critical towards its " mediocre lyricism " . The song starts with the opening lines : " Hey what ’ s up / This is a jam , turn it up / Play it loud in the club / This is fire , burning it up " , while the chorus consists of the lyrics " I can ’ t can ’ t stop it / Can ’ t stop won ’ t stop " . Unterberger noted that the lines " I don ’ t want to do all the normal things / That all these other normal dudes do " could be the inspiration for the title of the album and its " thesis statement " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " received generally mixed review from music critics . Nathan S. of DJ Booth stated that " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " would be shocking to a " My Way @-@ era Usher " , but " coming from a man who 's [ sic ] last huge hit was OMG , it 's really nothing new " . Sobhi Youssef of Sputnikmusic praised the song 's productions , but dismissed its " truly cliched lyrics " . Erika Ramirez of Billboard stated that the song " simply sets the stage for better tracks to come " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review of the song , calling it " yet another dispiritingly hollow attempted revver @-@ upper in the Pitbull / LMFAO mode " . He also criticized the song 's interpolation from " Uptown Girl . " Killian Fox of The Guardian called the song " horribly overblown " , while Trent of the Lava Lizard labelled the song as " forgettable " .
Brad Wete of Complex disagreed , calling the song , along with " Lemme See " , a " gem " . Andrew Unterberger of Popdust called the song " not exactly single @-@ worthy material " , being " a hobbled @-@ together bunch of musical cliches , where David Guetta stadium house beats meets Skrillex wub @-@ wubs , like the brainchild of the most uncreative EDM think tank possible . " According to Unterberger , the lyrics are " even more hackneyed " , with its " Kardashian @-@ worthy opening lines " Evan Rytlewski of The AV Club both " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " and " Scream " as two " overinflated dance numbers " that open the album on a " discouragingly perfunctory note " . He concluded by stating that : " If there ’ s a bright spot to either , it ’ s that they forgo the garish auto @-@ tune of Usher 's previous dance forays , so at least his whole register comes across cleanly . "
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " debuted on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 22 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 9 @,@ 374 digital copies . The next week , the song sold an additional 3 @,@ 593 copies and fell to number 78 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; mixed at Paper V.U. Studios North Hollywood , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= M @-@ 86 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 86 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the southern portion of the Lower Peninsula . The highway starts at Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) and M @-@ 60 in Three Rivers and ends at US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) near Coldwater . In between , it crosses farm country and runs along a section of the Prairie River . Following a highway originally numbered M @-@ 7 , the roadway was renumbered M @-@ 86 in 1940 . It has been a part of the state highway system at least since 1927 . Two other roadways carried the M @-@ 86 designation in the 1920s . Two bridges along the road are eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places ( NHRP ) .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 86 begins in Three Rivers at a junction with Bus . US 131 and M @-@ 60 . From there the road travels south out of town on Main Street and across the St. Joseph River . After crossing the river , the highway runs through a residential area of town and turns eastward into rural farm lands . M @-@ 86 crosses the Prairie River and follows Burr Oak Street into the community of Centreville . The highway switches to follow Main Street through downtown Centreville ; east of downtown , Main Street curves along a bend in the river , and it runs parallel to the river out of town . As part of its support of the state highway system , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the traffic levels along the roads it maintains . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the vehicles using a segment of roadway on a typical day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT measured 7 @,@ 642 vehicles including 138 trucks along M @-@ 86 in Centreville , the highest traffic levels along the whole highway . As the highway leaves town , it passes by the north side of Lake Templene , and Sand Lake near Nottawa before meeting M @-@ 66 .
From the junction , M @-@ 86 and M @-@ 66 run concurrently to the north for about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , at which point M @-@ 86 branches off to the east while M @-@ 66 continues on a northerly route . M @-@ 86 continues east through agricultural land into the village of Colon . The highway follows South Street and turns north on Blackstone Avenue between Sturgeon and Palmer lakes . Turning to follow State Street , the trunkline heads out of the village to the southeast . It continues eastward along Colon Road , passing north of Matteson Lake near Matteson and through Batavia Center . In Coldwater Township , M @-@ 86 experienced its lowest traffic level in 2009 at 1 @,@ 872 vehicles and 129 trucks AADT . The highway terminates at US 12 west of Coldwater near the Branch County Memorial Airport and Messenger Lake . No segment of M @-@ 86 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
Upon its inception in 1921 , a very different M @-@ 86 was routed along a portion of present @-@ day M @-@ 66 from M @-@ 46 at Six Lakes northward to Remus , ending at M @-@ 24 ( modern M @-@ 20 ) . A few years later in 1924 – 25 , M @-@ 66 was extended north to Remus , supplanting the contemporary M @-@ 86 . At the same time , the M @-@ 86 designation was relocated to Ionia County to run from M @-@ 44 in Orleans to M @-@ 43 ( present day M @-@ 66 ) just east of there . In late 1929 , M @-@ 44 was extended east from Orleans to junction with M @-@ 43 , once again , causing M @-@ 86 to be supplanted and removed from the highway system .
= = = Current designation = = =
By the end of 1927 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had designated a highway numbered M @-@ 7 between Three Rivers and Centreville . This highway was extended east by the middle of 1936 . The route connected US 131 in downtown Three Rivers to US 112 outside Coldwater . At the time of the extension , all of M @-@ 7 was a gravel road . Later that year , the original segment between Three Rivers and Colon was paved , and the state extended the hard @-@ surface route as far as Nottawa in 1937 .
In 1940 , at the same time all single @-@ digit highway numbers were renumbered in the state , the M @-@ 86 designation replaced M @-@ 7 . This incarnation of M @-@ 86 followed its present @-@ day routing . Near Nottawa , M @-@ 86 ran concurrently with the contemporary M @-@ 78 north and east to Colon . In late 1948 or early 1949 , the last section of highway was paved in Branch County , hard @-@ surfacing all of M @-@ 86 for the first time . A change related to M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 78 altered M @-@ 86 in 1965 . South of Battle Creek , M @-@ 66 replaced M @-@ 78 . Rather than follow M @-@ 78 between Colon and Athens , M @-@ 66 used a different series of roads . The net result was that along M @-@ 86 , the M @-@ 78 concurrency was replaced by a shorter M @-@ 66 concurrency . The routing has remain unchanged since .
= = = Historic bridges = = =
M @-@ 86 currently uses two bridges eligible for listing on the NRHP . The span over the St. Joseph River in Three Rivers was built in 1903 . It is a five @-@ span concrete arch bridge constructed to look as though created from stacked masonry blocks . The current railings were added in 1952 by the MSHD during a repair project . The second historic structure is the bridge over the Prairie River in Centreville . This camelback pony truss span was moved to its current location in 1938 – 39 , although it was originally built on an unknown location in 1923 . In the move , two sidewalks , one on either side of the trusses , were eliminated from the structure . This project was part of Public Works Administration relief work in the area .
= = Major intersections = =
= Bart on the Road =
" Bart on the Road " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 31 , 1996 . In the episode , Bart makes his own fake driver 's license . He rents a car with it and takes Milhouse , Martin , and Nelson on a road trip to Knoxville , Tennessee . In Knoxville , however , the car gets destroyed , and they are stranded without any money or transportation . To get Bart home , Homer orders equipment for the power plant and ships it via courier from Knoxville , with the boys stowed away inside the crate .
The episode was written by Richard Appel , and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . The idea of a road trip was " so exciting " that the writers immediately knew they wanted to write it . This features cultural references to the 1991 film Naked Lunch , American singer Andy Williams , and Look magazine . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics , and Central Michigan Life named it the eighth best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Principal Skinner closes school the day before spring break and sends the children on a " go to work with your parents day " in order to take a trip to Hong Kong . Bart is forced to go to the DMV with his aunts Patty and Selma , and Lisa decides to go to the nuclear power plant with Homer , where she bonds with him . At the DMV , Bart makes himself a fake driver 's license , which he , Nelson , Martin , and Milhouse use to hire a rental car with $ 600 Martin earned in the stockmarket . The boys tell their parents they are going to attend the " National Grammar Rodeo " in Canada , but secretly take the rented car for a road trip to Knoxville , Tennessee after finding a brochure for the 1982 World 's Fair . During the car ride , chaos ensues as they stop in Branson , Missouri to see Nelson 's favorite singer Andy Williams , and Nelson later manages to provoke an agitated father of a Canadian family traveling to Cape Canaveral to turn around and head back to Winnipeg .
In Knoxville , however , they find out that the fair was held fourteen years earlier , and that its featured attraction , the Sunsphere , is now being used as a warehouse for a wig shop , now called the Wigsphere . The boys ' car soon gets destroyed by the Sunsphere being toppled by a rock Nelson threw , and they are stranded without any money or transportation . They sign up as couriers and then go to Hong Kong . Bart places a collect call to Lisa , who has spent the entire spring break with Homer at work , to ask her for advice . Lisa obtains Homer 's promise that he will not get upset and she reveals Bart 's predicament , causing Homer to scream in his safety helmet . To get Bart home , Homer contacts a power station close to the boys ' location , and orders a new command module for the power plant , after spilling soda over the current one , and ships it via courier from Knoxville , with Milhouse , Nelson , and Martin stowed away inside the crate and Bart as the courier .
The ending credits begin with an unsuspecting Marge getting phone calls from Principal Skinner ( who spotted Bart in Hong Kong ) , the Tennessee State Police ( who inquire about the crushed rental car ) , and the courier office ( which has an assignment for Bart ) . Homer snickers at these calls , which leaves Marge furious .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Richard Appel , who wanted to do an episode that had two things ; a " go to work with your parents day " and Bart getting a driver 's license . The " go to work with your parents day " idea appealed to Appel because it was something he " lost the right " to do when he went from public school to private school as a child . Appel considered those days to be his favorites because he " didn 't have to do anything " at his parents ' job . The idea of having a driver 's license was something that Appel dreamed about when he was younger .
The writing staff had never done a spring break episode before so they thought , " What would Lisa and Bart do on spring break ? " and came up with the road trip plot . Bill Oakley , the show runner of The Simpsons at the time , said that road trips were something that the writers liked to write stories about . The idea of four children going on a road trip was " so exciting " that they immediately knew they wanted to write it . There was a debate over where the children would go , and Fort Lauderdale , Florida , was first suggested , but the writers eventually decided to have them go to a " funny unlikely place " . Oakley 's show runner partner , Josh Weinstein , said that the writers were always looking for combinations of characters that had not been done many times on the show . Homer and Lisa had not been done " too often " and they wanted the two characters to bond and get closer to each other .
The episode was directed by Swinton O. Scott III . It was difficult to animate because the animators had to draw completely new designs for the locations outside of Springfield , such as Knoxville . The car scenes were also difficult to animate . At the time , The Simpsons was using traditional animation without computers , but they had to get one for a scene where the camera spins around the car from above . The car was difficult to animate because it had to " look real " and not " boxy like a truck " . The car was based on a 1993 Oldsmobile car with rounded edges . The Simpsons animator David Silverman said that the episode was " probably the most difficult one " Scott had to direct on the show .
= = Cultural references = =
When Lisa and Homer are playing with the radiation suits , Lisa says " Houston , we have a problem- Homer 13 is spinning out of control ! " This is a reference to the Apollo 13 incident , where an onboard oxygen tank exploded , causing the spacecraft to temporarily lose control .
Bart and his friends use Bart 's fake license to see the R @-@ rated 1991 film Naked Lunch , an adaptation of William Burroughs 's novel dealing with heroin addiction , homosexuality , and hallucinogens . Nelson 's muted " I can think of at least two things wrong with that title " afterwards reflects the fact that the film has a titillating title but is very much a dark , bleak , un @-@ erotic arthouse film .
The boys also go see an Andy Williams concert in Branson , Missouri , and the marquee advertising it outside reads " Wow , he 's still got it – Look magazine " , Look having been out of business for years when the episode aired .
On the road , the boys pick up a hitchhiker who is based on the hitchhiker in the Texas Chainsaw Massacre horror film series .
Principal Skinner books a vacation with AmeriWestica , a parody of America West Airlines .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart on the Road " finished 63rd in the ratings for the week of March 25 to March 31 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Cops , Party of Five , Martin and Melrose Place .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said that it " contains some superb touching character scenes between Homer and Lisa , a fascinating glimpse of Marge 's insecurities , and some nice touches that take it above the show 's very high average . " Dave Foster of DVD Times said that " Bart on the Road " is an episode which is built upon a " frankly ludicrous " idea which if the writers were to " stumble upon " now , " we 'd simply see Bart happen upon a license and skip town without anyone noticing , but here they do give the setup a great deal of consideration both on and off the screen . " He thought the story was " partly believable , though the opportunity when Bart hits the road is largely wasted with only a few well constructed jokes to speak of . " Foster thinks " what saves the episode is the opportunity to see Lisa and Homer connect , once again displaying what a strong season this is for Lisa as we see the two share some wonderfully tender moments , alongside some genuinely laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that he " loves " the children 's experiences at their parents ' jobs , " and when they head out of town , the fun continues . Any episode that sends the kids to the site of the World 's Fair is OK by me . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Patty and Selma explain their job at the DMV : " Somedays we don 't let the line move at all . We call those weekdays . " The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B + . John Thorpe of Central Michigan Life named it the eighth best episode of the show . Robert Canning of IGN in a Flashback Review gave the episode a 9 @.@ 5 saying it was " Outstanding " and also stated " " Bart on the Road " is a fun trip and very funny , but it 's the
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-@ thirds of the stories were interplanetary adventures , while only a third of the stories in the corresponding issues of Wonder Stories could be so described . Wonder Stories Quarterly added a banner reading " Interplanetary Number " to the cover of the Winter 1931 issue , and retained it , as " Interplanetary Stories " , for subsequent issues . Lasser and Gernsback were also briefly involved with the fledgling Technocracy movement . Gernsback published two issues of Technocracy Review , which Lasser edited , commissioning stories based on technocratic ideas from Nat Schachner . These appeared in Wonder Stories during 1933 , culminating in a novel , The Revolt of the Scientists .
Reviews of fiction and popular science books were published , and there was a science column which endeavored to answer readers ' questions . These features were at first of good quality , but deteriorated after Lasser 's departure , although it is not certain that Lasser wrote the content of either one . An influential non @-@ fiction initiative was the creation of the Science Fiction League , an organization that brought together local science fiction fan clubs across the country . Gernsback took the opportunity to sell items such as buttons and insignia , and it was undoubtedly a profitable enterprise for him as well as a good source of publicity . It was ultimately more important in becoming one of the foundations of science fiction fandom .
= = = Hornig = = =
When Hornig took over from Lasser at the end of 1933 he attempted to continue and expand Lasser 's approach . Hornig introduced a " New Policy " in the January 1934 issue , emphasizing originality and barring stories that merely reworked well @-@ worn ideas . He asked for stories that included good science , although " not enough to become boring to those readers who are not primarily interested in the technicalities of the science " . However , Astounding was moving into the lead position in the science fiction magazine field at this time , and Hornig had difficulty in competing . His rates of payment were lower than Astounding 's one cent per word ; sometimes his writers were paid very late , or not at all . Despite these handicaps , Hornig managed to find some good material , including Stanley G. Weinbaum 's " A Martian Odyssey " , which appeared in the July 1934 Wonder and has been frequently reprinted .
In the December 1934 – January 1935 issue of Hornig 's fanzine , Fantasy Magazine , he took the unusual step of listing several stories that he had rejected as lacking novelty , but which had subsequently appeared in print in other magazines . The list includes several by successful writers of the day , such as Raymond Z. Gallun and Miles Breuer . The most prominent story named is Triplanetary by E. E. Smith , which appeared in Amazing .
Both Lasser and Hornig printed fiction translated from French and German writers , including Otfrid von Hanstein and Otto Willi Gail . With the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany in the 1930s a few readers ( including Donald Wollheim ) wrote letters complaining about the inclusion of German stories . The editorial response was a strong defense of the translations ; Gernsback argued that events in Germany were irrelevant to the business of selecting fiction .
The covers for almost every issue of Air Wonder , Science Wonder , Wonder Stories and Wonder Stories Quarterly were painted by Frank R. Paul , who had followed Gernsback from Amazing Stories . The only exception was a cover image composed of colored dots , which appeared on the November 1932 issue .
= = = Weisinger and Friend = = =
When the magazine moved to Beacon Publications , as Thrilling Wonder , the fiction began to focus more on action than on ideas . The covers , often by Earle K. Bergey , typically depicted bizarre aliens and damsels in distress . In 1939 , a reader , Martin Alger , coined the phrase " bug @-@ eyed monster " to describe one such cover ; the phrase subsequently entered the dictionary as a word for an alien . Several well @-@ known writers contributed , including Ray Cummings , and John W. Campbell , whose " Brain @-@ Stealers of Mars " series began in Thrilling Wonder in the December 1936 issue . A comic @-@ strip began in August 1936 , the first issue of the Beacon Publications version . It was illustrated and possibly written by Max Plaisted . The strip , titled " Zarnak " , was not a success , and was cancelled after eight issues .
Weisinger 's successor , Friend , gave the magazine a significantly more juvenile feel . He used the alias " Sergeant Saturn " and was generally condescending to the readers ; this may not have been his fault as Margulies , who was still the editorial director , probably wanted him to attract a younger readership . Under Friend 's direction , Earle K. Bergey transformed the look of Thrilling Wonder Stories by foregrounding human figures in space , focusing on the anatomy of women in implausibly revealing spacesuits and his trademark " brass brassières " .
= = = Merwin and Mines = = =
Merwin , who took over with the Winter 1945 issue , adopted a more mature approach than Friend 's . He obtained fiction from writers who had previously been publishing mainly in John Campbell 's Astounding . The Summer 1945 issue of Thrilling Wonder included Jack Vance 's first published story , " The World Thinker " . Merwin also published several stories by Ray Bradbury , some of which were later included in Bradbury 's collection The Martian Chronicles . Other well @-@ known writers that Merwin was able to attract included Theodore Sturgeon , A.E. van Vogt , and Robert A. Heinlein . Thrilling Wonder often published intelligent , thoughtful stories , some of which Campbell would have been unlikely to accept at Astounding : he did not like to publish stories that showed the negative consequences of scientific advances such as nuclear power . In the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , during the late 1940s Thrilling Wonder became a serious rival to Astounding 's long domination of the field . However , this is not a universal opinion , as the magazine is elsewhere described during Merwin 's tenure as " evidently secondary to Startling " .
Samuel Mines took over from Merwin at the end of 1951 , both at Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder . He argued against restrictions in science fiction themes , and in 1952 published Philip José Farmer 's " The Lovers " , a ground @-@ breaking story about inter @-@ species sex , in Startling . He followed this in 1953 with another taboo @-@ breaking story from Farmer , " Mother " , in Thrilling Wonder , in which a spaceman makes his home in an alien womb . In the December 1952 Thrilling Wonder , Mines published Edmond Hamilton 's " What 's It Like Out There ? " , a downbeat story about the realities of space exploration that had been considered too bleak for publication when it had originally been written in the 1930s . Sherwood Springer 's " No Land of Nod " , in the same issue , dealt with incest between a father and his daughter in a world in which they are the only two survivors . These stories were all well received by the readership .
= = = Influence on the field = = =
For a few years , Lasser was the dominant force in science fiction . Under him , Wonder Stories was the best of the science fiction magazines of the early 1930s , and the most successful of all Gernsback 's forays into the field . Lasser shaped a new generation of writers , who in many cases had no prior writing experience of any kind ; Wonder Stories was part of a " forcing ground " , according to Isaac Asimov , where young writers learned their trade . The magazine was less constrained by pulp convention than its competitors , and published some novels such as Eric Temple Bell 's The Time Stream and Festus Pragnell 's The Green Man of Graypec , which were not in the mainstream of development of the science fiction genre .
As Thrilling Wonder the magazine was much less influential . Until the mid @-@ 1940s it was focused on younger readers , and by the time Merwin and Mines introduced a more adult approach , Astounding Science Fiction had taken over as the unquestioned leader of the field . Thrilling Wonder could not compete with John Campbell and the Golden Age of science fiction that he brought into being , but it did periodically publish good stories . In the end it was unable to escape its roots in the pulp industry , and died in the carnage that swept away every remaining pulp magazine in the 1950s .
= = Publication details = =
The editorial duties at Wonder Stories and its related magazines were not always performed by the person who bore the title of " editor " in the magazine 's masthead . From the beginning until the sale to Beacon Publications , Gernsback was listed as editor @-@ in @-@ chief ; Lasser was variously listed as " literary editor " and " managing editor " , while Hornig was always listed as " managing editor " . Similarly , under Beacon Publications , the nominal editor ( initially Leo Margulies ) was not always the one to work on the magazine . The following list shows who actually performed the editorial duties . More details are given in the publishing history section , above , which focuses on when the editors involved actually obtained control of the magazine contents , instead of when their names appeared on the masthead .
Air Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( July 1929 – May 1930 )
Science Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( June 1929 – May 1930 )
Science Wonder Quarterly
David Lasser ( Fall 1929 – Spring 1930 )
Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( June 1930 – October 1933 )
Charles Hornig ( November 1933 – March – April 1936 )
Wonder Stories Quarterly
David Lasser ( Summer 1930 – Winter 1933 )
Thrilling Wonder Stories
Mort Weisinger ( August 1936 – April 1941 )
Oscar Friend ( August 1941 – Fall 1944 )
Sam Merwin ( Winter 1945 – October 1951 )
Samuel Mines ( December 1951 – Summer 1954 )
Alexander Samalman ( Fall 1954 – Winter 1955 )
The publisher only changed once through the lifetime of the magazine , when Gernsback sold Wonder Stories in 1936 . However , Gernsback changed the name of his company from Stellar Publishing Corporation to Continental Publications , Incorporated , with effect from December 1933 . Thrilling Wonder 's publisher went by three names : Beacon Publications initially , then Better Publications from the August 1937 issue , and finally , starting with the Fall 1943 issue , Standard Magazines .
Gernsback experimented with the price and format , looking for a profitable combination . Both Air Wonder and Science Wonder were bedsheet @-@ sized ( 8 @.@ 5 × 11 @.@ 75 in , or 216 × 298 mm ) and priced at 25 cents , as were the first issues of Wonder Stories . With the November 1930 issue Wonder Stories changed to pulp format , 6 @.@ 75 × 9 @.@ 9 in ( 171 × 251 mm ) . It reverted to bedsheet after a year , and then in November 1933 became a pulp magazine for good . The pulp issues all had 144 pages ; the bedsheet issues generally had 96 pages , though five issues from November 1932 to March 1933 had only 64 pages . Those five issues coincided with a price cut to 15 cents , which was reversed with the April 1933 issue . Gernsback cut the price to 15 cents again from June 1935 until the sale to Beacon Publications in 1936 , though this time he did not reduce the page count . The short duration of these price cuts suggests Gernsback rapidly realized that the additional circulation they gained him cost too much in lost revenue . Under Beacon Publications Thrilling Wonder remained pulp @-@ sized throughout .
There were two British reprint editions of Thrilling Wonder . The earlier edition , from Atlas Publishing , produced three numbered issues from 1949 to 1950 , and a further seven from 1952 to 1953 . Another four issues appeared from Pemberton between 1953 and 1954 ; these were numbered from 101 to 104 . There were Canadian editions in 1945 – 1946 and 1948 – 1951 .
= George Robey =
Sir George Edward Wade , CBE ( 20 September 1869 – 29 November 1954 ) , known professionally as George Robey , was an English comedian , singer and actor in musical theatre , who became known as one of the greatest music hall performers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . As a comedian , Robey mixed everyday situations and observations with comic absurdity . Apart from his music hall acts , he was a popular Christmas pantomime performer in the English provinces , where he excelled in the dame roles . He scored notable successes in musical revues during and after the First World War , particularly with the song " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which he performed with Violet Loraine in the revue The Bing Boys Are Here ( 1916 ) . One of his best @-@ known original characters in his six @-@ decade long career was the Prime Minister of Mirth .
Born in London , Robey came from a middle @-@ class family . After schooling in England and Germany , and a series of office jobs , he made his debut on the London stage , at the age of 21 , as the straight man to a comic hypnotist . He soon developed his own act and appeared at the Oxford Music Hall in 1890 , where he earned favourable notices singing " The Simple Pimple " and " He 'll Get It Where He 's Gone to Now " . In 1892 , Robey appeared in his first pantomime , Whittington Up @-@ to @-@ date in Brighton , which brought him to a wider audience . More provincial engagements followed in Manchester , Birmingham and Liverpool , and he soon became a mainstay of the popular Christmas pantomime scene .
Robey 's music hall act matured in the first decade of the 1900s , and he undertook a number of foreign tours . He starred in the Royal Command Performance in 1912 and regularly entertained before aristocracy . He was an avid sportsman , playing cricket and football at a semi @-@ professional level . During the First World War , he achieved great success in The Bing Boys Are Here ( 1916 ) and several other revues . He raised money for many war charities and was appointed a CBE in 1919 . From 1918 , he created sketches based on his Prime Minister of Mirth character and used a costume he had designed in the 1890s as a basis for the character 's attire . He made a successful transition from music hall to variety shows and starred in the revue Round in Fifty in 1922 , which earned him still wider notice . With the exception of his performances in revue and pantomime , he appeared as his Prime Minister of Mirth character in all the other entertainment media including variety , music hall and radio .
In 1913 he debuted in film , but he only had modest success in the medium . He continued to perform in variety theatre in the inter @-@ war years and , in 1932 , starred in Helen ! , his first straight theatre role . His appearance brought him to the attention of many influential directors , including Sydney Carroll , who signed him to appear on stage as Falstaff in Henry IV , Part 1 in 1935 , a role that he later repeated in Laurence Olivier 's 1944 film , Henry V. During the Second World War , Robey raised money for charities and promoted recruitment into the forces . By the 1950s , his health had deteriorated , and he entered into semi @-@ retirement . He was knighted a few months before his death in 1954 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Robey was born at 334 Kennington Road , Kennington , London . His father , Charles Wade , was a civil engineer who spent much of his career on tramline design and construction . Robey 's mother , Elizabeth Mary Wade née Keene , was a housewife ; he also had two sisters . His paternal ancestors originated from Hampshire ; his uncle , George Wade , married into aristocracy in 1848 , a link which provided a proud topic of conversation for future generations of the Wade family . When Robey was five , his father moved the family to Birkenhead , where he helped in the construction of the Mersey Railway . Robey began his schooling in nearby Hoylake at a dame school . Three years later the family moved back to London , near the border between Camberwell and Peckham . At around this time , trams were being introduced to the area , providing Charles Wade with a regular , well @-@ paid job .
To fulfil an offer of work , Charles Wade moved the family to Germany in 1880 , and Robey attended a school in Dresden . He devoted his leisure hours to visiting the city 's museums , art galleries and opera houses and gained a reasonable fluency in German by the time he was 12 . He enjoyed life in the country and was impressed with the many operatic productions held in the city and with the Germans ' high regard for the arts . When he was 14 , his father allowed him to move in with a clergyman 's family in the German countryside , which he used as a base while studying science at Leipzig University . To earn money , he taught English to his landlord 's children and minded them while their parents were at work . Having successfully enrolled at the university , he studied art and music and stayed with the family for a further 18 months so he could complete his studies before returning to England in 1885 . He later claimed , apparently untruthfully , to have studied at the University of Cambridge .
At the age of 18 Robey travelled to Birmingham , where he worked in a civil engineer 's office . It was here that he became interested in a career on the stage and often dreamed of starring in his own circus . He learned to play the mandolin and became a skilled performer on the instrument . This drew interest from a group of local musicians and , together with a friend from the group who played the guitar , Robey travelled the local area in search of engagements . Soon afterwards , they were hired to play at a charity concert at the local church , St Mary and St Ambrose in Edgbaston , a performance that led to more local bookings . For the next appearance , Robey performed an impromptu version of " Killaloo " , a comic ditty taken from the burlesque Miss Esmeralda . The positive response from the audience encouraged him to give up playing the mandolin to concentrate instead on singing comic songs .
= = = = London debut = = = =
By 1890 Robey had become homesick , and so he returned to South London , where he took employment in a civil engineering company . He also joined a local branch of the Thirteen Club , whose members , many of whom were amateur musicians , performed in small venues across London . Hearing of his talent , the founder of the club , W. H. Branch , invited Robey to appear at Anderton 's Hotel in Fleet Street , where he performed the popular new comic song " Where Did You Get That Hat ? " . Robey 's performance secured him a number of private engagements for which he was paid a guinea a night . By the early months of 1891 , Robey was much in demand , and he decided to change his stage name . He swapped " Wade " for " Robey " after working for a company in Birmingham that bore the latter name . It was at around this time that he met E. W. Rogers , an established music hall composer who wrote songs for Marie Lloyd and Jenny Hill . For Robey , Rogers wrote three songs : " My Hat 's a Brown ' Un " , " The Simple Pimple " and " It Suddenly Dawned Upon Me " .
In 1891 Robey visited the Royal Aquarium in Westminster where he watched " Professor Kennedy " , a burlesque mesmerist from America . After the performance , Robey visited Kennedy in his dressing room and offered himself as the stooge for his next appearance . They agreed that Robey , as his young apprentice , would be " mesmerised " into singing a comic song . At a later rehearsal , Robey negotiated a deal to sing one of the comic songs that had been written for him by Rogers . Robey 's turn was a great success , and as a result he secured a permanent theatrical residency at the venue . Later that year , he appeared as
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the founder of the Jehovah 's Witness movement .
A second biography of Parsons was published in 2005 through Weidenfeld & Nicolson with the title Strange Angel : The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons ; it was authored by George Pendle , who described Parsons as " the Che Guevara of occultism " and noted that although Parsons " would not live to see his dream of space travel come true , he was essential to making it a reality . " Pendle considered that the cultural stigma attached to Parsons ' occultism was the primary cause of his low public profile , noting that " Like many scientific mavericks , Parsons was eventually discarded by the establishment once he had served his purpose . " It was this unorthodox mindset , creatively facilitated by his science fiction fandom and " willingness to believe in magic 's efficacy " , Pendle argued , " that allowed him to break scientific barriers previously thought to be indestructible " — commenting that Parsons " saw both space and magic as ways of exploring these new frontiers — one breaking free from Earth literally and metaphysically . "
L. Ron Hubbard 's role in Parsons ' Agape Lodge — and the ensuing yacht scam — was explored in Russell Miller 's 1987 Hubbard biography Bare @-@ faced Messiah . Parsons ' involvement in the Agape Lodge would also be discussed by Martin P. Starr in his history of the American Thelemite movement , The Unknown God : W.T. Smith and the Thelemites , published by Teitan Press in 2003 . Parsons ' occult partnership with Hubbard was also mentioned in Alex Gibney 's 2015 documentary film Going Clear : Scientology and the Prison of Belief , produced by HBO .
Before his death , Parsons appeared in science fiction writer Anthony Boucher 's murder @-@ mystery novel Rocket to the Morgue ( 1942 ) under the guise of mad scientist character Hugo Chantrelle . Another fictional character based on Parsons was Courtney James , a wealthy socialite who features in L. Sprague de Camp 's 1956 short time travel story A Gun for Dinosaur . In 2005 Pasadena Babalon , a stage play about Parsons written by George D. Morgan and directed by Brian Brophy , premiered at Caltech as a production by its theater Arts Group in 2010 , the same year Cellar Door Publishing released Richard Carbonneau and Robin Simon Ng 's graphic novel , The Marvel : A Biography of Jack Parsons . In 2012 the Science Channel broadcast a documentary dramatization titled Magical Jet Propulsion in an episode of its Dark Matters : Twisted But True television series — in which Parsons was portrayed by English actor Adam Howden — while independent record label Drag City released Parsons ' Blues , an instrumental tribute single by experimental rock act Six Organs of Admittance . In 2014 AMC Networks announced plans for a serial television dramatization of Parsons ' life titled Strange Angel , produced by Ridley Scott and David Zucker , and written by Mark Heyman .
= = Patents = =
= 2009 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2009 Atlantic hurricane season was a below @-@ average Atlantic hurricane season that produced eleven tropical cyclones , nine named storms , three hurricanes , and two major hurricanes . It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates that conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin . The season 's first tropical cyclone , Tropical Depression One , developed on May 28 , while the final storm , Hurricane Ida , dissipated on November 10 . The most intense hurricane , Bill , was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that affected areas from the Leeward Islands to Newfoundland . The season featured the lowest number of tropical cyclones since the 1997 season , and only one system , Claudette , made landfall in the United States . Forming from the interaction of a tropical wave and an upper level low , Claudette made landfall on the Florida Panhandle with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before quickly dissipating over Alabama . The storm killed two people and caused $ 228 @,@ 000 ( 2009 USD ) in damage .
Pre @-@ season forecasts issued by Colorado State University ( CSU ) called for fourteen named storms and seven hurricanes , of which three were expected to attain major hurricane status . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) later issued its initial forecast , which predicted nine to fourteen named storms , four to seven hurricanes , and one to three major hurricanes . After several revisions in the projected number of named storms , both agencies lowered their forecasts by the middle of the season .
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land outside of the United States . Tropical Storm Ana brought substantial rainfall totals to many of the Caribbean islands , including Puerto Rico , which led to minor street flooding . Hurricane Bill delivered gusty winds and rain to the island of Newfoundland , while Tropical Storm Danny affected the U.S. state of North Carolina , and Erika affected the Lesser Antilles as a poorly organized tropical system . Hurricane Fred affected the Cape Verde Islands as a developing tropical cyclone and Tropical Storm Grace briefly impacted the Azores , becoming the farthest northeast forming storm on record . The season 's final storm , Ida , affected portions of Central America before bringing significant rainfall to the Southeast United States as an extratropical cyclone .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray , and their associates at Colorado State University ; and separately by NOAA forecasters .
Klotzbach 's team ( formerly led by Gray ) defined the average number of storms per season ( 1950 to 2000 ) as 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms reaching at least Category 3 strength in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) and ACE Index 96 @.@ 1 . NOAA defines a season as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal or below @-@ normal by a combination of the number of named storms , the number reaching hurricane strength , the number reaching major hurricane strength and ACE Index .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 10 , 2008 , Klotzbach 's team issued its first extended @-@ range forecast for the 2009 season , predicting above @-@ average activity ( 14 named storms , 7 hurricanes , 3 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 125 ) . On April 7 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team issued an updated forecast for the 2009 season , predicting near @-@ average activity ( 12 named storms , 6 hurricanes , 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 100 ) , citing the possible cause as the high probability of a weak El Niño forming during the season . On May 21 , 2009 , NOAA issued their forecast for the season , predicting near or slightly above average activity , ( 9 to 14 named storms , 4 to 7 hurricanes , and 1 to 3 of Category 3 or higher ) .
= = = Midseason outlooks = = =
On June 2 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team issued another updated forecast for the 2009 season , predicting slightly below average activity ( 11 named storms , 5 hurricanes , 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 85 ) . Also on June 2 , 2009 , the Florida State University Center for Ocean @-@ Atmospheric Prediction Studies ( FSU COAPS ) issued its first ever Atlantic hurricane season forecast . The FSU COAPS forecast predicted 8 named storms , including 4 hurricanes , and an ACE Index of 65 . On June 18 , 2009 , the UK Met Office ( UKMO ) issued a forecast of 6 tropical storms in the July to November period with a 70 % chance that the number would be in the range 3 to 9 . They also predicted an ACE Index of 60 with a 70 % chance that the index would be in the range 40 to 80 . On August 4 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team updated their forecast for the 2009 season , again predicting slightly below average activity ( 10 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes ) . On August 6 , 2009 , the NOAA also updated their forecast for the 2009 season , predicting below average activity ( 7 – 11 named storms , 3 – 6 hurricanes , and 1 – 2 major hurricanes ) .
= = Season summary = =
During the 2009 season , nine of the eleven tropical cyclones affected land , of which five actually made landfall . The United States experienced one of its quietest years , with no hurricanes making landfall in the country . Throughout the basin , six people were killed in tropical cyclone @-@ related incidents and total losses reached roughly $ 77 million . Most of the damage resulted from Hurricane Bill , which caused severe beach erosion throughout the east coast of the United States . In the United States , tropical cyclones killed six people and caused roughly $ 50 million in damage . In the Lesser Antilles , Tropical Storms Ana and Erika brought moderate rainfall to several islands but resulted in little damage . Elsewhere in the Atlantic , the Azores Islands , Atlantic Canada , Bermuda , Cape Verde Islands and Wales were affected by tropical cyclones or their remnants . In Canada , Hurricane Bill produced widespread moderate rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland , leaving roughly $ 10 million in losses . The hurricane also produced tropical storm @-@ force winds in Bermuda . Hurricane Fred briefly impacted the southern Cape Verde Islands as it bypassed the islands early in its existence . The Azores and Wales were also affected by Tropical Storm Grace ; however , both areas recorded only minor effects .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 53 , the lowest since 1997 . Due to the low number of storms in the 2009 season , many of which were short @-@ lived , the overall ACE value was ranked as below @-@ average , totaling under 66 . Hurricane Bill was responsible for the ACE value for August being 30 % above average . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
During mid @-@ May , a frontal boundary stalled near The Bahamas and slowly degenerated . On May 25 , 2009 , an area of low pressure developed along the tail @-@ end of a decaying cold front near the northern Bahamas . Tracking northward , this low gradually developed as it moved within 85 mi ( 140 km ) of North Carolina 's Outer Banks . By May 28 , deep convection developed across a small area over the low pressure system , leading to the National Hurricane Center classifying the system as Tropical Depression One . The depression moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream for the following 24 hours , allowing it to maintain its convection , before moving into a hostile environment characterized by strong wind shear and cooler waters . Late on May 29 , the system degenerated into a remnant low . Several hours later , on May 30 , about 345 mi ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of Halifax , Nova Scotia , Tropical Depression One was absorbed by a warm front .
As a tropical cyclone , the depression had no impact on land . However , the precursor to the system brought scattered rainfall and increased winds to parts of the North Carolina coastline , but no damage . Upon becoming a tropical depression on May 28 , Tropical Depression One became the northernmost forming May tropical cyclone in Atlantic history , though subtropical cyclones formed equally far north in 1972 and 2007 . It also marked the third consecutive year with pre @-@ season tropical or subtropical cyclones in the basin .
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
Ana formed out of an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave on August 11 , Ana briefly attained tropical storm intensity on August 12 before weakening back to a depression . The following day , the system degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low as it tracked westward . On August 14 , the depression regenerated roughly 1 @,@ 075 mi ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Early on August 15 , the storm re @-@ attained tropical storm status , at which time it was named Ana . After reaching a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) , the storm began to weaken again due to increasing wind shear and the unusually fast movement of Ana . In post @-@ storm analysis , it was discovered that Ana had degenerated into a tropical wave once more on August 16 , before reaching any landmasses .
Numerous tropical storm watches were issued for the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic between August 15 and 17 . Several islands took minor precautions for the storm , including St. Croix which evacuated 40 residents from flood @-@ prone areas ahead of the storm . In the Dominican Republic , officials took preparations by setting up relief agencies and setting up shelters . Impact from Ana was minimal , mainly consisting of light to moderate rainfall . In Puerto Rico , up to 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) , causing street flooding and forcing the evacuation of three schools . High winds associated with the storm also downed trees and power lines , leaving roughly 6 @,@ 000 residents without power .
= = = Hurricane Bill = = =
As Ana regenerated into a tropical depression , a new tropical depression developed early on August 15 southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Light wind shear and warm waters allowed the depression to steadily intensify , becoming Tropical Storm Bill later that day . By August 17 , Bill attained hurricane @-@ status about midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles . Eventually the hurricane attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 storm roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands . The storm attained maximum winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , the highest of any storm during the season , before weakening slightly as it turned north . The large storm passed roughly 175 mi ( 280 km ) west of Bermuda as a Category 2 hurricane . Further weakening took place as Bill brushed the southern coast of Nova Scotia the following day . Shortly before making landfall in Newfoundland , Bill weakened to a tropical storm and accelerated . The storm eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after moving over the north Atlantic before being absorbed by a larger non @-@ tropical low on August 24 .
Two people were killed by the storm 's large swells — one in Maine and another in Florida . The hurricane came close enough to warrant tropical cyclone watches and warnings in both the US and Canada . Bill was one of three tropical storms active on August 16 . Large , life @-@ threatening swells produced by the storm impacted north @-@ facing coastlines of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as Hurricane Bill approached Bermuda . Along the coasts of North Carolina , waves averaging 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height impacted beaches . On Long Island , beach damage was severe ; in some areas the damage was worse than Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . In New York , severe beach erosion caused by the storm resulted in over $ 35 @.@ 5 million in losses .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudette = = =
Just one day after the formation of Hurricane Bill , the season 's third named storm developed on August 16 . Forming out of a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level low pressure system , Claudette quickly intensified into a tropical storm offshore south of Tallahassee , Florida . By the afternoon , the storm had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and steadily tracked towards the Florida Panhandle . Early on August 17 , the center of Claudette made landfall on Santa Rosa Island . Several hours after landfall , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center took over primary responsibility of the storm . The system quickly dissipated and was last noted over Alabama on August 18 .
The National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm warnings for the Florida coastline and residents in some counties were advised to evacuate storm @-@ surge @-@ prone areas . Tropical Storm Claudette , produced moderate rainfall across portions of Florida , Georgia , and Alabama between August 16 and 18 . Two people were killed offshore amidst rough seas from the storm . An EF @-@ 0 tornado spawned by the storm in Cape Coral damaged 11 homes , leaving $ 103 @,@ 000 in damages . Additional damages to coastal property and beaches amounted to $ 125 @,@ 000 as a result of Claudette .
= = = Tropical Storm Danny = = =
Around the same time the remnants of Hurricane Bill dissipated over the northern Atlantic , a new tropical storm developed near the Bahamas on August 26 . The system , immediately declared Tropical Storm Danny on its first advisory , erratically moved in a general northwestward direction . Danny attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before succumbing to high wind shear . After turning northward , the storm weakened and was eventually absorbed by another low pressure system off the east coast of the United States early on August 29 . High waves from Danny killed a boy in the Outer Banks .
= = = Tropical Storm Erika = = =
On September 1 , the season 's fifth named storm , Tropical Storm Erika , formed east of the Lesser Antilles . Upon forming , the storm had attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Persistent wind shear prevented the system from intensifying and resulted in the storm 's convection being completely displaced from the center of circulation by the time it passed over Guadeloupe on September 2 . After entering the Caribbean Sea , Erika briefly regained strength before fully succumbing to strong shear . The system eventually dissipated on September 4 , to the south of Puerto Rico . Damages were minor , though one island received several inches of rain .
= = = Hurricane Fred = = =
Several days after Erika dissipated , a new tropical depression formed southeast of the Cape Verde Islands on September 7 . This depression rapidly intensified within an environment of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures . Receiving the name Fred on September 8 , the storm quickly developed an eye feature and was upgraded to a hurricane roughly 24 hours after being named . Within a 12 ‑ hour span , the storm 's winds increased by 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) to its peak of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Upon reaching this intensity , Fred became the strongest storm on record south of 30 ° N and east of 35 ° W in the Atlantic basin . Not long after the intensification ceased , it began to weaken as dry air became entrained within the system . By September 11 , the storm nearly stalled northwest of the Cape Verde Islands and weakened to a tropical storm . The following day , Fred degenerated into a remnant low before taking a westward track across the Atlantic . The remnants of Fred persisted for nearly a week , nearly regenerating into a tropical depression several times . The low eventually dissipated on September 19 , to the south of Bermuda .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
In late September , a new , well @-@ defined tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean . By September 25 , the system had developed sufficient deep convection for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Eight . At this time , the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1008 mbar ( hPa ) . Shortly thereafter , wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures caused the depression to weaken . The system degenerated into a remnant low on September 26 before degenerating into a trough of low pressure .
= = = Tropical Storm Grace = = =
Originating from an extratropical cyclone east of Newfoundland on September 27 , the precursor to Tropical Storm Grace tracked southeastward towards the Azores , gaining subtropical characteristics . After executing a counterclockwise loop between October 1 and 3 , deep convection wrapped around a small circulation center that had developed within the larger cyclone . On October 4 , this smaller low developed into a tropical storm while situated near the Azores Islands , becoming the northeastern @-@ most forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . The storm quickly turned northeastward and intensified , developing an eye @-@ like feature as it attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) . It weakened over increasingly colder waters and began merging with an approaching frontal boundary . Early on October 6 , Grace transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating later that day near Wales .
Although Grace passed through the Azores Islands , the storm had little known effects there . In Europe , the system and its remnants brought rain to several countries , including Portugal , the United Kingdom and Belgium . No fatalities were linked to Grace and overall damage was minimal .
= = = Tropical Storm Henri = = =
A tropical wave left the coast of Africa on October 1 , moving westward with intermittent showers and thunderstorms . On October 5 , the system became better organized , and a low pressure area formed . Although the thunderstorms were displaced east of the center of circulation and the probability for development was never high , the disturbance became a tropical depression around 0000 UTC on October 6 about 775 mi ( 1 @,@ 247 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Operationally , the storm was not designated a tropical cyclone until later on October 6 , when it was immediately declared a tropical storm .
Affected by strong wind shear , Henri remained disorganized with its center located on the western edge of the convection . Moving northwestward , Henri intensified slightly to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 7 after the convection increased . Shortly thereafter , the wind shear grew stronger , and on October 8 the storm weakened to a tropical depression . The structure became further disorganized with several low @-@ level vortices . Just twelve hours after weakening into a depression , Henri degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure . The remnants continued northwestward before turning to the west @-@ southwest due to a ridge . On October 11 , the storm 's circulation dissipated near Hispaniola , having never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Ida = = =
The final storm of the 2009 season formed over the southern Caribbean Sea on November 4 . The slow moving system quickly developed into Tropical Storm Ida within a favorable environment as it neared the coastline of Nicaragua . Several hours before moving over land , Ida attained hurricane @-@ status , with winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Hours after moving inland , Ida weakened to a tropical storm and further to a tropical depression as it turned northward . On November 7 , the depression re @-@ entered the Caribbean Sea and quickly intensified . Early on November 8 , the system re @-@ attained hurricane intensity as it rapidly intensified over warm waters . Ida attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane early the next day with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) as it moved over the Yucatan Channel . Not long after reaching this intensity , Ida quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Gulf of Mexico . Despite strong wind shear , the storm briefly re @-@ attained hurricane status for a third time near the southeastern Louisiana coastline before quickly weakening to a tropical storm . Shortly before moving inland over the southern United States , Ida transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Ida persisted until November 11 , at which time the low dissipated . Remnant energy from Ida provided energy for another system which became a powerful nor 'easter , causing significant damage in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The resulting storm came to be known as Nor 'Ida .
In the southern Caribbean , Hurricane Ida caused roughly $ 2 @.@ 1 million in damage in Nicaragua after destroying numerous homes and leaving an estimated 40 @,@ 000 people homeless . Ida also produced significant rainfall across portions of western Cuba , with some areas recording up to 12 @.@ 5 in ( 320 mm ) of rain during the storm 's passage . In the United States , the hurricane and the subsequent nor 'easter caused substantial damage , mainly in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . One person was killed by Ida after drowning in rough seas while six others were killed in various incidents related to the nor 'easter . Overall , the two systems caused nearly $ 300 million in damage throughout the country .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the
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North Atlantic in 2009 . Names that were not used are marked in gray . This is the same list used in the 2003 season with the exception of Fred , Ida , and Joaquin , which replaced Fabian , Isabel , and Juan , respectively . The names Fred and Ida were used for Atlantic storms for the first time in 2009 , as the name Joaquin was not used during the course of this season . There were no names retired this year ; thus , the same list was used again in the 2015 season .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2009 USD .
= Bessas ( general ) =
Bessas ( Greek : Βέσσας , before 480 – after 554 ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general of Gothic origin from Thrace , primarily known for his career in the wars of Justinian I ( reigned 527 – 565 ) . He distinguished himself against the Sassanid Persians in the Iberian War and under the command of Belisarius in the Gothic War , but after Belisarius ' departure from Italy he failed to confront the resurgent Goths and was largely responsible for the loss of Rome in 546 . Returning east in disgrace , despite his advanced age he was appointed as commander in the Lazic War . There he redeemed himself with the recapture of Petra , but his subsequent idleness led Justinian to dismiss him and exile him to Abasgia .
= = Origin = =
According to the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea , Bessas was born in the 470s and hailed from a noble Gothic family long established in Thrace , belonging to those Goths who had not followed Theodoric the Great when he left in 488 to invade Italy , then held by Odoacer . Procopius remarks on his fluency in Gothic , but another contemporary writer , Jordanes , claims that he hailed from the settlement of Castra Martis , comprising Sarmatians , Cemandrians and certain of the Huns ( Getica 265 ) . This evidence has been variously interpreted , with most modern commentators leaning towards a Gothic identity . Nevertheless , according to Patrick Amory , it is impossible from the sources at hand to draw any definite conclusion about his ethnicity . Amory maintains that Bessas was a typical example of the " blurry ethnographic identity " evidenced in 6th @-@ century Balkan populations , especially among the military .
= = Career in the east = =
Very little is known of Bessas ' early life and career : he joined the imperial army in his youth and according to Procopius was already " experienced in war " by 503 , when the Anastasian War with the Sassanid Persians broke out . He took part in the war as an officer , but nothing is known of his service there . On the other hand , he is probably to be identified with a comes of the same name who was addressed in a letter of the bishop Jacob of Serugh ( d . 521 ) . If this identification is valid , then Bessas was a ( probably moderate ) Monophysite .
Bessas reappears in 531 , during the Iberian War against Persia , when he was appointed dux Mesopotamiae , with Martyropolis as his base . In this capacity , Bessas led 500 cavalry against the Persian force guarding the same frontier sector , comprising 700 infantry and cavalry under the generals Gadar and Yazdgerd . The Byzantines engaged the Persians in battle on the banks of the Tigris and routed them , killing Gadar and taking Yazdgerd captive . Bessas then raided the province of Arzanene and returned to Martyropolis . In retaliation for this Byzantine success , the Persian shah Kavadh I sent against Martyropolis a large army commanded by three senior generals , Bawi , Mihr @-@ Mihroe and Chanaranges . The Persians besieged the city through the autumn , digging trenches and mines , but the garrison , under Bessas and Bouzes , held firm . Finally , the approach of winter , the arrival of large Byzantine forces at nearby Amida , and the news of the death of Kavadh forced the Persian commanders to raise the siege ( in November or December ) . Soon after their withdrawal , a force of Sabir Huns , who the Persians had hired as mercenaries , invaded Roman territory and raided as far as Antioch , but Bessas caught one of their raiding parties and destroyed it , capturing 500 horses and much booty .
= = Actions in Italy = =
In 535 , Bessas was appointed as one of Belisarius ' lieutenants ( along with Constantine and Peranius ) in the expedition against the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy . He accompanied Belisarius in the early stages of the campaign , from the recovery of Sicily to the siege of Naples , and was present at the latter 's fall in November 536 . From there the Byzantine army advanced on Rome , which it captured without a fight . Belisarius sent Constantine and Bessas to capture various outlying towns , but when he learned that the new Gothic king , Witiges , was marching on Rome , he recalled them . Bessas tarried for a while near the town of Narni , which controlled the direct route from the Gothic capital , Ravenna , over the Apennines to Rome , and there met and defeated the Gothic vanguard in a skirmish .
During the year @-@ long siege of Rome by the Goths , Bessas commanded the troops at the Porta Praenestina gate and distinguished himself in a number of skirmishes . Nothing is known of his role in the subsequent events until 540 , except that it was probably at about this time that he was raised to the rank of patricius . In early 538 , Bessas had protected Belisarius when the general Constantine tried to kill him during a dispute , but by 540 , when Belisarius was preparing to enter Ravenna under pretense of accepting the Gothic offer to become Emperor of the West , he clearly felt that Bessas could not be trusted , and sent him , along with other troublemaking generals such as John and Narses , to occupy remote locations in Italy .
Following the departure of Belisarius in mid @-@ 540 , Bessas remained in Italy . Justinian did not appoint an overall commander to replace Belisarius , and as a result the various Byzantine generals left in Italy failed to co @-@ ordinate their actions . Instead of subduing the last remnants of the Ostrogoths in northern Italy , they retreated to the safety of various fortified cities , allowing the Goths to gather around a new leader , Ildibad . Ildibad marched on Treviso and routed a Byzantine force under Vitalius , whereupon Bessas advanced with his troops to Piacenza . In late 541 , after Totila had become king of the Goths , Bessas and the other Byzantine commanders assembled in Ravenna to co @-@ ordinate their efforts , but the imperial troops were repulsed from Verona and defeated at Faventia by Totila 's Goths . The Goths then invaded Tuscany and threatened Florence , held by the general Justin . Bessas , along with John and Cyprian , marched to Justin 's aid . The Goths retreated before the Byzantine reinforcements , but as the latter pursued , the Goths fell upon them and drove them to flight . After this new defeat the Byzantine commanders dispersed again to various cities and abandoned each other to his fate . Bessas withdrew with his forces to Spoleto .
Nothing is known of his activities from then until early 545 , by which time he was the garrison commander of Rome . Along with the general Conon he was responsible for the city 's defence during the siege by Totila in 546 . During the siege he restricted himself to passive defence , refusing to sally forth from the walls even when Belisarius , who had returned from the east and landed with reinforcements at the nearby Portus Romanus , ordered him to do so . As a result , Belisarius ' attempts to succour the beleaguered city failed . Procopius heavily criticizes Bessas for his conduct during the siege . He neglected of the civilian population of the city and enriched himself by selling the starving populace the grain he had hoarded at exorbitant prices . The civilians were so exhausted by famine that when he finally allowed those who wanted to leave the city to do so , many simply died on the wayside , while others were killed by the Goths . Finally , he proved negligent in the conduct of the defence , and allowed security measures to grow lax : guards slept at their posts , and patrols were discontinued . This allowed four Isaurian soldiers to contact Totila , and on 17 December 546 , the city was betrayed to the Goths . Bessas managed to escape with the greater part of the garrison , but the treasure that he had amassed was left behind for the Goths to enjoy . Following his dismal performance in Italy , Bessas was apparently recalled to Constantinople .
= = Return to the eastern front and command in Lazica = =
Bessas re @-@ appears in 550 , following the failure of a large Byzantine army under the magister militum per Armeniam Dagisthaeus to capture the strategic fortress of Petra in the ongoing war with the Persians over Lazica ( western Georgia ) . To general surprise — and considerable criticism , in view of his advanced age and failure at Rome — Justinian named Bessas as Dagisthaeus ' successor and entrusted him with the conduct of the war in Lazica .
Bessas first sent an expeditionary force to suppress a rebellion among the Abasgians , who neighboured Lazica to the north . The expedition , under John Guzes , was successful , and the Abasgian leader Opsites was forced to flee across the Caucasus to the Sabir Huns . In spring 551 , after a long siege and thanks largely to his own perseverance and bravery , the Byzantines and their Sabir allies ( some 6 @,@ 000 troops ) captured Petra . A few Persians continued to resist from the citadel , but Bessas ordered it torched . Following his victory , he ordered the city walls razed to the ground .
If the capture of Petra redeemed Bessas in the eyes of his contemporaries , his subsequent actions tarnished it again : instead of following up his success and capture the mountain passes connecting Lazica with the Persian province of Iberia , he retired west to the Roman provinces of Pontica and busied himself with its administration . This inactivity allowed the Persians under Mihr @-@ Mihroe to consolidate Persian control over the eastern part of Lazica . The Byzantine forces in Lazica withdrew west to the mouth of the Phasis , while the Lazi , including their king Gubazes and his family , sought refuge in the mountains . Despite enduring harsh conditions in the winter of 551 – 552 , Gubazes rejected the peace offers conveyed by envoys from Mihr @-@ Mihroe . In 552 , the Persians received substantial reinforcements , but their attacks on the fortresses held by the Byzantines and the Lazi were repulsed .
Bessas reappears in the campaign of 554 , when he was appointed joint commander in Lazica with Martin , Bouzes and Justin . Gubazes , though , soon protested to Justinian about the incompetence of the Byzantine generals . Bessas was dismissed , his property was confiscated , and he was sent in exile among the Abasgians . Nothing more is known about him thereafter .
= Irresistible ( Jessica Simpson album ) =
Irresistible is the second studio album by American recording artist Jessica Simpson , released on May 25 , 2001 , through Columbia Records . Simpson , who began working on the project in July 2000 , contacted already established writers and producers to collaborate on the project , including Cory Rooney , Rodney Jerkins , and Walter Afanasieff . In contrast to her debut album Sweet Kisses ( 1999 ) , which included more ballads , Irresistible explored hip hop and R & B genres of music . Simpson described the material as " Mariah Carey meets Britney Spears " , indicating the soulfulness of the songs as well as their contemporary appeal . Lyrical themes addressed in the album include love and heartbreak , sexuality , and self @-@ respect .
Sweet Kisses , which was aimed at an older audience , did not perform well commercially , and so Simpson re @-@ evaluated her career . At the suggestion of her label executives , Simpson modified her image and sound in Irresistible , deciding to delve more into the teen pop and R & B genres , as she felt that restyling herself to match the image of her contemporaries — Spears and Christina Aguilera — would help rejuvenate her career . After its release , Irresistible received mostly negative reviews from critics , most of whom were disappointed by the music ; some of them also felt it was too generic and over @-@ produced . Initially , the album enjoyed commercial success , debuting at number six on the Billboard 200 . It was an improvement from her previous endeavor and the album went on to sell about 850 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere , the album was not as successful , reaching number thirteen in Canada and cracking the top forty in Sweden , Japan , and Germany .
Two singles were released from Irresistible . The title track , the album 's lead single , was commercially successful , as it reached the top twenty in charts of eleven countries , including number eleven on the UK Singles Chart , and at number fifteen on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 . It was followed by " A Little Bit " , which failed to chart in the US , but reached a peak position of number sixty @-@ two in Australia . Simpson performed songs from Irresistible on a number of occasions . In 2001 she embarked on her first headlining tour , titled the DreamChaser Tour , to promote the album .
= = Background = =
Simpson signed a record deal with Columbia Records in 1998 and the next year she released her debut album titled Sweet Kisses . The album featured mostly ballads , and was targeted at a more mature audience than the works of her contemporaries , Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Simpson even stayed true to her Christian beliefs and dressed conservatively , unlike her peers . The album only managed a peak of number twenty @-@ five on the US Billboard 200 , far from the success of her contemporaries . This led Simpson to reevaluate her career and although she was enjoying some success , she felt she could improve on this . Feeling her more " innocent " image would halt her career from developing further , Simpson adopted a sexier image and newer sound , at the suggestion of the Columbia executives .
She moved into the teen @-@ pop genre , as she felt that restyling herself to match the image of Spears and Aguilera would help remake her career . She separated from her then @-@ boyfriend Nick Lachey , in March 2001 , feeling the need to concentrate on her career . Her new image was promoted through appearances on many events , where Simpson wore revealing outfits . The development of this image coincided with the production and release of her second studio effort , Irresistible . Simpson said that she wanted to portray a " sexier , more mature style " in her new album . " I recorded Sweet Kisses when I was 17 years old and I 'm 21 [ this month ] so there is four years of growth involved , " Simpson said in an interview with Coventry Newspapers in July 2001 . In an interview with Cosmopolitan in June 2001 , she explained , " This record is about who I am now . The music is edgier , and I 'm all grown up . " According to Terri Doughtery , author of People in the News : Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey , Simpson hoped her new image would bring more attention to the power of her voice . " It 's not just me singing about being in love . I also have heartbreak songs and girls telling off guys songs . It 's going to take me a while to recoup [ on ] this album , because we spent a lot of money on it , " Simpson said to Entertainment Weekly .
= = Development = =
Simpson started working on the album in mid @-@ July 2000 . While compiling songs for Sweet Kisses , she had expressed inconvenience when a track 's lyrics were too suggestive or delivered a message she did not agree with and thus asked for its modification . However , for Irresistible , she decided to let Tommy Mottola , the CEO of Columbia , take control of the whole project . He enlisted many established composers and producers for the album , hand @-@ picked each song for the track list , and rejected those he felt were not so good . Although she had previously announced that she would write a few songs for her second album , Simpson does not share songwriting credits on any of the tracks . On being asked why , she said that she was very shy when it came to songwriting and felt that it requires a lot of " bravery " to write songs . She also expressed that she could not find the right words for the songs and hence did not write for the record . According to Simpson , the album did not have a definite concept or theme ; Mottola selected songs which they felt were good enough for Simpson and compiled them into an album .
Described as being very sexy and more grown up by Simpson , the opening title track was written by the Swedish duo Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson , in collaboration with English singer @-@ songwriter Pamela Sheyne . Birgisson told music technology magazine Sound on Sound that they started developing the song after Sheyne proposed the title and concept . Bagge and Birgisson developed the melody and completed the song 's lyrics . Sheyne also sings backing vocals in the song . " A Little Bit " was written by Kara DioGuardi , along with Steve Morales and David Siegal . Although she had the written songs for other artists including Kylie Minogue and Martine McCutcheon , the song became DioGuardi 's first writing credit for an artist from her native country . Simpson said that " the message behind the song is for the guys to listen to the girl . " The next track , " Forever in Your Eyes " , was co @-@ written by Lachey , along with Rhett Lawrence .
Walter Afanasieff , long @-@ time Mariah Carey collaborator , worked with Simpson on three cuts from Irresistible . One of the songs , " When You Told Me You Loved Me " , was written by Afanasieff in collaboration with Billy Mann . In an interview with Allpop , Simpson named the song as one of her favorites and said , " I really base that on a situation of a friend of mine whose parents are divorced . I like the emotion behind that song . " Cory Rooney wrote " Hot Like Fire " solely , which Simpson described as " certainly not kid stuff " , a song " with a lot of attitude . " Louis Biancaniello and Sam Watters were also brought in to write and produce songs for the album . One of the cuts , " For Your Love " , according to Simpson , is reminiscent of " I Wanna Love You Forever " ( 1999 ) . Simpson covered the gospel hymn " His Eye is on the Sparrow " as the last song of the album . She said , " I wanted to give my audience a piece of my heart and soul . The message is there 's so much in life that can get you discouraged , but if you trust that you 're being watched over , you have a reason to live and a sense of freedom . It 's different for everyone , but for me , my relationship with God is the way I clear out the shadows that hang in our lives . "
= = Recording and production = =
Motolla selected Cory Rooney as the executive producer of Irresistible . Most of the recording and mixing works were done at Sony Music Studios , New York City and was completed over a time span of eight months . Rooney also coordinated the recording process while Robert Williams miked the vocals . Sony 's C @-@ 800G Tube Condenser Microphone , equipped with a dual large diaphragm and electronically selectable pick @-@ up pattern , was used to record the vocals . In an interview with Sony 's SoundByte magazine in 2002 , Williams said of his choice : " In the studio , it comes down to what you hear . [ ... ] She has such a big range , from a whisper to really belting it out , and you need a microphone that can handle the range without distortion . " He had used the microphone for Simpson 's first album and felt that it suited her well . He also noted that on ballads , " the S 's and wet sounds of lips " are important to the texture of the song . According to him , as Simpson 's vocals tended to be " bright " , he edited the lower ends of her voice to equalize the track .
To mix the tracks , a Sony Oxford Console was used . Audio engineer Mick Guzauski explained to SoundByte that he used the console 's " Automated EQ feature " on the tracks . He said that he could " tailor the frequency responses and dynamics within each song with optimum equalizer at every pitch and level . " For the Afanasieff tracks , the background vocals and overdubs were accomplished on the Oxford console at his Wally World Studio B , at San Rafael , California . Simpson 's label @-@ mate and Latin singer Marc Anthony is featured as a guest vocalist on the ballad " There You Were " . Simpson met Anthony at the taping of the TV special A Christmas in Washington in 2000 . They talked to each other , and proposed recording a song on both of their next albums . They sang the song side by side in the studio and the whole song was completed within six hours . " Forever in Your Eyes " was one of the first songs to be recorded for the album , and was produced by Rhett Lawrence . It was recorded at Sony Music Studios within two hours . Rodney Jerkins , who was acquainted with Mottola , produced two cuts on Irresistible . In an interview with Sony Music Japan , Simpson said that she never met Jerkins in person . He produced and recorded the songs ' music and sent the tape to Columbia , from which " Imagination " and " I Never " were selected . Cory Rooney produced Simpson 's vocals and Tony Maserati mixed the vocals . Initially , Simpson did not want to record " What 's It Gonna Be " as she felt the line " Are you gonna be a dog or a gentleman " was a little awkward . However , due to her record label 's persuasion , she recorded the song and ultimately became fond of it . In order to record the title track , Simpson traveled to Murlyn Music Studios , in Sweden . " A Little Bit " was produced by Ric Wake ; although he produced many songs for the album , only " A Little Bit " made the final cut . The Japanese version of the album contains a bonus track — the Hex Hector remix of " Irresistible " — for which Simpson re @-@ recorded her vocals .
= = Composition = =
Simpson described Irresistible 's material as " Mariah Carey meets Britney Spears ... very mature but accessible to teens . " She said that she wanted to blend house , R & B , pop genres into the record . The opening track , " Irresistible " , is an R & B song with dance @-@ pop influences . It also exhibits elements of pop rock and funk genres , while incorporating latin rhythms . Aside from including a string section , the track features Simpson 's breathy vocals , spoken passages and a mid @-@ section breakdown , where her vocals are " funk @-@ fortified " . According to author Ben Graham , the lyrics of the song see Simpson stripping her famous virginity image down . Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In gave a similar observation of the lyrics , writing that they point to an imminent sexual compromise . " A Little Bit " is a dance @-@ pop song following the same beat @-@ oriented pattern as " Irresistible " . It features piano instrumentation and Simpson sings the lyrics as rapid @-@ fire verses and with start @-@ and @-@ stop hooks . Simpson again adopts breathy vocals , and the lyrics talk about what she expects from her partner : " A little more time , a little less wait / A little more heart , a little less break " . The lyrics also demand healthy changes in her relationship . " Forever In Your Eyes " explores elements of Latin music , as the song is backed by Spanish guitar and infused with hip @-@ hop beats . The lyrics describe a couple in love lying together " all through the night " . " There You Were " is a torchy power ballad which drew comparisons to Simpson 's previous song " Where You Are " ( 2000 ) . The lyrics of the song are a homage to the protagonist 's partner , who changed her life . The song received negative response from critics , with some calling it " sappy " and " unnecessary " . " What 's It Gonna Be " is a bubblegum pop song influenced by ' 80s funk music , which was compared to outtakes from Spears ' Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . The lyrics deal with Simpson expecting a reply from her lover regarding his fear of commitment .
" When You Told Me You Loved Me " is another power ballad about love , this time utilizing a spanish guitar . Backed by a full 60 piece orchestra , the song and Simpson 's vocals were compared to that of Mariah Carey and Celine Dion . " Hot Like Fire " , which received positive reviews from critics , is a funky mid @-@ tempo number . Compared to the likes of Michael Jackson and Destiny 's Child , the song begins with a " faux " telephone call between Simpson and her friend ; the latter explains that Simpson 's boyfriend has been cheating on her . The lyrics , sung with " hard edge vocals " over synth horns , hip @-@ hop beats , and electronica rhythms , demonstrate Simpson 's annoyance at being cheated on by her boyfriend . " Imagination " is a song with electronic and R & B influences . Rick de Yampert of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal commented that the song contained Stevie Wonder @-@ styled funk music . " To Fall in Love Again " and " For Your Love " are ballads ; the former is backed by a 60 piece orchestra , and Peter Marsh of BBC Music noted it " morphs [ ... ] into an R 'n'B tinged slow jam . " It also contains a jazz breakdown , towards its end . Bob Waliszewski wrote that through the latter , " Simpson pledges devotion to a partner " . " I Never " , produced by Darkchild , infuses Spanish guitars , and has an " urban " tinge . The song portrays the theme of self @-@ respect , and has Simpson getting rid of her cheating partner . The closing track , the cover of the hymn " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " , is backed by a gospel choir and " praises God for watching over His children " . Reviewers called it one of the standout tracks from the album . According to Kirsten Koba of PopMatters , Simpson sings it " with a depth and passion that is lacking on the rest of the album . "
= = Artwork , title and release = =
The album artwork for Irresistible was shot by Alberto Tolot in April 2001 . The front sleeve cover shows Simpson , wearing heavy makeup and with blond hair , dressed in a semi @-@ transparent shirt , raising it a bit to expose her navel . Simpson said " God gave me my body , you know . I 'm just doing what I can to make it look good . " Later in an interview with the Orlando Sentinel , she said that the album art was " a sign of confidence " . However , the cover received negative attention from many critics , including the conservative Christian publication Plugged In , which was a strong supporter of Simpson and her virgin image , and Sweet Kisses . They stated , " If anything , Irresistible copes with temptation by yielding to it which , in conjunction with Simpson 's general immodesty , models a dubious sexual ethic . " Canadian music magazine Chart also gave a negative response , writing " it takes more than wearing see @-@ through clothes , with airbrushed , non @-@ existent nipples , to show that you have matured . " A few critics criticized the art for being digitally edited , while others commented on Simpson 's similarity to Spears . The Japanese version of the album has the same front sleeve artwork as that of " Irresistible " single .
The title of the album was tentatively set to be Hot Like Fire , later changed to Imagination , before being confirmed to be Irresistible on March 16 , 2001 . In the United States , Irresistible was initially slated for release on March 20 , 2001 . However , due to undisclosed reasons , the release was pushed to June 5 , 2001 . A listening party was arranged by AOL on June 4 , 2001 , a day before the album 's release date . The album 's release was celebrated with a release party at the New York Water Club . Simpson rode down Manhattan 's East River on a yacht decorated with banners for the celebration , which included a water ski show , a fireboat spraying water , and fireworks . Simpson said the album 's release was a critical moment in her career , one " which could send her to stardom or obscurity . " In an interview , she said " I 'm right there ready to explode . " " Or I could go pfft [ sic ] . No one could ever hear from me again , " she added . In the United Kingdom , Irresistible was released on July 16 , 2001 , and in Japan on May 25 , 2001 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Irresistible was not well received by critics who said the album sounded generic and over @-@ produced . Chuck Campbell of Daily News gave the album a rating of 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 . He said the album was " nothing but a footnote " , and remarked that the songs sounded too similar to works by Spears and Aguilera . He concluded by commenting on Simpson 's version of " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " : " So if her pop fortunes fail , perhaps she 'll find some contemporary Christian singers to imitate . " Teresa Gubbins of The Dallas Morning News wrote that it " doesn 't do much to set her apart . It 's likable but definitely not distinctive – just another formulaic entry into the already saturated teen @-@ pop field . " She gave the album a grade of C.
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a D and said that it " should have been called ' Relentless ' . Exploiting every cliché in the pop 2001 handbook – florid ballads seemingly formulated for movie soundtracks [ ... ] it quite literally hits you baby , and more than one time . " Although he gave Simpson credit for being able to sing , he said that she did it in a " talent show manner " . Kirsten Koba of Popmatters commented that " Irresistible is more reminiscent of trips to the dentist 's
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time for another guitarist , to fill in some of that empty sounds during guitar solo 's and to add to the band for a more full sound live . Through friends , Barrales contacted guitarist Juan Juarez and asked him to join Bonded by Blood . Juarez accepted and he then met the rest of the members and they all liked him as well . After winning round after round , Bonded by Blood finally won first place . The band then recorded the demo Four Pints of Blood at Love Juice Labs in the Californian city of Riverside . With this demo , Bonded by Blood gave people something to listen to and it gave the band an audience .
= = = Internet exposure and recording contract = = =
At that time , the band was courted by some independent record labels , but they refused any offer because they felt they were not ready to sign a recording contract . After playing plenty more shows and making a few more songs , they recorded the Extinguish the Weak EP in August 2007 . Just as many of its contemporaries , Bonded by Blood self @-@ released the EP through MySpace , and it garner the attention of Earache Records , which signed the band in September 2007 . In late October , Bonded by Blood was one of the support acts for Exodus on a three @-@ date Mexican tour .
Bonded by Blood commenced the recording of its first full @-@ length , Feed the Beast , in January 2008 at J Street studios in Sacramento , California with producer Michael Rosen . At first , the recording sessions were going well , but when the band finish off Rosen began to manipulate the songs in ways that musicians were not enjoying it . The band then decided to re @-@ record the album in the same studio where they recorded the Extinguish the Weak EP . Earache released Feed the Beast on May 9 in the United Kingdom and June 24 in the United States . Bonded by Blood supported the album with the Thrashing Like a Maniac tour . They toured the United States between June and July along with Fueled by Fire and Merciless Death , and in Europe between September and October with Gama Bomb headlining .
The band continued the tour returning to the UK in May 2009 for a short string of dates with support from labelmates Cauldron . In November 2009 they announced the departure of Dominguez , who was replaced by bassist Jerry Garcia from San Bernardino thrash metal band Taking Over . Meanwhile , the band was finishing the writing process of their second album , and in January 2010 they entered the Highland Recorders studio in Phoenix , Arizona to begin recording with producer Ralph Patlan . Bonded by Blood 's second full @-@ length , Exiled to Earth , was released through Earache on August 10 in North America and August 16 in Europe .
Just a month after the release of Exiled to Earth , Bonded by Blood have parted ways with Barrales , who decided to leave the band due to personal and financial reasons . The band 's founding member was replaced by Mauro Gonzales from local band Mutants of War . The new lineup have been rehearsing for the upcoming tour dates . In early 2011 Jerry left the band for personal and financial reasons and Alex Lee left the band to join Holy Grail . On October 8 , 2011 they welcomed Jessie Sanchez ( ex Holy Grail ) into the group as their new bassist .
= = Style , influences and reception = =
According to Barrales , beyond the name , Bonded by Blood borrowed from Exodus for inspiration everything . " From the guitars being razor @-@ sharp to the drums , the speed . We wanted to do something that resemble that . Something that is gonna be fast and in @-@ your @-@ face . And what better band than Exodus to be inspired by ? " Exodus ' lead guitarist Gary Holt says that is a compliment that the band has named themselves after Bonded by Blood . " Could I have imagined that all these years later a band was going to name themselves after our first album ? Probably not . It is not like that convention — naming bands after songs — is something new , but I think it is great . "
Bonded by Blood along with its labelmates Evile , Gama Bomb , and Municipal Waste are part of the thrash metal revival movement . These young bands are bringing the classism of the new wave of British heavy metal and the aggressiveness of hardcore punk to a new generation of fans . Even though the members of Bonded by Blood were not born when their favorite 1980s thrash metal bands released their debut albums , the music and fashion of that era had a profound impact on them .
Aside from being aficionados by the 1980s thrash metal , the band has expressed their love of skateboarding , comic books , and cartoons ( most notably the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles ) . At the time of recordings of the Extinguish the Weak EP — while the band were rehearsing — Barrales was listening to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles theme song online and suggested the band to create a cover version . Initially , Bonded by Blood played the song in live performances , but after receiving positive feedback from the audience the band decided to record it . " Theme from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles " was originally included on the Extinguish the Weak EP and later on Feed the Beast .
Bonded By Blood have recently announced that they are going to begin the works on a new album that plans to be released in early 2012 . On October 8 , 2011 they officially announced their new bass player Jessie Sanchez ( ex Holy Grail ) into the band .
= = Members = =
= = Discography = =
Four Pints of Blood ( Demo , 2006 )
Extinguish the Weak ( self @-@ released EP , 2007 )
Feed the Beast ( Earache , 2008 )
Exiled to Earth ( Earache , 2010 )
The Aftermath ( Earache , 2012 )
= = = Appears on = = =
Thrashing Like a Maniac ( Compilation , 2007 )
= Asthma =
Asthma is a common long term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs . It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms , reversible airflow obstruction , and bronchospasm . Symptoms include episodes of wheezing , coughing , chest tightness , and shortness of breath . These episodes may occur a few times a day or a few times per week . Depending on the person they may become worse at night or with exercise .
Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors . Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens . Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers . Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms , response to therapy over time , and spirometry . Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms , forced expiratory volume in one second ( FEV1 ) , and peak expiratory flow rate . It may also be classified as atopic or non @-@ atopic where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction .
There is no cure for asthma . Symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers , such as allergens and irritants , and by the use of inhaled corticosteroids . Long @-@ acting beta agonists ( LABA ) or antileukotriene agents may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids if asthma symptoms remain uncontrolled . Treatment of rapidly worsening symptoms is usually with an inhaled short @-@ acting beta @-@ 2 agonist such as salbutamol and corticosteroids taken by mouth . In very severe cases , intravenous corticosteroids , magnesium sulfate , and hospitalization may be required .
In 2013 , 242 million people globally had asthma up from 183 million in 1990 . It caused about 489 @,@ 000 deaths in 2013 , most of which occurred in the developing world . It often begins in childhood . The rates of asthma have increased significantly since the 1960s . Asthma was recognized as early as Ancient Egypt . The word asthma is from the Greek ἅσθμα , ásthma which means " panting " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing , shortness of breath , chest tightness , and coughing . Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up . During recovery from an attack , it may appear pus @-@ like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils . Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air . Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms , usually in response to triggers , whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms .
= = = Associated conditions = = =
A number of other health conditions occur more frequently in those with asthma , including gastro @-@ esophageal reflux disease ( GERD ) , rhinosinusitis , and obstructive sleep apnea . Psychological disorders are also more common , with anxiety disorders occurring in between 16 – 52 % and mood disorders in 14 – 41 % . However , it is not known if asthma causes psychological problems or if psychological problems lead to asthma . Those with asthma , especially if it is poorly controlled , are at high risk for radiocontrast reactions .
= = Causes = =
Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions . These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment . It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics ( heritable factors other than those related to the DNA sequence ) and a changing living environment . Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence , while onset after 12 is more likely due to environmental influence .
= = = Environmental = = =
Many environmental factors have been associated with asthma 's development and exacerbation including allergens , air pollution , and other environmental chemicals . Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery is associated with a greater risk of asthma @-@ like symptoms . Low air quality from factors such as traffic pollution or high ozone levels , has been associated with both asthma development and increased asthma severity . Over half of cases in children in the United States occur in areas with air quality below EPA standards . Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma ; formaldehyde exposure , for example , has a positive association . Also , phthalates in certain types of PVC are associated with asthma in children and adults .
There is an association between acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) use and asthma . The majority of the evidence does not , however , support a causal role . A 2014 review found that the association disappeared when respiratory infections were taken into account . Use by a mother during pregnancy is also associated with an increased risk as is psychological stress during pregnancy .
Asthma is associated with exposure to indoor allergens . Common indoor allergens include dust mites , cockroaches , animal dander , and mold . Efforts to decrease dust mites have been found to be ineffective on symptoms in sensitized subjects . Certain viral respiratory infections , such as respiratory syncytial virus and rhinovirus , may increase the risk of developing asthma when acquired as young children . Certain other infections , however , may decrease the risk .
= = = = Hygiene hypothesis = = = =
The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure , during childhood , to non @-@ pathogenic bacteria and viruses . It has been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due , in part , to increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies . Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma , but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction . Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets .
Use of antibiotics in early life has been linked to the development of asthma . Also , delivery via caesarean section is associated with an increased risk ( estimated at 20 – 80 % ) of asthma — this increased risk is attributed to the lack of healthy bacterial colonization that the newborn would have acquired from passage through the birth canal . There is a link between asthma and the degree of affluence .
= = = Genetic = = =
Family history is a risk factor for asthma , with many different genes being implicated . If one identical twin is affected , the probability of the other having the disease is approximately 25 % . By the end of 2005 , 25 genes had been associated with asthma in six or more separate populations , including GSTM1 , IL10 , CTLA @-@ 4 , SPINK5 , LTC4S , IL4R and ADAM33 , among others . Many of these genes are related to the immune system or modulating inflammation . Even among this list of genes supported by highly replicated studies , results have not been consistent among all populations tested . In 2006 over 100 genes were associated with asthma in one genetic association study alone ; more continue to be found .
Some genetic variants may only cause asthma when they are combined with specific environmental exposures . An example is a specific single nucleotide polymorphism in the CD14 region and exposure to endotoxin ( a bacterial product ) . Endotoxin exposure can come from several environmental sources including tobacco smoke , dogs , and farms . Risk for asthma , then , is determined by both a person 's genetics and the level of endotoxin exposure .
= = = Medical conditions = = =
A triad of atopic eczema , allergic rhinitis and asthma is called atopy . The strongest risk factor for developing asthma is a history of atopic disease ; with asthma occurring at a much greater rate in those who have either eczema or hay fever . Asthma has been associated with eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis ( formerly known as Churg – Strauss syndrome ) , an autoimmune disease and vasculitis . Individuals with certain types of urticaria may also experience symptoms of asthma .
There is a correlation between obesity and the risk of asthma with both having increased in recent years . Several factors may be at play including decreased respiratory function due to a buildup of fat and the fact that adipose tissue leads to a pro @-@ inflammatory state .
Beta blocker medications such as propranolol can trigger asthma in those who are susceptible . Cardioselective beta @-@ blockers , however , appear safe in those with mild or moderate disease . Other medications that can cause problems in asthmatics are angiotensin @-@ converting enzyme inhibitors , aspirin , and NSAIDs .
= = = Exacerbation = = =
Some individuals will have stable asthma for weeks or months and then suddenly develop an episode of acute asthma . Different individuals react to various factors in different ways . Most individuals can develop severe exacerbation from a number of triggering agents .
Home factors that can lead to exacerbation of asthma include dust , animal dander ( especially cat and dog hair ) , cockroach allergens and mold . Perfumes are a common cause of acute attacks in women and children . Both viral and bacterial infections of the upper respiratory tract can worsen the disease . Psychological stress may worsen symptoms — it is thought that stress alters the immune system and thus increases the airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Asthma is the result of chronic inflammation of the conducting zone of the airways ( most especially the bronchi and bronchioles ) , which subsequently results in increased contractability of the surrounding smooth muscles . This among other factors leads to bouts of narrowing of the airway and the classic symptoms of wheezing . The narrowing is typically reversible with or without treatment . Occasionally the airways themselves change . Typical changes in the airways include an increase in eosinophils and thickening of the lamina reticularis . Chronically the airways ' smooth muscle may increase in size along with an increase in the numbers of mucous glands . Other cell types involved include : T lymphocytes , macrophages , and neutrophils . There may also be involvement of other components of the immune system including : cytokines , chemokines , histamine , and leukotrienes among others .
= = Diagnosis = =
While asthma is a well @-@ recognized condition , there is not one universal agreed upon definition . It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as " a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role . The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper @-@ responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing , breathlessness , chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning . These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment " .
There is currently no precise test for the diagnosis , which is typically based on the pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time . A diagnosis of asthma should be suspected if there is a history of recurrent wheezing , coughing or difficulty breathing and these symptoms occur or worsen due to exercise , viral infections , allergens or air pollution . Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis . In children under the age of six the diagnosis is more difficult as they are too young for spirometry .
= = = Spirometry = = =
Spirometry is recommended to aid in diagnosis and management . It is the single best test for asthma . If the FEV1 measured by this technique improves more than 12 % following administration of a bronchodilator such as salbutamol , this is supportive of the diagnosis . It however may be normal in those with a history of mild asthma , not currently acting up . As caffeine is a bronchodilator in people with asthma , the use of caffeine before a lung function test may interfere with the results . Single @-@ breath diffusing capacity can help differentiate asthma from COPD . It is reasonable to perform spirometry every one or two years to follow how well a person 's asthma is controlled .
= = = Others = = =
The methacholine challenge involves the inhalation of increasing concentrations of a substance that causes airway narrowing in those predisposed . If negative it means that a person does not have asthma ; if positive , however , it is not specific for the disease .
Other supportive evidence includes : a ≥ 20 % difference in peak expiratory flow rate on at least three days in a week for at least two weeks , a ≥ 20 % improvement of peak flow following treatment with either salbutamol , inhaled corticosteroids or prednisone , or a ≥ 20 % decrease in peak flow following exposure to a trigger . Testing peak expiratory flow is more variable than spirometry , however , and thus not recommended for routine diagnosis . It may be useful for daily self @-@ monitoring in those with moderate to severe disease and for checking the effectiveness of new medications . It may also be helpful in guiding treatment in those with acute exacerbations .
= = = Classification = = =
Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms , forced expiratory volume in one second ( FEV1 ) , and peak expiratory flow rate . Asthma may also be classified as atopic ( extrinsic ) or non @-@ atopic ( intrinsic ) , based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens ( atopic ) or not ( non @-@ atopic ) . While asthma is classified based on severity , at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system . Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research .
Although asthma is a chronic obstructive condition , it is not considered as a part of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis , chronic bronchitis , and emphysema . Unlike these diseases , the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible ; however , if left untreated , the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling . In contrast to emphysema , asthma affects the bronchi , not the alveoli .
= = = = Asthma exacerbation = = = =
An acute asthma exacerbation is commonly referred to as an asthma attack . The classic symptoms are shortness of breath , wheezing , and chest tightness . The wheezing is most often when breathing out . While these are the primary symptoms of asthma , some people present primarily with coughing , and in severe cases , air motion may be significantly impaired such that no wheezing is heard . In children , chest pain is often present .
Signs which occur during an asthma attack include the use of accessory muscles of respiration ( sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles of the neck ) , there may be
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9 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries , and another £ 18 billion from the sale of council houses .
The process of privatisation , especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation , was associated with marked improvements in performance , particularly in terms of labour productivity .
Some of the privatised industries , including gas , water , and electricity , were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition . The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement sometimes did so while still under state ownership . British Steel Corporation , for instance , made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government @-@ appointed chairmanship of Ian MacGregor , who faced down trade @-@ union opposition to close plants and reduce the workforce by half . Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control , with the foundation of regulatory bodies such as Ofgas , Oftel and the National Rivers Authority . There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition , regulation , and performance among the privatised industries ; in most cases privatisation benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency , but the results overall were " mixed " .
Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley " Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government . Please never mention the railways to me again . " Shortly before her resignation , she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail , which her successor John Major implemented in 1994 . The effect of privatising the railway is disputed , with large growth in passenger numbers and increasing efficiency matched by large public subsidy and concern about foreign companies running British railways .
The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth . Geoffrey Howe abolished Britain 's exchange controls in 1979 , allowing more capital to be invested in foreign markets , and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange . The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain 's ailing manufacturing industry .
= = = = Northern Ireland = = = =
In 1980 and 1981 , Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) and Irish National Liberation Army ( INLA ) prisoners in Northern Ireland 's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes in an effort to regain the status of political prisoners that had been removed in 1976 by the preceding Labour government .
Bobby Sands began the 1981 strike , saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions . Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners , declaring " Crime is crime is crime ; it is not political " , but nevertheless the UK government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end . After the deaths of Sands and nine others , the strike ended . Some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners , but not official recognition of political status . Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes ; in 1982 Sinn Féin politician Danny Morrison described Thatcher as " the biggest bastard we have ever known " .
Thatcher narrowly escaped injury in an IRA assassination attempt at a Brighton hotel early in the morning on 12 October 1984 . Five people were killed , including the wife of Cabinet Minister John Wakeham . Thatcher was staying at the hotel to attend the Conservative Party Conference , which she insisted should open as scheduled the following day . She delivered her speech as planned , a move that was widely supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her popularity with the public .
On 6 November 1981 , Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald had established the Anglo @-@ Irish Inter @-@ Governmental Council , a forum for meetings between the two governments . On 15 November 1985 , Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo @-@ Irish Agreement , the first time a British government had given the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland . In protest the Ulster Says No movement attracted 100 @,@ 000 to a rally in Belfast , Ian Gow resigned as Minister of State in the HM Treasury , and all fifteen Unionist MPs resigned their parliamentary seats ; only one was not returned in the subsequent by @-@ elections on 23 January 1986 .
= = = Environment = = =
Thatcher supported an active climate protection policy and was instrumental in the creation of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and in founding the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the British Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter . Thatcher helped to put climate change , acid rain and general pollution in the British mainstream in the early 1980s . Her speeches included one to Royal Society on 27 September 1988 and to the UN general assembly in November 1989 . She did not visit the Earth Summit 1992 and later became sceptical about climate change policy .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
Thatcher 's first foreign policy crisis came with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . She condemned the invasion , said it showed the bankruptcy of a détente policy , and helped convince some British athletes to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics . She gave weak support to American President Jimmy Carter who tried to punish the USSR with economic sanctions . Britain 's economic situation was precarious , and most of NATO was reluctant to cut trade ties . It was reported that her government secretly supplied Saddam Hussein with military equipment as early as 1981 .
Thatcher became closely aligned with the Cold War policies of United States President Ronald Reagan , based on their shared distrust of Communism , although she strongly opposed Reagan 's October 1983 invasion of Grenada . Reagan had assured Thatcher that an invasion was not contemplated , and thereafter Thatcher felt she could never fully trust Reagan again . During her first year as Prime Minister she supported NATO 's decision to deploy US nuclear cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe and permitted the US to station more than 160 cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common , starting on 14 November 1983 and triggering mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . She bought the Trident nuclear missile submarine system from the US to replace Polaris , tripling the UK 's nuclear forces at an eventual cost of more than £ 12 billion ( at 1996 – 97 prices ) . Thatcher 's preference for defence ties with the US was demonstrated in the Westland affair of January 1986 , when she acted with colleagues to allow the struggling helicopter manufacturer Westland to refuse a takeover offer from the Italian firm Agusta in favour of the management 's preferred option , a link with Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation . The UK Defence Secretary , Michael Heseltine , who had supported the Agusta deal , resigned in protest .
On 2 April 1982 the ruling military junta in Argentina ordered the invasion of the British @-@ controlled Falkland Islands and South Georgia , triggering the Falklands War . The subsequent crisis was " a defining moment of her [ Thatcher 's ] premiership " . At the suggestion of Harold Macmillan and Robert Armstrong , she set up and chaired a small War Cabinet ( formally called ODSA , Overseas and Defence committee , South Atlantic ) to take charge of the conduct of the war , which by 5 – 6 April had authorised and dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands . Argentina surrendered on 14 June and the operation was hailed a success , notwithstanding the deaths of 255 British servicemen and 3 Falkland Islanders . Argentinian deaths totalled 649 , half of them after the nuclear @-@ powered submarine HMS Conqueror torpedoed and sank the cruiser ARA General Belgrano on 2 May . Thatcher was criticised for the neglect of the Falklands ' defence that led to the war , and especially by Tam Dalyell in parliament for the decision to sink the General Belgrano , but overall she was considered a highly capable and committed war leader . The " Falklands factor " , an economic recovery beginning early in 1982 , and a bitterly divided opposition all contributed to Thatcher 's second election victory in 1983 . Thatcher often referred after the war to the " Falklands Spirit " ; Hastings and Jenkins ( 1983 ) suggested that this reflected her preference for the streamlined decision @-@ making of her War Cabinet over the painstaking deal @-@ making of peace @-@ time cabinet government .
In September 1982 she visited China to discuss with Deng Xiaoping the sovereignty of Hong Kong after 1997 . China was the first communist state Thatcher had visited and she was the first British prime minister to visit China . Throughout their meeting , she sought the PRC 's agreement to a continued British presence in the territory . Deng stated that the PRC 's sovereignty on Hong Kong was non @-@ negotiable , but he was willing to settle the sovereignty issue with Britain through formal negotiations , and both governments promised to maintain Hong Kong 's stability and prosperity . After the two @-@ year negotiations , Thatcher conceded to the PRC government and signed the Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration in Beijing in 1984 , agreeing to hand over Hong Kong 's sovereignty in 1997 .
Although saying that she was in favour of " peaceful negotiations " to end apartheid , Thatcher stood against the sanctions imposed on South Africa by the Commonwealth and the EC . She attempted to preserve trade with South Africa while persuading the government there to abandon apartheid . This included " [ c ] asting herself as President Botha 's candid friend " , and inviting him to visit the UK in June 1984 , in spite of the " inevitable demonstrations " against his government . Thatcher dismissed the African National Congress ( ANC ) in October 1987
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as " a typical terrorist organisation " .
The Thatcher government supported the Khmer Rouge keeping their seat in the UN after they were ousted from power in Cambodia by the Cambodian – Vietnamese War . Although denying it at the time they also sent the SAS to train the non @-@ Communist members of the CGDK to fight against the Vietnamese @-@ backed People 's Republic of Kampuchea government .
Thatcher 's antipathy towards European integration became more pronounced during her premiership , particularly after her third election victory in 1987 . During a 1988 speech in Bruges she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community ( EC ) , forerunner of the European Union , for a federal structure and increased centralisation of decision making . Thatcher and her party had supported British membership of the EC in the 1975 national referendum , but she believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition , and feared that the EC 's approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation ; in 1988 , she remarked , " We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain , only to see them re @-@ imposed at a European level , with a European super @-@ state exercising a new dominance from Brussels " .
Thatcher was firmly opposed to the UK 's membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism , a precursor to European monetary union , believing that it would constrain the British economy , despite the urging of her Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe , but she was persuaded by John Major to join in October 1990 , at what proved to be too high a rate .
In April 1986 , Thatcher permitted US F @-@ 111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque , citing the right of self @-@ defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter . Polls suggested that fewer than one in three British citizens approved of Thatcher 's decision . She was in the US on a state visit when Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded neighbouring Kuwait in August 1990 . During her talks with President George H. W. Bush , who had succeeded Reagan in 1989 , she recommended intervention , and put pressure on Bush to deploy troops in the Middle East to drive the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait . Bush was apprehensive about the plan , prompting Thatcher to remark to him during a telephone conversation that " This was no time to go wobbly ! " Thatcher 's government provided military forces to the international coalition in the build @-@ up to the Gulf War , but she had resigned by the time hostilities began on 17 January 1991 .
Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev . Following Reagan – Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR , she declared in November 1988 that " We 're not in a Cold War now " , but rather in a " new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was " . She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984 and met with Gorbachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Thatcher was initially opposed to German reunification , telling Gorbachev that it " would lead to a change to postwar borders , and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security " . She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO .
= = = Challenges to leadership and resignation = = =
Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little @-@ known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer in the 1989 leadership election . Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote , 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer . Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success , and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party .
During her premiership Thatcher had the second @-@ lowest average approval rating , at 40 % , of any post @-@ war Prime Minister . Polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party . A self @-@ described conviction politician , Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings , pointing instead to her unbeaten election record .
Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14 % lead over the Conservatives , and by November the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months . These ratings , together with Thatcher 's combative personality and willingness to override colleagues ' opinions , contributed to discontent within the Conservative Party .
On 1 November 1990 , Geoffrey Howe the last remaining member of Thatcher 's original 1979 cabinet , resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister over her refusal to agree to a timetable for Britain to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism . In his resignation speech on 13 November , Howe commented on Thatcher 's European stance : " It is rather like sending your opening batsmen to the crease only for them to find the moment that the first balls are bowled that their bats have been broken before the game by the team captain . " His resignation was fatal to Thatcher 's premiership .
The next day , Michael Heseltine mounted a challenge for the leadership of the Conservative Party . Opinion polls had indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour . Although Thatcher won the first ballot with 204 : 152 votes and 16 abstentions , Heseltine had attracted sufficient support to force a second ballot . Under party rules , Thatcher not only needed to win a majority , but her margin over Heseltine had to be equivalent to 15 % of the 372 Conservative MPs in order to win the leadership election outright ; with 54 @.@ 8 % against 40 @.@ 9 % for Heseltine , she came up four votes short . Thatcher initially stated that she intended to " fight on and fight to win " the second ballot , but consultation with her Cabinet persuaded her to withdraw . After visiting the Queen , calling other world leaders , and making one final Commons speech , she left Downing Street in tears . She reportedly regarded her ousting as a betrayal .
Thatcher was replaced as Prime Minister and party leader by her Chancellor John Major , who prevailed over Heseltine in the subsequent ballots . Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading up to the 1992 general election and led the Conservatives to their fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992 . Thatcher had favoured Major over Heseltine in the leadership contest , but her support for him weakened in later years .
= = Later life = =
Thatcher returned to the backbenches as MP for Finchley for two years after leaving the premiership . She retired from the House at the 1992 election , aged 66 , saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind .
= = = Post @-@ Commons : 1992 – 2003 = = =
After leaving the House of Commons , Thatcher became the first former Prime Minister to set up a foundation ; the British wing of the Margaret Thatcher Foundation was dissolved in 2005 because of financial difficulties . She wrote two volumes of memoirs , The Downing Street Years ( 1993 ) and The Path to Power ( 1995 ) . In 1991 , she and her husband Denis moved to a house in Chester Square , a residential garden square in central London 's Belgravia district .
In 1992 , Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a " geopolitical consultant " for $ 250 @,@ 000 per year and an annual contribution of $ 250 @,@ 000 to her foundation . She also earned $ 50 @,@ 000 for each speech she delivered .
In August 1992 , Thatcher called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War . She compared the situation in Bosnia to " the worst excesses of the Nazis " , and warned that there could be a " holocaust " . She had been an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence .
In a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision , Thatcher had commented on the Yugoslav Wars ; she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent states and for not supplying them with arms after the Serbian @-@ led Yugoslav Army attacked .
She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty , describing it as " a treaty too far " and stated " I could never have signed this treaty " . She cited A. V. Dicey when stating that as all three main parties were in favour of the treaty , the people should have their say in a referendum .
Thatcher was honorary Chancellor of the College of William & Mary in Virginia ( 1993 – 2000 ) and also of the University of Buckingham ( 1992 – 99 ) , the UK 's first private university , which she had opened in 1975 .
After Tony Blair 's election as Labour Party leader in 1994 , Thatcher praised Blair in an interview as " probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell . I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench , but not in Mr Blair . I think he genuinely has moved " .
In 1998 , Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations . She cited the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War . In 1999 , she visited him while he was under house arrest near London . Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by the Home Secretary Jack Straw , without facing trial .
In the 2001 general election , Thatcher supported the Conservative general election campaign , as she had done in 1992 and 1997 , and in the Conservative leadership election shortly after , she supported Iain Duncan Smith over Kenneth Clarke .
In 2002 , Thatcher encouraged President George W. Bush to aggressively tackle the " unfinished business " of Saddam Hussein 's Iraq , and praised Tony Blair for his " strong , bold leadership " in standing with Bush in the Iraq War .
She broached the same subject in her Statecraft : Strategies for a Changing World , which was published that year and dedicated to Ronald Reagan , writing that there would be no peace in the Middle East until Saddam Hussein was toppled . Her book also said that Israel must trade land for peace , and that the European Union ( EU ) was " fundamentally unreformable " , " a classic utopian project , a monument to the vanity of intellectuals , a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure " . She argued that Britain should renegotiate its terms of membership or else leave the EU and join the North American Free Trade Area .
That same year , she suffered several small strokes and was advised by her doctors not to engage in further public speaking . On 23 March , she announced that on the advice of her doctors she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more .
= = = Husband 's death : 2003 = = =
Sir Denis Thatcher died of pancreatic cancer on 26 June 2003 and was cremated on 3 July . She had paid tribute to him in The Downing Street Years , writing " Being Prime Minister is a lonely job . In a sense , it ought to be : you cannot lead from the crowd . But with Denis there I was never alone . What a man . What a husband . What a friend . "
= = = Final years : 2003 – 13 = = =
On 11 June 2004 , Thatcher , against doctor 's orders , attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan . She delivered her eulogy via videotape ; in view of her health , the message had been pre @-@ recorded several months earlier . Thatcher flew to California with the Reagan entourage , and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library .
Thatcher celebrated her 80th birthday at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park , London , on 13 October 2005 ; guests included the Queen , the Duke of Edinburgh , Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair . Geoffrey Howe , by then Lord Howe of Aberavon , was also present , and said of his former leader : " Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two , so that when Labour did eventually return , the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible . "
According to a later article in The Daily Telegraph , Thatcher 's daughter Carol first revealed that her mother had dementia in 2005 , saying that " Mum doesn 't read much any more because of her memory loss ... It 's pointless . She can 't remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she reaches the end . " She later recounted how she was first struck by her mother 's dementia when in conversation Thatcher confused the Falklands and Yugoslav conflicts ; she recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that Denis Thatcher was dead .
In 2006 , Thatcher attended the official Washington , D.C. memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the September 11 attacks on the United States . She was a guest of Vice President Dick Cheney , and met Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit .
In February 2007 , Thatcher became the first living British Prime Minister to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament . The bronze statue stands opposite that of her political hero , Sir Winston Churchill , and was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Thatcher in attendance ; she made a brief speech in the members ' lobby of the House of Commons , responding : " I might have preferred iron — but bronze will do ... It won 't rust . "
She was a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process , and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference .
After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner , Thatcher was admitted to St Thomas ' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests . In 2009 she was hospitalised again when she fell and broke her arm .
Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by artist Richard Stone , an unusual honour for a living ex @-@ Prime Minister . Stone had previously painted portraits of the Queen and the Queen Mother .
On 4 July 2011 , Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a 10 @-@ foot statue to former American President Ronald Reagan , outside the American Embassy in London , but was unable to attend due to her frail health . On 31 July 2011 , it was announced that her office in the House of Lords had been closed . Earlier that month , Thatcher had been named the most competent British Prime Minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll .
= = = Death and funeral : 2013 = = =
Lady Thatcher died on 8 April 2013 at the age of 87 after suffering a stroke . She had been staying at a suite in the Ritz Hotel in London since December 2012 after having difficulty with stairs at her Chester Square home in Belgravia .
Reactions to the news of Thatcher 's death were mixed in the UK , ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain 's greatest @-@ ever peacetime Prime Minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of personalised vitriol .
Details of Thatcher 's funeral had been agreed with her in advance . She received a ceremonial funeral , including full military honours , with a church service at St Paul 's Cathedral on 17 April .
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , attended the funeral , the second time in the Queen 's reign that she had attended the funeral of a former prime minister ( the first being that of Winston Churchill in 1965 ) .
After the service at St Paul 's Cathedral , Thatcher 's body was cremated at Mortlake Crematorium , where her husband had been cremated . On 28 September a service for Thatcher was held in the All Saints Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea 's Margaret Thatcher Infirmary . In a private ceremony Thatcher 's ashes were interred in the grounds of the hospital , next to those of her husband .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Political legacy = = =
Thatcherism represented a systematic , decisive rejection and reversal of the post @-@ war consensus , Whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism , the welfare state , nationalised industry , and close regulation of the economy . There was one major exception : the National Health Service , which was widely popular . She promised Britons in 1982 , the NHS is " safe in our hands . "
Thatcher defined her own political philosophy in a major and controversial break with One Nation Conservatives like her predecessor Edward Heath , in her statement to Douglas Keay , published in Woman 's Own magazine in September 1987 :
I think we have gone through a period when too many children and people have been given to understand " I have a problem , it is the Government 's job to cope with it ! " or " I have a problem , I will go and get a grant to cope with it ! " " I am homeless , the Government must house me ! " and so they are casting their problems on society and who is society ? There is no such thing ! There are individual men and women and there are families and no government can do anything except through people and people look to themselves first . It is our duty to look after ourselves and then also to help look after our neighbour and life is a reciprocal business and people have got the entitlements too much in mind without the obligations .
The number of adults owning shares rose from 7 per cent to 25 per cent during her tenure , and more than a million families bought their council houses , giving an increase from 55 per cent to 67 per cent in owner @-@ occupiers from 1979 to 1990 . The houses were sold at a discount of 33 – 55 per cent , leading to large profits for some new owners . Personal wealth rose by 80 per cent in real terms during the 1980s , mainly due to rising house prices and increased earnings . Shares in the privatised utilities were sold below their market value to ensure quick and wide sales , rather than maximise national income .
Thatcher 's premiership was also marked by periods of high unemployment and social unrest , and many critics on the left of the political spectrum fault her economic policies for the unemployment level ; many of the areas affected by high unemployment as well as her monetarist economic policies remain blighted by social problems such as drug abuse and family breakdown .
Speaking in Scotland in April 2009 , before the 30th anniversary of her election as Prime Minister , Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax , and to withdraw subsidies from " outdated industries , whose markets were in terminal decline " , subsidies that created " the culture of dependency , which had done such damage to Britain " . Political economist Susan Strange called the new financial growth model " casino capitalism " , reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry .
Critics on the left describe her as " divisive " and claim she promoted greed and selfishness . Michael White , writing in the New Statesman in February 2009 , challenged the view that her reforms had brought a net benefit . Some critics contend that , despite being Britain 's first woman Prime Minister , Thatcher did " little to advance the political cause of women " , either within her party or the government , and some British feminists regarded her as " an enemy " . Her stance on immigration was perceived by some as part of a rising racist public discourse , which Professor Martin Barker called " new racism " .
Influenced at the outset by Keith Joseph , the term " Thatcherism " came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style , including moral absolutism , nationalism , interest in the individual , and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals . The nickname " Iron Lady " , originally given to her by the Soviets , became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style .
Thatcher 's tenure of 11 years and 209 days as Prime Minister was the longest since Lord Salisbury ( 13 years and 252 days in three spells starting in 1885 ) , and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool ( 14 years and 305 days starting in 1812 ) .
She was voted the fourth @-@ greatest British Prime Minister of the 20th century in a poll of 139 academics organised by MORI , and in 2002 was ranked number 16 in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons . In 1999 , Time magazine named Thatcher one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century .
Thatcher 's death prompted mixed reactions , including reflections of criticism as well as praise . Groups celebrated her death in Brixton , Leeds , Bristol and Glasgow , and a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 gathered in Trafalgar Square to celebrate her demise and protest against her legacy .
Shortly after Thatcher 's death , Scotland 's First Minister , Alex Salmond , argued that her policies had the " unintended consequence " of encouraging Scottish devolution . Lord Foulkes agreed on Scotland Tonight that she had provided " the impetus " for devolution .
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
One of the earliest satires of Thatcher as Prime Minister involved Wells ( as writer / performer ) , Janet Brown ( voicing Thatcher ) and future Spitting Image producer John Lloyd , who in 1979 were teamed up by producer Martin Lewis for the satirical audio album The Iron Lady consisting of skits and songs satirising Thatcher 's rise to power . The album was released in September 1979 , four months after Thatcher became Premier .
Thatcher was the subject or the inspiration for 1980s protest songs . Billy Bragg and Paul Weller helped to form the Red Wedge collective to support Labour in opposition to Thatcher .
Thatcher was lampooned by satirist John Wells in several media . Wells collaborated with Richard Ingrams on the spoof " Dear Bill " letters which ran as a column in Private Eye magazine , were published in book form , and later became a West End stage revue named Anyone for Denis ? , with Wells in the role of Denis Thatcher . The revue was followed by a 1982 TV special , directed by Dick Clement , in which Thatcher was portrayed by Angela Thorne . Spitting Image , a British TV show , satirised Thatcher as a bully who ridiculed her own ministers . She was voiced by Steve Nallon .
Margaret Thatcher has been depicted in many television programmes , documentaries , films and plays . She was played by Patricia Hodge in Ian Curteis 's long unproduced The Falklands Play ( 2002 ) , and by Andrea Riseborough in the TV film The Long Walk to Finchley ( 2008 ) . She is the title character in two films , portrayed by Lindsay Duncan in Margaret ( 2009 ) and by Meryl Streep in The Iron Lady ( 2011 ) , in which she is depicted as suffering from dementia or Alzheimer 's disease .
= = Titles , awards and honours = =
Thatcher became a Privy Councillor ( PC ) upon becoming Secretary of State for Education and Science in 1970 .
She was the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club on becoming leader of the Conservative Party in 1975 . Thatcher became an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Institute of Chemistry ( FRIC ) in 1979 .
Thatcher was bestowed with the Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope , which was , at that time , the highest existing South African award , in 1991 , by President F. W. de Klerk .
Thatcher was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1983 , which caused controversy among some of the then @-@ existing Fellows .
Within two weeks of leaving office in 1990 , Thatcher was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit ( OM ) ( an order within the personal gift of the Queen ) . Her husband , Denis Thatcher , was made a Baronet at the same time .
In the Falklands , Margaret Thatcher Day has been marked every 10 January since 1992 ,
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. "
In 2013 , Higgins began a relationship with Broome playwright and comedian Dan Lee . In December 2013 , Lee announced the couple 's engagement on his Facebook page . While he remained tight @-@ lipped on the details , Lee said the proposal was low @-@ key : " It was very simple ... Just a thing between us . " On 2 August 2014 , Higgins announced on her Facebook page that she and her fiance were expecting a baby , due in January 2015 . She said , " A new chapter is about to begin , and with it a crazy and wonderful journey , no doubt . " In October 2014 , Higgins announced via Instagram that she is expecting a boy . When asked about her impending parenthood in an October 2014 interview , Higgins replied :
I like being home , having my routines , looking after my garden and playing with my dog , but I also love playing . I love being able to do both ... I don 't know what will happen after this . I 've got no plans at the moment . I 'm going to see how this motherhood thing turns out .
Higgins gave birth to her son , Samuel Arrow Lee , on 5 January 2015 .
= = Discography = =
2004 : The Sound of White
2007 : On a Clear Night
2012 : The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle
2014 : Oz
= = Filmography = =
2010 : Bran Nue Dae as Annie
2014 : Unity – Narrator ( Documentary )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = APRA Awards = = =
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) . Higgins has won two awards from six nominations .
= = = ARIA Awards = = =
The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Higgins has won nine awards from twenty @-@ three nominations .
= = = Other awards = = =
She has won an MTV Australia Video Music Award .
2005 MTV Australia Video Music Awards , Breakthrough Artist of the Year
= Battle of the Eurymedon =
The Battle of the Eurymedon was a double battle , taking place both on water and land , between the Delian League of Athens and her Allies , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. It took place in either 469 or 466 BC , in the vicinity of the mouth of the Eurymedon River ( now the Köprüçay ) in Pamphylia , Asia Minor . It forms part of the Wars of the Delian League , itself part of the larger Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
The Delian League had been formed between Athens and many of the city @-@ states of the Aegean to continue the war with Persia , which had begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece ( 492 – 490 and 480 – 479 BC , respectively ) . In the aftermath of the Battles of Plataea and Mycale , which had ended the second invasion , the Greek Allies had taken the offensive , besieging the cities of Sestos and Byzantium . The Delian League then took over responsibility for the war , and continued to attack Persian bases in the Aegean throughout the next decade .
In either 469 or 466 BC , the Persians began assembling a large army and navy for a major offensive against the Greeks . Gathering near the Eurymedon , it is possible that the expedition aimed to move up the coast of Asia Minor , capturing each city in turn . This would bring the Asiatic Greek regions back under Persian control , and give the Persians naval bases from which to launch further expeditions into the Aegean . Hearing of the Persian preparations , the Athenian general Cimon took 200 triremes and sailed to Phaselis in Pamphylia , which eventually agreed to join the Delian League . This effectively blocked the Persian strategy at its first objective .
Cimon then moved to pre @-@ emptively attack the Persian forces near the Eurymedon . Sailing into the mouth of the river , Cimon quickly routed the Persian fleet gathered there . Most of the Persian fleet made land @-@ fall , and the sailors fled to the shelter of the Persian army . Cimon then landed the Greek marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army , which was also routed . The Greeks captured the Persian camp , taking many prisoners , and were able to destroy 200 beached Persian triremes . This stunning double victory seems to have greatly demoralised the Persians , and prevented any further Persian campaigning in the Aegean until at least 451 BC . However , the Delian League do not appear to have pressed home their advantage , probably because of other events in the Greek world that required their attention .
= = = Chronology = = =
Thucydides provides a succinct list of the main events occurring between the end of the second Persian invasion and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War , but almost no chronological information . Various attempts have been made to reassemble the chronology , but there is no definitive answer . The assumption central to these attempts is that Thucydides is describing the events in the appropriate chronological order . The one firmly accepted date is 465 BC for the beginning of the Siege of Thasos . This is based on an ancient scholiast 's annotation of a copy of Aeschines 's works . The scholiast notes that the Athenians met disaster at the ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in the archonship of Lysitheus ( known to be 465 / 464 BC ) . Thucydides mentions this attack on the ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in connection with the beginning of the Siege of Thasos , and since Thucydides says that the siege ended in its third year , the Siege of Thasos therefore dates to c.465 – 463 BC .
The Battle of Eurymedon has been dated to 469 BC by Plutarch 's anecdote about the Archon Apsephion ( 469 / 468 BC ) choosing Cimon and his fellow generals as judges in a competition . The implication is that Cimon had recently achieved a great victory , and the most likely candidate is Eurymedon . However , since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred after the Athenian siege of Naxos ( but before the Siege of Thasos ) , the date of Eurymedon is clearly constrained by the date of Naxos . Whilst some accept a date of 469 or earlier for this Naxos , another school of thought places it as late as 467 BC . Since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred before Thasos , the alternative date for this battle would therefore be 466 BC . Modern historians are split , some supporting 469 BC as the most likely date , and others opting for 466 BC .
= = Background = =
The Greco @-@ Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor , and in particular Ionia , by the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule , eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city . While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants , this was a form of government on the decline . By 500 BC , Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian place @-@ men . The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras . Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian @-@ sponsored expedition in 499 BC , Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy . This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia , and indeed Doris and Aeolis , beginning the Ionian Revolt .
The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras , and during their only campaigning season ( 498 BC ) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis . After this , the Ionian Revolt carried on ( without further outside aid ) for a further 5 years , until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians . However , in a decision of great historic significance , the Persian king Darius the Great decided that , despite successfully subduing the revolt , there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt . The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius 's empire , and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with . Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece , beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria .
In the next two decades there would be two Persian invasions of Greece , including some of the most famous battles in history . During the first invasion , Thrace , Macedon and the Aegean islands were added to the Persian Empire , and Eretria was duly destroyed . However , the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon . Between the two invasions , Darius died , and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes then led the second invasion personally in 480 BC , taking an enormous ( although oft @-@ exaggerated ) army and navy to Greece . Those Greeks who chose to resist ( the ' Allies ' ) were defeated in the twin battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium on land and at sea respectively . All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus fell into Persian hands , but then seeking to finally destroy the Allied navy , the Persians suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year , 479 BC , the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea , ending the invasion and the threat to Greece .
According to tradition , on the same day as Plataea , the Allied fleet defeated the demoralised remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale . This action marks the end of the Persian invasion , and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , the Greek counterattack . After Mycale , the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted , with the Persians now powerless to stop them . The Allied fleet then sailed to the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians , and besieged and captured the town of Sestos . The following year , 478 BC , the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantium ( modern day Istanbul ) . The siege was successful , but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies , and resulted in Pausanias 's recall . The siege of Byzantium was the last action of the Hellenic alliance that defeated the Persian invasion .
After Byzantium , Sparta was eager to end her involvement in the war . The Spartans were of the view that , with the liberation of mainland Greece , and the Greek cities of Asia Minor , the war 's purpose had already been reached . There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long @-@ term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible . The loose alliance of city states that fought against Xerxes 's invasion was dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league . With the Spartan withdrawal , the leadership of the Greeks now explicitly passed to the Athenians . A congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians . This alliance , now including many of the Aegean islands , was formally constituted as the ' First Athenian Alliance ' , commonly known as the Delian League . According to Thucydides , the official aim of the League was to " avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king . " Forces of the Delian League spent much of the next decade expelling the remaining Persian garrisons from Thrace , and expanding the Aegean territory controlled by the League .
= = Prelude = =
Once the Persian forces in Europe had largely been neutralised , the Athenians seem to have gone about starting to extend the League in Asia Minor . The islands of Samos , Chios and Lesbos seem to have become members of the original Hellenic alliance after Mycale , and presumably were also therefore original members of the Delian League . However , it is unclear exactly when the other Ionian cities , or indeed the other Greek cities of Asia Minor , joined the league , though they certainly did at some point . Thucydides attests the presence of Ionians at Byzantium in 478 BC , so it is possible that at least some of the Ionian cities joined the league in early 478 BC . The Athenian politician Aristides was said to have died in Pontus ( c . 468 BC ) whilst on public business . Given that Aristides was responsible for organising the financial contributions of each League member , this trip may have been connected with expansion of the League into Asia Minor .
Cimon 's Eurymedon campaign itself seems to have begun in response to the assembly of a large Persian fleet and army at Aspendos , near the mouth of the Eurymedon River . It is usually argued that the Persians were the would @-@ be aggressors , and that Cimon 's campaign was launched to deal with this new threat . Cawkwell suggests that the Persian build @-@ up was the first concerted attempt to counter the activity of the Greeks since the failure of the second invasion . It is possible that internal strife within the Persian empire had contributed to the length of time it took to launch this campaign . Cawkwell outlines the Persian strategic problems :
" Persia was a land power which used its naval forces in close conjunction with its armies , not free ranging in enemy waters . In any case , secure naval bases were necessary . In the Ionian Revolt with land forces already operating in Ionia and elsewhere along the Aegean seaboard , it was easy for a Royal army and navy to deal with the revolt , but in view of the general revolt of the [ Ionian ] cities in 479 BC and the subsequent successes of the Greek navies the only way for Persia must have seemed to be to move along the coast restoring order in city after city , with fleet and army moving together . "
The nature of naval warfare in the Ancient world , dependent as it was on large teams of rowers , meant that ships would have to make landfall every few days to resupply with food and water . This severely limited the range of an Ancient fleet , and essentially meant that navies could only operate in the vicinity of secure naval bases . Cawkwell therefore suggests that the Persian forces gathered at Aspendos were aiming to move along the southern coast of Asia Minor , capturing each city , until eventually the Persian navy could begin operating in Ionia again . Alexander the Great would employ this strategy in reverse in winter of 333 BC . Lacking a navy with which to take on the Persians , Alexander settled instead for denying the Persian navy suitable bases , by capturing the ports of southern Asia Minor .
Plutarch says that upon hearing that the Persian forces were gathering at Aspendos , Cimon sailed from Cnidus ( in Caria ) with 200 triremes . It is highly likely that Cimon had assembled this force because the Athenians had had some warning of a forthcoming Persian campaign to re @-@ subjugate the Asiatic Greeks . Certainly , no other league business would have required such a great force . Cimon may have been waiting in Caria because he expected the Persians to march straight into Ionia , along the Royal road from Sardis . According to Plutarch , Cimon sailed with these 200 triremes to the Greek city of Phaselis ( in Lycia ) but was refused admittance . He therefore began ravaging the lands of Phaselis , but with the mediation of the Chian contingent of his fleet , the people of Phaselis agreed to join the league . They were to contribute troops to the expedition , and to pay the Athenians ten talents . The fact that Cimon pre @-@ emptively sailed to and captured Phaselis suggests that he anticipated a Persian campaign to capture the coastal cities ( as outlined above ) . The presence of both army and navy at Aspendos may have persuaded him that there was to be no immediate assault on Ionia . By capturing Phaselis , the furthest east Greek city in Asia Minor ( and just to the west of the Eurymedon ) , he effectively blocked the Persian campaign before it had begun , denying them the first naval base they needed to control . Taking further initiative , Cimon then moved to directly attack the Persian fleet at Aspendos .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Greek = = =
According to Plutarch , the League fleet consisted of 200 triremes . These were of the sleek Athenian aphract ( deckless ) design , originally developed by Themistocles primarily for ramming actions , although they had been modified by Cimon to improve their suitability for boarding actions .
The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men , including 14 marines . In the second Persian invasion of Greece , each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines , and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes . Furthermore , the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each . This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40 – 45 soldiers — triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight . There were therefore probably around 5 @,@ 000 hoplite marines with the League fleet .
= = = Persian = = =
Several different estimates for the size of the Persian fleet are given . Thucydides says that there was a fleet of 200 Phoenician ships , and is generally considered the most reliable source . Plutarch gives numbers of 350 from Ephorus and 600 from Phanodemus . Furthermore , Plutarch says that the Persian fleet was awaiting 80 Phoenician ships sailing from Cyprus . Although Thucydides 's account is generally to be favoured , there may an element of truth in Plutarch 's assertion that the Persians were awaiting further reinforcements ; this would explain why Cimon was able to launch a pre @-@ emptive assault on them . There are no estimates in the ancient sources for the size of the Persian land army . However , the number of Persian marines accompanying the fleet was presumably in the same range as the number of Greek marines ( c . 5 @,@ 000 ) , since the Persian ships carried the same complement of troops . Plutarch quotes Ephorus as saying that Tithraustes was commander of the royal fleet , and Pherendatis of the infantry , but says that Callisthenes named Ariomandes as overall commander .
= = Battle = =
Thucydides gives only the barest of details for this battle ; the most reliable detailed account is given by Plutarch . According to Plutarch , the Persian fleet was anchored off the mouth of the Eurymedon , awaiting the arrival of 80 Phoenician ships from Cyprus . Cimon , sailing from Phaselis , made to attack the Persians before the reinforcements arrived , whereupon the Persian fleet , eager to avoid fighting , retreated into the river itself . However , when Cimon continued to bear down on the Persians , they accepted battle . Regardless of their numbers , the Persian battle line was quickly breached , and the Persian ships then turned about , and made for the river bank . Grounding their ships , the crews sought sanctuary with the army waiting nearby . Some ships may have been captured or destroyed during the naval battle , but it seems likely that most were able to land .
The Persian army now began to move towards the Greek fleet , which had presumably also grounded itself in order to capture the Persian ships . Despite the weariness of his troops after this first battle , Cimon , seeing " that his men were exalted by the impetus and pride of their victory , and eager to come to close quarters with the Barbarians " , landed the marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army . Initially the Persian line held the Athenian assault , but eventually , as at the Battle of Mycale , the heavily armoured hoplites proved superior , and routed the Persian army . Fleeing back to their camp , the Persians were then captured , along with their camp , by the victorious Greeks .
Thucydides says that 200 Phoenician ships were captured and destroyed . It is highly unlikely that this occurred during the apparently brief naval battle , so these were probably grounded ships captured after the battle and destroyed with fire , as has been the case at Mycale . Plutarch says that 200 ships were captured , in addition to those that were destroyed or fled . It is possible that ' destroyed ' in this context means sunk during the battle , since the Greeks would almost certainly have destroyed the ships that they captured as well ( as Thucydides indeed implies ) . Since Thucydides only explicitly gives the number of ships destroyed , it is possible to reconcile Plutarch 's and Thucydides 's numbers , but it is not clear that this is the best approach . There are no estimates in the ancient sources for casualties amongst the troops of either side .
Plutarch says that , following his double victory , " though like a powerful athlete he had brought down two contests in one day ... Cimon still went on competing with his own victories . " Cimon supposedly sailed with the Greek fleet as quickly as possible to intercept the fleet of 80 Phoenician ships the Persians had expected . Taking them by surprise , he captured or destroyed the entire fleet . However , Thucydides does not mention this subsidiary action , and some have cast doubt on whether it actually happened .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Plutarch , one tradition had it that the Persian king ( who at the time would still have been Xerxes ) agreed a humiliating peace treaty in the aftermath of the Eurymedon . However , as Plutarch admits , other authors denied that such a peace was made at this time , and the more logical date for any peace treaty would have been after the Cyprus campaign of 450 BC . The alternative suggested by Plutarch is that the Persian king acted as if he had made a humiliating peace with the Greeks , because he was so fearful of engaging in battle with them again . It is generally considered unlikely by modern historians that a peace treaty was made in the aftermath of Eurymedon .
The Eurymedon was a highly significant victory for the Delian League , which probably ended once and for all the threat of another Persian invasion of Greece . It also seems to have prevented any Persian attempt to reconquer the Asiatic Greeks until at least 451 BC . The accession of further cities of Asia Minor to the Delian league , particularly from Caria , probably followed Cimon 's campaign there .
Despite Cimon 's massive victory , something of a stalemate developed between Persia and the League . The Greeks do not appear to have pressed their advantage home in a meaningful way . If the later date of 466 BC for the Eurymedon campaign is accepted , this might be because the revolt in Thasos meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor to prevent the Thasians seceding from the League . Conversely , as Plutarch suggests , the Persians adopted a very defensive strategy in the Aegean for the next decade and a half . The Persian fleet was effectively absent from the Aegean until 451 BC , and Greek ships were able to ply the coasts of Asia Minor with impunity . The next major Delian League campaign against the Persian would only occur in 460 BC , when the Athenians decided to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire . This campaign would last 6 years , before eventually ending in disaster for the Greeks .
= Hominid ( novel ) =
Hominid is a short novel by Austrian writer Klaus Ebner . Taking place millions of years ago , it is a fictional story of a band of extinct hominids who inhabit Central Africa . Referencing the seven days of biblical Creation , the novel takes place in seven days . As the protagonist Pitar leads his band to civilization , tension arises between the clan leader Costello and his rival Re . Over the course of the story , Pitar invents tools , discovers the use of fire , and falls in love with Maluma . The seventh day marks a turning point in the storyline , as the members of the band separate from one another .
The characters ' contemporary language and Pitar 's thorough knowledge
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1976 @-@ D dollar in silver , but state that none have been offered at auction or submitted to the major coin grading services .
Bowers notes that the Morgan dollar ( struck between 1878 and 1921 ) was not widely collected at the time , only to become very popular later , and suggests that one day , the turn of the Eisenhower dollar will come . Numismatist Charles Morgan said of the Eisenhower dollar in 2012 @,@
It stands today as the greatest achievement in clad coinage in U.S. history . It was the most technically challenging coin ever attempted ... Researching the Eisenhower Dollar is vital for numismatic historians who want to understand what the post @-@ silver era was like . The Eisenhower Dollar was a noble failure . In this respect , it truly is a perfect collectible coin .
= = Mintage figures = =
= Kitchen Princess =
Kitchen Princess ( Japanese : キッチンのお姫さま , Hepburn : Kicchin no Ohime @-@ sama ) is a shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) cooking , romance manga series , featuring full professional recipes for every dish at the end of each chapter , written by Miyuki Kobayashi and illustrated by Natsumi Andō . Appearing as a serial in the manga magazine Nakayoshi from the September 2004 issue to the October 2008 issue , the forty @-@ seven chapters were compiled into ten bound volumes by Kodansha , and published from February 2005 to November 2008 . The series marked the first time that Ando illustrated a manga that was not also written by her . Set in modern @-@ day Japan , Kitchen Princess follows Najika Kazami , a cheerful thirteen @-@ year @-@ old who searches for her " flan prince , " a boy who rescued her from drowning as a young girl and brought a little happiness to her life after her parents ' death . In March 2008 , Kodansha published a related light novel , Kitchen Princess : Search for the Angel Cake , written by Kobayashi and illustrated by Ando .
In 2006 , Del Rey Manga licensed the series for an English @-@ language translation in North America . It published the ten volumes from January 2007 to July 2009 . Following Kodansha 's decision to publish in North America through an imprint , Kodansha Comics USA released a four @-@ volume omnibus edition from June 2012 to June 2013 . The series has been well received by English @-@ language readers , with the appearance of three volumes and one omnibus on various bestseller lists and the series appearing twice on ICv2 's annual list of the top twenty @-@ five manga properties . Critical reception ranged from positive to lukewarm , and the series won the 2006 Kodansha Manga Award for children 's manga .
= = Plot = =
Set in modern @-@ day Japan , the plot centers on Najika Kazami ( 風見 七虹香 , Kazami Najika ) , a cheerful thirteen @-@ year @-@ old with an excellent sense of taste who hopes to become a chef . In her backstory , it is revealed that a mysterious boy rescued her from drowning in Hokkaidō as a young , recently orphaned girl and gave her flan to cheer her up . Before he left , she promised to make him the best @-@ tasting dessert in the world . Now on a journey to find her " flan prince , " as she calls him , Najika attends Seika Academy in Tokyo , after she learned that the silver spoon her flan prince left her is unique to the school . There she befriends Sora Kitazawa ( 北沢 空 , Kitazawa Sora ) , the substitute director of the academy , and his younger brother Daichi Kitazawa ( 北沢 大地 , Kitazawa Daichi ) . Although teen model Akane Kishida ( 岸田 茜 , Kishida Akane ) initially dislikes her , they eventually become friends after Najika heals her eating disorder by making her her grandmother 's recipe . Najika periodically competes in cooking competitions , both formal and informal , while working at the diner run by the skilled , yet lazy chef Fujita ( フジタ ) .
Najika falls in love with Sora , after he tells her that he is her flan prince . However , he soon dies after being struck by a truck while on a journey to deliver some ingredients to Najika , and , in his final moments , admits that he lied about being her flan prince , having fallen in love with her . She loses her sense of taste out of sorrow , although she quickly recovers it . After Sora 's death , Daichi is unable to bring himself to act on his love for her , though he gives in to his father 's demands to protect Najika from being kicked out of the school and becomes the student body president to replace Sora . Wealthy and conceited junior pastry chef Seiya Mizuno ( 水野 星夜 , Mizuno Seiya ) also begins to attend the school , where he clashes with Najika , whom he had watched bake as a young girl at the orphanage . Seiya eventually falls in love with her , and tries to romantically pursue her , although he gives up when he realizes that she loves Daichi . After Daichi recovers a repressed memory of his mother 's death during a family trip to Hokkaidō — which Sora attempted to protect him from by lying about being Najika 's flan prince — he remembers that he is actually her flan prince , having given her a flan made by Seiya , and accepts her feelings for him . Joyful , she fulfills her promise to him by making him a crème brûlée .
= = Development = =
The writer of Kitchen Princess , Miyuki Kobayashi , is a novelist published under Kodansha 's X Bunko Teen Heart label . When deciding on a story , she first creates the names , then the plot : Najika 's name — meaning " seven " , " rainbow " and " fragrance " — was designed to be " ethnically ambiguous " and carry a sense of nature , while Daichi and Sora 's names , meaning " earth " and " sky " respectively , were meant " to match hers " . Akane 's name , which means " deep red , " was intended to evoke the evening sun for the reader . Kitchen Princess marked the first time that manga artist Natsumi Ando illustrated a manga that was not also written by her . Despite this , she did make some changes to the original script ; she suggested to Kobayashi that Hagio , the head of the orphanage , be an elderly woman and Fujita , initially an elderly woman , a " rugged man " . Ando made it a personal rule to have each of the splash pages contain an illustration of food .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written by Miyuki Kobayashi and illustrated by Natsumi Ando , the forty @-@ seven chapters appeared as a serial in the shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Nakayoshi from the September 2004 issue to the October 2008 issue . Kodansha collected the chapters into ten bound volumes , and published them from February 4 , 2005 , to November 6 , 2008 .
At the 2006 Comic @-@ Con , Del Rey Manga announced that it had licensed Kitchen Princess for an English @-@ language translation in North America . Del Rey published the volumes from January 30 , 2007 , to July 7 , 2009 . Following Kodansha 's decision to publish its titles in North America through an imprint , including those formerly licensed to Del Rey Manga , Kodansha Comics USA later published a four @-@ volume omnibus edition of Kitchen Princess from June 5 , 2012 , to June 18 , 2013 . Digital editions of the series have also been published by Kodansha in the United Kingdom . The series has also been licensed in Hong Kong , Korea , Thailand , and Taiwan .
= = = Light novel = = =
On March 19 , 2008 , Kodansha published a light novel written by Kobayashi and illustrated by Ando , Kitchen Princess : Search for the Angel Cake ( なかよし文庫 小説 キッチンのお姫さま 天使のケーキを探せ ！ , Nakayoshi Bunko Shōsetsu Kitchin no Ohime @-@ sama Tenshi no Kēki o Sagase ! ) . Comprising four story arcs named after the seasons , the novel follows Najika 's quest to duplicate a recipe for white cake for a classmate 's grandmother . Del Rey published an English @-@ language translation on November 10 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
Kitchen Princess was well received by English @-@ language readers , with three original volumes and one omnibus volume placing on either BookScan 's list of the top twenty bestselling graphic novels , or The New York Times manga bestseller list . The sixth volume placed eighteenth on BookScan 's list for May 2008 . The seventh volume appeared at the fifteenth spot for BookScan 's list for August 2008 . In 2009 , the tenth volume debuted at the seventh place on The New York Times manga bestseller list for the week of July 5 to 11 ; during the following week , it dropped to the eighth place and remained there for another week . In 2012 , the second volume of the omnibus edition appeared at the ninth place for the week of October 14 – 20 . The series placed nineteenth on ICv2 's top twenty @-@ five manga properties for 2008 , dropping to the twentieth spot a year later . The series also placed seventh on ICv2 's list of the top ten shōjo properties for 2009 , and appeared at the eighth spot of the ten bestselling shōjo series for the first quarter of 2010 .
Kitchen Princess won the Kodansha Manga Award for children 's manga in 2006 . The series has received a range of reviews , from positive to lukewarm . Publishers Weekly enjoyed that Najika was not given a magical power and had to keep improving her cooking skills . Although the reviewer for School Library Journal described the series as " a perfectly ordinary romance manga , " he praised Nunzio Defilippis and Christina Weir 's adaptation of the manga . Deb Aoki of About.com listed the manga as one of the best shōjo series . Jason Thompson rated the series 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , describing it as " [ a ] quick , delightful read . " Another reviewer for Publishers Weekly , Johanna Draper Carlsen , wrote that she found the manga reminiscent of the romantic comedy film Simply Irresistible ( 1999 ) and that the manga contained conventional shōjo aspects . In a later review of the second volume , she described the series as " entertaining enough , but it ’ s fluffy and forgettable ( like so many of the mousse items and drinks Najika makes ) . The volumes already feel familiar , even as I ’ m reading them for the first time . " Mania Entertainment 's Sakura Eries expressed her lukewarm feelings towards the first volume , writing that the reader 's suspension of disbelief was vital to enjoying the manga . She disliked the two @-@ dimensional characterization and Ando 's illustrations of the characters , although she felt that the food was well @-@ drawn . Comparing the series to others in the cooking genre , she wrote that it differed in that " cooking is Najika 's expression of self and her means of creating relationships and drawing others to common ground ( like the estranged Kitazawa Brothers ) . " In follow @-@ up reviews of the second and third volumes , she remained lukewarm to the series ; she praised Kobayashi 's portrayal of Akane 's eating disorder , though she disliked how Najika 's quest to find her flan prince seemed to become more of a side @-@ plot . Carlo Santos of Anime News Network praised Najika as a likeable protagonist and the characterizations as believable . He enjoyed the plot and recipes , although he wrote that the character designs lacked creativity , and criticized the plot clichés and the antagonists ' weak characterization . He had mixed
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sighting was reported in 2004 .
= = Taxonomy = =
When a specimen of the African river martin from Gabon was first formally described by German zoologist Gustav Hartlaub in 1861 , it was not initially identified as a member of the swallow and martin family . Hartlaub placed it with the rollers , and later authors either put it in its own separate family , or with the woodswallows . It was only following study of the anatomy of the species by Lowe that it was determined to be closely related to the swallows and martins , but sufficiently different that it could be placed in a separate subfamily Pseudochelidoninae . The genus name Pseudochelidon comes from the Ancient Greek prefix ψευδο / pseudo , " false " , and χελιδων / chelidôn , " swallow " , reflecting its distinctiveness from the " true " swallows .
For many years the African river martin was the sole member of its genus and subfamily until the discovery of the white @-@ eyed river martin , Pseudochelidon eurystomina , by Thai ornithologist Kitti Thonglongya in 1968 . Although some authorities follow Brooke in placing that species in a separate genus Eurochelidon due to its significant differences from the African species , it remains a member of the same subfamily . Genetic studies confirmed that the two river martins form a distinct clade from the typical swallows in the Hirundininae subfamily .
The river martins are in some ways intermediate between typical swallows and other passerines : they have stout bills , large feet and relatively strong legs , which is unusual in aerial feeders . They also have a large syrinx ( vocal organ ) and a different bronchial structure . The extent of their differences from other swallows and the wide geographical separation of these two martins suggest that they are relict populations of a group of species that diverged from the main swallow lineage early in its evolutionary history , and they may be the most primitive of the swallows . Like other early hirundine lineages , they nest in burrows , rather than adopted nest holes or mud nests .
= = Description = =
Both species are medium @-@ sized ( 14 – 18 cm or 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) , mainly black @-@ plumaged swallows , unlikely to be confused with any other hirundine in their respective ranges . Adults of both species have large , blue @-@ glossed heads , a green tinge to the body plumage , and brown wings . The sexes are similar in plumage . The white @-@ eyed has elongated outer tail feathers , a whitish rump , a white eye and eye @-@ ring , and a yellow bill . The African has a red eye @-@ ring and bill and lacks a contrasting rump patch or tail streamers . The juveniles of both species are similar to the adults , but with brown heads , and young white @-@ eyeds lack the long tail streamers of the adults .
The African river martin has a chee chee or cheer @-@ cheer @-@ cheer call when it is flying in flocks . It is very vocal during migration , giving harsh gull @-@ like calls , and appears to have a jingling courtship song . No calls have been described for the white @-@ eyed river martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The two members of the subfamily have geographically separate ranges . The African river martin breeds along the Congo and Ubangi rivers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It is migratory , wintering in coastal savannah in southern Gabon and the Republic of Congo ; it has recently been discovered to nest in beach ridges and grassland in its coastal wintering areas . The white @-@ eyed river martin is known only from its wintering site at Bueng Boraphet lake in Thailand , where it was seen between the months of November and February . It may be migratory , but its breeding grounds and habitat are unknown , although river valleys in Northern Thailand or south @-@ western China are possibilities , as are Cambodia and Myanmar . However , doubts have been cast on whether it is actually migratory at all .
The African species ' breeding habitat consists of forested rivers with islands with sandy shores for breeding . The nesting grounds of the white @-@ eyed river martin are unknown , but if the breeding habitat resembles that of its relative , it is likely to be the forested valleys of large rivers , which can provide sandbars and islands for nesting , and woodland over which the birds can catch insect prey . The African river martin uses coastal savannah as its winter habitat . Based on its only known wintering site , the non @-@ breeding habitat of the white @-@ eyed is assumed to be in the vicinity of open fresh water for feeding , with reed @-@ beds for the night @-@ time roost .
= = Behaviour = =
Breeding behaviour is known only for the African river martin . It nests in large colonies of up to 800 birds from December to April , when the river levels are low . Each pair excavates a 1 – 2 m ( 39 – 79 in ) long tunnel in the exposed sandbanks . The pocket at the end of the tunnel has a few twigs and leaves to serve as a nest , onto which two to four unspotted white eggs are laid . It has chasing flight displays and will walk on the ground ; it also displays on the ground , but the function of this is uncertain . It rarely perches during the breeding season . Although it has been assumed that the breeding habits of the white @-@ eyed species resemble those of the African species , distinctive differences in foot and toe morphology suggest that it might not use a burrow for nesting .
The African river martin feeds in flocks over river and forest , often far from water . It eats insects , mainly taking winged ants . The flight is strong and fast , interspersed with glides . Wintering birds regularly perch on treetops , wires and roofs . The white @-@ eyed river martin feeds on insects , including beetles , which are caught on the wing . Given its size and unusual mouth structure , it may take larger insects than other swallows . This species is described as graceful and buoyant in flight , and , like its African relative , appears reluctant to use perches . This behaviour , together with its unusual toe @-@ shape and the fact that mud was found on the toes of one of the first specimens , suggests that this species may be relatively terrestrial . In winter , it roosts with barn swallows in reedbeds . Pamela C. Rasmussen suggested that , given its unusually large eyes , the species might be nocturnal or crepuscular , a factor that could make it highly cryptic and thus partly explain how such a distinctive species remained undetected for so long . Although the fact that the first specimens were supposedly collected roosting at night in reed @-@ beds might be a contraindication , it is possible that the birds might not actually have been caught at the roost ; or they might be crepuscular , feeding at dawn and dusk ; or they might be capable of both diurnal and nocturnal behaviour , depending on the season or local circumstances .
= = Status = =
The white @-@ eyed river martin was seen in Thailand in 1972 , 1977 and 1980 , but not definitely since . There are unconfirmed sightings from Thailand in 1986 and Cambodia in 2004 . It is classified as critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . This designation means that a species ' numbers have decreased , or will decrease , by 80 % within three generations . This species may be extinct , but the IUCN will not categorise it as such until extensive targeted surveys have been conducted . Despite legal protection under Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) agreement , it was captured by locals along with other swallows for sale as food or for release by devout Buddhists . Following its discovery by ornithologists , trappers were reported to have caught as many as 120 and sold them to the director of the Nakhon Sawan Fisheries Station who was unable to keep them alive in captivity . The small population may therefore have become non @-@ viable .
One factor that reduces the chances of re @-@ discovering the white @-@ eyed martin is the drastic decline in the numbers of swallows wintering at Bueng Boraphet , its only known site , from the hundreds of thousands reported around 1970 to maximum counts of 8 @,@ 000 made in the winter of 1980 – 1981 . It is not certain whether this represents a real decline or a shift in site in response to persecution . Other potential causes for the species ' decline include the disturbance of riverine sand bars , the construction of dams which flood the area upstream and alter the downstream hydrology , deforestation , and increasing conversion of its habitat to agriculture . Very few swallows now roost in the Bueng Boraphet reedbeds , preferring sugarcane plantations , and , despite searching , the white @-@ eyed river martin has not been found in other nearby large swallow roosts . Bueng Boraphet has been declared a non @-@ hunting area in an effort to protect the species , but surveys to find this martin have been unsuccessful . Past surveys include several at Bueng Boraphet , a 1969 survey of the Nan Yom and Wang Rivers of northern Thailand , and a 1996 survey of rivers in northern Laos . A possible unverified sighting was reported in 2004 .
The total population size of the African river martin is unknown . In the late 1980s , it appeared to be common , if local , and large numbers were seen on migration in Gabon . However , it is particularly poorly known in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , and it is unclear if there is any relationship between the birds breeding in the DRC and those breeding in coastal areas of Gabon and the Republic of Congo . A flock of 15 @,@ 000 birds was seen in 1997 , and a mixed flock with rosy bee @-@ eater Merops malimbicus was estimated at 100 @,@ 000 birds ; nevertheless , due to the lack of detailed information , the species is classed by the IUCN as Data Deficient . In the 1950s , the species was caught and eaten in large quantities in the DRC by the local population , and this practice could be increasing . Breeding colonies in river sandbars are also liable to flooding , but thousands of birds were breeding on the grasslands east of Gamba as recently as 2005 .
= Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser =
The Admiral Hipper class was a group of five heavy cruisers built by Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The class comprised Admiral Hipper , the lead ship , Blücher , Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow . Only the first three ships of the class saw action during World War II . Work on Seydlitz stopped when she was approximately 95 percent complete ; it was decided to convert her into an aircraft carrier , but this was not completed either . Lützow was sold incomplete to the Soviet Union in 1940 .
Admiral Hipper and Blücher took part in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway in April 1940 . Blücher was sunk by Norwegian coastal defenses outside Oslo while Admiral Hipper led the attack on Trondheim . She then conducted sorties into the Atlantic to attack Allied merchant shipping . In 1942 , she was deployed to northern Norway to attack shipping to the Soviet Union , culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 , where she was damaged by British cruisers . Prinz Eugen saw her first action during Operation Rheinübung with the battleship Bismarck . She eventually returned to Germany during the Channel Dash in 1942 , after which she too went to Norway . After being torpedoed by a British submarine , she returned to Germany for repairs . Admiral Hipper while decommissioned after returning to Germany in early 1943 , was partially repaired and recommissioned in the fall of 1944 for a refugee transport mission in 1945 . Only Prinz Eugen continued to serve in full commission and stayed in the Baltic until the end of the war .
Admiral Hipper was scuttled in Kiel in May 1945 , leaving Prinz Eugen as the only member of the class to survive the war . She was ceded to the US Navy , which ultimately expended the ship in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 . Seydlitz was towed to Königsberg and scuttled before the advancing Soviet Army could seize the ship . She was ultimately raised and broken up for scrap . Lützow , renamed Petropavlovsk , remained unfinished when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union . The ship provided artillery support against advancing German forces until she was sunk in September 1941 . She was raised a year later and repaired enough to participate in the campaign to relieve the Siege of Leningrad in 1944 . She served on in secondary roles until the 1950s , when she was broken up .
= = Design = =
= = = Development = = =
Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles limited the German Reichsmarine to six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types " and six old light cruisers . These obsolete ships could not be replaced until they were at least twenty years old , and their replacements could displace no more than 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) and 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) , respectively . In February 1922 , the major naval powers signed the Washington Naval Treaty ; Germany was not invited to attend , but she would be held to the same qualitative limitations as the signatories . By the early 1920s , the cruisers of the Reichsmarine were old enough to permit replacement ; the three Königsberg @-@ class cruisers and Leipzig were built in the middle of the decade .
The 1930 London Naval Treaty formally divided cruiser types into two categories : heavy cruisers , armed with 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns , and light cruisers , armed with 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) guns . The Treaty of Versailles still prohibited Germany from building heavy cruisers , but the rise of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party to power in 1933 led to the formal rejection of the Treaty of Versailles . After pulling out of the Geneva Conference in 1933 , Hitler argued that if the other European powers did not disarm to parity with Germany , they should accept German rearmament . The German navy , renamed the Kriegsmarine on 21 May 1935 , was now free to pursue rearmament . Germany concluded the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement with Great Britain , which set German naval strength at 35 % of the size of the Royal Navy . This permitted Germany to build 50 @,@ 000 long tons ( 51 @,@ 000 t ) of heavy cruisers , enough for five 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ships .
The design for the first three of the five Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships was prepared in 1934 – 1935 . Seydlitz and Lützow were initially designed as light cruisers ; their design was prepared in 1934 – 1936 . These last two ships were to be armed with four triple turrets housing 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , as opposed to the four twin 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns on the first three ships . The " light cruisers " were otherwise planned to follow the same particulars as their three " heavy " half @-@ sisters . On 14 November 1936 , the Navy decided to complete the final two ships identically to the other members of the class .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Admiral Hipper class varied slightly in size . Admiral Hipper was 195 @.@ 5 meters ( 641 ft ) long at the waterline and 202 @.@ 8 m ( 665 ft ) overall . After the installation of a clipper bow during fitting out , her overall length increased to 205 m ( 673 ft ) . The ship had a beam of 21 @.@ 3 m ( 70 ft ) . Blücher was 195 m ( 640 ft ) long at the waterline and 203 @.@ 2 m ( 667 ft ) overall ; with the clipper bow , her overall length was 205 @.@ 9 m ( 676 ft ) . Her beam was 22 m ( 72 ft ) . Both ships had a designed draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) and a full load draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . Prinz Eugen was 199 @.@ 5 m ( 655 ft ) at the waterline and 207 @.@ 7 m ( 681 ft ) long overall ; with the clipper bow , her overall length was 212 @.@ 5 m ( 697 ft ) . Her beam was 21 @.@ 7 m ( 71 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 6 m ( 22 ft ) standard and 7 @.@ 2 m at full load . Seydlitz and Lützow were 210 m ( 690 ft ) long overall , with beams of 21 @.@ 8 m ( 72 ft ) and drafts of 6 @.@ 9 m ( 23 ft ) standard and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) at full load . Admiral Hipper and Blücher had a designed displacement of 16 @,@ 170 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 910 long tons ; 17 @,@ 820 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 18 @,@ 200 long tons ( 18 @,@ 500 t ) . Prinz Eugen 's displacement increased slightly , to 16 @,@ 970 t ( 16 @,@ 700 long tons ; 18 @,@ 710 short tons ) designed and 18 @,@ 750 long tons ( 19 @,@ 050 t ) full load . Seydlitz and Lützow grew heavier still , at 17 @,@ 600 t ( 17 @,@ 300 long tons ; 19 @,@ 400 short tons ) designed and 19 @,@ 800 long tons ( 20 @,@ 100 t ) full load .
The ships ' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames . The hulls were divided into fourteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 72 percent of the length of the keel . The Kriegsmarine regarded the ships as good sea boats , with gentle motion . At low speed , however , they were affected unpredictably by wind and currents . The ships heeled up to fourteen degrees and lost up to 50 % speed with the rudder hard over at high speed . The ships had a standard complement of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men . Wartime modifications increased the crew to 51 officers and 1 @,@ 548 sailors . The ships carried several smaller vessels , including two picket boats , two barges , one launch , one pinnace , and two dinghies .
= = = Machinery = = =
The Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships were powered by three sets of geared steam turbines . Admiral Hipper 's and Blücher 's engines were built by Blohm & Voss , while Prinz Eugen 's turbines were built by Germaniawerft . The turbines installed on Seydlitz 's and Lützow 's engines were manufactured by Deschimag . Steam was provided in the first three ships by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure boilers . Seydlitz and Lützow were equipped with nine double @-@ ended high @-@ pressure boilers . Admiral Hipper 's and Prinz Eugen 's boilers were manufactured by Wagner , while the boilers for the other three ships were built by La Mont .
Each turbine drove a three @-@ bladed screw 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft ) in diameter . The ships ' engines were rated at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . They carried 1 @,@ 420 to 1 @,@ 460 t ( 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 440 long tons ; 1 @,@ 570 to 1 @,@ 610 short tons ) of fuel oil as designed , though the ships could carry up to 3 @,@ 050 to 3 @,@ 250 t ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 200 long tons ; 3 @,@ 360 to 3 @,@ 580 short tons ) . At a cruising speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the ships had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 600 km ; 7 @,@ 800 mi ) .
Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Admiral Hipper and Blücher were equipped with three electricity plants with four diesel generators and six turbo @-@ generators each ; the diesel generators supplied 150 kW apiece , four of the six turbo @-@ generators provided 460 kW , and the final pair provided 230 kW . Total electrical output was 2900 kW . Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow were equipped with three 150 kW diesel generators , four 460 kW turbo @-@ generators , one 230 kW turbo @-@ generator , and one 150 kW AC generator , for a total of 2870 kW . All five ships ' electrical plants operated at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The three completed ships were armed with eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 34 guns in four twin turrets . The ships were supplied with between 960 and 1 @,@ 280 rounds of ammunition , or 120 to 160 rounds per gun . The guns were mounted in Drh LC / 34 turrets , which enabled depression to − 10 ° and elevation to 37 ° . At maximum elevation , the gun could reach out to 33 @,@ 540 m ( 110 @,@ 040 ft ) . It fired a 122 kg ( 269 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 925 meters per second ( 3 @,@ 030 ft / s ) . The projectiles included armor @-@ piercing shells , base @-@ fuzed and nose @-@ fuzed high @-@ explosive ( HE ) warheads . Each ship was also supplied with 40 illumination rounds that weighed 103 kg ( 227 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . The four gun turrets built for Seydlitz were emplaced as coastal artillery pieces in the Atlantic Wall . Only the two forward turrets had been installed on Lützow when she was delivered to the Soviet Union .
The ships ' heavy anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK C / 33 guns in twin mountings . These guns were supplied with a total of 4 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition . The mounts were the Dopp LC / 31 type , originally designed for earlier 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 31 guns . The LC / 31 mounting was triaxially @-@ stabilized and capable of elevating to 80 ° . This enabled the guns to engage targets up to a ceiling of 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Against surface targets , the guns had a maximum range of 17 @,@ 700 m ( 58 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns fired fixed ammunition weighing 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) ; the guns could fire HE and HE incendiary rounds , as well as illumination shells .
Close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft weaponry initially consisted of twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Flak 38 guns . The 3 @.@ 7 cm gun was a single @-@ shot gun , with a rate of fire of around 30 rounds per minute . At its maximum elevation of 85 ° , the gun had a ceiling of 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 300 ft ) . The 2 cm gun was a magazine @-@ fed automatic weapon , firing at up to 500 rounds per minute . Twenty and forty @-@ round magazines were supplied for the guns ; The guns were supplied with 16 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . Later in the war , the light anti @-@ aircraft batteries for Admiral Hipper and Prinz Eugen were modified . Four 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were removed and the number of 2 cm guns had increased to twenty @-@ eight . In 1944 , Prinz Eugen 's 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were replaced by fifteen 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Flak 28 guns . By 1945 , the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft battery comprised twenty 4 cm guns and eighteen 2 cm guns ; Admiral Hipper mounted sixteen 4 cm guns and fourteen 2 cm guns .
The ships ' armament was rounded out by twelve torpedo tubes ; they were mounted in four triple launchers on the ships ' main deck . The ships carried twenty @-@ four G7a torpedoes , twelve loaded in the tubes and one reload for each . The G7a torpedo carried a 300 kg ( 660 lb ) warhead . It had three speed settings ; in 1939 , it could reach 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) at 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , 7 @,@ 500 m ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) at 40 kn ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) , and 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) at 44 kn ( 81 km / h ; 51 mph ) , its maximum speed setting . The 340 horsepower ( 250 kW ) radial engine was improved during the war , which improved performance . The ranges increased to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 46 @,@ 000 ft ) , 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) , and 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) , respectively . Admiral Hipper also carried 96 EMC mines ; these mines were contact mines and had a 300 kg explosive charge .
= = = Armor = = =
The five Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships were protected by Krupp steel armor , of both Wotan Hart and Wotan Weich types . The ships had two armored decks to protect the ship from vertical attacks . The upper deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick amidships to protect the ships ' vitals . At either end , the deck was reduced to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) thickness . The bow and stern was not protected by deck armor . The main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . Both decks were Wotan Hart steel . The main armored belt was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick aft . An interior 20 mm thick torpedo bulkhead protected the ships ' vitals from underwater attack .
The ships ' main battery turrets were protected with 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides . Their roofs were also 70 mm thick . The 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were equipped with 10 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick gun shields . The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was significantly less well armored , with only splinter protection . Their sides were 30 mm thick with a 20 mm thick roof . The anti @-@ aircraft fire directors were also given splinter protection , with 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick shields .
= = Construction = =
Admiral Hipper ordered as " H " , as a replacement for the light cruiser Hamburg . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 501 , on 6 July 1935 . She was launched on 6 February 1937 and fitting out work was completed two years later in April 1939 ; the ship was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 29 April 1939 . Blücher , ordered as " G " to replace Berlin , was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel , under construction number 246 . Her keel was laid on 15 August 1936 and launched 8 June 1937 . Work on the ship was finished by 20 September 1939 , the day she was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine . Prinz Eugen , the last ship of the class to be completed , was ordered from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel as " J " under construction number 564 . She was laid down on 23 April 1936 and launched on 22 August 1938 . She was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 1 August 1940 .
Seydlitz and Lützow were both built by the Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau shipyard in Bremen ; Seydlitz was ordered as " K " , under construction number 940 , and Lützow was ordered as " L " under construction number 941 . Seydlitz was laid down on 29 December 1936 and Lützow followed her on 2 August 1937 . The ships were launched on 19 January 1939 and 1 July 1939 , respectively . Work ceased on Seydlitz when she was approximately 95 percent complete . In October 1939 , the Soviet Union approached Germany with a request to purchase the then unfinished Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow , along with plans for German capital ships , naval artillery , and other naval technology . The Kriegsmarine denied the request for Seydlitz and Prinz Eugen , but agreed to sell Lützow .
= = Service history = =
= = = Admiral Hipper = = =
Admiral Hipper led the assault on Trondheim during Operation Weserübung ; while en route to her objective , she sank the British destroyer HMS Glowworm . In December 1940 , she broke out into the Atlantic Ocean to operate against Allied merchant shipping , though this operation ended without significant success . In February 1941 , Admiral Hipper sortied again , sinking several merchant vessels before eventually returning to Germany via the Denmark Strait . The ship was then transferred to northern Norway to participate in operations against convoys to the Soviet Union , culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942 , where she was damaged and forced to withdraw by the light cruisers HMS Sheffield and HMS Jamaica .
Enraged by the defeat at the battle , Adolf Hitler ordered the majority of the surface warships scrapped , though Admiral Karl Dönitz was able to convince Hitler to retain the surface fleet . As a result , Admiral Hipper was returned to Germany and decommissioned for repairs . The ship was never restored to operational status , however , and on 3 May 1945 , Royal Air Force bombers severely damaged Admiral Hipper while she was in Kiel . Her crew scuttled the ship at her moorings , and in July 1945 , she was raised and towed to Heikendorfer Bay . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1952 ; her bell resides in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich .
= = = Blücher = = =
Following her commissioning in November 1939 , Blücher conducted a series of sea trials and training exercises in the Baltic , which lasted until March 1940 . She was pronounced ready for service with the fleet on 5 April 1940 . Assigned to Group 5 during the invasion of Norway in April 1940 , the ship served as Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz 's flagship . The ship led the flotilla of warships into the Oslofjord on the night of 8 April , to seize Oslo , the capital of Norway . Two old 28 cm ( 11 in ) coastal guns in the Oscarsborg Fortress engaged the ship at very close range , scoring two damaging hits
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, the Scots of Dál Riata , the Britons of Strathclyde and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia . After the arrival of the Vikings in the late eighth century , Scandinavian rulers and colonies were established along parts of the coasts and in the islands . In the ninth century the Scots and Picts combined under the House of Alpin to form a single Kingdom of Alba , with a Pictish base and dominated by Gaelic culture . After the reign of King David I in the twelfth century , the Scottish monarchs are best described as Scoto @-@ Norman , preferring French culture to native Scottish culture . Alexander II and his son Alexander III , were able to annexe the remainder of the western seaboard , cumulating the Treaty of Perth with Norway in 1266 . Scotland established its independence from England under figures including William Wallace in the late thirteenth century and Robert Bruce in the fourteenth century . In the fifteenth century under the Stewart Dynasty , despite a turbulent political history , the crown gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords and regained most of its lost territory to approximately the modern borders of the country . However , the Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 and the death of the king James IV , which would be followed by a long minority and a period of political instability .
Kingship was the major form of government , growing in sophistication in the late Middle Ages . The scale and nature of war also changed , with larger armies , naval forces and the development of artillery and fortifications . Christianity introduced monasticism and what has been identified as Celtic Christianity . Nevertheless , the church accepted papal authority and from the eleventh century embraced monastic reform , developing a flourishing religious culture that asserted its independence from English control . Scotland grew from a relatively small area in the eastern Lowlands , to approximately its modern borders . The varied and dramatic geography of the land provided a protection against invasion , but limited central control . It also defined the largely pastoral economy , with the first burghs being created from the twelfth century . The population may have grown to a peak of a million before the arrival of the Black Death in 1337 . In the early Middle Ages society was divided between a small aristocracy and larger numbers of freemen and slaves . Serfdom disappeared in the fourteenth century and there was a growth of new social groups .
The Pictish and Cumbric languages were replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse , with Gaelic emerging as the major cultural language . From the eleventh century French was adopted in the court and in the late Middle Ages , Scots , derived from Old English , became dominant , with Gaelic largely confined to the Highlands . Christianity brought Latin , written culture and monasteries as centres of learning . From the twelfth century , educational opportunities widened and a growth of lay education cumulated in the Education Act 1496 . Until in the fifteenth century , when Scotland gained three universities , Scots pursuing higher education had to travel to England or the continent , where some gained an international reputation . Literature survives in all the major languages present in the early Middle Ages , with Scots emerging as a major literary language from John Barbour 's Brus ( 1375 ) , developing a culture of poetry by court makars , and later major works of prose . Art from the early Middle Ages survives in carving , in metalwork , and elaborate illuminated books , which contributed to the development of the wider insular style . Much of the finest later work has not survived , but there are a few key examples , particularly of work commissioned in the Netherlands . Scotland had a musical tradition , with secular music composed and performed by bards and from the thirteenth century , church music increasingly influenced by continental and English forms .
= = Political history = =
= = = Early Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Minor kingdoms = = = =
In the centuries after the departure of the Romans from Britain , four major circles of influence emerged within the borders of what is now Scotland . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland . The first identifiable king to have exerted a superior and wide @-@ ranging authority , was Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 – 84 ) , whose power was based in the Kingdom of Fidach and his base was at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . After his death leadership seems to have shifted to the Fortriu , whose lands were centred on Strathearn and Menteith and who raided along the eastern coast into modern England . Christian missionaries from Iona appear to have begun the conversion of the Picts to Christianity from 563 .
In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata with their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll , with close links with the island of Ireland , from which they brought with them the name Scots . In 563 a mission from Ireland under St. Columba founded the monastery of Iona off the west coast of Scotland and probably began the conversion of the region to Christianity . The kingdom reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin ( r . 574 – 608 ) , but its expansion was checked at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 by Æthelfrith of Northumbria .
In the south was the British ( Brythonic ) Kingdom of Strathclyde , descendants of the peoples of the Roman influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " , often named Alt Clut , the Brythonic name for their capital at Dumbarton Rock . In 642 , they defeated the men of Dál Riata , but the kingdom suffered a number of attacks from the Picts , and later their Northumbrian allies , between 744 and 756 . After this , little is recorded until Alt Clut was burnt and probably destroyed in 780 , although by whom and what in what circumstances is not known .
Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia , in the south @-@ east . The first English king in the historical record is Ida , who is said to have obtained the throne and the kingdom about 547 . Ida 's grandson , Æthelfrith , united his kingdom with Deira to the south to form Northumbria around the year 604 . There were changes of dynasty , and the kingdom was divided , but it was re @-@ united under Æthelfrith 's son Oswald ( r . 634 – 42 ) , who had converted to Christianity while in exile in Dál Riata and looked to Iona for missionaries to help convert his kingdom .
= = = = Origins of the Kingdom of Alba = = = =
This situation was transformed in AD 793 when ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries like Iona and Lindisfarne , creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of North Britain . Orkney , Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen . The King of Fortriu , Eógan mac Óengusa , and the King of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta , were among the dead in a major defeat at the hands of the Vikings in 839 . A mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement into south @-@ west Scotland produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel , the Norse Irish , from which the region gets the modern name Galloway . Sometime in the ninth century the beleaguered Kingdom of Dál Riata lost the Hebrides to the Vikings , when Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles .
These threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín ( Kenneth MacAlpin ) in the 840s , which brought to power the House of Alpin . In AD 867 the Vikings seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York ; three years later they stormed the Britons ' fortress of Dumbarton and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled . When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900 , Domnall II ( Donald II ) was the first man to be called rí Alban ( i.e. King of Alba ) . The term Scotia would be increasingly be used to describe the kingdom between North of the Forth and Clyde and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would be referred to as Scotland .
= = = High Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Gaelic kings : Constantine II to Alexander I = = = =
The long reign ( 900 – 942 / 3 ) of Causantín ( Constantine II ) is often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba . He was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church . After fighting many battles , his defeat at Brunanburh was followed by his retirement as a Culdee monk at St. Andrews . The period between the accession of his successor Máel Coluim I ( Malcolm I ) and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda ( Malcolm II ) was marked by good relations with the Wessex rulers of England , intense internal dynastic disunity and relatively successful expansionary policies . In 945 , Máel Coluim I annexed Strathclyde , where the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later ninth century , as part of an agreement with King Edmund of England . This event was offset by loss of control in Moray . The reign of King Donnchad I ( Duncan I ) from 1034 was marred by failed military adventures , and he was defeated and killed by MacBeth , the Mormaer of Moray , who became king in 1040 . MacBeth ruled for 17 years before he was overthrown by Máel Coluim , the son of Donnchad , who some months later defeated MacBeth 's step @-@ son and successor Lulach to become king Máel Coluim III ( Malcolm III ) .
It was Máel Coluim III , who acquired the nickname " Canmore " ( Cenn Mór , " Great Chief " ) , which he passed to his successors and who did most to create the Dunkeld dynasty that ruled Scotland for the following two centuries . Particularly important was his second marriage to the Anglo @-@ Hungarian princess Margaret . This marriage , and raids on northern England , prompted William the Conqueror to invade and Máel Coluim submitted to his authority , opening up Scotland to later claims of sovereignty by English kings . When Malcolm died in 1093 , his brother Domnall III ( Donald III ) succeeded him . However , William II of England backed Máel Coluim 's son by his first marriage , Donnchad , as a pretender to the throne and he seized power . His murder within a few months saw Domnall restored with one of Máel Coluim sons by his second marriage , Edmund , as his heir . The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund 's younger brothers returned from exile in England , again with English military backing . Victorious , Edgar , the oldest of the three , became king in 1097 . Shortly afterwards Edgar and the King of Norway , Magnus Bare Legs concluded a treaty recognising Norwegian authority over the Western Isles . In practice Norse control of the Isles was loose , with local chiefs enjoying a high degree of independence . He was succeeded by his brother Alexander , who reigned 1107 – 24 .
= = = = Scoto @-@ Norman kings : David I to Alexander III = = = =
When Alexander died in 1124 , the crown passed to Margaret 's fourth son David I , who had spent most of his life as an English baron . His reign saw what has been characterised as a " Davidian Revolution " , by which native institutions and personnel were replaced by English and French ones , underpinning the development of later Medieval Scotland . Members of the Anglo @-@ Norman nobility took up places in the Scottish aristocracy and he introduced a system of feudal land tenure , which produced knight service , castles and an available body of heavily armed body of cavalry . He created an Anglo @-@ Norman style of court , introduced the office of justicar to oversee justice , and local offices of sheriffs to administer localities . He established the first royal burghs in Scotland , granting rights to particular settlements , which led to the development of the first true Scottish towns and helped facilitate economic development as did the introduction of the first recorded Scottish coinage . He continued a process begun by his mother and brothers , of helping to establish foundations that brought the reformed monasticism based on that at Cluny . He also played a part in the organisation of diocese on lines closer to those in the rest of Western Europe .
These reforms were pursued under his successors and grandchildren Malcolm IV of Scotland and William I , with the crown now passing down the main line of descent through primogeniture , leading to the first of a series of minorities . The benefits of greater authority were reaped by William 's son Alexander II and his son Alexander III , who pursued a policy of peace with England to expand their authority in the Highlands and Islands . By the reign of Alexander III , the Scots were in a position to annexe the remainder of the western seaboard , which they did following Haakon Haakonarson 's ill @-@ fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266 .
= = = Late Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Wars of Independence : Margaret to David II = = = =
The death of King Alexander III in 1286 , and then of his granddaughter and heir Margaret , Maid of Norway in 1290 , left 14 rivals for succession . To prevent civil war the Scottish magnates asked Edward I of England to arbitrate , for which he extracted legal recognition that the realm of Scotland was held as a feudal dependency to the throne of England before choosing John Balliol , the man with the strongest claim , who became king in 1292 . Robert Bruce , 5th Lord of Annandale , the next strongest claimant , accepted this outcome with reluctance . Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained to systematically undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland . In 1295 John , on the urgings of his chief councillors , entered into an alliance with France , known as the Auld Alliance . In 1296 Edward invaded Scotland , deposing King John . The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised forces to resist the occupation and under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge . For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as guardian of the realm . Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk . The English barons refuted the French @-@ inspired papal claim to Scottish overlordship in the Barons ' Letter , 1301 , claiming it rather as long possessed by English kings . Wallace escaped but probably resigned as Guardian of Scotland . In 1305 he fell into the hands of the English , who executed him for treason despite the fact that he believed he owed no allegiance to England .
Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce , grandson of the claimant , were appointed as joint guardians in his place . On 10 February 1306 , Bruce participated in the murder of Comyn , at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries . Less than seven weeks later , on 25 March , Bruce was crowned as king . However , Edward 's forces overran the country after defeating Bruce 's small army at the Battle of Methven . Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V , his support slowly strengthened ; and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and Thomas Randolph only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control . Edward I had died in 1307 . His heir Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control . Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 , securing de facto independence . In 1320 the Declaration of Arbroath , a remonstrance to the pope from the nobles of Scotland , helped convince Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland 's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties . The declaration has also been seen as one of the most important documents in the development of a Scottish national identity .
In 1328 , Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton acknowledging Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce . However , four years after Robert 's death in 1329 , England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring Edward Balliol , son of John Balliol , to the Scottish throne , thus starting the Second War of Independence . Despite victories at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill , in the face of tough Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray , the son of Wallace 's comrade in arms , successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed . Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protege after the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War with France . In 1341 David II , King Robert 's son and heir , was able to return from temporary exile in France . Balliol finally resigned his claim to the throne to Edward in 1356 , before retiring to Yorkshire , where he died in 1364 .
= = = = The Stewarts : Robert II to James IV = = = =
After David II 's death , Robert II , the first of the Stewart kings , came to the throne in 1371 . He was followed in 1390 by his ailing son John , who took the regnal name Robert III . During Robert III 's reign ( 1390 – 1406 ) , actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother , Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany . After the suspicious death ( possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany ) of his elder son , David , Duke of Rothesay in 1402 , Robert , fearful for the safety of his younger son , the future James I , sent him to France in 1406 . However , the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom . As a result , after the death of Robert III , regents ruled Scotland : first , the Duke of Albany ; and later his son Murdoch .
When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424 , James , aged 32 , returned with his English bride determined to assert this authority . Several members of the Albany family were executed , and he succeeded in centralising control in the hands of the crown , but at the cost of increasingly unpopularity and he was assassinated in 1437 . His son James II when he came of age in 1449 , continued his father 's policy of weakening the great noble families , most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of Robert I. His attempt to take Roxburgh from the English in 1460 succeeded , but at the cost of his life as he was killed by an exploding artillery piece .
His young son came to the throne as James III , resulting in another minority , with Robert , Lord Boyd emerging as the most important figure . In 1468 James married Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry . In 1469 the King asserted his control , executing members of the Boyd family and his brothers , Alexander , Duke of Albany and John , Earl of Mar , resulting in Albany leading an English backed invasion and becoming effective ruler . The English retreated , having taken Berwick for the last time in 1482 , and James was able to regain power . However , the King managed to alienate the barons , former supporters , his wife and his son James . He was defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn and killed in 1488 .
His successor James IV successfully ended the quasi @-@ independent rule of the Lord of the Isles , bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time . In 1503 , he married Margaret Tudor , daughter of Henry VII of England , thus laying the foundation for the seventeenth century Union of the Crowns . However , in 1512 the Auld Alliance was renewed and under its terms , when the French were attacked by the English under Henry VIII the next year , James IV invaded England in support . The invasion was stopped decisively at the Battle of Flodden during which the King , many of his nobles , and a large number of ordinary troops were killed . Once again Scotland 's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V.
= = Government = =
Kingship was the major form of political organisation in the Early Middle Ages , with competing minor kingdoms and fluid relationships of over and under kingdoms . The primary function of these kings was as war leaders , but there were also ritual elements to kingship , evident in ceremonies of coronation.The unification of the Scots and Picts from the tenth century that produced the Kingdom of Alba , retained some of these ritual aspects in the coronation at Scone . While the Scottish monarchy remained a largely itinerant institution , Scone remained one of its most important locations , with Royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later Middle Ages before Edinburgh developed as a capital in the second half of the fifteenth century . The Scottish crown grew in prestige throughout the era and adopted the conventional offices of Western European courts and later elements of their ritual and grandeur .
In the early period the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords of the mormaers ( later earls ) and Toísechs ( later thanes ) , but from the reign of David I sheriffdoms were introduced , which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships . While knowledge of early systems of law is limited , justice can be seen as developing from the twelfth century onwards with local sheriff , burgh , manorial and ecclesiastical courts and offices of the justicar to oversee administration . The Scots common law began to develop in this period and there were attempts to systematise and codify the law and the beginnings of an educated professional body of lawyers . In the Late Middle Ages major institutions of government , including the privy council and parliament developed . The council emerged as a full @-@ time body in the fifteenth century , increasingly dominated by laymen and critical to the administration of justice . Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution , gaining an oversight of taxation and policy . By the end of the era it was sitting almost every year , partly because of the frequent minorities and regencies of the period , which may have prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy .
= = Warfare = =
In the Early Middle Ages , war on land was character
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