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his debut for the club against Chelsea . A lack of first team opportunities saw him being loaned to Football League clubs Tranmere Rovers and Northampton Town .
After playing for a season on loan , Northampton signed Johnson on a permanent basis . He was also given club captainship but was replaced in the role after the arrival of Clarke Carlisle . In the 2012 – 13 season , his appearances for the club were hindered due to a cartilage injury . Johnson then signed for debutant Bengaluru FC in the I @-@ League in India , managed by his former Northampton Town teammate Ashley Westwood . Johnson , along with Kenyan Curtis Osano , became the first foreigners to play for the club .
= = Career = =
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Born in Middlesbrough , North Yorkshire , Johnson is a product of the Middlesbrough academy which he joined in 2005 . He signed a professional contract with Middlesbrough on 15 May 2008 and made his first team debut ( and only appearance for the club ) on 18 October 2008 in a 5 – 0 home defeat to Chelsea in the Premier League , coming on as a substitute for Jonathan Grounds in the 54th minute . Later , in an interview in May 2015 , Johnson said that his debut had been the " most inspirational moment " of his life . In November 2008 , he made a loan move to League One side Tranmere Rovers until the end of the year . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 victory against Leeds United the following week , but scored an own goal in Tranmere 's Football League Trophy northern area semi @-@ final against Scunthorpe United , which gave Scunthorpe a 2 – 1 victory . He played five games , four in the league , during his loan spell with Tranmere .
= = = Northampton Town = = =
Johnson joined League Two club Northampton Town on a one @-@ month loan in September 2009 . He made his debut for the club in a 3 – 0 loss against Shrewsbury Town and on 3 October 2009 , scored the first goal of his professional career , in a 2 – 2 draw against Bradford City . Having played four games , Johnson said he hoped to help the club back to winning ways . On 22 October 2009 , he extended his stay at Northampton until the new year , and scored his first goal on 24 October 2009 in a 4 – 2 win over Morecambe . The loan was extended until the end of the season in December .
Northampton signed Johnson on a two @-@ year contract in July 2010 following the successful loan spell . After signing for the club on a permanent basis , Johnson 's first match was the opening game of the season , in a 3 – 0 loss against Torquay United . Two months later , he received a straight red card after fouling Simon Clist and lost his appeal , resulting in a one @-@ match ban , missing a 3 – 1 loss against Oxford United . A week after his suspension , he scored his first goal as a permanent Northampton player in a 2 – 0 win over Lincoln City . In his first season at Northampton ( as a permanent player ) , he made 41 appearances and scored seven goals .
Johnson was appointed as captain ahead of the 2011 – 12 season having previously captained the club in a friendly match against Nottingham Forest , but was stripped of the post following the arrival of Clarke Carlisle . Johnson retained his first team place , making 48 appearances and scoring twice in two consecutive games against Morecambe and Southend . During a 3 – 2 loss against Burton Albion on 26 December 2011 , Johnson received a straight red card in the 18th minute , for fouling John McGrath . After the match , the club announced it would appeal against his sending @-@ off . The club won the appeal after The Football Association overturned the decision , therefore making him available to play .
As his contract was due to expire in the summer , Johnson signed a one @-@ year extension with Northampton keeping him at the club until 2013 on 16 May 2012 . After signing , manager Aidy Boothroyd said he expected Johnson to realise his full potential in the coming season . However , Johnson suffered a cartilage injury in October 2012 that ruled him out for four to six weeks . He made a return in a 1 – 1 draw against York City , but his return was short @-@ lived when he came off at half @-@ time and was out until January after undergoing knee surgery . After making his return on 19 January 2013 against AFC Wimbledon in a 1 – 1 draw , Boothroyd said Johnson made the team tougher and more aggressive . Later in the 2012 – 13 season , Johnson regained his first team place and the club finished in sixth place , qualifying for the promotion play @-@ offs . Johnson described the team as " the strongest " he had played in . Johnson was an unused substitute in the play @-@ offs as Northampton Town lost 3 – 0 on aggregate against Bradford City . He was released by Northampton at the end of the season .
= = = Bengaluru FC = = =
On 16 July 2013 , Johnson signed for Bengaluru FC of the Indian I @-@ League , and with Curtis Osano , became the first foreigners in the team 's history . He made his debut in their first ever I @-@ League match on 22 September against Mohun Bagan , playing the entirety of a 1 – 1 draw . In their next match against Rangdajied United F.C. , he scored his first goal in India , opening a 3 – 0 victory . He scored his second goal in as many matches on 6 October against United S.C. , the only goal of the game . Four days later he netted in his third consecutive match , in the 12th minute of a 2 – 1 victory against Mohammedan S.C .. In the Federation Cup , Johnson played three full matches against Sporting Goa , Rangdajied United and East Bengal . However , Bengaluru could not proceed beyond the group stage . After defeating Dempo on 20 April 2014 , the club won the I @-@ League in its debut season . He was also awarded the Best Defender of 2013 – 14 I @-@ League award .
Johnson kicked off the 2015 season by winning the Federation Cup , defeating Dempo 2 – 1 in the final . He played in the club 's 2 – 1 defeat against Malayasian club Johor Darul Ta 'zim in the preliminary round of 2015 AFC Champions League , receiving a yellow card in the 67th minute .
On 20 June 2016 , after helping Bengaluru FC win their second I @-@ League title , Johnson was rewarded with a new two @-@ year contract , keeping him with the club till the end of the 2017 – 18 season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played on 6 April 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Bengaluru FC
I @-@ League ( 2 ) : 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
Federation Cup ( 1 ) : 2014 – 15
= = = Individual = = =
Best Defender of I @-@ League ( 1 ) : 2013 – 14
= = Style of play = =
Though Johnson mainly plays as a centre @-@ back or as a right back , but journalist Arunava Chaudhuri said the he is " equally comfortable in defensive midfield . " After playing in India , sports website The Hard Tackle described Johnson as " one of the best footballing imports to the country " . The website also praised his height as it is " influential in defence as it is from both attacking and defensive set @-@ pieces . " He was recognised by BBC as " consistent , a firm fans ' favourite and a brave , no nonsense defender . "
= The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science =
The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science was published in November 1909 in New York by Doubleday , Page & Company . The book is a highly critical account of the life of Mary Baker Eddy ( 1821 – 1910 ) , the founder of Christian Science , and the early history of the Christian Science church in 19th @-@ century New England .
The material first appeared in McClure 's magazine ( 1893 – 1929 ) in 14 installments between January 1907 and June 1908 , preceded by an editorial in December 1906 announcing the series . The articles were the first major examination of Eddy 's life and work , published when she was 85 years old , and became a key primary source for most independent accounts of the church 's early history .
The magazine 's publisher and editor @-@ in @-@ chief , S. S. McClure ( 1857 – 1949 ) , assigned five writers to work on the articles : Willa Cather ( 1873 – 1947 ) , who won the 1923 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for one of her novels ; researcher Georgine Milmine ( 1874 – 1950 ) ; managing editor Will Irwin ( 1873 – 1948 ) ; Burton J. Hendrick ( 1870 – 1949 ) ; Mark Sullivan ( 1874 – 1952 ) , who became a well @-@ known political columnist ; and briefly Ida Tarbell ( 1857 – 1944 ) . The original byline on the book and articles was Milmine 's , but it later emerged that Cather , who had joined McClure 's as an editor in 1906 , was the principal author .
The Christian Science church purchased the manuscript shortly after the book 's publication , and it was soon out of print . It was republished by Baker Book House in 1971 after its copyright had expired , and again in 1993 by the University of Nebraska Press , this time naming both Cather and Milmine as authors .
= = Synopsis = =
The material was published by McClure 's when Witter Bynner ( 1881 – 1968 ) was an assistant editor and briefly managing editor . It first appeared under Georgine Milmine 's byline in 14 installments between January 1907 and June 1908 as " Mary Baker G. Eddy : The Story of Her Life and the History of Christian Science . " The text of the articles was revised and updated for the book , where it was presented in 26 chapters .
The articles were preceded by an unsigned , seven @-@ page editorial in December 1906 , explaining why the series was being published and discussing the difficulties of the investigation . The author of the editorial wrote : " The Christian Science mind is unfriendly to independent investigation . It presupposes that anything even slightly unfavorable to Mrs. Eddy or to Christian Science is deliberate falsehood . " The publication got off to an unfortunate start by reproducing a photograph on page two of the editorial that purported to be of Eddy , but was in fact of someone else .
The criticism of Eddy is considerable . She is portrayed as deceitful , someone who regularly revised her life story , and who was interested only in making money . The authors reproduce witness statements from Eddy 's childhood of her having repeated fainting spells as a way of gaining attention or avoiding punishment , particularly from her father , and say that she developed a habit of appearing to be seriously ill only to recover quickly .
Eddy was widowed when she was 22 years old and pregnant , after which she returned to live in her father 's home . Her son was raised there for the first few years of his life , looked after for at least some of the time by domestic staff because of Eddy 's health issues . The articles allege that she allowed him to be adopted by one of the staff when he was four , then failed to maintain a relationship with him until he was in his thirties , though they lived near each other . ( Eddy has written that she was unable to prevent the adoption , but McClure 's implied otherwise . )
Her next two marriages , lifelong poor health , and the numerous legal actions she was involved in – including lawsuits against her students and a criminal case in which her third husband was accused of conspiracy to murder one of them ( an allegation that was never proven ) – are examined in detail . The authors also allege that Eddy 's major work , Science and Health ( 1875 ) , which became Christian Science 's main religious text , borrowed heavily from the work of Phineas Parkhurst Quimby ( 1802 – 1866 ) , a New England faith healer . Quimby had treated Eddy in the years before his death and had given her some of his unpublished notes .
Eddy replied only to the early installments in McClure 's by challenging its description of her father , early family life , and some of the issues surrounding her marriages . McClure 's had said that the Bible was the only book in the house when she was growing up ; on the contrary , she wrote , her father was a great reader . Her statement described the educational and professional achievements of her family to counter McClure 's claim that her childhood home had provided a " lonely and unstimulating existence . " She offered as an example of her own kindness ( in response to McClure 's view of her as bad tempered ) that a housekeeper of the family 's had resigned because Eddy allowed a blind girl , who had knocked on the door and was unknown to the family , to stay with them .
= = Authorship = =
= = = Editorial team = = =
Georgine Milmine was born in Ontario , Canada . Before joining McClure 's as a researcher , she worked for the Syracuse Herald in New York . She had been collecting material about Eddy for years , but lacked the resources to research and write it up herself , so she sold it to McClure 's .
The publisher assigned five writers to the story , including Milmine , Willa Cather , Burton J. Hendrick , political columnist Mark Sullivan , Will Irwin and for a short time Ida Tarbell . Cather had started working for McClure 's as an editor in 1906 when she was 32 years old . She and Sullivan spent time traveling in New England seeking confirmation of the material about Eddy 's early life . The journalist Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant ( 1881 – 1965 ) wrote in 1953 :
Startling material relating to a leading religious leader and romantic personality of that time – Mary Baker G. Eddy – had been brought into McClure 's by one Georgine Milmine . S. S. McClure was always interested in biography ... and he was always interested in novelty . Thus he saw in Mrs. Eddy a " natural " for McClure 's , for her personal origins and idiosyncrasies , her marital history , the psychological and factual background of her ideas and her " message " in Science and Health had not then been publicized . The material was touchy , and would attract a world of readers both of the faithful and the doubters . It must , however , be carefully verified , and Willa Sibert Cather , with four other members of McClure 's staff , was chosen for this job . ...
The job seemed to her a little infra dig , not on the level where she cared to move . But she inspired confidence , had the mind of a judge and the nose of a detective when she needed it . ... She was quickly fascinated by the psychological implications of her material , and made long stays in Boston to edit it . But the book that ensued was largely written in the McClure 's office , and was a composite , not Willa Cather 's personal work .
Witter Bynner , a McClure 's assistant editor at the time of publication , signed a copy of the book on February 12 , 1934 , writing : " The material was brought to McClure 's by Miss Milmine , but was put into the painstaking hands of Willa Cather for proper presentation , so that a great part of it is her work . " In 1935 a copy of the book listed for sale by Philip Duschnes , a New York bookseller , contained a photostat of an
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was known as Bethel Chapel , and was initially part of the African Methodist Episcopal ( AME ) Church , prior to a change in 1856 .
Tubman , herself , was designated a National Historic Person of Canada after the Historic Sites and Monuments Board recommended it , in 2005 . Several historical markers — two federal , one provincial , and one civic — surround the active chapel , as well as a bust of Tubman .
= = = National Park designations = = =
As early as 2008 , advocacy groups in Maryland and New York , and their federal representatives , pushed for legislation to establish two national historical parks honoring Harriet Tubman : one to include her place of birth on Maryland 's eastern shore , and sites along the route of the Underground Railroad in Caroline , Dorchester , and Talbot Counties in Maryland ; and a second to include her home in Auburn , NY . For the next six years , bills to do so were introduced , but were never advanced or enacted . Meantime , in 2013 , President Barack Obama used his executive authority to create the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument , consisting of federal lands on Maryland 's Eastern Shore at Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge .
Subsequently , in December 2014 , authorization for a national historical park designation was incorporated in the 2015 National Defense Authorization Act . Despite opposition from some legislators , the bill passed with bipartisan support , and was signed into law by the President on December 19 , 2014 .
As enacted , the legislation authorized establishment of the Harriet Tubman National Historical Park in Cayuga County , New York , pending the acquisition of lands , and created the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park in Maryland . The latter was created from within the authorized boundary of the national monument , while permitting later additional acquisitions .
The Harriet Tubman House in Boston 's South End is a site on the Boston Women 's Heritage Trail .
= = = Twenty @-@ dollar bill = = =
On April 20 , 2016 , U.S. Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced plans to add Tubman to the front of the twenty @-@ dollar bill , moving President Andrew Jackson , a slave owner , to the rear of the bill . Lew instructed the Bureau of Engraving and Printing to expedite the redesign process , though the new bill will not enter circulation until after 2020 .
= Dirac delta function =
In mathematics , the Dirac delta function , or δ function , is a generalized function , or distribution , on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero , with an integral of one over the entire real line . The delta function is sometimes thought of as a hypothetical function whose graph is an infinitely high , infinitely thin spike at the origin , with total area one under the spike , and physically represents the density of an idealized point mass or point charge . It was introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac .
From a purely mathematical viewpoint , the Dirac delta is not strictly a function , because any extended @-@ real function that is equal to zero everywhere but a single point must have total integral zero . The delta function only makes sense as a mathematical object when it appears inside an integral . From this perspective the Dirac delta can usually be manipulated as though it were a function . The formal rules obeyed by this " function " are part of the operational calculus , a standard tool kit of physics and engineering . The operational calculus , and in particular the delta function , was viewed with suspicion by mathematicians of the early 20th century , until a satisfactory rigorous theory was introduced by Laurent Schwartz in the 1950s . Formally , the delta function must be defined as the distribution that corresponds to a probability measure supported at the origin . In many applications , the Dirac delta is regarded as a kind of limit ( a weak limit ) of a sequence of functions having a tall spike at the origin . The approximating functions of the sequence are thus " approximate " or " nascent " delta functions .
In the context of signal processing the delta function is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol ( or function ) . Its discrete analog is the Kronecker delta function , which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1 .
= = Overview = =
The graph of the delta function is usually thought of as following the whole x @-@ axis and the positive y @-@ axis . Despite its name , the delta function is not truly a function , at least not a usual one with range in real numbers . For example , the objects f ( x )
= δ ( x ) and g ( x ) =
0 are equal everywhere except at x
= 0 yet have integrals that are different . According to Lebesgue integration theory , if f and g are functions such that f =
g almost everywhere , then f is integrable if and only if g is integrable and the integrals of f and g are identical . Rigorous treatment of the Dirac delta requires measure theory or the theory of distributions .
The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function ( an impulse ) , and other similar abstractions such as a point charge , point mass or electron point . For example , to calculate the dynamics of a baseball being hit by a bat , one can approximate the force of the bat hitting the baseball by a delta function . In doing so , one not only simplifies the equations , but one also is able to calculate the motion of the baseball by only considering the total impulse of the bat against the ball rather than requiring knowledge of the details of how the bat transferred energy to the ball .
In applied mathematics , the delta function is often manipulated as a kind of limit ( a weak limit ) of a sequence of functions , each member of which has a tall spike at the origin : for example , a sequence of Gaussian distributions centered at the origin with variance tending to zero .
= = History = =
Joseph Fourier presented what is now called the Fourier integral theorem in his treatise Théorie analytique de la chaleur in the form :
<formula>
which is tantamount to the introduction of the δ @-@ function in the form :
<formula>
Later , Augustin Cauchy expressed the theorem using exponentials :
<formula>
Cauchy pointed out that in some circumstances the order of integration in this result was significant .
As justified using the theory of distributions , the Cauchy equation can be rearranged to resemble Fourier 's original formulation and expose the δ @-@ function as :
<formula>
where the δ @-@ function is expressed as :
<formula>
A rigorous interpretation of the exponential form and the various limitations upon the function f necessary for its application extended over several centuries . The problems with a classical interpretation are explained as follows :
The greatest drawback of the classical Fourier transformation is a rather narrow class of functions ( originals ) for which it can be effectively computed . Namely , it is necessary that these functions decrease sufficiently rapidly to zero ( in the neighborhood of infinity ) in order to ensure the existence of the Fourier integral . For example , the Fourier transform of such simple functions as polynomials does not exist in the classical sense . The extension of the classical Fourier transformation to distributions considerably enlarged the class of functions that could be transformed and this removed many obstacles .
Further developments included generalization of the Fourier integral , " beginning with Plancherel 's pathbreaking L2 @-@ theory ( 1910 ) , continuing with Wiener 's and Bochner 's works ( around 1930 ) and culminating with the amalgamation into L. Schwartz 's theory of distributions ( 1945 ) ... " , and leading to the formal development of the Dirac delta function .
An infinitesimal formula for an infinitely tall , unit impulse delta function ( infinitesimal version of Cauchy distribution ) explicitly appears in an 1827 text of Augustin Louis Cauchy . Siméon Denis Poisson considered the issue in connection with the study of wave propagation as did Gustav Kirchhoff somewhat later . Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of Gaussians , which also corresponded to Lord Kelvin 's notion of a point heat source . At the end of the 19th century , Oliver Heaviside used formal Fourier series to manipulate the unit impulse . The Dirac delta function as such was introduced as a " convenient notation " by Paul Dirac in his influential 1930 book The Principles of Quantum Mechanics . He called it the " delta function " since he used it as a continuous analogue of the discrete Kronecker delta .
= = Definitions = =
The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the origin , where it is infinite ,
<formula>
and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity
<formula>
This is merely a heuristic characterization . The Dirac delta is not a function in the traditional sense as no function defined on the real numbers has these properties . The Dirac delta function can be rigorously defined either as a distribution or as a measure .
= = = As a measure = = =
One way to rigorously capture the notion of the Dirac delta function is to define a measure , which accepts as an argument a subset A of the real line R , and returns δ ( A )
= 1 if 0 ∈ A , and δ ( A ) =
0 otherwise . If the delta function is conceptualized as modeling an idealized point mass at 0 , then δ ( A ) represents the mass contained in the set A. One may then define the integral against δ as the integral of a function against this mass distribution . Formally , the Lebesgue integral provides the necessary analytic device . The Lebesgue integral with respect to the measure δ satisfies
<formula>
for all continuous compactly supported functions f . The measure δ is not absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure — in fact , it is a singular measure . Consequently , the delta measure has no Radon – Nikodym derivative — no true function for which the property
<formula>
holds . As a result , the latter notation is a convenient abuse of notation , and not a standard ( Riemann or Lebesgue ) integral .
As a probability measure on R , the delta measure is characterized by its cumulative distribution function , which is the unit step function
<formula>
This means that H ( x ) is the integral of the cumulative indicator function 1 ( − ∞ , x ] with respect to the measure δ ; to wit ,
<formula>
Thus in particular the integral of the delta function against a continuous function can be properly understood as a Stieltjes integral :
<formula>
All higher moments of δ are zero . In particular , characteristic function and moment generating function are both equal to one .
= = = As a distribution = = =
In the theory of distributions a generalized function is thought of not as a function itself , but only in relation to how it affects other functions when it is " integrated " against them . In keeping with this philosophy , to define the delta function properly , it is enough to say what the " integral " of the delta function against a sufficiently " good " test function is . If the delta function is already understood as a measure , then the Lebesgue integral of a test function against that measure supplies the necessary integral .
A typical space of test functions consists of all smooth functions on R with compact support . As a distribution , the Dirac delta is a linear functional on the space of test functions and is defined by
for every test function φ .
For δ to be properly a distribution , it must be continuous in a suitable topology on the space of test functions . In general , for a linear functional S on the space of test functions to define a distribution , it is necessary and sufficient that , for every positive integer N there is an integer MN and a constant CN such that for every test function φ , one has the inequality
<formula>
With the δ distribution , one has such an inequality ( with CN
= 1 ) with MN =
0 for all N. Thus δ is a distribution of order zero . It is , furthermore , a distribution with compact support ( the support being { 0 } ) .
The delta distribution can also be defined in a number of equivalent ways . For instance , it is the distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function . This means that , for every test function φ , one has
<formula>
Intuitively , if integration by parts were permitted , then the latter integral should simplify to
<formula>
and indeed , a form of integration by parts is permitted for the Stieltjes integral , and in that case one does have
<formula>
In the context of measure theory , the Dirac measure gives rise to a distribution by integration . Conversely , equation ( 1 ) defines a Daniell integral on the space of all compactly supported continuous functions φ which , by the Riesz representation theorem , can be represented as the Lebesgue integral of φ with respect to some Radon measure .
Generally , when the term " Dirac delta function " is used , it is in the sense of distributions rather than measures , the Dirac measure being among several terms for the corresponding notion in measure theory . Some sources may also use the term Dirac delta distribution .
= = = Generalizations = = =
The delta function can be defined in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn as the measure such that
<formula>
for every compactly supported continuous function f . As a measure , the n @-@ dimensional delta function is the product measure of the 1 @-@ dimensional delta functions in each variable separately . Thus , formally , with x = ( x1 , x2 , ... , xn ) , one has
The delta function can also be defined in the sense of distributions exactly as above in the one @-@ dimensional case . However , despite widespread use in engineering contexts , ( 2 ) should be manipulated with care , since the product of distributions can only be defined under quite narrow circumstances .
The notion of a Dirac measure makes sense on any set . Thus if X is a set , x0 ∈ X is a marked point , and Σ is any sigma algebra of subsets of X , then the measure defined on sets A ∈ Σ by
<formula>
is the delta measure or unit mass concentrated at x0 .
Another common generalization of the delta function is to a differentiable manifold where most of its properties as a distribution can also be exploited because of the differentiable structure . The delta function on a manifold M centered at the point x0 ∈ M is defined as the following distribution :
for all compactly supported smooth real @-@ valued functions φ on M. A common special case of this construction is when M is an open set in the Euclidean space Rn .
On a locally compact Hausdorff space X , the Dirac delta measure concentrated at a point x is the Radon measure associated with the Daniell integral ( 3 ) on compactly supported continuous functions φ . At this level of generality , calculus as such is no longer possible , however a variety of techniques from abstract analysis are available . For instance , the mapping <formula> is a continuous embedding of X into the space of finite Radon measures on X , equipped with its vague topology . Moreover , the convex hull of the image of X under this embedding is dense in the space of probability measures on X.
= = Properties = =
= = = Scaling and symmetry = = =
The delta function satisfies the following scaling property for a non @-@ zero scalar α :
<formula>
and so
In particular , the delta function is an even distribution , in the sense that
<formula>
which is homogeneous of degree − 1 .
= = = Algebraic properties = = =
The distributional product of δ with x is equal to zero :
<formula>
Conversely , if xf ( x ) = xg ( x ) , where f and g are distributions , then
<formula>
for some constant c .
= = = Translation = = =
The integral of the time @-@ delayed Dirac delta is given by :
<formula>
This is sometimes referred to as the sifting property or the sampling property . The delta function is said to " sift out " the value at t = T.
It follows that the effect of convolving a function f ( t ) with the time @-@ delayed Dirac delta is to time @-@ delay f ( t ) by the same amount :
This holds under the precise condition that f be a tempered distribution ( see the discussion of the Fourier transform below ) . As a special case , for instance , we have the identity ( understood in the distribution sense )
<formula>
= = = Composition with a function = = =
More generally , the delta distribution may be composed with a smooth function g ( x ) in such a way that the familiar change of variables formula holds , that
<formula>
provided that g is a continuously differentiable function with g ′ nowhere zero . That is , there is a unique way to assign meaning to the distribution <formula> so that this identity holds for all compactly supported test functions f . Therefore , the domain must be broken up to exclude the g ′
= 0 point . This distribution satisfies δ ( g ( x ) ) =
0 if g is nowhere zero , and otherwise if g has a real root at x0 , then
<formula>
It is natural therefore to define the composition δ ( g ( x ) ) for continuously differentiable functions g by
<formula>
where the sum extends over all roots of g ( x ) , which are assumed to be simple . Thus , for example
<formula>
In the integral form the generalized scaling property may be written as
<formula>
= = = Properties in n dimensions = = =
The delta distribution in an n @-@ dimensional space satisfies the following scaling property instead :
<formula>
so that δ is a homogeneous distribution of degree − n . Under any reflection or rotation ρ , the delta function is invariant :
<formula>
As in the one @-@ variable case , it is possible to define the composition of δ with a bi @-@ Lipschitz function g : Rn → Rn uniquely so that the identity
<formula>
for all compactly supported functions f .
Using the coarea formula from geometric measure theory , one can also define the composition of the delta function with a submersion from one Euclidean space to another one of different dimension ; the result is a type of current . In the special case of a continuously differentiable function g : Rn → R such that the gradient of g is nowhere zero , the following identity holds
<formula>
where the integral on the right is over g − 1 ( 0 ) , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional surface defined by g ( x ) = 0 with respect to the Minkowski content measure . This is known as a simple layer integral .
More generally , if S is a smooth hypersurface of Rn , then we can associate to S the distribution that integrates any compactly supported smooth function g over S :
<formula>
where σ is the hypersurface measure associated to S. This generalization is associated with the potential theory of simple layer potentials on S. If D is a domain in Rn with smooth boundary S , then δS is equal to the normal derivative of the indicator function of D in the distribution sense :
<formula>
where n is the outward normal . For a proof , see e.g. the article on the surface delta function .
= = Fourier transform = =
The delta function is a tempered distribution , and therefore it has a well @-@ defined Fourier transform . Formally , one finds
<formula>
Properly speaking , the Fourier transform of a distribution is defined by imposing self @-@ adjointness of the Fourier transform under the duality pairing <formula> of tempered distributions with Schwartz functions . Thus <formula> is defined as the unique tempered distribution satisfying
<formula>
for all Schwartz functions φ . And indeed it follows from this that <formula>
As a result of this identity , the convolution of the delta function with any other tempered distribution S is simply S :
<formula>
That is to say that δ is an identity element for the convolution on tempered distributions , and in fact the space of compactly supported distributions under convolution is an associative algebra with identity the delta function . This property is fundamental in signal processing , as convolution with a tempered distribution is a linear time @-@ invariant system , and applying the linear time @-@ invariant system measures its impulse response . The impulse response can be computed to any desired degree of accuracy by choosing a suitable approximation for δ , and once it is known , it characterizes the system completely . See LTI system theory : Impulse response and convolution .
The inverse Fourier transform of the tempered distribution f ( ξ ) = 1 is the delta function . Formally , this is expressed
<formula>
and more rigorously , it follows since
<formula>
for all Schwartz functions f .
In these terms , the delta function provides a suggestive statement of the orthogonality property of the Fourier kernel on R. Formally , one has
<formula>
This is , of course , shorthand for the assertion that the Fourier transform of the tempered distribution
<formula>
is
<formula>
which again follows by imposing self @-@ adjointness of the Fourier transform .
By analytic continuation of the Fourier transform , the Laplace transform of the delta function is found to be
<formula>
= = Distributional derivatives = =
The distributional derivative of the Dirac delta distribution is the distribution δ ′ defined on compactly supported smooth test functions φ by
<formula>
The first equality here is a kind of integration by parts , for if δ were a true function then
<formula>
The k @-@ th derivative of δ is defined similarly as the distribution given on test functions by
<formula>
In particular , δ is an infinitely differentiable distribution .
The first derivative of the delta function is the distributional limit of the difference quotients :
<formula>
More properly , one has
<formula>
where τh is the translation operator , defined on functions by τhφ ( x ) = φ ( x + h ) , and on a distribution S by
<formula>
In the theory of electromagnetism , the first derivative of the delta function represents a point magnetic dipole situated at the origin . Accordingly , it is referred to as a dipole or the doublet function .
The derivative of the delta function satisfies a number of basic properties , including :
<formula>
Furthermore , the convolution of δ ′ with a compactly supported smooth function f is
<formula>
which follows from the properties of the distributional derivative of a convolution .
= = = Higher dimensions = = =
More generally , on an open set U in the n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn , the Dirac delta distribution centered at a point a ∈ U is defined by
<formula>
for all φ ∈ S ( U ) , the space of all smooth compactly supported functions on U. If α = ( α1 , ... , αn ) is any multi @-@ index and ∂ α denotes the associated mixed partial derivative operator , then the αth derivative ∂ αδa of δa is given by
<formula>
That is , the αth derivative of δa is the distribution whose value on any test function φ is the αth derivative of φ at a ( with the appropriate positive or negative sign ) .
The first partial derivatives of the delta function are thought of as double layers along the coordinate planes . More generally , the normal derivative of a simple layer supported on a surface is a double layer supported on that surface , and represents a laminar magnetic monopole . Higher derivatives of the delta function are known in physics as multipoles .
Higher derivatives enter into mathematics naturally as the building blocks for the complete structure of distributions with point support . If S is any distribution on U supported on the set { a } consisting of a single point , then there is an integer m and coefficients cα such that
<formula>
= = Representations of the delta function = =
The delta function can be viewed as the limit of a sequence of functions
<formula>
where ηε ( x ) is sometimes called a nascent delta function . This limit is meant in a weak sense : either that
for all continuous functions f having compact support , or that this limit holds for all smooth functions f with compact support . The difference between these two slightly different modes of weak convergence is often subtle : the former is convergence in the vague topology of measures , and the latter is convergence in the sense of distributions .
= = = Approximations to the identity = = =
Typically a nascent delta function ηε can be constructed in the following manner . Let η be an absolutely integrable function on R of total integral 1 , and define
<formula>
In n dimensions , one uses instead the scaling
<formula>
Then a simple change of variables shows that ηε also has integral 1 . One shows easily that ( 5 ) holds for all continuous compactly supported functions f , and so ηε converges weakly to δ in the sense of measures .
The ηε constructed in this way are known as an approximation to the identity . This terminology is because the space L1 ( R ) of absolutely integrable functions is closed under the operation of convolution of functions : f ∗ g ∈ L1 ( R ) whenever f and g are in L1 ( R ) . However , there is no identity in L1 ( R ) for the convolution product : no element h such that f ∗ h
= f for all f . Nevertheless , the sequence ηε does approximate such an identity in the sense that
<formula>
This limit holds in the sense of mean convergence ( convergence in L1 ) . Further conditions on the ηε , for instance that it be a mollifier associated to a compactly supported function , are needed to ensure pointwise convergence almost everywhere .
If the initial η =
η1 is itself smooth and compactly supported then the sequence is called a mollifier . The standard mollifier is obtained by choosing η to be a suitably normalized bump function , for instance
<formula>
In some situations such as numerical analysis , a piecewise linear approximation to the identity is desirable . This can be obtained by taking η1 to be a hat function . With this choice of η1 , one has
<formula>
which are all continuous and compactly supported , although not smooth and so not a mollifier .
= = = Probabilistic considerations = = =
In the context of probability theory , it is natural to impose the additional condition that the initial η1 in an approximation to the identity should be positive , as such a function then represents a probability distribution . Convolution with a probability distribution is sometimes favorable because it does not result in overshoot or undershoot , as the output is a convex combination of the input values , and thus falls between the maximum and minimum of the input function . Taking η1 to be any probability distribution at all , and letting ηε ( x ) = η1 ( x / ε ) / ε as above will give rise to an approximation to the identity . In general this converges more rapidly to a delta function if , in addition , η has mean 0 and has small higher moments . For instance , if η1 is the uniform distribution on [ − 1 / 2 , 1 / 2 ] , also known as the rectangular function , then :
<formula>
Another example is with the Wigner semicircle distribution
<formula>
This is continuous and compactly supported , but not a mollifier because it is not smooth .
= = = Semigroups = = =
Nascent delta functions often arise as convolution semigroups . This amounts to the further constraint that the convolution of ηε with ηδ must satisfy
<formula>
for all ε , δ > 0 . Convolution semigroups in L1 that form a nascent delta function are always an approximation to the identity in the above sense , however the semigroup condition is quite a strong restriction .
In practice , semigroups approximating the delta function arise as fundamental solutions or Green 's functions to physically motivated elliptic or parabolic partial differential equations . In the context of applied mathematics , semigroups arise as the output of a linear time @-@ invariant system . Abstractly , if A is a linear operator acting on functions of x , then a convolution semigroup arises by solving the initial value problem
<formula>
in which the limit is as usual understood in the weak sense . Setting ηε ( x )
= η ( ε , x ) gives the associated nascent delta function .
Some examples of physically important convolution semigroups arising from such a fundamental solution include the following .
The heat kernel
The heat kernel , defined by
<formula>
represents the temperature in an infinite wire at time t > 0 , if a unit of heat energy is stored at the origin of the wire at time t =
0 . This semigroup evolves according to the one @-@ dimensional heat equation :
<formula>
In probability theory , ηε ( x ) is a normal distribution of variance ε and mean 0 . It represents the probability density at time t = ε of the position of a particle starting at the origin following a standard Brownian motion . In this context , the semigroup condition is then an expression of the Markov property of Brownian motion .
In higher @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn , the heat kernel is
<formula>
and has the same physical interpretation , mutatis mutandis . It also represents a nascent delta function in the sense that ηε → δ in the distribution sense as ε → 0 .
The Poisson kernel
The Poisson kernel
<formula>
is the fundamental solution of the Laplace equation in the upper half @-@ plane . It represents the electrostatic potential in a semi @-@ infinite plate whose potential along the edge is held at fixed at the delta function . The Poisson kernel is also closely related to the Cauchy distribution . This semigroup evolves according to the equation
<formula>
where the operator is rigorously defined as the Fourier multiplier
<formula>
= = = Oscillatory integrals = = =
In areas of physics such as wave propagation and wave mechanics , the equations involved are hyperbolic and so may have more singular solutions . As a result , the nascent delta functions that arise as fundamental solutions of the associated Cauchy problems are generally oscillatory integrals . An example , which comes from a solution of the Euler – Tricomi equation of transonic gas dynamics , is the rescaled Airy function
<formula>
Although using the Fourier transform , it is easy to see that this generates a semigroup in some sense , it is not absolutely integrable and so cannot define a semigroup in the above strong sense . Many nascent delta functions constructed as oscillatory integrals only converge in the sense of distributions ( an example is the Dirichlet kernel below ) , rather than in the sense of measures .
Another example is the Cauchy problem for the wave equation in R1 + 1 :
<formula>
The solution u represents the displacement from equilibrium of an infinite elastic string , with an initial disturbance at the origin .
Other approximations to the identity of this kind include the sinc function ( used widely in electronics and telecommunications )
<formula>
and the Bessel function
<formula>
= = = Plane wave decomposition = = =
One approach to the study of a linear partial differential equation
<formula>
where L is a differential operator on Rn , is to seek first a fundamental solution , which is a solution of the equation
<formula>
When L is particularly simple , this problem can often be resolved using the Fourier transform directly ( as in the case of the Poisson kernel and heat kernel already mentioned ) . For more complicated operators , it is sometimes easier first to consider an equation of the form
<formula>
where h is a plane wave function , meaning that it has the form
<formula>
for some vector ξ . Such an equation can be resolved ( if the coefficients of L are analytic functions ) by the Cauchy – Kovalevskaya theorem or ( if the coefficients of L are constant ) by quadrature . So , if the delta function can be decomposed into plane waves , then one can in principle solve linear partial differential equations .
Such a decomposition of the delta function into plane waves was part of a general technique first introduced essentially by Johann Radon , and then developed in this form by Fritz John ( 1955 ) . Choose k so that n + k is an even integer , and for a real number s , put
<formula>
Then δ is obtained by applying a power of the Laplacian to the integral with respect to the unit sphere measure dω of g ( x · ξ ) for ξ in the unit sphere Sn − 1 :
<formula>
The Laplacian here is interpreted as a weak derivative , so that this equation is taken to mean that , for any test function φ ,
<formula>
The result follows from the formula for the Newtonian potential ( the fundamental solution of Poisson 's equation ) . This is essentially a form of the inversion formula for the Radon transform , because it recovers the value of φ ( x ) from its integrals over hyperplanes . For instance , if n is odd and k = 1 , then the integral on the right hand side is
<formula>
where Rφ ( ξ , p ) is the Radon transform of φ :
<formula>
An alternative equivalent expression of the plane wave decomposition , from Gel 'fand & Shilov ( 1966 – 1968 , I , § 3 @.@ 10 ) , is
<formula>
for n even , and
<formula>
for n odd .
= = = Fourier kernels = = =
In the study of Fourier series , a major question consists of determining whether and in what sense the Fourier series associated with a periodic function converges to the function . The nth partial sum of the Fourier series of a function f of period 2π is defined by convolution ( on the interval [ − π , π ] ) with the Dirichlet kernel :
<formula>
Thus ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
A fundamental result
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793 , the French Republic declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic , drawing both into the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars . Less than two years later , in the winter of 1794 – 1795 , the Dutch Republic was overrun by the French Army , French cavalry charging the Dutch Navy across the ice that blocked its winter anchorages , capturing it intact . The French reorganised the country into a client state named the Batavian Republic , and ordered the Dutch Navy to operate in the North Sea against British maritime trade routes . The British government did not immediately declare war on the Batavian Republic , but did take steps to seize Dutch shipping in British ports and established a new fleet to combat Batavian operations in the North Sea . The North Sea Fleet , as it was known , was composed mainly of older and smaller vessels not considered suitable for service in the Channel Fleet , and command of this force was given to the 66 – year old Admiral Adam Duncan .
In August 1795 , the Batavian Navy sent a frigate squadron to operate against the British trade routes with Scandinavia , which carried large quantities of British naval stores to supply the British fleets . These trade routes passed from the Baltic Sea through the Kattegat and Skaggerak channels and across the North Sea , and the Batavian squadron consequently cruised at the mouth of the Kattegat off the southern coast of neutral Danish controlled Norway . To counteract this Batavian operation , Duncan sent a squadron of British frigates from the North Sea Fleet under the command of Captain James Alms with orders to intercept and destroy the Batavian ships . On 22 August , Alms 's force discovered the Batavian squadron close to the Norwegian harbour of Eigerøya . Alms closed with the Batavian force in an attempt to cut it off from land , but was only able to intercept the Batavian frigate Alliante with his ship HMS Stag , compelling the Batavian vessel to surrender in a short engagement . Although the remainder of his squadron exchanged fire with the Batavian ships , damaging the frigate Argo , Alms ' force was unable to prevent their escape into Eigerøya .
For the rest of the year , Argo operated from the Norwegian coast , unable to make and significant cruises due to the attention of British warships operating in the region . By May 1796 , Duncan 's fleet was now actively cruising against the Batavian Navy , commanding a blockade force of nine ships of the line and numerous smaller vessels at sea off the Texel , the principal Batavian fleet anchorage . Duncan also ensured that the blockade of the Batavian vessels in Norwegian ports was maintained , with the 28 – gun frigate HMS Pegasus under Captain Ross Donnelly and the brig @-@ sloop HMS Sylph under Commander John Chambers White sent to patrol the waters off Lindesnes . In early May , the Batavian authorities ordered Argo to return to the fleet at the Texel , and the frigate sailed from the Norwegian port of Flekkerøy on 11 May with three Batavian brigs : Echo of 18 – guns , Mercury of 16 – guns and Gier of 14 – guns .
The departure of the Batavian squadron was noticed by Donnelly 's small blockade force , which shadowed the Batavian ships as they passed southwards down the coast of Jutland , losing sight of them at 22 : 00 on 11 May . Donnelly correctly guessed the Batavian force 's destination , and ordered Sylph to separate , the two vessels following different courses , instructing White to proceed to Duncan 's blockade fleet and meet Donnelly there if he was unable to rediscover the Batavian squadron en route . Pegasus and Sylph encountered one another shortly before 05 : 00 on 12 May close to Duncan 's fleet south of the Texel but without having located the Batavian squadron . Argo and her consorts had sailed close to the Danish and German coasts during the night , seizing in passing a British cutter named Duke of York , travelling from Yarmouth to Hamburg . At dawn on 12 May the Batavian ships were off the Batavian coast sailing southwest towards the Texel anchorage .
= = Battle = =
On hearing Donnelly 's report , Duncan immediately despatched a small squadron to the mouth of the Texel to wait for the arrival of the Batavian squadron . Command of this squadron was given to Captain Lawrence Halstead in the 36 – gun frigate HMS Phoenix , accompanied by Pegasus , Sylph and the 50 – gun fourth rate HMS Leopard . The squadron detached at 05 : 00 and almost immediately the Batavian squadron was sighted to the southeast , heading for the entrance to the Texel , tacking against the northwest wind . Halstead 's force was not unified , with Pegasus and Sylph far ahead of Phoenix and Leopard , and the British commander decided to deliberately detach his forces , the faster Pegasus and Sylph pursuing the brigs under Donnelly 's command and Halstead 's rear force attacking the frigate Argo . Duncan 's main fleet , some distance behind Halstead , also sighted the Batavian squadron and joined the chase .
The Batavian captain , finding such a large force bearing down on him , ordered the brigs and cutter to separate from the frigate , turning with the wind in an effort to escape with Donnelly close behind . He also turned Argo away from the pursuing Phoenix , but was unable to decide whether to fight or flee and as a result changed course a number of times . This inevitably slowed his ship , and at 08 : 15 Phoenix was able to come alongside with the advantage of the weather gage . Halstead fired a shot across the Batavian ship 's bow as a warning to surrender to such overwhelming odds , but the Batavian captain refused and opened fire on the British frigate . Although Argo made strenuous efforts to escape during the exchange of fire , Halstead 's ship was both more accurate and effective , mounting 36 18 @-@ pounder cannon and 8 32 @-@ pounder carronades to the Batavian frigate 's 12 @-@ pounder main battery supplemented with a number of cannon of lower calibres . In just 20 minutes , Phoenix had torn much of Argo 's rigging , sails and masts and inflicted heavy casualties of eight killed and 28 wounded . With his ship damaged , Duncan 's fleet in sight and Leopard not far behind Phoenix , the Batavian captain surrendered at 08 : 35 , allowing Halstead to take possession of his vessel .
Phoenix was joined soon after the surrender of Argo by the 74 – gun ship of the line HMS Powerful under Captain William O 'Bryen Drury and together the ships took possession of the frigate while the chase of the remainder of the Batavian squadron continued . At 10 : 00 two of the brigs turned towards the Batavian coastline to seek shelter and two of the leading British ships , Pegasus and the 50 – gun HMS Leander under Captain Maurice Delgarno , turned in chase . Donnelly sought to interpose his ships between the brigs and the coast , but found that this would have slowed his vessels so much that the Batavian brigs would have an opportunity to escape . He therefore maintained pursuit and watched the Batavian ships , Gier and Echo driven ashore at the Batavian village of Bosch . Sailing as close to the shore line as safely possible , Delgarno detached cutters to investigate the state of the grounded ships , determining that one had been damaged beyond repair while the other , having initially grounded , had been driven over the shoal into deeper water on the far side . In his report on the action , Duncan considered that a storm which swept the area on the day following the action probably drove the brig back onto the shoal and destroyed it .
The last survivors of the Batavian squadron were harried along the coast by the faster forces in the British fleet with Sylph overhauling the 16 @-@ gun Mercury , forcing it to surrender just before 11 : 00 . The Batavian captain had thrown 14 cannon overboard in an effort to lighten his ship and allow it to escape British pursuit , but without success . Later in the day , Halstead 's Phoenix was able to seize the Batavian prize Duke of York , completing the destruction of the entire Batavian squadron .
= = Aftermath = =
Halstead brought his prizes back to Britain , where both Argo and Mercury were purchased for service by the Royal Navy as HMS Janus and HMS Hermes respectively as both of the Batavian names were already in use by the Royal Navy . British losses in the engagement were one man killed and three wounded , all suffered on Phoenix during the engagement with Argo . Apart from the losses in that exchange , no other casualties , either British or Batavian were reported . The action was the only significant engagement fought off the Batavian coast during 1796 as Duncan 's force kept the main Batavian fleet contained within its anchorage in the Texel . In October 1797 however the main Batavian fleet was able to break out and sail on a raiding cruise towards the English coast . Duncan intercepted the fleet on its return to the Texel and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Batavians on 11 October at the Battle of Camperdown .
= Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw =
Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw ( Polish : Sejm Księstwa Warszawskiego ) was the parliament of the Duchy of Warsaw . It was created in 1807 by Napoleon , who granted a new constitution to the recently created Duchy . It had limited competences , including having no legislative initiative . It met three times : for regular sessions in 1809 and 1811 , and for an extraordinary session in 1812 . In the history of Polish parliament , it succeeded the Sejm of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth and was followed by the Sejm of the Congress Poland .
= = History = =
In 1807 Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and granted it a constitution . Like with all Napoleonic legislatures , it was inferior in political power to executive by design .
The Sejm had met three times : for regular sessions in 1809 and 1811 , and for an extraordinary session of 1812 . The Sejm was mainly occupied with administration and financial matters ; its final act , in 1812 , was to create the last Polish confederation , the General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland .
= = Composition and duration = =
The Sejm was composed of two chambers : a chamber of deputies and a senate . The chamber of deputies was composed of 100 deputies , in 1810 increased to 166 . The initial 100 was composed of 60 deputies ( after 1810 , 100 ) elected from the ranks of the nobility ( szlachta ) during the sessions of the local parliaments ( sejmiks ) , and 40 non @-@ noble deputies ( after 1810 , 66 ) , as well as members of the Council of State . The deputy candidates had to be 24 years or older , and government officials , priests or officers in active military service were not eligible for candidacy . They were elected for a nine @-@ year term of office , in three tranches ( elections for a third of the deputies were to be held every three years ) .
The senate was composed of bishops , voivodes and castellans ; all nominated by the king . They numbered six each , in 1810 increased to ten each .
Those enfranchised to vote included landowners , owners of large businesses , clergy , artists , scientists , and the military . Notably , peasants could vote as well , provided they owned the land .
The Sejm session lasted fifteen days , and was convened every two years .
Notable politicians of the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw included : Józef Godlewski , Tomasz A. Ostrowski , Stanisław Sołtyk , Stanisław Staszic , Wawrzyniec Surowiecki and Józef Wybicki .
= = Competences = =
The competences of the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw were limited compared to its predecessor , the Sejm of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . It had no legislative initiative ( that was limited to the executive , represented by the king and the Council of State ) , and could only accept or refuse ( by simple majority ) the legislation on the issues of treasury ( finances and taxes ) and civil and criminal law , presented to it by the executive . Further , discussions were limited , as only the members of the five @-@ person strong committees ( one for treasury and one for each of the two laws ) , elected in secret ballot and tasked with the analysis of the proposed legislation , and members of the Council of State , had the right to speak . In practice , the members of the Sejm found a way to overcome this limitation , as after the day session would be officially closed , the deputies would remain in the parliament and start a new discussion .
The senate was to supervise the chamber of deputies , ensuring it acts according to the constitution , and ensure the proper procedure during the elections . The senate could object to a legislation , but could be overruled by the king .
The king had the right to dissolve the chamber of deputies , or replace senators with new nominees .
= Focus Grill =
" Focus Grill " is the thirteenth episode of the fourth season and the series finale of the American animated sitcom Home Movies , and 52nd episode of the series overall . It originally aired in the United States on Adult Swim on April 4 , 2004 . In the episode , Brendon , Melissa , and Jason decide to finally film an ending to the first movie they did together .
" Focus Grill " was written by Brendon Small and directed by Loren Bouchard . Despite struggling with the knowledge of the show 's cancellation since the start of the fourth season production run , Small noted that this final episode was actually an optimistic note for the series . The episode concludes with Brendon 's camera breaking , which Small believed was a way to finally eliminate the hindrances of the character 's metaphorical crutch .
The final episode received a largely positive response , with reviewers praising it for its sentimental , bittersweet way of concluding the show .
= = Plot = =
Brendon , Melissa , and Jason decide to start screening their movies in front of a focus group that consists of their schoolmates Fenton , Junior , Perry , and Walter . The group members harshly criticize this latest movie , and in the midst of trying to find the flaw in it , the three friends discover that the first movie they ever made together — in which they are a biker gang contemplating whether or not to fight an unknown adversary — is missing an ending . The three cannot agree on a conclusion for the movie , so they decide that each of them will create their own , and then screen the three potential endings in front of the focus group . All of their endings , however , are harshly criticized . The three sit down and watch a reel composed of scenes from several of their film projects ; they come to the consensus that their movies are designed only for them and should not actually be seen by anyone else .
Meanwhile , Coach McGuirk volunteers to assemble Paula 's large and complicated new grill , but he proves to be both incredibly inexperienced and largely incompetent at performing such a task . When McGuirk believes that he has finally completed the grill , he gathers Paula and the three kids together to witness its first ignition , but he ultimately causes a large explosion . The five go off on a drive , covered in soot , and Brendon accidentally drops his camera on the road , where it is run over by a car . He groans " oh no , " and almost begins to tell the others about what had just happened , but ends up getting drawn into a conversation about where to go for dinner .
The episode and series concludes with Paula , McGuirk , Jason , Melissa , and Brendon chattering about tapas , as Brendon 's broken camera briefly shoots an empty road before the picture flickers and turns to static .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Home Movies co @-@ creator Brendon Small , and was the final episode of the series ' production run . The episode was the fifty @-@ second of the series , a number that allows for an even distribution of reruns of the series ; Small noted that the technique is normally used on animated children 's shows , though Home Movies is actually created for an adult audience .
Small knew before writing the episode that it would be the last . Mike Lazzo , executive vice president of Adult Swim , had never " responded to the show " as Small had noted , which was in stark contrast to Vice President of Original Series Khaki Jones , whose enthusiasm over the series was what Small admitted to keeping it alive . During the production run for the fourth season , Lazzo had informed the crew bluntly that the season would conclude the series , explaining , " No matter what the numbers are , no matter what happens – we 're not going to bring the show back . "
Having been informed of this definite end of the series ' run , Small decided to write " Focus Grill " with the intention of it concluding the show . While penning the teleplay , he kept in mind the knowledge that " nothing positive [ is ] happening " ; however , Small did admit that the final scene of the episode — Brendon 's camera breaking on the road — was actually an optimistic footnote in the series ' narrative . Small considers that now that Brendon is without his camera , " he doesn 't need this crutch anymore . That he can actually start living his life as an actual earthling . "
" Focus Grill " , like all episodes , was directed by co @-@ creator Loren Bouchard , and as with every episode of Home Movies after its first season , the episode was animated using Macromedia Flash . The Squigglevision animation program is briefly used in one scene in the episode , where Brendon , Melissa , and Jason watch various movies of theirs from throughout the series , some of which are from the first season , in which the show utilized Squigglevision .
= = Reception = =
" Focus Grill " originally aired on Adult Swim , a cable network that shares channel space with Cartoon Network , on April 4 , 2004 . After the episode aired , Small received several e @-@ mails from various fans , who told him that watching the episode had made them cry . The episode received a largely positive response from reviewers . C.S. Strowbridge of The Numbers wrote that it was " able to really wrap up the series in a great way and show why the characters acted the way they did " , and praised it for " [ showing ] some real character development . " Pop Matters ' Jesse Hassenger described it as both " bittersweet " and " hilarious " .
Writing for his DVD Talk review of the show 's tenth anniversary DVD boxset , Jason Bailey considered the episode " especially strong , drawing the series to a fine full circle , both structurally and thematically . " Bailey concurred with Hassenger 's description of it as bittersweet , writing : " It 's an affectionate send @-@ off , bittersweet and kind of wonderful and therefore perfectly in tone with this charming little show . " Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed described it as the epitome of the show 's various themes , including childhood , art , and family , calling it " a slightly nostalgic episode " ; he considered it an excellent way to close the series , writing " Acting as probably both a reflection of the show 's staff at the time and a final send off , I can 't think of a better way to send Brendon Small and Loren Bouchard 's creation into the sunset . "
= Blacknose shark =
The blacknose shark ( Carcharhinus acronotus ) is a species of requiem shark , belonging to the family Carcharhinidae , common in the tropical and subtropical waters of the western Atlantic Ocean . This species generally inhabits coastal seagrass , sand , or rubble habitats , with adults preferring deeper water than juveniles . A small shark typically measuring 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long , the blacknose has a typical streamlined " requiem shark " shape with a long , rounded snout , large eyes , and a small first dorsal fin . Its common name comes from a characteristic black blotch on the tip of its snout , though this may be indistinct in older individuals .
Blacknose sharks feed primarily on small bony fishes and cephalopods , and in turn fall prey to larger sharks . Like other members of their family , they exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection . The females give birth to three to six young in late spring or early summer , either annually or biennually , after a gestation period of eight to 11 months . This species is not known to attack humans , though it has been documented performing a threat display towards divers . It is of moderate commercial and recreational importance . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as Near Threatened . In 2009 , the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration announced the populations of the blacknose shark off the United States are being overfished , and proposed new conservation measures .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Cuban naturalist Felipe Poey published the first description of the blacknose shark in 1860 as Squalus acronotus , in his Memorias sobre la historia natural de la Isla de Cuba . Later authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The type specimen was a 98 @-@ cm ( 3 @.@ 2 @-@ ft ) -long male caught off Cuba .
Based on morphological data , Jack Garrick suggested in 1982 that the blacknose shark has a sister relationship to a group containing the whitecheek shark ( C. dussumieri ) and the blackspot shark ( C. sealei ) , while Leonard Compagno proposed in 1988 that this shark belongs in a group with five other species , including the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) . Molecular analyses have been similarly equivocal regarding the blacknose shark 's phylogenetic relationships : Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme analysis found this species to be the most basal member of Carcharhinus , while Mine Dosay @-@ Abkulut 's 2008 ribosomal DNA analysis indicated affinity between it and the blacktip shark ( C. limbatus ) or the smalltail shark ( C. porosus ) . The whitenose shark ( Nasolamia velox ) , found along the tropical western coast of the Americas , may be descended from blacknose sharks that experienced the teratogenic effects of incipient cyclopia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blacknose shark inhabits the continental and insular shelves off the eastern coast of the Americas , as far north as North Carolina and as far south as southern Brazil , including the Bahamas , the Gulf of Mexico , and the Caribbean Sea . They frequent coastal waters over beds of seagrass , sandy flats , and shell or coral rubble . This species is spatially segregated by size and sex . Generally , only young sharks are encountered in shallow water , as the adults prefer depths greater than 9 m ( 30 ft ) and is most common at 18 – 64 m ( 59 – 210 ft ) . Blacknose sharks in the South Atlantic Bight ( off the Atlantic coast of the southern United States ) migrate northward in the summer and southward ( or possibly offshore ) in the winter ; a similar migration occurs for sharks in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Description = =
The blacknose shark has a slender , streamlined body with a long , rounded snout and large eyes . There is a well @-@ developed flap of skin in front of each nostril , defining the inflow and outflow openings . Twelve to 13 and 11 to 12 tooth rows occur on either side of the upper and lower jaws , respectively , with one or two teeth at the symphysis ( middle ) . The teeth are triangular and oblique , with serrated edges ; the upper teeth are stouter than the lower teeth . The five pairs of gill slits are short , measuring less a third the length of the first dorsal fin base .
The first dorsal fin is small and somewhat sickle @-@ shaped , with a pointed apex and a short , free , rear tip ; its origin lies over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is relatively large , though still less than half the height of the first . No ridge is seen between the dorsal fins . The pectoral fins are short and tapered . The body is covered with overlapping dermal denticles that bear five to seven longitudinal ridges ( three in very young individuals ) leading to three to five marginal teeth . The coloration is yellowish to greenish @-@ gray or brown above and white to yellow below . A distinctive dark blotch at the tip of the snout is most obvious in young sharks . The tips of the second dorsal fin , upper caudal fin lobe , and sometimes the lower caudal fin lobe , are dark . Blacknose sharks are typically 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and 10 kg ( 22 lb ) in weight . The maximum length and weight on record is 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 18 @.@ 9 kg ( 42 lb ) , respectively .
= = Biology and ecology = =
A small , fast @-@ swimming predator , the blacknose shark feeds primarily on small , bony fishes , including pinfish , croakers , porgies , anchovies , spiny boxfish , and porcupinefish , as well as on octopus and other cephalopods . When competing for bait , their speed allows them to snatch food from larger sharks such as the Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) . This species may form large schools that are sometimes associated with anchovies and mullet . Blacknose sharks demonstrate a high degree of philopatry : both juveniles and adults have been documented returning to the same local area year after year .
Blacknose sharks are preyed upon by larger sharks , and captives have been observed to perform an apparent threat display towards encroaching divers or newly introduced members of their species . The display consists of the shark hunching its back , lowering its pectoral fins , gaping its jaws , and swimming with an exaggerated side @-@ to @-@ side motion . Known parasites of this species include the copepods Nesippus orientalis , Perissopus dentatus , Pandarus sinuatus , Kroyeria sphyrnae , Nemesis atlantica , and Eudactylina spinifera , as well as tapeworms in the genera Paraorygmatobothrium and Platybothrium .
= = = Life history = = =
As in other requiem sharks , the blacknose shark is viviparous : after the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the empty yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother provides nourishment . Off the United States , males are thought to reproduce every year , while females reproduce every other year . However , off northeastern Brazil , the female reproductive cycle is short enough to occur annually . Vitellogenesis ( the formation of yolk within the ovary ) occurs in the late summer , and is immediately followed by mating and fertilization in the fall , with the young being born the following spring to summer . The seasonality of these events means the reproductive cycle is offset by six months between populations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . The gestation period has been variously estimated at eight months off northeastern Brazil and 9 – 11 months off the southeastern United States .
Females typically give birth to litters of one to six pups in shallow nursery areas , such as coastal bays or mangrove swamps ; one known nursery area is Bulls Bay off South Carolina . There is no relationship between female size and the number of young . The newborns measure 38 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) long . Female blacknose sharks grow more slowly , attain a larger ultimate size , and have a longer lifespan than males . In addition , Gulf of Mexico sharks are slower @-@ growing and longer @-@ lived than those from the South Atlantic Bight . In the South Atlantic Bight , both sexes mature at a fork length ( from snout tip to caudal fin fork ) of around 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) , corresponding to ages of 4 @.@ 3 years for males and 4 @.@ 5 years for females . In the Gulf of Mexico , both sexes mature at a fork length of around 85 cm ( 2 @.@ 79 ft ) , corresponding to ages of 5 @.@ 4 years for males and 6 @.@ 6 years for females . The maximum lifespan has been calculated as 19 years in South Atlantic Bight and 16 @.@ 5 years in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Human interactions = =
The blacknose shark has never been implicated in an attack on humans . However , caution should be exercised if it begins to perform a threat display . This species is regarded as a game fish and offers a respectable fight on light tackle ( a more delicate fishing line ) . It is also of regional commercial importance , being taken intentionally and as bycatch via gillnets and surface longlines across its range , most significantly off southwestern Florida , Venezuela , and Brazil ; the meat is sold dried and salted . Large numbers of blacknose sharks are also caught incidentally by shrimp trawlers , which may pose a greater threat to its population , as many of the sharks taken are immature .
Off the United States , the fishing of the blacknose shark is regulated by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service 1993 Fisheries Management Plan ( FMP ) for Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sharks . For the purposes of commercial quotas and bag limits , the blacknose shark is classified within the " small coastal shark " ( SCS ) complex . From 1999 to 2005 , an average of 27 @,@ 484 blacknose sharks ( 62 metric tons ) were caught each year off the United States . Recent stock assessments conducted by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) have determined the populations of this species have become overfished in both the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico . In 2009 , the NOAA proposed instituting a separate quota for blacknose sharks of 6 @,@ 065 sharks per year , and a ban on using gillnets to catch sharks in the Atlantic . By contrast , blacknose shark stocks off northern Brazil appear to be stable , while no fishery data are available from the Caribbean . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened globally .
= Erromintxela language =
Erromintxela ( Basque pronunciation : [ eromintʃela ] ) is the distinctive language of a group of Romani living in the Basque Country , who also go by the name Erromintxela . It is sometimes called Basque Caló or Errumantxela in English ; caló vasco , romaní vasco , or errominchela in Spanish ; and euskado @-@ rromani or euskado @-@ romani in French . Although detailed accounts of the language date to the end of the 19th century , linguistic research only began in the 1990s .
Erromintxela is a mixed language ( referred to as Para @-@ Romani in Romani linguistics ) , deriving most of its vocabulary from Kalderash Romani but using Basque grammar , similar to the way the Angloromani language of the Roma in England mixes Romani vocabulary and English grammar . The development of this mixed language was facilitated by the unusually deep integration of the Erromintxela people into Basque society and the resultant bilingualism in Basque . The language is in decline ; most of the perhaps one thousand remaining speakers live on the coast of Labourd and in the mountainous regions of Soule , Navarre , Gipuzkoa and Biscay . The Erromintxela are the descendants of a 15th @-@ century wave of Kalderash Roma who entered the Basque Country via France . Both ethnically and linguistically , they are distinct from
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the lead keyboardist , and Pete Astudillo , the backup singer , had helped with songwriting on the album . Vela was also in charge of the music sequencing during pre @-@ production of the album .
= = Composition = =
= = = Song structure and lyrical content = = =
" La Carcacha " was written and produced by A.B. Quintanilla III , Pete Astudillo and Bebu Silvetti , and was released as the album 's first promotional single , Quintanilla III had been inspired to write the song after leaving a dry goods store . He saw an old , broken down car and told Joe Ojeda , the band 's keyboardist , that he wanted to write a song about the vehicle . Ojeda then assisted Quintanilla III with the Spanish translation of the phrase " a broken down car " , determining the correct expression to be " Carcacha " . However , the general theme was not inspired until a month later , after Quintanilla III had bought a BMW and was buying dry goods at a corner store . His girlfriend began complaining about the car to him while he was waiting in line . Another girl in the store joined their conversation and commented that she would date Quintanilla III because she felt he had a nice car . Quintanilla III was then inspired to write a comical song with a moral behind it , and it took the band six months to finish the song . " La Carcacha " incorporates conjunto , Mexican cumbia and had regional Latin undertones . The song also has elements of piano and synthesizer woven into the rhythm of the song . Fanny S. Chirinos and Scripps Howard of The Intelligencer & Wheeling News Register stated that Selena catapulted onto the Tejano scene with " La Carcacha " and " Como La Flor " . The San Antonio Express @-@ News stated that the lyrical content of " La Carcacha " had the story lines that Selena never had , which was the tale of a barrio teen romance .
" Como La Flor " , released as the lead single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Quintanilla III , Astudillo and Quintanilla Jr , with additional writing contributions from Selena . Quintanilla III stated in an interview that " Como La Flor " was written in Bryan , Texas , while staying in an inelegant hotel for the night before going to Houston the following morning . While at the hotel , Quintanilla III had a melody stuck in his head and liked it . Looking outside , he saw a group of poor bystanders trying to sell plastic flowers to people on the streets which became the basis of the song centering on a flower . Quintanilla III immediately wrote the hook chant " aaaahh da da da da da ( como me duele ) " . While on the tour bus , Selena , Quintanilla III , Astudillo and Ojeda had sat down together to work on the song , which took them an hour and 20 minutes to complete . Suzette Quintanilla , Selena 's sister , thought that both " Como La Flor " and " La Caracha " had a distinct style of cumbia to them that could make the band more noticeable when their songs were played on radio stations . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News said that " Como La Flor " was a " career @-@ launching hit " . Cathy Ragland of Austin American Statesmen wrote that " Como La Flor " was one of Selena 's most popular songs and that " for many , a metaphor for her life- a beautiful , delicate creature " . " Como La Flor " helped Selena to dominate the Latin music charts and become immensely popular in Mexico , where Mexican @-@ Americans are not liked among citizens , which was well received by critics . The song describes a bewildered woman whose ex @-@ boyfriend is in love with another woman and she wants him back . The message of the song was to show people that you should love your partner if they truly love you back . At the 13th Tejano Music Awards , " Como La Flor " was picked as " Best Song " , though Mazz ' single " Lo Voy Hacer Por Ti " had won the award . " Como La Flor " peaked at number @-@ one on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart . " Como La Flor " became the first song recorded by Selena , as a solo act , to peak at number one , and became her signature song soon after .
" ¿ Qué Creias ? " , released as the second promotional single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Quintanilla III , Astudillo , and Quintanilla Jr . " ¿ Qué Creias ? " is a ranchera song that hovers the conjunto styles . The song has the harp and violin as its musical instrument foundation . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated that the song was " a heart @-@ wrenching ranchera that boasted an emotional delivery " . Richard Torres of Newsday believed that Selena had an " emotional vocal purity " that helped make " ¿ Qué Creias ? " an international hit . The song describes a bitter woman telling her ex @-@ boyfriend , who broke up with her , to be with a better woman , that she is desperate to get back with him and telling her ex @-@ boyfriend that she is happier without him and that her love was like no other . The song peaked at number 14 on the Hot Latin Tracks and number 16 on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay charts .
" Amame " , released as the third and final promotional single of Entre a Mi Mundo , was written and produced by Selena , Astudillo and Quintanilla III . " Amame " is written in common time and is performed in the key of A minor at 121 beats per minute . The song incorporates rock fusion , soul and contemporary R & B undertones . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " ... " Amame " is well @-@ crafted , catchy and proficiently played ... " The song describes a woman who is constantly fantasizing about being with a man she loves , she is determine to make it a reality but the decision is solely based on the man , which makes the woman anxious and inpatient . " Amame " peaked at number 27 on the Hot Latin Tracks .
= = = Other songs = = =
Pérez stated in an interview that Quintanilla III had wanted to record " Las Cadenas " as a rock @-@ influenced song on the album , but changed it back to a conjunto style within a few days . Pérez also confessed to " doubling " his guitar solos on the song which he had only done for " Las Cadenas " . Pérez said that Selena had used her own harmony in the song and that it reminded him of being at home and with his family because of the styles used on that track . For " Si La Queires " , Ricky Vela said that Quintanilla III had gone to Vela 's house and had looked over a few songs Vela had written . Quintanilla III instantly liked the chorus of " Si La Queries " . While on the tour bus , Quintanilla III rewrote the first draft of " Si La Queires " , and Vela was asked to come up with different scenarios that Quintanilla III liked . Hector Saldanna of San Antonio Express @-@ News wrote that " Vuelve A Mi " was a " hot little polka " , while TerraMexico described the song as a " successful hit " The Denver Post stated that " Missing My Baby " was " the best English song on [ Entre a Mi Mundo ] , an R & B song " . The The Deseret News stated that Selena displays a " Leslie Gore baby- voice " on " Missing My Baby " and that " Selena displays a wonderful suppleness in her voice " . The Virginian @-@ Pilot said that " Missing My Baby " was built on hooks that recall Diana Ross ' " Missing You " which was a tribute to Marvin Gaye . J.R. Reynolds of Billboard wrote that the song was a " dreamy ballad [ that had ] incorporate [ d ] an R & B @-@ styled melody under Selena 's pop vocals " . " Missing My Baby " peaked at number 16 on the Hot Latin Tracks , and the remix version found on Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) peaked at number 22 on the Rhythmic Airplay Chart .
= = Release = =
Entre a Mi Mundo was released on 6 May 1992 by EMI Latin and was certified gold ( Latin type ) by the Recording Industry Association of America . According to Stacy Lee 's book Mexico and the United States the album sold 300 @,@ 000 while Maria Celeste Arraras wrote in her book that the album sold 385 @,@ 000 copies in its first year . It became the first Tejano album by a female artist to sell more than 300 @,@ 000 copies . Entre a Mi Mundo sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in Mexico . Selena outsold male artists in the Tejano market with Entre a Mi Mundo . The album was well received by critics and broke a barrier in the male @-@ dominated Latin genre . By July 1995 , Entre a Mi Mundo had sold 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies , and was certified platinum . Entre a Mi Mundo was certified double platinum ( Latin type ) in 2000 and sextuple Disco De Platino in December 2002 , representing shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album was certified gold ( standard ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in May 1995 . In Mexico , Entre a mi mundo was certified triple gold , representing shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies .
Entre a Mi Mundo peaked at number one on the US Latin Regional Mexican Albums chart in September 1992 for eight consecutive months . After Selena was murdered , Entre a Mi Mundo debuted at number 139 on the Billboard 200 chart , and helped Selena to become the first female artist to place five albums simultaneously on the Billboard 200 . The album peaked at number 97 , and it peaked at number four on the Top Latin Albums chart . In 1995 , Entre a Mi Mundo was positioned at number two on Billboard 's " Latin Regional Mexican Albums all @-@ time chart " .
= = Entre a Mi Mundo Tour = =
To promote the album , Selena embarked on a worldwide tour , called the Entre a Mi Mundo Tour , which began in Elk City , Oklahoma on 25 May 1992 . Selena performed in two cities in Oklahoma , thirteen cities in Texas , four cities in New Mexico , seven cities in California , two cities in Florida , and one venue each in Louisiana , Tennessee and Nevada . Overall , Selena performed in more venues in her Entre a Mi Mundo Tour than in any of her previous tours . Selena performed in five Mexican cities , the first time that she had toured in that country , where she broke several attendance records . She was also in demand in El Salvador for appearing in " Buenos Amigos " , a duet with Salvordan singer Álvaro Torres . Every time Selena performed " ¿ Qué Creias ? " in her concerts , she would always ask for a man to volunteer on stage while Selena acted out the central theme of the song to him . Selena opened the 1993 Tejano Music Awards with her performance of " Siempre Estoy Pensando En Ti " , a duet with backup singer of the band , Pete Astudillo . At the 1994 Tejano Music Awards , Selena performed a short version of " Como La Flor " as part of a collaboration .
= = Critical reception = =
Many music critics believed Entre a Mi Mundo was the " breakthrough album " for Selena . Bruce Tomaso of The Dallas Morning News stated that " her brand of infectious Tejano pop [ in Entre a Mi Mundo ] had attracted a sizable audience charmed by her appealing voice " . stated that " Entre a Mi Mundo strengthened the Selena juggernaut " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News wrote that " Entre a Mi Mundo , marked her acceptance into the pop side of the Latin music " . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated that " Entre a Mi Mundo did feature Los Dinos as the backing band , but the album was undoubtedly a solo star @-@ making turn for Selena " Roundup Newsletter of Allmusic wrote that " Selena , with her crystal clear vocals and dynamic stage presence , became one of Tex @-@ Mex music 's premier performers in only a few years . She was named Top Female Entertainer and Female Vocalist of the Year for three years straight at the Tejano Music Awards . Tracks include " Si La Quieres , " " Yo Te Sigo Queriendo , " and " Las Cadenas " . Joey Guerra of Amazon.com wrote that it was because Selena and her brother grew up listening to classic pop , R & B , and disco that those genres were materialized in Entre a mi mundo . Guerra also stated that the album was " consistently satisfying and wonderfully diverse " . Guerra also gave examples of the songs on the album and their central theme " from the rousing cumbia " La carcacha " ( about a boyfriend 's beat @-@ up old car ) to the spirited mariachi kiss @-@ off anthem " ¿ Qué Creías ? , " which has become a fan favorite , " Missing My Baby " is street @-@ smart R & B , and " Amame " pulses with fiery club rhythms " . Guerra also stated that " Much of the credit should go to Quintanilla [ III ] , who helped Selena challenge the often @-@ stifling boundaries of Tejano music . Entre a Mi Mundo also includes Selena 's first international hit , " Como La Flor , " a lilting cumbia highlighted by a pleading vocal delivery and lost @-@ love lyrics " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
Managerial
Performance credits
Vocals – Selena
Visuals and imagery
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Malcolm Jardine =
Malcolm Robert Jardine ( 8 June 1869 – 16 January 1947 ) was an English first @-@ class cricketer who played 46 matches , mainly for Oxford University . Although his first @-@ class record was not impressive , he scored 140 in the University Match of 18
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& Lynton ) and one in Gibraltar .
The programme received positive reviews from critics because of Steel 's observations of the locals , and the fact the series took place in multiple locations , compared to the majority of stand @-@ up shows on radio and television , which are normally recorded in one single location . However , some have also criticised the way he has commented on some locations . In 2010 Mark Steel 's in Town won a Silver Award for " Best Comedy " in the Sony Radio Academy Awards , and in 2012 it won the Gold Award in the same category . Also in 2010 it won the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Award for " Best Radio Comedy / Light Entertainment " . In series was voted " Best Radio Entertainment Show " in the Comedy.co.uk Awards held by the British Comedy Guide in the 2012 and 2015 awards .
= = Format = =
Before each episode , Steel researches the history of the town he is going to perform in . His research interests include local notable people , landmarks , customs and humorous anecdotes . The majority of the research sometimes took place close to the actual recording date . For example , Steel carried out almost no research for his episode in Walsall until ten days before the recording . In Merthyr Tydfil he spent three days in the town where he did research and met locals .
He then performs a tailor @-@ made show about the town in front of a local audience . The style of the programme is similar to other shows starring Steel such as The Mark Steel Lectures , in which Steel presented a humorous lecture about a famous person in history .
= = Production = =
Due to the small budget there were certain places the show could not be recorded during the first series . For example , no episodes in the first series were recorded in Scotland . Steel said in an interview :
" One of the restrictions we 've got is that the budget for radio we 've got going is so unbelievably , comically tiny , that we couldn 't go to Scotland because the fare is too much . It is like some student fanzine . ' Mum , can I borrow some money because I want to go to Scotland.'
" So , I 'm hoping , if we do another series , because I 'd love to go to the Shetlands . I 'd be really excited at going to the Shetlands . Because it is just like a fascinating place to be at the moment . Or even one of these sort of weird places in Cornwall . But that was too far as well . "
The second series did feature two episodes recorded in Scotland . One in Dumfries , on the Scottish border , and other in Kirkwall , Orkney .
Other than Steel , Pete Sinclair was the only other writer , providing additional material . Julia McKenzie produced the first 2 series , while Sam Bryant produced series 3 & 4 . Ed Morrish produced Series 5 and Carl Cooper produced series 6 and will produce the upcoming series 7 . Also working on the show were studio manager Jerry Peal , and production co @-@ ordinators Sarah Sharpe and Trudi Stephens .
= = Reception = =
The majority of the reaction towards Mark Steel 's in Town has been positive . In May 2010 , the programme was given the Silver Award for " Best Comedy " in the Sony Radio Academy Awards . In May 2012 it won the Gold Award in the same category . In November 2010 it won the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain Award for " Best Radio Comedy / Light Entertainment " . In January 2013 it won the " Best Radio Entertainment Show " award in the 2012 Comedy.co.uk Awards held by the British Comedy Guide . It won the same award in the 2015 awards .
Chris Campling in The Times wrote a review of a show recorded in Skipton : " A tough gig ? More like shooting fish in a barrel , to judge from the reception he received from the honest burghers of Skipton , North Yorkshire . From the moment he remarked on the fact that the hall in which he was performing was used as a cattle market during the day and was hosed out before the show – and got a roar of approving laughter – Steel must have known that he could do no wrong . "
Campling , as well as other critics , have commented that one of the main features of the show is the ability of the locals to laugh at themselves and their eccentricities . Campling wrote of the Skipton show : " The ability to laugh at itself is one of this country 's finest attributes , but the Skipton mob were only too happy to celebrate their insularity . " Elisabeth Mahoney of The Guardian , who reviewed the Dartford episode said : " Going to a place and insulting it takes guts and careful strategies . Steel made use of the fact that he is from nearby Swanley both to signal that he knows the area but also that – whatever he was about to say about Dartford – it was better than his hometown . " Another journalist , reviewing the Penzance episode in the North Devon Journal commented : " Why do we like programmes that laugh at us ? Because , I hope , we laugh at ourselves . We 're not ignorant of our stereotypes . West Cornwall ? Aaarrrrr ! "
Miranda Sawyer in The Observer also praised the show saying it was , " A simple idea , kindly and wittily executed by another unfashionably humane Englishman . Thank Gaia they still exist . "
Hilda Swinney , the Portland correspondent for the Dorset Echo said that at the recording on the Isle of Portland : " The audience , mostly Portlanders , were appreciative and very responsive to his humour and his views on ' their special island ' . They left him in no doubt that a return of Mark Steel 's in Town would be very welcome . "
Stuart Morris , a historian who helped to provide research for Steel for the Portland show commented : " I was amazed that he should have absorbed so much of the island 's history in the short period of time that he had . He joked about the Portland winds , saying that in comparison , islanders wouldn 't even have bothered to take out their kites in the face of Hurricane Katrina . He made a few remarks about Portland / Weymouth rivalry and our Weymouth friends present laughed as much as the rest of us . "
Ian Wolf from the British Comedy Guide commented that : " The fact that the series moved from town @-@ to @-@ town was very impressive – as it meant Steel had to write a unique half @-@ hour routine for each venue ( compare this to most stand @-@ ups , who only have to come up with about an hour of strong material a year ! ) . "
However , at times local journalists have responded negatively to the programme . Lisa Reeves , who reviewed the episode recorded in Wilmslow , commented on how Steel 's socialist political views did not mix with the affluence of Wilmslow and nearby Alderley Edge , which he also visited for the purposes of the recording . Reeves wrote that : " It was an enjoyable evening , with some very funny gags but a large part of the material focused on the champagne lifestyle so often portrayed in the media . " She also said that Steel should have focused more on how good the area was as a place to live in , " but I suppose that wouldn 't make for good comedy . "
= = Episodes = =
= = = Series 1 = = =
= = = Series 2 = = =
= = = Series 3 = = =
= = = Edinburgh Fringe Special = = =
= = = Series 4 = = =
= = = Series 5 = = =
= = = Series 6 = = =
= = = Series 7 = = =
= = Merchandise = =
The first series of Mark Steel 's in Town was released for download on 1 March 2010 . The series has yet to be released on CD .
A book accompanying the series , entitled Mark Steel 's in Town and published by Fourth Estate , was released on 27 October 2011 .
= Churches of Christ =
Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices . They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone in order to be the church described in the New Testament . Churches of Christ teach that God saves and adds to His church those who believe in Christ , repent of sin , confess Jesus Christ as the Son of God , and are baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of sins , which grants the gift of the Holy Spirit ( Acts 2 : 36 @-@ 47 ) .
Churches of Christ in the United States have heritage in the American Restoration Movement . This evangelistic and Bible @-@ based effort began in various places as several people sought a return to the original teachings and practices of the New Testament . Christian leaders including Robert Sandeman , Abner Jones , Elias Smith , James O 'Kelly , Rice Haggard , Thomas Campbell , Alexander Campbell , Walter Scott , and Barton W. Stone were trailblazers of similar movements that impacted the eventual phenomenon known as the American Restoration Movement .
The Restoration ideal was also similar and somewhat connected to earlier restoration efforts in Europe ( such as those of John Glas , Robert Haldane , and James Haldane ) , as well as Puritan movements in colonial America . Though differing somewhat in details , each group consisted of like @-@ minded Christians who , although often independent of one another , had declared independence from their various denominations and the traditional creeds , seeking a fresh start to return to the doctrines and practices of the New Testament church . They did not see themselves as establishing a new church , but rather sought " the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the original church of the New Testament . " The names " Church of Christ , " " Christian Church , " and " Disciples of Christ " were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical , rather than denominational .
Prior to the U.S. Religious Census of 1906 , all congregations associated with the Restoration Movement had been reported together by the Census Bureau . But as the movement developed , tensions grew between those who emphasized unity and those who emphasized restoration , resulting in a division between those who used musical instruments in worship ( known as the Christian Church ) and those who chose to sing a cappella . The congregations in the a cappella tradition are the subject of this article . While this was the most visible distinction between the two groups , there was also disagreement over the appropriateness of organizational structures above the congregational level such as missionary societies .
Both issues highlighted differences in the groups ' underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation . For the Churches of Christ , practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church , and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship . For the Christian Churches , any practice not expressly forbidden could be considered . Though not officially recognized as distinct movements until 1906 , the separation of the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had been taking place gradually for decades .
The Restoration Movement was not a purely North American phenomenon , and active mission efforts began in the 18th century . There are now Churches of Christ in Africa , Asia , Australia , South America , Central America , and Europe .
= = Overview = =
Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century . Rather , the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost , A.D. 33 . The strength of the appeal lies in the restoration of Christ 's original church .
Modern churches of Christ have their historical roots in the Restoration Movement , which was a converging of Christians across denominational lines in search of a return to an original , " pre @-@ denominational " Christianity . Participants in this movement sought to base their doctrine and practice on the Bible alone , rather than recognizing the traditional councils and denominational hierarchies that had come to define Christianity since the first century A.D. Members of the churches of Christ believe that Jesus founded only one church , that the current divisions among Christians do not express God 's will , and that the only basis for restoring Christian unity is the Bible . They simply identify themselves as " Christians " , without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification . They believe that they are recreating the New Testament church as established by Christ .
Churches of Christ generally share the following theological beliefs and practices :
Autonomous , congregational church organization without denominational oversight ;
Refusal to hold to any formal creeds or informal " doctrinal statements " or " statements of faith " , stating instead a reliance on the Bible alone for doctrine and practice ;
Local governance by a plurality of male elders ;
Baptism by immersion of consenting believers for the forgiveness of sins ;
Weekly observance of the Lord 's Supper on SundayIn British congregations , the term " breaking of bread " is commonly used .
In American congregations the terms " Communion " , and particularly " Eucharist " , are rarely used .
Though doctrinally Churches of Christ hold to the closed communion viewpoint , in practice congregations rarely prohibit visitors from taking communion , on the view that per 1 Corinthians 11 : 28 the visitor must " examine himself " and decide to partake or decline ( i.e. it is not for the minister , elders / deacons
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episode " Flu Shot " as a different character named Michael Templeton . Actress Marceline Hugot made her ninth appearance as Kathy Geiss , the daughter of GE CEO Don Geiss . In the episode , Kathy performs the song " Ave Maria " with a trumpet at her father 's funeral . Dr. Kaplan was played by actor James Rebhorn , who first guest starred as the character in " Future Husband " . At the end of " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , where Liz is shown watching one of the " porn for women " channels , the man depicted as speaking to her was portrayed by actor John Anderson , who has guest starred previously on the show as Astronaut Mike Dexter . At the end of the credits , Anderson is credited as Astronaut Mike Dexter . Jack learns from former GE CEO Jack Welch , in the last episode , that current GE CEO Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) has died . In " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , a funeral service is held for Geiss . Television critic Bob Sassone of TV Squad , in his recap of this episode , wondered if Torn was written out of the series due to an alcohol @-@ related incident that occurred to Torn in January 2010 .
This episode was inspired by the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast in November 2009 . After winning her fourth Screen Actors Guild Award as her 30 Rock character at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards ceremony in January 2010 , Fey was asked whether or not the show would make reference to the Comcast acquisition to which she said that it would be dealt with . " The sale of NBC to another company is integral to our show and it will be hard for Jack . " In the episode , Kabletown — a fictional Philadelphia company network — has taken over GE Sheinhardt NBC Universal , and Jack tries to contribute his ideas to the company . In April 2010 , the NBC network created a website for the Kabletown company . When asked by a contributor from The Philadelphia Inquirer why the characters on 30 Rock refer to the network 's new owner as " Kabletown , with a K " , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that the reason for this was that the staff writers came up with the name " Cabletown " , however , they later learned that there was a real company with a similar name , so NBC 's legal team department " wanted to emphasize the difference , and after a while , everyone just liked the sound of it . "
Tracy Jordan 's storyline in which his former nanny writes a tell @-@ all book revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone mirrored — though in reversal — the real life of professional golfer Tiger Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal that occurred in late 2009 . In one scene , it is revealed that women have come forward admitting to never have had a sexual relationship with Tracy ; After news broke of Woods 's infidelities , numerous women came forward admitting to having affairs with the golfer . To re @-@ establish his womanizing persona , Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper ; In December 2009 , Woods announced he would take an indefinite leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity . Other women , who Tracy did not have a relationship with , have released voice mails to the news media . In one of them , Tracy leaves a message to his wife , Angie ( Sherri Shepherd ) , in which he is loving and sincere in the message ; One of Woods 's mistress produced voice and text messages as evidence of a relationship with the golfer . As a result of him being outed as monogamous , Tracy loses various endorsements ; After admitting to his affairs , Woods lost various endorsement deals with different companies .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Jack announces at a staff meeting that NBC has been bought by Kabletown , a company network from Philadelphia . Immediately , Jack and Liz exchange opinions about Philadelphia and Boston ; Liz , who grew up near Philadelphia , declares " Go Eagles ! Philly rules ! Cheesesteaks ! Bobby Clarke ! Will Smith ! [ Boston ] sucks ! " . Jack , who is from Boston , responds " Boston is the greatest city in the world . Boston Tea Party . Boston cream pie . Boston Rob Mariano . Birthplace of Benjamin Franklin . " Liz interjects " Yeah , then [ Franklin ] looked around , realized it sucked , and moved to Philadelphia ! " Jack and the New York staff then deride the city of Los Angeles , provoking an NBC executive teleconferencing in from Los Angeles to assert that " LA rules : Michael Bay , freeways , Legoland — " before Jack shuts off his feed . While meeting with Kabletown executives , Jack learns that they focus on adult films and sees their list of features , including Assatar , The Lovely Boners , The Hind Side , and Fresh @-@ Ass : Based on the Novel Tush by Assfire , puns on the 2009 films Avatar , The Lovely Bones , The Blind Side , and Precious : Based on the Novel " Push " by Sapphire .
Jenna claims to Tracy that she " ate the pig that played Babe , " in a reference to the 1995 film Babe based on the British novel The Sheep @-@ Pig . At Don Geiss 's funeral , the trumpet solo that his daughter Kathy Geiss ( Marceline Hugot ) performs is Ellens dritter Gesang by Franz Schubert , a melody best known as a setting for the Latin Catholic prayer Ave Maria .
When Liz tells Tracy that he has a life with his family and should enjoy it , after Tracy tries to have sex with her in order to restore his womanizing reputation , she tells him " You know what I have ? A Sims family that keeps getting murdered . " The Sims is a video game in which players create virtual people called " Sims " and places them in houses and helps direct their moods and satisfy their desires . Tracy responds " One day , you will have what I have because you are an amazing , strong , intelligent woman , like Hilary ... from Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air . " The Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air was a series that previously aired on NBC , and the Hilary character was a dull @-@ witted individual who lacked intelligence . Before going their separate ways , Liz discovers that Wesley 's last name is Snipes , but Wesley tells her that it is a name more fitting for a " pale English guy " , than actor Wesley Snipes . Liz and Wesley also attend a second run of the movie Hot Tub Time Machine , which provokes arguments between them despite their mutual enjoyment of the film .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago and New York . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In this episode , at Don Geiss 's funeral , he is shown to be frozen in carbonite similar to that of Star Wars character Han Solo in the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Don Geiss , America and Hope " was watched by 6 @.@ 857 million viewers during its original United States broadcast . The rating was a 3 percent increase in viewership from the previous week 's episode , " Future Husband " , which was seen by 5 @.@ 894 million American viewers . The show claimed a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 0 percent of all people in that group , and 9 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . For his work in this episode , Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost it to actor Jim Parsons .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that despite " Don Geiss , America and Hope " not being " strong " as the last episode it had " many funny moments scattered throughout " that he was satisfied with . He noted that the uncomfortable relationship between Liz and Wesley " worked better " here than previously . Sepinwall said it " was a good story " for Jack 's character , and that it was " nice " to see 30 Rock " fearless about mocking their future Comcast overlords as they are at making fun of NBC " . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Michael Sheen 's return , said that every part of Liz and Wesley 's story was " brilliant " . He observed that Jack 's midlife crisis here was " poignant as well as funny . " Overall , Rabin gave it a B + rating , and concluded " ... it was a rock @-@ solid episode " . Despite enjoying Sheen 's role on the show , Time contributor James Poniewozik confessed he had a problem with his story arc with Tina Fey 's Liz . " I assume that [ Sheen ] is not going to become a permanent cast member , and so however much I might enjoy parts of this story , I can never forget that this is probably one more relationship that Liz will go through and end up at status quo ante . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was complimentary towards the NBC / Kabletown deal , enjoyed Tracy 's subplot , noting it gave the character " something important to do ... it also shined some new light on the Tracy Morgan character . " Adam Mersel for TV Guide reasoned " I can officially say that almost no episode of 30 Rock falls flat for me , and this one certainly didn 't [ ... ] All in all , this is one of my favorite episodes of the season . " Paste magazine contributor Sean Gandert was favorable to it , noting " I 'm not sure when the last time I thought every plot in a 30 Rock episode was a winner , but ' Don Geiss , Hope and America ' delivered on the exuberant claims of the episode 's title " . Nick Catucci of New York magazine wrote that Jack trying to fit in at Kabletown , along with his suggestion of " porn for women " , was " meh " , Liz dealing with Wesley and Tracy " dealing with the world 's discovery of his fidelity to his wife " were all " quite comfortably situated in the show 's wheelhouse " .
Not all reviews were positive . IGN contributor Robert Canning felt that " Don Geiss , American and Hope " felt " a bit rudderless as well . The main stories eventually crossed over in meaningful ways , but aside from those connections , their direction was a bit weak and unsure . They all had a great bit or two ... but the general feel of the episode was mostly blah . That could likely be the result of the main characters coming off as mostly blah . " In conclusion , Canning gave it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . Meredith Blake , a contributor for the Los Angeles Times , was not positive towards Fey and Sheen 's story here , explaining that the premise of the two characters settling for one another " fell flat " and " it just wasn 't as funny as it could have been . "
= Lightning ( Final Fantasy ) =
Lightning ( ライトニング , Raitoningu ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series . She first appeared as a playable character and protagonist in the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy XIII , in which she features as a resident of the artificial world of Cocoon . After her sister Serah is declared an enemy of Cocoon , Lightning attempts to save her : she and others are then chosen by the fal 'Cie , a divided race of demigods who rule the worlds of Gran Pulse and Cocoon , to destroy Cocoon . Lightning reappears as a supporting character in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , acting as protector of the Goddess Etro . She is the sole playable character in Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , wherein she sets out to save her world , which is destined to end in thirteen days . She has featured in other Final Fantasy games , most notably the crossover game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy .
Lightning was created by Motomu Toriyama , the director and scenario writer of XIII , and designed by Tetsuya Nomura , a regular character artist for the Final Fantasy series . Their idea was to create a strong female protagonist who was adept at combat and less feminine than previous Final Fantasy heroines . Aspects of her early design and personality were later altered , or transferred to other characters . After XIII , Lightning 's design was revised several times to reflect her role and development in each game , particularly in Lightning Returns . Her name in Japanese , Éclair Farron ( エクレール ・ ファロン , Ekurēru Faron ) , was originally a placeholder . Because of its similarity to the name of a pastry , her first name was changed to " Claire " in other countries .
Lightning has received mixed commentary from critics — much of it relating to her cold personality , which was compared to that of Final Fantasy VII 's protagonist Cloud Strife . She was criticized for her relative absence in XIII @-@ 2 . Her role in Lightning Returns had a mixed reception : some critics saw her as underdeveloped and unlikable , while others found her better developed and more human than in previous games . Lightning later appeared on lists , compiled by video game publications , of the best characters in the Final Fantasy series and in video games as a whole . She has been received favorably in polls of public opinion by Famitsu , Square Enix , and other organizations .
= = Character design = =
Lightning was designed by regular Final Fantasy character designer Tetsuya Nomura , who had previously served as the character designer for Final Fantasy VIII and X. Nomura has said that multiple designs — including some by staff members other than himself — were considered for Lightning , while Toriyama has claimed that Nomura 's first draft " looked so cool and strong that there was no need for any retakes . " Because of the graphical capacities of Final Fantasy XIII 's prospective platforms , Nomura was able to include far more detail in Lightning 's design than in his previous character designs , such as her cape and facial features . This necessitated far more effort on his part . Commenting on an early form of her design , Nomura explained that she is essentially a " cool character " , in that she is serious and unforgiving . However , he could not make the character too masculine for fear of losing player empathy . Characteristics from earlier versions of the design included blond or silver hair and Asian @-@ looking facial features . Her final art was made less Asian @-@ looking than these early drafts and her hair color changed to pink , while Hope Estheim was given silver hair . Lightning 's final hair color and hairstyle were intended to reflect her femininity , and to counterbalance her athletic body . Creating her promotional CG render was fairly easy due to the amount of details available concerning her .
Lightning 's real name is Claire Farron in English and Éclair Farron ( エクレール ・ ファロン , Ekurēru Faron ) in Japanese . During the early stages of production , Lightning 's real name was Averia : " Eclair " was used to keep this name secret , but it was eventually chosen as her official name . Her English name , Claire , was chosen because the name " Eclair " is closely associated with a type of pastry . The name " Lightning " was not chosen by Nomura but by other members of the development team : Nomura had wanted to abandon the tradition of naming Final Fantasy protagonists after weather events , and was surprised by the choice . Several models of Lightning 's house were constructed for XIII but were removed due to space issues . Her weapon in XIII , the Blazefire Saber ( known as Blaze Edge ( ブレイズエッジ , Bureizu Ejji ) in the Japanese version ) was designed to mirror the ability of the game 's summoned monsters , the Eidolons , to transform into animal- , human- and vehicle @-@ like shapes . The game 's version of Odin , Lightning 's Eidolon and a recurring summoned monster in the Final Fantasy series , was intended to present Lightning as a knight on horseback . He was written as a father figure for Lightning . In later games in the XIII series , Odin was developed into a friend to whom Lightning could show her deeper feelings . Daisuke Watanabe , while writing the script for XIII , paid particular attention to fleshing out Lightning 's non @-@ romantic relationship with Snow Villiers and to showing her development as a person while protecting Hope .
Due to global demand and the development staff 's desire to further Lightning 's character , development began for a sequel to XIII . The game tackles the question of whether Lightning is happy after the events of XIII . Even before a sequel was greenlit , Toriyama had wanted to create a truly happy ending for the character . Lightning 's outfit in XIII @-@ 2 was designed by Isamu Kamikokuryo . He worked from a rough sketch by Nomura of how Lightning should appear . The outfit was redone several times by Kamikokuryo : a qipao and a science fiction @-@ inspired design were both discarded because they clashed with the game 's atmosphere . The final design was inspired by the valkyries of Norse mythology . The outfit was meant to reflect the environment around Lightning . It features a feather motif to represent Lightning 's light , delicate side and her growing powers . She was depicted as having transcended her human limits , making it difficult to depict her as a normal person .
Her outfit in Lightning Returns was designed by Nomura . He was told by Toriyama to create something representative of her final battle , with " strength " as the main guideline . The resultant outfit , which resembles a leather bodysuit , has spinal column patterns on its sleeves and is primarily colored red and white . Nomura later commented that he felt " a strong reaction within [ himself ] " while creating Lightning 's final look . Nomura 's design was Kamikokuryo 's favorite out of the many outfits created for the character . Her other outfits for the game were designed by Kamikokuryo , Toshiyuki Itahana , and Toshitaka Matsuda : many of them drew inspiration from the character designs of regular Final Fantasy artist Yoshitaka Amano . In addition to the new costumes , Lightning 's in @-@ game model was rebuilt from the ground @-@ up . Her breasts were enlarged and several of her outfits were designed to present her in a more feminine way . For the game 's epilogue , Toriyama wished for Lightning to appear in an everyday setting and normal clothes . The team considered ending the game with Lightning either meeting or speaking with her allies , but Toriyama wished the story to begin and end with her alone . He has claimed that Lightning , with her solo role in Lightning Returns , was the Final Fantasy series ' " first female protagonist " .
= = = Influences = = =
Toriyama wanted Lightning to be a type of female character previously unseen in Final Fantasy games , one with an athlete 's body and a less feminine nature . His guideline to Nomura was to make her strong , beautiful , and " like a female version of Cloud [ Strife ] from [ Final Fantasy VII ] " . Commenting on the resemblance , Toriyama stated that the similarities between the characters only extend to their cold personalities and their military backgrounds , and that otherwise " Lightning really [ is ] her own person . " Nomura compared the two shortly before the Japanese release of Lightning Returns , saying that he had " desired for her to be carefully developed and loved for a long time , like Cloud . " Toriyama has said that , among the characters he had been involved in creating , Lightning was his favorite female character from a video game , alongside Yuna from Final Fantasy X and Yoyo from Bahamut Lagoon .
= = = Personality = = =
In contrast to other characters in the Final Fantasy series , whose personality traits were molded to fit a story , Toriyama conceived Lightning 's basic personality before XIII 's narrative had been finalized . She has a cold demeanor , which was meant to clash in an entertaining way with Snow 's outspokenness . Nomura commented that Lightning has " a strong element of mystery about her character " . She originally had a flirtatious aspect to her personality , which was transferred to Oerba Yun Fang when Fang was changed from male to female . For Lightning Returns , the developers wanted to portray Lightning in several different lights , in contrast to her static personalities in prior appearances . One of their highest priorities was to make Lightning a character who had lost much in her life and become deeply vulnerable as a result . Designer Yuji Abe elaborated that , because of her losses and newfound vulnerability , Lightning came across as darker , slightly numbed to her surroundings , and " like a puppet , like someone who doesn 't quite have her real self inside . " He elaborated that this effect shows " the kind of vulnerability she has , and it 's the point from which she starts to change afterward . " The decision to expand her personality in this way was originally suggested by Yoshinori Kitase , who was concerned that Lightning 's coolness in previous games had made it difficult for players to bond with her .
Across her speaking appearances , Lightning is voiced by Ali Hillis in English and Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese . Sakamoto was impressed by Lightning , whom she called " cold " and " strong " . She was asked to portray Lightning 's strength and to betray the character 's hidden vulnerabilities . She initially found it strange to voice Lightning , as she was used to gentler roles such as Aerith Gainsborough , a central character in Final Fantasy VII and its companion media . Commenting on the difficulty of balancing Lightning 's depiction as a woman and a professionally trained warrior , Kitase noted that Sakamoto 's acting helped to bring out Lightning 's femininity . Hillis was given the role of Lightning after speaking a few of the character 's lines during audition , and was then given a book about the Final Fantasy XIII universe , which she found a little " overwhelming " when she read it . One of the challenges Hillis faced was recapturing the emotion and energy of Sakamoto 's Japanese performance in the character 's English rendition . She tried to help the staff of the XIII games portray Lightning as a real person : " I think that was my main priority , to make sure that Lightning had every single layer of who she was as a person , not just a game character , but a real person with layers and history and relationships to every single character in the game ... even the Chocobo ! " Over the course of the XIII trilogy , Hillis felt that Lightning becomes " a little more sarcastic ... a little more hardened to everything that 's going on around her and ... [ evolves ] into a real warrior " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy XIII series = = =
Lightning , along with her sister Serah , is a resident of Cocoon , an artificial world hovering above the planet Gran Pulse . Each of these regions is controlled by a sect of the fal 'Cie , a race of demigods whose two factions , the " Sanctum " population on Cocoon and the " Pulse " fal 'Cie from Gran Pulse , are hostile toward one another . In Final Fantasy XIII : Episode Zero : Promise , a novel set before the events of XIII , it is revealed that Lightning and Serah 's parents died when their children were young , and that Lightning resolved to become her sister 's protector but ended up neglecting her in the process . She grows to resent Snow 's romantic relationship with Serah and the anti @-@ government activities of his group NORA . Lightning discovers too late that Serah has been branded as a l 'Cie — a human cursed with magical powers and a task to complete — by the Gran Pulse fal 'Cie Anima : Lightning initially thinks that Serah is using her condition as an excuse to marry Snow . Lightning then resigns from the service as a member of the Guardian Corps and volunteers herself for the Purge , a forced relocation of citizens who have come into contact with Anima , to save her sister .
In Final Fantasy XIII , Lightning reaches Anima along with Hope , Sazh Katzroy , and Oerba Dia Vanille , three of the surviving Purge exiles . When they find Serah , she turns to crystal . Lightning and the party fight Anima and are marked as l 'Cie when PSICOM , Cocoon 's main military force , destroys Anima . Skeptical of Snow 's resolve to save her sister , Lightning abandons him and Serah , both of whom are then rescued by Oerba Yun Fang and a rogue Cocoon military force called the Cavalry . Lightning ends up traveling with Hope . During their time together , Lightning inadvertently summons Odin , and she unknowingly supports Hope 's plan to assassinate Snow by protecting and training him . Throughout the game , Lightning struggles to deal with her nature as a l 'Cie , her anger at being made Cocoon 's enemy , and her guilt at disbelieving Serah 's story . After overcoming these issues , she acknowledges Snow 's relationship with Serah and his faith that they will restore her . When they kill the Sanctum fal 'Cie Orphan to save Cocoon , Lightning , Serah and the party except for Vanille and Fang are allowed to return to their normal lives : Vanille and Fang form a crystal pillar to stop Cocoon from colliding with Gran Pulse .
Final Fantasy XIII : Episode I , a short novel set immediately after XIII , shows Lightning uneasy about whether her battle is over or not . She leaves to save Fang and Vanille , but first gives her blessing to Snow and Serah 's marriage . Eventually , Lightning finds herself caught in a dark void , but she decides to keep moving forward .
In Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , Lightning has disappeared , and all but Serah believe that she died with Vanille and Fang to save Cocoon . In reality , Lightning was brought to Valhalla , capital of the Goddess Etro , as a direct result of Etro 's releasing her and the others from their condition as l 'Cie . These events had distorted time and erased Lightning from history after Cocoon 's fall . Hoping to atone for the deaths she caused as a l 'Cie , Lightning chooses to stay in Valhalla and protect the dying Etro from Caius Ballad , an immortal man with a grudge against Etro . Lightning eventually asks Noel Kreiss and Serah to help her stop Caius from ending time , which he plans to do by releasing " chaos " , a supernatural energy controlled by Etro , into the mortal world . Serah and Noel travel forward in time to fix distortions in history caused by Caius ' interference , and Serah eventually dies when history is restored . In the DLC episode Requiem of the Goddess , Lightning is defeated by Caius and loses hope after learning of her role in Serah 's death . Lightning is comforted by Serah 's spirit , who asks not to be forgotten . Vowing to preserve Serah 's memory , Lightning turns to crystal , which prevents her from being affected when Etro 's death releases chaos .
In Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , Lightning is revived after 500 years by the god Bhunivelze . The world is set to end in thirteen days , and Lightning is chosen as the Savior , a spiritual guide for humanity , which has ceased to age due to the influence of chaos . In return for Lightning 's help , Serah will be resurrected . Aided by Hope , Lightning frees her former allies of emotional burdens , reunites with Odin in the form of a white Chocobo , and frequently crosses paths with Lumina , the physical manifestation of Lightning 's suppressed vulnerabilities . Lightning begins to doubt her humanity , and , when she learns that Bhunivelze stole Serah 's soul and manipulated Lightning 's memories , she plans to betray him after he has finished building the new world . When the end of the world arrives , Lightning fights Bhunivelze , who wants to transform humanity into his ideal image and has been shaping Lightning as Etro 's replacement . Although she is prepared to fulfill her new role and abandon her human life , Lightning instead chooses to call for help and to accept Lumina as a part of herself . Everyone she has saved , including Serah , unites with her and defeats Bhunivelze . Lightning then witnesses the creation of a new universe , into which she goes with her allies and the souls of humanity . In the epilogue , she is seen traveling to reunite with one of her friends .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Beyond the XIII games , Lightning has appeared in several spin @-@ offs within the Final Fantasy franchise . In the fighting game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , Lightning is one of the warriors summoned by the goddess Cosmos . She was meant to debut in Dissidia Final Fantasy , but the idea was scrapped as Final Fantasy XIII had yet to be released and Square Enix did not want to reveal her abilities ahead of time . During Dissidia 012 , Lightning 's group is confronted by beings called Manikins , which inflict permanent death on those they defeat , thereby threatening the world 's cycle of rebirth . She leads an expedition to the portal from which the Manikins are emerging , and the group sacrifices its life to close it . Lightning has three alternate outfits in the game . She again appeared as a playable character in the 2015 sequel for arcades .
The character was featured in a series of special player events in Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn : Lightning and monsters from her world appeared in the land of Eorzea while she was in crystal stasis between XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns . It is hinted that she was sent to Eorzea by Bhunivelze to hone her skills in preparation for future battles in her world . After the events were completed , Lightning met up with the player one last time , saying that she was thankful for the time spent in Eorzea . As she was summoned back to her world , she asked the player to remember her time there . Players who participated in the events received gear and outfits modeled after items , weapons and clothing from the XIII games . Lightning also plays a role as an ally in World of Final Fantasy , appearing in her Lightning Returns outfit .
In the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy and its sequel Curtain Call , Lightning is a playable character representing the Final Fantasy XIII games . She is featured , sporting her XIII @-@ 2 design , in Final Fantasy Airborne Brigade . Lightning is a playable character in the mobile crossover games Final Fantasy : All the Bravest and Final Fantasy : Record Keeper , a powered @-@ up character form in Final Fantasy Explorers , a chibi figure in Final Fantasy in Itadaki Street Mobile , and a character card in Final Fantasy Artniks . In response to speculation about her continued role in the Final Fantasy series after Lightning Returns ' release , Kitase clarified in 2013 that she would appear in spin @-@ off titles , but that her role in the main series had ended . Outside the Final Fantasy franchise , Lightning features in a minigame in Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , was part of a collaboration between the Final Fantasy series and Puzzle & Dragons alongside other established series characters , and versions of her outfit from XIII may be worn by protagonist Aya Brea in The 3rd Birthday and a character from arcade shooter Gunslinger Stratos 2 . Maaya Sakamoto , who portrays both Aya and Lightning , voiced Aya to sound like Lightning when the outfit is equipped .
= = = In merchandise and promotion = = =
Lightning has been featured in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ themed merchandise produced by Square Enix . The two pieces directly inspired by the character are necklaces and a mild perfume called " Lightning eau de toilette " . Action figures of Lightning in her three main iterations were produced by Play Arts Kai , a company often hired to make figurines of characters and creatures from the Final Fantasy series . Cards depicting the character are available in the Final Fantasy Trading Card Game . Lightning appears in a live @-@ action PlayStation commercial titled " Michael " , alongside characters such as Nathan Drake , Kratos and Cole McGrath . An actress portrayed the character at the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Event during Asia Game Show 2013 . She was portrayed again in a Japanese live @-@ action / CGI TV commercial for Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII . In April 2012 , Lightning and other characters from XIII @-@
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in such fashion , India lies to the north of the equator between 6 ° 44 ' and 35 ° 30 ' north latitude and 68 ° 7 ' and 97 ° 25 ' east longitude .
India 's coastline measures 7 @,@ 517 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 700 mi ) in length ; of this distance , 5 @,@ 423 kilometres ( 3 @,@ 400 mi ) belong to peninsular India and 2 @,@ 094 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 mi ) to the Andaman , Nicobar , and Lakshadweep island chains . According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts , the mainland coastline consists of the following : 43 % sandy beaches ; 11 % rocky shores , including cliffs ; and 46 % mudflats or marshy shores .
Major Himalayan @-@ origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra , both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal . Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi ; the latter 's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes . Major peninsular rivers , whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding , include the Godavari , the Mahanadi , the Kaveri , and the Krishna , which also drain into the Bay of Bengal ; and the Narmada and the Tapti , which drain into the Arabian Sea . Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India ; the latter is shared with Bangladesh . India has two archipelagos : the Lakshadweep , coral atolls off India 's south @-@ western coast ; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea .
The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert , both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons . The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in , keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes . The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture @-@ laden south @-@ west summer monsoon winds that , between June and October , provide the majority of India 's rainfall . Four major climatic groupings predominate in India : tropical wet , tropical dry , subtropical humid , and montane .
= = Biodiversity = =
India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots . One of 17 megadiverse countries , it hosts 8 @.@ 6 % of all mammalian , 13 @.@ 7 % of all avian , 7 @.@ 9 % of all reptilian , 6 % of all amphibian , 12 @.@ 2 % of all piscine , and 6 @.@ 0 % of all flowering plant species . About 21 @.@ 2 % of the country 's landmass is covered by forests ( tree canopy density > 10 % ) , of which 12 @.@ 2 % comprises moderately or very dense forests ( tree canopy density > 40 % ) . Endemism is high among plants , 33 % , and among ecoregions such as the shola forests . Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands , Western Ghats , and North @-@ East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya . Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India ; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India ; and the babul @-@ dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain . The medicinal neem , widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies , is a key Indian tree . The luxuriant pipal fig tree , shown on the seals of Mohenjo @-@ daro , shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment .
Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana , from which the Indian plate separated more than 105 million years before present . Peninsular India 's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species . Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction . Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya . Thus , while 45 @.@ 8 % of reptiles and 55 @.@ 8 % of amphibians are endemic , only 12 @.@ 6 % of mammals and 4 @.@ 5 % of birds are . Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome 's toad of the Western Ghats . India contains 172 IUCN @-@ designated threatened animal species , or 2 @.@ 9 % of endangered forms . These include the Asiatic lion , the Bengal tiger , the snow leopard and the Indian white @-@ rumped vulture , which , by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac @-@ laced cattle , nearly became extinct .
The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife . In response the system of national parks and protected areas , first established in 1935 , was substantially expanded . In 1972 , India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness ; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988 . India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves , four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves ; twenty @-@ five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention .
= = Politics = =
India is the world 's most populous democracy . A parliamentary republic with a multi @-@ party system , it has six recognised national parties , including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , and more than 40 regional parties . The Congress is considered centre @-@ left in Indian political culture , and the BJP right @-@ wing . For most of the period between 1950 — when India first became a republic — and the late 1980s , the Congress held a majority in the parliament . Since then , however , it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP , as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi @-@ party coalitions at the centre .
In the Republic of India 's first three general elections , in 1951 , 1957 , and 1962 , the Jawaharlal Nehru @-@ led Congress won easy victories . On Nehru 's death in 1964 , Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister ; he was succeeded , after his own unexpected death in 1966 , by Indira Gandhi , who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971 . Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975 , the Congress was voted out of power in 1977 ; the then @-@ new Janata Party , which had opposed the emergency , was voted in . Its government lasted just over three years . Voted back into power in 1980 , the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984 , when Indira Gandhi was assassinated ; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi , who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year . The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition , led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front , won the elections ; that government too proved relatively short @-@ lived , lasting just under two years . Elections were held again in 1991 ; no party won an absolute majority . The Congress , as the largest single party , was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao .
A two @-@ year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996 . Several short @-@ lived alliances shared power at the centre . The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996 ; it was followed by two comparatively long @-@ lasting United Front coalitions , which depended on external support . In 1998 , the BJP was able to form a successful coalition , the National Democratic Alliance ( NDA ) . Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the NDA became the first non @-@ Congress , coalition government to complete a five @-@ year term . In the 2004 Indian general elections , again no party won an absolute majority , but the Congress emerged as the largest single party , forming another successful coalition : the United Progressive Alliance ( UPA ) . It had the support of left @-@ leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP . The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers , and it no longer required external support from India 's communist parties . That year , Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re @-@ elected to a consecutive five @-@ year term . In the 2014 general election , the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties . The Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi , who was formerly Chief Minister of Gujarat .
= = = Government = = =
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India , which serves as the country 's supreme legal document . It is a republic and representative democracy , in which " majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law " . Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states . The government abides by constitutional checks and balances . The Constitution of India , which came into effect on 26 January 1950 , states in its preamble that India is a sovereign , socialist , secular , democratic republic . India 's form of government , traditionally described as " quasi @-@ federal " with a strong centre and weak states , has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political , economic , and social changes .
The federal government comprises three branches :
Executive : The President of India is the head of state and is elected indirectly by a national electoral college for a five @-@ year term . The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power . Appointed by the president , the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament . The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president , the vice @-@ president , and the Council of Ministers — the cabinet being its executive committee — headed by the prime minister . Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament . In the Indian parliamentary system , the executive is subordinate to the legislature ; the prime minister and his council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament .
Legislative : The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament . It operates under a Westminster @-@ style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the Rajya Sabha ( " Council of States " ) and the lower called the Lok Sabha ( " House of the People " ) . The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six @-@ year terms . Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state 's share of the national population . All but two of the Lok Sabha 's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote ; they represent individual constituencies via five @-@ year terms . The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo @-@ Indian community , in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented .
Judicial : India has a unitary three @-@ tier independent judiciary that comprises the Supreme Court , headed by the Chief Justice of India , 24 High Courts , and a large number of trial courts . The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre ; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts . It has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution , as well as to invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union territories . All states , as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi , have elected legislatures and governments , both patterned on the Westminster model . The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators . In 1956 , under the States Reorganisation Act , states were reorganised on a linguistic basis . Since then , their structure has remained largely unchanged . Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts . The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages .
= = Foreign relations and military = =
Since its independence in 1947 , India has maintained cordial relations with most nations . In the 1950s , it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non @-@ Aligned Movement . In the late 1980s , the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries : a peace @-@ keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990 ; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d 'état attempt in Maldives . India has tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan ; the two nations have gone to war four times : in 1947 , 1965 , 1971 , and 1999 . Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir , while the fourth , the 1971 war , followed from India 's support for the independence of Bangladesh . After waging the 1962 Sino @-@ Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan , India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union ; by the late 1960s , the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier .
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia , India has wide @-@ ranging defence relations with Israel and France . In recent years , it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organisation . The nation has provided 100 @,@ 000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents . It participates in the East Asia Summit , the G8 + 5 , and other multilateral forums . India has close economic ties with South America , Asia , and Africa ; it pursues a " Look East " policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations , Japan , and South Korea that revolve around many issues , but especially those involving economic investment and regional security .
China 's nuclear test of 1964 , as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war , convinced India to develop nuclear weapons . India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998 . Despite criticism and military sanctions , India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , considering both to be flawed and discriminatory . India maintains a " no first use " nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its " minimum credible deterrence " doctrine . It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and , in collaboration with Russia , a fifth @-@ generation fighter jet . Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant @-@ class aircraft carriers and Arihant @-@ class nuclear submarines .
Since the end of the Cold War , India has increased its economic , strategic , and military co @-@ operation with the United States and the European Union . In 2008 , a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States . Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group , ending earlier restrictions on India 's nuclear technology and commerce . As a consequence , India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state . India subsequently signed co @-@ operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia , France , the United Kingdom , and Canada .
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation 's armed forces ; with 1 @.@ 325 million active troops , they compose the world 's third @-@ largest military . It comprises the Indian Army , the Indian Navy , and the Indian Air Force ; auxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary groups : the Assam Rifles , the Special Frontier Force , and the Indian Coast Guard . The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US $ 36 @.@ 03 billion , or 1 @.@ 83 % of GDP . For the fiscal year spanning 2012 – 2013 , US $ 40 @.@ 44 billion was budgeted . According to a 2008 SIPRI report , India 's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US $ 72 @.@ 7 billion . In 2011 , the annual defence budget increased by 11 @.@ 6 % , although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government . As of 2012 , India is the world 's largest arms importer ; between 2007 and 2011 , it accounted for 10 % of funds spent on international arms purchases . Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean .
= = Economy = =
According to the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) , the Indian economy in 2015 was nominally worth US $ 2 @.@ 183 trillion ; it is the 7th @-@ largest economy by market exchange rates , and is , at US $ 8 @.@ 027 trillion , the third @-@ largest by purchasing power parity , or PPP . With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5 @.@ 8 % over the past two decades , and reaching 6 @.@ 1 % during 2011 – 12 , India is one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies . However , the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP . Until 1991 , all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics . Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world . An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy ; since then it has slowly moved towards a free @-@ market system by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows . India 's recent economic model is largely capitalist . India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995 .
The 486 @.@ 6 @-@ million worker Indian labour force is the world 's second @-@ largest , as of 2011 . The service sector makes up 55 @.@ 6 % of GDP , the industrial sector 26 @.@ 3 % and the agricultural sector 18 @.@ 1 % . India 's foreign exchange remittances were US $ 70 billion in year 2014 , the largest in the world , contributed to its economy by 25 million Indians working in foreign countries . Major agricultural products include rice , wheat , oilseed , cotton , jute , tea , sugarcane , and potatoes . Major industries include textiles , telecommunications , chemicals , pharmaceuticals , biotechnology , food processing , steel , transport equipment , cement , mining , petroleum , machinery , and software . In 2006 , the share of external trade in India 's GDP stood at 24 % , up from 6 % in 1985 . In 2008 , India 's share of world trade was 1 @.@ 68 % ; In 2011 , India was the world 's tenth @-@ largest importer and the nineteenth @-@ largest exporter . Major exports include petroleum products , textile goods , jewellery , software , engineering goods , chemicals , and leather manufactures . Major imports include crude oil , machinery , gems , fertiliser , and chemicals . Between 2001 and 2011 , the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14 % to 42 % . India was the second largest textile exporter after China in the world in calendar year 2013 .
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7 @.@ 5 % for several years prior to 2007 , India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century . Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985 ; India 's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030 . Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness , India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication , 24th in the banking sector , 44th in business sophistication , and 39th in innovation , ahead of several advanced economies , as of 2010 . With 7 of the world 's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India , the country is viewed as the second @-@ most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States , as of 2009 . India 's consumer market , the world 's eleventh @-@ largest , is expected to become fifth @-@ largest by 2030 .
Driven by growth , India 's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US $ 329 in 1991 , when economic liberalisation began , to US $ 1 @,@ 265 in 2010 , and is estimated to increase to US $ 2 @,@ 110 by 2016 ; however , it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Sri Lanka , and Thailand , and is expected to remain so in the near future . However , it is higher than Pakistan , Nepal , Afghanistan , Bangladesh and others .
According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report , India 's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045 . During the next four decades , Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8 % , making it potentially the world 's fastest @-@ growing major economy until 2050 . The report highlights key growth factors : a young and rapidly growing working @-@ age population ; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels ; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class . The World Bank cautions that , for India to achieve its economic potential , it must continue to focus on public sector reform , transport infrastructure , agricultural and rural development , removal of labour regulations , education , energy security , and public health and nutrition .
In 2016 , the Economist Intelligence Unit ( EIU ) released Top 10 cheapest cities in the world which 4 of it were from India : Bangalore ( 2nd ) , Mumbai ( 3rd ) , Chennai ( 6th ) and New Delhi ( 8th ) based on the cost of 160 products and services .
= = = Sectors = = =
India 's telecommunication industry , the world 's fastest @-@ growing , added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010 – 11 , and after the first quarter of 2013 , India surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone market in the world after China and the US
Its automotive industry , the world 's second fastest growing , increased domestic sales by 26 % during 2009 – 10 , and exports by 36 % during 2008 – 09 . India 's capacity to generate electrical power is 250 gigawatts , of which 8 % is renewable . At the end of 2011 , the Indian IT industry employed 2 @.@ 8 million professionals , generated revenues close to US $ 100 billion equalling 7 @.@ 5 % of Indian GDP and contributed 26 % of India 's merchandise exports .
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry . The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $ 48 @.@ 5 billion by 2020 . India 's R & D spending constitutes 60 % of the biopharmaceutical industry . India is among the top 12 biotech destinations of the world . The Indian biotech industry grew by 15 @.@ 1 % in 2012 – 13 , increasing its revenues from 204 @.@ 4 Billion INR ( Indian Rupees ) to 235 @.@ 24 Billion INR ( 3 @.@ 94 B US $ - exchange rate June 2013 : 1 US $ approx . 60 INR ) . Although hardly 2 % of Indians pay income taxes .
= = = Poverty = = =
Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades , India continues to face socio @-@ economic challenges . India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank 's international poverty line of US $ 1 @.@ 25 per day , the proportion having decreased from 60 % in 1981 to 42 % in 2005 , and 25 % in 2011 . 30 @.@ 7 % of India 's children under the age of five are underweight . According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015 , 15 % of Indian population is undernourished . The Mid @-@ Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates . Since 1991 , economic inequality between India 's states has consistently grown : the per @-@ capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3 @.@ 2 times that of the poorest . Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly , with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US $ 462 billion .
India has the highest number of people living in conditions of slavery , 18 million , most of whom are in bonded labour . India has the largest number of child labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an estimated 12 @.@ 6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations .
= = Demographics = =
With 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 193 @,@ 422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report , India is the world 's second @-@ most populous country . Its population grew by 17 @.@ 64 % during 2001 – 2011 , compared to 21 @.@ 54 % growth in the previous decade ( 1991 – 2001 ) . The human sex ratio , according to the 2011 census , is 940 females per 1 @,@ 000 males . The median age was 24 @.@ 9 in the 2001 census . The first post @-@ colonial census , conducted in 1951 , counted 361 @.@ 1 million people . Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the " Green Revolution " have caused India 's population to grow rapidly . India continues to face several public health @-@ related challenges .
Life expectancy in India is at 68 years with life expectancy for women being 69 @.@ 6 years and for men being 67 @.@ 3 . There are around 50 physicians per 100 @,@ 000 Indians . The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31 @.@ 2 % between 1991 and 2001 . Yet , in 2001 , over 70 % lived in rural areas . The level of urbanisation increased from 27 @.@ 81 % in 2001 Census to 31 @.@ 16 % in 2011 Census . The slowing down of the overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991 . According to the 2011 census , there are 53 million @-@ plus cities in India ; among them Mumbai , Delhi , Bangalore , Hyderabad , Chennai , Ahmedabad , and Kolkata , in decreasing order by population . The literacy rate in 2011 was 74 @.@ 04 % : 65 @.@ 46 % among females and 82 @.@ 14 % among males . The rural urban literacy gap which was 21 @.@ 2 percentage points in 2001 , dropped to 16 @.@ 1 percentage points in 2011 . The improvement in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban areas . Kerala is the most literate state with 93 @.@ 91 % literacy ; while Bihar the least with 63 @.@ 82 % .
India is home to two major language families : Indo @-@ Aryan ( spoken by about 74 % of the population ) and Dravidian ( 24 % ) . Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Sino @-@ Tibetan language families . India has no national language . Hindi , with the largest number of speakers , is the official language of the government . English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a " subsidiary official language " ; it is important in education , especially as a medium of higher education . Each state and union territory has one or more official languages , and the constitution recognises in particular 22 " scheduled languages " . The Constitution of India recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7 @.@ 5 % of the country 's population . The 2011 census reported that Hinduism ( 79 @.@ 8 % of the population ) is the largest religion in India , followed by Islam ( 14 @.@ 23 % ) . Other religions or none ( 5 @.@ 97 % of the population ) include Christianity ( 2 @.@ 30 % ) , Sikhism ( 1 @.@ 72 % ) , Buddhism ( 0 @.@ 70 % ) , Jainism , Judaism , Zoroastrianism , and the Bahá 'í Faith . India has the world 's largest Hindu , Sikh , Jain , Zoroastrian , and Bahá 'í populations , and has the third @-@ largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non @-@ Muslim majority country .
= = Culture = =
Indian cultural history spans more than 4 @,@ 500 years . During the Vedic period ( c . 1700 – 500 BCE ) , the foundations of Hindu philosophy , mythology , theology and literature were laid , and many beliefs and practices which still exist today , such as dhárma , kárma , yóga , and mokṣa , were established . India is notable for its religious diversity , with Hinduism , Buddhism , Sikhism , Islam , Christianity , and Jainism among the nation 's major religions . The predominant religion , Hinduism , has been shaped by various historical schools of thought , including those of the Upanishads , the Yoga Sutras , the Bhakti movement , and by Buddhist philosophy .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Much of Indian architecture , including the Taj Mahal , other works of Mughal architecture , and South Indian architecture , blends ancient local traditions with imported styles . Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours . Vastu shastra , literally " science of construction " or " architecture " and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan , explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings ; it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs . As applied in Hindu temple architecture , it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras , a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu @-@ Purusha mandala , a square that embodied the " absolute " . The Taj Mahal , built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife , has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as " the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world 's heritage " . Indo @-@ Saracenic Revival architecture , developed by the British in the late 19th century , drew on Indo @-@ Islamic architecture .
= = = Literature = = =
The earliest literary writings in India , composed between 1700 BCE and 1200 CE , were in the Sanskrit language . Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana , the dramas of Kālidāsa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam ( The Recognition of Śakuntalā ) , and poetry such as the Mahākāvya . Kamasutra , the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in India . Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South India , the Sangam literature , consisting of 2 @,@ 381 poems , is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature . From the 14th to the 18th centuries , India 's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr , Tulsīdās , and Guru Nānak . This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression ; as a consequence , medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions . In the 19th century , Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions . In the 20th century , Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore .
= = = Performing arts = = =
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles . Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots : the northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools . Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music ; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well @-@ known form of the latter . Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms . Among the better @-@ known folk dances are the bhangra of Punjab , the bihu of Assam , the chhau of Odisha , West Bengal and Jharkhand , garba and dandiya of Gujarat , ghoomar of Rajasthan , and the lavani of Maharashtra . Eight dance forms , many with narrative forms and mythological elements , have been accorded classical dance status by India 's National Academy of Music , Dance , and Drama . These are : bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu , kathak of Uttar Pradesh , kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala , kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh , manipuri of Manipur , odissi of Odisha , and the sattriya of Assam . Theatre in India melds music , dance , and improvised or written dialogue . Often based on Hindu mythology , but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events , Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat , the jatra of West Bengal , the nautanki and ramlila of North India , tamasha of Maharashtra , burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh , terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu , and the yakshagana of Karnataka .
= = = Motion pictures , television = = =
The Indian film industry produces the world 's most @-@ watched cinema . Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese , Bengali , Bhojpuri , Hindi , Kannada , Malayalam , Punjabi , Gujarati , Marathi , Odia , Tamil , and Telugu languages . South Indian cinema attracts more than 75 % of national film revenue .
Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state @-@ run medium of communication , and had slow expansion for more than two decades . The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and , since then , satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society .
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interest in conquering Greece . With her Greek allies facing a major new threat , Rome declared war on Macedonia again , starting the Third Macedonian War . Perseus initially had some success against the Romans . However , Rome responded by sending a stronger army . This second consular army decisively defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and the Macedonians duly capitulated , ending the war .
Convinced now that the Greeks ( and therefore the rest of the region ) would not have peace if left alone , Rome decided to establish its first permanent foothold in the Greek world , and divided the Kingdom of Macedonia into four client republics . Yet , Macedonian agitation continued . The Fourth Macedonian War , 150 to 148 BC , was fought against a Macedonian pretender to the throne who was again destabilizing Greece by trying to re @-@ establish the old kingdom . The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna .
The Achaean League chose this moment to fight Rome but was swiftly defeated . In 146 BC ( the same year as the destruction of Carthage ) , Corinth was besieged and destroyed , which led to the league 's surrender . After nearly a century of constant crisis management in Greece , which always led back to internal instability and war when she withdrew , Rome decided to divide Macedonia into two new Roman provinces , Achaea and Epirus .
= = = Late Republic ( 147 – 30 BC ) = = =
= = = = Jugurthine War ( 111 – 104 BC ) = = = =
The Jugurthine War of 111 – 104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia . It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa , after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain . Following Jugurtha 's usurpation of the throne of Numidia , a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars , Rome felt compelled to intervene . Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation . Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery .
= = = = Celtic threat ( 121 BC ) and Germanic threat ( 113 – 101 BC ) = = = =
In 121 BC , Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes ( from a region in modern France ) , both of which they defeated with apparent ease . The Cimbrian War ( 113 – 101 BC ) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC . The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons migrated from northern Europe into Rome 's northern territories , and clashed with Rome and her allies . At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated , which ended the threat .
= = = = Internal unrest ( 135 – 71 BC ) = = = =
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals , and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns , led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state . Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period , in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters . In the 1st century BC at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred . This pattern continued until 27 BC , when Octavian ( later Augustus ) successfully challenged the Senate 's authority , and was made princeps ( first citizen ) .
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three " Servile Wars " involving slave uprisings against the Roman state . The third and final uprising was the most serious , involving ultimately between 120 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus . In 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy when the allies complained that they shared the risk of Rome 's military campaigns , but not its rewards . Although they lost militarily , the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500 @,@ 000 Italians .
The internal unrest reached its most serious state , however , in the two civil wars that were caused by the clash between generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla starting from 88 BC . In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome , a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Marius supporters and entered the city . Sulla 's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the Republic , and caused the founding of the Roman Empire .
= = = = Conflicts with Mithridates ( 89 – 63 BC ) and the Cilician pirates ( 67 BC ) = = = =
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus , a large kingdom in Asia Minor ( modern Turkey ) , from 120 to 63 BC . Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom , and Rome for her part seemed equally eager for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring . In 88 BC , Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80 @,@ 000 Romans living in his kingdom . The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War . The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper , but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival , Gaius Marius . A peace was made between Rome and Pontus , but this proved only a temporary lull .
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own . In the Third Mithridatic War , first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates and his Armenian ally Tigranes the Great . Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night @-@ time Battle of the Lycus .
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates , largely from Cilicia . The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia . Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates . It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia ( Spain ) , Africa , and Italy .
= = = = Caesar 's early campaigns ( 59 – 50 BC ) = = = =
During his term as praetor in the Iberian Peninsula ( modern Portugal and Spain ) , Pompey 's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle . After his term as consul in 59 BC , he was appointed to a five @-@ year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul ( part of current northern Italy ) , Transalpine Gaul ( current southern France ) and Illyria ( part of the modern Balkans ) . Not content with an idle governorship , Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul ( modern France and Belgium ) , which would give him the dramatic military success he sought . When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near ( not into ) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul , Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars , fought between 58 BC and 49 BC .
Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 and 57 BC . In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions into Britain , the first Roman to do so . Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia , completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul . By 50 BC , all of Gaul lay in Roman hands . Gaul never regained its Celtic identity , never attempted another rebellion , and , except for the Crisis of the Third Century , remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the empire in 476 .
= = = = Triumvirates and Caesarian ascension ( 53 – 30 BC ) = = = =
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( " Pompey the Great " ) to share power and influence . In 53 BC , Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire ( modern Iraq and Iran ) . After initial successes , he marched his army deep into the desert ; but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory , surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished . The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and , consequently , Caesar and Pompey began to move apart . While Caesar was fighting in Gaul , Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar 's political enemies . In 51 BC , some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state , which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies . Caesar chose civil war over laying down his command and facing trial .
By the spring of 49 BC , the hardened legions of Caesar crossed the river Rubicon , the legal boundary of Roman Italy beyond which no commander might bring his army , and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome , while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome . Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Hispania ( modern Spain ) but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece . Pompey initially defeated Caesar , but failed to follow up on the victory , and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC , despite outnumbering Caesar 's forces two to one , albeit with inferior quality troops . Pompey fled again , this time to Egypt , where he was murdered .
Pompey 's death did not end the civil war , as Caesar 's many enemies fought on . In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army , but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus , after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Hispania . Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda .
Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state , enforcing and entrenching his powers . His enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler . Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger , a group of senators hatched a conspiracy and assassinated Caesar at a meeting of the Senate in March 44 BC . Mark Antony , Caesar 's lieutenant , condemned Caesar 's assassination , and war broke out between the two factions . Antony was denounced as a public enemy , and Caesar 's adopted son and chosen heir , Gaius Octavianus , was entrusted with the command of the war against him . At the Battle of Mutina Mark Antony was defeated by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa , who were both killed .
Octavian came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC when the Second Triumvirate was formed . In 42 BC Mark Antony and Octavian fought the Battle of Philippi against Caesar 's assassins Brutus and Cassius . Although Brutus defeated Octavian , Antony defeated Cassius , who committed suicide . Brutus did likewise soon afterwards .
However , civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian , Lepidus and Mark Antony failed . The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony . At the naval Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece , Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra . Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole " imperium " within the city of Rome , permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory , since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command . In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names " Augustus " and " Princeps " , indicating his primary status above all other Romans , and he adopted the title " Imperator Caesar " making him the first Roman Emperor .
= = Political history = =
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases . The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC . The final phase ended with the transition that transformed the Republic into what would effectively be the Roman Empire , in 27 BC . Throughout the history of the Republic , the constitutional evolution was driven by the conflict of the orders between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens .
= = = Patrician era ( 509 – 367 BC ) = = =
The last king of the Roman Kingdom , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , was overthrown in 509 BC by a group of noblemen led by Lucius Junius Brutus . Tarquin made a number of attempts to retake the throne , including the Tarquinian conspiracy , the war with Veii and Tarquinii and finally the war between Rome and Clusium , all of which failed to achieve Tarquin 's objectives . The most important constitutional change during the transition from kingdom to republic involved a new form of chief magistrate . Before the revolution , a king would be elected by the senators for a life term . Now , two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term . Each consul would check his colleague , and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office . Consular political powers , when exercised conjointly with a consular colleague , were no different from those of the old king .
In 494 BC , the city was at war with two neighboring tribes . The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy , and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill . The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials . The patricians agreed , and the plebeians returned to the battlefield . The plebeians called these new officials " plebeian tribunes " . The tribunes would have two assistants , called " plebeian aediles " . During the 5th century BC , a series of reforms were passed . The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the plebeian would have the full force of law . In 443 BC , the censorship was created . From 375 BC to 371 BC , the republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the tribunes used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates .
= = = Conflict of the Orders ( 367 – 287 BC ) = = =
In 367 BC a law was passed which required the election of at least one plebeian aedile each year . Also in 366 BC , the praetorship and curule aedileship were created . Shortly after the founding of the Republic , the Comitia Centuriata ( " Assembly of the Centuries " ) became the principal legislative assembly . In this assembly , magistrates were elected and laws were passed .
After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians , the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship . Plebiscites of 342 BC placed limits on political offices ; an individual could hold only one office at a time , and ten years must elapse between the end of his official term and his re @-@ election . Further laws attempted to relieve the burden of debt from plebeians by banning interest on loans . In 337 BC , the first plebeian praetor was elected . During these years , the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close . The senate realised the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals . To win over the tribunes , the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate . As the tribunes and the senators grew closer , plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families . In time , the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office .
Shortly before 312 BC , the Plebeian Council enacted the Plebiscitum Ovinium . During the early republic , only consuls could appoint new senators . This initiative , however , transferred this power to the censors . It also required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate . By this point , plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices . Thus , the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly . However , it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well @-@ known political family , as a new patrician @-@ like plebeian aristocracy emerged . The old nobility existed through the force of law , because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office . The new nobility existed due to the organization of society . As such , only a revolution could overthrow this new structure .
By 287 BC , the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor . The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness . The plebeians demanded relief , but the senators refused to address their situation . The result was the final plebeian secession . The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill . To end the secession , a dictator was appointed . The dictator passed a law ( the Lex Hortensia ) , which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council . This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law . The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC . The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians . The result was that control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of voters , but to the new plebeian nobility .
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians . However , the plight of the average plebeian had not changed . A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had , but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been . The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights . The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms . The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work .
= = = Supremacy of the New Nobility ( 287 – 133 BC ) = = =
The Hortensian Law deprived the patricians of their last weapon against the plebeians , and thus resolved the last great political question of the era . No such important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC . The important laws of this era were still enacted by the senate . In effect , the plebeians were satisfied with the possession of power , but did not care to use it . The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy . This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic .
In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer . The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight , while their farms fell into disrepair . The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices . As commodity prices fell , many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit . The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers . Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome , and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies . Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most . A new culture of dependency was emerging , in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief .
= = = From the Gracchi to Caesar ( 133 – 49 BC ) = = =
The prior era saw great military successes , and great economic failures . The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms . Now , the military situation had stabilised , and fewer soldiers were needed . This , in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad , inflamed the unemployment situation further . The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist .
= = = = The Gracchi = = = =
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC . He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own . The aristocrats , who stood to lose an enormous amount of money , were bitterly opposed to this proposal . Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council , but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius . Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius . The theory , that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people , was counter to Roman constitutional theory . If carried to its logical end , this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will , and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority . His law was enacted , but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates when he stood for reelection to the tribunate .
Tiberius ' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC . Gaius Gracchus ' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces . In the past , for example , the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ( " ultimate decree of the senate " ) . Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had . Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions , and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional . Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome 's Italian allies . This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support . He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC , but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3 @,@ 000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome . Though the senate retained control , the Gracchi had strengthened the political influence of the plebeians .
= = = = The populares and the optimates = = = =
In 118 BC , King Micipsa of Numidia ( current @-@ day Algeria and Tunisia ) died . He was succeeded by two legitimate sons , Adherbal and Hiempsal , and an illegitimate son , Jugurtha . Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons . Jugurtha , however , turned on his brothers , killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia . Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance , and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers . Eventually , Jugurtha renewed his offensive , leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome . He also bribed several Roman commanders , and at least two tribunes , before and during the war . His nemesis , Gaius Marius , a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family , returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators . Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end , capturing Jugurtha in the process . The apparent incompetence of the Senate , and the brilliance of Marius , had been put on full display . The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius .
Several years later , in 88 BC , a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power , king Mithridates of Pontus . The army , however , was defeated . One of Marius ' old quaestors , Lucius Cornelius Sulla , had been elected consul for the year , and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates . Marius , a member of the " populares " party , had a tribune revoke Sulla 's command of the war against Mithridates . Sulla , a member of the aristocratic ( " optimates " ) party , brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome . Sulla was so angry at Marius ' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate . He then returned to his war against Mithridates . With Sulla gone , the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city .
During the period in which the populares party controlled the city , they flouted convention by re @-@ electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten @-@ year interval between offices . They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office , and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation . Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates . In 83 BC , he returned to Rome , overcame all resistance , and recaptured the city . Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius ' supporters . Sulla , having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms , was naturally conservative . As such , he sought to strengthen the aristocracy , and by extension the senate . Sulla made himself dictator , passed a series of constitutional reforms , resigned the dictatorship , and served one last term as consul . He died in 78 BC .
= = = = Pompey , Crassus and the Catilinarian Conspiracy = = = =
In 77 BC , the senate sent one of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( " Pompey the Great " ) , to put down an uprising in Hispania . By 71 BC , Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission . Around the same time , another of Sulla 's former lieutenants , Marcus Licinius Crassus , had just put down the Spartacus @-@ led gladiator / slave revolt in Italy . Upon their return , Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla 's constitution . They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party . If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC , they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla 's constitution . The two were soon elected , and quickly dismantled most of Sulla 's constitution .
Around 66 BC , a movement to use constitutional , or at least peaceful , means to address the plight of various classes began . After several failures , the movement 's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals . The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina . The movement was based in the town of Faesulae , which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation . The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome , and be aided by an uprising within the city . After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators , Catiline would be free to enact his reforms . The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC . The consul for the year , Marcus Tullius Cicero , intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members . As a result , the top conspirators in Rome ( including at least one former consul ) were executed by authorisation ( of dubious constitutionality ) of the senate , and the planned uprising was disrupted . Cicero then sent an army , which cut Catiline 's forces to pieces .
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited . The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers . The violent nature of the conspiracy , in conjunction with the senate 's skill in disrupting it , did a great deal to repair the senate 's image .
= = = = First Triumvirate = = = =
In 62 BC , Pompey returned victorious from Asia . The Senate , elated by its successes against Catiline , refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made . Pompey , in effect , became powerless . Thus , when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC , he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey . Caesar and Pompey , along with Crassus , established a private agreement , now known as the First Triumvirate . Under the agreement , Pompey 's arrangements would be ratified . Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC , and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years . Crassus was promised a future consulship .
Caesar became consul in 59 BC . His colleague , Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , was an extreme aristocrat . Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies . Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws , and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage . Caesar was then made governor of three provinces . He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58 BC . Clodius set about depriving Caesar 's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero . Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case . Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy , resulting in Cicero going into self @-@ imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down . Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years . Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens .
= = = = The end of the First Triumvirate = = = =
Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey 's followers , who in response funded counter @-@ gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo . The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling . Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar 's command from him . Eventually , the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca . Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC , and Caesar 's term as governor was extended for five years . Crassus led an ill @-@ fated expedition with legions led by his son , Caesar 's lieutenant , against the Kingdom of Parthia . This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae . Finally , Pompey 's wife , Julia , who was Caesar 's daughter , died in childbirth . This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar .
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC , a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome . This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC , when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo . On 1 January 49 BC , an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate . The ultimatum was rejected , and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year , he would be considered an enemy of the Republic . Meanwhile , the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar . On 7 January of 49 BC , the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum , which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers . Pompey 's army , however , was composed largely of untested conscripts . On 10 January , Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army ( in violation of Roman laws ) and marched towards Rome . Caesar 's rapid advance forced Pompey , the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece . Caesar entered the city unopposed .
= = = The period of transition ( 49 – 29 BC ) = = =
A period of reform occurred between 49 BC , when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon , and 29 BC , when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium . During this period the previous century 's gradual unravelling of republican institutions accelerated rapidly . By 29 BC , Rome had completed its transition from a city @-@ state with a network of dependencies to the capital of a world empire .
With Pompey defeated and order restored , Caesar wanted to achieve undisputed control over the government . The powers which he gave himself were later assumed by his imperial successors . His assumption of these powers decreased the authority of Rome 's other political institutions .
Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate , and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship . In 48 BC , Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers . This made his person sacrosanct , gave him the power to veto the senate , and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council . In 46 BC , Caesar was given censorial powers , which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans . Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900 . This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige , and made it increasingly subservient to him . While the assemblies continued to meet , he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election , and all bills to the assemblies for enactment . Thus , the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him .
Near the end of his life , Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire . Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls , he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC , and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC . This transformed the magistrates from representatives of the people to representatives of the dictator .
= = = = Caesar 's assassination and the Second Triumvirate = = = =
Caesar was assassinated on March 15 , 44 BC . The assassination was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brut
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serve in the second line , and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line .
The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops , typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion . The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians . There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line . Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples . The light infantry consisted of 1 @,@ 200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes . They were armed with a sword and a small shield , as well as several light javelins .
Rome 's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome 's army was provided by the Socii , such as the Etruscans , Umbrians , Apulians , Campanians , Samnites , Lucani , Bruttii , and the various southern Greek cities . Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770 @,@ 000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War , of which 700 @,@ 000 were infantry and 70 @,@ 000 met the requirements for cavalry . Rome 's Italian allies would be organized in alae , or wings , roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions , though with 900 cavalry instead of 300 .
A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300 BC , but it was massively upgraded about forty years later , during the First Punic War . After a period of frenetic construction , the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ( " Punic " ) pattern . Once completed , it could accommodate up to 100 @,@ 000 sailors and embarked troops for battle . The navy thereafter declined in size .
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars , in addition to a shortage of manpower , exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion , at least in the short term . In 217 BC , near the beginning of the Second Punic War , Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long @-@ standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners . During the 2nd century BC , Roman territory saw an overall decline in population , partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars . This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes . As a result , the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state , which it had not had to do in the past .
The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur , perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard @-@ issue equipment . In addition , the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome 's allies for the provision of allied troops . Eventually , the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions .
= = = The legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius ( 107 – 27 BC ) = = =
In process known as the Marian reforms , Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military . In 107 BC , all citizens , regardless of their wealth or social class , were made eligible for entry into the Roman army . This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries , of removing property requirements for military service . The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes , which had already become blurred , had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry . The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock , while non @-@ citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry . The army 's higher @-@ level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy .
Unlike earlier in the Republic , legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land . Instead , they received standard pay , and were employed by the state on a fixed @-@ term basis . As a consequence , military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society , to whom a salaried pay was attractive . A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat " acquired a stronger and more elevated position " within the state .
The legions of the late Republic were , structurally , almost entirely heavy infantry . The legion 's main sub @-@ unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen . The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub @-@ unit , and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each . Each century was separated further into 10 " tent groups " of 8 men each . The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry . Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men . Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied ( non @-@ Roman ) troops .
However , the most obvious deficiency of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry , especially heavy cavalry . As Rome 's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry @-@ based to largely cavalry @-@ based troops , the infantry @-@ based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage , particularly in the East .
After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean , the Roman navy underwent short @-@ term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands . Under Caesar , an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia ; under Pompey , a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates . During the civil war that followed , as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities .
= = Politics = =
The Constitution of the Roman Republic was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent . The Roman constitution was not formal or even official . It was largely unwritten , uncodified , and constantly evolving .
= = = Senate of the Roman Republic = = =
The senate 's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators . This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom , as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators . The senate passed decrees , which were called senatus consulta . These were officially " advice " from the senate to a magistrate . In practice , however , they were usually followed by the magistrates . The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy . Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict , the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs . The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined , and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law @-@ making . Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors , who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate , making the senate a partially elected body . During times of military emergency , such as the civil wars of the 1st century BC , this practice became less prevalent , as the Roman Dictator , Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members .
= = = Legislative Assemblies = = =
The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal , to marry , to vote , to hold office , to enter binding contracts , and to special tax exemptions . An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called " optimo jure . " The optimo jure elected their assemblies , whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates , enacted legislation , presided over trials in capital cases , declared war and peace , and forged or dissolved treaties . There were two types of legislative assemblies . The first was the comitia ( " committees " ) , which were assemblies of all optimo jure . The second was the concilia ( " councils " ) , which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure .
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes , which would each gather into their own assemblies . The Comitia Centuriata ( " Centuriate Assembly " ) was the assembly of the centuries ( i.e. soldiers ) . The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul . The centuries would vote , one at a time , until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries . The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers ( consuls and praetors ) . It also elected censors . Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war , and ratify the results of a census . It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases .
The assembly of the tribes ( i.e. the citizens of Rome ) , the Comitia Tributa , was presided over by a consul , and was composed of 35 tribes . The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups , but rather geographical subdivisions . The order that the thirty @-@ five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot . Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes , the voting would end . While it did not pass many laws , the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors , curule aediles , and military tribunes . The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes , but excluded the patricians ( the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome ) . They elected their own officers , plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles . Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly . This assembly passed most laws , and could also act as a court of appeal .
= = = Executive Magistrates = = =
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers . Only the People of Rome ( both plebeians and patricians ) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate . The most powerful constitutional power was imperium . Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors . Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force . All magistrates also had the power of coercion . This was used by magistrates to maintain public order . While in Rome , all citizens had a judgement against coercion . This protection was called provocatio ( see below ) . Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens . This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents .
One check on a magistrate 's power was his collegiality . Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people . Another such check was provocatio . Provocatio was a primordial form of due process . It was a precursor to habeas corpus . If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen , that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune . In addition , once a magistrate 's one @-@ year term of office expired , he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again . This created problems for some consuls and praetors , and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended . In effect , they would retain the powers of the office ( as a promagistrate ) , without officially holding that office .
The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates ; each consul served for one year . Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters . While in the city of Rome , the consuls were the head of the Roman government . They would preside over the senate and the assemblies . While abroad , each consul would command an army . His authority abroad would be nearly absolute . Praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies . Every five years , two censors were elected for an 18 @-@ month term , during which they would conduct a census . During the census , they could enroll citizens in the senate , or purge them from the senate . Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome , such as managing public games and shows . The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome , and the governors in the provinces . Their duties were often financial .
Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians , they were sacrosanct . Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge , taken by the plebeians , to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office . All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity . One consequence was that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune , to disregard his veto , or to interfere with a tribune . In times of military emergency , a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months . Constitutional government would be dissolved , and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state . When the dictator 's term ended , constitutional government would be restored .
= = Culture = =
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome , and its famed seven hills . The city also had several theatres , gymnasiums , and many taverns , baths and brothels . Throughout the territory under Rome 's control , residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas , and in the capital city of Rome , to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill , from which the word " palace " is derived . The vast majority of the population lived in the city center , packed into apartment blocks .
Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples , as did the city of Rome itself . Aqueducts brought water to urban centers and wine and cooking oil were imported from abroad . Landlords generally resided in cities and left their estates in the care of farm managers . To stimulate a higher labor productivity , many landlords freed large numbers of slaves .
Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century BC , Greek culture was increasingly ascendant , in spite of tirades against the " softening " effects of Hellenised culture . By the time of Augustus , cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young ( sometimes even the girls ) . Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas , and much of ancient Roman cuisine was essentially Greek . Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style .
= = = Social structure = = =
Many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks . In architecture and sculpture , the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent . The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch and the dome . Rome has also had a tremendous impact on European cultures following it . Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence , as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid . Latin , the Republic 's primary language , remains used for liturgical purposes by the Roman Catholic Church , and up to the 19th century was used extensively in scholarly writings in , for example , science and mathematics . Roman law laid the foundations for the laws of many European countries and their colonies .
The center of the early social structure was the family , which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas . The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family ; he was the master over his wife , his children , the wives of his sons , the nephews , the slaves and the freedmen , disposing of them and of their goods at will , even putting them to death . Roman law recognised only patrician families as legal entities .
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order ; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold . Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered ; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom . Generally , mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation . However , Rome did not have a law enforcement arm . All actions were treated as " torts , " which were brought by an accuser who was forced to prove the entire case himself . If the accused were a noble and the victim , not a noble , the likelihood of finding for the accused was small . At most , the accused might have to pay a fine for killing a slave . It is estimated that over 25 % of the Roman population was enslaved .
= = = Clothing = = =
Men typically wore a toga , and women a stola . The woman 's stola differed in looks from a toga , and was usually brightly coloured . The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class . The tunic worn by plebeians , or common people , like shepherds and slaves , was made from coarse and dark material , whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool . A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus , a tunic bearing small purple studs . Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes , called tunica laticlavia . Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians . Boys , up until the festival of Liberalia , wore the toga praetexta , which was a toga with a crimson or purple border . The toga virilis , ( or toga pura ) was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome . The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield . The toga pulla was worn when in mourning .
Even footwear indicated a person 's social status . Patricians wore red and orange sandals , senators had brown footwear , consuls had white shoes , and soldiers wore heavy boots . The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers , sometimes worn in sandals .
= = = Dining =
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" , was included on Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . After Daniel Julez 's birth , the family moved to Moscow , Idaho , where Knowles ' husband continued studying in college . In October 2007 , Solange confirmed in an interview with Essence magazine that she and Smith had divorced . They co @-@ parent the child . After the divorce , Knowles and her child moved to Los Angeles , California , where they established their new home . In August 2013 , Knowles announced that she and her son were moving to New Orleans , Louisiana .
On May 12 , 2014 , TMZ released security video footage of Solange physically assaulting brother @-@ in @-@ law Jay @-@ Z and being restrained by a security guard in an elevator at The Standard , High Line in Manhattan , following the 2014 Met Gala . Jay @-@ Z remained passive and did not retaliate while Solange 's sister Beyoncé , who was also present , did not react to either party throughout the altercation . The footage and story went viral , however the reason for the altercation remains unknown .
On November 16 , 2014 , Knowles married music video director Alan Ferguson in New Orleans , Louisiana .
= = Discography = =
Solo Star ( 2003 )
Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 )
True ( 2012 )
TBA ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Solo Star Tour ( 2003 )
The Art of Love Tour ( 2008 )
Solange Presents Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams Tour ( 2008 )
True Promo Tour ( 2012 )
Supporting
Simply Deeper Tour ( 2003 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Lift Off ( song ) =
" Lift Off " is a song by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West featuring American recording artist Beyoncé . It was written by Kanye West , Jay @-@ Z , Jeff Bhasker , Mike Dean , Bruno Mars and Seal , while production was handled by West , Bhasker , Mike Dean , Q @-@ Tip , and Don Jazzy for Jay @-@ Z 's and West 's collaboration album , Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . The song was rumored to be released as the lead single from the album containing additional vocals by Bruno Mars . However , Mars never appeared on the song and it was sent to urban contemporary radio on August 23 , 2011 .
Musically , " Lift Off " is a pop song which uses baroque strings . It contains a chorus sung by Beyoncé , while other verses are sung by West and Jay @-@ Z in a rap style . Instrumentally , the song is completed with synthesizers , martial drums and horns . " Lift Off " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics who highlighted the song and praised its hook as well as Beyoncé 's vocals . The song peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart and number twenty one on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . " Lift Off " was performed live by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West during their tour in promotion of Watch the Throne titled Watch the Throne Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Lift Off " was written by Kanye West , Jay @-@ Z , Jeff Bhasker , Mike Dean , Bruno Mars and Seal , while production was handled by West , Bhasker , Mike Dean , Q @-@ Tip and Don Jazzy . The song was recorded in Sydney , Australia . In early May 2011 , it was rumored that Bruno Mars recorded vocals for the song along with Beyoncé and it was reported that the song would be released as the lead single from the album . However , Mars never appeared on the song and Beyoncé sang several lines during the chorus instead . In February , 2011 , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z held a party at the AMNH ’ s Hayden Planetarium . During the party , " Lift Off " was one of the previewed songs . It was described as a " standout track " on the album by a writer for Vulture .
" Lift Off " is a pop song mainly in 6 / 8 time , which features baroque strings and a chorus sung by Beyoncé , accompanied with synthesizers . The song contains horns and martial drums as Beyoncé sings , " We gon ' take it to the moon / Take it to the stars . " Throughout the song West 's vocals are enhanced by Auto @-@ Tune in some places . Seal provides backing vocals in the song , which according to Jon Caramanica of The New York Times were " impossible @-@ to @-@ notice " . In the song , Beyoncé sings about having " so many scars " and " taking this whole thing to the stars . " Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter found an " old NASA movie sample and Kanye showing off his tattoos and inflexible singing voice . " Simon Price of The Independent found neurofunk influences on " Lift Off " . A writer of The Guardian compared the synthesizers in the song with the song " The Final Countdown " ( 1986 ) by Swedish rock band Europe .
" Lift Off " was sent to urban contemporary radio in the United States on August 23 , 2011 . According to several media , the song was very popular on Twitter and across the Internet , becoming a trending topic . According to Billboard magazine , Jay @-@ Z suggested that a music video for the song could appear .
= = Critical reception = =
" Lift Off " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Before the song was released , MTV News ' Alvin Blanco heard a preview of the song and described it as " resounding ... sounds like it was tailor @-@ made to be performed in large stadiums . " Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " is rescued by Beyoncé , who whips the chorus with a belt so powerful you 'd think it insulted her mother . " Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole also praised the song writing , " ' Lift Off ' is a study in stylized blockbuster excess , with West 's best fanfare since Encore eventually being drowned out by a simulated rocket launch that will sound awesome in your car stereo provided it doesn 't cause your subwoofers to bust your windows . " Rob Harvilla of Spin found a " hook so ridiculous ( ' We gon take it to the moon / Take it to the stars ! ' ) that only Beyoncé could sell it . " Michaelangelo Matos of The Guardian praised the song calling it " bombastic " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey put " Lift Off " on his list of " Tracks to download " from the album . Evening Standard 's John Aizlewood called the song " rocket @-@ propelled " . Rolling Stone 's Matthew Perpetua commented : " Beyoncé joins the boys for a synth @-@ heavy banger that takes off like a rocket and eventually arrives at a spacey , blissful resolution . It all but demands a sci @-@ fi music video featuring Beyoncé as a sexy astronaut . "
David Amidon of PopMatters praised the hook of the song but said that it contained Jay @-@ Z 's " most disturbingly maudlin delivery " since the song " Pray " from American Gangster ( 2006 ) . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praised the song , calling it an " uptempo Watch the Throne highlight " . Another writer for Billboard , Erika Ramírez , wrote : " Although it feels misplaced in between tracks 1 and 3 , the ' stadium status ' track is one to look forward to in seeing performed on the WTT tour . " Jeff Weiss of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that the song isn 't " as Glee @-@ ready as ' Empire State of Mind ' . " Andy Hutchins writing for The Village Voice said that " ' Lift Off ' isn 't a hit " by concluding " Beyonce dominates ; Kanye sounds half @-@ invested at best ; and Jay 's presence is limited to four bars , one a Dale Earnhardt reference . " Dan Aquilante of New York Post commented that the song was " slightly vapid but destined for radio ... an optimistic piece in which Beyoncé ... hits the booster rockets repeatedly " . IGN 's Chad Grischow wrote " the song is actually the least compelling of the album , sounding far more interesting when the heavy bass thump finally strips away late for a great piano melody and bongo fuelled beat . " Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle said that Beyoncé 's vocals were " confident " throughout the " grand , athletic and anthemic " song .
The song also received some negative reviews . In his review of Watch the Throne , Andy Kellman of Allmusic wrote , " The lowest point is ' Lift Off ' , a bombastic mess ; West ’ s stillborn , sung vocal clashes against a triumphant hook from Beyoncé , while the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes cast ... overcook a regal and rugged , yet ultimately muddled , production " . Jayson Rodriguez of XXL said that " ' Lift Off ' feels too airy on a project this heavy " . Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot described Beyoncé 's vocals as " disengaged " . Calling the song a " letdown " , Tyrone S. Reid of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote that " even with Beyoncé supplying the hook , ' Lift Off ' is dismal " .
= = Live performances = =
" Lift Off " was included in the set list of the Watch the Throne Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West . David Peisner of Spin magazine noted that the rappers didn 't sing their lines during the performance , but ad @-@ libbed over the backing track . The Orange County Register 's Ben Wener noted that the song was " annoyingly abbreviated : [ it ] barely registered a blip toward the end " . " Lift Off " was also part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) where it was performed as the last song .
= = Chart performance = =
Before its release as a single , the song charted at number eighty one on the Australian Singles Chart for the week of August 15 , 2011 , and peaked at number one on the South Korea Gaon International Chart . " Lift Off " became the forty third best @-@ selling single in South Korea in 2011 . On the chart issue dated August 20 , 2011 " Lift Off " debuted at number forty eight on the UK Singles Chart . It did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100 , but peaked at number twenty on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which acts as a twenty five @-@ song extension to the Hot 100 .
= = Usage in media = =
In July 2012 , American rapper J. Cole sampled " Lift Off " on his song " The Cure " .
= = Charts = =
= Francis Marrash =
Francis bin Fathallah bin Nasrallah Marrash ( Arabic : فرنسيس بن فتح الله بن نصرالله مرّاش / ALA @-@ LC : Fransīs bin Fatḥ Allāh bin Naṣrallāh Marrāsh ; June 1836 – 1873 ) , also known as Francis al @-@ Marrash or Francis Marrash al @-@ Halabi , was a Syrian writer and poet of the Nahda movement — the Arabic renaissance — and a physician . Most of his works revolve around science , history and religion , analysed under an epistemological light . He travelled through the Middle East and France in his youth , and after some medical training and a year of practice in his native Aleppo , during which he wrote several works , he enrolled in a medical school in Paris ; yet , declining health and growing blindness forced him to return to Aleppo , where he produced more literary works until his early death .
Middle Eastern historian Matti Moosa considered Marrash to be the first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times . Marrash adhered to the principles of the French Revolution and defended them in his own works , implicitly criticising Ottoman rule in the Middle East . He was also influential in introducing French romanticism in the Arab world , especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry , of which his writings were the first examples in modern Arabic literature , according to Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Shmuel Moreh . His modes of thinking and feeling , and ways of expressing them , have had a lasting influence on contemporary Arab thought and on the Mahjari poets .
= = Life = =
= = = Background and education = = =
Francis Marrash was born in Aleppo , a city of Ottoman Syria ( present @-@ day Syria ) , to an old Melkite family of merchants known for their literary interests . Having earned wealth and standing in the 18th century , the family was well established in Aleppo , although they had gone through troubles : a relative of Francis , Butrus Marrash , was martyred by Greek Orthodox fundamentalists in April 1818 . Other Melkite Catholics were exiled from Aleppo during the persecutions , among them the priest Jibrail Marrash . Francis ' father , Fathallah , tried to defuse the Sectarian conflict by writing a treatise in 1849 , in which he rejected the Filioque . He had built up a large private library to give his three children Francis , Abdallah and Maryana a thorough education , particularly in the field of Arabic language and literature .
Aleppo was then a major intellectual center of the Ottoman Empire , featuring many thinkers and writers concerned with the future of the Arabs . It was in the French missionary schools that the Marrash family learnt Arabic with French and other foreign languages ( Italian and English ) . But Francis at first studied the Arabic language and its literature privately . At the age of four years , Marrash had contracted measles , and had ever since suffered from eye problems that had kept worsening over time . Hoping to find a treatment , his father had therefore taken him to Paris in 1850 ; Francis stayed there for about a year , after which he was sent back to Aleppo while his father remained in Paris . In 1853 , Francis accompanied his father once again , on a business trip of several months to Beirut , where there was a noticeable presence and cultural influence of Europeans . Francis experienced similar cultural contact later on , when he received private tutoring in medicine for four years under a British physician , in Aleppo — he had by then developed a keen interest in science , and in medicine in particular . At the same time , he wrote and published several works . Marrash practiced medicine for about a year ; however , deeming it safer for his trade to become a state @-@ licensed physician , he went to Paris in 1866 so as to continue his medical education at a school . But his fragile health and his growing blindness forced him to interrupt his studies within a year after his arrival . He returned to Aleppo completely blind , but still managed to dictate his works .
= = = Literary career and thought = = =
= = = = Ghabat al @-@ haqq = = = =
Around 1865 , Marrash published Ghabat al @-@ haqq ( " The Forest of Truth " or " The Forest of Justice " ) , an allegory about the conditions required to establish and maintain civilization and freedom . This allegory relates the apocalyptic vision of a war between a Kingdom of Liberty and a Kingdom of Slavery , resolved by the capture of the latter 's king and a subsequent trial before the King of Liberty , the Queen of Wisdom , the Vizier of Peace and Fraternal Love , the Commander of the Army of Civilization , with the Philosopher from the City of Light — who represents the author — as counsel . In this work , Marrash expressed ideas of political and social reforms , highlighting the need of the Arabs for two things above all : modern schools and patriotism " free from religious considerations " . In 1870 , when distinguishing the notion of fatherland from that of nation and applying the latter to Greater Syria , Marrash would point to the role played by language , among other factors , in counterbalancing religious and sectarian differences , and thus , in defining national identity .
Although Marrash 's poetical expression lacked the legal meticulousness found in works from Enlightened Europe , orientalist Shmuel Moreh has stated that Marrash became , with Ghabat al @-@ haqq , " the first Arab writer to reflect the optimism and humanistic view of 18th @-@ century Europe . This view stemmed from the hope that education , science and technology would resolve such problems of humanity as slavery , religious discrimination , illiteracy , disease , poverty , war , and other scourges of mankind , and it gave utterance to his hope for brotherhood and equality among peoples . " Yet , his views on freedom differed from those of the French revolutionists and of his Middle Eastern contemporaries ; indeed , he considered pleading for freedom on the basis of natural analogy to be superficial , for even nature responds to its own set of rules , according to Marrash . As a consequence , nothing in the universe may yearn for liberty without satisfying essential rules and needs that guarantee its existence . Being one of these , the need for progress may therefore justify the abolition of any restriction that does not serve as a regulator for a good system . In light of this reasoning , and in reference to the ongoing American Civil War , he thus in Ghabat al @-@ haqq supported the abolition of slavery .
But the significance of this work also lay in Marrash 's attempt to blend European thought with his own reading of the Christian belief in universal love . Indeed , he had tried to reconcile his philosophical understanding of the concept of liberty with his belief in the benevolence of the Catholic Church 's authority . As stated by Nazik Saba Yared :
He argued that only the spiritual kingdom [ i.e. the kingdom centered on religion ] could curb evil [ ... ] and consequently guarantee the freedom of man . Love is one of the pillars of Christianity , and Marrash , like some Sufis and Romantics , considered it to be the basis of civilization , indeed of the entire universe [ ... ] . Since love , for Marrash , was the general law , and freedom meant participation in that law , it followed that freedom would be inseparable from love and religion .
= = = = Later writings = = = =
In 1867 , Marrash published Rihlat Baris , an account of his second journey to Paris . The book begins with a description of his progress from Aleppo to İskenderun , Latakia , Tripoli , Beirut , Jaffa , Alexandria , Cairo , and then back to Alexandria from which he had boarded a ship to Marseille , where he arrived in October 1866 . The Arab cities had inspired in him revulsion and indifference , except Alexandria and Cairo , where Ismail Pasha had already begun modernization projects . He had then travelled through France , with a stopover in Lyon before ending up in Paris . Marrash was fascinated by France , and by Paris the most ; everything he described in his account , from the Paris Exhibition of 1867 to gas lighting in the streets , served to praise the accomplishments of Western civilization . In Mashhad al @-@ ahwal ( " The Witnessing of the Stages of Human Life " ) , published in 1870 , Marrash would again compare the East and the West , writing that " while the East sank deeper into darkness , the West embraced light " . The optimism he had formerly expressed about the first reform currents under the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz in the Ottoman Empire gave way to pessimism in Mashhad al @-@ ahwal , as he realized these reforms were superficial and that those he had hoped for would not soon come into being . Yet , in Durr al @-@ sadaf fi ghara 'ib al @-@ sudaf ( Pearl Shells in Relating Strange Coincidences ) , which he published two years later , he depicted the Lebanese social life of his day and criticised the blind imitation of Western customs and the use of the French language in everyday life .
Throughout his life , Marrash composed many essays about science ( especially mathematics ) , and about education , a subject which mattered a lot to him ; indeed , he wrote in Ghabat al @-@ haqq that " without the education of the mind , man is a mindless beast " . He also wrote many articles in the popular press ; in those published in Butrus al @-@ Bustani 's journal al @-@ Jinan , he showed himself favourable to women 's education , which he restricted however to reading , writing , and a little bit of arithmetic , geography and grammar . In an 1872 issue of al @-@ Jinan , he wrote that it is not necessary for a woman " to act like a man , neglect her domestic and family duties , or that she should consider herself superior to the man " ; he nonetheless closely followed his sister 's studies . Marrash also condemned Arab men 's severe treatment of their wives and daughters . In his later works , he tried to demonstrate the existence of God and of the divine law ; the Sharia , as he conceived it , was not restricted to the sphere of the Islamic law alone .
= = Legacy = =
Marrash often included poems in his works , written in muwashshah and zajal forms according to the occasion . Shmuel Moreh has stated that Marrash tried to introduce " a revolution in diction , themes , metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry " , sometimes even mocking conventional poetic themes . In the introduction to his poetry book Mir 'at al @-@ Hasna ' ( The Mirror of the Beautiful One ) , which was first published in 1872 , Marrash rejected even the traditional genres of Arabic poetry , particularly panegyrics and lampoons . His use of conventional diction for new ideas marked the rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the Mahjaris . Shmuel Moreh has also considered some passages from Ghabat al @-@ haqq and Rihlat Baris to be prose poetry , while Salma Khadra Jayyusi has described his prosaic writing as " often Romantic in tone , rising sometimes to poetic heights , declamatory , vivid , colourful and musical " , calling it the first example of poetic prose in modern Arabic literature .
Khalil Gibran was a great admirer of Marrash , whose works he had read at al @-@ Hikma school in Beirut . According to Shmuel Moreh , Gibran 's own works echo Marrash 's style and " many of [ his ] ideas on enslavement , education , women 's liberation , truth , the natural goodness of man , and the corrupted morals of society " . Khalil Hawi has referred to Marrash 's aforementioned philosophy of universal love as having left a deep impression on Gibran . Moreover , Khalil Hawi has stated that many of Marrash 's recurring expressions became stock images for Arab writers of the 20th century : he has mentioned , for example , " the valleys of mental contemplation " , " the wings of thoughts " , " solicitudes and dreams " , " the veils of history " , " the Kingdom of the Spirit " , " the nymphs of the forest , the spring and the dawn " , " golden diadems " , " the jewels of light " , " the storms of days and nights " , and " the smoke of revenge and the mist of anger " . Poet and journalist Khalil Mutran dedicated poems to Marrash and others of his contemporaries .
= = Works = =
Dalīl al @-@ ḥuriyah al @-@ insāniyah ( Guide to Human Liberty ) , 1861 .
Al @-@ mir ’ āt al @-@ ṣafiyah fī al @-@ mābādi ’ al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah ( The Clear Mirror of Natural Principles ) , 1861 .
Ta ‘ ziyat al @-@ makrūb wa @-@ rāḥat al @-@ mat ‘ ūb ( Consolation of the Anxious and Respose of the Weary One ) , 1864 — pessimistic discourse on nations of the past .
Ghābat al @-@ ḥaqq fī tafṣīl al @-@ akhlāq al @-@ fāḍilah ( The Forest of Truth in Detailing Cultured Manners ) , c . 1865 .
Riḥlat Bārīs ( Journey to Paris ) , 1867 .
Kitāb dalīl al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah ( Guide to Nature ) , c . 1867 .
Al @-@ kunūz al @-@ faniyah fī al @-@ rumūz al @-@ Maymūniyah ( Artistic Treasures Concerning the Symbolic Visions of Maymun ) , 1870 — poem of almost 500 verses .
Mashhad al @-@ aḥwāl ( The Witnessing of the Stages of Human Life ) , 1870 — collection of poems and short works in rhymed prose .
Durr al @-@ ṣadaf fī gharā 'ib al @-@ ṣudaf ( Pearl Shells in Relating Strange Coincidences ) , 1872 — a romance with songs for which he supplied the tunes .
Mir ’ āt al @-@ ḥasnā ' ( The Mirror of the Beautiful One ) , 1872 .
Shahādat al @-@ ṭabī ‘ iyah fī wujūd Allāh wa @-@ al @-@ sharī ‘ ah ( Nature 's Proofs for the Existence of God and the Divine Law ) , 1892 ( posthumous ) .
= Boosey & Hawkes =
Boosey & Hawkes is a British music publisher purported to be the largest specialist classical music publisher in the world . Until 2003 , it was also a major manufacturer of brass , string and woodwind musical instruments .
Formed in 1930 through the merger of two well @-@ established British music businesses , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major , 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , including Steve Reich , John Adams , James MacMillan , Elliott Carter , Harrison Birtwistle , Osvaldo Golijov , Anna Clyne , and Louis Andriessen .
With subsidiaries in Germany , the UK and the US , the company also sells sheet music ; provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use ;
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is central in Zwingli 's work as a reformer and is crucial in the development of his theology . Zwingli appealed to scripture constantly in his writings . This is strongly evident in his early writings such as Archeteles ( 1522 ) and The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God ( 1522 ) . He believed that man is a liar and only God is the truth . For him scripture , as God 's word , brings light when there is only darkness of error .
Zwingli initially appealed to scripture against Catholic opponents in order to counter their appeal to the church — which included the councils , the church fathers , the schoolmen , and the popes . To him , these authorities were based on man and liable to error . He noted that " the fathers must yield to the word of God and not the word of God to the fathers " . His insistence of using the word of God did not preclude him from using the councils or the church fathers in his arguments . He gave them no independent authority , but he used them to show that the views he held were not simply his own .
The inspiration of scripture , the concept that God or the Holy Spirit is the author , was taken for granted by Zwingli . His view of inspiration was not mechanical and he recognized the human element in his commentaries as he noted the differences in the canonical gospels . He did not recognize the apocryphal books as canonical . Like Martin Luther , Zwingli did not regard the Revelation of St John highly , and also did not accept a " canon within the canon " , but he did accept scripture as a whole .
= = Baptism = =
Zwingli 's views on baptism are largely rooted in his conflict with the Anabaptists , a group whose beliefs included the rejection of infant baptism and centered on the leadership of Conrad Grebel and Felix Manz . In October 1523 , the controversy over the issue broke out during the second Zürich disputation and Zwingli vigorously defended the need for infant baptism and his belief that rebaptism was unnecessary . His major works on the subject include Baptism , Rebaptism , and Infant Baptism ( 1525 ) , A Reply to Hubmaier ( 1525 ) , A Refutation ( 1527 ) , and Questions Concerning the Sacrament of Baptism ( 1530 ) .
In Baptism , Rebaptism , and Infant Baptism , Zwingli outlined his disagreements with both the Catholic and the Anabaptist positions . He accused the Anabaptists of adding to the word of God and noted that there is no law forbidding infant baptism . He challenged Catholics by denying that the water of baptism can have the power to wash away sin . Zwingli understood baptism to be a pledge or a promise , but he disputed the Anabaptist position that it is a pledge to live without sin , noting that such a pledge brings back the hypocrisy of legalism . He argued against their view that those that received the Spirit and were able to live without sin were the only persons qualified to partake in baptism . At the same time he asserted that rebaptism had no support in scripture . The Anabaptists raised the objection that Christ did not baptise children , and so Christians , likewise , should not baptise their children . Zwingli responded by noting that kind of argument would imply women should not participate in communion because there were no women at the last supper . Although there was no commandment to baptise children specifically , the need for baptism was clearly stated in scripture . In a separate discussion on original sin , Zwingli denies original guilt . He refers to I Corinthians 7 : 12 – 14 which states that the children of one Christian parent are holy and thus they are counted among the sons of God . Infants should be baptised because there is only one church and one baptism , not a partial church and partial baptism .
The first part of the document , A Reply to Hubmaier , is an attack on Balthasar Hubmaier 's position on baptism . The second part where Zwingli defends his own views demonstrates further development in his doctrine of baptism . Rather than baptism being simply a pledge , he describes baptism as a sign of our covenant with God . Furthermore , he associates this covenant with the covenant that God made with Abraham . As circumcision was the sign of God 's covenant with Abraham , baptism was the sign of his covenant with Christians . In A Refutation , he states ,
The children of Christians are no less sons of God than the parents , just as in the Old Testament . Hence , since they are sons of God , who will forbid this baptism ? Circumcision among the ancients ... was the same as baptism with us .
His later writings show no change in his fundamental positions . Other elements in Zwingli 's theology would lead him to deny that baptism is a means of grace or that it is necessary for salvation . His defence of infant baptism was not only a matter of church politics , but was clearly related to the whole of his theology and his profound sense of unity of the church .
= = Eucharist = =
The Eucharist was a key center of controversy in the Reformation as it not only focused differences between the reformers and the church but also between themselves . For Zwingli it was a matter of attacking a doctrine that imperiled the understanding and reception of God 's gift of salvation , while for Luther it was a matter of defending a doctrine that embodied that gift . It is not known what Zwingli 's eucharistic theology was before he became a reformer and there is disagreement among scholars about his views during his first few years as a priest . In the eighteenth article of The Sixty @-@ seven Articles ( 1523 ) which concerns the sacrifice of the mass , he states that it is a memorial of the sacrifice . He expounds on this in An Exposition of the Articles ( 1523 ) .
Zwingli credited the Dutch humanist , Cornelius Henrici Hoen ( Honius ) , for first suggesting the " is " in the institution words " This is my body " meant " signifies " . Hoen sent a letter to Zwingli in 1524 with this interpretation along with biblical examples to support it . It is impossible to say how the letter impacted Zwingli 's theology although Zwingli claimed that he already held the symbolic view when he read the letter . He first mentioned the " signifies " interpretation in a letter to Matthäus Alber , an associate of Luther . Zwingli denies transubstantiation using John 6 : 63 , " It is the Spirit who gives life , the flesh is of no avail " , as support . He commended Andreas Karlstadt 's understanding of the significance of faith , but rejected Karlstadt 's view that the word " this " refers to Christ 's body rather than the bread . Using other biblical passages and patristic sources , he defended the " signifies " interpretation . In The Eucharist ( 1525 ) , following the introduction of his communion liturgy , he laid out the details of his theology where he argues against the view that the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ and that they are eaten bodily .
The conflict between Zwingli and Luther began in 1525 , but it was not until 1527 that Zwingli engaged directly with Luther . The culmination of the controversy was the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 . He wrote four responses leading up to the meeting : A Friendly Exegesis ( 1527 ) , A Friendly Answer ( 1527 ) , Zwingli 's Christian Reply ( 1527 ) , and Two Replies to Luther 's Book ( 1528 ) . They examined Luther 's point @-@ of @-@ view rather than systematically presenting Zwingli 's own . Some of his comments were sharp and critical , although they were never as harsh and dismissive as some of Luther 's on him . However , Zwingli also called Luther " one of the first champions of the Gospel " , a David against Goliath , a Hercules who slew the Roman boar . Martin Bucer and Johannes Oecolampadius most likely influenced Zwingli as they were concerned with reconciliation of the eucharistic views .
The main issue for Zwingli is that Luther puts " the chief point of salvation in the bodily eating of the body of Christ " . Luther saw the action as strengthening faith and remitting sins . This , however , conflicted with Zwingli 's view of faith . The bodily presence of Christ could not produce faith as faith is from God , for those whom God has chosen . Zwingli also appealed to several passages of scripture with John 6 : 63 in particular . He saw Luther 's view as denying Christ 's humanity and asserted that Christ 's body is only at one place and that is at the right hand of God . The Marburg Colloquy did not produce anything new in the debate between the two reformers . Neither changed his position , but it did produce some further developments in Zwingli 's views . For example , he noted that the bread was not mere bread and affirmed terms such as " presence " , " true " , and " sacramental " . However , it was Zwingli 's and Luther 's differences in their understanding of faith , their Christology , their approach and use of scripture that ultimately made any agreement impossible .
Near the end of his life Zwingli summarized his understanding of the Eucharist in a confession sent to King Francis I , saying :
" We believe that Christ is truly present in the Lord ’ s Supper ; yea , we believe that there is no communion without the presence of Christ . This is the proof : ' Where two or three are gathered together in my name , there am I in the midst of them ' ( Matt . 18 : 20 ) . How much more is he present where the whole congregation is assembled to his honor ! But that his body is literally eaten is far from the truth and the nature of faith . It is contrary to the truth , because he himself says : ' I am no more in the world ' ( John 17 : 11 ) , and ' The flesh profiteth nothing ' ( John 6 : 63 ) , that is to eat , as the Jews then believed and the Papists still believe . It is contrary to the nature of faith ( I mean the holy and true faith ) , because faith embraces love , fear of God , and reverence , which abhor such carnal and gross eating , as much as any one would shrink from eating his beloved son . … We believe that the true body of Christ is eaten in the communion in a sacramental and spiritual manner by the religious , believing , and pious heart ( as also St. Chrysostom taught ) . And this is in brief the substance of what we maintain in this controversy , and what not we , but the truth itself teaches . "
= = State = =
The relation of church and state in Zwingli 's mind is best represented in a statue by the Wasserkirche , where he stands with a Bible in one hand and a sword in the other . For him , the church and state are one under the sovereign rule of God . The development of the complex relationship between church and state in Zwingli 's view can only be understood by examining the context of his life , the city of Zürich , and the wider Swiss Confederation . His earliest writings before he became a reformer , such as The Ox ( 1510 ) and The Labyrinth ( 1516 ) , reveal a patriotic love of his land , a longing for liberty , and opposition to the mercenary service where young Swiss citizens were sent to fight in foreign wars for the financial benefit of the state government . His life as a parish priest and an army chaplain helped to develop his concern for morality and justice . He saw his ministry not limited to a private sphere , but to the people as a whole .
The Zürich council played an essential role at each stage of the Reformation . Even before the Reformation , the council operated relatively independently on church matters although the areas of doctrine and worship were left to the authority of the ecclesiastical hierarchy . As Zwingli was convinced that doctrinal matters had to conform to the word of God rather than the hierarchy , he recognised the role of the council as the only body with power to act if the religious authorities refused to undertake reform . His theocratic views are best expressed in Divine and Human Righteousness ( 1523 ) and An Exposition of the Articles ( 1523 ) in that both preacher and prince were servants under the rule of God . The context surrounding these two publications was a period of considerable tension . Zwingli was banned by the Swiss Diet from travelling into any other canton . The work of the Reformation was endangered by the potential outbreak of religious and social disorder . Zwingli saw the need to present the government in a positive light to safeguard the continued preaching of the Gospel . He stated ,
... the gospel of Christ is not opposed to government ... but
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5 · 108 ) cm · s − 2 , or approximately 250 @,@ 000 of Earth 's .
Ten stars have been found to have planets to date , and four planetary systems have been discovered with the SuperWASP project . HD 142 is a yellow giant that has an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 , and has a planet ( HD 142 b ) 1 @.@ 36 times the mass of Jupiter which orbits every 328 days . HD 2039 is a yellow subgiant with an apparent magnitude of 9 @.@ 0 around 330 light years away which has a planet ( HD 2039 b ) triple the mass of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 18 is a star of magnitude 9 @.@ 29 which was discovered to have a hot Jupiter @-@ like planet ( WASP @-@ 18b ) taking less than a day to orbit the star . The planet is suspected to be causing WASP @-@ 18 to appear older than it really is . WASP @-@ 4 and WASP @-@ 5 are solar @-@ type yellow stars around 1000 light years distant and of 13th magnitude , each with a single planet larger than Jupiter . WASP @-@ 29 is an orange dwarf of spectral type K4V and visual magnitude 11 @.@ 3 , which has a planetary companion of similar size and mass to Saturn . The planet completes an orbit every 3 @.@ 9 days .
WISE J003231.09 @-@ 494651 @.@ 4 and WISE J001505.87 @-@ 461517 @.@ 6 are two brown dwarfs discovered by the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer , and are 63 and 49 light years away respectively . Initially hypothesised before they were belatedly discovered , brown dwarfs are objects more massive than planets , but which are of insufficient mass for hydrogen fusion characteristic of stars to occur . Many are being found by sky surveys .
Phoenix contains HE0107 @-@ 5240 , possibly one of the oldest stars yet discovered . It has around 1 / 200 @,@ 000 the metallicity that the Sun has and hence must have formed very early in the history of the universe . With a visual magnitude of 15 @.@ 17 , it is around 10 @,@ 000 times dimmer than the faintest stars visible to the naked eye and is 36000 light years distant .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The constellation does not lie on the galactic plane of the Milky Way , and there are no prominent star clusters . NGC 625 is a dwarf irregular galaxy of apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 0 and lying some 12 @.@ 7 million light years distant . Only 24000 light years in diameter , it is an outlying member of the Sculptor Group . NGC 625 is thought to have been involved in a collision and is experiencing a burst of active star formation . NGC 37 is a lenticular galaxy of apparent magnitude 14 @.@ 66 . It is approximately 42 kiloparsecs ( 137 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) in diameter and about 12 @.@ 9 billion years old . Robert 's Quartet ( composed of the irregular galaxy NGC 87 , and three spiral galaxies NGC 88 , NGC 89 and NGC 92 ) is a group of four galaxies located around 160 million light @-@ years away which are in the process of colliding and merging . They are within a circle of radius of 1 @.@ 6 arcmin , corresponding to about 75 @,@ 000 light @-@ years . Located in the galaxy ESO 243 @-@ 49 is HLX @-@ 1 , an intermediate @-@ mass black hole — the first one of its kind identified . It is thought to be a remnant of a dwarf galaxy that was absorbed in a collision with ESO 243 @-@ 49 . Before its discovery , this class of black hole was only hypothesized .
Lying within the bounds of the constellation is the gigantic Phoenix cluster , which is around 7 @.@ 3 million light years wide and 5 @.@ 7 billion light years away , making it one of the most massive galaxy clusters . It was first discovered in 2010 , and the central galaxy is producing an estimated 740 new stars a year . Larger still is El Gordo , or officially ACT @-@ CL J0102 @-@ 4915 , whose discovery was announced in 2012 . Located around 7 @.@ 2 billion light years away , it is composed of two subclusters in the process of colliding , resulting in the spewing out of hot gas , seen in X @-@ rays and infrared images .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Phoenix is the radiant of two annual meteor showers . The Phoenicids , also known as the December Phoenicids , were first observed on 3 December 1887 . The shower was particularly intense in December 1956 , and is thought related to the breakup of the short @-@ period comet 289P / Blanpain . It peaks around 4 – 5 December , though is not seen every year . A very minor meteor shower peaks around July 14 with around one meteor an hour , though meteors can be seen anytime from July 3 to 18 ; this shower is referred to as the July Phoenicids .
= Bismarck @-@ class battleship =
The Bismarck class was a pair of battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine shortly before the outbreak of World War II . The ships were the largest warships built for the Kriegsmarine . Bismarck was laid down in July 1936 and completed in September 1940 , while her sister Tirpitz 's keel was laid in October 1936 and work finished in February 1941 . The two ships were broadly similar to the World War I @-@ era Bayern class , in that they mounted a similar main battery .
Both ships had short service careers . Bismarck conducted only one operation , Operation Rheinübung , a sortie into the North Atlantic to raid supply convoys sent from North America to Great Britain . During the operation , she destroyed the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and damaged the new battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of the Denmark Strait . Bismarck was defeated and sunk in a final engagement after a three @-@ day chase by the Royal Navy . Disagreements over the cause of the sinking persist with chiefly British sources claiming responsibility for the sinking of the ship . Evidence reviewed by Robert Ballard and James Cameron indicates that her loss was most likely due to scuttling as originally claimed by her surviving crew @-@ members .
Tirpitz 's career was less dramatic ; she was sent to Norwegian waters in 1942 , where she acted as a fleet in being , threatening the convoys from Britain to the Soviet Union . She was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . In 1944 , Lancaster bombers hit the ship with three Tallboy bombs , which caused extensive internal damage and capsized the battleship . Tirpitz was broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957 .
= = Design = =
A series of conceptual designs were begun in 1932 to determine the ideal characteristics of a battleship built to the 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Washington Naval Treaty . These early studies determined that the ship should be armed with eight 33 cm ( 13 in ) guns , have a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , and have strong armour protection . The design work for what became the Bismarck class was begun in 1933 and continued until 1936 . In June 1935 , Germany signed the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement , which allowed Germany to build battleships at a ratio of 35 percent to the total tonnage of the Royal Navy . It also made Germany party to the international treaty system begun at the Washington Conference . At the time , France , which had begun a program of naval expansion , was viewed as the most likely threat , not Great Britain . As a result , Bismarck and Tirpitz were intended to counter the new French battleships being built at the time .
A series of questions needed to be answered during the design process , including the calibre of the main battery , the propulsion system , and armour protection . The deciding factor for the adoption of 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns for Bismarck and Tirpitz was the decision of the French Navy to arm its four Richelieu @-@ class ships then under construction with 38 cm pieces . It was decided that four twin turrets would provide the best solution to distribution of the main battery , as it would provide equal firepower forward and aft , as well as simplify fire control . This arrangement was similar to the last German battleships of the Imperial period , the Bayern class . The similarity led to speculation that the Bismarcks were essentially copies of the earlier ships , though the arrangement of the main battery was the only shared trait , along with a three @-@ shaft propulsion system .
The naval constructors examined diesel geared drive , steam drive , and turbo @-@ electric drive engines ; the last system was the preferred choice , as it had been extremely successful in the two American Lexington @-@ class aircraft carriers and the French passenger ship Normandie . The design staff were also required to provide sufficient range to the new battleships ; they would have to make long voyages from German ports to reach the Atlantic , and Germany had no overseas bases where the ships could refuel . Due to the numerical inferiority of the German fleet and the assumption that naval battles would take place at relatively close range in the North Sea , the design placed great emphasis on stability and armour protection . Very thick vertical belt armour was adopted , along with heavy upper @-@ citadel armour plating and extensive splinter protection in the bow and stern of the ships .
The displacement of Bismarck and Tirpitz were limited by the capabilities of existing infrastructure in Kiel and Wilhelmshaven , and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . On 11 February 1937 , the Construction Office informed Generaladmiral ( General Admiral ) Erich Raeder that the ships could not displace more than 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 43 @,@ 000 t ) due to harbour constraints and canal depths . The office also expressed a preference for building a third vessel and remaining within the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton treaty limit . Admiral Werner Fuchs , the head of the General Command Office of the Oberkommando der Marine , advised Raeder and Adolf Hitler that modifications would be necessary to reduce the displacement to ensure the new ships met the legal requirements of the London Naval Treaty . Japan refused to sign the new treaty , and so on 1 April 1937 an escalator clause permitting treaty signatories to build ships up to a limit of 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) went into effect . The final design displacement of 41 @,@ 400 long tons ( 42 @,@ 100 t ) was well within this limit , so Fuchs 's modifications were discarded .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class battleships were 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) long overall and 241 @.@ 60 m ( 792 ft 8 in ) long at the waterline . The ships had a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) , and a designed draft of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) ; the draft at standard displacement was 8 @.@ 63 m ( 28 ft 4 in ) , and 9 @.@ 90 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) at a full load . The ships had a designed displacement of 45 @,@ 950 metric tons ; their standard displacement was 41 @,@ 700 metric tons , and when fully laden , the ships displaced 50 @,@ 300 metric tons . The ships had a double bottom for 83 percent of the length of the hull , and twenty @-@ two watertight compartments . The ships were 90 percent welded construction . The stern was weakly constructed ; this had significant consequences on Bismarck 's only combat mission .
The ships were very stable , primarily because of their wide beam . The ships suffered from only slight pitching and rolling , even in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic . Bismarck and Tirpitz were responsive to commands from the helm ; they were capable of manoeuvring with rudder deflections as small as 5 ° . With the rudder completely over , the ships heeled only 3 ° , but lost up to 65 % of their speed . The ships handled poorly at low speeds or when travelling astern . As a result , tugs were necessary in confined areas to avoid collisions or grounding . The ships had a standard crew of 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted sailors . The ships carried smaller boats , including three picket boats , four barges , one launch , two pinnaces , two cutters , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class ships both had three sets of geared turbine engines ; Bismarck was equipped with Blohm & Voss turbines , while Tirpitz used Brown , Boveri , and Co. engines . Each set of turbines drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) in diameter . Robert Ballard , the discoverer of Bismarck , noted that the adoption of the three @-@ shaft arrangement caused serious problems for Bismarck . The centre shaft weakened the keel , especially where it emerges from the hull . Ballard stated that a four @-@ shaft arrangement would have allowed a greater ability to steer the ship using only propeller revolutions than the three @-@ screw system .
At a full load , the high and medium @-@ pressure turbines ran at 2 @,@ 825 rpm , while the low @-@ pressure turbines ran at 2 @,@ 390 rpm . The ships ' turbines were powered by twelve Wagner ultra high @-@ pressure oil @-@ burning boilers . The two ships had different fuel stores ; Bismarck was designed to carry 3 @,@ 200 tons of fuel oil , but could store up to 6 @,@ 400 tons of fuel in a normal configuration ; with extra fuel bunkers , the fuel carried could be increased up to 7 @,@ 400 tons . Tirpitz was designed to carry 3 @,@ 000 tons of fuel , and with additional bunkers , was able to store up to 7 @,@ 780 tons . At 19 knots , Bismarck could steam for 8 @,@ 525 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 788 km ) , and Tirpitz had a maximum range of 8 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 430 km ) at that speed .
The turbines were initially intended to use electric transmission , and would have produced 46 @,@ 000 hp ( 34 @,@ 000 kW ) apiece . The geared turbines were lighter , and as a result had a slight performance advantage . The geared turbines also had a significantly more robust construction . The ships mounted eight 500 kW diesel generators arranged in four pairs , five 690 kW turbo @-@ generators , and one 460 kW , the last of which was connected to a 400 kVA AC generator . Another 550 kVA diesel generator provided additional AC power . The electrical plant provided a total 7 @,@ 910 kW at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main battery = = = =
Bismarck 's and Tirpitz 's main battery consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns in four twin turrets , Anton and Bruno in a superfiring pair forward of the superstructure and Caesar and Dora aft . The turrets allowed elevation to 30 ° , which gave the guns a maximum range of 36 @,@ 520 m ( 39 @,@ 940 yd ) . The guns fired 800 kg ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 820 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 690 ft / s ) . The main battery was supplied with between 940 – 960 shells total , for approximately 115 – 120 shells per gun . As with other German large @-@ calibre naval rifles , these guns were designed by Krupp and featured sliding wedge breech blocks , which required brass cartridge cases for the propellant charges . Under optimal conditions , the rate of fire was one shot every 18 seconds , or three per minute . The gun turrets were electrically trained and the guns were hydraulically elevated . Gun elevation was controlled remotely . The turrets required each gun to return to 2 @.@ 5 ° elevation for loading . Tirpitz was eventually provided with time @-@ fuzed shells to combat the repeated Allied bombing attacks .
The Bismarcks ' use of four twin turrets ( the 4 × 2 configuration ) was a design practice that hearkened back to the First World War . Almost all other post @-@ 1921 capital ships had triple or even quadruple turrets , which allowed for additional heavy caliber guns , while reducing the number of turrets . Fewer turrets reduced the length of the battleship 's armored citadel ( particularly magazine length and the armor needed to protect it ) and shortened the vessel itself . Although triple turrets were considered for the Bismarcks , there were concerns that the extra barrel would lower the overall rate of fire in each turret , along with fears that a single well @-@ aimed hit could disable a larger proportion of the ship 's firepower . It was also felt that four twin turrets allowed for a better field of fire and a more effective sequence of salvoes .
Although other contemporary vessels like the American North Carolina @-@ class battleships carried 40 @.@ 6 @-@ cm main guns , the Bismarcks used 38 @-@ cm naval guns as the Germans had experience with them ; a 40 @.@ 6 @-@ cm weapon would have had to have been designed from scratch . Bismarck was also authorized prior to the breakdown of the London Naval Treaty and the invocation of the 45 @,@ 000 @-@ ton , 406 @-@ mm main gun escalator clause ( which the United States did invoke with the North Carolinas ) ; building 40 @.@ 6 cm battleships would doubtless have seemed provocative , especially to the United Kingdom . As it was , the 38 cm main battery of the Bismarck class compared well to their contemporaries , out @-@ ranging almost all of the 38 cm and 40 @.@ 6 cm guns of contemporary navies ( with the exception of the Italian 38 @.@ 1 cm gun , which suffered exceptional bore erosion as a consequence ) . The German gun was superior to the World War I era BL 15 inch / 42 naval gun ( 381 mm ) of the Royal Navy in both range and penetration .
= = = = Secondary battery = = = =
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in six twin turrets . The 15 cm gun turrets were based on the single @-@ gun turrets used aboard the Scharnhorst class . They could elevate to 40 ° and depress to − 10 ° ; they had a rate of fire of around six shots per minute . The 15 cm guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 875 m / s ( 2 @,@ 871 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation , the guns could hit targets out to 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) . As with the main battery guns , Tirpitz 's 15 cm guns were later supplied with time @-@ fused shells .
The decision to mount low @-@ angle 15 cm guns has been criticised by naval historians , including Antony Preston , who stated that they " imposed a severe weight penalty " , while American and British battleships were being armed with dual @-@ purpose guns . Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin note that " the use of dual @-@ purpose armament would have possibly increased the number of anti @-@ aircraft guns , but might have weakened the defence against destroyer attack , which German naval experts deemed more important . "
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft battery = = = =
As built , Bismarck and Tirpitz were equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery of sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) C / 32 65 @-@ calibre guns in eight twin mounts , sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) C / 30 guns in eight dual mounts , and twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns in individual mounts . The 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were the same weapons as used aboard the Scharnhorst class , and were mounted on the first superstructure deck . After Bismarck was sunk in 1941 , two amidships guns on Tirpitz were moved forward so as to provide them with better fields of fire . The sixteen guns were guided by four fire @-@ control directors , two just aft of the conning tower , a third positioned aft of the main mast , and the fourth directly behind turret Caesar . Tirpitz 's directors were covered by protective domes , though Bismarck 's were not .
The ships ' 37 mm 83 @-@ calibre guns were twin mounted and placed in the superstructure . The mounts were hand @-@ operated and automatically stabilised for roll and pitch . These guns were supplied with a total of 32 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . Bismarck and Tirpitz were initially armed with twelve 20 mm guns in single mounts , though these were augmented over time . Bismarck received a pair of quadruple gun mountings , for a total of twenty 20 mm guns . Over the course of her career , Tirpitz 's 20 mm battery was increased to 78 guns in single and quadruple mountings .
= = = Armour = = =
The Bismarck @-@ class ships had an armoured belt that ranged in thickness from 220 to 320 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 6 in ) ; the thickest section of armour covered the central portion , where the gun turrets , ammunition magazines , and machinery spaces were located . This portion of the belt was capped on either end by 220 mm thick transverse bulkheads . The ships had an upper deck that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and an armoured deck that was between 100 – 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) at the bow and 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . The deck was mounted low in the hull , however , which reduced the volume of internal space protected by the armoured citadel . This contrasted with contemporary British and American designs that featured a single thick armoured deck mounted high in the ship .
The forward conning tower had a 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in
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) thick roof and 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick sides , while the range finder had an armoured roof 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides . The aft conning tower had much lighter armour : the roof was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the sides were 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) , while the aft range finder had a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roof and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) sides . The main battery turrets were reasonably well @-@ protected : the turret roofs were 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick , the sides were 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick , and the faces were 360 mm ( 14 in ) thick with 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick shields . These armour thicknesses were less than those of contemporary British ( King George V ) and French ( Richelieu ) designs . Conversely , the secondary battery was better @-@ protected than most rivals . The 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) gun turrets had 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick roofs , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) sides , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) fronts . The 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns had 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) shields .
= = Construction = =
Bismarck was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard on 1 July 1936 . The ship was assigned construction number 509 , and the contract name Ersatz Hannover , as a replacement for the old battleship Hannover . The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 , with Adolf Hitler in attendance . The granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Otto von Bismarck , christened the ship . As with other German capital ships , Bismarck was originally built with a straight bow . Experiences with other ships revealed the necessity of a clipper bow , which was installed on Bismarck during the fitting @-@ out process . The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940 , with Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann in command . Three weeks later , the ship left Hamburg for trials in the Baltic Sea , before returning in December for final fitting @-@ out work . Further trials and tests were conducted in the Baltic in March and April ; Bismarck was placed on active status the following month .
Tirpitz 's keel was laid at the Kriegsmarine dockyard in Wilhelmshaven on 20 October 1936 , under construction number 128 . She had been ordered under the contract name Ersatz Schleswig @-@ Holstein to replace the obsolete battleship Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Tirpitz was named for Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the High Seas Fleet before World War I. His daughter , Frau von Hassel , christened the ship on 1 April 1939 . Fitting out work lasted until February 1941 ; Tirpitz was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February . A series of trials were then conducted , first in the North Sea and then in the Baltic .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
= = = Bismarck = = =
After Bismarck joined the fleet , plans were drawn up for a sortie into the North Atlantic . The operation initially called for a force composed of Bismarck , Tirpitz , and the two Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships . Tirpitz was not yet ready for service by May 1941 , and Scharnhorst was being overhauled . The force was reduced to Bismarck , Gneisenau , and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen . Gneisenau was damaged by a British bombing raid on Brest , so it was decided that only Bismarck and Prinz Eugen would conduct the operation . Admiral Günther Lütjens was placed in command of the pair of ships .
Early on the morning of 19 May , Bismarck left Gotenhafen , bound for the North Atlantic . While on the trip through the Danish Belt , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the sighting was passed through the Swedish Navy to the British naval attaché in Stockholm . The British Royal Air Force conducted aerial reconnaissance of the Norwegian fjord in which Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had stopped , to confirm the sighting . While in Norway , Admiral Lütjens failed to replenish the approximately 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel Bismarck had spent on the first leg of the voyage .
By 23 May , Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had reached the Denmark Strait . That evening , the British cruisers Suffolk and Norfolk briefly engaged Bismarck before dropping back to shadow the German ships . At 06 : 00 the following morning , observers aboard Bismarck spotted the masts of the battlecruiser Hood and the new battleship Prince of Wales . The British ships steamed directly towards Bismarck and Prinz Eugen , before attempting a turn to bring the two forces on a roughly parallel course . During the turn , at least one of Bismarck 's 38 cm shells penetrated one of the aft ammunition magazines aboard Hood , which caused a catastrophic explosion and destroyed the ship . There were only three survivors from Hood 's crew of 1 @,@ 421 . The German ships then concentrated their fire on Prince of Wales , which was forced to withdraw . Bismarck did not emerge unscathed ; a direct hit on her bow from Prince of Wales caused Bismarck to take in some 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of water . The ship was also leaking oil , which made it easier for the British to track her .
After retreating , Prince of Wales joined Norfolk and Suffolk ; the ships briefly engaged Bismarck at around 18 : 00 . Neither side scored a hit . By this time , 19 warships were involved in the chase . This included six battleships and battlecruisers and two aircraft carriers , along with a number of cruisers and destroyers . After the second engagement with Prince of Wales , Lütjens detached Prinz Eugen to continue the operation while Bismarck sailed for port . Shortly before midnight on 24 May , a group of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 825 Naval Air Squadron on Victorious attacked Bismarck . One torpedo struck the ship amidships , though without doing any serious damage . The shock from the explosion , coupled with Bismarck 's manoeuvring at high speed , damaged the temporary repairs that had stopped the flooding from the earlier battle damage . Her speed was reduced to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) to slow the flooding while repair teams fixed the reopened wounds .
Early on 25 May , Bismarck doubled back past her pursuers in a wide circle . The manoeuvre successfully shook off the British ships , which turned west in an attempt to find the ship . Despite the manoeuvre , Admiral Lütjens was unaware that he had evaded the British , and so sent a series of radio transmissions , which were intercepted by the British and used to gain a rough fix on his position . Due to the damage his ship had sustained , Lütjens decided to head for occupied France rather than continue his mission . On the morning of 26 May , a Coastal Command PBY Catalina flying boat spotted Bismarck 690 nmi ( 1 @,@ 280 km ; 790 mi ) to the north @-@ west of Brest ; she was steaming at a speed that would put her under the protective umbrella of German aircraft and U @-@ boats within 24 hours . The only British forces close enough to slow her down were the aircraft carrier Ark Royal and her escort , the battlecruiser Renown . At approximately 20 : 30 , a flight of fifteen Ark Royal 's 820 Naval Air Squadrons Swordfish torpedo bombers launched an attack on Bismarck . Three torpedoes were believed to have struck the ship ; the first two torpedoes failed to do serious damage to the ship , but the third hit jammed Bismarck 's rudders hard to starboard . The damage could not be repaired , and the battleship began turning in a large circle , back towards her pursuers .
An hour after the Swordfish attack , Lütjens transmitted the following signal to Naval Group Command West : " Ship unable to manoeuvre . We will fight to the last shell . Long live the Führer . " At 08 : 47 the following morning , the battleship Rodney opened fire , followed directly by King George V. Bismarck replied three minutes later , though at 09 : 02 a 16 inch shell from Rodney destroyed the forward turrets . Half an hour later , Bismarck 's rear turrets were silenced as well . At around 10 : 15 , both British battleships had ceased fire , their target a burning wreck . The British were running dangerously low on fuel , but Bismarck had not yet been sunk . The cruiser Dorsetshire fired several torpedoes into the crippled ship , which then took on a severe list to port . At approximately the same time as Dorsetshire 's attack , engine room crew detonated scuttling charges in the engine rooms . There is still significant debate as to the direct cause of Bismarck 's sinking . Only 110 men were rescued by the British before reports of U @-@ boats forced them from the scene . A further five men were rescued by German vessels .
= = = Tirpitz = = =
Tirpitz 's first action following her commissioning into the Kriegsmarine on 25 February 1941 was to act as a deterrent to a possible Soviet attempt to break out their Baltic Fleet following the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The ship was joined by the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer and the light cruisers Leipzig , Nürnberg , and Köln . The force patrolled off the Åland Islands for a few days before returning to Kiel . On 14 January 1942 , Tirpitz left German waters for Norway , arriving on the 17th .
On 6 March , Tirpitz , escorted by three destroyers , launched a raid on the British convoys to the Soviet Union . The Germans attempted to intercept convoys PQ @-@ 12 and QP @-@ 8 , but the inclement weather prevented them from finding the convoys . The British located Tirpitz , and the aircraft carrier Victorious launched a strike of twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers . The aircraft were repulsed without having scored any hits on the German ships . Tirpitz and the destroyers were back in port by 12 March . The close call prompted Hitler to mandate that Tirpitz was not to attack another convoy unless its escorting aircraft carrier had been sunk or disabled .
Over the next two months , the RAF launched a series of unsuccessful bombing raids against Tirpitz while she was moored in the Faettenfjord . The first , by 34 Handley Page Halifax bombers , took place on 31 March . Two followed a month later , on 28 and 29 April . The first attack was conducted by 43 Halifax and Avro Lancaster bombers , the second by 34 Halifax and Lancaster . A combination of heavy German anti @-@ aircraft fire and poor weather caused all three missions to fail . Over the rest of the year and into late 1942 , Tirpitz underwent a refit in the Faettenfjord , which lacked dockyard facilities of any type . As a result , the work was done incrementally ; a large caisson was built to allow the rudders to be replaced . Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin stated that " the repairs to this ship were one of the most difficult naval engineering feats of World War II . "
In January 1943 , Tirpitz emerged from the lengthy overhaul , after which she was transferred to Altafjord . Here , she participated in extensive training operations with Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Lützow , which lasted until the middle of the year . In early September , Tirpitz , Scharnhorst , and ten destroyers bombarded the island of Spitzbergen , which served as a British refuelling station . The two battleships destroyed their targets and returned safely to Altenfjord ; this was the first time Tirpitz fired her main guns in anger . On 22 – 23 September , six British midget submarines attacked Tirpitz while at anchor . Two of the submarines successfully planted explosive charges against the battleship 's hull , which did serious damage . Tirpitz had been successfully neutralised . Over the next six months , a workforce of some 1 @,@ 000 men effected the needed repairs , which were finished by March 1944 .
The British resumed the series of air attacks almost immediately after repairs were completed . On 3 April , the Royal Navy launched Operation Tungsten , during which 40 fighters and 40 Barracuda bombers from six carriers attacked the ship . They scored 15 direct hits and two near misses , which caused heavy damage , killed 122 men , and wounded 316 more . The Royal Navy attempted to repeat the attack three weeks later on the 24th , but had to call the operation off due to inclement weather . Operation Brawn , another carrier @-@ launched attack , followed on 15 May , but again weather interfered . Another carrier strike was attempted on 28 May , but it too was cancelled due to poor weather conditions . Operation Mascot , which was to be conducted by Victorious , Furious , and Indefatigable on 17 July , was frustrated by the heavy smokescreen over the battleship .
The Royal Navy launched the Operation Goodwood series in late August . Goodwood I took place on 22 August , with 38 bombers and 43 fighters from five carriers . The attackers failed to score any hits . Goodwood III followed two days later , with 48 bombers and 29 fighters from Formidable , Furious , and Indefatigable . The bombers made two hits on the ship , which did only minor damage . The last Royal Navy operation , Goodwood IV , followed on 29 August . Thirty @-@ four bombers and 25 fighters , launched from Formidable and Indefatigable , attacked the ship , though fog prevented them from scoring any hits .
The task of sinking Tirpitz now fell to the RAF , which performed three airstrikes armed with new 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 11 @,@ 900 lb ) Tallboy bombs . The first attack , Operation Paravane , came on 15 September , when a force of 27 Lancasters dropped a single Tallboy each ; the bombers succeeded in hitting Tirpitz directly in the bow with one of the bombs . The bomb completely penetrated the ship and exploded directly under her keel . This caused 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) of water to flood the ship ; Tirpitz had again been disabled . A month later , on 15 October , Tirpitz was moved to Haaköy Island off Tromsø to be used as a floating artillery battery . Two weeks later , on 29 October , the British launched Operation Obviate , which consisted of 32 Lancaster bombers . Only a near miss was achieved , though it caused Tirpitz to take in more water . The last attack , Operation Catechism , took place on 12 November . Thirty @-@ two Lancasters attacked the ship and scored a pair of direct hits and a near miss . The bombs detonated one of Tirpitz 's ammunition magazines and caused the ship to capsize . Casualties were high : 1 @,@ 204 men were killed in the attack . Another 806 men managed to escape the sinking ship , and a further 82 were rescued from the capsized hulk . The wreck was gradually broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957 .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= Hastings Ismay , 1st Baron Ismay =
General Hastings Lionel Ismay , 1st Baron Ismay KG GCB CH DSO PC DL ( 21 June 1887 – 17 December 1965 ) , nicknamed Pug , was a British Indian Army officer and diplomat , remembered primarily for his role as Winston Churchill 's chief military assistant during the Second World War and his service as the first Secretary General of NATO from 1952 to 1957 .
Ismay was born in Nainital , India in 1887 , and educated in the United Kingdom at the Charterhouse School and Royal Military College , Sandhurst . After Sandhurst , he joined the Indian Army as an officer of the 21st Prince Albert Victor 's Own Cavalry . During the First World War , he served with the Camel Corps in British Somal
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ors and other civil cases . From 1770 to 1771 , he served as magistrate , Justice of the County Court in Chancery and a Justice of Oyer and Terminer , which was a criminal court . When the town of Fincastle , Virginia was forming in 1770 , Trigg was instrumental in its development , helping to sell lots and build the town 's prison along with a courthouse with his father @-@ in @-@ law , Israel Christian .
Due to the needs of a growing population , the southwestern half of Botetourt County was separated in 1772 and named Fincastle County . Trigg was installed as one of its first justices of the peace . He was also made a Justice of the County Court in Chancery and a Justice of Oyer and Terminer in addition to his appointment as Deputy Clerk and surveyor of the road from New River to the Sinking Spring . Trigg also continued pursuing his livelihood as a merchant at Dunkard Bottom in present @-@ day Pulaski County . From 1773 to 1774 , he partnered with David Ross and operated a community store in New Dublin , with branches located in Meadow Creek , Reed Creek and Reed Island . At this time , many indentured servants came to this area of the state . Short of money , they sold themselves to the ship owners for passage to America for a term of servitude that gained them land and tools upon completion . In October , Trigg advertised the sale of 30 white indentured servants at his home with a discount for " ready money " . Trigg also served as a delegate to the last session of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1775 , representing Fincastle County , but he absented himself to serve as a captain in Dunmore 's War .
Settlers again agitated for another split , and so Fincastle County was split into three counties and became defunct in 1776 ; the new counties were Montgomery , Washington and Kentucky . Trigg was again a member of the first court of justices held for a new county , this time Montgomery . He also served in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1778 .
= = Early Kentucky pioneer = =
The new Virginia counties were growing rapidly , and with this growth came trouble . Trigg was appointed as one of the judges to the Virginia Land Court commission of 1779 – 80 charged with settling land disputes in Kentucky County , Virginia . The Virginia Land Act of 1779 had set up this court of four judges in order to examine the numerous land claims and to certify valid titles . The four judges arrived at St. Asaph in October and triggered emigration to Kentucky as people wished to either certify their claims or seek unclaimed land . They closed their court on February 26 , 1780 , and prepared to return home . However , in March they were told that they had to reopen the court and stay through April , as claimants were delayed due to weather . Trigg and two fellow judges reconvened on April 16 and heard another 134 cases . In all , the court judged 1 @,@ 328 claims covering over 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) of land . After these sessions ended , Trigg stayed and established his home on 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) of land at Trigg 's Station about four miles ( 6 km ) north @-@ west of Harrodsburg in Kentucky County , Virginia .
When Kentucky County , Virginia , was split into three counties in 1780 , Trigg was made lieutenant colonel for the new county militia of Lincoln . He also continued his public service by being one of the first justices of the peace , was one of the trustees to lay out Louisville , and served in the Virginia House of Delegates by representing Kentucky County in the 1780 – 1781 session . It was during this session that he , along with his fellow delegate John Todd , secured passage of the act that allowed the formation of Louisville .
Despite the growth of settlement in Kentucky , white colonists there were far from secure . Historian Virginia Webb Howard wrote of this era :
This was the darkest and most critical period in the history of the early Kentucky settlements . It must be remembered that the settlement of Kentucky was much different from the settlement of most of the other places where the new colony joined the older settlements . Kentucky , instead of adjoining already settled districts , was like an island in the wilderness . There were more than two hundred miles of forest between the settlements of Kentucky and the settlements of the older states .
Trigg continued his service in the militia throughout this period . In 1781 , he was made colonel of the Lincoln County militia . In 1782 , the four delegates to the Virginia General Assembly from Kentucky pushed for Trigg 's recommendation as one of the assistant judges to the newly created Supreme Court for Kentucky , but his early death prevented him from taking this position .
= = Revolutionary War = =
Meanwhile , events had moved from local agitations against the British crown to outright war . Early on , Trigg served in local militias , but he also represented Fincastle in the Virginia Conventions . These were five political meetings that started after Lord Dunmore , the governor of Virginia , had dissolved the House of Burgesses after its delegates expressed solidarity with Boston , Massachusetts , where the harbor had been closed by the British . Trigg was at the first convention in 1774 and was elected a delegate to the second convention in 1775 , though he did not attend . He was elected to the third convention ( July – August 1775 ) , and did appear . He was also a delegate to the Fourth Convention ( December 1775 – January 1776 ) , but did not attend .
His other revolutionary activity at the time was as a member of the Fincastle County Committee of Safety , an outgrowth of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence . The Virginia Committee of Correspondence was formed on March 12 , 1773 , and requested each county to do the same . The British refused to address the issues that were of greatest concern to the colonists , and so the freeholders of Fincastle County met at the Lead Mines on January 20 , 1775 , forming a Committee of Safety in which Trigg was a member . They were one of the first to respond to the request of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence to form such a body . Committees of Safety basically served as provisional governments for their area . It was also at this meeting that they drew up the Fincastle Resolutions , which was a precursor to the Declaration of Independence issued by the Second Continental Congress on July 4 , 1776 ; Trigg was one of the signatories . The resolutions , addressed to the Virginia members of the Continental Congress , contained the boldest assertion of the grievances and rights of the American colonies . In February 1775 , he wrote to his brother @-@ in @-@ law William Christian , suggesting they call another meeting of the freeholders to elect their delegates to the second Virginia Convention . With the news that William Christian was leaving with the Fincastle militia company to Williamsburg to fight , Trigg took over as chairman of the Committee of Safety . On October 7 , 1775 , they met to express their appreciation of Trigg , writing that " together with the most exemplary zeal and attachment to the liberties of your country , and your indefatigable industry in the service thereof , you merit and deserve our particular thanks . "
In 1776 , Cherokees entered the war with the aim of driving colonists from their lands , which meant the people living in southwestern Virginia were facing British @-@ armed Cherokees . The members of the Committee of Safety met at Fort Chiswell on June 11 , 1776 , and drafted a letter to Oconostota and Attacullaculla , chiefs of the Cherokee nation , to meet with them and come to terms for a peace agreement . The letter mentions the colonists ' dissatisfaction with Britain :
It is true that an unhappy Difference hath subsisted between the people beyond the great water , and the Americans for som [ sic ] years , which was intirely [ sic ] Owing to some of the great Kings Servants who wanted to take Our money without Our Consent , and otherwise to treat us , not like Children , but Slaves , which the people of America will not submit to .
Trigg was one of the signers of this letter . The conflict with the Cherokees was called the Christian Campaign ( presumably from Col. William Christian 's last name ) and Trigg was the paymaster in 1776 – 1777 . In 1777 , he was tasked with making a list of men who swore allegiance to several militia companies . By May 1778 , the inhabitants along the New River had either left or were ready to leave at a moment 's notice , due to increased hostilities with the Shawnee in the area . William Preston , an officer in the militia , felt exposed on the frontier , but was reluctant to abandon his home " Smithfield " , not only for the safety of his family , but also for the county records he safeguarded . Trigg was then leaving for his term in the General Assembly , and Preston urged him and the other delegate for a guard . When it was initially presented to the Governor 's Council , Preston 's petition was denied , but Trigg met several times with Governor Patrick Henry about Preston 's situation and won another hearing with the Council . Trigg made three separate appeals in all before carrying his point . When the governor agreed to send a guard of twelve men and a sergeant , Trigg sent Preston the news and also told him of the Treaty of Alliance that was signed in France in February .
= = = Last battle and death = = =
In 1782 , the British staged an invasion of Kentucky with the help of their Native American allies , including Wyandots , Ottawas and Ojibwas . When Trigg received word of their attack on Bryan Station , he was commanding the fort at Harrodsburg . He quickly assembled 135 local militiamen and met up with Colonel Daniel Boone and Major Levi Todd and more militia at Bryan Station . When they approached the Blue Licks , a salt lick next to the Licking River , officers suspected a trap and convened a war council , but unruly troops lost patience and crossed the river . The three leaders formed a column each , with Trigg commanding the right . When they met with the opposing force , Trigg 's column was ambushed . Trigg was killed and his men fell back after only five minutes of battle . When troops returned to the scene of battle , Trigg 's body was found quartered .
Trigg was buried in a mass grave near the battle site , in what is now Nicholas County , Kentucky . Kentucky later named a county Trigg County to honor him . There is a historical marker in Cadiz , on the courthouse lawn , US 68 . Historians Lewis and Richard Collins wrote of Trigg , " He was greatly beloved and very popular ; and if he had lived , would have taken rank among the most distinguished men of his time . "
= Jabba the Hutt =
Jabba the Hutt is a character appearing in George Lucas 's space opera film saga Star Wars . He is depicted as a large , slug @-@ like alien . His appearance has been described by film critic Roger Ebert as a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat .
In the original theatrical releases of the original Star Wars trilogy , Jabba the Hutt first appeared in Return of the Jedi ( 1983 ) , though he is mentioned in Star Wars ( 1977 ) and The Empire Strikes Back ( 1980 ) , and a previously deleted scene involving Jabba the Hutt was added to the 1997 theatrical re @-@ release and subsequent home media releases of Star Wars . Jabba 's role in Star Wars is primarily antagonistic ; he is introduced as the most powerful crime boss in Tatooine , who has a bounty on Han Solo 's head . He employs a retinue of criminals , bounty hunters , smugglers , assassins and bodyguards to operate his criminal empire . He keeps a host of entertainers at his disposal at his palace : slaves , droids and alien creatures . Jabba has a grim sense of humor , an insatiable appetite , and affinities for gambling , slave girls , and torture .
The character was incorporated into the Star Wars merchandising campaign that corresponded with the theatrical release of Return of the Jedi . Besides the films , Jabba the Hutt is featured in non @-@ canon Star Wars Legends expanded universe literature . Jabba the Hutt 's image has since played an influential role in popular culture , particularly in the United States . The name is used as a satirical literary device and a political caricature to underscore negative qualities such as morbid obesity and corruption .
= = Appearances = =
Jabba the Hutt appears in three of the seven live @-@ action Star Wars films and The Clone Wars . He has a recurring role in Star Wars expanded universe literature and stars in the comic book anthology Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal ( 1998 ) , a collection of comics originally published in 1995 and 1996 .
= = = Star Wars films = = =
Jabba is first seen in 1983 with the third installment of the original Star Wars trilogy , Return of the Jedi . Directed by Richard Marquand and written by Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas , the first act of Return of the Jedi features the attempts of Princess Leia Organa ( Carrie Fisher ) , the Wookiee Chewbacca ( Peter Mayhew ) , and Jedi Knight Luke Skywalker ( Mark Hamill ) to rescue their friend , Han Solo ( Harrison Ford ) , who had been imprisoned in carbonite in the previous film , The Empire Strikes Back .
The captured Han is delivered to Jabba by the bounty hunter Boba Fett ( Jeremy Bulloch ) and placed on display in the crime lord 's throne room . Lando Calrissian ( Billy Dee Williams ) , droids C @-@ 3PO ( Anthony Daniels ) and R2 @-@ D2 ( Kenny Baker ) , Leia , and Chewbacca infiltrate Jabba 's palace to save Han . Leia herself is soon enslaved by the Hutt , and she is forced to wear her iconic golden bikini , as well as being chained to Jabba . Soon after Leia is enslaved , Luke arrives to " bargain for Solo 's life " ; but Jabba condemns Luke , Han , and Chewbacca to the Sarlacc . At the Great Pit of Carkoon , Luke escapes execution with the help of R2 @-@ D2 and defeats Jabba 's guards . During the subsequent confusion , Leia strangles Jabba to death ; whereafter Luke , Leia , Han , Lando , Chewbacca , C @-@ 3PO , and R2 @-@ D2 escape .
The second film appearance of Jabba the Hutt is in the Special Edition of Star Wars which was released in 1997 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the original Star Wars . Here ( as in the original ) , Han Solo disputes with the alien bounty hunter Greedo ( Paul Blake and Maria De Aragon ) , whom he kills ; and Jabba confirms Greedo 's last words and demands that Han pay the value of the payload lost by him . Han promises to compensate Jabba as soon as he receives payment for delivering Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi ( Alec Guinness ) , Luke Skywalker , R2 @-@ D2 , and C @-@ 3PO to Alderaan ; but Jabba threatens to place a price on Solo himself , upon failure . This conversation was an unfinished scene of the original 1977 film , in which Jabba was played by Declan Mulholland in human form . In the 1997 Special Edition version of the film , a CGI rendering of Jabba replaces Mulholland , and his voice is redubbed in the fictional language of Huttese .
Jabba the Hutt makes his third film appearance in the 1999 prequel , Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , in which Jabba gives the order to begin a podrace at Mos Espa on Tatooine . With this done , Jabba falls asleep , and misses the race 's conclusion .
Jabba makes his final appearance in Star Wars : The Clone Wars , wherein his son Rotta is captured by Separatists ; Anakin Skywalker and Ahsoka Tano return him to Jabba , in exchange for the safe passage of Republic ships through his territory . Jabba has also appeared in three episodes of the third season of the series : In the episode " Sphere of Influence " , Jabba is faced by Chairman Papanoida , whose daughters were kidnapped by Greedo , and Jabba allows a sample of Greedo 's blood to be taken to prove him the kidnapper . In the episode " Evil Plans " , Jabba hires the bounty hunter Cad Bane to bring him plans for the Senate building . When Bane returns successful , Jabba and the Hutt Council send Bane to free Ziro the Hutt from prison . Jabba makes one short appearance in the episode " Hunt for Ziro " in which he is seen laughing at Ziro 's death at the hand of Sy Snootles , and pays her for delivering Ziro 's holo @-@ diary . In the fifth season 's episode " Eminence " , Jabba and the Hutt Council are approached by Darth Maul , Savage Oppress , and Pre Vizsla ; and when disappointed by these , Jabba sends bounty hunters Embo , Sugi , Latts Razzi , and Dengar to capture them . After a battle , the Shadow Collective confront Jabba at his palace on Tatooine , where Jabba agrees to an alliance .
= = = Star Wars literature = = =
The first appearances of Jabba the Hutt in non @-@ canon Star Wars Legends literature were in Marvel Comics ' adaptations of A New Hope . In Six Against the Galaxy ( 1977 ) by Roy Thomas , What Ever Happened to Jabba the Hut ? ( 1979 ) and In Mortal Combat ( 1980 ) , both by Archie Goodwin , Jabba the Hutt ( originally spelled Hut ) appeared as a tall humanoid with a walrus @-@ like face , a topknot , and a bright uniform . The official " Jabba " was not yet established as he had yet to be seen .
While awaiting the sequel to Star Wars , Marvel kept the monthly comic going with their own stories , one of which includes Jabba tracking Han Solo and Chewbacca down to an old hideaway they use for smuggling . However , circumstances force Jabba to lift the bounty on Solo and Chewbacca , thus enabling them to return to Tatooine for an adventure with Luke Skywalker — who has returned to the planet in order to recruit more pilots for the Rebel Alliance . In the course of another adventure , Solo kills the space pirate Crimson Jack and busts up his operation , which Jabba bankrolled . Jabba thus renews the reward for Solo 's head and Solo later kills a bounty hunter who tells him why he is hunted once more . He and Chewbacca return to the rebels . ( Solo mentions an incident with a " bounty hunter we ran into on Ord Mantell " in the opening scenes of The Empire Strikes Back . )
The Marvel artists based this Jabba on a character later named Mosep Binneed , an alien visible only briefly in the Mos Eisley cantina scene of A New Hope . The 1977 mass market paperback novelization of Lucas 's Star Wars script describes Jabba as a " great mobile tub of muscle and suet topped by a shaggy scarred skull " , but gives no further detail as to the character 's physical appearance or species .
Later Non @-@ Canonical Expanded Universe novels and comics adopt a version of the character 's image as seen in the film . They also elaborate on his background prior to the events of the Star Wars films . For example , Zorba the Hutt 's Revenge ( 1992 ) , a young adult novel by Paul and Hollace Davids , reveals that Jabba 's father is a powerful crime lord named Zorba the Hutt and that Jabba was born 596 years before the events of A New Hope , making him around 600 years old at the time of his death in Return of the Jedi . Ann C. Crispin 's novel The Hutt Gambit ( 1997 ) explains how Jabba the Hutt and Han Solo become business associates and portrays the events that lead to a bounty being placed on Han 's head . Other Expanded Universe stories — especially the anthology of Dark Horse comics by Jim Woodring titled Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal ( 1998 ) — likewise detail Jabba the Hutt 's rise to the head of the Desilijic clan , his role in the criminal underworld of the Star Wars universe , and the establishment of his crime syndicate on Tatooine in the Star Wars galaxy 's Outer Rim Territories .
Tales From Jabba 's Palace ( 1996 ) , a collection of short stories edited by science fiction author Kevin J. Anderson , pieces together the lives of Jabba the Hutt 's various minions in his palace and their relationship to him during the last days of his life . The stories reveal that few of the Hutt 's servants are loyal to him and most are in fact plotting to have him assassinated . When Jabba the Hutt is killed in Return of the Jedi , his surviving former courtiers join forces with his rivals on Tatooine and his family on the Hutt homeworld Nal Hutta make claims to his palace , fortune , and criminal empire . Timothy Zahn 's novel Heir to the Empire ( 1991 ) reveals that a smuggler named Talon Karrde eventually replaces Jabba as the " big fish in the pond " , and moves the headquarters of the Hutt 's criminal empire off Tatooine .
= = Characterization = =
Jabba the Hutt exemplifies lust , greed , and gluttony . The character is known throughout the Star Wars universe as a " vile gangster " who amuses himself by torturing and humiliating his subjects and enemies . He surrounds himself with scantily @-@ clad slave girls of all species , chained to his dais . The Star Wars Databank — an official online database of Star Wars information — remarks that residents of his palace are not safe from his desire to dominate and torture : in Return of the Jedi , the Twi 'lek slave dancer Oola is fed to the rancor monster .
Jabba the Hutt 's physical appearance reinforces his personality as a criminal deviant : in Return of the Jedi , Han Solo entitles Jabba a " slimy piece of worm @-@ ridden filth " ; and film critic Roger Ebert describes him as " a cross between a toad and the Cheshire Cat " ; and astrophysicist and science fiction writer Jeanne Cavelos gives Jabba the " award for most disgusting alien " . Science fiction authors Tom and Martha Veitch write that Jabba 's body is a " miasmic mass " , and that " The Hutt 's lardaceous body seemed to periodically release a greasy discharge , sending fresh waves of rotten stench " into the air . Jabba 's appetite is insatiable , and some authors portray him threatening to eat his subordinates .
Nonetheless , in one Expanded Universe story , Jabba prevents a Chevin named Ephant Mon from freezing to death on an ice planet ; whereafter Ephant Mon becomes his servant . In Star Wars : The Clone Wars , Jabba seems to have genuine affection for his son Rotta , and is worried by his kidnapping and angered by his supposed death .
Lucas has noted that there was a potential role for Jabba in future Star Wars films .
= = Concept and creation = =
= = = Episode IV : A New Hope = = =
The original script to A New Hope describes Jabba as a " fat , slug @-@ like creature with eyes on extended feelers and a huge ugly mouth " , but Lucas stated in an interview that the initial character he had in mind was much furrier and resembled a Wookiee . When filming the scene between Han Solo and Jabba in 1976 , Lucas employed Northern Irish actor Declan Mulholland to stand @-@ in for Jabba the Hutt , wearing a shaggy brown costume . Lucas planned to replace Mulholland in post @-@ production with a stop @-@ motion creature . The scene was meant to connect Star Wars to Return of the Jedi and explain why Han Solo was imprisoned at the end of The Empire Strikes Back . Nevertheless , Lucas decided to leave the scene out of the final film on account of budget and time constraints and because he felt that it did not enhance the film 's plot . The scene remained in the novelization , comic book , and radio adaptations of the film .
Lucas revisited the scene in the 1997 Special Edition release of A New Hope , restoring the sequence and replacing Mulholland with a CGI version of Jabba the Hutt and the English dialogue with Huttese , a fictional language created by sound designer Ben Burtt . Joseph Letteri , the visual effects supervisor for the Special Edition , explained that the ultimate goal of the revised
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that Sturdee created , rather than the Militia or specially enlisted expeditionary forces .
Sturdee retired on 17 April 1950 . In recognition of his services , he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1951 . In retirement , he continued to live in Kooyong , Melbourne . He became a director of the Australian arm of Standard Telephones and Cables and was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers from 1951 to 1956 . The Army named the Landing Ship Medium Vernon Sturdee after him . He died on 25 May 1966 at the Repatriation General Hospital , Heidelberg . He was accorded a funeral with full military honours , and cremated . Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring , a boyhood friend from Melbourne Grammar , was principal pall bearer . Sturdee was survived by his wife , their daughter and one of their two sons . Before he died , he burned all his private papers . " I have done the job , " he said . " It is over . "
= U.S. Route 27 in Michigan =
US Highway 27 ( US 27 ) is a part of the US Highway System that now runs from Miami , Florida , to Fort Wayne , Indiana . In the US state of Michigan , it was a state trunkline highway that entered the state south of Kinderhook and ended south of Grayling . Its route consisted of a freeway concurrency with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) from the state line north to the Lansing area before it followed its own freeway facility northward to St. Johns . From there north to Ithaca , US 27 was an expressway before continuing as a freeway to a terminus south of Grayling .
Created with the rest of the US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 27 replaced a pair of state highways between the state line and the Cheboygan area . For a time , US 27 even extended from Cheboygan to St. Ignace over the Mackinac Bridge . The highway was converted into a series of freeways starting in the late 1950s . The northernmost section between Grayling and Mackinaw City , bypassing Cheboygan , became part of I @-@ 75 , and US 27 was truncated to Grayling . Starting in the 1960s , the southern sections were included in I @-@ 69 . The last section of Interstate in Michigan was completed in 1992 when I @-@ 69 / US 27 opened southwest of Lansing . In the 1990s , a bypass of St. Johns north of Lansing was built , the last freeway segment of US 27 to open under that designation . On April 16 , 1999 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved the removal of the US 27 designation from the state of Michigan ; this change was put into place when the highway number was removed from signage in 2002 . Former segments of US 27 from its pre @-@ freeway configuration are still state highways in the form of M @-@ 27 between Indian River and Cheboygan or the various business routes in the state that previously bore Business US 27 ( Bus . US 27 ) designations .
= = Route description = =
= = = Southern Michigan = = =
I @-@ 69 / US 27 in Michigan began at the Indiana state line southeast of Kinderhook , just north of an interchange with the Indiana Toll Road ( I @-@ 80 / I @-@ 90 ) . From there , I @-@ 69 / US 27 ran northward through a mixture of Southern Michigan farmland and woodland in Branch County . A few miles north of the state line , the freeway passes Coldwater Lake State Park and its namesake body of water ; north of the lake , there is a welcome center for the northbound lanes . I @-@ 69 / US 27 curved around the east side of Coldwater , connecting to the city 's business loop on the south of town . The freeway intersects the northern end of the business loop immediately east of downtown at an interchange that also features US 12 ( Chicago Road ) . A third interchange , some three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) further north , features a distribution center for Walmart stores in the region . Further north , the freeway curves around to the northwest into Calhoun County and crosses over the St. Joseph River . I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned back northward and bypassed Tekonsha to the town 's west , intersecting M @-@ 60 in the process .
Curving around Nottawa Lake , I @-@ 69 / US 27 continued northward through southern Calhoun County . It passed through an interchange that marked the southern terminus of M @-@ 227 , a highway that runs northward into Marshall . The freeway crosses the Kalamazoo River and through an interchange with M @-@ 96 west of downtown Marshall . From that interchange northward , the BL I @-@ 94 designation was overlaid on I @-@ 69 / US 27 ; the business loop ends at the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 94 northwest of Marshall . North of I @-@ 94 , I @-@ 69 / US 27 had one more interchange before crossing into Eaton County .
In southern Eaton County , the freeway parallels the Battle Creek River north of the junction with M @-@ 78 . Near Olivet , I @-@ 69 / US 27 began to turn in a northeasterly direction . As it continued in that direction , it ran to the north side of Olivet . On the south side of Charlotte , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned northward , traversing an area to the east of downtown and crossing the former routing of US 27 , which is now part of the business loop for the city . Further north , the freeway has a junction with M @-@ 50 , a bridge over the Battle Creek River , and an interchange with the northern end of the business loop next to Fitch H. Beach Airport . North of the airport , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned northeasterly again and paralleled Lansing Road , the former route of US 27 / M @-@ 78 . The freeway meets the southern end of M @-@ 100 near Potterville and continues onto the Lansing – East Lansing metropolitan area . Southwest of the state 's capital city , I @-@ 69 / US 27 crossed over Lansing Road near Lansing Delta Township Assembly , a factory for General Motors ; northeast of the complex , I @-@ 69 / US 27 merged into I @-@ 96 . The combined I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 / US 27 ran northward through the suburban edges of the Lansing area , intersecting the western ends of I @-@ 496 and the BL I @-@ 69 for Lansing . The freeway enters Clinton County , and just north of a crossing of the Grand River , I @-@ 69 / US 27 turned eastward to separate from I @-@ 96 . As a part of the larger interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 69 / US 27 crossed BL I @-@ 96 ( Grand River Avenue ) without any connections .
= = = Mid @-@ Michigan to Grayling = = =
After leaving the I @-@ 96 concurrency , I @-@ 69 changes cardinal orientation and is signed as east – west from that point on . The freeway continues parallel to the Looking Glass River through suburban areas north of Capital Region International Airport . North of East Lansing , I @-@ 69 / US 27 met US 127 at a cloverleaf interchange , and US 27 turned northward to separate from I @-@ 69 . The US 27 freeway ran through farmland and crossed the Looking Glass River . At Price Road , US 27 met its southernmost business loop , the Bus . US 27 for St. Johns . The freeway continues due north and intersects M @-@ 21 east of town before it turns northwesterly to round the northern side of St. Johns . North of downtown , US 27 met the northern end of the business loop and the freeway ends . Continuing northward as an expressway , the highway has four lanes divided by a median with at @-@ grade intersections at the cross roads .
In Gratiot County , US 27 was named Bagley Road . North of Wilson Road , the expressway crosses the Maple River on a causeway through a wetland area in the Maple River State Game Area . North of the river , the expressway crosses a branch line of the Great Lakes Central Railroad , then has an interchange with M @-@ 57 . About six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) further north , US 27 turned to the northwest , separating from Bagley Road . The expressway transitions back to a full freeway as the trunkline turns north and curves around the east side of Ithaca , meeting the southern end of Ithaca 's business loop at Center Road , and the opposite end north of town .
Further north , US 27 angled northwesterly between Alma and St. Louis . Each city has its own business loop , accessible on the south side through a pair of partial interchanges at Lincoln and State roads . The freeway crosses the Pine River before intersecting M @-@ 46 and the two business loops at another pair of interchanges north of downtown Alma . After US 27 crossed into Isabella County , it turned northwesterly near Shepherd . After a few miles , a short freeway spur carrying the Bus . US 27 for Mount Pleasant splits off and the main freeway turns back to the north . The two highways continue in parallel through town before turning to converge north of Mount Pleasant by the airport . After the freeway stub at the northern end of the business loop merges in , the main freeway crosses the Chippewa River .
US 27 continued through northern Isabella County to pass east of Rosebush . South of the Clare County line in Clare , US 27 met the southern end of Clare 's Bus . US 27 . The freeway turns northeasterly , crosses Bus . US 10 and the county line before merging with US 10 . US 27 / US 10 curved around Lake Shamrock on the northern end of town before meeting the northern end of Bus . US 27 / Bus . US 10 . The freeway continues north , past a welcome center in the median , and US 10 splits off to the west .
North of Clare , US 27 ran through forest , where it passed to the east of Harrison . On the east side of that town , the freeway crosses between Little Long and Sutherland lakes before meeting the northern end of the Harrison business loop . The freeway then crosses into Roscommon County . East of the community of Houghton Lake Heights and the city of Houghton Lake , US 27 intersected M @-@ 55 . North of that interchange , the freeway parallels the western shore of Houghton Lake and crosses the Muskegon River . The freeway then turns a bit northeasterly toward Higgins Lake and follows that lake 's western shore before crossing into Crawford County . Once across the county line , US 27 curved around to the northeast for about 5 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) before terminating at I @-@ 75 south of Grayling .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . Only one of these followed part of the path of US 27 ; the Mackinac Trail roughy paralleled the route of US 27 from Grayling north .
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , no one of the system 's divisions corresponded to US 27 . Division 3 followed a course from Lansing northward to an intersection with Division 2 . Combined with the northernmost sections of Division 2 to the Straits of Mackinac , these highways roughly described the future route of US 27 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and two different highways followed sections of the future US 27 corridor . The original M @-@ 29 ran from the Indiana state line north to Lansing . The second highway was M @-@ 14 from Lansing north to Cheboygan .
= = = United States Numbered Highways era = = =
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the new US 27 replaced M @-@ 29 from the state line northward to Lansing ; from Lansing northward , US 27 replaced M @-@ 14 to Cheboygan . By the end of the next year , M @-@ 78 was extended from Charlotte along US 27 to run north and east of Lansing to a junction with M @-@ 47 near Pittsburg . In 1929 , the route of US 27 / M @-@ 18 was realigned south of Roscommon on the east side of Higgins Lake . The same year , another realignment moved US 27 to run due north from the Clinton – Gratiot county line to M @-@ 43 at Ithaca , and a third change rounded a corner near Shepherd in Isabella County .
When a new roadway was built in the St. Louis area in 1930 , the former routing into Alma was redesignated US 27A ; another US 27A was created in Shepherd around the same time . By the middle of 1936 , the US 27 / M @-@ 78 routing through Lansing was split into two . The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue . The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designated as a truck route . By the end of the year , another realignment straightened out a series of turns from the county line northward to Wolverine in Cheboygan County . The following year , US 27 was extended to follow US 23 between Cheboygan and Mackinaw City . That year , the last section of the highway was also paved southwest of Houghton Lake . In 1938 , the route of US 27 on the north side of downtown Lansing was realigned on an extended Larch Street . The US 27A loop into Shepherd was removed the next year .
In the latter half of 1940 , US 23 was rerouted to follow the Lake Huron shoreline northwest of Alpena ; after this change was completed , US 27 's concurrency with US 23 was shortened to start in downtown Cheboygan instead of south of town . Later in the decade , US 27 was rerouted to run to the west of Houghton and Higgins lakes in 1949 . The next year , the truck route designation in Lansing was decommissioned when the mainline was rerouted to replace it . In the early 1950s , the highway was rerouted to the south of St. Johns , and by early 1952 a business loop was created for the city ; this four @-@ lane divided highway extended as far south as the DeWitt area . By the end of 1952 , a four @-@ lane divided highway segment opened southwest of Lansing to bypass Millett .
= = = Conversion to freeways = = =
The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System did not include a highway along US 27 's route ; instead a highway further west connecting South Bend , Indiana , with Kalamazoo was included . This alternative highway was maintained on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " , and numbered I @-@ 67 in August 1957 . By June 1958 , this freeway had been shifted further east and renumbered I @-@ 69 , connecting Indianapolis , Indiana , with Marshall ; no connections north and east to Lansing were planned as part of the Interstate Highway System .
The Mackinac Bridge was opened to traffic on November 1 , 1957 ; a new section of freeway and an interchange connected US 2 to the bridge . The US 27 designation was initially extended across the bridge from Mackinaw City to St. Ignace . In November 1960 , sections of I @-@ 75 freeway opened from Indian River north to the southern Mackinac Bridge approaches in Mackinaw City , and US 27 was removed from the bridge .
In 1961 , the MSHD had proposed that the section of US 27 south of Lansing be built as an electronic highway under a bid through General Motors ; the testing for such a roadway was ultimately done at Ohio State University instead . That September , the section of I @-@ 75 between Gaylord and Vanderbilt was completed , and in October 1961 , the first segment of I @-@ 75 near Grayling opened , connecting M @-@ 18 with the city . By the end of the year , the former segment of US 27 between Grayling and Gaylord was turned back to local control , and the section of highway between Indian River and Cheboygan was redesignated M @-@ 27 . After this individual segment of freeway was completed , there was a gap between Gaylord and Indian River that was designated " TO I @-@ 75 " on maps along the former segment of US 27 , and US 27 was truncated to about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Grayling . Also by the end of the same year , the highway was shifted to follow a new freeway routing from the southwest of Ithaca to Grayling , bypassing Ithaca , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison . The old route was turned over to local control except through the aforementioned cities where it was reused for business loops . The US 27A through Alma was also bypassed by the new freeway , and it was redesignated Bus . US 27 as well . Another non @-@ freeway bypass was built around Charlotte , and the former route was redesignated Bus . US 27 .
On December 12 , 1962 , I @-@ 96 was completed around the Lansing area , and M @-@ 78 was rerouted to follow it . The route of US 27 / M @-@ 78 through downtown Lansing became US 27 / Bus . M @-@ 78 . On October 11 , 1967 , the first segment of I @-@ 69 / US 27 was scheduled to open between the Indiana state line and Tekonsha . By the end of the year , the freeway was extended north to Marshall . The former route of US 27 in Coldwater was redesignated as a Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) as well .
The MSHD requested additional Interstate Highway mileage in 1968 under the Federal @-@ Aid Highway Act of 1968 including an extension of I @-@ 69 from Marshall to Port Huron ; this extension was approved as far as I @-@ 75 / US 23 in Flint on December 13 , 1968 . This extension encompassed the US 27 corridor between Marshall and Lansing .
In 1970 , the I @-@ 69 / US 27 freeway was extended from Marshall to just south of Olivet . The next year , the freeway was extended north to , and incorporated , the previous Charlotte bypass . Bus . US 27 through Charlotte remains unchanged . In 1973 , the M @-@ 78 concurrency from Olivet northeasterly along US 27 was removed , and the connection along US 27 northeast of the existing I @-@ 69 freeway was designated TEMP I @-@ 69 . The following year , Bus . US 27 in Charlotte was renumbered as a BL I @-@ 69 . In the middle of 1974 , Indiana and Michigan petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation north of Fort Wayne , Indiana , including the entire length in Michigan ; this request was denied .
A northern freeway bypass of the Lansing area opened in 1984 . MDOT rerouted US 27 to follow I @-@ 96 around the west side of the city and over the new freeway to reconnect with the exiting routing north of Lansing . The former US 27 through downtown Lansing was redesignated Bus . 27 that that time . Another segment of freeway opened in 1987 in Clinton County between US 127 near DeWitt and TEMP I @-@ 69 near Bath .
In 1991 , MDOT and the Indiana Department of Transportation petitioned AASHTO to remove the US 27 designation from its concurrency with I @-@ 69 in the two states ; this request was denied by the association 's Special Committee on U.S. Route Numbering at its October 11 , 1991 , meeting because it would have resulted in a section of US 27 north of Lansing disconnected from the remainder of the highway south of Fort Wayne . The final segment of I @-@ 69 / US 27 to be completed was located southwest of Lansing . It opened on October 17 , 1992 , when the ribbon was cut by Governor John Engler . This Interstate Highway segment was the last in the state and completed Michigan 's portion of the Interstate Highway System . At the time it was complete , I @-@ 69 was concurrent with US 27 from the state line north to the DeWitt area ( exit 87 ) and then concurrent with US 127 to exit 89 .
A few years later , the statutory definition of the I @-@ 73 corridor was amended in 1995 to have a branch that would encompass the section of US 27 north of Lansing . This new Interstate was to follow US 223 and US 127 between Toledo , Ohio , and Lansing before continuing north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling northward , the I @-@ 73 corridor was defined to follow I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie .
The St. Johns Bypass on US 27 opened on August 31 , 1998 ; US 27 was extended along I @-@ 69 about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to connect to the bypass , and US 127 was removed from its short concurrency with I @-@ 69 . After this opening , US 27 was a full freeway in Michigan from the state line north to St. Johns and from Ithaca to the Grayling area . The last signalized intersection on US 27 in the state was removed in 2000 when the junction with M @-@ 57 was converted to an interchange in southern Gratiot County .
= = = Decommissioning in Michigan = = =
The previous year , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved by AASHTO on April 16 , 1999 . The department considered three options to build the southern segments of I @-@ 73 in 2000 ; MDOT abandoned further study of these southern alignments after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 .
The approved removal of US 27 was finally done in the middle of 2002 . MDOT 's stated reason for the modification was to " reduce confusion along the US 27 / US 127 corridor " . After US 27 's signage was removed , the highway north of the Lansing area was renumbered US 127 , and the US 27 designation was removed from I @-@ 69 . All of the business loops were updated to reflect their new parent highway .
On August 19 , 2010 , the Michigan House of Representatives passed a resolution recognizing " Old US 27 " as a historic road in the state . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of I @-@ 73 is working to revive the freeway project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . "
= = Exit list = =
At the time the US 27 designation was decommissioned in Michigan , only the interchanges along the section concurrent with I @-@ 69 used exit numbers .
= = Related trunklines = =
Over its history , US 27 had several business loops associated with it . Since the conversion of the highway into a freeway starting in the 1950s , these business loops served Marshall , Charlotte , Lansing , St. Johns , Ithaca , Alma , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison . The business loops north of Lansing were redesignated as business loops of US 127 in 2002 while the Charlotte loop had been reassigned BL I @-@ 69 with the completion of I @-@ 69 through the area . In addition , Michigan had a US 27A designation through Alma and a Truck US 27 in Lansing .
= = = Marshall business route = = =
Business US Highway 27 ( Bus .. US 27 ) was a business route running through downtown Marshall . The designation ran concurrently with BL I @-@ 94 from I @-@ 69 / US 27 on Michigan Avenue easterly from that freeway into downtown . At the intersection with Kalamazoo Avenue , Bus . US 27 turned northward , separating from BL I @-@ 94 . The business route ended north of downtown at an interchange with I @-@ 94 after running for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) .
In 1967 , the first segment of I @-@ 69 opened in Michigan , bypassing Marshall to the east . The state shifted US 27 out of downtown Marshall to follow the new freeway . From the temporary end of I @-@ 69 at I @-@ 94 , US 27 followed I @-@ 94 back to its existing routing north of Marshall . The former route of US 27 through downtown Marshall was then redesignated Bus . US 27 , using BL I @-@ 94 to connect to the new freeway carrying US 27 west of downtown . This arrangement lasted until 1972 when the Bus . US 27 designation was decommissioned and the section of highway between BL I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 94 turned over to local control .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Calhoun County .
= = = Truck route = = =
Truck US 27 was a former truck route through the city of Lansing . It started at the corner of Capitol Avenue and Main Street and ran along Main Street to Grand Avenue . There , it turned north on Grand Avenue to Kalamazoo Street and turned east on Kalamazoo over the Grand River . At Larch Street , Rtuck US 27 continued north to rejoin the mainline at the corner of Larch and Saginaw streets .
By the middle of 1936 , the US 27 / M @-@ 78 routing through Lansing was split into two . The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue . The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designated as a truck route . In 1950 , the bridge for Main Street over the Grand River was completed and mainline US 27 / M @-@ 78 was rerouted to use it to connect to Larch Street . From there north , US 27 / M @-@ 78 followed Larch Street supplanting the truck route , which was decommissioned at that time .
= Neon Genesis Evangelion =
Neon Genesis Evangelion ( Japanese : 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン , Hepburn : Shin Seiki Evangerion , literally " Gospel of a New Century " ) , commonly referred to as Evangelion or Eva , is a Japanese animated television series ( anime ) produced by Gainax and Tatsunoko Production , and directed by Hideaki Anno . It was broadcast on TV Tokyo from October 1995 to March 1996 . The original Japanese cast includes Megumi Ogata as Shinji Ikari , Megumi Hayashibara as Rei Ayanami , and Yūko Miyamura as Asuka Langley Soryu . The music was composed by Shirō Sagisu .
Evangelion is an apocalyptic anime , set in a futuristic Tokyo fifteen years after a worldwide cataclysm . The story centers on Shinji , a teenage boy who is recruited by the shadowy organization NERV to pilot a giant bio @-@ machine mecha called an Evangelion in combat against monstrous beings known as Angels . The series explores the experiences and emotions of Evangelion pilots and members of NERV as they attempt to prevent another catastrophe . It features religious symbolism throughout the series , including themes and imagery derived from Kabbalah , Christianity , Judaism , Buddhism , and Shinto .
Neon Genesis Evangelion gained widespread critical acclaim . Regarded as a critique and deconstruction of the mecha genre , the series has become a cultural icon and influenced an artistic and technical revival of the anime industry . Subsequent film , manga , home video and other products in the Evangelion franchise have achieved record sales in Japan and strong sales in overseas markets , and by 2013 gross revenues had reached over 150 billion yen ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 32 billion ) .
= = Plot = =
In 2015 , fifteen years after a global cataclysm known as the Second Impact , teenager Shinji Ikari is summoned to the futuristic city of Tokyo @-@ 3 by his estranged father Gendo Ikari , the director of the special paramilitary force NERV . Shinji witnesses the United Nations forces battling an Angel : one of a race of giant monstrous beings whose awakening was foretold by the Dead Sea Scrolls . Because of the Angels ' near @-@ impenetrable force @-@ fields , NERV 's giant Evangelion bio @-@ machines , synchronized to the nervous systems of their pilots and possessing their own force @-@ fields , are the only weapons capable of keeping the Angels from annihilating humanity . NERV officer Misato Katsuragi escorts Shinji into the NERV complex beneath the city , where his father pressures him into piloting the Evangelion Unit @-@ 01 against the Angel . Without training , Shinji is quickly overwhelmed in the battle , causing the Evangelion to go berserk and savagely kill the Angel on its own .
Following hospitalization , Shinji moves in with Misato and begins settling in to life in Tokyo @-@ 3 . In his second battle , Shinji destroys an Angel but runs away after the battle , distraught . Misato confronts Shinji and he decides to remain a pilot . Evangelion Unit @-@ 00 is repaired and Shinji tries to befriend its pilot , a mysterious , and socially isolated teenage girl named Rei Ayanami . With Rei 's help , Shinji defeats another Angel .
Ritsuko Akagi , NERV 's chief scientist , reveals that the Second Impact was not caused by a meteor strike as officially reported , but instead resulted when the first Angel to arrive on Earth , codenamed Adam , exploded in the Antarctic . The pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 02 , teenage girl Asuka Langley Soryu , moves in with Misato and Shinji and joins her fellow pilots in defeating the next Angels . Shinji 's schoolfriend Toji Suzuhara is selected for Unit @-@ 03 , but during his first test synchronization with the Evangelion , Unit @-@ 03 is hijacked by an Angel . When Shinji refuses to destroy the rogue unit , his control over Unit @-@ 01 is cut off and supplanted by a prototype autopilot system known as the " Dummy Plug " system , and his Evangelion rips apart Unit @-@ 03 crushing Toji 's cockpit . Shinji is devastated and quits piloting the Evangelion , but is forced to return to destroy an Angel that has defeated both Asuka and Rei . Asuka loses her self @-@ confidence following her defeat and spirals into a deep depression . In the next battle , Rei self @-@ destructs Unit @-@ 00 and dies to save Shinji 's life . Misato and Shinji later visit the hospital where they find Rei alive but claiming she is " the third Rei " . Misato forces Ritsuko to reveal the dark secrets of NERV , the Evangelion graveyard and the Dummy Plug system which operates using clones of Rei .
Asuka is reduced to a catatonic state by her depression , and Kaworu Nagisa replaces her as pilot of Unit @-@ 02 . Kaworu , who initially befriends Shinji , is revealed to be the final Angel . Kaworu fights Shinji , then realizes that he must die if humanity is to thrive and asks Shinji to kill him . Despite his initial hesitation , Shinji kills Kaworu . Soon after this act , NERV and SEELE trigger the forced evolution of humanity , termed the " Human Instrumentality Project " , in which the souls of all mankind are merged into one through Rei . Shinji 's soul grapples with the reason for his existence and reaches an epiphany that he needs others to thrive , enabling him to destroy the wall of negative emotions that torment him . This allows him to be reunited with all of the main characters , who congratulate him .
= = Characters = =
Anno attempted to create characters that reflected parts of his own personality . The characters of Evangelion struggle with their interpersonal relationships , their personal problems , and traumatic events in their past . The human qualities of the characters have enabled some viewers of the show to identify with the characters on a personal level , while others interpret them as historical , religious , or philosophical symbols .
Shinji Ikari is the series protagonist and the designated pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 01 . After witnessing his mother Yui Ikari
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the two most prolific Original Series directors alongside Marc Daniels , and directed fourteen episodes of the show . The cast responded favorably to the script . Nichelle Nichols was particularly pleased as it allowed Uhura to be a woman and took her off the bridge . It was one of her largest roles in any single episode in the series .
= = = Casting = = =
William Campbell had previously appeared in the first season episode " The Squire of Gothos " as Trelane . In " The Trouble with Tribbles " , he portrayed the Klingon Captain Koloth . It was Gene Roddenberry 's intention to bring back Koloth during the third season of The Original Series , as he felt that Kirk should have a recurring Klingon adversary . As Campbell was unavailable when the following Klingon @-@ centric episode ( " Day of the Dove " ) was filmed , the role was re @-@ written and Michael Ansara was cast instead , with the idea ultimately being dropped . Although Koloth returned in Star Trek : The Animated Series , Campbell did not voice the role . He returned to the role in 1994 for an episode of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , entitled " Blood Oath " , where the character dies in his final battle .
At the time of casting , William Schallert had just finished filming the ABC sitcom The Patty Duke Show . He described himself not as a fan , and had not read any science fiction since 1948 . He thought that the role of Nilz Baris was just another guest spot , and the role of a " rather stuffy bureaucrat ... [ was ] not the most appealing character " . He did not remember the character 's name , only recalling it when he first attended a Star Trek convention at a hotel near Los Angeles Airport , as the fans called it out when he entered the lobby . He was later cast in the role of the Bajoran musician Varani in the DS9 episode " Sanctuary " .
Whit Bissell , who played the station manager , Lurry , was better known at the time in the main cast role of Lt. Gen. Heywood Kirk in the ABC science fiction television series The Time Tunnel . Michael Pataki , who portrayed the Klingon Korax , went on to play Karnas in Star Trek : The Next Generation first season episode " Too Short a Season " . Charlie Brill portrayed the Klingon agent Arne Darvin . Brill has previously been a sketch comedy artist with his wife Mitzi McCall , and had appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show when The Beatles made their first appearance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was first broadcast in the United States on December 29 , 1967 on NBC . The initial fan reaction was undecided , but the episode connected better with the mass market . This effect was later explained in 2012 when Jordon Hoffman on StarTrek.com described the " The Trouble with Tribbles " as " quite possibly , the first episode of Star Trek you ever saw " . It entered popular culture and remained well known to the public outside of the Star Trek community .
NBC cancelled the series at the end of the season , but it was renewed after a letter writing campaign by fans . This campaign had origins in December 1967 , and was initially organised by John and Bjo Trimble . It was cancelled permanently after the third season and it went into broadcast syndication . " The Trouble With Tribbles " was remastered and was aired again in broadcast syndication on November 4 , 2006 as part of the remastered original series . It was the first time in sixteen years that the series had been syndicated in the United States , although it had been aired on cable during that period .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episodes after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in July 2009 . He said that Cyrano Jones was his least favorite part of the episode , and with the exception of that character , it was one of the better scripts seen in The Original Series . He thought that despite the lack of a sense of real danger , the plot all comes together neatly and praised the story 's effects on Kirk , saying " The way the episode unfolds means Kirk 's constantly dealing with things he doesn 't really want to deal with , and there 's a surprising amount of enjoyment to be had in seeing him complain about it to Spock . " He gave the episode a grade of A. Michele Erica Green watched it for TrekNation in March 2006 . She thought that the episode would have dated , but found it was " as funny as ever " . She thought that Scotty 's lines were " unforgettable " and the scenes between McCoy and Spock were " priceless " .
Eugene Myers and Torie Atkinson reviewed it for Tor.com as part of their " tribbles week " in April 2010 . They described it as " easily the most celebrated episode of the entire original series ( if not the whole franchise ) " . They went on to describe it as a " perfect episode " , and both gave it maximum scores of six out of six . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " said that the team behind Star Trek were " at the top of their game " with this episode . He gave it a score of four out of four , saying that " ' Tribbles ' is perhaps the best , most enjoyable comic piece the franchise has ever put out . "
The New York Times described the scene with Kirk and the tribbles in the grain container as one of the " best @-@ remembered moments " of the series . Time magazine ranked " The Trouble with Tribbles " as the sixth best moment in Star Trek . IGN ranked it as the fifth best episode of The Original Series , while TechRepublic ranked it as the fourth best . The A.V. Club included " The Trouble with Tribbles " in a list of ten must @-@ see episodes , and USA Today ' listed as one of the three best . In 1998 , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was listed as the eighth best cult moment of all time by The Times newspaper . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was placed sixth by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
The episode was nominated for Best Dramatic Presentation at the 1968 Hugo Awards . All of the nominees that year were episodes of Star Trek , with the award instead going to " The City on the Edge of Forever " . From the number of votes , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was placed second .
= = Home media release = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was one of the first episodes to receive an official release by Paramount Home Entertainment . In 1980 , it was released on VHS on a two episode tape alongside " Let That Be Your Last Battlefield " . It was re @-@ released towards in 1991 as part of the first full season release on VHS . This was re @-@ released in 1993 , and was released on laserdisc . In 1998 , a " Talking Tribble Gift Set " was released which contained both " The Trouble with Tribbles and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on VHS . The first DVD release was in 2000 , when all of The Original Series episodes were released in individual releases of two episodes per disc . The first season set that the episode was included in was as part of the season two DVD set released in the United States on November 2 , 2004 .
In 2009 , it was included in a best of collection with three other episodes of The Original Series alongside " Amok Time " , " The City on the Edge of Forever " and " Balance of Terror " . The re @-@ mastered DVD sets were also re @-@ launched to coincide with the release of the film , Star Trek . The Blu ray release included the un @-@ changed scenes as alternative angles . Disc five of each set contained only " The Trouble with Tribbles " from The Original Series but otherwise contained tribble related extras . These included both " More Tribbles , More Troubles " and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " .
= = Legacy = =
= = = More Tribbles , More Troubles = = =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was originally intended to have a follow @-@ up episode during season three , but after Gene Roddenberry stepped back from the production of the show after a time @-@ slot change and further cuts in the budget , the idea was scrapped . In 1973 , Gerrold had become friends with D. C. Fontana from their time spent on the Star Trek convention circuit together . He had heard about Star Trek : The Animated Series , and offered to do an episode . Fontana responded that she wanted the tribble episode that was cut from season three . This episode was entitled " More Tribbles , More Troubles " . The episode introduces the natural predator of the tribbles and genetically engineered tribbles which no longer reproduce but instead grow much larger . As with his other Animated Series episode " Bem " , he later explained that almost nothing was cut from the original pitches for the third season of The Original Series as animation played out quicker and so everything still fit into the episode despite the reduced running time . Both of Gerrold 's Animated Series episodes were novelised by Alan Dean Foster , and Gerrold later said that he thought that he did " a fine job " .
= = = Trials and Tribble @-@ ations = = =
To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996 , producers of both Star Trek : Voyager and Star Trek : Deep Space Nine decided to incorporate elements of The Original Series into episodes . The Voyager episode " Flashback " showed events on board the Excelsior under Captain Hikaru Sulu during the period in which Kirk and McCoy were imprisoned in Rura Penthe in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country . However , the Deep Space Nine homage used the original footage from nineteen scenes in " The Trouble with Tribbles " and other episodes in order to digitally insert the actors into the events of the episode , entitled " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . The episode was nominated for three Emmy Awards and as with the original episode , the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
As the 30th anniversary approached , Gerrold had heard rumors of a tribble @-@ sequel in the works but had only heard denials from executive producer Rick Berman . Following an interview request from The New York Times , he telephoned Berman once more to ask what was happening as he didn 't want to say he didn 't know about the sequel episode and embarrass anyone if it actually was going to happen . Gerrold suggested that an acknowledgement of the creator of the tribbles might be in order and asked if he could be an extra . He was cast as a security redshirt . While Gerrold was on set , he also advised director Jonathan West on the integration of new scenes into " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Gerrold later said that " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " " turned out beautiful . I think it was the best episode of Deep Space Nine ever and possibly the best episode of Star Trek after the Original Series . " Charlie Brill returned as Arne Darvin to film new scenes set in the DS9 timeframe .
= = = Further appearances and parodies = = =
Tribbles have been further seen in other Star Trek episodes and films , including Star Trek III : The Search for Spock and the JJ Abrams @-@ helmed films Star Trek ( 2009 ) and Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) . While on a visit to the set of Star Trek , Gerrold was told by Abrams that the tribble had been deliberately " snuck in " to the scene . It appears in the scene where Kirk ( Chris Pine ) and Spock Prime ( Leonard Nimoy ) meet Scott ( Simon Pegg ) on the Vulcan moon . " The Trouble with Tribbles " was also re @-@ imagined in that timeline 's comic book series by IDW Publishing and entitled " The Truth About Tribbles " .
In 2003 , tribbles appeared in the Star Trek : Enterprise episode " The Breach " . In that episode , Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) uses them as food for his medicinal pets in sickbay .
Gerrold has been in discussions with the fan @-@ created series Star Trek : New Voyages to bring back the tribbles for a further Original Series era episode . Both his Original Series pitch " The Protracted Man " and his Star Trek : The Next Generation script Blood and Fire have been turned into episodes of New Voyages .
Tribbles have been parodied in a variety of other television shows and types of media . Futurama featured a parody in the second season entitled " The Problem with Popplers " , which included several Star Trek jokes . These include a reference to " Roddenberries " and features Zapp Brannigan , whom the Futurama staff have said is intended to be a parody of Captain Kirk .
In the 2003 video game Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , the player 's ship becomes infested with a frog @-@ like species called Gizka , prompting the player to receive the quest " The Trouble with Gizka " in order to remove the pests .
= = = Merchandising and adaptations = = =
Gerrold published a book describing his experiences in the creation of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Entitled The Trouble with Tribbles : The Birth , Sale and Final Production of One Episode , it was published in 1973 . The book was well received by the former cast and crew of Star Trek and was used as a textbook for teaching screen @-@ writing .
A variety of tribble replicas have been made over the years , with the most recent licensed product coming from QMx , released in 2013 . A plate to commemorate the episode was the first to be launched as part of an eight plate Star Trek : The Commemorative Collection in 1986 . It featured an image of Kirk with the tribbles in the grain compartment created by artist Susie Morton . The first Original Series expansion for the Star Trek Customizable Card Game was launched in 2000 . It was entitled " The Trouble with Tribbles " and was based on this episode and the associated episode of Deep Space Nine . It also introduced the Tribbles game which used only tribble @-@ related cards .
In 2010 , two movie posters for " The Trouble with Tribbles " featuring Uhura and Spock being slowly covered in tribbles were created by Justin Ishmael for the art boutique attached to the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin , Texas . It was a follow @-@ up to earlier posters created for the episode " Space Seed " . Juan Ortiz later created a 1960s @-@ retro style poster for each of the eighty episodes of Star Trek . The " Trouble with Tribbles " poster made it appear that the warp nacelles of the Enterprise were sprouting tribbles which then bred rapidly as the ship flew on , creating a cloud of them behind the ship .
= The Beginning of the End ( Lost ) =
" The Beginning of the End " is the fourth season premiere , and 73rd episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company 's television drama series Lost . It was aired on ABC in the United States and CTV in Canada on January 31 , 2008 . Co @-@ creator / executive producer Damon Lindelof and executive producer Carlton Cuse wrote the premiere in late July 2007 , with most of the episode directed on location in Oahu , Hawaii , in August and September by executive producer Jack Bender . With this premiere , Jeff Pinkner no longer serves as an executive producer and staff writer . The episode was watched by 18 million Americans , bringing in the best ratings for Lost in 17 episodes . According to Metacritic , " The Beginning of the End " garnered " universal acclaim " .
The narrative takes place over 90 days after the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 , on December 23 , 2004 . The stranded crash survivors make contact with associates of Naomi Dorrit ( played by Marsha Thomason ) on a nearby freighter , but the survivors divide when they hear that those on the freighter may not be coming to rescue the survivors . Flashforwards show the post @-@ island lives of Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) . They are lying to the public about their time on the island . In flashforwards , Hurley has visions of his deceased friend Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) ; in the present , Hurley grieves over Charlie 's death on the island . Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) makes his first appearance in " The Beginning of the End " .
= = Plot = =
After being knifed in the back by John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) in the third season finale , Naomi uses her satellite phone to call George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) on the freighter . Before she dies , she tells him that her injury was an accident and to give her love to her sister . Meanwhile , Hurley finds Jacob 's cabin . He looks through the window and sees an unidentified man in a rocking chair , before someone steps up to the glass , only the left eye visible . Hurley runs away , but finds the cabin again — in a different location . He squeezes his eyes shut and when he opens them , the building is gone and Locke appears .
Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) returns from the Looking Glass , bearing Charlie 's final message that the freighter offshore is not owned by Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) . The survivors reunite at 815 's cockpit . Jack knocks Locke to the ground , takes his gun and pulls the trigger , but finds that the gun is not loaded because Locke had no intention of killing Jack earlier that day . Locke tells the castaways that they are in great danger and leaves for the Barracks with Hurley , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and her baby Aaron , Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) and her captive Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) , Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) and her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) , Vincent the dog ( Pono ) and four other survivors . Soon after , Jack and Kate see a helicopter and meet Daniel .
Flashforwards show that Hurley is famous as one of the " Oceanic Six " after his escape from the island and is keeping quiet about his time there . Hurley encounters an apparition of Charlie . Shocked , he speeds away in his Camaro and is apprehended by Los Angeles police . Hurley is interrogated by Ana Lucia Cortez 's ( Michelle Rodriguez ) former partner Detective " Big " Mike Walton ( Michael Cudlitz ) and he lies that he has no knowledge of Ana Lucia . Hurley , looking at the interrogation room 's mirror glass , imagines seeing Charlie swimming in water until he breaks the glass and floods the room . Hurley willingly returns to the Santa Rosa Mental Health Institution , where he is visited by Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) , who claims to be an attorney for Oceanic Airlines . When Abaddon fails to supply a business card , he asks if they are still alive before stealthily exiting . An apparition of Charlie appears who tells Hurley that " they " need him . Finally , Hurley is visited by Jack , who is thinking of growing a beard . Jack confirms that Hurley will not reveal the Oceanic Six 's secrets . Hurley apologizes for going with Locke and insists that they return to the island , but Jack refuses ( which shows that these flashforwards occur before Jack 's flashforwards ) .
= = Production = =
During casting , fake names , occupations and scenes were temporarily assigned to limit the leak of spoilers . Lance Reddick was told that he was auditioning for the part of " Arthur Stevens " , a " ruthless corporate recruiter " , instead of Matthew Abaddon . " Matthew " and " Abaddon " were revealed as season 4 clue words in the alternate reality game Find 815 . The writers chose the character 's surname after they read the Wikipedia article on Abaddon , which states that it means " place of destruction " . The writer @-@ producers were originally interested in having Reddick play Mr. Eko during the second season , however , he was busy starring on HBO 's The Wire . Jeremy Davies was cast as Daniel because he is one of the writer @-@ producers ' favorite character actors , and they think that his " transformative quality [ and ] the tremendous intelligence that seems to emanate from him ... seemed perfect for [ the part ] " , which was originally planned to be a recurring role . When Davies met costume designer Roland Sanchez , he was wearing a thin black tie . Sanchez merged this " cool , edgy look " with his idea for the character 's clothes : a " nerdy " loosely woven dress shirt from J.Crew.
Several different titles were proposed for the episode . The ultimate title is a reference to a line in the previous episode when Ben warns Jack that contacting the freighter " is the beginning of the end " . Filming began on August 17 and ended on or just after September 7 , 2007 . Garcia felt " a little pressure " because he had the lead role in the episode
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( Eternal ) " spent one week on the UK Singles Chart , debuting at number 87 on February 16 , 2014 , just four days after being released . It fared better on the UK R & B Chart , spending one week at number 16 . In Hungary , the song reached the top twenty , peaking at number 14 , and the top 30 in Spain , reaching number 21 . In the Flanders region of Belgium and in France , the song only managed peaked at number 49 and 96 , respectively . On the Belgium Urban chart , it peaked at number 29 . In Japan , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " reached number 91 .
In the United States , the song peaked at number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , with 32 @,@ 000 digital downloads accounting for 62 % of its charting points . It became Carey 's 46th chart entry since her debut in 1990 ; it was also the her first song since " Obsessed " in 2009 to chart on the Hot 100 which was neither a festive / holiday song nor a collaboration nor a cover song . " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " became her seventeenth number @-@ one song on the Dance Club Songs chart since her 1991 single " Someday " topped the chart , placing her in joint fifth place with Donna Summer for artist with the most number @-@ one songs . At the time , only Janet Jackson , Beyoncé ( 19 each ) , Rihanna ( 22 ) and Madonna ( 43 ) had achieved more . On the R & B charts , it peaked at number 24 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 12 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs chart , number 41 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart , number 15 on the Hot R & B Songs chart. and number 20 on the Adult R & B Songs chart . On the pop charts , it reached number 26 on the Adult Contemporary chart , number 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart. and number 35 on the Rhythmic chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the song has sold 56 @,@ 000 digital downloads as of April 2014 . The song garnered 245 plays across all radio stations in its first day of release .
= = Music video = =
Carey co @-@ directed the music video for " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " with Indo @-@ Canadian photographer Indrani at the El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico . The video premiered on MTV on February 12 , 2014 . Carey explained how she created the concept for the video and the decided to being in Ingrain to direct specific scenes in a radio interview :
I would say it was a directorial collaborative effort . We went to the rainforest and that was interesting . Part of the reason was [ because ] I love Puerto Rico [ – it 's ] one of my favorite places ever and I did one of my favorite videos , ' Honey ' , in Puerto Rico at the El Conquistador hotel . I was involved every step of the way ... I like [ d ] a lot of the shots in the video ... There was a moment where I had to do an additional water sequence with no director , just myself and a camera man with an underwater camera . I was looking at the take at 5 in the morning , [ they 're ] ready to kill me . But if we didn 't have those shots there wouldn 't be anything to cut away to , except me .
Scenes of the music video include Carey sitting beside a river in the forest covered in gold glitter , sitting in front of waterfalls and tropical wildlife , and imitating a mermaid by swimming underwater while wearing an evening gown . The remix video with Songz premiered two days later on Valentine 's Day on BET 's 106 & Park . Songz appears in both versions of the video , whereby he is seen modelling shirtless at a photoshoot , but only performs his verses in the remix video . Carey praised Songz for bringing something artistically different to the videos .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " at the BET Honors in Washington , D.C. on February 8 , 2014 ; the performance aired on February 24 . On February 13 , 2014 , Carey performed at the lighting up of the Empire State Building in pink and red ; she appeared with three couples who won a contest that gave them the opportunity to get married at the top of the building on Valentine 's Day .
= = Track listing = =
Original Digital Download
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " – 3 : 44
Urban Remix Digital Download
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ featuring Trey Songz ] – 4 : 15
Dance Remix Streaming
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jermaine Dupri × Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix ] – 5 : 25
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jermaine Dupri × Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix Edit ] – 3 : 27
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jump Smokers Extended Remix ] – 4 : 07
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Jump Smokers Radio Edit ] – 3 : 39
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Fedde le Grand Main Mix ] – 5 : 39
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Gregor Salto and Funkin ' Matt Main Mix ] – 4 : 34
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " [ Chus & Ceballos Remix ] – 7 : 01
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Rapture Studios , Bel Air , CA ; Metrocity Studios , New York , NY ; Jungle City Studios , New York , NY ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , NV .
Mixed at Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , GA
Personnel
Songwriting – Mariah Carey , Rodney Jerkins
Production – Mariah Carey , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins
Recording – Brian Garten , Matt Champlin , Greg Morgan
Assistant recording – Keith Parry , Rob Katz
Mixing – Phil Tan
Assistant mixing – Daniela Rivera
Background vocals – Mariah Carey
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse .
= = Charts = =
= Robert Bacher =
Robert Fox Bacher ( August 31 , 1905 – November 18 , 2004 ) was an American nuclear physicist and one of the leaders of the Manhattan Project . Born in Loudonville , Ohio , Bacher obtained his undergraduate degree and doctorate from the University of Michigan , writing his 1930 doctoral thesis under the supervision of Samuel Goudsmit on the Zeeman effect of the hyperfine structure of atomic levels . After graduate work at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , he accepted a job at Columbia University . In 1935 he accepted an offer from Hans Bethe to work with him at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , a university town similar to Ann Arbor , where Bacher and his wife Jean had been raised . At Cornell , Bacher worked with Bethe on his book Nuclear Physics . A : Stationary States of Nuclei ( 1936 ) , the first of three books that would become known as the " Bethe Bible " .
In December 1940 , Bacher joined the Radiation Laboratory at MIT , although he did not immediately cease his research at Cornell into the neutron cross section of cadmium . The Radiation Laboratory was organized into two sections , one for incoming radar signals , and one for outgoing radar signals . Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section . Here he gained valuable experience in administration , coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists , but also those of General Electric and RCA . In 1942 , Bacher was approached by Robert Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project at its new laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . It was at Bacher 's insistence that Los Alamos became a civilian rather than a military laboratory . At Los Alamos , Bacher headed the project 's P ( Physics ) Division , and later its G ( Gadget ) Division . Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer , and the two men discussed the project 's progress on a daily basis .
After the war , Bacher became director of the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies at Cornell . He also served on the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission , the civilian agency that replaced the wartime Manhattan Project , and in 1947 he became one of its inaugural commissioners . He left in 1949 to become head Division of Physics , Mathematics , and Astronomy at Caltech . He was appointed a member of the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) in 1958 . In 1962 , he became Caltech 's vice president and provost . He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970 , and became a professor emeritus in 1976 . He died in 2004 at the age of 99 .
= = Early life and career = =
Bacher was born in Loudonville , Ohio , on August 31 , 1905 , the only child of Harry and Byrl Fox Bacher . In 1908 , the family moved to Ann Arbor , Michigan , where Harry worked as a banker and Byrl as a voice teacher on the University of Michigan faculty . Bacher attended the W. S. Perry School , and later Ann Arbor High School . While there he met Professor Harrison M. Randall , the head of the physics department at the University of Michigan , who encouraged him to study physics .
Bacher entered the University of Michigan , where he joined the Kappa Sigma fraternity and lived in the frat house . He became the house manager in his sophomore year , but moved back home in his junior year to concentrate on physics . At Randall 's suggestion he applied to the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , which he entered in 1926 to study for his doctorate . His fees were paid by his family , but his father had a heart attack and could no longer afford them , so in 1927 Bacher moved back to Ann Arbor , where he lived at home , and attended the University of Michigan . He received a Charles A. Coffin Foundation Fellowship from General Electric .
To build up the theoretical physics department at the University of Michigan , Randall recruited four distinguished young physicists to work at Ann Arbor in 1927 : Otto Laporte , George Uhlenbeck , Samuel Goudsmit , and David M. Dennison . The University of Michigan was no longer a backwater in theoretical physics . Bacher immediately signed up for Goudsmit 's course on atomic structure . With Goudsmit he investigated the Zeeman effect of hyperfine structure of atomic levels , which became the subject of his 1930 PhD thesis .
On May 30 , 1930 , Bacher married Jean Dow . His mother gave them a Ford Model A and the use of the family 's lakeside holiday house , where they entertained guests including Paul Ehrenfest and Enrico Fermi . In 1931 , with a National Research Council Fellowship , he spent a year at the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) because Ira Bowen taught there . At Caltech Bacher attended lectures by Robert Oppenheimer , but spent most of his time at the Mt . Wilson Observatory , which had a better library . Bacher decided to create a work listing the energy , coupling constant , parity and electron configurations of all the known atoms and ions , working with Goudsmit back in Ann Arbor . The result was a book , Atomic Energy States as Derived from the Analysis of Optical Spectra ( 1932 ) , which they dedicated to Randall .
In the second year of his National Research Council Fellowship , Bacher moved across the country to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to work with John C. Slater , who had taught Bacher at Harvard . While there , Slater asked him to conduct a seminar on John Chadwick 's recent discovery of the neutron . Reading Chadwick 's paper , he realized that anomalies in then @-@ current theory would be resolved if the spin of the neutron was ½ . This became the subject of a letter he submitted to the Physical Review with visiting scholar Edward Condon . A year later , Bacher became the first to suggest the neutron had a magnetic moment equal to about minus one nuclear magneton , based on the unusually small magnetic moment of nitrogen determined from its hyperfine structure .
Afterwards Bacher returned to the University of Michigan on an Alfred H. Lloyd Fellowship . Jobs were hard to find at this time due to the Great Depression , and in 1934 he accepted a job at Columbia University , where he worked with Isidor Isaac Rabi , Jerrold Zacharias , Jerome Kellogg and Sid Millman . However it was difficult living in New York on his salary , and Jean gave birth to their first child , Martha , in December 1935 . A second child , Andrew , was born in 1938 . Bacher therefore accepted an offer from Hans Bethe to work with him at Cornell University in Ithaca , New York . Ithaca was a university town similar to Ann Arbor , where Bacher and Jean had been raised . At Cornell Bacher worked with Bethe on his book Nuclear Physics . A : Stationary States of Nuclei ( 1936 ) , the first of three books that would become known as the " Bethe Bible " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Radiation Laboratory = = =
In December 1940 Bacher joined the Radiation Laboratory at MIT , but did not immediately cease his research . He reached an arrangement with its director , Lee Alvin DuBridge , to return to Cornell for four days every three weeks until it was completed . He was researching the neutron cross section of cadmium , a topic of interest to Enrico Fermi , who was attempting to build a nuclear reactor , but whose figures did not agree with Bacher 's . Bacher carefully checked his results , and Fermi , convinced of their correctness , urged Bacher to publish them . Bacher submitted a paper to the Physical Review with instructions to withhold publication until after the war , and the paper was not published until 1946 .
DuBridge organized the Radiation Laboratory into two sections , one for incoming radar signals , and one for outgoing radar signals . Bacher was appointed to handle the incoming signals section . Here he gained valuable experience in administration , coordinating not just the efforts of his scientists , but also those of General Electric and RCA . He later recalled :
We quickly concluded that the ultimate discrimination between signals reflected from a target , as opposed to noise from the transmitter , should be done finally on the cathode @-@ ray tube . We had to develop the tubes , and then contract with GE and RCA to work together on producing them . I supervised the contracts myself , visiting GE one week and RCA the next , and the following week we would hold a joint meeting at the Rad Lab in Cambridge . I was getting into contract management . "
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
In 1942 , Bacher and Rabi , the Radiation Laboratory 's assistant director , were approached by Oppenheimer to join the Manhattan Project at its new laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico . They convinced Oppenheimer that the plan for a military laboratory would not work , since a scientific effort would need to be a civilian affair . The plan was modified , and the new laboratory would be a civilian one , run by the University of California under contract from the War Department . Bacher felt that this was his first contribution to the success of the project . He met with Oppenheimer at Los Alamos in April 1943 , but was not convinced that he was needed . Oppenheimer wrote to him that :
You know that I have been extremely eager to have your help in this work . I think perhaps you have not fully realized how much I appreciate your administrative experience and obvious administrative wisdom , nor how aware I am of our need for just this in the present project . Perhaps too you do not evaluate highly enough the fact that you have worked so much in neutron physics , and that you are so well informed about the last year ’ s developments at MIT . These three qualifications make you , in my opinion , very nearly unique . In addition , I want to express in writing my own confidence in your stability and judgement , qualities on which this stormy enterprise puts a very high premium .
Bacher then accepted the job at Los Alamos , moving there in May 1943 to become the head of the Experimental Physics Division ( P Division ) . For his seven group leaders he had John H. Williams , Robert R. Wilson , John H. Manley , Darol K. Froman , Emilio G. Segrè , Bruno B. Rossi and Donald W. Kerst . Bacher worked closely with Oppenheimer , and the two men discussed the project 's progress on a daily basis .
In July 1944 , Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory to focus on the problem of building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon , which was necessary because the gun @-@ type design would not work with plutonium . P Division was broken up , and Bacher became the head of the G ( for Gadget ) Division . This much larger division contained eleven groups headed by leaders who included William Higinbotham , Seth Neddermeyer , Edwin McMillan , Luis Alvarez and Otto Frisch .
While George Kistiakowsky 's Explosives Division ( X Division ) developed the explosive lenses , G Division designed the rest of the weapon . There were numerous difficulties to overcome , not the least of which was devising a means of detonating the lenses with the required speed . Robert F. Christy 's solid core design was chosen as the most likely design to succeed .
To coordinate the efforts of the laboratory , Oppenheimer created the " Cowpuncher Committee " , so @-@ called because they were to " ride herd " on the implosion effort and coordinate all the efforts of the laboratory . It included Bacher , along with Samuel Allison , George Kistiakowsky , Deak Parsons , Charles Lauritsen and Hartley Rowe .
Three days before the day the bomb was to be test detonated in the New Mexico desert , Bacher was part of the pit assembly team , which assembled the nuclear capsule ( a cylindrical section of the uranium tamper , containing the plutonium core and initiator ) in an old farmhouse near the Alamogordo testing site . When the capsule was driven to the shot tower and inserted into the spherical tamper , inside the explosive assembly , it stuck . Bacher recognized that expansion of the capsule due to the heat given off by the plutonium core was causing the jam , and that leaving the two parts in contact would equalize temperatures and allow the capsule to be inserted fully . After watching the test , his reaction was merely " Well , it works . "
Bacher was packaging the third core for shipment to Tinian on August 12 at the Ice House at Los Alamos when he received word that the Japanese had initiated surrender negotiations . He had already set G Division the task of designing and building new types of cores and assemblies , and he co @-@ authored a report with Robert Wilson urging the development of Edward Teller 's Super bomb . He served on a committee chaired by Richard Tolman that looked into declassifying documents produced by the Manhattan Project , and one chaired by Manson Benedict that investigated the technical feasibility of international control of nuclear energy . For his services to the Manhattan Project Bacher was awarded the Medal for Merit on January 12 , 1946 .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
= = = Atomic Energy Commission = = =
After the war , Bacher returned to Ithaca to head Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies . He agreed with Bethe that what Cornell needed to become a major player in high energy nuclear physics was a new synchrotron , but first he needed to find somewhere to put it . However , in 1946 Bacher was appointed to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the new United Nations Atomic Energy Commission , along with fellow United States representatives Tolman and Oppenheimer . Bacher therefore had to divide his time between Ithaca and New York City .
In October 1946 David Lilienthal asked Bacher to become one of the inaugural commissioners of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , the civilian agency that was being formed to replace the wartime Manhattan Project . As a Republican , Bacher was easily confirmed by the Senate members of the United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy by an 8 – 0 vote . As he was the only one of the five commissioners who was a scientist — an important factor in his decision to accept the post — he played a leading role in the selection of the Atomic Energy Commission 's influential General Advisory Committee to which nine scientists were appointed : James Conant , Lee DuBridge , Enrico Fermi , Robert Oppenheimer , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Hartley Rowe , Glenn Seaborg , Cyril Smith and Hood Worthington .
Bacher and fellow commissioner Sumner Pike began with an inspection of Los Alamos and the Hanford Site , and conducted an inventory of the fissionable material at Los Alamos with Norris Bradbury , who had succeeded Oppenheimer as its director . He found that only nine atomic bombs had been built in 1946 ; only four would be in 1947 , primarily due to production problems with the reactors at Hanford . These problems were on their way to resolution when Bacher observed the Operation Sandstone nuclear tests at Enewetak Atoll in 1948 as the Atomic Energy Commission 's representative . Bacher 's original two @-@ year term would have expired on January 1 , 1949 , but President Harry Truman convinced him to stay on . Bacher resigned in May 1949 , and this time the President was unable to dissuade him .
Bacher wished to return to academia , but Robert Wilson was now the head of Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies , and Bacher felt that it would be awkward working for someone who was one of his group leaders at Los Alamos . He therefore accepted an offer from Lee DuBridge of the chair of the Division of Physics , Mathematics , and Astronomy at Caltech . However the work at the Atomic Energy Commission was not so easily left behind . Senator Bourke Hickenlooper charged the Commission with mismanagement , specifically cost overruns at Hanford , awarding a scholarship to a communist , and the loss of 289 grams ( 10 @.@ 2 oz ) of uranium from the Argonne National Laboratory . Bacher felt obligated to return to Washington to testify on Lilienthal 's behalf before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy .
Another crisis broke in September 1949 when the Air Force picked up signs of the Soviet Union 's RDS @-@ 1 nuclear test . Bacher joined Oppenheimer , Parsons , General Hoyt Vandenberg , the Atomic Energy Commissioners and a British delegation under William Penney to discuss what to do . The recent devaluation of the British pound had already triggered a financial crisis , and there was concern about how the markets would react to the news . Oppenheimer and Bacher saw the evidence of a nuclear test as conclusive , and Bacher in particular came down strongly on the side of making a public announcement , as the number of people who already knew made a leak almost inevitable . Truman made the announcement a few days later .
= = = Caltech = = =
The division chair that Bacher now occupied at Caltech had been vacant since Robert A. Millikan had retired in 1945 . Although nominally a professorship , it was primarily an administrative post . In 1949 there were 17 professors in the department , of whom nine were physicists , two were astrophysicists , and the remaining six were mathematicians . There were two world class research laboratories funded by the Office of Naval Research , the Cosmic Ray Laboratory that had been founded by Millikan , which was now directed by Carl Anderson , and the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory which was directed by Charles Lauritsen . But there were no facilities for high energy physics ; these would have to be created from scratch .
In moving into high energy physics Bacher had the full support not just of DuBridge , but of Anderson and Lauritsen as well . Lauritsen had already hired Robert Langmuir to begin designing a new 600 MeV synchrotron , and Bacher found a large building to house it that had originally been used for grinding and polishing the Palomar Observatory 's 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @,@ 100 mm ) mirror , but which had been empty since 1948 . He arranged for Atomic Energy Commission and Office of Naval Research grants worth $ 1 million to build it and the other required facilities , and $ 300 @,@ 000 a year to run it .
Facilities were not enough ; Bacher needed physicists . Lauritsen had made a start on this too , by hiring Robert Christy . Bacher hired experimental physicists Alvin V. Tollestrup , Robert M. Walker and Matthew Sands . The physicist that Bacher decided he wanted most , though , was Richard Feynman . To get him , Bacher offered a large salary , and agreed to pay for Feynman 's 1950 – 1951 sabbatical in Brazil . Feynman would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965 . In 1955 Bacher hired Murray Gell @-@ Mann , who would win the Nobel Prize in 1969 .
The relatively new field of radio astronomy sparked Bacher 's interest , and he hired John Bolton and Gordon Stanley from the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in 1955 . A grant from the Office of Naval Research allowed Bolton to build the Owens Valley Radio Observatory , which became an important center for the study of quasars .
Caltech did not spell an end to Bacher 's service in Washington . He served two terms as a member of the President 's Science Advisory Committee ( PSAC ) under President Dwight D. Eisenhower , from November 18 , 1953 , to June 30 , 1955 , and from December 9 , 1957 , to December 31 , 1959 . During his first term he testified on behalf of his old friend at the Oppenheimer security hearing in 1954 . During his second , he worked with James L. Fisk and Ernest Lawrence to examine how a Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty could be monitored .
Bacher remained chair of the division of physics , mathematics and astronomy at Caltech until 1962 , when he was appointed as vice president and provost . He stepped down from the post of provost in 1970 at the age of 65 , and became a professor emeritus in 1976 . He still did some research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , and visited Caltech from time to time . In 1983 he was master of ceremonies at Los Alamos for events commemorating the 40th anniversary of the founding of the laboratory in 1943 .
Bacher died on November 18 , 2004 , at a retirement home in Montecito , California . He was survived by his daughter , Martha Bacher Eaton , and son , Andrew Dow Bacher , a nuclear physicist working at Indiana University , his wife Jean having died on May 28 , 1994 . His papers are in the California Institute of Technology Archives .
= Final Blackout =
Final Blackout is a dystopic science fiction novel by author L. Ron Hubbard . The novel is set in the future and follows a man known as " the Lieutenant " as he restores order to England after a world war . First published in serialized format in 1940 in the science fiction magazine Astounding Science Fiction , Final Blackout was published in book form in 1948 by The Hadley Publishing Co .. Author Services Inc. published a hardcover edition of the book in 1988 , and in 1989 the Church of Scientology @-@ affiliated organization Bridge Publications said that a film director named Christopher Cain had signed a contract to write and direct a movie version based on the book .
The novel was generally well received by literature critics , and is seen as an early classic of the Golden Age of Science Fiction . It has received positive mention in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and the Daily News of Los Angeles , and has been used in a science @-@ fiction writing class at California State Polytechnic University , Pomona .
= = Publication history = =
The story appeared in print in a 3 @-@ part serialized format , beginning with the April 1940 issue of Astounding Science Fiction . Final Blackout was first published in book form in 1948 by The Hadley Publishing Co. in an edition of 1 @,@ 000 copies and with a new preface by Hubbard . The book was re @-@ released in a hardcover format in 1988 by the Church of Spiritual Technology subsidiary company Author Services Inc .
In 1989 , Young Guns film director Christopher Cain optioned the rights to Final Blackout and developed a script for a possible film @-@ version of the book . The film was not made . According to the Church of Scientology company Bridge Publications , Cain signed a contract to write a screenplay based on the book and to direct the film . " The book is massive in scope and transcends time . It 's a powerful look at the idiocy and futility of war . I look forward to making ' Final Blackout ' into a major movie , " said Cain in a press release put out by Bridge Publications . An audiobook was released by Bridge Publications in 1991 and read by Planet of the Apes actor Roddy McDowall , who also voiced audiobook versions of Hubbard 's novels Battlefield Earth and Fear .
= = Plot = =
Set in the future , the novel follows the rise of a Lieutenant ( known in the book only as " The Lieutenant " ) as he becomes dictator of England after a world war . The Lieutenant leads a ragtag army fighting for survival in a Europe ravaged by 30 years of atomic , biological and conventional warfare . As a result of the most recent war , a form of biological warfare called soldier ’ s sickness has ravaged England , and America was devastated by nuclear war . At the start of the novel , a quarantine placed on England due to the soldier ’ s sickness prevents The Lieutenant from returning to England from his encampment in France . The Lieutenant commands the Fourth Brigade , which is composed of one hundred and sixty @-@ eight soldiers from multiple nations , leading them throughout France in search of food , supplies , arms and ammunition . Soon , Captain Malcolm informs The Lieutenant that all field officers are being recalled to General Headquarters ( G.H.Q. ) with their brigades to report to General
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Victor , the commanding officer at G.H.Q.
Upon the brigade 's arrival at G.H.Q. , The Lieutenant is informed by General Victor and his adjutant Colonel Smythe that he is to be reassigned and will be stripped of his command . He is confined to his quarters and is told his entire brigade will be broken apart and assimilated into another brigade . Meanwhile , in the barracks at G.H.Q. , the Fourth Brigade learns of crucial news through back channels : a vaccine exists for the soldier 's sickness , and General Victor ’ s plans for their brigade . The men decide to rebel , and break through the defenses of the barracks , free The Lieutenant and kill Captain Malcolm . The Fourth Brigade successfully escapes G.H.Q. in France and begins to make their way to London , along with other soldiers who are dissatisfied with General Victor 's command . A battle ensues between General Victor 's men and The Lieutenant 's troops . The Lieutenant and his expanded Fourth Brigade eventually successfully take control of London and subsequently all of England and Wales .
The Lieutenant 's government runs smoothly for years , until the battleship U.S.S. New York arrives from the U.S. carrying two United States Senators and Captain Johnson , captain of the New York and commander of the U.S. fleet . Under threat from the U.S. battleship , The Lieutenant negotiates terms to transfer power to the Senators ' associates – General Victor and Colonel Smythe . If anything happens to General Victor and Colonel Smythe , the country would be controlled by its officer corps. chaired by the Lieutenants confidant Swinburne . In addition , The Lieutenant requests that immigration of Americans to England be kept to no more than 100 @,@ 000 per month , and demands that a favorable price be set for the purchase of land from their English owners . After these terms are established , The Lieutenant opens fire on General Victor and his men and a battle ensues . General Victor , Colonel Smythe and The Lieutenant and several of his men are killed . Years later The Lieutenant ’ s men still control England , and a flag flies honoring his memory . A memorial plaque at Byward Gate on Tower Hill reads : " When that command remains , no matter what happens to its officer , he has not failed . "
= = Reception = =
Final Blackout is seen as an early classic of the Golden Age of Science Fiction . In his book The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy , Donald H. Tuck described the book as " Hubbard 's masterpiece " . Thomas D. Clareson writes in Understanding Contemporary American Science Fiction that prior to formalizing Dianetics and Scientology , Hubbard was " perhaps best known for Final Blackout " . In his book Scientology : The Now Religion , George Malko writes that Hubbard 's works including Slaves of Sleep , Kingslayer , Typewriter in the Sky , Fear , Death 's Deputy , and Final Blackout " were eagerly welcomed by devoted fans " . In his 1967 book Seekers of Tomorrow : Masters of Modern Science Fiction , Sam Moskowitz writes that the book " ... was a stunning achievement , certainly the most powerful and readable ' warning ' story that had appeared in science fiction to that date . " Moskowitz comments : " The progress of today 's events has made much of Final Blackout prophetic " . Astounding reviewer P. Schuyler Miller described the book as one of the most " memorable " serials the magazine had published , saying it would be a " lasting volume . "
Roland J. Green of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called the book " One of the highwater marks of his [ Hubbard 's ] literary career " , and " perhaps the best single novel yet of what the Pentagon once so charmingly christened ' the broken @-@ backed war ' after a nuclear exchange " . Jon Stone of NewsNet5.com described Final Blackout and Fear as " pulp in composition and not great in length , they are straight stories with few or no elements of Hubbard 's other career " , and compared the " pages of battles and tactics " in Final Blackout to Hubbard 's later work Battlefield Earth .
Final Blackout and Fear are often cited by critics as the best examples of Hubbard 's pulp fiction works . Chuck Moss of Daily News of Los Angeles called the book " extremely good science fiction " . The book has been included in the curriculum of a science @-@ fiction writing class at California State Polytechnic University , Pomona . Cal Poly Pomona professor Steve Whaley told The Press @-@ Enterprise that he thinks Hubbard was a " damn good storyteller " . Karl Edward Wagner cited Final Blackout as one of the thirteen best science @-@ fiction horror novels .
= Shaun Whalley =
Shaun James Whalley ( born 7 August 1987 ) is an English footballer who plays as a midfielder for Shrewsbury Town . Born in Prescot , Merseyside , Whalley played for Norwich City and Southport as a youth before making his Football League debut with Chester City in 2004 .
After leaving Chester , he spent time in non @-@ League football with Runcorn F.C. Halton and Witton Albion . While on the books at Witton , he spent five weeks on trial with Football League One side Crewe Alexandra but was not offered a contract , so he signed for League Two side Accrington Stanley in 2006 . Whalley spent almost two years with the Lancashire club , but following his release in the summer of 2008 , he returned to non @-@ League , initially with Wrexham . While at Wrexham , he had a short loan spell with Southport where he helped the team to the Conference North play @-@ offs . He subsequently played at Droylsden , where he was part of the team that won the Manchester Premier Cup in 2010 , and Hyde before joining Southport again on a permanent basis in January 2011 . He was signed by Luton Town in the summer of 2013 for an undisclosed fee , and joined AFC Telford United on loan in 2014 . Both Luton and Telford won their respective leagues during the 2013 – 14 season , making Whalley a winner of both the Conference Premier and the Conference North in the same season . He left Luton in May 2015 , later joining Shrewsbury .
Described as an " express @-@ train down the wings " by former team @-@ mate Paul Mullin , Whalley was called up to the Football Association XI standby squad for a game against Hallam , the game taking place to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the club . He is the son of the former Preston North End captain Neil Whalley , who was also a midfielder .
= = Early life = =
Whalley was born and raised in Prescot , Merseyside . As a child , he played football for his local teams until 2001 when he was spotted by Norwich City . He went to play for their academy , where he played for three years before leaving in 2004 . He subsequently returned to Merseyside and joined Southport , where he played several reserve @-@ team matches . In the summer of the same year , Whalley turned professional when he signed for Football League side Chester City .
Whalley 's father , Neil Whalley , was also a professional footballer in the early 1990s . He too played in midfield and made more than 50 appearances for Preston North End , where he was also captain for a period of time .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
With Chester , Whalley played mostly for the youth and reserve teams , but he made his Football League debut for the club in a 0 – 0 draw with Cambridge United on 18 September 2004 , coming on as a substitute for Darryn Stamp . His debut came just one day after he signed a professional contract with Chester ; manager Ian Rush had only included him on the substitutes ' bench as a result of injuries to Daryl Clare and Michael Branch . The following week , he was part of the side that defeated Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough Stadium in the second round of the Football League Trophy . Whalley made three further senior appearances for Chester , all as a substitute , before leaving the club in the summer of 2005 .
In August of that year , Whalley moved into non @-@ League football with Runcorn as one of several new signings for the Northern Premier League outfit . He made his first appearance for the club in the 1 – 1 draw with Frickley Athletic and subsequently established himself as a regular first @-@ team player . Whalley scored his first goal for Runcorn in the 5 – 1 defeat of his hometown club , Prescot Cables and he netted again the following week in the loss to Matlock Town . He went on to play 21 league matches for Runcorn before joining Witton Albion in March 2006 . During his short spell with the club , he scored 6 goals in 18 league appearances .
= = = Accrington Stanley = = =
In September 2006 , while at Witton , Whalley spent five weeks on trial at League One club Crewe Alexandra , but he was not offered a permanent contract . He subsequently joined League Two side Accrington Stanley on loan two months later . Whalley made his debut for the club in the 1 – 2 defeat to Hartlepool United at the Crown Ground . However , two weeks later , he was sent off in the Football League Trophy match against Doncaster Rovers following a high tackle on Theo Streete , although Accrington manager John Coleman felt that the challenge was not deserving of a red card . The subsequent suspension meant that Whalley spent almost a month out of the side before returning in late December in the loss to Bristol Rovers . He made his transfer to Accrington permanent in January 2007 , signing a two @-@ year contract with the club , and the following week he scored a late winner in the 3 – 2 victory over Mansfield Town , his first goal for the team . Whalley remained a first @-@ team regular for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season and retained his place in the starting line @-@ up throughout most of the following season , and scored his first Accrington goal away from the Crown Ground in the 8 – 2 loss at Peterborough United on 15 January 2008 . Whalley made a total of 51 league appearances for Accrington , scoring 5 goals , but in May 2008 , he was one of 10 players released by the club .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
In June 2008 , he moved down a division to join Conference Premier side Wrexham . He scored his first goal for Wrexham on his debut in a 5 – 0 win over Stevenage . Whalley followed it up with another goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Rushden & Diamonds . He scored his third and fourth goals of the month as Wrexham beat Salisbury City 4 – 1 , which proved to be his last game for that club . He then joined Conference North side Southport on loan in February 2009 for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season . Whalley made his Southport debut in the 2 – 0 win over Hyde United at Haig Avenue . He went on to play 13 league matches for the team as they reached the Conference North play @-@ offs , but they were defeated in the semi @-@ finals by Gateshead . During the loan spell , Whalley played in the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Trophy , but he could not prevent Southport losing 3 – 2 on aggregate over two legs against AFC Telford United . In the summer of 2009 , he was released by Wrexham along with eight other out @-@ of @-@ contract players .
In August 2009 , following his release from Wrexham , Whalley returned to the Conference North to join Droylsden . Whalley scored his first two goals for the club as Droylsden beat Northwich Victoria 5 – 1 . He added another goal to his tally , scoring in a 2 – 0 win over league favourites Fleetwood Town , before adding another two goals to his name as Droylsden beat Harrogate Town 5 – 0 . He scored two goals in a match for the third time in the season as Droylsden recorded a 5 – 3 win over Solihull Moors at the Butcher 's Arms Ground . He won Manchester Premier Cup winners medal in his one season at Droylsden before he left at the end of the 2009 – 10 season , having scored a total of 15 goals in 32 league appearances .
= = = Hyde = = =
Whalley joined Hyde on 21 August 2010 after his release from Droylsden . He made his debut just hours after he signed for the Tigers in a 5 – 1 home defeat to Alfreton Town . In just his third appearance for Hyde , he was sent off in a 1 – 0 defeat to Guiseley . Whalley scored his first goal for Hyde in a 2 – 1 home win over Corby Town .
In early October , while still on the books at Hyde , he was called up to the Football Association XI squad alongside teammate Scott Mooney for a game against Hallam FC to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Sheffield @-@ based club . Whalley scored his first cup goal for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Oldham Boro in the Manchester Premier Cup , but less than a week later , he scored an own goal as part of a 3 – 0 away loss to Blyth Spartans , and was then sent off again for two bookable offences against Vauxhall Motors
Whalley scored his first goal of the new year in a 2 – 1 victory over local rivals Stalybridge Celtic . He scored again in the quarter final of the Manchester Premier Cup against his old club Droylsden , which proved to be his last for the club .
= = = Southport = = =
Whalley was released by Hyde in order to join Southport for the second time in January 2011 . He made his debut the following Saturday in a 4 – 0 win over York City , scoring Southport 's second and fourth goals . On 1 February , less than a week later , Whalley scored again in a 2 – 2 draw with Grimsby Town to take his record to three goals in two games , before being sent off for violent conduct on and later receiving
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taurine , tyrosine , and arginine are considered semiessential amino @-@ acids in children ( though taurine is not technically an amino acid ) , because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed . The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual , so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids . Dietary exposure to the non @-@ standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases , including ALS .
= = = Non @-@ protein functions = = =
In humans , non @-@ protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates , such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( GABA ) . Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules , for example :
Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin .
Tyrosine ( and its precursor phenylalanine ) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine , epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines .
Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans . In plants , it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids , which are important in plant metabolism .
Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme .
Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide .
Ornithine and S @-@ adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines .
Aspartate , glycine , and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides .
However , not all of the functions of other abundant non @-@ standard amino acids are known .
Some non @-@ standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants . For example , canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes , and in particularly large amounts in Canavalia gladiata ( sword bean ) . This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing . The non @-@ protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume , in particular Leucaena leucocephala . This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants .
= = Uses in industry = =
Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry , but their main use is as additives to animal feed . This is necessary , since many of the bulk components of these feeds , such as soybeans , either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids : lysine , methionine , threonine , and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds . In this industry , amino acids are also used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from supplements , which may be required to improve the health or production of these animals .
The food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids , in particular , glutamic acid , which is used as a flavor enhancer , and aspartame ( aspartyl @-@ phenylalanine @-@ 1 @-@ methyl ester ) as a low @-@ calorie artificial sweetener . Similar technology to that used for animal nutrition is employed in the human nutrition industry to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies , such as anemia , by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation .
The chelating ability of amino acids has been used in fertilizers for agriculture to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies , such as iron chlorosis . These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and improving the overall health of the plants . The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics .
Similarly , some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry . They include 5 @-@ HTP ( 5 @-@ hydroxytryptophan ) used for experimental treatment of depression , L @-@ DOPA ( L @-@ dihydroxyphenylalanine ) for Parkinson 's treatment , and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness .
= = = Expanded genetic code = = =
Since 2001 , 40 non @-@ natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon ( recoding ) and a corresponding transfer @-@ RNA : aminoacyl – tRNA @-@ synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins .
= = = Nullomers = = =
Nullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid , however in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another , for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine . This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome . This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer @-@ fighting drugs and to prevent cross @-@ contamination of DNA samples from crime @-@ scene investigations .
= = = Chemical building blocks = = =
Amino acids are important as low @-@ cost feedstocks . These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building @-@ blocks .
Amino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts , e.g. , for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions , although no commercial applications exist .
= = = Biodegradable plastics = = =
Amino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers . These materials have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants . These polymers include polypeptides , polyamides , polyesters , polysulfides , and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains or bonded as side @-@ chains . These modifications alter the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers . An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate , a water @-@ soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture . Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions , polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti @-@ scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor . In addition , the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates .
= = Reactions = =
As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group , these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups . These include nucleophilic addition , amide bond formation , and imine formation for the amine group , and esterification , amide bond formation , and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group . The combination of these functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal @-@ amino acid chelates . The multiple side @-@ chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions . The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side @-@ chains and are , therefore , different between the various types of amino acid .
= = = Chemical synthesis = = =
Several methods exist to synthesize amino acids . One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α @-@ carbon of a carboxylic acid . Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid . In alternative fashion , the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia , this produces an α @-@ amino nitrile as an intermediate . Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields a α @-@ amino acid . Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids , whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids . Likewise , using ketones , instead of aldehydes , gives α , α @-@ disubstituted amino acids . The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α @-@ amino acids as products , but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed .
At the current time , the most @-@ adopted method is an automated synthesis on a solid support ( e.g. , polystyrene beads ) , using protecting groups ( e.g. , Fmoc and t @-@ Boc ) and activating groups ( e.g. , DCC and DIC ) .
= = = Peptide bond formation = = =
As both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds , one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage . This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins . This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water . In cells , this reaction does not occur directly ; instead , the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond . As a result of this mechanism , all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N @-@ terminus and moving toward their C @-@ terminus .
However , not all peptide bonds are formed in this way . In a few cases , peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes . For example , the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress . This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids . In the first step , gamma @-@ glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side @-@ chain carboxyl of the glutamate ( the gamma carbon of this side @-@ chain ) and the amino group of the cysteine . This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione .
In chemistry , peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions . One of the most @-@ used in solid @-@ phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units . These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain , which is attached to a solid resin support . The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids ( using combinatorial chemistry ) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high @-@ throughput screening .
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
In plants , nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate , formed from alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion . In order to form other amino acids , the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha @-@ keto carboxylic acid . For example , aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate and aspartate . Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis , too .
Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids . For example , homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S @-@ adenosyl methionine , while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline .
Microorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids . For example , some microbes make 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine , which is a sulfide @-@ bridged derivative of alanine . Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin . However , in plants , 1 @-@ aminocyclopropane @-@ 1 @-@ carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene .
= = = Catabolism = = =
Amino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters , since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized . Degradation of an amino acid , occurring in the liver and kidneys , often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha @-@ ketoglutarate , forming glutamate . This process involves transaminases , often the same as those used in amination during synthesis . In many vertebrates , the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea . However , amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead . For example , serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia . After removal of one or more amino groups , the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids , or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle , as detailed in image at right .
= = Physicochemical properties of amino acids = =
The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties . Important factors are charge , hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity , size , and functional groups . These properties are important for protein structure and protein – protein interactions . The water @-@ soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues ( Leu , Ile , Val , Phe , and Trp ) buried in the middle of the protein , whereas hydrophilic side @-@ chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent . ( Note that in biochemistry , a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide , protein or nucleic acid . ) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer . In the case part @-@ way between these two extremes , some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane . In similar fashion , proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate , while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine . There are different hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues .
Some amino acids have special properties such as cysteine , that can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues , proline that forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone , and glycine that is more flexible than other amino acids .
Many proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications , when additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acids in proteins . Some modifications can produce hydrophobic lipoproteins , or hydrophilic glycoproteins . These type of modification allow the reversible targeting of a protein to a membrane . For example , the addition and removal of the fatty acid palmitic acid to cysteine residues in some signaling proteins causes the proteins to attach and then detach from cell membranes .
= = = Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties = = =
Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons :
In addition to the specific amino acid codes , placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue . They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs . The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases .
Unk is sometimes used instead of Xaa , but is less standard .
In addition , many non @-@ standard amino acids have a specific code . For example , several peptide drugs , such as Bortezomib and MG132 , are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups , which have specific codes . Bortezomib is Pyz @-@ Phe @-@ boroLeu , and MG132 is Z @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ Leu @-@ al . To aid in the analysis of protein structure , photo @-@ reactive amino acid analogs are available . These include photoleucine ( pLeu ) and photomethionine ( pMet ) .
= Adaptation ( film ) =
Adaptation ( stylized as Adaptation . , with the period included ) is a 2002 American comedy metafilm directed by Spike Jonze and written by Charlie Kaufman . The film is based on Susan Orlean 's non @-@ fiction book The Orchid Thief , with numerous self @-@ referential events added . The film stars Nicolas Cage as Charlie and Donald Kaufman , and Meryl Streep as Susan Orlean , Chris Cooper as John Laroche , with Cara Seymour , Brian Cox , Tilda Swinton , Ron Livingston and Maggie Gyllenhaal in supporting roles .
Though the film is billed as an adaptation of The Orchid Thief , its primary narrative focus is Charlie Kaufman 's struggle to adapt The Orchid Thief into a film , while dramatizing the events of the book in parallel . Adaptation also adds a number of fictitious elements , including Kaufman 's twin brother ( also credited as a writer for the film ) and a romance between Orlean and Laroche , and culminates in completely invented events including fictional versions of Orlean and Laroche three years after the events related in The Orchid Thief , Kaufman and his fictional twin brother .
The film had been in development as far back as 1994 . Jonathan Demme brought the project to Columbia Pictures with Kaufman writing the script . Kaufman experienced writer 's block and did not know what to think of The Orchid Thief . Finally he wrote a script based on his experience of adapting the book into a screenplay . Jonze signed to direct , and filming was finished in June 2001 . Adaptation received awards at the 75th Academy Awards , 60th Golden Globe Awards and 56th British Academy Film Awards . Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , while Kaufman won the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay .
= = Plot = =
The self @-@ loathing Charlie Kaufman is hired to write the screenplay for The Orchid Thief . Kaufman is going through depression and is not happy that his twin brother , Donald , has moved into his house and is taking advantage of him . Donald decides to become a screenwriter like Charlie and attends one of Robert McKee 's famous seminars .
Charlie , who rejects formulaic script writing , wants to ensure that his script is a faithful adaptation of
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s to move from self @-@ clarification to identifying on a communal level , which can be empowering , because they now have something to associate with , which gives normality to this overall socially @-@ isolating situation .
At this time , asexual organizations and other Internet resources play a key role in informing people about asexuality . The lack of research makes it difficult for doctors to understand the causation . Like with any sexual orientation , most people who are asexual are self @-@ identified . This can be a problem when asexuality is mistaken for an intimacy or relationship problem or for other symptoms that do not define asexuality . There is also a significant population that either does not understand or does not believe in asexuality , which adds to the importance of these organizations to inform the general population ; however , due to the lack of scientific fact on the subject , what these groups promote as information is often questioned .
On June 29 , 2014 , AVEN organised the second International Asexuality Conference , as an affiliate WorldPride event in Toronto . The event , which was attended by around 250 people , was the largest gathering of asexuals to date . The conference included presentations , discussions , and workshops on topics such as research on asexuality , asexual relationships , and intersecting identities .
= = = Symbols = = =
In 2009 , AVEN members participated in the first asexual entry into an American pride parade when they walked in the San Francisco Pride Parade . In August 2010 , after a period of debate over having an asexual flag and how to set up a system to create one , and contacting as many asexual communities as possible , a flag was announced as the asexual pride flag by one of the teams involved . The final flag had been a popular candidate and had previously seen use in online forums outside of AVEN . The final vote was held on a survey system outside of AVEN where the main flag creation efforts were organized . The flag colors have been used in artwork and referenced in articles about the sexuality .
= = Discrimination and legal protections = =
A 2012 study published in Group Processes & Intergroup Relations reports there is more prejudice , dehumanization and discrimination toward asexuals than toward other sexual minorities , such as gay men , lesbians and bisexuals . Both homosexual and heterosexual people thought of asexuals as not only cold , but also animalistic and unrestrained . Asexual activist , author , and blogger Julie Decker has observed that sexual harassment and violence , such as corrective rape , commonly victimizes the asexual community . However , a different study found little evidence of serious discrimination against asexuals because of their asexuality . Sociologist Mark Karrigan sees a middle ground , claiming that while asexuals do often experience discrimination , it is not of a phobic nature but " more about marginalization because people genuinely don 't understand asexuality . "
Asexuals also face prejudice from within the LGBT community . Upon coming out as asexual , activist Sara Beth Brooks was told by many LGBT people that asexuals are mistaken in their self @-@ identification and seek undeserved attention within the social justice movement .
In some jurisdictions , asexuals have legal protections . While Brazil bans since 1999 whatever pathologization or attempted treatment of sexual orientation by mental health professionals through the national ethical code , the U.S. state of New York has labeled asexuals as a protected class . However , asexuality does not typically attract the attention of the public or major scrutiny ; therefore , it has not been the subject of legislation as much as other sexual orientations have .
= = In the media = =
Asexual representation in the media is limited and rarely openly acknowledged or confirmed by creators or authors . Asexuality as a sexual identity , rather than as a biological entity , became more widely discussed in the media in the beginning of the 21st century . Before , sexuality in general was not questioned ; it was often assumed , and little research had been conducted , thus susceptible to social influence , including media portrayal .
= Charles R. Apted =
Charles Robert Apted ( June 18 , 1873 – June 5 , 1941 ) was for 39 years a Harvard University official in various capacities , for much of that time chief of the Harvard Yard police ( " Harvard Cop No. 1 " , the Boston Globe called him ) and su per in tend ent of Harvard buildings . His Boston Globe obituary called him " both feared and beloved by under grad u ates during three university pres i den tial administrations " .
He gained national prominence in 1915 , when he identified deranged former Harvard German instructor and wife @-@ poisoner Eric Muenter as the dynamite @-@ wielding intruder who had shot J. P. Morgan , Jr. and bombed the US Senate .
= = Background = =
Apted was born in Boston of English @-@ immigrant parents , and worked for a time in insurance . He married Eva C. Hunt on June 16 , 1898 .
He was elected to the Cambridge , Massachusetts " common council " in 1914 , and to the city council ( under a new city charter ) in 1915 or 1916 . In his first three years in office he was " chairman of every social event of the city council " , and was for many years grand chancellor of the Knights of Pythias .
= = Harvard career = =
He began at Harvard in 1902 as a clerk in the office of the Supervisor of Caretaking . " Old Harvard grads remember him for the sympathetic help he gave some of the poorer students [ when ] he had charge of the Furniture Loan Department " , said The New York Times . By 1921 he was Supervisor of Caretaking ( later Su per in tend ent of Buildings ) himself , and by his retirement in 1941 four hundred Harvard staff were under his supervision , including twenty @-@ two " yard cops " .
His duties included oversight of the Harvard Police Patrol . In this capacity he was " both guardian and disciplinarian " , keeping student misbehavior under control within Harvard 's confines — " His cry of ' Break it up ' as he headed for the focal point of any riot or disturbance became famous in the annals of the College " — and extricated his " boys " from trouble with authorities outside the school 's gates . " With police forces for miles around ' Charlie 's ' word was as good as bail " , according to the The Harvard Crimson . The " mild @-@ mannered , bespectacled " Apted also protected students in trouble — especially those from prominent families — from publicity ; in 1932 the City Council criticized him for refusing to reveal the names of participants in a riot , which had grown from the serenading of Radcliffe women to trash fires and an assault on a police station .
In 1933 it was into his hands that the so @-@ called Sacred Cod — the emblem of the Com mon wealth of Mas sa chu setts " codnapped " days earlier from the Mas sa chu setts State House — was delivered by two young men at a late @-@ night rendezvous , to which he had been directed by a mysterious telephone call . Following his " single @-@ handed recovery of the emblem ... after both city and state police had been baffled at every turn " , the Crimson reported that he had been " advanced to the rank of Colonel in the Yard Police " , adding that his rise been " meteoric . Ranked as Captain a year ago , he was advanced to the title of Major as a result of his work in the famous Memorial Hall clapper case last spring . " ( The " ranks " were unofficial , bestowed by the student body as a sign of affection . )
When Harvard athletes were suspected in the March 1934 disappearance of Yale 's " ugly bulldog mascot " , Handsome Dan , Yale officials asked Apted to find the animal . He delivered it some days later to Yale 's New Haven , Connecticut campus , though not before the Lampoon took photographs of the canine licking the boots of the John Harvard statue , which had been smeared with hamburger . ( " Dog licks man " , a Crimson headline read . )
More serious matters investigated by Apted , over the years , included Prohibition @-@ era bootlegging , illegal gambling , a rash of defacements of donors ' portraits , death threats against Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell during his involvement in the Sacco @-@ Vanzetti case , and the theft of thousands of Harvard library books by a former graduate student . In an extortion racket smashed in 1938 , two " young and good looking " girls ( " one being a blonde and the other a redhead " ) lured their freshman victims to a Brighton , Mas sa chu setts apartment , then demanded " financial assistance " in return for not alleging to Harvard officials that im pro pri e ties had ensued .
In 1915 a " Frank Holt " was subdued by a butler armed with a lump of coal after shooting financier J. P. Morgan , Jr. at Morgan 's Glen Cove , New York home . Dynamite was found in the assailant 's coat , and he quickly confessed to planting the bomb which had wrecked a United States Senate reception room the day before . Soon a tip was received in Cambridge pointing out a resemblance between " Holt " and Eric Muenter , a Harvard German instructor who had disappeared in 1906 after poisoning his pregnant wife with arsenic @-@ laced " beef tea " ; Apted ( who had lived near Muenter in Cambridge ) was dispatched to New York , where he identified Muenter , who soon after committed suicide . " The newspapers had a field day with Morgan , the Capitol , Harvard and murder all in one story , " the Crimson wrote years later .
= = Retirement = =
Though not a Harvard graduate , Apted felt " as much like one as all the Lowells and Quincys and Adamses and Kirklands together " , and was an honorary member of the class of 1906 after enrolling in two architecture courses that year . " The list of students with whom ' Charlie ' was acquainted reads like a Who 's Who , " said the Crimson . " Franklin Roosevelt , for instance , and ' all his damn kids . ' Then there is Leverett Saltonstall , Felix Frankfurter , Robert Benchley , Arthur Holcombe , Joe Kennedy , Archy Davison , and [ Harvard President ] ' Jim ' Conant " ( whom Apted once called " a good boy " ) . " The world would be surprised if they knew , as I do , the various stunts pulled at Harvard by some of the biggest men in the country , " he said .
A 1940 dinner in his honor — " in Harvard 's paneled old Memorial Hall [ at which ] 600 Harvard men dined and wined him [ and ] the Harvard Glee Club sang ' Behold the Lord High Executioner ' " ( though with Executioner changed to Protector ) — was reported in Time magazine 's Education section and The New York Times . Scheduled speakers included Mas sa chu setts Governor Leverett Saltonstall , Attorney General Paul A. Dever , Harvard Presidents Conant and ( emeritus ) A. Lawrence Lowell , as well as a senator , two judges , and the mayor of Cambridge .
Apted died June 5 , 1941 . His front @-@ page Boston Globe obituary said ,
Long after the memories of other college officials had dimmed into the past , Harvard men remembered " Col. " Apted . He was both feared and beloved by under grad u ates during three university pres i den tial ad min i stra tions , and he was the subject of more class day anecdotes , probably , than even such other traditional Harvard characters as Profs . Charles Townsend Copeland and George Lyman Kittredge .
= Erin McLeod =
Erin Katrina McLeod ( born February 26 , 1983 ) is a Canadian soccer player , Olympic bronze medalist and visual artist . A veteran goalkeeper for the Canada women 's national soccer team , she also plays for FC Rosengård in the Damallsvenskan , the highest division of women 's football in Sweden . She first appeared for the Canada women 's national soccer team at the 2002 Algarve Cup and has since made 115 appearances for the team . In 2012 , as part of the Canadian Soccer Association 's Centennial Celebration , she was honoured on the All @-@ Time Canada XI women 's team .
McLeod has represented Canada in three FIFA Women 's World Cups : 2007 in China , 2011 in Germany and 2015 in Canada . She has played in two Olympic tournaments : 2008 in Beijing and 2012 in London where she helped Canada win the bronze medal . Before joining FC Rosengård in 2015 , she played professional soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps , Washington Freedom , Dalsjöfors GoIF , Chicago Red Stars , and Houston Dash . She played collegiate soccer for the Southern Methodist University Mustangs as well as the Penn State Nittany Lions where she set several all @-@ time records .
McLeod 's most notable and controversial appearance came during the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In the semi @-@ final match against the United States on August 6 , the referee ruled that McLeod had broken the six @-@ second handling rule in the 76th minute , when Canada was leading 3 – 2 . A free kick was given to the United States which resulted in a penalty being called on Canadian player Marie @-@ Ève Nault after the ball struck her in the arm . The United States was given a penalty kick , which McLeod did not save . The United States ultimately won the game in overtime , eliminating Canada 's chance for the gold medal .
McLeod has suffered three ACL injuries to her right knee . The most recent occurred on March 23 , 2016 while playing for FC Rosengård and will keep her out of the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro .
= = Early life = =
Born to Cheryl and Doug McLeod in St. Albert , Alberta , a city near Edmonton , Erin was raised with her younger sister , Cara , and older sister , Megan . As a young girl , McLeod fell in love with hockey and the Edmonton Oilers . At the age of five , her family moved to Calgary , where she channeled her obsession into soccer . She quickly climbed the local soccer ranks and found herself a midfielder on a Calgary select team . At the age of 12 , the goalkeeper on the team was injured and she stepped up for the spot . She has been a goalkeeper ever since .
McLeod 's father , Doug , was an oil engineer , a job that required him to move around frequently . In 1997 , when McLeod was 14 , she and her family moved to Jakarta , Indonesia , where she spent both grades 9 and 10 . While in Jakarta , McLeod captained the under @-@ 15 Jakarta all @-@ stars as the only girl on the team . She was able to greatly improve her game by playing with boys . Unfortunately , she grew too old for the all @-@ star team the following year and was left to play on the high school team with many girls who had never played soccer before .
During the May 1998 riots in Indonesia , McLeod , then 15 , and her family were forced to evacuate due to the impending danger . The main airport in Jakarta was too dangerous at the time and they were forced to fly out from a smaller airport , passing a long line of tanks on the way there . She noted that it " opened up [ her ] eyes to what 's going on in the world " and that she didn 't " know poverty like they do . " McLeod and her family eventually returned to their home in Indonesia , where she remained for another year .
While in Indonesia , McLeod was plagued by body image issues and developed an eating disorder . She was heavier than many girls at her high school , and would often skip meals and exercise more instead . Her family eventually hired a nutritionist to help .
In the summer of 1999 , before McLeod entered grade 11 , she made the decision to move back to Calgary to live with her grandmother , leaving her parents and younger sister behind in Jakarta . After making the move back to Canada , McLeod caught the attention of Canadian under @-@ 19 coach Ian Bridge and reached her dream of representing Canada on the international stage .
= = = College = = =
= = = = SMU Mustangs , 2001 – 2002 = = = =
McLeod attended Southern Methodist University and played for the Mustangs in the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) for the 2001 and 2002 seasons . In her rookie season , she made 84 saves and allowed 25 goals , ending the year off with a 14 – 4 – 0 record and six shutouts . She recorded a 1 @.@ 36 goals against average ( GAA ) for the season . In 2002 , she made 85 saves and allowed 23 goals in 18 games . She ended the season with a 9 – 5 – 4 record and four shutouts , making 4 @.@ 72 saves per game and recording a 1 @.@ 19 goals against average ( GAA ) .
During her career at SMU , McLeod played 38 games , starting 18 . She had a career record of 23 – 9 – 4 , with 10 shutouts , 4 @.@ 45 saves per game , and a 0 @.@ 779 save percentage . She made 169 saves in the 3390 minutes she played for the Mustangs .
McLeod was named to the All @-@ WAC Tournament Team in 2001 and the Academic All @-@ WAC Team in 2002 . She received First Team All @-@ WAC Honours and NSCAA All @-@ Region Honours in both 2001 and 2002 .
= = = = Penn State Nittany Lions , 2004 – 2005 = = = =
Following her role on the bench for the Canadian national team at the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup , McLeod starting looking at other schools , wanting something different . After fellow Canadian international Carmelina Moscato told McLeod that Pennsylvania State University was looking for a goalkeeper , McLeod transferred to the school and played for the Nittany Lions for the 2004 and 2005 seasons while majoring in creative advertising .
McLeod quickly took over the starting goalkeeper position for the 2004 season . Although a shoulder injury nagged her all season , she appeared in 21 of 23 games , playing a total of 1885 minutes . She led the Big Ten Conference in shutouts with 11 total for the season and ranked second in the nation in goals against average ( GAA ) at 0 @.@ 43 . McLeod allowed 9 goals and recorded 56 saves for the entire season . She earned third team NSCAA All @-@ America honours , first team All @-@ Big Ten honours , and first team All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region honours for 2004 , becoming the second goalkeeper to earn All @-@ America honors for the Nittany Lions .
In 2005 , McLeod once again was the star goalkeeper for the team , appearing in 24 of the 25 games of the season . She played a total of 2 @,@ 187 minutes , allowing 20 goals and recording 85 saves for the entire season . She helped the Nittany Lions go undefeated in the regular season and become one of the few teams in NCAA history to finish the season undefeated and not win a national championship . She earned first team NSCAA All @-@ American honours , first team All @-@ Big Ten honours , first team All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region honours , third team ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ America honours , and Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year for 2005 . The same year , she was named a M.A.C. Hermann Trophy semi @-@ finalist .
= = = = = Penn State statistics = = = = =
Updated through 2016 @-@ 06 @-@ 16
= = = = = Penn State all @-@ time records = = = = =
McLeod 's record 11 shutouts in 21 games during the 2004 season rank second all @-@ time at Penn State as of June 2016 . Her 0 @.@ 957 winning percentage during the 2005 season is ranked first of all @-@ time , while her winning percentage in 2004 of 0 @.@ 875 is ranked second at the school . In 2004 , her 0 @.@ 43 goals against average ( GAA ) ranked second best of all @-@ time . The same year , she also posted the fewest goals allowed in one season . As of June 2016 , she still holds the all @-@ time career record for highest winning percentage ( 0 @.@ 92 ) , fewest goals against average ( 0 @.@ 64 ) , and consecutive shutout minutes ( 857 : 24 ) .
= = Club career = =
= = = Vancouver Whitecaps , 2004 – 2006 = = =
McLeod played with the Vancouver Whitecaps in the W @-@ League in 2004 and 2006 . While playing for the Whitecaps , the team never lost a game and she helped bring in the club 's first championship victory in 2004 . In the championship game , she made two saves in the penalty shootout and scored the game @-@ winning penalty kick . In 2006 , she helped the Whitecaps win a second W @-@ League title after securing a shutout in the final against Ottawa Fury .
= = = Washington Freedom , 2009 – 2010 = = =
On April 16 , 2009 , the Washington Freedom announced they had signed McLeod as a post @-@ International Draft discovery claim for the inaugural season of Women 's Professional Soccer league . Though it was intended that McLeod would be the team 's starting goalkeeper , visa issues kept her unavailable for the first five matches of the regular season . She made her first appearance for the team on May 17 , 2009 and was the starting goalkeeper in all fifteen of her appearances . The Freedom finished in third place during the regular season with a 8 – 7 – 5 record earning a berth to the playoffs . The team was defeated 2 – 1 by eventual champions Sky Blue FC in the first round .
McLeod returned as the starting goalkeeper for the Freedom during the 2010 WPS season . She made fourteen appearances for the team before she suffered a season @-@ ending right ACL injury in the 84th minute of a match against FC Gold Pride on July 24 , 2010 . The Freedom finished in fourth place during the regular season with a 8 – 9 – 7 record , earning a spot in the playoffs . The team was defeated 1 – 0 in overtime by the Philadelphia Independence in the first round . Following the 2010 season , the Washington Freedom was purchased by Dan Borislow who renamed the team magicJack and relocated it to Boca Raton , Florida . McLeod remained on the roster following the team 's ownership change until her contract was terminated on March 9 , 2011 .
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one , although the official report referred only to one . The cause was probably a build @-@ up of firedamp that was ignited by an electric spark from equipment such as electric bell signalling gear . The initial explosion ignited airborne coal dust , and a shock wave ahead of the explosion raised yet more coal dust , which also combusted . Many victims who were not killed immediately by the explosion and fire died from the effects of afterdamp . The explosive wave travelled up the Lancaster shaft to the surface , destroying the headframe ; it killed the winder — the man in charge — and badly wounded his deputy .
Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , was on the surface and the remaining shift foremen were still underground and unable to give assistance . He took charge and descended the York shaft , accompanied by overman D R Thomas . The descent was slow , and they had to clear several girders and obstructions before they reached the bottom . They found that the men from the east side of the workings ( approximately 450 workers ) were unharmed , and their evacuation was ordered . Shaw and Thomas moved to the western side , where they found other men , alive but injured , and arranged for them to travel to the surface . Thomas later reported that the view into the western workings " was exactly like looking into a furnace " .
Shaw explored what he could of the western workings , before he and some of the survivors began tackling the fire . The water pipes from the surface in the Lancaster shaft were all fractured , and hand @-@ extinguishers were used . Shaw returned to the surface at 9 : 30 am to arrange for rescue and fire @-@ fighting teams from neighbouring collieries . From 11 : 00 am the specialist mines rescue teams began arriving at the colliery from the Rhymney and Rhondda Valleys , as did Red Cross workers and local ambulance services ; a police detachment was sent from Cardiff in a special train . Members of the Inspectorate of Mines were quickly on the scene , and an inspector descended to view the mine the same morning .
Lieven recounts how the rescue parties " in their desperation , ... were reckless with their lives " in their attempts to find survivors ; many were injured in small roof collapses , or suffered the effects of carbon monoxide poisoning . Their endeavours saved lives throughout the remainder of the day and into the night , including a group of 18 men found at around 1 : 00 am . They were the last survivors found . A total of 432 miners had died that day — although some bodies were not found until later — and 7 others died later in hospital or at home . A journalist from The Times wrote : " The numbers are truly awful . We talk in awed terms of the decimation of a regiment in a bloody battle , but here a great community engaged in the pursuit of a peaceful vocation is threatened with the loss of at least a quarter of its able bodied manhood " . On the surface the townsfolk waited for news ; a reporter for The Dundee Courier thought : " the scene at Senghenydd last night was depressing in the extreme . The streets were full of silent throngs of people who moved aimlessly about or stood stolidly at the street corners . "
= = Rescue , fire @-@ fighting and recovery : 15 October to 30 November = =
Work continued throughout the night of 15 October and into the following day . It focused on finding survivors and fighting the fire that blocked the entry into some workings of the western returns . The fire caused the roof supports to become unstable , and falls triggered outbursts of methane . Several rescuers were injured by the falls , one fatally . Before descending the mine many of the firefighters wrote what they thought might be their last letters home , and some made their wills . As the water pipe in the shaft was out of operation , fire @-@ fighting continued with hand extinguishers and work was only possible in 20 @-@ minute shifts . Despite wearing respirators , several rescuers were overcome by the effects of firedamp . During the course of the day , 56 bodies were raised to the surface and , that evening , a new water supply , connected by three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) of pipes to a nearby reservoir , was installed in the Lancaster shaft .
Reginald McKenna , the Home Secretary , visited the colliery on 15 October representing King George V , who was attending the marriage of Prince Arthur of Connaught and Princess Alexandra , 2nd Duchess of Fife . The king sent a £ 500 donation to a disaster relief fund , while the royal couple displayed their wedding presents at St James 's Palace and charged a shilling for entrance , raising £ 1 @,@ 200 for the fund . The fund was started by the Lord Mayor of Cardiff , while another collection , the Mansion House Fund set up by the Lord Mayor of London , raised more than £ 3 @,@ 000 on its first day .
William Brace , the local MP speaking on behalf of the South Wales Miners ' Federation , announced on 16 October that the priority would be given to putting out the fire and that no more search parties would be looking for survivors . Brace observed that the fire was blocking the western workings and consuming the oxygen in the air , making it unlikely that anyone was left alive . Progress in tackling the fire over the previous days had been slow , and it had only been extinguished in the first 30 yards of the roadway — still two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coal face . Two coroner 's inquests were opened : one in Senghenydd for the men who died in the colliery , and one in Cardiff for those who had died in hospital ; both were adjourned the same day . The first funerals took place the following day , Friday 17 October . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 mourners gathered for the 11 men buried on the Saturday and 8 on the Sunday .
The firefighters built bashings , walls of sandbags , turf and sand , approximately 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 metres ) deep and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 metres ) up to the tunnel 's roof to prevent smoke filling the rest of the workings and allow men to explore areas previously cut off . Within two days the temperatures dropped and the volume of smoke was reduced . Although the fire was contained , miners still faced several obstacles , including roof collapses and large pockets of trapped firedamp . The first collapse consisted of more than 100 tons of debris , while another fall was more than 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 5 metres ) long and 30 to 40 feet ( 10 – 12 metres ) high . Clearing the falls and finding bodies was slow , and it took until 8 November for the first of the 4 working districts to be explored and cleared of bodies . Many victims were unidentifiable — either the explosion , fire or subsequent decomposition had taken its toll — and many had to be identified by their personal effects , although some bodies remained unidentified .
By 17 November the Mafeking and Pretoria districts had been fully explored , with more than 200 bodies raised to the surface in the preceding two days . On 20 November an official announcement reported that 439 miners had died , of whom 33 were still unaccounted for . Toward the end of the month , the men voted to return to work , even though the western workings were still out of action and 11 bodies were still missing .
A photographer , W Benton , took a series of photographs as the disaster unfolded , and later published them as a set of postcards . Their publication is described by the National Library of Wales as " an excellent example of early photo @-@ journalism " . The photographs came with a caption , shown below :
= = Aftermath = =
The Senghenydd explosion remains the worst mining disaster in Britain . The deaths of 440 men on a small community had a devastating effect ; 60 victims were younger than 20 , of whom 8 were 14 years old ; 542 children had lost their fathers and 205 women were widowed . The impact on individual households was great : 12 homes lost both a father and son , 10 homes lost two sons each , while the death of one father and son left an 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to raise her 6 siblings alone ; another woman lost her husband , 2 sons , a brother and her lodger .
The inquiry into the disaster opened on 2 January 1914 with R A S Redmayne , the Chief Inspector of Mines , as the commissioner ; he was assisted by two assessors , Evan Williams , the chairman of the South Wales and Monmouthshire Coal Owners Association , and Robert Smillie , the president of the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain . The inquiry ran for three days before being adjourned to allow for the coroner 's inquest to run at Senghenydd . It reopened on 27 January and ran until 21 February . Over the 13 days it heard evidence , 21 @,@ 837 questions were put to 50 witnesses . The coroner 's inquest chaired by David Rees lasted for 5 days from 5 January 1914 . A total of 9 @,@ 000 questions were put to 50 witnesses , and the jury returned verdicts of accidental death .
The inquiry report failed to identify a definite cause , although it was considered that the most likely cause was a spark from the signalling gear . It would have ignited the firedamp , exacerbated and fuelled by coal dust in the air . The report was critical of many aspects of the management 's practices , and considered it had breached the mining regulations in respect of measuring and maintaining the air quality in the workings , and in the removal of coal dust from the tracks and walkways . The report pointed out that because the management had not implemented the changes needed to the ventilation fans as demanded by the Coal Mines Act 1911 , the fans were unable to reverse the direction of the airflow , which would have blown the smoke out through the Lancaster shaft , although Redmayne and his colleagues held differing opinions on the advisability of reversing or stopping the airflow . The historian John H Brown , in his examination of the disaster , states that had the airflow been reversed , firedamp or afterdamp could have been extracted from some sectors into the blaze , causing another explosion .
Further criticism was directed toward the emergency procedures . The lack of respirators at the mine was deemed to have cost lives . The lack of an adequate water supply for fire fighting was criticised , and Redmayne wrote : " I should have thought , in view of the fact that the colliery was such a gassy one , and it had already been devastated by an explosion , that the management would have made arrangements for a supply of water adequate to meet an emergency of the kind that actually occurred . "
Shaw 's actions were described by Lieven as those that " gained him a degree of respect from the local mining community which remained over the years ; they probably also cost the lives of scores of miners . " The Duckhams describe Shaw 's inaction in fixing the ventilation fan before the explosion , as well as his delay in sending for assistance from rescue teams until he exited the mine an hour and a half after the explosion . The official report considered there had been a " disquieting laxity in the management of the mine " , although Shaw was described by the Duckhams as " undoubtedly a highly capable manager " . The report led to Shaw being charged with 17 breaches of the Mines Act 1911 , and four charges were made against the company . Shaw was found guilty of failing to keep adequate environmental records and failing to replace a broken lamp locker ; he was fined £ 24 . The company was convicted of failing to provide a ventilation system that could reverse the airflow and was fined £ 10 with £ 5 5 shillings costs . One newspaper , Pioneer , calculated " Miners ' Lives at 1 / 11 ⁄ 4 each " ( 1 shilling 11 ⁄ 4d or 51 ⁄ 2p each ) .
After it reopened the colliery never reached the same levels of employment as before the explosion . William Lewis died in August 1914 ; Shaw continued as manager of the mine until November 1928 , when it closed .
A stage play based on the disaster , by the journalist and broadcaster Margaret Coles , was first performed at the Sherman Cymru , Cardiff in 1991 . The disaster at Senghenydd has provided the backdrop to two printed works of historical fiction : Alexander Cordell 's This Sweet and Bitter Earth ( 1977 ) and Cwmwl dros y Cwm ( 2013 ) by Gareth F Williams .
In 1981 a memorial to those lost in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board . Based outside Nant @-@ y @-@ parc Primary School , which is built on the site of the former colliery , the monument is a 20 feet ( 6 m ) high replica of the colliery 's winding gear . A second monument was unveiled in 2006 to the dead from both the 1901 and 1913 explosions .
On 14 October 2013 , the centenary of the disaster , a Welsh national memorial to all mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead . Funded by the Aber Valley Heritage Group and their patron Roy Noble , with matched funding from the Welsh Government , a bronze statue by Les Johnson depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion , was unveiled by Carwyn Jones , the First Minister of Wales . Jones said : " Mining is central to the story of Wales . It has shaped our history and communities and its social and physical legacy is still with us to this day . ... It is only right that we have a permanent memorial . "
= Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel =
Hans @-@ Ulrich Rudel ( 2 July 1916 – 18 December 1982 ) was a Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a ground @-@ attack pilot credited with the destruction of 519 tanks , as well as a number of ships . He also claimed 9 aerial victories , and the destruction of more than 800 vehicles of all types , over 150 artillery , anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft positions , 4 armored trains , and numerous bridges and supply lines . He flew 2 @,@ 530 ground @-@ attack missions exclusively on the Eastern Front , usually flying the Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bomber , and 430 missions flying the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 .
Born in the Province of Silesia , Rudel volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe in 1936 . Following flight training , he served in an aerial reconnaissance unit at the outbreak of World War II in Europe . He transferred to the dive bomber force , and was posted to France . Rudel flew his first combat missions as a dive bomber pilot at the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 . On 23 September 1941 , he was credited with severely damaging the Soviet battleship Marat , which effectively put her out of action for several months . He was posted to the Luftwaffe main testing ground at Rechlin , and experimented with the Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 equipped Ju 87 G in the anti @-@ tank role . Back on the Eastern Front , Rudel flew a Ju 87 G in combat over the Kuban bridgehead , destroying numerous landing craft . He destroyed his 100th tank on 30 October 1943 and on 22 February 1944 was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( SG 2 — 2nd Ground Support Wing ) .
By 29 March 1944 , Rudel was credited with over 200 tanks destroyed , and more than 1 @,@ 800 combat missions logged . He was placed in command of SG 2 " Immelmann " in October 1944 . Rudel flew his 2,400th combat mission on 22 December 1944 , and on the following day destroyed his 463rd tank . For these achievements , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds , presented to him by Adolf Hitler on 1 January 1945 . Rudel was severely injured in combat on 8 February 1945 , requiring the amputation of his right lower leg , and time in the hospital . On 25 March 1945 , Rudel began flying again , before surrendering to US forces at the Kitzingen Airfield on 8 May 1945 .
After his release from captivity in April 1946 , Rudel owned and operated a haulage company in Coesfeld . In 1948 , he emigrated to Argentina and founded the " Kameradenwerk " , a relief organization for Nazi war criminals that helped fugitive Nazis escape to Latin America or the Middle East . Together with Willem Sassen , he helped conceal and protect Josef Mengele , a former SS doctor in the Auschwitz concentration camp , responsible for the selection of victims to be killed in the gas chambers . He also worked in the arms industry and as a military advisor . Through Juan Perón , the President of Argentina , he secured financially lucrative government military contracts . He was also active as a military adviser and arms dealer for the regime in Bolivia , for Augusto Pinochet in Chile , and for Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay . Due to these activities , he was placed under observation by the US Central Intelligence Agency .
In the West German federal election of 1953 , Rudel , who had returned to West Germany , was the top candidate for the far @-@ right Deutsche Reichspartei ( German Reich Party ) , but was not elected to the Bundestag . Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955 , the uprising that ended the second presidential term of Perón , Rudel was forced to move to Paraguay , where he frequently acted as a foreign representative for several German companies doing business in South America . In 1977 , he became a spokesman for the Deutsche Volksunion ( German People 's Union ) , a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey . Rudel died in Rosenheim in 1982 , and was buried in Dornhausen .
= = Early life and career = =
Rudel was born on 2 July 1916 in Konradswaldau , Silesia , a province in the Kingdom of Prussia ( present @-@ day Grzędy ) in the administrative district of Gmina Czarny Bór , within Wałbrzych County , Lower Silesian Voivodeship , in Poland . He was the third child of Lutheran minister Johannes Rudel and his wife Martha , née Mückner . He had two older sisters , Ingeborg and Johanna . The children were raised in a number of different parishes , which included Schweidnitz ( present @-@ day Świdnica ) , Sagan ( present @-@ day Żagań ) , Niesky , Görlitz and Lauban ( present @-@ day Lubań ) . As a boy , Rudel was a poor scholar , but a very keen sportsman . From 1922 to 1936 , he attended the Volksschule , a primary school , and the humanities oriented Gymnasium , a secondary school , in Lauban , and graduated with his Abitur ( university @-@ preparatory high school diploma ) . In late 1936 , he attended the compulsory Reichsarbeitsdienst ( Reich Labor Service ) at Muskau , working on the banks of the Lusatian Neisse .
On 4 December 1936 , Rudel joined the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker ( officer cadet ) . Following basic training , his flight training began in June 1937 at the Luftkriegsschule 3 ( 3rd Air Warfare School ) at Wildpark @-@ Werder near Berlin . In June 1938 , now an Oberfähnrich ( officer candidate ) , he joined I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Sturzkampfgeschwader 168 ( StG 168 — 168th Dive Bomber Wing ) at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , present @-@ day Graz Airport . There , he was assigned to the 1 . Staffel ( 1st squadron ) for dive bombing training . Rudel , as a teetotaler and non @-@ smoker , was not well accepted among his peers . He also had difficulties learning the new techniques , and was considered unsuitable for combat flying , so on 1 December 1938 , he was transferred to the Aufklärungsschule ( Reconnaissance Flying School ) at Hildesheim for air observer training in operational aerial reconnaissance . He was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 January 1939 . In June 1939 , he was posted to the 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Fernaufklärungsgruppe 121 ( 121st Long @-@ Range Reconnaissance Group ) at Prenzlau .
= = World War II = =
On Friday 1 September 1939 , German forces invaded Poland starting World War II in Europe . Shortly before the invasion , Aufklärungsgruppe 121 was moved to Schneidemühl , present @-@ day Piła , at the time close to the Polish Corridor . As an air observer , Rudel flew on long @-@ range reconnaissance missions over Poland . He flew several missions over the Brest @-@ Litovsk – Kovel – Lutsk railway line , and earned the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) on 10 November 1939 . Following the invasion , Rudel submitted several requests for transfer back to the dive bomber force . On 2 March 1940 , he was posted to Fliegerausbildungs @-@ Regiment 43 ( 43rd Aviators Training Regiment ) , based at Vienna @-@ Stammersdorf and later at Crailsheim . There he served as a regimental adjutant . During his time with Fliegerausbildungs @-@ Regiment 43 , Rudel participated in various sporting events , including a cross Vienna relay race , and on 6 October 1940 , he took third place in the Silesian decathlon championship . In late June 1940 , he was transferred to I. Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 3 ( StG 3 — 3rd Dive Bomber Wing ) , formerly his old unit I. Gruppe of StG 168 , which had been renamed , and was based at Caen , France .
Rudel did not fly operationally during the Battle of Britain , since he was still regarded a poor pilot . Serving in a non @-@ combatant role , he was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 September 1940 . In early 1941 , he was transferred to the Stuka @-@ Ergänzungsstaffel ( Supplementary Dive Bomber Squadron ) at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , a specialized training unit for new dive bomber pilots . There , according to his own account , he finally learned to master the Junkers Ju 87 two @-@ man dive bomber . In mid @-@ April 1941 , he was assigned to I. Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( StG 2 — 2nd Dive Bomber Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Max Immelmann , and based at Molaoi , Greece . His poor reputation as a pilot preceded him , and he spent the Battle of Crete in a non @-@ combat role . At the time , the Geschwader was commanded by Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) Major Oskar Dinort , and Rudel 's I. Gruppe was headed by Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) Hauptmann ( captain ) Hubertus Hitschhold .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In June 1941 , StG 2 " Immelmann " was moved to Raczki in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . Initially for this campaign , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) , I
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taking three frames in a row , before a mistake let Dott back in for an eventual clearance on the black . After Dott 's win , O 'Sullivan gave his cue and case to a boy in the crowd . BBC claims he had used as many as 21 different tips during the fortnight ; O 'Sullivan later stated that he had used seven tips before arriving in Sheffield , and a further eight during the week , and that he would return next season with a new cue . O 'Sullivan 's decision not to enter the Malta Cup cost him the number @-@ one rank for the following season .
= = = 2006 / 2007 = = =
On his way to the final of the Northern Ireland Trophy , which he lost 6 – 9 to Ding Junhui , he defeated semi – final opponent Dominic Dale 6 – 0 , in only 53 minutes – a record for a best of 11 frame match . O 'Sullivan then reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Grand Prix , but lost 1 – 5 against eventual champion Neil Robertson . In December 2006 , in his quarter @-@ final match of the UK Championship against Hendry , O 'Sullivan conceded in dramatic fashion part @-@ way into the sixth frame of the best of 17 match . He had gone 0 – 4 down after a strong start from Hendry , before finally taking a frame back . At the beginning of the sixth frame , O 'Sullivan opened with a break of 24 , before leaving himself a difficult shot from black to red . After missing the red , he calmly shook the hand of both Hendry ( saying to him that he " had enough of it , mate " ) and the match referee , Jan Verhaas , and walked out of the arena , stunning everyone present . The incident caused minor disruption to the other quarter @-@ final match , between Graeme Dott and Steve Davis , being played simultaneously in the same arena . Dott later said that he initially thought that O 'Sullivan and Hendry were having a fight when he heard an audience member shout " Get a grip , Ronnie . " It was later officially confirmed that O 'Sullivan had forfeited the match , which was awarded 9 – 1 to Hendry . O ’ Sullivan issued a statement later that day , apologising and saying that he would be " back on his feet fighting stronger and harder than ever very soon . " On 31 May 2007 , World Snooker fined him a total of £ 20 @,@ 800 over this incident , and docked him 900 ranking points .
O 'Sullivan returned to action at the Masters , to a mixed response from the audience ( being both booed and clapped ) . He won his first round match 6 – 1 on 16 January 2007 , against Ali Carter , making two century breaks in the process . However , he then created more controversy by failing to attend a post @-@ match press conference . He did record a short interview with Steve Davis for the BBC , stating that he was much happier than at the UK Championship , and that he was playing well once again . Sir Rodney Walker later issued a statement declaring that O 'Sullivan had been excused from dealing with the media because of the exceptional circumstances affecting him . This decision was criticised by Shaun Murphy , and Ken Doherty . O 'Sullivan went on to win the tournament against Ding Junhui , on 21 January 2007 . In the match , he was noted for his good sportsmanship by Steve Davis , specifically for comforting Ding after the twelfth frame , during which Ding had become visibly upset by an overly partisan member of the crowd , who was later ejected . O 'Sullivan was leading 9 – 3 at the time , and won the next frame for a 10 – 3 victory .
O 'Sullivan went out of the Malta Cup with a 3 – 5 loss to Michael Holt in the first round . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , but lost 4 – 5 against Neil Robertson . In his quarter @-@ final match against Joe Swail at the Irish Masters , O 'Sullivan compiled a maximum break on his way to a narrow 5 – 4 victory , the second 147 in any professional competition in Ireland . The initial maximum break prize of a Citroën Coupe , worth € 20 @,@ 000 , was later withdrawn by the organisers . He then defeated John Higgins 6 – 5 in the semi @-@ finals and won the title by defeating Barry Hawkins 9 – 1 in the final . O 'Sullivan then reached the semi @-@ finals of the China Open , but lost 2 – 6 against eventual champion Graeme Dott . Just before the World Championship , in which he was to play a first @-@ round match with Ding Junhui again , O 'Sullivan claimed that the draw was fixed . This was subsequently denied by World Snooker , and O 'Sullivan later retracted his accusation . In the end O 'Sullivan won the tie easily by 10 frames to 2 . He also won his second @-@ round match against Robertson 13 – 10 ( despite losing six frames in a row at one point ) , before losing his quarter @-@ final match 9 – 13 against eventual champion John Higgins .
= = = 2007 / 2008 = = =
O 'Sullivan withdrew from the first ranking event of the season , the Shanghai Masters , citing back problems for which doctors had advised him not to travel . He also chose not to enter the invitational Pot Black tournament . He made the final of the Grand Prix , but lost 6 – 9 against Marco Fu . During the Northern Ireland Trophy , he set a new record , by compiling five centuries in a 5 – 2 win over Ali Carter . This also included his seventh official competitive 147 maximum break . O 'Sullivan went out of the tournament in the next round , having lost against Fergal O 'Brien . On 2 December 2007 , he won a fourth consecutive , and record seventh total , Premier League Snooker title , by beating John Higgins in the final by a score of 7 – 4 . On 15 December 2007 , O 'Sullivan compiled his eighth maximum break in competition , in the deciding frame of his UK Championship semi – final against Mark Selby at Telford , equalling Hendry 's record . In doing so , he also became only the third person in professional competition to compile a maximum to win a match . Hendry had made the first against O 'Sullivan in the 1997 Charity Challenge final , and Mark Williams had made the second , at the Crucible in the first round of the 2005 World Championship . O 'Sullivan is also the second player after John Higgins to make 147 breaks in two consecutive ranking tournaments ( 2007 Northern Ireland Trophy and 2007 Maplin UK Championship ) . He then went on to win the tournament , beating Stephen Maguire 10 – 2 in the final ( from 8 – 0 up ) , thereby receiving a £ 100 @,@ 000 cheque for winning his first ranking tournament in almost three years .
At the Masters on 12 January , Stephen Maguire edged out O 'Sullivan in a final frame , to win their first @-@ round match at Wembley . In the battle of the top two players in the provisional world rankings , O 'Sullivan fought back from 1 – 4 down to level at 5 – 5 and take the match into a deciding eleventh frame . O 'Sullivan missed the final blue with the rest , when poised to win the match , allowing Maguire to reach the quarter @-@ finals . After withdrawing from the invitational Malta Cup , O 'Sullivan returned at the Welsh Open in February . Playing a good tournament , he reached the final . Although he led 8 – 5 , Selby won the last four frames to beat him 9 – 8 . O 'Sullivan was present at the China Open , in Beijing , where he lost 4 – 5 to Marco Fu in the first round . However , at the press conference , which followed the match , O 'Sullivan was heard making some lewd remarks inviting a member of the press to perform fellatio on him , then laughing with the World Snooker media spokesman . O 'Sullivan also joked about the size and girth of his penis , before simulating a sexual act on his microphone . In June 2008 , the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association punished him for his behaviour by docking the appearance @-@ money and world @-@ ranking points that he had earned from the event .
At the 2008 World Championships , O 'Sullivan compiled a record @-@ breaking ninth competitive maximum break against Mark Williams . It was his third of the season , and also his third maximum at the Crucible . It was the fourth maximum to be compiled in a winning frame of a match ( following those of Hendry , Williams , and O 'Sullivan himself ) . Interviewed by Steve Davis just after beating Williams 13 – 7 , he said " I can finally buy a Bentley Continental GT " . Soon after potting the final black , snooker legend and commentator Dennis Taylor labelled O 'Sullivan as a " total genius . " However , O 'Sullivan 's 147 was equalled by Ali Carter in the same tournament , thus halving the prize @-@ money . O 'Sullivan defeated Liu Chuang , Mark Williams , Liang Wenbo and Stephen Hendry en route to the final of the tournament . After the match Hendry described O 'Sullivan as " the best in the world by a country mile . " He then beat Carter 18 – 8 for the title on 5 May . In an interview after his third world @-@ title win , he hinted again that he may not play in the 2008 / 2009 season , but also stated that he might go on to pursue many more world titles . At the end of the season , O 'Sullivan left management company 110sport to join the Romford @-@ based Grove Leisure .
= = = 2008 / 2009 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2008 / 2009 season by winning the Northern Ireland Trophy , defeating Dave Harold 9 – 3 in the final . O 'Sullivan is the only player to win back @-@ to @-@ back ranking events in the last four years . He then reached the final of the Shanghai Masters , having defeated Stephen Maguire in the semi – finals with two the top breaks of 141 and 145 . However , in the final , he was defeated by qualifier Ricky Walden , 10 – 8 . O 'Sullivan was leading , but Walden pulled back four frames in a row to win the match . In the Premier League , he secured a 7 – 2 win over Mark Selby , which meant that he had won the event eight times in total , and five times consecutively . However , O 'Sullivan failed to defend his UK Championship title , losing to Joe Perry 5 – 9 in the second round . O 'Sullivan had conceded the twelfth game of the match to go 5 – 7 down , although Perry held a lead of only 23 points to zero . Commenting afterwards , O 'Sullivan said " It might have looked like I lost my head or whatever , but I 'm sure I 'll bounce back . " For this he was later fined £ 300 , and was ordered to pay £ 1 @,@ 000 in costs .
In the Masters , O 'Sullivan reached the final by beating Joe Perry , Ali Carter and Stephen Maguire . In a tense final against defending champion Mark Selby , neither player was able to obtain a sizeable lead , with frames littered with both big breaks and close finishes . After leading 3 – 1 , O 'Sullivan ended the afternoon session at 4 – 4 , and took the first frame of the evening session . Selby , however , then won the next 3 frames to lead 7 – 5 . O 'Sullivan responded by taking three frames in succession himself , to lead 8 – 7 . The following two frames were shared , and at 9 – 8 , after both players had wasted chances , O 'Sullivan constructed a break of 55 , beating Mark Selby 10 – 8 and thereby claiming the title for the fourth time . In doing this , he became only the second player , after Stephen Hendry , to win the trophy more than three times . In his post @-@ match interview , O 'Sullivan proclaimed his victory , composed with a cue that he had obtained only the previous Saturday , as his greatest achievement in snooker . During an exhibition in Ireland in January 2009 , O 'Sullivan and Jimmy White made maximum breaks in consecutive frames . In the first round of 2009 World Championship O 'Sullivan compiled three centuries in his 10 – 5 win against Stuart Bingham . O 'Sullivan compiled a 140 break in the second , a 104 in the eighth , and a 103 in the 14th . He was defeated in the second round 11 – 13 , by Mark Allen , after having led 9 – 7 .
= = = 2009 / 2010 = = =
He began the season by winning the Shanghai Masters , defeating Liang Wenbo 10 – 5 in the final . On the way to reaching the final , he lost only 6 frames . He beat Graeme Dott 5 – 0 in the first round , Marco Fu 5 – 2 in the second round , Ding Junhui 5 – 3 in the quarter @-@ finals , and John Higgins 6 – 1 in the semi – finals . After his Shanghai Masters victory , he joined the newly founded Snooker Players Association . In the second ranking event , the Grand Prix , he beat Jamie Burnett 5 – 3 in the first round , but then lost narrowly against John Higgins in the second round , by 4 – 5 . On 29 November 2009 , O 'Sullivan did not retain his Premier League Snooker title , with Shaun Murphy defeating him 7 – 3 in the final . Following his 9 – 3 victory over Matthew Stevens in the first round of the UK Championship on 7 December 2009 , O 'Sullivan caused controversy in his post @-@ match press conference . He described the outgoing regime at the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association ( headed by Sir Rodney Walker ) as " a cancer running through the game " and also said , " Leukaemia has set in " . He went on to endorse the new era of snooker , headed by Barry Hearn . He then won his next two matches , 9 – 3 against Peter Ebdon in the last 16 , and Mark Selby in the quarter @-@ finals , before losing the semi – final 8 – 9 to John Higgins , despite having come back from 2 – 8 to 8 – 8 .
O 'Sullivan began the defence of his Masters title by defeating Australian Neil Robertson 6 – 4 in the first round , after having trailed 0 – 3 . After this , he defeated Peter Ebdon 6 – 3 in the quarter @-@ final . In the semi @-@ final , he beat Mark Williams 6 – 5 , to reach his 6th Masters final in 7 years . O 'Sullivan met Mark Selby in the final for the second consecutive year , and lost 9 – 10 despite having led 9 – 6 . In the Welsh Open , he reached the semi – finals by beating Stuart Bingham 5 – 1 in the first round , Jamie Cope 5 – 0 in the second round , and Mark Allen 5 – 2 in the quarter @-@ finals , but lost 4 – 6 against John Higgins in the semi – finals . O 'Sullivan lost 3 – 5 in the first round of the China Open , against 22 @-@ year @-@ old wild card Tian Pengfei . In the eighth frame , O 'Sullivan made a mistake on the final black , and the ball finished over the pocket . He immediately conceded frame and match . With this , he also lost his chance to defend his official World No. 1 spot . At the World Championship , he defeated Liang Wenbo 10 – 7 in the first round and Mark Williams 13 – 10 in the second round , before losing 11 – 13 to Mark Selby in the quarter @-@ finals .
= = = 2010 / 2011 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2010 / 2011 season at Event 1 of the Players Tour Championship , where he lost in the quarter @-@ finals against Jamie Cope , 0 – 4 . O 'Sullivan next competed at Event 4 , where reached the final , but he lost 3 – 4 against Barry Pinches . At the World Open O 'Sullivan made his record 10th maximum break in the last frame of his match against Mark King , which he won 3 – 0 . However , he had to be persuaded by referee Jan Verhaas to play the final black , as he had become aware that there was no distinct prize money for a maximum break in the tournament , but only a prize of £ 4 @,@ 000 for the highest break . Even then , he played the final black in a nonchalant fashion . O 'Sullivan then defeated Jimmy White ( 3 – 1 ) , Stephen Hendry ( 3 – 1 ) , Stephen Maguire ( 3 – 1 ) and Peter Ebdon ( 3 – 1 ) to reach the final , where he lost 1 – 5 against Neil Robertson . O 'Sullivan participated at the Premier League Snooker , and qualified for the finals unbeaten . He then defeated Neil Robertson 5 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals , and Shaun Murphy 7 – 1 in the final , to claim his ninth Premier League Snooker title in 14 years . In the UK Championship in December , O 'Sullivan suffered an early exit , losing 6 – 9 against Stuart Bingham in the first round .
At the Masters in January , O 'Sullivan went out 4 – 6 in the first round against Mark Allen . O 'Sullivan reached the semi @-@ finals in the Snooker Shoot @-@ Out in January 2011 , before losing against Robert Milkins . He made the two highest breaks of the tournament , 112 and 123 . He then lost in the first round of the next two ranking tournaments , both times against Ryan Day . He lost 2 – 4 at the Welsh Open , and 2 – 5 at the China Open . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the World Championship by defeating Dominic Dale 10 – 2 in the first round and Shaun Murphy 13 – 10 in the second round , but lost 10 – 13 against John Higgins .
= = = 2011 / 2012 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2011 / 2012 season at Event 1 of the Players Tour Championship , where he won 4 – 0 in the final against Joe Perry . At the Paul Hunter Classic , he made the 11th official maximum break of his career , and set a new record of career maximum breaks . He reached the semi @-@ finals , but lost 3 – 4 against Mark Selby . His next tournament was the Shanghai Masters , where he reached the second round , but lost 3 – 5 against Anthony Hamilton . In October 2011 he won the Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy , by defeating Matthew Stevens 4 – 2 in the final . In November 2011 he reached the final of the Antwerp Open , but lost 3 – 4 against Judd Trump . After 12 of 12 events , O 'Sullivan was ranked number two on the Order of Merit , and qualified for the Finals , but withdrew due to medical reasons .
O 'Sullivan won the 10th Premier League title of his career . After topping the table in the league stage , he defeated Mark Williams to reach the final , where he defeated Ding Junhui 7 – 1 . His next tournament was the UK Championship , where he lost in the second round 5 – 6 against eventual champion Judd Trump . At the Masters , he again lost against Trump , this time 2 – 6 in the quarter @-@ finals . At the German Masters , he reached his first ranking final since the 2010 World Open , and won 9 – 7 against Stephen Maguire , despite having trailed 0 – 4 against Andrew Higginson in the first round . He then reached the semi @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , and the quarter @-@ finals of the China Open , but lost 2 – 6 against Mark Selby and 4 – 5 against Maguire .
At the World Championship O 'Sullivan saw off former world champions in each of his first three matches . He beat Peter Ebdon 10 – 4 in the first round , Mark Williams 13 – 6 in the second , and Neil Robertson 13 – 10 in the quarter @-@ finals . He beat two @-@ time runner @-@ up Matthew Stevens 17 – 10 in the semi @-@ finals , and defeated Ali Carter 18 – 11 in the final , to win his fourth world title . Aged 36 , and just 40 days older than Dennis Taylor was when he won the title in 1985 , O 'Sullivan became the oldest world champion since 45 @-@ year @-@ old Ray Reardon in 1978 . In the eighth frame of the final , O 'Sullivan made a break of 141 , the highest break ever recorded in a Crucible final . He was ranked world number nine at the end of the season . On 10 May 2012 , O 'Sullivan was named as the World Snooker Player of the Year and the Snooker Writers Player of the Year . He was also inducted into the Hall of Fame , along with Walter Donaldson , Mark Williams and John Higgins .
= = = 2012 / 2013 = = =
On 6 June the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association released a statement announcing that O 'Sullivan had not signed the official players ' contract and would therefore not be eligible to play in any 2012 / 2013 World Snooker event until he did so . On the same day O 'Sullivan said that he found the contract " too onerous " and that he was in a stage of his career where he did not wish to make the commitment . On 7 August it was announced that he had now signed the contract and would be playing in October 's International Championship and December 's UK Championship . O 'Sullivan returned to action at the third UK event of the Players Tour Championship in September , where he lost 3 – 4 to Simon Bedford after leading 3 – 2 . After the Shanghai Masters he dropped out of the top sixteen for the first time since entering it in the 1994 / 1995 season , as he was ranked world number 17 . O 'Sullivan 's return to snooker was short @-@ lived , as he withdrew from the inaugural International Championship due to advice from his doctor not to travel . On 6 November O 'Sullivan announced that he had withdrawn from every event he had entered and that he would not play for the remainder of the season . However , on 26 February O 'Sullivan announced during a press conference that he would return to the game and defend his World Championship title .
At the Crucible O 'Sullivan defeated Marcus Campbell in the last 32 , Ali Carter in the last 16 , Stuart Bingham in the quarter @-@ finals , and Judd Trump in the semi @-@ finals . He reached the final without falling behind even once , and defeated Barry Hawkins 18 – 12 to win his fifth world title . O 'Sullivan 's break of 103 in the 15th frame was his 128th century break at the Crucible Theatre , breaking Stephen Hendry 's record of 127 Crucible centuries . During the final he extended the record to 131 century breaks . O 'Sullivan became the only player to score six century breaks in a World Championship final . He also became only the third player to retain his title at the Crucible after Steve Davis and Stephen Hendry .
On 1 May 2013 , O 'Sullivan announced that his return to the Crucible would be short @-@ lived , and that he would not compete in future World Championships . However , after his title win , O 'Sullivan refused definitively to rule out a title defence in 2014 , saying in a post @-@ match interview that " I just love playing , so I will definitely be playing in some smaller events , and we will just see what goes on . "
= = = 2013 / 2014 = = =
O 'Sullivan started the 2013 / 2014 season ranked number 19 . For personal reasons , he pulled out of the first ranking tournament of the season , the Wuxi Classic , shortly before he was due to face Michael Wasley in the qualifying round . In June 2013 he competed in the Bulgarian Open , his first tournament appearance outside England in 15 months , but lost 2 – 4 against John Higgins in the semi @-@ finals . In August 2013 he announced that his tournament schedule for the remainder of the season would include the UK Championship , the German Masters , the Masters , and the Welsh Open , as well as returning to the Crucible in 2014 to defend his World Championship title . In the same month he suffered a surprise 1 – 4 defeat against Peter Lines in the last 32 of the Bluebell Wood Open , but went on to win the Paul Hunter Classic by defeating Gerard Greene 4 – 0 in the final . O 'Sullivan then qualified for the International Championship by defeating Joel Walker 6 – 1 in the qualifying round , and defeated Anthony McGill 6 – 2 at the venue , before losing 4 – 6 against Liang Wenbo in the last 32 . After that O 'Sullivan reached the final of the Antwerp Open , but lost 3 – 4 against Mark Selby , despite leading 3 – 1 . In the Champion of Champions he defeated Ding Junhui and Neil Robertson in final frame deciders and went on to win the title by defeating Stuart Bingham 10 – 8 in the final . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship , but lost 4 – 6 against Bingham , despite making breaks of 135 and 127 in the match .
At the Masters , O 'Sullivan defeated Robert Milkins 6 – 1 in the first round , before he whitewashed Ricky Walden 6 – 0 in the quarter @-@ finals , a match that lasted just 57 minutes and 48 seconds . During the match he scored 556 points without reply , a new record in a professional event , beating the previous record of 495 points set by Ding Junhui at the 2007 Premier League Snooker . He defeated Stephen Maguire 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals to reach a record tenth Masters final , surpassing the nine appearances by Stephen Hendry . Facing defending champion Mark Selby in the final , he took a 7 – 1 lead in the first session , before going on to a 10 – 4 victory for his fifth Masters title . On 22 January 2014 , the Disciplinary Committee of the WPBSA issued a statement that O 'Sullivan had been found in breach of the association 's Members Rules . It fined him £ 6 @,@ 000 and ordered him to pay £ 1 @,@ 000 in costs over three posts on his personal Twitter account , made in September and October 2013 , that it deemed damaging to the image of the sport . The first post related to match @-@ fixing allegations , the second to a suggestion that he had used performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and the third to a tweet that was described as " offensive " . The committee fined him an additional £ 1 @,@ 000 for making " abusive , insulting and disrespectful " comments to referee Jan Verhaas during the December 2013 qualifying round for the German Masters . The incident arose after Verhaas asked O 'Sullivan to tuck his shirt in during the match . O 'Sullivan apologised for his conduct with the referee , stating that he felt unwell on the day and that the venue was overly warm .
At the Welsh Open , O 'Sullivan defeated Ricky Walden 4 – 1 in the last 16 , John Higgins 5 – 1 in the quarter @-@ finals , and Barry Hawkins 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ finals . He defeated Ding Junhui 9 – 3 in the final to win his third Welsh Open title , and the 26th ranking title of his career . In the last frame of the final , he compiled a record 12th maximum break in professional competition , breaking the previous record of 11 maximum breaks that he had held jointly with Stephen Hendry . During the season O 'Sullivan competed at the Players Tour Championship , and finished second on the European Tour Order of Merit , to qualify for the Players Championship Grand Final . There he defeated Scott Donaldson 4 – 0 in the last 32 , but lost 3 – 4 against Yu Delu in the last 16 , despite making a 140 , the highest break of the tournament .
At the World Championship , O 'Sullivan began his title defence by beating Robin Hull 10 – 4 in the first round . Playing Joe Perry in the second round , O 'Sullivan was behind for the first two sessions , but recovered to win the match 13 – 11 . Up against Shaun Murphy in the 16th World Championship quarter @-@ final of his career , O 'Sullivan took 13 of the last 14 frames to win the match 13 – 3 , with a session to spare . He defeated Barry Hawkins 17 – 7 in the semi @-@ finals , also with a session to spare , to reach his sixth World Championship final . Facing Mark Selby in the final , O 'Sullivan began strongly , taking a 10 – 5 lead , but lost 10 of the next 12 frames to trail 12 – 15 . He went on to lose 14 – 18 , his first ever defeat in a World Championship final . At around 1 : 30 a.m. , on their way home from the final , O 'Sullivan and his six @-@ year @-@ old son were involved in a car crash on the M1 motorway near Leicester , after the sports car O 'Sullivan was driving hit a patch of standing water and collided with the central reservation . Neither O 'Sullivan nor his son were injured . After the World Championship , a new ranking system took effect , based on a two @-@ year rolling prize money list rather than ranking points . This meant that O 'Sullivan ended the season ranked number 4 .
= = = 2014 / 2015 = = =
O 'Sullivan started the 2014 / 2015 season at the Paul Hunter Classic , but lost 2 – 4 against Tian Pengfei in the last 16 . His first ranking event was the Shanghai Masters , where he lost 3 – 5 against Alan McManus . Ronnie O 'Sullivan then competed in the International Championship , cited as the biggest event in Asia , in Chengdu after beating James Cahill to qualify . Having battled to beat Ben Woollaston 6 – 4 , in his opening match of the tournament , Ronnie sailed past his next two opponents , McGill and Li Hang , 6 – 1 . This set up a meeting with Mark Williams , a man who had not beat O 'Sullivan for 12 years , in the quarters ; however , after falling 3 – 0 behind , Williams won the next 5 frames and eventually the match , 6 – 5 . O 'Sullivan next competed in the Champion of Champions where he was defending champion . O 'Sullivan begun his defence with a 4 – 2 defeat of Stuart Bingham . He then went on to whitewash Marco Fu 6 – 0 to reach the semi @-@ final . In the semi @-@ final , O 'Sullivan defeated Ding Junhui 6 – 4 and then went on to defeat Judd Trump in a high @-@ scoring final , 10 – 7 , making four century breaks and eleven breaks over fifty during the match . On 4 December 2014 , O 'Sullivan completed his 13th career maximum break in the fourth round of the UK Championship , against Matthew Selt . Three days later he won his fifth UK Championship , coming through 10 – 9 against Judd Trump in the final . After trailing 1 – 5 and 4 – 9 , Trump won five frames in succession , before O 'Sullivan prevailed in the deciding frame despite playing with a broken ankle , having broken it the previous week whilst running .
In the opening frame of his quarter @-@ final match with Marco Fu at the Masters , O 'Sullivan compiled the 776th century break of his career to overtake Stephen Hendry as the player with the most tons in the history of the sport . He received a standing ovation from the audience and went on to beat Fu 6 – 1 . However , in the semi @-@ finals he was defeated 6 – 1 by Neil Robertson , which meant O 'Sullivan lost at that stage for the first time in his Masters ' career after 10 prior victories and also ended a winning streak in all competitions which stood at 15 matches .
In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan defeated Craig Steadman 10 – 3 in the first round and Matthew Stevens 13 – 5 in the second round , but suffered a surprise 9 – 13 defeat to Stuart Bingham in the quarter @-@ finals . O 'Sullivan was involved in a number of incidents during the tournament . While playing Steadman , he breached snooker 's dress code when he removed a pair of uncomfortable shoes and played briefly in his socks , before borrowing shoes from tournament director Mike Ganley . In his match with Stevens , frustrated at missing a shot , he almost snapped his cue in half by hitting it against the table . In his quarter @-@ final match , O 'Sullivan placed his chalk on the table and used it to line up a shot . Controversially , referee Terry Camilleri did not penalise him for the incident , even though many commentators , including former world champion Ken Doherty and former tour referee Michaela Tabb , argued that under the rules of snooker the referee should have called a 7 @-@ point foul . These incidents led Stephen Hendry to say that O 'Sullivan was not fully focused . " Personally I think it is a sign he has got other things on his mind , " said Hendry . " He is not focused properly on winning the World Championship . "
= = = 2015 / 2016 = = =
O 'Sullivan won the pro – am Pink Ribbon tournament in July 2015 , defeating Darryn Walker 4 – 2 in the final , but took a hiatus from the professional tour for almost eight months . He declined to defend his Champion of Champions and UK Championship titles , stating that he was suffering from debilitating insomnia , but he made his debut providing in @-@ studio expert analysis during the UK Championship , alongside Jimmy White . He returned to professional competition in the qualifying rounds for the German Masters in December 2015 , defeating Hamza Akbar 5 – 1 in the first round , but losing 3 – 5 to Stuart Carrington in the second round .
In the 2016 New Year Honours , he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for his services to snooker .
In group one of the Championship League , he made the 800th competitive century break of his career in his match against Barry Hawkins , and went on to defeat Ricky Walden 3 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals and Robert Milkins 3 – 0 in the final , earning a ticket to the winners ' group . At the Masters , he defeated Mark Williams 6 – 5 in the first round , Mark Selby 6 – 3 in the quarter @-@ finals , and Stuart Bingham 6 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals to reach the eleventh Masters final of his career . He defeated Barry Hawkins 10 – 1 in the final to win his sixth Masters title and equal
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semi @-@ arc in front of the gramophone while Paoli stood alone 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) away from the gramophone .
Paoli continued to perform around the world with performances in Greece , Palestine , Poland , Egypt , Spain and Italy , where he established his permanent residence . In 1910 , the singer was signed as the First Tenor by La Scala , Milan , the most prestigious opera company in the world at the time . Paoli received a contract to inaugurate Teatro Colón , in Buenos Aires , Argentina , where he sang Otello and Di quella pira . He also performed in Russia , Poland , Egypt , Hungary , Belgium , Cuba , Chile , Haiti , Colombia , Venezuela , Brazil , Canada , and the United States .
= = Boxing career = =
By 1914 , just before the start of World War I , Paoli lost his voice and all of the major opera houses in Europe were shut down . Paoli moved to Spain , a neutral country in the conflict , leaving all his properties unattended in Italy . By 1915 , Paoli found himself without economic means as a result of his bad investments .
In order to make a living , Paoli became a professional boxer and after a period of training in Spain , he moved to England to start his new " career . " He was undefeated in his first five fights . He broke his right wrist on his sixth challenge , which ended his boxing career .
Paoli sold his properties in Italy and acquired a small country house in Spain . He stayed for a few months with his brother Carlos in the Philippines . Paoli was medically treating his vocal cords , and it was commented that his career was over , but he continued his singing exercises with his sister Amalia , who moved into his house in Spain .
= = Comeback = =
In January 1917 , Paoli returned to the stage and performed the opera Samson and Delilah at the Constanzi Theater in Rome . Elvira de Hidalgo , who later became the singing coach of Maria Callas , remembered that :
" No one suspected that Paoli was coming back to the stage ; we all knew that he had lost his voice . People were there to see him fail ; I saw some guys with tomatoes and rotten eggs , ready to throw them as soon as Paoli made his first mistake . But when he came out singing his initial aria , the public went crazy and stood up in a standing ovation . Paoli 's voice sounded like one of those trumpets that you expect to hear in the day of the final judgment . His debut was tremendous . He had to repeat twice every single aria that he performed that night , because the public furiously demanded it . He performed for seven consecutive nights with the theater at its maximum capacity . I attended every single function . Every night he sang better than the night before . I always dreamed to sing with Paoli , but I don 't think my voice was good or strong enough to sing with him . I think he was the greatest tenor ever . "
Paoli kept busy performing in Italy , South America and the United States . He returned to Puerto Rico in 1923 . At the time , Amalia Paoli was residing in San Juan ( in the ward of Santurce ) where she was running a singing school ( Academia Paoli ) . Antonio conducted a few performances around the island and then departed to sing at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , the Manhattan Opera House and the Metropolitan Opera House in Philadelphia . He had wanted to sing in the Metropolitan Opera House in New York , but apparently his competitor Enrico Caruso opposed this . Some attribute this to the fact that Caruso was a shareholder of the renowned opera house . From the U.S. , the tenor would visit Curaçao , Cuba , Colombia , Haiti and Ecuador .
= = Last years = =
Even with this busy agenda , Paoli 's financial situation remained strained . After living in New York City for almost the entire year of 1927 , Paoli decided to come back to Puerto Rico to live and work with his sister Amalia , giving voice lessons at the Academia Paoli . Paoli also helped produce Othello at the Municipal Theater in San Juan . For the next two decades Paoli 's main concern would be teaching at the Paoli Academy with Amalia . In 1928 , the tenor performed Verdi 's Otello entirely for the last time in San Juan , Puerto Rico . This was his last performance on stage . It took place at the San Juan Municipal Theater , known today as the Tapia Theater . In 1935 , the government of Puerto Rico named the San Juan Municipal Theater in his honor , changing its name to Teatro Paoli . In 1929 , his wife Josephine died and a year later he married Adelaida Bonini , from Rimini , Italy , and whom he affectionately called " Adina " . He gave his last singing performance in 1942 , while commemorating the one @-@ year anniversary of the death of his sister , Amalia Paoli . The service was conducted at the Chapel of the University of the Sacred Heart ( Santurce ) .
Paoli died of prostate cancer in San Juan on August 24 , 1946 , and was buried in the Puerto Rico Memorial Cemetery in Carolina , Puerto Rico . On April 13 , 2005 , Paoli 's remains , and those of his ( second ) wife Adina Bonini ( who had died in May , 1978 ) were exhumed and transferred to Ponce 's Román Baldorioty de Castro National Pantheon and buried by the base of his statue .
= = Honors , accolades , and legacy = =
In Antonio Paoli , Puerto Rico had the first Puerto Rican to reach international recognition in the performing arts . He gave 1 @,@ 725 performances between 1888 and 1942 and interpreted Verdi 's Otello 575 times . To his credit , Paoli was also the first opera singer in the world to record an entire opera when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Italy in 1907 .
As early as 1904 , Paoli was awarded The Cross of St. Mauricio medal by the Czar of Russia Nicholas II , and María Cristina de Habsburgo , Queen of Spain , declared Paoli Cantante de Cámara de la Corte ( Chamber Singer of the Court ) and gave him La Gran Cruz de Isabel la Católica ( The Cross of Isabella the Catholic ) , while Carlos de Braganza , Prince of Portugal , named him Caballero Comendador del Cristo de Portugal y Cantante de Cámara . Just two years later , in 1906 , the same title of Cammer Sanger ( Chamber Singer of the Court ) was given to Paoli by Franz Joseph , Emperor of Austria , and in 1907 he was decorated by Carlos I of Braganza .
In 1909 , Paoli received La Cruz de Alfonso II from Alfonso XIII , King of Spain , and was declared ’ ’ Honor Singer of the Vatican ’ ’ by Pope Pius X. In 1910 , he was honored with the title of Hijo Predilecto de España ( Favorite Son of Spain ) , while in 1911 , Wilhelm II , Kaiser of Germany , declared Paoli ’ ’ Kammer Sanger of the Empire ’ ’ , and in 1912 , Paoli received a protocol @-@ breaking standing ovation from the Austro @-@ Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph when Paoli sang Lohengrin in Vienna . In 1920 , the tenor was knighted by Vittorio Emmanuelle III , King of Italy , making him Cavaliere De La Corona Italiana and Commendatore Dell Popolo Romano ( Knight of the Italian Crown and Commandant of the Roman People ) .
Though he did not see it happen during his lifetime , Puerto Rico also built the Music Conservatory , something for which Paoli had worked so hard to establish . This dream was finally realized shortly after his death . In San Juan 's " Centro de Bellas Artes " there is also a 1 @,@ 883 @-@ seat " Antonio Paoli Festival Hall . " San Juan 's Municipal Theater was also renamed Teatro Paoli in his honor in 1935 . In recognition of his fame and talent , the government of Puerto Rico also awarded Paoli a pension in 1934 .
In 1983 , the non @-@ profit " Paoli Award " was created . This award honors the effort , work , and success of outstanding professionals in the various arts and media , including music and recording , television , radio , written communication , fashion , and beauty . Originally designated to recognize the outstanding achievements of Puerto Ricans , the Paoli Award has branched out internationally , and since 1992 it also includes Hispanics and Latin Americans from around the world .
On October 9 , 2009 , the Government of the United States listed Casa Paoli in Antonio Paoli 's hometown of Ponce , Puerto Rico , in the U.S. National Register of Historic Places . The house , Antonio 's childhood house in Puerto Rico , is Paoli 's only remaining residencial structure in Puerto Rico .
Among other honors bestowed on Paoli after his death are a music school named in his honor ( " Escuela Libre de Música Antonio Paoli " ) , in the city of Caguas , Puerto Rico , and in his hometown of Ponce , there is a theater at the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico , Ponce named in his memory , Teatro Paoli .
Paoli has also been the subject of many books written about his life and influence . Included is the work by Emilio J. Pasarell titled " Orígenes y desarrollo de la afición teatral en Puerto Rico " ( Origins and development of the theatrical pursuit in Puerto Rico ) where he describes the life of Paoli in detail .
= = Discography = =
The following are part of Antonio Paoli 's discography :
Antonio Paoli . ( 2000 )
Great Voices . ( 1999 )
Antonio Paoli in arias from Otello . ( 1998 )
Leoncavallo : Pagliacci . ( 1996 )
Serie Artistas Célebres No. 1 : Edición del Centenario del Tenor Antonio Paoli . Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña ( 1971 )
= Street Fighter X Mega Man =
Street Fighter X Mega Man , also known as Street Fighter X Rockman ( ストリートファイター X ロックマン , Sutorīto Faitā Kurosu Rokkuman ) in Japan , is a crossover platform game created by Singaporean fan developer Seow Zong Hui . Initially developed as a fan game , Street Fighter X Mega Man later received support from Capcom , who assisted in the production of the game . Street Fighter X Mega Man was released as a free download from Capcom Unity on December 17 , 2012 . It celebrates the 25th anniversary of both Capcom 's Mega Man and Street Fighter franchises . Gameplay mimicks the design of classic Mega Man games with Street Fighter characters substituting as important enemies encountered in the game . The game received mixed to positive reviews by critics , with some common complaints relating to lack of a save feature and other bugs . In response to the complaints , an update was released on January 28 , 2013 titled Street Fighter X Mega Man V2 , which added a password save feature and other fixes .
= = Premise and gameplay = =
Street Fighter X Mega Man mimics the appearance and gameplay style of Mega Man games released on the Nintendo Entertainment System . The game 's premise and plot center around its status as a crossover video game and the respective anniversaries of both franchises . Having fought countless Robot Masters over the years , Mega Man is ready to lie back , relax and enjoy his 25th anniversary . Getting wind of this , Ryu and his fellow Street Fighters want one last battle before they let their
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spent 15 days blockading a French grain convoy in the port of Genoa .
= = = Southampton and the French = = =
The convoy was protected by two frigates , the Vestale and the Brun . The French finally came out on the evening of the fifteenth day , and were engaged by Southampton , despite the French possessing considerably more firepower . After a sustained engagement Southampton forced Vestale to strike her colours while the Brun escaped with the convoy , leaving Vestale to her fate . But as Southampton prepared to lower her boats to take possession of the French ship , her fore @-@ mast , which had been damaged during the engagement , went by the board . Taking advantage of this , Vestale raised her colours and escaped from the scene . Victory over the Vestale should have brought promotions for Southampton 's officers , including Lydiard , but her escape deprived them of this . Lydiard now had to secure another triumph to ensure his promotion .
= = = Capture of Utile = = =
Lydiard 's next opportunity to distinguish himself came in June 1796 . On 9 June a French corvette was sighted entering Hyères bay , and Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Jervis , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , summoned Macnamara to his flagship , HMS Victory . He asked Macnamara to bring out the French ship if he could . Recognising the difficulty and risk that would be involved , he did not make it a formal written order , instead instructing Macnamara ' bring out the enemy 's ship if you can ; I 'll give you no written order ; but I direct you to take care of the king 's ship under your command . ' Macnamara promptly took his ship in under the guns of the batteries , and apparently having been mistaken for a French or neutral frigate , closed to within pistol shot of the French ship , and demanded her captain surrender . The captain replied with a broadside , and Macnamara brought Southampton alongside and sent Lydiard over in command of the boarders . After subduing fierce resistance Lydiard took possession of the French ship and together he and Macnamara escaped out to sea under heavy fire from the French shore batteries . Macnamara wrote in a letter to Jervis
At this period , being very near the heavy battery of Fort Breganson , I laid him instantly onboard , and Lieutenant Lydiard , at the head of the boarders , with an intrepidity that no words can describe entered and carried her in about ten minutes , although he met with a spirited resistance from the captain ( who fell ) and a hundred men under arms to receive him . In this short conflict , the behaviour of all the officers and ship 's company of the Southampton had my full approbation , and I do not mean to take from their merit by stating to you , that the conduct of Lieutenant Lydiard was above all praise .
The prize , a 24 @-@ gun corvette named Utile , was taken into service with the Royal Navy as HMS Utile and Lydiard was promoted and given command of her , a commission confirmed on 22 July 1796 .
= = Command = =
Lydiard spent some time in the Adriatic before returning to Britain in 1797 as a convoy escort , after which Utile was paid off . He was appointed to command the bomb vessel HMS Fury in May 1798 , followed by the sloop HMS Kite in November that year . He served aboard Kite in the North Sea until his promotion to post @-@ captain on 1 January 1801 , at which point he was superseded in the command of the Kite . No further commands could be found for him , and the Peace of Amiens further lengthened his enforced retirement from active service . He went ashore during this time , and took the opportunity to marry . The couple had three sons together .
Lydiard finally returned to active service in December 1805 , with an appointment to command the 38 @-@ gun HMS Anson . Anson had originally been a 64 @-@ gun third rate , but had been razeed in 1794 . He sailed Anson to the West Indies in early 1806 and in August was sailing in company with Captain Charles Brisbane 's HMS Arethusa when on 23 August they came across the 38 @-@ gun Spanish frigate Pomona off Havana , guarded by a shore battery and twelve gunboats . The Pomona was trying to enter the harbour , whereupon Lydiard and Brisbane bore up and engaged her . The gunboats came out to defend her , whereupon the two British frigates anchored between the shore battery and gunboats on one side , and the Pomona on the other . A hard fought action began , which lasted for 35 minutes until the Pomona struck her colours . Three of the gunboats were blown up , six were sunk , and the remaining three were badly damaged . The shore battery was obliged to stop firing after an explosion in one part of it . There were no casualties aboard Anson , but Arethusa lost two killed and 32 wounded , with Brisbane among the latter . The captured Pomona was subsequently taken into the Navy as HMS Cuba .
= = = Anson and Foudroyant = = =
Lydiard remained cruising off Havana , and on 15 September sighted the French 84 @-@ gun Foudroyant . The Foudroyant , carrying the flag of Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , had been dismasted in a storm and was carrying a jury @-@ rig . Despite the superiority of his opponent and the nearness of the shore Lydiard attempted to close on the French vessel and opened fire . Anson came under fire from the fortifications at Morro Castle , while several Spanish ships , including the 74 @-@ gun San Lorenzo , came out of Havana to assist the French . After being unable to manoeuvre into a favourable position and coming under heavy fire , Lydiard hauled away and made his escape . Anson had two killed and 13 wounded during the engagement , while the rigging was badly cut . Foudroyant meanwhile had 27 killed or wounded .
= = = Capture of Curaçao = = =
Anson was then assigned to Charles Brisbane 's squadron and joined Brisbane 's Arethusa and James Athol Wood 's HMS Latona . The ships were despatched in November 1806 by Vice @-@ Admiral James Richard Dacres to reconnoitre Curaçao . They were joined in December by HMS Fisgard and Brisbane decided to launch an attack on 1 January 1807 . The British ships approached early in the morning of 1 January and anchored in the harbour . They were attacked by the Dutch , at which Brisbane boarded and captured the 36 @-@ gun frigate Halstaar , while Lydiard attacked and secured the 20 @-@ gun corvette Suriname . Both Lydiard and Brisbane then led their forces on shore , and stormed Fort Amsterdam , which was defended by 270 Dutch troops . The fort was carried after ten minutes of fighting , after which two smaller forts , a citadel and the entire town were also taken . More troops were landed while the ships sailed round the harbour to attack Fort République . By 10 am the fort had surrendered , and by noon the entire island had capitulated . Lydiard was sent back to Britain carrying the despatches and captured colours . The dramatic success of the small British force carrying the heavily defended island was rewarded handsomely . Brisbane was knighted , and the captains received swords , medals and vases .
= = Wreck of Anson = =
Anson was sent back to Britain shortly afterwards , and Lydiard rejoined his ship at Plymouth . After a period refitting Anson was assigned to the Channel Fleet and ordered to support the blockade of Brest by patrolling off Black Rocks . She sailed from Falmouth on 24 December , and reached Ile de Bas on 28 December . With a gale blowing up from the south west , Lydiard decided to return to port . He made for the Lizard , but in the poor weather , came up on the wrong side and became trapped on a lee shore , with breakers ahead . Anson rolled heavily in rough seas , having retained the spars from her days as a 64 @-@ gun ship after she had been razeed . Lydiard 's only option was to anchor , but early on the morning of 29 December the rising storm caused the anchor cables to part and she was driven onto the shore . Lydiard ordered the ship to be run onto a beach in the hope of saving as many lives as possible , and resolved to remain aboard to oversee the evacuation . The pounding surf prevented boats from being launched from the ship or the shore , and a number of the crew were swept away . Some managed to clamber along the fallen main @-@ mast to the shore , while Lydiard clung to the wheel to encourage them on . Eyewitnesses recorded that Lydiard had exhausted himself with the effort of organising the evacuation and clinging to the wreck in the violence of the storm . He attempted to leave the ship , but became distracted by trying to help a boy . In doing so Lydiard was washed away and drowned . The Naval Chronicle 's account of the wreck recorded that
It was the captain 's great wish to save the lives of the ship 's company , and he was employed in directing them the whole of the time . He had placed himself by the wheel , holding the spokes , where he was exposed to the violence of the sea , which broke tremendously over him , and from continuing in this situation too long , wishing to see the people out of the ship , he became so weak , that , upon attempting to leave the ship himself , and being impeded by a boy who was in his way , and whom he endeavoured to assist , he was washed away and drowned .
A total of sixty of Anson 's crew were lost , including her captain and her first @-@ lieutenant . Lydiard 's body was recovered and a funeral service was held at Falmouth , attended by Admiral Sir Charles Cotton and large numbers of army and navy officers , as well as the local dignitaries . The body was later interred in the family vault at Haslemere , Surrey .
= Marion Motley =
Marion Motley ( June 5 , 1920 – June 27 , 1999 ) was an American Football fullback and linebacker who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . He was a leading pass @-@ blocker and rusher in the late 1940s and early 1950s , and ended his career with an average of 5 @.@ 7 yards per carry , a record for a fullback that still stands . A versatile player who possessed both quickness and size , Motley was a force on both offense and defense . Fellow Hall of Fame running back Joe Perry once called Motley " the greatest all @-@ around football player there ever was " . Motley was also one of the first African @-@ Americans to play the professional game in the modern era .
Motley grew up in Canton , Ohio . He played football through high school and college in the 1930s before enlisting in the military during World War II . While training in the U.S. Navy in 1944 , he played for a service team coached by Paul Brown . Following the war , he went back to work in Canton before Brown invited him to try out for the Cleveland Browns , a team he was coaching in the newly formed AAFC . Motley made the team in 1946 and became a cornerstone of Cleveland 's success in the late 1940s . The team won four AAFC championships before the league dissolved and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Motley was the AAFC 's leading rusher in 1948 and the NFL leader in 1950 , when the Browns won another championship .
Motley and fellow black teammate Bill Willis contended with racism throughout their careers . Although the color barrier was broken in all major American sports by 1950 , the men endured shouted insults on the field and racial discrimination off of it . " They found out that while they were calling us niggers and alligator bait , I was running for touchdowns and Willis was knocking the shit out of them , " Motley once said . " So they stopped calling us names and started trying to catch up with us . " Focused exclusively on winning , Brown did not tolerate racism within the team .
Slowed by knee injuries , Motley left the Browns after the 1953 season . He attempted a comeback in 1955 as a linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers but was released before the end of the year . He then pursued a coaching career , but was turned away by the Browns and other teams he approached . He attributed his trouble finding a job in football to racial discrimination , questioning whether teams were ready to hire a black coach . Motley was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1968 .
= = Early years and college career = =
Motley was born in Leesburg , Georgia and raised in Canton , Ohio , where his family moved when he was three years old . After going to elementary and junior high schools in Canton , Motley attended Canton McKinley High School , where he played on the football and basketball teams . He was especially good as a football fullback , and the McKinley Bulldogs posted a win @-@ loss record of 25 – 3 during his tenure there . The team 's
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Cob =
The Norman Cob or Cob Normand is a breed of light draft horse that originated in the province of Normandy in northern France . It is a mid @-@ sized horse , with a range of heights and weights , due to selective breeding for a wide range of uses . Its conformation is similar to a robust Thoroughbred , and it more closely resembles a Thoroughbred cross than other French draft breeds . The breed is known for its lively , long @-@ striding trot . Colors accepted by the breed registry include chestnut , bay and seal brown . There are three general subsets within the breed : horses used under saddle , those used in harness , and those destined for meat production . They are popular for recreational and competitive driving , representing France internationally in the latter , and are also used for several riding disciplines .
The Normandy region of France is well known for its horse breeding , having also produced the Percheron and French Trotter . Small horses called bidets were the original horses in the area , and these , crossed with other types , eventually produced the Carrossier Normand , the immediate ancestor of the Norman Cob . Although known as one of the best carriage horse breeds available in the early 20th century , the Carrossier Normand became extinct after the advent of the automobile , having been used to develop the French Trotter , Anglo @-@ Norman and Norman Cob . In its homeland , the Norman Cob was used widely for agriculture , even more so than the internationally known Percheron , and in 1950 , the first studbook was created for the breed .
The advent of mechanization threatened all French draft breeds , and while many draft breeders turned their production towards the meat market , Norman Cob breeders instead crossed their horses with Thoroughbreds to contribute to the fledgling Selle Francais breed , now France 's national saddle horse . This allowed the Norman Cob to remain relatively the same through the decades , while other draft breeds were growing heavier and slower due to selection for meat . Between the 1970s and 1990s , the studbook went through several changes , and in the 1980s , genetic studies were performed that showed the breed suffered from inbreeding and genetic drift . Breed enthusiasts worked to develop new selection criteria for breeding stock , and population numbers are now relatively stable . Today , Norman Cobs are mainly found in the departments of Manche , Calvados and Orne .
= = Characteristics = =
The Norman Cob is a mid @-@ sized horse , standing between 15 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 62 @.@ 25 inches , 158 cm ) and 16 @.@ 3 1 ⁄ 2 hands ( 67 @.@ 5 inches , 171 cm ) and weighing 550 to 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 210 to 1 @,@ 980 lb ) . The large variations in height and weight are explained by selection for a variety of uses within the breed . The Norman Cob is elegant and closer in type to a Thoroughbred @-@ cross than other French draft breeds . Its conformation is similar to a robust Thoroughbred , with a square overall profile and short back . Selective breeding has been used to develop a lively trot , with long strides .
The head is well @-@ proportioned and similar to that of the Selle Francais , with wide nostrils , small ears and a straight or convex facial profile . The neck is thick , muscular and arched . The mane is sometimes roached . The shoulders are broad and angled , the chest deep and the withers pronounced . The body is compact and stocky , with a short , strong back . The hindquarters are powerful , although not so much as in heavy draft breeds , and the croup muscular and sloping . The legs are short , muscular and strong , with thick bone , but less massive than most draft breeds . The feet are round , wide and solid .
Colors accepted by the breed registry include chestnut , bay and seal brown ( the latter called black pangaré by the breed registry , although these horses are genetically brown , not black with pangaré markings ) . Bays with white markings are the most popular . Norman Cobs are known as calm , willing horses with strong personalities . The breed 's Thoroughbred ancestry gives them energy and athleticism , and makes them mature faster than other draft breeds . They show great endurance when ridden , and are relatively hardy , accepting outdoor living and changes in climate . Traditionally the Norman Cob had its tail docked , a practice that continued until January 1996 , when the practice became illegal in France .
There are three general subsets within the breed : horses used under saddle , those used in harness , and those destined for meat production . Horses may be automatically registered if at least 87 @.@ 5 percent of their ancestors ( seven out of eight ) were registered Norman Cobs . Purebred stallions may not be bred more than 70 times per year . Foals produced through artificial insemination and embryo transfer may be registered , but cloned horses may not . In general , breeders look to produce horses with good gaits and an aptitude for driving , while keeping the conformation that makes the Norman Cob one of nine French draft breeds .
= = History = =
The Norman Cob comes from the Normandy region of France , an area known for its horse breeding . Normandy is also the home of two other breeds , the Percheron and the French Trotter . Both of these breeds are better @-@ known than the Norman Cob , although the latter is popular in its home region . The name " cob " comes from the English and Welsh cobs that it resembles , with the addition of " Norman " to refer to the area in which it originated . Although generally considered a member of the draft horse group , the Norman Cob is special among French draft breeds . It has been used almost exclusively for the production of sport horses , and has not been extensively used for the production of meat , unlike many other French draft breeds . This means that its conformation has remained relatively unchanged , as opposed to being bred for heavier weights for butchering .
The original horses in Normandy and Brittany were small horses called bidets , introduced by the Celts . The Romans crossed these horses with larger mares , and beginning in the 10th century , these " Norman horses " were desired throughout Europe . During the 16th century , Norman horses were known to be heavy and strong , able to pull long distances , and used to pull artillery and diligences . Barb and Arabian blood was added during the reign of Louis XIV . The Norman Cob is descended from this Norman horse , called the Carrossier Normand . It was also influenced by crossing with other breeds including the Mecklenburger , the Gelderland horse and Danish horses . By 1840 , the Carrossier Normand had become more refined , due to crosses with imported British Norfolk Trotters , as well as gaining better gaits , energy , elegance , and conformation .
The Haras National de Saint @-@ Lô ( National Stud of Saint @-@ Lo ) was founded in 1806 by Napoleon . This stud and the Haras du Pin ( Stud of Pin ) became the main production centers for the Carrossier Normand . The Norman horse @-@ Thoroughbred crossbreds produced at these studs were divided into two groups . The first were lighter cavalry horses , and the second were heavier horses , called " cobs " , used for draft work in the region . At this time , there was no breed registry or studbook ; instead , selective breeding was practiced by the two studs , and farmers tested the capabilities of young horses to select breeding stock .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
At the very beginning of the 20th century , the Carrossier Normand was considered the best carriage horses available . The arrival of automobiles , and corresponding decline in demand for carriage horses , coincided with a split in the breed . A distinction was made between the lighter , faster horses in the breed , used for sport , and larger horses , used for agricultural work . The lighter horses eventually became the French Trotter ( for driving ) and Anglo @-@ Norman ( for riding and cavalry ) , while the heavier horses became the Norman Cob . In 1912 , when French horse populations were at their highest , there were 422 stallions at the Saint @-@ Lo stud , mainly cobs and trotters . When the original Carrossier Normand became extinct in the 1920s , breeding focused on the two remaining types , with the Norman Cob continuing to be used for farming and the Anglo @-@ Norman being used to create the Selle Francais , the national French sport horse .
In the regions of Saint @-@ Lo and Cotentin , the Norman Cob was widespread in agricultural uses until 1950 , and the population continued to increase in the first half of the 20th century , even through the occupation during World War II . Even the Percheron , which was internationally recognized as the Norman draft horse , was not as popular in the homeland of the Norman Cob breed . In 1945 , Norman Cob stallions accounted for 40 % of the conscripted horses , and in 1950 a studbook was created for the breed .
Like all French draft breeds , the Norman Cob was threatened by the advent of mechanization in farming . The only option left to many breeders was to redirect their production to the meat markets . However , the Norman Cob avoided this , through the efforts of Laurens St. Martin , the head of the Saint @-@ Lo stud in 1944 and the developer of the Selle Francais . He began crossing Thoroughbred stallions with Norman Cob mares to produce Selle Francais horses , and the success of this program allowed a reorientation of the Cob breeding programs . Although population numbers continued to decline until 1995 , the physical characteristics of the breed remained much the same , not growing heavier and slower as many of the French draft breeds did due to breeding for the production of meat . Even today , some Selle Francais from Norman bloodlines are similar to the Norman Cob in appearance .
= = = 1950 to 2000 = = =
The modern Norman Cob is slightly heavier than it was in the early 20th century , due to lighter horses of the breed being absorbed into the Selle Francais breed . In 1976 , the National Stud at Saint @-@ Lo had 186 stallions , including 60 Norman Cobs . In the same year , the breed registry was reorganized , and the Norman Cob placed in the draft horse category . The reorganization of the breed registry helped to reinvigorate Norman Cob breeding , and to bring attention to the risk of extinction of the breed . In 1980 , the Institut national de la recherche agronomique and Institut national agronomique performed demographic and genetic analysis of threatened breeds of horses within France . In 1982 , researchers concluded that the Norman Cob has been inbred and suffered genetic drift from its original population . The increasing average age of Norman Cob breeders also made the breed 's situation precarious .
Enthusiasts worked to reorient the breed towards driving and recreation pursuits , and since 1982 have again reorganized the breed association . In 1992 , a new studbook was created for the breed , with new selection criteria designed to preserve the quality of the breed , particularly its gaits . The latest editions of the breed registry and studbook are controlled by the Syndicat national des éleveurs et utilisateurs de chevaux Cob normand ( SNEUCCN , National Union of Farmers and Users of Normandy Cob Horses ) , based in Tessy @-@ sur @-@ Vire . The association works to preserve and promote the breed throughout France , focusing especially on Normandy , Vendee and Anjou . In 1994 , Normandy contained 2000 Percheron and Norman Cob horses , and annually bred around 600 foals of these two breeds . This included approximately half of the Norman Cobs bred in France .
= = = 2000 to today = = =
Today , Norman Cobs are mainly found in the departments of Manche , Calvados and Orne , which form the area where the breed was originally developed . The region of Saint @-@ Lo , which ranks first in the production of Norman Cobs , represents 35 percent of new births . The Norman Cob is also present around the Haras de la Vendee ( Stud at Vendee ) , which represents 25 percent of births , the Haras du Pin and in central Massif . In 2004 , there were just over 600 French breeders of the Norman Cob , and in 2005 , 914 Norman Cob mares were bred , with 65 stallions recorded as active in France . In recent years , the number of Norman Cobs has remained relatively stable . In 2011 , there were 319 Norman Cob births in France , and numbers of annual births between 1992 and 2010 ranged between 385 and 585 .
Members of the breed are shown annually at the Paris International Agricultural Show . There are fairs held for the breed at Lessay and Gavray , in Manche . The National Stud at Saint @-@ Lo remains involved in the maintenance and development of the breed , and organizes the annual national competition for the breed . The stud also organizes events at which to present the breed to the public , including the Normandy Horse Show . The Norman Cob is beginning to be exported to other countries , especially Belgium . In that country , some are bred pure , while others are crossed on the Ardennes to improve the latter 's gaits . Approximately 15 horses are exported annually , traveling to Belgium , Germany , Switzerland and Italy for leisure , logging and agricultural uses .
= = Uses = =
A multi @-@ purpose breed , the Norman Cob was formerly used wherever there was a need . It was utilized in a variety of agricultural and other work by farmers , and was used by the army for pulling artillery . The postal service used it to pull mail carriages , which it was capable of doing at a fast trot over bad roads for long distances . Postal workers appreciated the breed for its willingness to remain calm , stationary and tethered for long periods of time . Due to the modernization of agriculture and transport , it is now used very little in these areas .
The breed is popular for recreational and competitive driving , to which it is well suited in temperament . In 1997 , the rules of driving events in France were modified to take into account the speed of execution of the course , which made lighter , faster horses more competitive . The Norman Cob and the lighter type of Boulonnais were particularly affected . The Norman Cob 's gaits , calm temperament and willingness to master technical movements make it an excellent competitor , and in 2011 , more than a third of the horses represented in the French driving championships were Norman Cobs . Many Norman Cobs represent France in driving events at the international level .
The Norman Cob is also used for riding , and may be used for most equestrian disciplines . It is particularly well suited for vaulting . Elderly and nervous riders often appreciate the breed 's calm temperament . Lighter Cobs can be used for mounted hunts . Crosses between the Norman Cob and Thoroughbred continue to be made to create saddle horses , generally with 25 to 50 percent Cob blood . Some Norman Cobs are bred for the meat market . The breed is sometimes preferred by butchers because of the lighter carcass weight and increased profitability over the Thoroughbred , while at the same time retaining meat similar in flavor and appearance to that of the Thoroughbred .
= Billy ( pygmy hippo ) =
Billy , or William Johnson Hippopotamus , ( 1920s – October 11 , 1955 ) was a Pygmy Hippopotamus given as a pet to U.S. President Calvin Coolidge . Captured in Liberia , he was given to Coolidge by Harvey Samuel Firestone in 1927 . Billy spent most of his life in the National Zoo in Washington D.C .. In addition to his fame as an exotic presidential pet — which afforded him a trip to the 1939 New York World 's Fair — Billy is also notable as the common ancestor to most pygmy hippos in American zoos . By the time of his death in 1955 , Billy had sired 23 calves , 13 of whom survived at least a year .
= = Early years = =
In 1927 , Harvey Samuel Firestone , the founder of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company , acquired Billy in Liberia , where he was captured on one of Firestone Tires ' large plantations . Calvin Coolidge , who was the U.S. President at the time , was known for his collection of animals , including many dogs , birds , a wallaby , lion cubs , a raccoon and other unusual animals . At the time , pygmy hippos were virtually unknown in the United States . On May 26 , 1927 , Coolidge was informed that he would receive the rare hippo , already adult @-@ sized at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) long and around 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) , as a gift .
In Coolidge 's autobiography he wrote about the unusual menagerie he collected and stated that he donated many of these animals , including Billy , to the National Zoo . Though Coolidge had a deep fascination with animals , he was overshadowed by Theodore Roosevelt , who was more widely known for and associated with his interest in animals . By August 1927 , Coolidge had sent the second largest collection of animals of any president after Roosevelt to the zoo , and paid them frequent visits . Upon his arrival , Billy was one of the most @-@ valuable animals the zoo had ever received , and was only the eighth pygmy hippopotamus to be brought to the United States . Billy was a popular animal ; several months after his arrival , The New York Times wrote Billy was " as frisky as a dog . Even the antics of the monkeys go unobserved when the keeper opens the tiny hippo 's cage and cuts up with him . "
= = Parenting troubles = =
Today , pygmy hippos breed well in captivity : since Billy 's arrival , 58 pygmy hippos have been born at the National Zoo alone . As one of the earliest pygmy hippos in captivity in the U.S. zoo system , Billy went on to become the direct ancestor of nearly all pygmy hippos in American zoos . When Billy first came to the zoo , however , keepers did not know much about pygmy hippopotamus husbandry . A mate for Billy , a female named Hannah , was acquired by the zoo on September 4 , 1929 . Billy 's and Hannah 's first calf was born on August 26 , 1931 , but did not survive the week . " Inability to survive the neglect of an errant mother was the cause given for baby Hippo 's demise " , eulogized The Washington Post . Over the next two years , two more calves would follow , both of which died in infancy . Billy 's third calf was killed when Hannah rolled on top of the baby and crushed it . " She 's just a bad mother " , said the zoo 's long @-@ time director Dr. William M. Mann to The Washington Post , upon the death of the third infant .
As Hannah 's fourth pregnancy progressed , zookeepers noticed she seemed to be less agitated than previous pregnancies and attributed this to their new quarters : during her previous three pregnancies , Hannah had lived in the zoo 's lion house , a stressful environment for a pregnant hippo . On Mother 's Day of 1938 , Hannah gave birth to a healthy baby .
= = Life as a stud = =
Such was Billy 's popularity in the 1930s that at the end of the decade he traveled to Queens , New York , for the 1939 New York World 's Fair , where he appeared in the Firestone exhibit . Billy and Hannah successfully had more calves , and because of Billy 's worth as a breeding stud , in 1940 , Mann traveled to Liberia as part of the Smithsonian @-@ Firestone animal expedition , and acquired a second mate for Billy , another female who came to be known as Matilda .
Between 1931 and 1954 , Hannah gave birth to 15 of Billy 's calves , 7 of whom were reared or lived at least one year . Between 1943 and 1956 , Matilda gave birth to 8 of Billy 's calves , 6 of which were reared . At some point during the 1940s , the press started to refer to Billy as William Johnson Hippopotamus . The zoo developed the tradition of naming all his calves Gumdrop , using Roman numerals to distinguish them . By the birth of Gumdrop XVI , the zoo had noticed something curious : of all Billy 's calves , only one was male . Research would later confirm that pygmy hippos in captivity are far more likely to give birth to females , though not by such an extreme ratio as Billy . Twenty @-@ three years after Coolidge 's death ( January 5 , 1933 ) Billy himself died on October 11 , 1955 , five months before the birth of Gumdrop XVIII . " He carried his work on to the end " , said a zoo official . Hannah followed Billy in death on March 6 , 1958 .
= = A legacy continued = =
After a year or two at the National Zoo , Billy 's offspring were typically sent to other locations . Among the places to which his progeny were transferred : the Cole Bros. Circus , Philadelphia Zoological Gardens , Catskill Game Farm , the Miller Bros. Circus , the Fort Worth Zoo , as well as international destinations such as Sydney and London . In 1960 , after learning that the zoo 's female pygmy hippos remained without male companionship after Billy 's death , Liberian President William Tubman dispatched a search party to find a new male pygmy hippopotamus to ship to Washington . The pygmy hippopotamus , named Totota , arrived in Brooklyn , New York , on February 4 , 1960 , and traveled via station wagon to Washington the next day , where he would continue Billy 's breeding legacy with the zoo 's female pygmy hippos , two of which were Billy 's daughters .
= Cryptoprocta spelea =
Cryptoprocta spelea , also known as the giant fossa , is an extinct species of carnivore from Madagascar in the family Eupleridae , which is most closely related to the mongooses and includes all Malagasy carnivorans . It was first described in 1902 , and in 1935 was recognized as a separate species from its closest relative , the living fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) . C. spelea is larger than the fossa , but otherwise similar . The two have not always been accepted as distinct species . When and how the larger form became extinct is unknown ; there is some anecdotal evidence , including reports of very large fossas , that there is more than one surviving species .
The species is known from subfossil bones found in a variety of caves in northern , western , southern , and central Madagascar . In some sites , it occurs with remains of C. ferox , but there is no evidence that the two lived at the same time . Living species of comparably sized , related carnivores in other regions manage to coexist , suggesting that the same may have happened with both C. spelea and C. ferox . C. spelea would have been able to prey on larger animals than its smaller relative could have , including the recently extinct giant lemurs .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1902 , Guillaume Grandidier described subfossil carnivoran remains from two caves on Madagascar as a larger " variety " of the living fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , C. ferox var. spelea . G. Petit , writing in 1935 , considered spelea to represent a distinct species . Charles Lamberton reviewed subfossil and living Cryptoprocta in 1939 and agreed with Petit in recognizing two species , naming this species from a specimen found at Ankazoabo Cave near Itampolo . The specific name spelea means " cave " and was given because of the location of its discovery . However , Lamberton apparently had at most three skeletons of the living fossa , not nearly enough to capture the range of variation in that species , and some later authors did not separate C. spelea and C. ferox as species . Steven Goodman and colleagues , using larger samples , compiled another set of Cryptoprocta measurements that was published in a 2004 article . They found that some subfossil Cryptoprocta fell outside the range of variation of living C. ferox , and identified those as representing C. spelea . Grandidier had not designated a type specimen for the species , and to maintain C. spelea as the name for the larger form of the fossa , Goodman and colleagues designated a specimen to serve as the type specimen ( specifically , a neotype ) .
Lamberton recognized a third species , Cryptoprocta antamba , on the basis of a mandible ( lower jaw ) with abnormally broad spacing between the condyloid processes at the back . He also referred two femora ( upper leg bones ) and a tibia ( lower leg bone ) intermediate in size between C. spelea and C. ferox to this species . The specific name refers to the " antamba " , an animal allegedly from southern Madagascar described by Étienne de Flacourt in 1658 as a large , rare , leopard @-@ like carnivore that eats men and calves and lives in remote mountainous areas ; it may have been the giant fossa . Goodman and colleagues could not locate Lamberton 's material of Cryptoprocta antamba , but suggested that it was based on an abnormal C. spelea . Together , the fossa and C. spelea form the genus Cryptoprocta within the family Eupleridae , which also includes the other Malagasy carnivorans — the falanouc , the fanalokas , and the Galidiinae . DNA sequence studies suggest that the Eupleridae form a single natural ( monophyletic ) group and are most closely related to the mongooses of Eurasia and mainland Africa .
= = Description = =
Although some morphological differences between the two fossa species have been described , these may be allometric ( growth @-@ related ) , and in their 1986 Mammalian Species account of the fossa , Michael Köhncke and Klaus Leonhardt wrote that the two were morphologically identical . However , remains of C. spelea are larger than any living C. ferox . Goodman and colleagues found that skull measurements in specimens they identified as C. spelea were 1 @.@ 07 to 1 @.@ 32 times as large as in adult C. ferox , and postcranial measurements were 1 @.@ 19 to 1 @.@ 37 times as large . The only specimen of C. spelea in which condylobasal length ( a measure of total skull length ) could be ascertained measured 153 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 04 in ) , compared to a range of 114 @.@ 5 to 133 @.@ 3 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 to 5 @.@ 25 in ) in adult C. ferox . Humerus ( upper arm bone ) length in twelve C. spelea is 122 @.@ 7 to 146 @.@ 8 mm ( 4 @.@ 83 to 5 @.@ 78 in ) , averaging 137 @.@ 9 mm ( 5 @.@ 43 in ) , compared to 108 @.@ 5 to 127 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 27 to 5 @.@ 02 in ) , averaging 116 @.@ 1 mm ( 4 @.@ 57 in ) , in the extant fossa . Body mass estimates for C. spelea range from 17 kg ( 37 lb ) to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , and it was among the largest carnivores of the island . By comparison , adult C. ferox range from 5 kg ( 11 lb ) to 10 kg ( 22 lb ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and extinction = =
Cryptoprocta spelea is the only extinct member of the order Carnivora known from Madagascar ; recently extinct Madagascan animals also include at least 17 species of lemurs , most of which are larger than the living forms , as well as elephant birds and Malagasy hippopotamuses , among others . Subfossil remains of the giant fossa have been found in Holocene cave sites from the northern end of Madagascar along the west coast to the far south , and in the central highlands . Some sites have yielded both C. spelea and smaller remains referable to the living species , C. ferox ; however , lack of robust stratigraphic knowledge and no available radiocarbon dating on subfossil Cryptoprocta bones makes it uncertain whether the two species lived in the same region at the same time . The size ratio between the two species is within the range of ratios seen between similar @-@ sized living cats and mongooses found in the same areas , suggesting that the two species may have been able to occur together .
With its large size and massive jaws and teeth , C. spelea was a formidable , " puma @-@ like " predator , and in addition to smaller lemurids , it may have eaten some of the big , now extinct subfossil lemurs that would have been too large for C. ferox . No subfossil evidence has been found to definitively show that lemurs were its prey ; this assumption is based on the diet of the smaller , extant species of fossa . Other possible prey include tenrecs , smaller euplerids , and even young Malagasy hippopotamuses . Its extinction may have changed predation dynamics on Madagascar .
The IUCN Red List currently lists C. spelea as an extinct species ; why and when it became extinct remains unknown . However , local people on Madagascar often recognize two forms of fossa , a larger fosa mainty ( or " black Cryptoprocta " ) and a smaller fosa mena ( or " reddish Cryptoprocta " ) . There are also some anecdotal records of very large living fossas , such as a 2 @-@ m ( 7 ft ) , 30 @-@ kg ( 70 lb ) fossa at Morondava . Goodman and colleagues suggested that further research may demonstrate that there is more than one species of fossa yet alive .
= Glitter ( soundtrack ) =
Glitter is the soundtrack album from the film of the same name , and the eighth studio album by American singer Mariah Carey . It was released on September 11 , 2001 , by Virgin Records America . The album was a complete musical departure from any of Carey 's previous releases , focusing heavily on recreating a 1980s disco era to accompany the film , set in 1983 . By covering or heavily sampling several older tunes and songs , Carey created Glitter as an album that would help viewers connect with the film , as well as incorporating newly written ballads . The singer collaborated with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and DJ Clue , who co @-@ produced the album .
Musically , Glitter was structured to be a retro @-@ influenced album and have more of a dance @-@ oriented element . On several songs , critics noted Carey to be more sexually suggestive lyrically than before , in part due to the inclusion of several guest hip hop musicians . Glitter featured several other musical acts such as Eric Benét , Ludacris , Busta Rhymes , Fabolous , and Ja Rule . Both the album and its accompanying film were met with generally negative reviews from music critics who felt the album failed in trying to capture a genuine 1980s theme , and there were too many guest appearances . Universally , Glitter was viewed as a commercial and critical failure , leading to Virgin Records cancelling Carey 's $ 100 million five @-@ album contract and dropping her from the label . While it debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 , it was Carey 's lowest @-@ first week sales of any album she had ever released . Internationally , it peaked outside the top @-@ ten in many countries , but topped the charts in Japan . Glitter remains one of Carey 's lowest selling albums .
Several singles were released but attained weak charting positions . " Loverboy " served as the first single from the album and quickly became Carey 's lowest charting lead single globally . As the song stalled on the American charts , Virgin dropped the price to 0 @.@ 99 cents to spur sales . The reduction helped the single peak at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , the song failed to garner much traction . " Never Too Far " , the album 's second single , became a minor American hit , reaching number 81 on the US Hot 100 . Subsequent singles failed to make much of an impact on prominent global charts , some not charting at all .
= = Background and development = =
Following the release of Carey 's album Butterfly in 1997 , she began working on a film and soundtrack project titled at that time as All That Glitters . However , Columbia Records and Carey were also working on a greatest hits album to be released in time for Thanksgiving season in November 1998 . Carey put All That Glitters on hold and her greatest hits album # 1 's was released in November 1998 . Another studio album , Rainbow , was released in 1999 . After the album ran its course , Carey wanted to finish the film and soundtrack project . But by this time , Carey and her now ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola , head of her record company Columbia , did not have a good working or personal relationship . Mottola wanted Carey off the label and Carey wanted to leave ; however , she still owed Columbia one more album to fulfill her contract . Virgin Records stepped in and offered to pay Columbia $ 20 million to let Carey out of her contract early so that they could sign her for an $ 100 million deal .
Carey signed with Virgin and aimed to complete the film and soundtrack project . As part of her contract on her $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records , Carey was given full creative control . She opted to record an album partly mixed with 1980s influenced disco and other similar genres , in order to go with the film 's setting . As the release date grew nearer , the film and album title were changed from All That Glitters to Glitter . In early 2001 , Carey 's relationship with Latin singer Luis Miguel ended , while she was busy filming Glitter and recording the soundtrack . Due to the pressure of losing her relationship , being on a new record label , filming a movie , and recording an album , Carey began to have nervous breakdown . She began posting a series of disturbing messages on her official website , and displayed erratic behavior while on several promotional outings .
= = Controversy = =
= = = TRL incident = = =
Following commencement for Glitter and the release of the soundtrack 's lead single " Loverboy " , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the song and its parent album . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey began singing " Loverboy " a capella from behind a curtain . As he questioned the audience , she came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , she admitted that he was meant to act surprised in order to
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brought back from the dead and the judgments upon them would be realized based on actions in their past life . People excluded from physical re @-@ creation would include those who achieved nothing positive but were not evil . Vorilhon expressed an interest in cloning Hitler for war trials and retroactive punishment . Raël also mentioned cloning as the solution to terrorism by suicide attacks , as the perpetrators would not be able to escape punishment by killing themselves if the Elohim recreated them after their attacks .
= = = Embassy for Extraterrestrials = = =
Raëlians believe that life on Earth — as well as many religions of the world — was the work of extraterrestrials . They believe these were scientists and that ancient people saw them as " gods " and gave the name " Elohim " . Raëlians believe that the Embassy for Extraterrestrials or " Third Temple " is to support an official contact with Extraterrestrial Elohim and their messengers of the main religions at the " New Jerusalem " .
The Raëlian Embassy for Extraterrestrials is the vision of the International Raëlian Movement to establish an embassy , at a base cost of $ 20 million , with a landing pad that would serve as spaceport for extraterrestrial spaceships . Its location is intended to be in neutral territory , preferably Jerusalem , and would be surrounded by acres of campground capable of supporting about 144 @,@ 000 people or more than twice the estimated Raëlian membership as of 2005 .
On 16 April 1987 , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times estimated the funding for the " cosmic kibbutz " at $ 1 million . In 1997 – 1998 , the funding had risen to $ 7 million . By 2001 , $ 9 million had been saved for the embassy , and in October 2001 , the funding had reached $ 20 million .
= = = = Proposed architecture and location = = = =
The International Raëlian Movement envisions having an entrance with an aseptic chamber leading to a conference room for twenty @-@ one people as well as a dining room of the same capacity . In the plan are seven rooms for the purpose of receiving human guests into the embassy . The embassy building , along with the swimming pool , would be in the center of a large park and protected from trespassing by a wall — a maximum of two stories — to surround the entire complex 's circumference . Trees and bushes are to be planted in the outskirts of the wall 's area . The walls are to have a northern and southern entrance . The landing pad for the embassy should be able fit a spaceship of twelve meters of diameter or 39 ' 4 " on its terrace . The terrace is to be above the rooms in the torus , which are for extraterrestrials only . The seven rooms directly underneath the landing pad would be protected from occupants of other rooms with a thick metal door . Finally , the International Raëlian Movement wants to avoid military and radar surveillance of the airspace above the embassy . Buildings for administration , food and water provisions , and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art sanitation and communication systems are part of this vision . A nearby replica of the Raëlian Embassy for Extraterrestrials open to the public is expected to show visitors what it is like inside the real one .
On 13 December 1997 , the leader of the International Raëlian Movement had decided to extend the possibility of building the embassy outside of Jerusalem and also allow that a significant portion of the embassy property be covered with water . The area of the proposed embassy property is still envisioned at a minimum of 3 @.@ 47 square kilometers , with a radius of at least 1 @.@ 05 kilometers .
= = = A form of meritocracy = = =
In his book Geniocracy , Raël outlined his plan for a peaceful worldwide political union that , while democratic , would require members of the electorate to meet a minimum standard of intelligence . The thresholds proposed by the Raëlians are 50 % above average for a candidate and 10 % above average for a voter . The world government would also have a global currency , a common language , and a transformation of militaries of the world into civil police .
Raelians deride the current state @-@ system as inadequate for dealing with contemporary global issues that are typical of Globalisation , such as Environmentalism , Social Justice , Human Rights , and the current economic system . In line with this , Geniocracy proposes a different economic model called Humanitarianism .
Raël recommends a world government with 12 regions . Inhabitants would vote for which region they want to be part of . After the regions are defined , they are further divided into 12 sectors after the same principle of democracy is applied . While sectors of the same region are defined as having equal numbers of inhabitants , the regions themselves may have different levels of population , which would be proportional to its voting power .
= = = = Status = = = =
The current difficulty in the ideas of Geniocracy is that the means of assessing intelligence are ill @-@ defined . One idea offered by Rael in Geniocracy is to have specialists such as psychologists , neurologists , ethnologists , etc . , perfect or choose among existing ones , a series of tests that would define each person 's level of intelligence . They should be designed to measure intellectual potential rather than accumulation of knowledge .
The lack of scientific rigour necessary for inclusion of Geniocracy as properly testable political ideology can be noted in number of modern and historical dictatorships as well as oligarchies . Because of the controversies surrounding Geniocracy , Raël presents the idea as a classic utopia or provocative ideal and not necessarily a model that humanity will follow .
In Raël 's book , Extraterrestrials took me to their planet , Raël claims that an extraterrestrial gave him the idea of Economic Humanitarianism . Under the establishment of Economic Humanitarianism , people would not have ownership of businesses or exploitable goods created by others . Instead , people would rent each of them for a period of 49 years . The founders would be able to receive the rents for up to 49 years or when they die , whichever is later . Any rents not inherited by relatives after 49 years would go to the State . By balancing inheritances , children would be born with enough financial means to forsake menial tasks for endeavors that may benefit the whole of humanity . Family houses could be inherited from generation to generation , free of rent .
In his much later book , Maitreya , Raël says the road to a world without money is capitalism and globalisation , as opposed to communism . Capitalism would allow those who contribute much to society to also contribute to its scientific and technological development . Under capitalism , society would produce as much money as it can . The money would become important in the short run as nanotechnology quickly lowers the cost of goods while putting many people out of work .
= = = Religious symbol = = =
Raelians believe in reclaiming the swastika by restoring its historical meaning as a symbol of peace and good luck . Swastika has been used for millennia in the East as a religious symbol of peace and harmony .
In 1991 , a Montreal anti @-@ cult organization called Info @-@ Cult made statements against the Raëlian Church with an article on Le Devoir , branding Raëlians as promoters of fascism and racism , due to the church 's use of the swastika as part of their logo and the Raëlian description of an extraterrestrial global government in which those less than ten percent above average intelligence are excluded from the electorate . Outside Info @-@ Cult 's office , Raëlians spoke against the act of discriminating against a religious minority . On 2 January 1992 , a dozen people protested against the use of the swastika in the Raëlian logo in Miami 's Eden Roc Hotel . The use of the swastika and other Raelian practices has led to criticism from the group Hineni of Florida , a Jewish anti @-@ cult organization .
In February 1991 , the Raëlian Church modified their symbol . The official reason given was a request from the Elohim to change the symbol in order to help in negotiations with Israel for the building of the Extraterrestrial Embassy to greet the anticipated Elohim space vessels , although the country continued to deny their request . In 2005 , the Israeli Raëlian Guide Kobi Drori stated that the Lebanese government was discussing proposals by the Raëlian movement to build their interplanetary embassy in Lebanon . However , one condition was that the Raëlians not display their logo on top of the building because it mixes a swastika and a Star of David . According to Drori , the Raëlians involved declined this offer , as they wished to keep the symbol as it was . From 1991 to 2007 , the official Raëlian symbol in Europe and America did not have the original swastika , but Raël , founder and leader of the Raëlian Movement decided to make the original symbol , the Star of David intertwined with a swastika , the only official symbol of the Raelian Movement worldwide .
= = Reception = =
In 1995 , a parliamentary commission issued a report through the National Assembly of France that categorized the Raelian Movement ( Mouvement Raëlien ) as a secte ( French word for " cult " ) , but did not give reasons for this classification . In 1997 , a parliamentary inquiry commission issued a report through the Belgian Chamber of Representatives that categorized the Belgian Raelian Movement ( Mouvement Raëlien Belge ) as a sect . Glenn McGee , professor at the University of New Haven , stated that part of the sect is a cult while the other part is a commercial website that collects large sums of money from those interested in human cloning . The Bureau of Democracy , Human Rights , and Labor of the United States Department of State and sociologist Susan J. Palmer have classified the International Raëlian Movement as a religion .
In 2005 , two Wired News reporters were welcomed into a Raëlian seminar and had permission to videotape it . They believe the footage they took makes it clear that the Raelian Movement is a cult which should disband . A Raëlian guide said in a Wired interview that he was not ashamed of what is shown and that he has no concerns about this incident .
The estranged former wife of Vorilhon characterised him as a " cult leader " and claimed he brought groups of female Raëlians home and held orgies which affected the children from an early age .
= Russula virescens =
Russula virescens is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula , and is commonly known as the green @-@ cracking russula , the quilted green russula , or the green brittlegill . It can be recognized by its distinctive pale green cap that measures up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter , the surface of which is covered with darker green angular patches . It has crowded white gills , and a firm , white stipe that is up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) tall and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . Considered to be one of the best edible mushrooms of the genus Russula , it is especially popular in Spain and China . With a taste that is described variously as mild , nutty , fruity , or sweet , it is cooked by grilling , frying , sautéeing , or eaten raw . Mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates and proteins , with a low fat content .
The species was described as new to science in 1774 by Jacob Christian Schaeffer . Its distribution encompasses Asia , North Africa , Europe , and Central America . Its presence in North America has not been clarified , due to confusion with the similar species Russula parvovirescens and R. crustosa . R. virescens fruits singly or scattered on the ground in both deciduous and mixed forests , forming mycorrhizal associations with broadleaf trees such as oak , European beech , and aspen . In Asia , it associates with several species of tropical lowland rainforest trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae . R. virescens has a ribonuclease enzyme with a biochemistry unique among edible mushrooms . It also has biologically active polysaccharides , and a laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry .
= = Taxonomy = =
Russula virescens was first described by German polymath Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 as Agaricus virescens . The species was subsequently transferred to the genus Russula by Elias Fries in 1836 . According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank , Russula furcata var. aeruginosa ( published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796 ) and Agaricus caseosus ( published by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1883 ) are synonyms of Russula virescens . The variety albidocitrina , defined by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1876 , is no longer considered to have independent taxonomic significance . According to Rolf Singer 's 1986 classification of Russula , R. virescens is the type species of subsection Virescentinae in section Rigidae , a grouping of mushrooms characterized by a cap surface that breaks into patches of bran @-@ like ( furfuraceous ) particles . In a molecular phylogenetic analysis of European Russula , R. virescens formed a clade with R. mustelina ; these two species were sister to a clade containing R. amoenicolor and R. violeipes .
The specific epithet virescens is Latin for " becoming green " . The characteristic pattern of the cap surface has earned the species common names such as the green @-@ cracking russula , the quilted green russula , and the green brittlegill . In the mid @-@ Atlantic United States , it is also known locally as the moldy russula .
= = Description = =
Described by mushroom enthusiast Antonio Carluccio as " not exactly nice to look at " , the cap is at first dome or barrel @-@ shaped , becoming convex and flattened with age with a diameter of up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) . The cap center is often depressed . The cuticle of the cap is green , most profoundly in the center , with patches of the same color dispersed radially around the center in an areolate pattern . The color of the cuticle is often of variable shade , ranging from gray to verdigris to grass @-@ green . The extent of the patching of the cuticle is also variable , giving specimens with limited patches a resemblance to other green @-@ capped species of Russula , such as R. aeruginea . The green patches of the cap lie on a white to pale green background . The cap , while frequently round , may also exhibit irregular lobes and cracks . The cap cuticle is thin , and can be readily peeled off the surface to a distance of about halfway towards the cap center . The gills are white to cream colored , and fairly crowded together ; they are mostly free from attachment to the stipe . Gills are interconnected at their bases by veins . The stipe is cylindrical , white , and of variable height , up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) tall and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide ; it is roughly the same thickness at both the top and the base . The top portion of the stipe may be farinose — covered with a white , mealy powder . It may turn slightly brown with age , or when it is injured or bruised from handling . Like other mushrooms in the Russulales , the flesh is brittle , owing to the sphaerocyst cytoarchitecture — cylindrical cells that contrast with the typical fibrous , filamentous hyphae present in other orders of the basidiomycota .
The spores of R. virescens are elliptical or ellipsoid with warts , translucent ( hyaline ) , and produce a white , pale or pale yellow spore print ; the spore dimensions are 6 – 9 by 5 – 7 µm . A partial reticulum ( net @-@ like pattern of ridges ) interconnects the warts . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped and have dimensions of 24 – 33 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm ; they are colorless , and each hold from two to four spores . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 40 – 85 by 6 – 8 µm and end abruptly in a sharp point .
= = = Similar species = = =
Russula parvovirescens , found in the eastern United States , can be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller stature , with caps measuring 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) wide and stipe up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Compared to R. virescens , it tends to be more bluish @-@ green , the patches on its cap are larger , and it has a lined cap margin . Microscopically , the terminal cells in the cap cuticle of R. parvovirescens are more swollen than those of R. virescens , which has tapered and elongated terminal cells . Another green @-@ capped Russula is R. aeruginea , but this species may be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller size and smooth cap . Other green russulas with a smooth cap include R. heterophylla and R. cyanoxantha var. peltereaui . Russula crustosa , like R. virescens , also has an areolate cap , but the cap becomes sticky ( viscid ) when moist , and its color is more variable , as it may be reddish , yellowish , or brown . Also , the spore print of R. crustosa is a darker yellow than R. virescens . R. redolens has a cap that is " drab @-@ green to blue @-@ green " , but unlike R. virescens , is smooth . R. redolens has an unpleasant taste and smells of parsley .
= = Edibility = =
Russula virescens is an edible mushroom considered to be one of the best of the genus Russula , and is popular in Europe , particularly in Spain . In an 1875 work on the uses of fungi , English mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke remarked about the mushroom that " the peasants about Milan are in the habit of putting [ it ] over wood embers to toast , and eating [ it ] afterwards with a little salt . " The mushroom is often sold as a dried product in Asia , and in China , it can be found in roadside markets . Its smell is not distinctive , but its taste has been described as mild , nutty , fruity , or even sweet . Old specimens may smell of herrings . Drying the mushrooms enhances the nutty flavor . Mushrooms can be sautéed ( the green color disappears with cooking ) , and young specimens that are prepared this way have a potato taste that pairs well with shallots . They are also fried or grilled , or used raw in salads . Young specimens are pale and can be hard to identify , but the characteristic pattern of older fruit bodies makes them hard to confuse with other species . When collecting R. virescens for consumption , caution is of vital importance to avoid confusion with the dangerously poisonous Amanita phalloides ( known as the death cap ) , a mushroom that can be most easily identified by its volva and ring .
A lady amateur mycophagist of the writer 's acquaintance , ... who is especially fond of the green Russula , is never at a loss for this especially prized tidbit as a reward for her daily stroll among the trees . A visitor may often see upon her buffet a small glass dish filled with the mushrooms , nicely scraped and cut in pieces — an ever @-@ present relish between meals . For even in their natural state , as she discriminatingly says , they are " as sweet as chestnuts " . This is especially the case with the " buttons " or younger specimens .
The nutritional components of R. virescens mushrooms have been characterized . Fresh mushrooms contain about 92 @.@ 5 % moisture . A 100 @-@ gram ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) sample of dried mushroom ( 100 g dw ) has 365 kcal ( 1527 kilojoules ) . Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the fruit bodies , comprising 62 % of the dry weight ; 11 @.@ 1 % of the carbohydrates are sugars , the large majority of which ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) is mannitol . The total lipid , or crude fat , content makes up 1 @.@ 85 % of the dry matter of the mushroom . The proportion of fatty acids ( expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids ) are 28 @.@ 78 % saturated , 41 @.@ 51 % monounsaturated , and 29 @.@ 71 % polyunsaturated . The most prevalent fatty acids include : palmitic acid , 17 @.@ 3 % of total fatty acids ; stearic acid , 7 @.@ 16 % ; oleic acid , 40 @.@ 27 % ; and linoleic acid , 29 @.@ 18 % . Several bioactive compounds are present in the mushroom . One hundred grams ( dry weight ) contains 49 @.@ 3 micrograms ( µg ) of tocopherols ( 20 @.@ 0 µg alpha , 21 @.@ 3 µg beta , and 8 @.@ 0 µg gamma ) and 0 @.@ 19 milligrams ( mg ) of the carotenoid pigment lycopene . There are 4 @.@ 46 g of organic acids per 100 g of dry mushrooms , including oxalic acid ( 0 @.@ 78 g ) , malic acid ( 2 @.@ 71 g ) , citric acid ( 0 @.@ 55 g ) , and fumaric acid ( 0 @.@ 23 g ) . Mushrooms have 22 @.@ 6 mg / 100 g dw of the phenolic compound 4 @-@ hydroxybenzoic acid , and 15 @.@ 8 mg / 100 g dw of cinnamic acid .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Russula virescens can be found fruiting on soil in both deciduous forests and mixed forests , forming ectomycorrhizal symbiotic relationships with a variety of trees , including oaks ( Quercus ) , European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) , and aspen ( Populus tremula ) . Preliminary investigations suggest that the fungus also associates with at least ten species of Dipterocarpaceae , an important tree family prevalent in the tropical lowland forests of Southeast Asia . Fruit bodies may appear singly or in groups , reappear in the same spots year after year , and are not common . In Europe , fruiting occurs mainly during the months of summer to early autumn . A Mexican study of the seasonal occurrence of several common mushroom species in subtropical forests in Xalapa showed that the fruiting period of R. virescens occurred in April , before the onset of the rainy season .
The distribution of R. virescens in North America is subject to debate , where a number of similar species such as R. parvovirescens and R. crustosa are also recognized . One author even suggests that R. virescens " is strictly a European species " , citing Buyck and collaborators ( 2006 ) , who say " the virescens @-@ crustosa group is much more complex than suspected and embraces at least a dozen taxa in the eastern US " . As in Europe , Russula virescens has a widespread distribution in Asia , having been recorded from India , Malaysia , Korea , the Philippines , Nepal , China , Thailand , and Vietnam . It is also found in North Africa and Central America .
= = Chemistry = =
Russula virescens has a limited capacity to bioaccumulate the micronutrients iron , copper , and zinc from the soil . The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stipes . A 300 @-@ gram ( 11 oz ) meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16 % of the recommended daily allowance ( RDA ) of copper for an adult male or female ( ages 19 – 50 ) ; 16 % or 7 @.@ 3 % of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female , respectively ; and 16 – 22 % of the adult RDA of zinc . The mushroom is a poor bioaccumulator of the toxic heavy metals arsenic , cadmium , lead , mercury , and nickel .
Biologically active mushroom polysaccharides have been a frequent research topic in recent decades due to their possible stimulatory effect on innate and cell @-@ mediated immune responses , antitumor activities , and other activities . Immunostimulatory activity , antioxidant activity , cholesterol @-@ lowering , and blood sugar @-@ lowering effects have been detected in extracts of R. virescens fruit bodies , which are attributed to polysaccharides . A water @-@ insoluble beta @-@ glucan , RVS3 @-@ II , has been isolated from the fruit bodies . Sulfated derivatives of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor cell lines . RVP , a water @-@ soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom , is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity .
Ribonucleases ( or RNases ) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) , and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes . A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways : it has a co @-@ specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C , compared to the monospecific RNases of the others ; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE – cellulose as the adsorbent ; it has a pH optimum of 4 @.@ 5 , lower than all other species ; and , it has a " distinctly different " N @-@ terminal amino acid sequence . The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry , such as bromothymol blue , eriochrome black T , malachite green , and reactive brilliant blue . Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye wastewater .
= Manhattan Project =
The Manhattan Project was a research and development project that produced the first nuclear weapons during World War II . It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada . From 1942 to 1946 , the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ; physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs . The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District ; " Manhattan " gradually superseded the official codename , Development of Substitute Materials , for the entire project . Along the way , the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart , Tube Alloys . The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939 , but grew to employ more than 130 @,@ 000 people and cost nearly US $ 2 billion ( about $ 26 billion in 2016 dollars ) . Over 90 % of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissile materials , with less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons . Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada .
Two types of atomic bomb were developed during the war ; a relatively simple gun @-@ type fission weapon was made using uranium while a more complex plutonium implosion @-@ type weapon was designed concurrently . For the Gun @-@ Type weapon development uranium @-@ 235 ( an isotope that makes up only 0 @.@ 7 percent of natural uranium ) was required . Chemically identical to the most common isotope , uranium @-@ 238 , and with almost the same mass , it proved difficult to separate the two . Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment : electromagnetic , gaseous and thermal . Most of this work was performed at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium . Reactors were constructed at Oak Ridge and Hanford , Washington , in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium . The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium . The gun @-@ type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so the implosion @-@ type weapon was developed in a concerted design and construction effort at the project 's principal research and design laboratory in Los Alamos , New Mexico .
The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project . Through Operation Alsos , Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe , sometimes behind enemy lines , where they gathered nuclear materials and documents , and rounded up German scientists . Despite the Manhattan Project 's tight security , Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program .
The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion @-@ type bomb at the Trinity test , conducted at New Mexico 's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945 . Little Boy , a gun @-@ type weapon , and Fat Man , an implosion @-@ type weapon , were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , respectively . In the immediate postwar years , the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads , developed new weapons , promoted the development of the network of national laboratories , supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy . It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947 .
= = Origins = =
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility . There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries . In August 1939 , physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein – Szilárd letter , which warned of the potential development of " extremely powerful bombs of a new type " . It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions . They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter . Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939 , which was attended by Szilárd , Wigner and Edward Teller . The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium " would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known . "
Briggs proposed that the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) spend $ 167 @,@ 000 on research into uranium , particularly the uranium @-@ 235 isotope , and the recently discovered plutonium . On 28 June 1941 , Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807 , which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , with Vannevar Bush as its director . The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research . The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee of the OSRD ; the word " uranium " was soon dropped for security reasons .
In Britain , Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 in June 1939 . Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) , which was small enough to be carried by a bomber of the day . Their March 1940 Frisch – Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee , which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb . In July 1940 , Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research , and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments . He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British , and not as far advanced .
As part of the scientific exchange , the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States . One of its members , the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant , flew to the United States in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the Maud Committee had not reached key American physicists . Oliphant then set out to find out why the committee 's findings were apparently being ignored . He met with the Uranium Committee , and visited Berkeley , California , where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence . Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium . He in turn spoke to James B. Conant , Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram . Oliphant 's mission was therefore a success ; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb .
At a meeting between President Roosevelt , Vannevar Bush , and Vice President Henry A. Wallace on 9 October 1941 , the President approved the atomic program . To control it , he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself — although he never attended a meeting — Wallace , Bush , Conant , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , and the Chief of Staff of the Army , General George C. Marshall . Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy , as the Army had the most experience with management of large @-@ scale construction projects . He also agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British , and on 11 October he sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill , suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters .
= = Feasibility = =
= = = Proposals = = =
The S @-@ 1 Committee held its first meeting on 18 December 1941 " pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency " in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent United States declaration of war upon Japan and then on Germany . Work was proceeding on three different techniques for isotope separation to separate uranium @-@ 235 from uranium @-@ 238 . Lawrence and his team at the University of California , Berkeley , investigated electromagnetic separation , while Eger Murphree and Jesse Wakefield Beams 's team looked into gaseous diffusion at Columbia University , and Philip Abelson directed research into thermal diffusion at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and later the Naval Research Laboratory . Murphree was also the head of an unsuccessful separation project using gas centrifuges .
Meanwhile , there were two lines of research into nuclear reactor technology , with Harold Urey continuing research into heavy water
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1927 . The Morley College Annual Report of 1927 recorded the formation of a folk dance club , and noted Joseph 's " skilful direction " of the group . Her increasing interest in dance led her , that year , to join the English Folk Dance Society and the Kensington Dance Club .
= = = Illness , death and tributes = = =
The main feature of the 1928 Whitsun festival , held at Canterbury , was a religious drama , The Coming of Christ , commissioned by George Bell , then Dean of Canterbury , and written by John Masefield . Holst provided the incidental music . In a photograph described by Gibbs , taken of the festival 's organisers and performers , Joseph is sitting between Holst and Mrs Bell , " taller than either , an efficient @-@ looking lady in her early thirties , clearly of some importance to the festival " . This was Joseph 's last Whitsun . Towards the end of the year her health began to fail ; there is a mention in Holst 's diary for 29 November 1928 , " Jane 's concert 8 @.@ 15 " , but no indication is given of whether she was a performer . In February 1929 she paid off the final amount owing to the piano manufacturer C. Bechstein , for Morley 's new piano for which she had been fundraising since 1926 . On 9 March 1929 Joseph died at home , in Kensington , of kidney failure . After a private funeral she was buried in Willesden Jewish Cemetery .
Holst was in Venice when the news of Joseph 's death reached him ; although Imogen records that he received it stoically , he was privately devastated . Joseph had , wrote Imogen , " come nearest to his ideal of clear thinking and clear feeling " . In his own tribute , Holst drew attention to Joseph 's " infinite capacity for taking pains which amounts to genius " . No Whitsun festival was held in 1929 , but in early July , at an open @-@ air production of Holst 's The Golden Goose at Warwick Castle , a special performance of his St Paul 's Suite was played in Joseph 's memory . On 5 December 1929 , at a competitive music festival , Vaughan Williams conducted the choir in Joseph 's Hymn for Whitsuntide while the audience stood in tribute . The same hymn was played at the first resumed Whitsun festival , at Chichester in May 1930 . In July 1931 Holst included her music in a concert that he conducted at Chichester Cathedral , alongside works by William Byrd , Thomas Weelkes and Vaughan Williams . Over the course of the next few years Joseph 's works were played at concerts and events organised by Morley College , the SWM , SPGS and the English Folk Dance Society . At Eothen a " Jane Joseph Memorial Prize " was established , and music scholarships were endowed in her name at Eothen and SPGS .
A friend who expressed personal sadness on hearing of Joseph 's death revealed another aspect of her character : " England won 't be the same without Jane . She was terribly difficult to get to know at all , and awfully lonely , I thought , in spite of all her friends — don 't you think so ? — but I can 't imagine Music without her " .
= = Music = =
Much of Joseph 's music was written for performances at modest @-@ scale events by amateur performers . As such it was never published , and over the years many works have been lost . The published works and the few others that survive , Gibbs believes , place Joseph in the category of " progressive " English composers . Although her first few compositions were mainly songs , she demonstrated early abilities as an orchestral composer . Gibbs finds in her two short pieces , Morris Dance ( 1917 ) ( originally Barbara Noel 's Morris ) and Bergamask ( 1919 ) , three and five minutes respectively , a " fine feeling for orchestral sound " . The Morris Dance has added sparkle from a glockenspiel , while Bergamask has a festive Italianate feel . The music writer Philip Scowcroft praises Joseph 's confident handling of the sizeable orchestral forces required for the Morris Dance , while the composer Havergal Brian , Holst 's contemporary , found Bergamask " exhilarating " and " full of promise " . Gibbs suggests that these two works presage Holst 's late choral ballets , and comments : " That these carefree pieces did not find a permanent place in the repertory is unfortunate " .
In Joseph 's Mirage song cycle of 1921 ( five songs with string quartet accompaniment ) , a Holstian influence is evident alongside her own distinctive compositional voice . Gibbs highlights the first in the cycle , " Song " , which initially echoes " To Varuna " from Holst 's Rig Veda hymns , but evolves into " a different creation , distinguished by its own uncluttered quartet writing in which the viola has a special part to play " . The final song , " Echo " , has as much in common with Brahms as with Holst . Joseph 's Festival Venite from 1922 is an example of her use of the Modern Dorian mode ( an ascending scale from D to the next D on the white piano keys ) , which became a feature of some of her later works . Scowcroft and Gibbs both point to Tudor influences in the Venite in which also , says Gibbs , " the congenial influence of Vaughan Williams in melody and harmony is felt " . The orchestral score for this work lost , but an organ accompaniment has been devised . Joseph 's unaccompanied choral Hymn for Whitsuntide also uses the Dorian Mode in what Holst described as a " flawless little motet " ; this was first work of Joseph 's to be broadcast , in 1968 . A Short String Quartet in A minor was performed by the Winifred Smith Quartet in December 1922 and was accepted for publication by J.B. Cramer and Co . However , it was not published , and subsequently disappeared .
Joseph 's carol " A Little Childe There is Ibore " , is a setting of a 15th @-@ century poem for three female voices and piano or strings . Holst considered this " the best of Jane 's many carols , and perhaps the hardest to perform well . " Written in alternate bars of five and seven beats , it was praised by Brian for its originality . It was eventually broadcast by the BBC on 21 December 1995 . Brian was also an admirer of Joseph 's many instructional piano pieces : " pleasingly simple and unaffected " . These were published between 1920 and 1925 ; Gibbs writes that these pieces " focus on technical aspects in tuneful and often modal contexts " , with occasional excursions into other forms such as chaconne and rondo .
= Washington State Route 302 =
State Route 302 ( SR 302 ) is a 16 @.@ 87 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 15 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , connecting the communities of Allyn @-@ Grapeview and Purdy on the Kitsap Peninsula , located in Mason and Pierce counties . The highway travels southeast from SR 3 in Allyn @-@ Grapeview along North Bay and turns east along Henderson Bay to Purdy . SR 302 intersects its spur route and turns south , ending at an interchange with SR 16 at the north end of Gig Harbor . The highway was created during the 1964 highway renumbering to replace Secondary State Highway 14A ( SSH 14A ) between Allyn and Purdy .
= = Route description = =
SR 302 begins as the Victor Cutoff Road at an intersection with SR 3 south of North Mason High School , located in the community of Allyn @-@ Grapeview in Mason County . The highway travels south along the North Bay of Case Inlet into Pierce County and east across the Key Peninsula toward Henderson Bay . SR 302 continues east through Wauna and across a sandspit on the 550 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 170 m ) Purdy Bridge into the community of Purdy ; the two @-@ lane hollow box girder bridge crosses Burley Lagoon and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In Purdy , the highway turns south onto Purdy Drive at an intersection with its spur route and ends at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with SR 16 , located within Gig Harbor city limits .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was Purdy Drive between the Purdy Bridge and SR 16 , serving 26 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was in the Allyn @-@ Grapeview area , serving 1 @,@ 500 vehicles .
= = History = =
The Purdy Bridge , serving the community of Purdy on the Burley Lagoon , was constructed as a wooden swing bridge in 1892 by Pierce County . The wooden bridge was replaced in 1905 after the timber pilings collapsed and rebuilt in 1920 to include a steel swing span . The current two @-@ lane hollow box girder span was opened on September 29 , 1937 at a cost of $ 62 @,@ 000 and became part of SSH 14A during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways . SSH 14A was extended west from Allyn to Belfair in 1955 , extending along a 19 @.@ 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 31 @.@ 30 km ) route to connect Belfair and Allyn to Purdy . SSH 14A was replaced by SR 3 from Belfair to Allyn and SR 302 from Allyn to SR 16 in Purdy during the 1964 highway renumbering as part of the creation of a new state highway system . SR 16 was moved to a freeway bypass of Purdy in the late 1970s and the old alignment on Purdy Drive was split between SR 302 , heading south , and a new spur route , heading north . During the 2001 Nisqually earthquake , a 6 @.@ 2 magnitude earthquake that occurred on February 28 , 2001 , a section of SR 302 between Allyn and the Key Peninsula was damaged and closed . The highway was repaired with federal emergency relief funds and state funding at a cost of $ 1 million , opening to traffic in 2003 after being replaced by a temporary gravel road . WSDOT is , as of January 2013 , planning to widen SR 302 between the Key Peninsula and Purdy and SR 302 Spur within Purdy as part of safety and congestion improvements scheduled to begin construction in spring 2014 . A corridor study was conducted by WSDOT between 2008 and 2012 and proposed that a new highway north of Henderson Bay to bypass Purdy and have a more direct connection with SR 16 be constructed .
= = Spur route = =
SR 302 Spur , known locally as Purdy Drive , begins its short , 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) route through Purdy at the east end of the Purdy Bridge , which carries SR 302 from Wauna . The highway travels north along Burley Lagoon from Peninsula High School before ending at a semi @-@ directional T interchange with SR 16 . WSDOT conducted a series of surveys to measure traffic volume in terms of AADT and calculated that between 1 @,@ 900 and 11 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the spur route in 2011 .
The spur route was originally part of a Primary State Highway 14 ( PSH 14 ) branch connecting Port Orchard to Tacoma that later became SR 16 during the 1964 highway renumbering . SR 16 was moved to a freeway bypass of Purdy in the late 1970s and the former route was split between SR 302 and the newly created SR 302 Spur .
= = Major intersections = =
= Meet the Quagmires =
" Meet the Quagmires " is the 18th and final episode of the fifth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox on May 20 , 2007 . The episode features Peter after he goes back in time , in order to live the single life a little longer , before he meets future wife Lois . This causes Quagmire to make
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-@ 07654 @-@ 4 .
Salmon , Edward ( 1968 ) . History of the Roman World , 30 B.C.-A.D.138 , Part II : Tiberius . Methuen . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 416 @-@ 10710 @-@ 4 .
Southern , Pat ( 1998 ) . Augustus . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 16631 @-@ 4 .
Syme , Ronald ( 1986 ) . The Augustan Aristocracy . Oxford : Clarendon Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814859 @-@ 3 .
= Hurricane Gustav ( 2002 ) =
Hurricane Gustav was a Category 2 hurricane that paralleled the East Coast of the United States in September 2002 during the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the seventh named storm and first hurricane of the season . Initially a subtropical depression north of the Bahamas , Gustav passed slightly to the east of the Outer Banks of North Carolina as a tropical storm before moving northeastward and making two landfalls in Atlantic Canada as a Category 1 hurricane . The storm was responsible for one death and $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , mostly in North Carolina . The interaction between Gustav and a non @-@ tropical system produced strong winds that caused an additional $ 240 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage in New England , but this damage was not directly attributed to the hurricane .
Gustav spent the early part of its existence as a subtropical storm , and was the first such storm to be named from the current lists by the National Hurricane Center . Previously , subtropical storms were not given names . The cyclone was also the latest @-@ forming first hurricane of the season since 1941 .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of disturbed weather in association with a weak surface trough and a stronger upper @-@ level trough between the Bahamas and Bermuda developed on September 6 . High pressure ridging strengthened by Tropical Storm Fay caused the trough to become more organized and close off into a broad non @-@ tropical low on September 7 . By September 8 , the system had developed enough convection near its center of circulation to be classified Subtropical Depression Eight while located southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Later that day , data from a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance aircraft indicated that the system had strengthened into a subtropical storm , and the depression was upgraded to Subtropical Storm Gustav .
Gustav moved erratically to the west @-@ northwest toward the North Carolina @-@ South Carolina border over the next two days , it slowly strengthened , acquiring more tropical characteristics . On September 10 , a poorly organized band of stronger winds developed around the center , and Gustav was designated a fully tropical storm shortly before turning toward the north and brushing Cape Hatteras , then accelerating toward the northeast and away from the coast . On September 11 , while under the influence of a non @-@ tropical system over New England , Gustav quickly strengthened into a hurricane , in a process similar to the intensification of Hurricane Michael in 2000 . Gustav reached its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) later that day .
The hurricane began to slowly weaken and lose tropical characteristics on early September 12 as it moved over colder waters and encountered increasing wind shear . However , the storm was moving quickly enough to make landfall over Cape Breton , Nova Scotia as a Category 1 hurricane on September 12 . Later that morning , Gustav made a second landfall in Newfoundland and became extratropical shortly after . The extratropical low continued moving slowly to the northeast before dissipating over the Labrador Sea on September 15 .
= = Preparations = =
On September 8 , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted that Gustav would approach the North Carolina coast , and issued a tropical storm watch from Cape Fear to the North Carolina – Virginia border . The tropical storm watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 9 , and a new tropical storm watch was issued later that day for areas of southeastern Virginia , from the North Carolina – Virginia border to New Point Comfort . The new watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning on September 10 . As Gustav began to turn to the northeast and away from the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast , the tropical storm warnings were gradually discontinued . The last warning was discontinued on September 11 .
As Gustav approached Atlantic Canada , Environment Canada and the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued heavy rain and wind warnings for southern New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland .
= = Impact = =
= = = North Carolina and Virginia = = =
Although the center of Gustav passed just to the east of Cape Hatteras , areas of North Carolina and southeastern Virginia experienced heavy rain and tropical storm force winds . Parts of the Outer Banks received 2 – 5 inches ( 50 – 125 mm ) of rain and winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and the Coast Guard station at Cape Hatteras reported a wind gust of 78 mph ( 125 km / h ) . The storm produced storm surges of 3 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) along the Outer Banks , and 1 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) along the southeastern coast of Virginia . These surges , combined with strong winds and high sea swells , resulted in minor flooding , mainly in Ocracoke and Hatteras Village , North Carolina . A weak waterspout also touched down on Silver Lake near Ocracoke and moved onshore , but only minor roof damage was reported . Sporadic power outages were also reported . One person died after suffering injuries in the high surf , and 40 other people had to be rescued from riptides and storm surges . Damage in the region amounted to $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Although the center of Gustav remained well offshore , the difference in pressure between it and a high pressure area over the central United States caused strong winds in areas of New Jersey on September 11 . Wind gusts ranged from 35 – 45 mph ( 55 – 70 km / h ) , with stronger winds reported near the coast . A maximum wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at Keansburg . The strong winds downed trees and power lines throughout the eastern half of the state , damaging homes and blocking streets . At least 14 @,@ 000 homes in the vicinity of Burlington and Ocean Counties were left without power . In West Windsor Township , a man was killed when the upper section of a concrete wall he was working on blew over and crushed him . The other death occurred in West Amwell Township , where a tree limb fell on two elderly women , killing one and injuring the other . Elsewhere , while there were reports of trees falling on vehicles , no other serious injuries or deaths were reported .
= = = New York and New England = = =
The interaction between Gustav and the non @-@ tropical system caused strong winds that affected areas of coastal New England , mainly in eastern New York and Massachusetts . Some areas reported storm @-@ force wind gusts of over 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , and a maximum wind gust of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) was reported by a weather spotter in Catskill , New York . Wind gusts of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) were reported in areas of Massachusetts . The winds downed trees and power lines , and several homes and cars were damaged by fallen trees . Over 29 @,@ 000 homes were left without power in eastern New York , and 19 @,@ 000 homes lost power in Massachusetts . In all , the winds caused $ 240 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) in damage , but this damage was not directly attributed to Gustav in the National Hurricane Center 's analysis .
In the New York City area , a peak wind gust of 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) was reported at John F. Kennedy International Airport . The winds caused some minor roof damage to buildings , and forced officials in New York City to cordon off parts of Manhattan as debris ranging from wrapping paper to crushed soda cans was blown about . This debris injured four people , one critically , and disrupted a 9 / 11 memorial service , though it continued as planned .
Sustained winds of 25 – 35 mph ( 40 – 55 km / h ) , with gusts up to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , were reported throughout Long Island . Damage on the island was mainly limited to downed trees and power lines , although the Long Island Power Authority reported that at least 93 @,@ 000 homes lost power during the day on September 11 . One person was killed when his boat capsized in the Long Island Sound .
= = = Atlantic Canada = = =
Despite gradually losing its tropical characteristics , Gustav brought heavy rain , storm and hurricane force winds , and storm surges to areas of Atlantic Canada for several days . Strong winds knocked down trees and damaged docks in Nova Scotia , and a wind gust of 75 mph ( 122 km / h ) was reported on Sable Island . Gusts to over 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) were reported in Newfoundland for several days after the center of Gustav moved out of the area . Rainfall amounts generally ranged from 0 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 7 inches ( 10 – 70 mm ) , with a maximum of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) in Ashdale , Nova Scotia . Several locations set new daily rainfall records . Localized flooding was reported in areas of Prince Edward Island , and 4 @,@ 000 people in Halifax , Nova Scotia and Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island were left without power . Despite the heavy rain and wind , there were no reports of deaths or significant damage in Atlantic Canada .
= = Naming and records = =
Gustav was the first subtropical storm to be given a name from the current name lists by the National Hurricane Center . Prior to the 2002 season , Atlantic subtropical storms were either not named or given a number from a separate numbering list than tropical cyclones .
When Gustav attained hurricane status on September 11 , it became the latest first hurricane to form in any season since the 1941 season , when the first hurricane developed on September 16 . According to climatology , an average of three hurricanes form by September 11 of each year .
= Neferhotep I =
Khasekhemre Neferhotep I was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid Thirteenth Dynasty ruling in the second half of the 18th century BC during a time referred to as the late Middle Kingdom or early Second Intermediate Period , depending on the scholar . One of the best attested rulers of the 13th Dynasty , Neferhotep I reigned for 11 years .
The grandson of a non @-@ royal townsman from a Theban family with a military background , Neferhotep I 's relation to his predecessor Sobekhotep III is unclear and he may have usurped the throne . Neferhotep I was likely contemporaneous with kings Zimri @-@ Lim of Mari and Hammurabi of Babylon . Little is known of his activities during his decade @-@ long reign and the most important document surviving from his rule is a stela from Abydos recounting the fashion of an image of Osiris and Neferhotep 's determination that it be made " as instructed by the gods at the beginning of time " .
Toward the end of his reign , Neferhotep I shared the throne with his brother Sihathor , a coregency that lasted a few months to a year . Sihathor died shortly before Neferhotep , who may have then appointed another brother , Sobekhotep IV , as coregent . In any case , Sobekhotep IV succeeded Neferhotep I soon afterwards , and reigned over Egypt for almost a decade . The reigns of the two brothers mark the apex of the 13th Dynasty .
= = Family = =
= = = Origins = = =
Neferhotep I seems to have come from a non @-@ royal family of Thebes with a military background . His grandfather , Nehy , held the title " officer of a town regiment " . Nehy was married to a woman called Senebtysy . Nothing is known about her other than that she held the common title " lady of the house " . Their only known son was called Haankhef .
Haankhef always appears in the sources as " God 's father " and " royal sealer " and his wife Kemi as " king 's mother " indicating that neither of them was of royal birth . The parentage of Neferhotep and Haankhef is directly confirmed by a number of scarab seals from El @-@ Lahun where the latter is said to be the father of the former . Haankhef is also explicitly recorded as the father of Neferhotep I in the Turin canon , a king list redacted during the early Ramesside era and which serves as the primary historical source for the rulers of this time period . This is an extremely rare occurrence as the Turin canon normally only names the pharaohs while non @-@ royal people are excluded from the list . Beyond Haankhef , the only other exception to this rule is the father of Sobekhotep II .
Egyptologists have noted that instead of hiding their non @-@ royal origins , Neferhotep I , his predecessor Sobekhotep III , and his successor Sobekhotep IV , remarkably proclaimed them on their stelae and scarab seals . This is at odds with the traditional Egyptian system where the legitimation of the new king rests mainly on his filiation . These proclamations of non @-@ royal origins were possibly made to dissociate these kings from their immediate predecessors , in particular Seth Meribre whose monuments have been usurped and defaced . The reason for this remains unknown .
= = = Descendants and succession = = =
Inscriptions from Aswan indicate that Neferhotep I had at least two children named Haankhef and Kemi like his parents , whom he had with a woman called Senebsen . He also possibly had another son named Wahneferhotep . In spite of this , Neferhotep I named his brother Sihathor as coregent in the last months of his reign and when both Sihathor and Neferhotep I died around the same time , they were succeeded by another brother , Sobekhotep IV .
Sobekhotep IV , whose reign marks the apex of the 13th Dynasty , mentions on a stela ( Cairo JE 51911 ) that was placed in the temple of Amun at Karnak that he was born in Thebes :
My majesty [ came ] to the Southern City since I wanted to see the august god ; it is my city in which I was born . ... I saw the vigor of his majesty ( i.e. Amun ) at every single feast when I was a child who could not yet conceive .
Similarly , Neferhotep I could well have been born in Thebes ; even though the capital of Egypt during the 13th Dynasty was still Itjtawy in the north , near the modern village of el @-@ Lisht .
= = Reign = =
= = = Attestations = = =
Artefacts
Neferhotep I is known from a relatively high number of objects found over a large area , from Byblos to the North to the Egyptian fortresses of Buhen and Mirgissa in Lower Nubia to the South through all parts of Egypt , especially in the southern portion of Upper Egypt . A single attestation is known from Lower Egypt , a scarab from Tell el @-@ Yahudiya . Other attestations include over 60 scarab seals , 2 cylinder @-@ seals , a statue from Elephantine , and 11 rock inscriptions from Wadi el Shatt el @-@ Rigal , Sehel Island , Konosso and Philae . The inscriptions record the members of Neferhotep 's family as well as two high officials serving him " The royal acquaintance Nebankh " and the " Treasurer Senebi " . Two stelae are known from Abydos one of which , usurped from king Wegaf and dated to his 4th regnal year , forbids the construction of tombs on the sacred processional way of Wepwawet . Two naoses housing two statues each of Neferhotep as well as a pedestal bearing Neferhotep 's and Sobekhotep IV 's cartouches have been found in Karnak . There are also a few attestations from the Faiyum region where the capital of Egypt was located at the time , in particular a statuette of the king dedicated to Sobek and Horus of Shedet , now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Bologna .
King lists
Beyond these contemporary attestations , Neferhotep is listed on the 34th entry of the Karnak king list as well as the 7th column , 25th row of the Turin canon . The Turin king list credits Neferhotep with a reign of 11 years and 1 to 4 months , the second or third longest of the dynasty after Merneferre Ay ( 23 years ) and Sobekhotep IV ( 9 – 12 years ) .
= = = Chronology = = =
Neferhotep I 's relative chronological position is secured thanks to the Turin canon as well as contemporary attestations . He was the successor of Sobekhotep III and predecessor of Sobekhotep IV . Since his father Haankhef and mother Kemi are also well attested and not known to have had any title beyond those of " God 's father " and " King 's mother " , respectively , Egyptologists such as Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker believe that Neferhotep I was of non @-@ royal birth and usurped the throne . The military background of his family may have played a role in this .
At the opposite , the absolute chronological position of Neferhotep is debated with Ryholt and Baker seeing him respectively as the 26th and 27th pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty while Detlef Franke and Jürgen von Beckerath contend that he was only the 22nd ruler . Similarly , the absolute datation of Neferhotep 's reign varies by as much as 40 years between the scholars , with Kim Ryholt dating the beginning of his reign c . 1740 BC and Thomas Schneider c . 1700 BC .
= = = Extent of rule = = =
Whether Neferhotep I usurped the throne at the expense of Sobekhotep III or inherited it , he possibly acceded to power over a fragmented Egypt . The Egyptologist Kim Ryholt believes that the Canaanite 14th Dynasty was already in existence at the time , forming an independent realm controlling at least the Eastern Nile Delta . This could explain why Neferhotep 's only attestation in Lower Egypt is a single scarab seal . While this analysis is accepted by some scholars , among whom are Gae Callender , Janine Bourriau and Darrell Baker , it is rejected by others , including Manfred Bietak , Daphna Ben @-@ Tor and James and Susan Allen , who contend that Neferhotep I reigned over the whole of Egypt . Possible vindications of this are the several attestations of Neferhotep found northeast of Egypt , in the Levant , in particular the stela of the Governor of Byblos Yantinu and 4 scarab seals from Canaan , indicating that he retained enough power to maintain trade relations with this region .
Alternatively , recent excavations have yielded seals of Neferhotep 's brother Sobekhotep IV in proximity with seals of the powerful Hyksos king Khyan of the 15th Dynasty ( c.1650 – 1550 BC ) in a closed archaeological context , possibly indicating that the two were contemporary . If this is so , Neferhotep I would have been contemporary with either Khyan or one of his predecessors , such as Sakir @-@ Har , and would not have reigned over the Nile Delta . This conclusion is strongly debated at the moment since Sobekhotep IV and Khyan are separated by c . 100 years in the conventional Egyptian chronology .
= = = Activities = = =
In spite of the numerous attestations left by Neferhotep I , relatively little is known of the activities he undertook during his decade @-@ long reign . The pedestal of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV as well as the naos of Neferhotep discovered by Georges Legrain in Karnak indicate that he undertook some building works there . This is further confirmed by the 2005 discovery in Karnak of a second naos housing a 1 @.@ 80 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tall double statue of Neferhotep holding hands with himself . The naos was located beneath the foundations of the northern obelisk of Hatshepsut .
The most important monument of the king surviving to this day is a large , heavily eroded stela dating to the second regnal year of Neferhotep and found in Abydos . The inscription on the stela is one of the few ancient Egyptian royal texts to record how a king might conceive of and order the making of a sculpture . As usual , the stela begins with Neferhotep 's titulary :
The Majesty of the Horus : Founder of the Two Lands , He of the Two Ladies : Revealing the Truth , Falcon of Gold : Lasting of Love , King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khasekhemre , Son of Ra Neferhotep , born to the king 's mother Kemi , granted life , stability , and dominion like Ra forever .
It then describes how Neferhotep , residing in his palace " Exalted of Beauty " likely located in Itjtawy , desires that an image of Osiris be made in order for it to participate in the yearly festival held in the god 's honour in Abydos in Upper Egypt . To this end , Neferhotep first enquires to his officials about instructions regarding the making of divine images said to be contained in " the primeval writings of Atum " . His officials then bring him to a temple library where the writings are located and he orders a messenger , the " Custodian of the Royal Property " , to be sent to the Abydos festival . Meanwhile , or possibly before sending the messenger , the statue of Osiris is made of silver , gold and copper , the work being carried out under the supervision of the king . Finally , the king himself goes to Abydos to celebrate the festival of Osiris .
More generally , Neferhotep 's time on the throne was likely prosperous as there are many private monuments datable to his reign and that of his brother , and especially in sculpture some remarkably high quality art works were produced .
= = = Tomb = = =
As of 2014 , the tomb of Neferhotep I has not been located yet . Nicolas Grimal proposes that he was buried in a pyramid at el @-@ Lisht , close to that of Senusret I , an opinion shared by Michael Rice . This remains conjectural , as no artefact permitting the identification of Neferhotep as the owner of such a pyramid has been found . Grimal 's hypothesis relies only on indirect evidence : the presence of scarabs of Neferhotep in Lisht as well as the discovery of a shawabti of a prince Wahneferhotep " ( King ) Neferhotep endures " close to the northern gateway of the mortuary temple of the pyramid complex of Senusret I. The shawabti was wrapped in linen and placed in a miniature coffin , which is dated to the 13th Dynasty on stylistic grounds . This together with the name of Wahneferhotep and his title of " King 's son " indicate that Wahneferhotep was likely a son of Neferhotep I , who may have been buried in the vicinity of his father 's pyramid .
Dawn Landua @-@ McCormack suggested that the Southern South Saqqara pyramid could have been a candidate for Neferhotep 's burial site . This pyramid , datable to the middle 13th Dynasty , was provided with two elaborate sarcophagus chambers which might have been destined for two wealthy brother kings of the dynasty such as Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV .
In 2015 Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania suggested that Sobekhotep IV could have been buried in Abydos in a tomb ( S10 ) belonging to a late Middle Kingdom @-@ Second Intermediate Period royal necropolis which is located just next to the funerary complex of Senusret III of the 12th Dynasty , at the foothills of the so @-@ called Mountain of Anubis ; on that basis , Wegner suggested that the anonymous , large , neighboring tomb S9 could have belonged to Neferhotep I.
= = Coregencies = =
It is not known under which circumstances Neferhotep I died after his reign of eleven years . His successor was his brother , Sobekhotep IV , who is perhaps the most important ruler of the 13th Dynasty . Another brother , Sihathor , appears in the Turin canon as successor , but it seems that he only reigned for a few months as coregent with Neferhotep I and never became an independent ruler , likely because he predeceased his elder brother . After this , it is possible that Neferhotep I designated his younger brother Sobekhotep IV as coregent . There are two inscriptions from Sehel showing Neferhotep I , Sihathor and Sobekhotep IV , which could mean that they reigned for some time together , although Sihathor is declared dead on both lists . Another piece of evidence is an inscription from the Wadi Hammamat showing the cartouches of Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV on par , next to each other . Some Egyptologists see this as evidence of a coregency between these two kings , while others , including Ryholt , reject this interpretation and believe the inscription was made by Sobekhotep to honour his deceased brother .
= = Historical synchronism = =
A stela bearing Neferhotep I 's name is of great importance to archaeologists and historians alike as it enables a concordance between the Egyptian and Near Eastern chronologies . This stela depicts the " Governor of Byblos , Yantinu ... who was begotten by Governor Yakin " seated upon a throne in front of which are the nomen and prenomen of Neferhotep I. This is significant for two reasons : first , Yakin is plausibly identifiable with a Yakin @-@ Ilu of Byblos known from a cylinder seal of Sehetepibre , indicating that this king and Neferhotep are separated by a generation . Second , a " King of Byblos Yantin- ' Ammu " is known from the archives of Mari who is most likely the same person as the Governor of Byblos Yantinu of the stela . Indeed , Byblos was a semi @-@ autonomous Egyptian governorate at the time and " the king of Byblos " must be the Semitic king of the city ruling it in the name of the pharaoh . The archives of Mari predominantly date to the reign of the last king of the city , Zimri @-@ Lim , a contemporary of Hammurabi who ultimately sacked Mari . This provides the synchronism Neferhotep I – Yantinu – Zimri @-@ Lim – Hammurabi .
Egyptologist David Rohl in his alternative New Chronology identifies this pharaoh as the one whose daughter adopted Moses .
= Banksia aemula =
Banksia aemula , commonly known as the wallum banksia , is a shrub of the family Proteaceae . Found from Bundaberg south to Sydney on the Australian east coast , it is encountered as a shrub or a tree to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in coastal heath on deep sandy soil , known as Wallum . It has wrinkled orange bark and shiny green serrated leaves , with green @-@ yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , appearing in autumn . The flower spikes turn grey as they age and large grey follicles appear . Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody base , known as a lignotuber , after bushfires .
First described by the botanist Robert Brown in the early 19th century , it derives its specific name " similar " from its resemblance to the closely related Banksia serrata . No varieties are recognised
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. It was known for many years in New South Wales as Banksia serratifolia , contrasting with the use of B. aemula elsewhere . However , the former name , originally coined by Richard Anthony Salisbury , proved invalid , and Banksia aemula has been universally adopted as the correct scientific name since 1981 . A wide array of mammals , birds , and invertebrates visit the inflorescences and are instrumental in pollination ; honeyeaters are particularly prominent visitors . Grown as a garden plant , it is less commonly seen in horticulture than its close relative B. serrata .
= = Description = =
Banksia aemula is generally a gnarled shrub or small tree to 8 m ( 26 ft ) , although usually smaller . Conversely , individual wallum banksias have been measured at 8 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 1 m ( 27 – 40 ft ) high , with a maximum diameter at breast height of 44 cm ( 17 in ) in forest on North Stradbroke Island . The trunk has thick orange @-@ brown wrinkled and warty bark , and the new growth is hairy but becomes smooth as it ages . New shoot growth is in spring and summer . The shiny green leaves are obovate to oblong in shape and measure 3 – 22 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 8 3 ⁄ 4 in ) in length , and 1 – 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) in width . The leaf ends are truncate and the margins flat and serrated . Flowering is in autumn , from March to June ; the green @-@ yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , are terminal , found on the ends of branches and emerging from the foliage . Measuring 4 to 20 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 to 8 in ) in height and 8 to 9 cm ( 3 1 ⁄ 4 to 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in width , they are various shades of pale and greenish yellow . Anywhere from 800 to 1700 individual small flowers arise from a central woody spike ( or rachis ) . Initially tipped with white conical pollen presenters , the flowers open sequentially from the bottom to the top of the flower spike over one to two weeks , in a process known as sequential anthesis . Each flower produces nectar for around seven days after opening . The flower spikes turn grey as they age and up to 25 finely furred grey follicles appear , which can be very large , measuring 3 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long , 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) high , and 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wide . They split open either after bushfire or spontaneously , and release oval seeds 4 – 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 3 ⁄ 4 in ) in length , composed of a wedge @-@ shaped body 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long and 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8 in ) wide , and curved wing 2 – 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) wide . Banksia aemula resprouts from its woody lignotuber after fire .
B. aemula closely resembles Banksia serrata , but the latter can be distinguished by a greyer , not orange @-@ brown , trunk , and adult leaves wider than 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in ) in diameter . Inflorescences of serrata are generally a duller grey @-@ yellow in colour , and have longer ( 2 – 3 mm ) , more fusiform ( spindle @-@ shaped ) or cylindrical pollen presenters tipping unopened flowers . Finally , the follicles are smaller .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia aemula was called wallum by the Kabi people of the Sunshine Coast , giving rise not only to its common name of wallum banksia but also to the name of the ecological community it grows in . Frederick Manson Bailey reported in 1913 that the indigenous people of Stradbroke Island knew it as mintie . Banyalla is another aboriginal name for the species .
Banksia aemula was collected by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in June 1801 in the vicinity of Port Jackson , and published by him in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen . The specific name , Latin for " similar " , refers to its similarity to B. serrata . Brown also collected a taller tree @-@ like specimen from Sandy Cape which he called Banksia elatior ; the specific name is the comparative form of the Latin adjective ēlātus " elevated " .
For many years in New South Wales , the wallum banksia had gone by the scientific name of Banksia serratifolia . Richard Anthony Salisbury had published this binomial name in 1796 , which was followed by Otto Kuntze , and then Karel Domin in 1921 . Botanist and banksia authority Alex George conclusively established aemula as the correct name to be used in his 1981 revision of the genus . He pointed out that Salisbury 's original described the leaves only , was insufficient to diagnose the species and is hence a nomen dubium — the description could have fit juvenile leaves of B. paludosa as well . In fact , Brown himself had been unsure whether serratifolia applied to what he called Banksia aemula . Salisbury 's taxon appeared as Banksia serraefolia in Knight 's 1809 work On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , but that entry might also refer to serrata . Where Salisbury got his material is unclear , but John White had sent material to James Edward Smith now held in the Linnean Society marked as B. serratifolia Salisb. as well as B. aemula R.Br.
Under Brown 's taxonomic arrangement , B. aemula and B. elatior were placed in subgenus Banksia verae , the " True Banksias " , because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , and demoted to sectional rank by Carl Meissner in his 1856 classification . Meissner further divided Eubanksia into four series , with B. aemula placed in series Quercinae on the basis of its toothed leaves . When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis , he discarded Meissner 's series , replacing them with four sections . B. aemula was placed in Orthostylis , a somewhat heterogeneous section containing 18 species . This arrangement would stand for over a century .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. aemula as Sirmuellera serratifolia . The challenge failed , and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved .
= = = Current placement = = =
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections . B. aemula was placed in B. sect . Banksia , and this was further divided into nine series , with B. aemula placed in B. ser . Banksia . He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia serrata and then B. ornata , and that the three formed a link with western species . Since Brown 's original publication had treated all of Fraser 's specimens as syntypes ( shared type specimens ) for the species , George also chose a lectotype ( a single specimen to serve as the type specimen ) .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus , after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. aemula in series Banksia , placing it in B. subser . Banksia along with serrata as its sister taxon ( united by their unusual seedling leaves ) and ornata as next closest relative . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series .
Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. aemula 's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Banksia
B. serrata
B. aemula
B. ornata
B. baxteri
B. speciosa
B. menziesii
B. candolleana
B. sceptrum
In 2002 , a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed the three eastern species to form a group , but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia . Instead , they formed a sister group to a large group comprising the series Prostratae , Ochraceae , Tetragonae ( including Banksia elderiana ) , Banksia lullfitzii and Banksia baueri .
In 2005 , Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete . In the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. aemula is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia aemula is found along the east coast of Australia from around 70 km ( 43 mi ) north of Bundaberg in central Queensland down to Sydney . Specifically , its southernmost occurrence is at La Perouse on the northern side of Botany Bay . It is also found on Fraser , Moreton and North Stradbroke Islands . Almost all populations are within a few kilometres of the coast , except for one at Agnes Banks in western Sydney , and two just north and south of Grafton at Coaldale and Glenreagh , and a last around 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Bundaberg .
B. aemula is most commonly found in deep sandy soils , either on dunes or flattish areas which may be seasonally wet . On coastal dunes in southern Queensland , it replaces Banksia serrata , which occupies the same niche to the south . The latter areas , with open woodland or heathland , are known as wallum . In Queensland it is found with Banksia robur , with the latter species found in flatter wetter areas and B. aemula found on rises . It is also found with Banksia oblongifolia in Queensland . In some areas of wallum , it may grow as a small tree , along with mallee forms of the red bloodwood ( Corymbia gummifera ) . In Cooloola National Park , it is an occasional emergent plant ( along with Melaleuca quinquenervia and Eucalyptus umbra ) in closed graminoid heathland , a community of shrubs 0 @.@ 5 – 2 m ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 – 6 1 ⁄ 2 ft ) high containing Xanthorrhoea fulva , Empodisma minus , Petrophile shirleyae , and Hakea and Leptospermum species . On the New South Wales Central Coast , it generally grows as a 1 – 2 m ( 3 1 ⁄ 4 – 6 1 ⁄ 2 ft ) high shrub and is a canopy component of Banksia aemula open heathland , located on coastal headlands on highly leached Pleistocene white sands overlying Triassic and Permian strata . Areas include Wybung Head in Munmorah State Conservation Area , and near Myall Lakes . Other plants it grows in association with include Ricinocarpos pinifolius , Brachyloma daphnoides , Dillwynia glaberrima , D. retorta , Allocasuarina distyla , Bossiaea ensata , Aotus ericoides , Phyllota phylicoides , and Empodisma minus . Sandmining has eradicated much of the community around Redhead . In less leached yellower sands , the community ( and B. aemula ) is replaced by a taller heath containing B. serrata and B. oblongifolia .
At the southern end of its range , B. aemula is a component of the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub ( ESBS ) , designated an endangered ecological community . This community is found on younger , windblown sands than the heathlands to the north .
The Agnes Banks Woodland in western Sydney has been recognised by the New South Wales Government as an Endangered Ecological Community . Here Banksia aemula is an understory plant in low open woodland , with scribbly gum ( Eucalyptus sclerophylla ) , narrow @-@ leaved apple ( Angophora bakeri ) and B. serrata as canopy trees , and B. oblongifolia , Conospermum taxifolium , Ricinocarpus pinifolius , Dillwynia sericea and nodding geebung ( Persoonia nutans ) as other understory species .
On North Stradbroke Island , B. aemula is one of three canopy tree species of Eucalyptus signata @-@ dominated forest 12 – 15 m ( 39 1 ⁄ 4 – 49 1 ⁄ 4 ft ) high , the third species being E. umbra . This forest is found on a ridge 100 m ( 330 ft ) above sea level formed from an ancient sand dune . Here bracken ( Pteridium esculentum ) dominates the understory . Other tall shrubs associated include Persoonia cornifolia and Acacia concurrens .
= = Ecology = =
Most Proteaceae and all Banksia species , including B. aemula , have proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These roots are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . A study of six wallum species , including B. aemula , found they have adapted to very low levels of phosphorus and are highly sensitive to increased levels of the element , leading to phosphorus toxicity . Some evidence suggests they are efficient at using potassium , and sensitive to calcium toxicity as well . A field study on North Stradbroke Island noted increased root growth in autumn ( around April ) , but that overall root growth was more constant than other species looked at , possibly because its deeper roots had more regular access to groundwater .
A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park in northern New South Wales found that B. aemula inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as yellow @-@ footed antechinus ( Antechinus flavipes ) , and rodents such as pale field rat ( Rattus tunneyi ) , Australian swamp rat ( R. lutreolus ) and grassland melomys ( Melomys burtoni ) and even the house mouse ( Mus musculus ) . These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds , making them effective pollinators . Grey @-@ headed flying foxes ( Pteropus poliocephalus ) were also observed visiting B. aemula and their heads and bellies were noted to contact stigmas while feeding . Bird species that have been observed feeding at the flowers of B. aemula include rainbow lorikeet and scarlet and Lewin 's honeyeaters . Several other honeyeaters were recorded on B. aemula inflorescences for The Banksia Atlas , including the New Holland , brown , white @-@ cheeked , and tawny @-@ crowned honeyeaters , noisy miner , little wattlebird and noisy friarbird . The Bundjalung field study found the brown honeyeater carried much higher loads of B. aemula pollen than other species measured , which included white @-@ cheeked and yellow @-@ faced honeyeaters and silvereyes . Insects such as ants and bees ( including the introduced honeybee ) have also been recorded .
Banksia aemula resprouts from a lignotuber or shoots from epicormic buds after fire . Fire management of Banksia aemula heath in Southeast Queensland recommends 7- to 20 @-@ year fire intervals . Intervals of 10 – 15 years are recommended for the Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub , as longer leads to overgrowth by Leptospermum laevigatum . Experimenting with seed germination and early growth of B. aemula showed that phosphorus was toxic to seedlings , inhibiting growth at double normal soil concentrations and causing seedling death at quadruple normal soil concentrations . The addition of potassium or magnesium ameliorated these effects a little although potassium in high concentrations impacted on growth as well . Overall , seedlings grow slowly over the first 21 weeks of life compared with other plant species , the reasons for which are unclear , although it may be that it offers an increased chance of survival in a nutrient- or water @-@ poor environment . Seed was killed by exposure to 150 ° C , but survived seven @-@ minute exposure to 100 ° C.
A study of coastal heaths on Pleistocene sand dunes around the Myall Lakes found B. aemula grew on ridges ( dry heath ) and B. oblongifolia on slopes ( wet heath ) , and the two species did not overlap . Manipulation of seedlings in the same study area showed that B. aemula grows longer roots seeking water and that seedlings do grow in wet heath , but it is as yet unclear why the species does not grow in wet heath as well as dry heath . Unlike similar situations with banksia species in Western Australia , the two species did not appear to impact negatively on each other . A field study on seedling recruitment conducted at Broadwater National Park and Dirrawong Reserve on the New South Wales North Coast showed that generally Banksia aemula produced seedlings in low numbers but the attrition rate was low , and that seedlings had a greater survival rate on dry rather than wet heaths . Field work including the experimental planting out of seedlings at Crowdy Bay National Park showed that Banksia aemula seedling roots reach the water table within six months of germination , and that they can germinate in the presence or absence of recent bushfire . The reasons for bradyspory ( that is fewer seeds with greater percentage of survival ) is unclear , but may be a defence against seed @-@ eating animals . Similarly in field work on North Stradbroke Island , B. aemula was noted to shed its winged seeds over time between ( as well as after ) fire , and germinate and grow readily with little predation by herbivores .
= = Cultivation = =
In 1788 , Banksia aemula was one of the first banksias to be cultivated in England , where it was illustrated in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine and its rival , The Botanical Register . Its shiny green leaves , showy flower spikes , huge follicles , and wrinkled bark are attractive horticultural features . It is also a bird- and insect @-@ attracting plant .
Trials in Western Australia and Hawaii have shown B. aemula to be resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback . It requires a well drained slightly acid ( pH 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 ) soil , preferably fairly sandy and a sunny aspect . Summer watering is also prudent , as it does not suffer water stress well . Slow @-@ growing , the plant takes four to six years to flower from seed . It is less commonly grown than Banksia serrata . An investigation into optimum temperatures for germination found a nighttime temperature of 20 – 28 ° C , and a daytime of 24 – 33 ° C gave best results , and recommended summer planting times .
It has also been used as a rootstock for grafting Banksia speciosa , and has potential in bonsai . The red textured timber has been used in cabinet @-@ making .
= = Cultural references = =
Although Banksia attenuata was the common banksia in Australian children 's author May Gibbs ' own childhood in Western Australia , the old flower spikes of Banksia aemula with their large follicles are thought to have been the inspiration for the villains of her Snugglepot and Cuddlepie books , the " Big Bad Banksia Men " .
= Maryland Toleration Act =
The Maryland Toleration Act , also known as the Act Concerning Religion , was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians . Passed on April 21 , 1649 , by the assembly of the Maryland colony , in St. Mary 's City . It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty . Specifically , the bill , now usually referred to as the Toleration Act , granted freedom of conscience to all Christians . ( The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws , the first in 1636 , which prohibited religious persecution including against non @-@ Trinitarians ; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state . ) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States . The Calvert family , who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics , sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies .
The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland , but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus . It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne , a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell and was a staunch advocate for the Anglican Church . When the Calverts regained control of Maryland , the Act was reinstated , before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution , and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland . As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America , it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which enshrined religious freedom in American law .
= = Origin of the law = =
The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634 . Like his father George Calvert , who had originated the efforts that led to the colony 's charter , Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church . The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants . Many of Maryland 's first settlers were Catholic , including at least two Catholic priests , one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony 's history . But whatever Calvert 's intentions , Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation . Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and
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seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church . Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers . Thus , by 1649 when the law was passed , the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants , and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics , rather than the reverse .
From Maryland 's earliest days , Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind . Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony , he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics . He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible , so as not to disturb that peace . The Ordinance of 1639 , Maryland 's earliest comprehensive law , expressed a general commitment to the rights of man , but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind . Peace prevailed until the English Civil War , which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert 's control of Maryland . In 1647 , after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert , Protestants seized control of the colony . Cecil Calvert , 2nd Baron Baltimore , quickly regained power , but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable . This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence , now Annapolis , by guaranteeing their freedom of worship . Partially to confirm the promises he made to them , Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it . They did so on April 21 , 1649 .
= = Description = =
The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance , allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished , but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time . It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity . The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians :
... no person or persons ... professing to believe in Jesus Christ , shall from henceforth be anyways troubled , Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province ...
Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands . That meant that Jews , Unitarians , and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives . Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary , the apostles , or the evangelists could be whipped , jailed , or fined . Otherwise , Trinitarian Christians ' right to worship was protected . The law outlawed the use of " heretic " and other religious insults against them . This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech .
The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non @-@ Christian . In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks . Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things , but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him . He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed , and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert 's rule following the English Civil War .
The law had its detractors , even among those groups protected by it . Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist . They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert , who was Catholic , they were being required to submit to the Pope , whom they considered to be the antichrist . Some Anglicans also opposed the law , believing that the Church of England should be the colony 's sole established church .
= = Repeal and legacy = =
In 1654 , only five years after its passage , the Act was repealed . Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War . In the early stages of that conflict , the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King . Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies , and two of them , the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett , took control of the colonial government in St. Mary 's City in 1652 . In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen , Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion . Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants , and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly . This time , it would last more than thirty years , until 1692 .
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England , when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne , a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert 's rule . They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism , and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule . In fact , the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718 . The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715 , but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism . His political control remained tenuous enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics . It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland .
While the law did not secure religious freedom , and while it included severe limitations , it was nonetheless a significant milestone . It predates the Enlightenment , which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root , and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history . Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom , including the British Act of Toleration of 1689 , the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania , and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina , may have been influenced by its example . According to historian Robert Brugger , " ... the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression . " It was not until the passage of the First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee , but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase , " free exercise thereof " . Thus , despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad @-@ based tolerance , the law is , " a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty . "
= The Time of Angels =
" The Time of Angels " is the fourth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on 24 April 2010 on BBC One . It is the first episode of a two @-@ part story written by showrunner Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith ; the second episode was " Flesh and Stone " . Moffat utilised the two @-@ part episode to bring back a couple of his previous creations : the Weeping Angels from his series three episode " Blink " , and River Song ( Alex Kingston ) from the series four episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . The episode is partly set in the 51st century .
The Doctor — a time travelling alien played by Matt Smith — and his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) are summoned by River Song , a mysterious woman from the Doctor 's future . She takes them to the planet Alfava Metraxis , where the spaceship Byzantium has crashed . Hidden inside is a Weeping Angel , a creature that can only move when unobserved by others . With the help of Father Octavian ( Iain Glen ) and his militarised clerics , the Doctor , Amy and River Song travel through a stone labyrinth to reach the ship . On the way , they discover that all the statues in the maze are Angels , which are slowly restoring and planning to trap them in the labyrinth .
Inspired by the relationship between the film Alien and its sequel , Aliens , Moffat wrote the episode as a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " . It was the first episode to be filmed in the series ; filming began 20 July 2009 at Southerndown beach , Vale of Glamorgan which was used as the surface of Alfava Metraxis . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 59 million viewers in the United Kingdom , received the highest Appreciation Index given to the fifth series at time of broadcast and was acclaimed by critics as one of the best episodes of the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor and Amy travel to the Delirium Archive , a museum in the distant future and discover a message from Dr. River Song , engraved in Old High Gallifreyan , the language of the Doctor 's home planet , on a damaged flight recorder from the starship Byzantium 12 @,@ 000 years in the relative past . The Doctor takes the TARDIS to rescue her before the ship crashes on the planet Alfava Metraxis . After the TARDIS lands on the planet via River 's guidance , Amy learns from both the Doctor and River that they have a unique relationship owing to the nature of time travel ; Dr. Song has met the Doctor numerous times before in her timestream , while the Doctor still barely knows who she is .
River warns the Doctor that the Byzantium 's cargo hold contains a deadly Weeping Angel , which can move only when unobserved by others . She calls down the orbiting Father Octavian and his militarised " clerics " to help her capture the Angel before the radiation leaked from the ship makes it too powerful , and to protect a large human colony on the planet . River , the Doctor and Amy review a four @-@ second loop of security footage of the Angel in the Byzantium vault as the soldiers set up base camp . Outside the trailer , the Doctor and River look through a book written by a madman about the Angels and find the words , " That which holds the image of an Angel becomes itself an Angel " . Meanwhile , Amy has returned to the viewing room ; each time she turns away the Angel from the footage moves and it begins to emerge from the screen , trapping her in the room . The Doctor and River attempt to free Amy ; the Doctor warns Amy not to look directly into the eyes of the Angel because the book compared eyes to the doors of the soul and the Angels may enter there . Amy is able to turn off the image on a loop break , causing the Angel to disappear and saving herself . As they head toward the crashed ship , Amy continually feels something in her eye .
To access the Byzantium and locate the Angel , the group must travel through a " Maze of the Dead " , a stone labyrinth with numerous statues erected by the native race , among which the Angel could easily hide . After launching a gravity globe near the roof of the Maze to provide illumination , the group splits up , with some soldiers left to guard the entrance . While the Doctor and River Song discuss the two @-@ headed natives who built the catacombs , it suddenly occurs to them that all the statues have only one head : they must therefore be Weeping Angels . Each of these is slower and weaker than the Byzantium 's captured Angel , having had no beings to consume over the centuries , but they are now absorbing energy from the crashed ship ; the Doctor surmises that the Angel purposely crashed the Byzantium to rescue its kind . As the group tries to escape , Amy believes that she cannot move because her hand has become stone and she cannot release its grip on the wall of the cave . The Doctor explains that her perception has been influenced by the Angel through her direct eye contact , and she is still fine ; he proves it by biting her hand , which allows her to flee . The group soon finds that the Angels have killed their rear guard and are using the consciousness of one soldier , Bob , to speak to the Doctor . The Angels reveal they have lured the group to the highest point of the maze , directly under the crashed ship , and are planning to kill and use their essences to further regenerate . The Doctor tells the Angels that they should have never put him in the trap , and prepares the group to jump once he destroys the gravity globe .
= = = Continuity = = =
This episode sees the return of River Song , the woman from the Doctor 's future who was previously seen in " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . " The Time of Angels " takes place in her relative past , where she is a doctor , having not yet become a professor . She shows the ability to fly the TARDIS , which she says she learned from " the best " and then teases the Doctor it was not him . ( In " Let 's Kill Hitler " , it will be shown that the TARDIS taught her to fly it . ) In addition , the words she inscribed on the home box in Old High Gallifreyan ( " Hello , Sweetie ! " ) are the same words by which she greets the Tenth Doctor in " Silence in the Library " . The crash of the Byzantium was first mentioned in " Silence in the Library " , when River asks the Tenth Doctor , after consulting her diary , if they 've done that yet .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by lead writer and executive producer Steven Moffat . He designed the two @-@ part episode as a more action @-@ oriented sequel to " Blink " , an episode he had written for the third series . He compared the relationship to the film Alien and its sequel Aliens , with the former being more low @-@ key and the latter more " highly coloured " . Moffat thought that Aliens was " the best conceived movie sequel ever " and decided to use it as a model . He also intended to portray the Angels and their actions differently ; in " Blink " they were barely surviving and resembled scavengers , while in " The Time of Angels " he wanted them to have a plan that could become " almost like a war " . The two @-@ part story was intended to show the worst possible instance that could occur with the Weeping Angels , which was the inability to see , as explored in the second part , " Flesh and Stone " , when Amy must keep her eyes closed . Executive producer Piers Wenger thought that the Delirium Archive , the museum the Doctor and Amy visited at the beginning of the episode , needed to be explained , therefore Moffat named it " the final resting place of the Headless Monks " and sent it to him via text message . The Headless Monks themselves appeared in the mid @-@ series finale of the next series , " A Good Man Goes to War " .
Moffat also brought back the character of River Song from his fourth series episodes " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " . In the former , River asks the Doctor if he had done the " crash of the Byzantium " with her yet . Actress Alex Kingston did not expect the return , but stated that Moffat " always intended that she would come back " . Moffat was influenced by Audrey Niffenegger 's novel , The Time Traveler 's Wife , in which a woman falls in love with a man who unintentionally moves through time . Moffat used this inspiration in his episode " The Girl in the Fireplace " , but Alex Kingston , as well as reviewers have compared River to The Time Traveler 's Wife .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
" The Time of Angels " was the first episode of the series to be produced . The read @-@ through for the episode took place on 15 July 2009 . Filming began on 20 July 2009 on Southerndown beach , Vale of Glamorgan , which was used as the surface of Alfava Metraxis . Torrential rain halted filming the following day , and about three pages of the script were never filmed , including the scene Gillan had read for her audition . The gap was replaced by the scene of River flying the TARDIS after the Byzantium , which was filmed as a pick @-@ up . Steven Moffat later reflected on the replacement being " a lovely scene , and a much better start to the show " . During the CGI shot of the TARDIS flying through the Time Vortex in that scene , an older TARDIS model from the David Tennant era was accidentally used instead of the new one .
Director Adam Smith , new to Doctor Who , felt pressure in making the episode be a worthy sequel to " Blink " , which he called a " brilliant , brilliant , brilliant episode " , but also said that it was great to work with the Weeping Angels . He decided to have the interaction between the Doctor and River Song resemble that of an old married couple , bickering like " mum and dad arguing over directions in the car " . Actress Alex Kingston stated that it was " great fun " on set and she enjoyed working with Matt Smith , although her relationship with Smith was different from his predecessor and her former co @-@ star , David Tennant . In the script it was not written in that River would land on the Doctor when she flew into the TARDIS ; it was an idea that Matt Smith came up with in rehearsal that proved difficult to film . In the episode , there is a moment in the viewing room where the Doctor hangs on a strap attached to the ceiling and it breaks . This was originally an accident during one of the takes , but director Adam Smith liked it and filmed it again , with Matt Smith doing it on purpose .
Most of the Weeping Angels are not statue props but young women wearing masks , costumes , and paint that took two to three hours to apply . Adam Smith called them " an absolute nightmare to film with " because it took a long time for them to get ready and they had to stand still for long periods of time . Smith wished River Song 's entrance to be a shocking surprise to the audience . A stunt double was used for some shots of the scene where River flies out of the Byzantium 's airlock , but Kingston wished to do some of it herself . The scene was filmed on a greenscreen
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. Morris planned to convert the railroad to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge , electrify it to make it an interurban , and extend it to connect with the Beech Creek Railroad ( a subsidiary of the New York Central Railroad ) at Patton . However , Morris was unable to execute these plans . A group of New York City investors took over the railroad about 1916 . They converted the railroad to standard gauge , operating initially with ex @-@ Pennsylvania Railroad 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s , but replacing them with Heislers when the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s were found to be unsuitable for the track .
The conversion failed to make the railroad pay , and the company went into receivership again on August 8 , 1918 . The last passenger train was operated on July 16 , 1919 and the last coal train on July 30 . Negotiations with the bondholders to resume service were not successful , and the rails were removed in 1921 .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Engines = = =
The Altoona & Wopsononock initially owned two engines . # 1 was a National 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , and # 2 a Baldwin 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 , both of which were purchased used from the Pittsburgh and Western Railroad . In 1892 , the Altoona , Clearfield & Northern bought # 3 , a Baldwin 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 . However , due to the depleted state of the railroad 's finances , it was unable to pay for # 3 . Samuel Langdon forestalled legal proceedings by having the locomotive transferred to his United Collieries Co . , which paid Baldwin in coal . Nothing is known of # 4 , if it ever existed . The Altoona & Beech Creek bought # 5 and # 6 , both Baldwin 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s , in 1901 , while still under Pittsburg , Johnstown , Ebensburg & Eastern control . After the PJE & E lost its lease on the railroad , litigation ensued over the ownership of # 3 ; by the time the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania declared in favor of the A & BC in 1903 , United Collieries had sold it to the Surry , Sussex and Southampton Railroad . # 5 and # 6 were sold to the Ohio River and Western Railroad and the Tacajo Sugar Company , respectively , when the railroad was converted to standard gauge in 1916 .
The Altoona Northern initially purchased three ex @-@ PRR 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s ( built at Juniata Shops ) , numbered # 101 – 103 . They were found to be unsuitable for the light track and steep grades , and were sold in 1917 . They were replaced by # 104 and # 105 , new two @-@ truck Heislers , and the railroad bought # 106 , a three @-@ truck Heisler , in 1918 . They were sold to various lumber companies when the railroad was abandoned .
= = = Passenger and freight equipment = = =
Details of the railroad 's rolling stock are obscure . In 1891 , it owned five passenger and three freight cars . In addition to the coaches that supported passenger runs to Wopsononock and Dougherty ( fourteen trains per day during the 1899 season ) , the railroad had at least one parlor car and several Brill @-@ built observation cars . Contemporary photographs show that the railroad built some of its own open @-@ air cars for excursion service . Photographs taken after the destruction of the Wopsononock Hotel and the decline in passenger traffic show a number of gondola cars for coal traffic . The railroad continued to maintain a standard gauge gondola fleet in the last years of its existence .
= = Stations = =
The following stations existed along the line , going from south to north :
Scenic points along the road included Mule Shoe Curve , the trestles and cut at Sandy Gap Bend , and the high bluffs along the right @-@ of @-@ way at Butcher Knife Point .
= Hurricane Danny ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Danny was the only hurricane to make landfall in the United States during the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season , and the second hurricane and fourth tropical storm of the season . The system became the earliest @-@ formed fifth tropical or subtropical storm of the Atlantic season in history when it attained tropical storm strength on July 17 , and held that record until the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season when Tropical Storm Emily broke that record by several days . Like the previous four tropical or subtropical cyclones of the season , Danny had a non @-@ tropical origin , after a trough spawned convection that entered the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . Danny was guided northeast through the Gulf of Mexico by two high pressure areas , a rare occurrence in the middle of July . After making landfall on the Gulf Coast , Danny tracked across the southeastern United States and ultimately affected parts of New England with rain and wind .
Danny is notable for its extreme rainfall , the tornadoes generated by it , and the destruction it produced on its path , causing a total of nine fatalities and $ 100 million ( 1997 USD , $ 147 million 2016 USD ) in damage . The storm dropped a record amount of rainfall for Alabama , as at least 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) fell on Dauphin Island . Flooding , power outages , and erosion occurred in many areas of the Gulf Coast , and rescues had to be executed from flooded roadways . Tornadoes generated by Danny on the East Coast caused a great amount of damage . Of the nine fatalities caused by Danny , one happened off the coast of Alabama , four occurred in Georgia , two occurred in South Carolina , and two occurred in North Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
A broad mid @-@ tropospheric trough over the southeastern United States spawned an area of convection over the lower Mississippi River Valley on July 13 , and drifted southward towards the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . As it moved into the Gulf of Mexico , a weak and isolated surface low pressure area formed off the coast of Louisiana . The circulation in the system steadily expanded , and initially the surface winds and convection were intermittent . On July 16 , deep convection increased and organized near the center , and oil rigs and surface buoys reported surface winds of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Based on the observations , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Four on July 16 while about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of the southwestern Louisiana coastline .
The depression slowly organized for the next day , as it drifted to the northeast . On July 17 , the rate of organization and development of deep convection increased considerably , and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Danny later that day . From the night of July 17 through July 18 , Danny quickly developed deep convection and banding features in the favorable environment of the Gulf of Mexico , and reached hurricane status later on July 18 . Located between two high pressure systems , Danny continued its unusual July track to the northeast , and crossed over southeastern Louisiana near the Mississippi River Delta . A small storm , Danny continued to strengthen after reaching the coastal waters off Mississippi on the night of July 18 , and attained a peak of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) early on July 19 . The hurricane @-@ force winds , however , were confined to the eyewall . After stalling near the mouth of Mobile Bay on July 19 , Hurricane Danny turned to the east , and made its final landfall near Mullet Point , Alabama later that day .
The storm rapidly weakened as it continued northward , and degenerated into a tropical depression by July 20 . The weak depression moved through Alabama , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , maintaining a well @-@ defined cloud signature . Due to a front behind the system , Danny unusually strengthened to a tropical storm over North Carolina on July 24 . This rare phenomenon occurred due to interaction with a developing trough and its associated baroclinic zone . Danny entered the Atlantic Ocean , north of the North Carolina @-@ Virginia border , near Virginia Beach . It quickly reached a secondary peak of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) , and continued rapidly northeastward towards the waters of the Atlantic . A strong mid to upper @-@ level cyclone turned Danny northward , threatening Massachusetts . It stalled while just 30 miles ( 50 km ) southeast of Nantucket on July 26 , turned to the east out to sea , and became extratropical later that day . On July 27 , the former hurricane merged with a frontal zone .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch on July 17 , as Danny strengthened to a tropical storm , for the coasts of Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama . When Danny strengthened to a hurricane on July 18 , a few hours before its landfall in far southeastern Louisiana and over a day before landfall in Alabama , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Grand Isle mayor Arthur Ballenger ordered the evacuation of the town 's 1 @,@ 500 residents , a decision made due to the large number of tourists on the island and to prevent anyone from being unable to leave the island . With a 5 foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge possibility , Danny had the potential to flood the only highway out of the island . Officials distributed sandbags to residents in St. Bernard Parish to seal off easily flooded roads , with officials recommending that residents leave the area .
Prior to the arrival of the hurricane , the governors of Mississippi and Alabama declared disaster emergencies , expecting a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) storm surge and up to 20 inches ( 500 mm ) of rain at that time . Six shelters were opened in Mobile County , though few attended them . Officials also considered opening shelters near local casinos and beaches in Biloxi , Mississippi .
Southeastern Massachusetts also had a tropical storm warning issued , a few hours before sustained tropical storm force winds affected the area and less than 12 hours before its closest approach to the coastline .
= = Impact = =
As a small storm , Hurricane Danny only caused a damage toll of $ 100 million ( 1997 USD , $ 147 million 2016 USD ) . A total of 4 direct and 5 indirect deaths resulted from the effects of Danny .
= = = Gulf Coast = = =
Heavy rain and winds buffeted many parishes located east of the city of New Orleans . A small radius near the center of the storm had much of the extreme rainfall , and limited the flooding , which could have been disastrous if it were widespread . Grand Isle and portions of the lower Plaquemines Parish were the worst hit in Louisiana . Additionally , Grand Isle reported a wind gust of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a storm surge of 5 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) . At New Orleans International Airport , sustained winds of 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts of 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) were reported on July 19 . A gauge reported a water level of 4 @.@ 85 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in Venice . Storm tides were 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 9 meters ) above normal on average . A Coast Guard helicopter had to evacuate 7 Texans who were on a yacht in the Gulf of Mexico forty miles offshore , since their radio was broken and they were therefore unaware they were sailing into the storm . After being rescued , they were treated for minor injuries at a suburban New Orleans hospital .
At least 10 @,@ 000 people lost electricity in Louisiana . Furthermore , 130 boats were damaged or sunk at a large marina in Buras , Louisiana , due to the storm surge of over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , in a matter of minutes . Both Grand Isle and Grand Terre Island received erosion on their shores , while many commercial fishing boats in Grand Isle were also heavily damaged . Around 160 households and 80 businesses reported damage on Grand Isle . Jefferson Parish and Plaquemines Parish had $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 2 @.@ 21 million 2016 USD ) and $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 5 @.@ 16 million 2016 USD ) total in damage respectively . Significant flooding happened throughout Jefferson Parish , with the floods affecting a total of 163 houses and 84 businesses . Meanwhile , in Plaquemines Parish , ten houses and 35 trailers had damage , with 8 businesses at least partially flooded and 40 commercial fishing boats also damaged . Lafourche Parish had no significant damage to report . Empire and Venice were the most damaged areas in Plaquemines Parish . In the areas of Plaquemines Parish within the hurricane protection levees , trees , power lines , house roofs , and mobile homes sustained damage , in addition to localized flooding throughout the parish after about 10 inches of rain . In lower Terrebonne Parish , some highways were flooded , due to storm tides , and a few roads were also flooded in St. Bernard and Orleans parishes , which were outside the hurricane protection levees . Negligible damage occurred elsewhere in the extreme southeastern portion of Louisiana , due to Danny being a small tropical cyclone and a minimal hurricane .
Eastern Jackson County had the greatest impact throughout Mississippi . Pascagoula reported a wind gust of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) on July 19 . Pascagoula airport reported 7 @.@ 87 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain from July 17 through July 19 . Some streets and a few homes were flooded in far southeastern Jackson County , in areas of poor drainage systems . The coast of Mississippi had no significant damage according to emergency management officials . An oil rig off the coast of Pascagoula was ripped from its moorings and collided with a tank that spilled 500 gallons ( 1 @,@ 892 L ) of fuel into the Bayou Casotte stream .
By late on July 19 , the American Red Cross was providing shelter to over 2 @,@ 000 people in Alabama , Mississippi , and Florida .
Extreme amounts of rainfall were produced over Alabama . Dauphin Island had the highest amount of rainfall , 37 @.@ 75 inches ( 959 mm ) reported by the HPC . Dauphin Island Sea Lab recorded 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) of rain , but not all the rain may have recorded in the rain gauge at this location , so it is possible the rainfall may have been underestimated . Doppler weather radar estimates show that around 43 inches ( 1 @,@ 090 mm ) of rain fell off the coast of Dauphin Island . A storm surge of over 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) occurred off Highway 182 , midway between Gulf Shores and Fort Morgan , in addition to the rainfall . Unusually , when the storm stalled off the coast of Alabama , prevailing northerly winds forced the water out of Mobile Bay , causing tides to be two feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) below normal . Observers noted that , if river channels had not remained , it would have been possible to walk across the bay unhindered by water . Additionally , a four @-@ story condominium project that was under construction in Gulf Shores crashed due to high winds . In addition , three tornadoes occurred in Alabama , one being in Orange Beach , another in Opelika , while the other one occurred in Alabama Port . There were some other tornadoes that also caused minimal damage .
Despite its effects in the northern Gulf of Mexico , only one person was directly killed from the storm there ; a man drowned off the coast when he fell off his sailboat near Fort Morgan , Alabama . One indirect casualty also occurred in the area , when a man had a heart attack while trying to secure a boat off the Alabama coast during the storm . Numerous roads became flooded and impassable for several days , south and along I @-@ 10 in Mobile , south and central Choctaw , and Baldwin counties . Along the Fowl and Fish rivers , in Mobile and Baldwin counties respectively , significant damage to homes occurred due to flooding . Most roads on Dauphin Island were flooded in over a foot of water . A few homes were close to falling into Mobile Bay , and one home had to be moved backwards towards land to prevent its destruction . At the peak of the storm in Alabama , at least 44 @,@ 000 people were without power in Mobile and Baldwin counties . In rural Choctaw County , north of Mobile , several families were rescued from flooded roads and trapped cars . The majority of houses and businesses on Dauphin Island and buildings from the western shore of Mobile Bay , and from Fort Morgan east to Orange Beach , had roof damage . $ 60 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 89 @.@ 2 million 2016 USD ) in total property damage occurred in Alabama , in addition to pecan and pine tree damage costing $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1997 USD , $ 3 @.@ 69 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = East Coast = = =
In the state of Florida , some damage to the cotton crop occurred in Escambia County . Otherwise , very little damage resulted from the storm in northwestern Florida . The Panama City , Florida area had some minor fresh water flooding . A race in the NASCAR All Pro series at the Five Flags Speedway in Pensacola , Florida scheduled to be held on July 19 was postponed to September 13 , 1997 due to Hurricane Danny . By the time Danny reached Georgia and the Carolinas , its potential impact had weakened , though it still managed to produce 8 – 12 inches ( 200 – 300 mm ) of rain as it drifted through the western portions of the states . In Augusta , Georgia , fourteen South Carolina National Guardsmen were struck by lightning , one of whom had to be hospitalized in intensive care and six others received treatment at a hospital and were then released . Four indirect deaths occurred from traffic accidents during the storm 's onslaught in Georgia . A severe thunderstorm cell in South Carolina produced five tornadoes that touched down , one of which killed a woman in her destroyed duplex while passing through Lexington County . An F2 tornado with a width of 200 yards ( 200 m ) and a length of 4 miles ( 6 km ) , was on the ground for 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the northeast of Gaston , South Carolina , causing $ 942 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD , $ 1 @.@ 39 million 2016 USD ) in damage , killing one , injuring six , and destroying 13 residences , with damage to many others . Several tornadoes and waterspouts were spawned over Virginia ; most of them occurred in Norfolk , Portsmouth , and Hampton . An F1 tornado with a width of 50 yards ( 50 m ) and a length of 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , touched down 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in Portsmouth , causing $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD , $ 590 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage . It destroyed a car wash and damaged 7 other structures , all but 1 of which were businesses , and also flipped over a semi @-@ trailer truck . Rainfall in Fayetteville measured 2 @.@ 85 inches ( 72 mm ) , while the remainder of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states received approximately 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rain .
The heavy rains caused two people to drown in Charlotte . A girl drowned after being swept into a creek , and a woman drowned while in her car . Also in North Carolina , tropical rains related to Danny caused a CSX train to derail from its trestle into Little Sugar Creek , spilling about 2 @,@ 500 gallons ( 9 @,@ 500 L ) of diesel and therefore forcing a nearby public housing development to be evacuated . Sustained tropical @-@ storm force winds affected Martha 's Vineyard , Nantucket Island , and parts of Cape Cod , in addition to the coastal waters from the entrance of Buzzards Bay to the south and east of Cape Cod . Only minor damage occurred , despite these strong winds , which were experienced primarily in southeastern Massachusetts . The minor damage included localized flooding , power outages , downed tree limbs , and lost boats . A suspension of ferry service to Nantucket Island occurred for most of July 25 , with a shorter suspension happening on the service to Martha 's Vineyard . No significant coastal flooding affected the region , although a storm shelter was opened on Nantucket Island to host a Boy Scout group camping there . Danny was the fifth tropical cyclone to affect Southern New England in the 20th century during the month of July .
= = Aftermath and records = =
Debris remained in the inland waters of Alabama until at least August 12 , 1997 . Endangered or threatened sea turtles lived in these waters and were threatened by the debris . Specialized turtle exclusion devices , known as TEDs , or specialized nets that allowed the turtles to escape them , were required before Danny for shrimp trawlers . The Director of the Marine Resources Division of the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources said that the " inordinate amount of debris is causing extraordinary difficulty with the performance of ( TEDs ) in these areas . " Therefore , the United States Environmental Protection Agency allowed an alternative to the TEDs , of shorter tow times with seasonal restrictions of a maximum of 55 minutes from April 1 through October 31 , and a maximum of 75 minutes from November 1 through March 31 . By making the shorter tow times the required alternative , the EPA intended to minimize any sea turtle casualties as a result of trawlers being allowed to remove the TEDs .
One of three wolves that escaped from a zoo in Gulf Shores , Alabama during Hurricane Danny was found in November later that year , after seasonal conditions meant less tourists and therefore less food in Gulf State Park where the wolf had resided . One of the other wolves had already been recaptured , while the other had already been shot and killed .
Some cotton crops in the Southeast United States received needed rainfall from Danny , while others were harmed , as 100 @,@ 000 acres of cotton fields in Alabama were too heavily damaged for their crop to be salvaged . The effects of Danny caused the gasoline production of Gulf Coast oil refineries to decline and thus contributed to an increase in gas prices in the months following Danny throughout the United States . A severe drought had been in place in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region during the month of July . The high amount of rainfall caused by Danny helped to ease dry conditions in portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic , but not sufficiently to stop the drought from developing further in most areas from northern Virginia to southern New England .
The extremely short distance of the eyewall of Hurricane Danny from a Doppler radar station in Mobile , Alabama and its slow landfall over the course of a day led to further study by meteorologists . The proximity to land allowed for measurements at a level closer to the surface than it is possible for hurricane reconnaissance aircraft to achieve , with the slow landfall allowing for more extended observation . One conclusion of the study included the need to sample the boundaries of an eyewall more to establish a better estimate of surface @-@ level winds and the overall intensity of a storm . Another conclusion was that while Danny 's slow movement positioned it over a tidal estuary bordering the Gulf , maintaining of or increase in strength was possible since eyewall convection remained over waters with high sea surface temperatures and other environmental conditions remained favorable .
The storm dropped 36 @.@ 71 inches ( 932 mm ) of rain on Dauphin Island , setting the new record for the most tropical or subtropical cyclone related rainfall in the state of Alabama , and is among the largest in the United States . The storm also became the earliest 5th tropical or subtropical storm of a season when it reached tropical storm strength on July 17 . This record was broken in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season when Hurricane Emily first attained tropical storm status on July 12 , just five days earlier .
= Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 61 =
Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland ( Now come , Savior of the heathens ) , BWV 61 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for the first Sunday in Advent , the Sunday which begins the liturgical year , and first performed it on 2 December 1714 .
The cantata text was provided by Erdmann Neumeister , who quoted the Book of Revelation and framed his work by two hymn stanzas , the beginning of Martin Luther 's " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " , the main hymn for Advent with a melody based on Medieval chant , and the end from Philipp Nicolai 's " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " . The librettist quoted developed his thoughts like a sermon . Bach structured the cantata in six movements , beginning with a chorale fantasia , followed by a series of alternating recitatives and arias , and concluded by a four @-@ part chorale . He scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano , tenor and bass ) , strings and continuo . Bach led the first performance on 2 December 1714 . As Thomaskantor , director of music of the main churches of Leipzig , he performed the cantata again on 28 November 1723 .
= = History and words = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule .
The exact chronological order of Bach 's Weimar cantatas remains uncertain . Only four bear autograph dates . BWV 61 is dated 1714 and bears the liturgical designation " am ersten Advent " , the First Sunday of Advent . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Romans , " now is our salvation nearer " ( Romans 13 : 11 – 14 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the Entry into Jerusalem ( Matthew 21 : 1 – 9 ) .
The cantata text was provided by Erdmann Neumeister , published in Geistliche Poesien in Frankfurt in 1714 . He began and ended his work with a hymn stanza . " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " is the main hymn for Advent , which Martin Luther had derived from the Latin Veni redemptor gentium . Its melody is based on Medieval chant and supplies a " dark , imposing character " . For the conclusion , Neumeister chose the second part , the Abgesang , of the seventh and final stanza of Philipp Nicolai 's " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " . The librettist quoted the Book of Revelation in the fourth movement : " Siehe , ich stehe vor der Tür und klopfe an . So jemand meine Stimme hören wird und die Tür auftun , zu dem werde ich eingehen und das Abendmahl mit ihm halten und er mit mir . " – " Behold , I stand at the door and knock . Anyone that hears My voice and opens the door , to him I will enter and keep the evening meal with him and he with me . " ( Revelation 3 : 20 ) . The poet combined the ideas of Jesus ' entry into Jerusalem and his promise to return with an invitation to enter the heart of the individual Christian . He developed his thoughts like a sermon , as the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr notes : mentioning that the arrival of Jesus brings blessing every day ( movement 2 ) , a prayer that Jesus may come to his congregation ( movement 2 ) , and in response to his statement of being at the door ( movement 4 ) the opening of the heart of the individual Christian who knows about his sinfulness ( movement 5 ) . Bach had set one text by Neumeister before , possibly by 1713 , in his cantata Gleichwie der Regen und Schnee vom Himmel fällt , BWV 18 .
Because of Bach 's liturgical designation , the performance can be precisely dated to 2 December 1714 . As Thomaskantor , director of music of the main churches of Leipzig , Bach performed the cantata again on 28 November 1723 , beginning the first liturgical year in the new position . Bach paid attention to the exceptional occasion at beginning of the liturgical year , also when he composed later the chorale cantata Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 62 ( 1724 ) , and Schwingt freudig euch empor , BWV 36 ( 1731 ) , which are all inspired by Luther 's hymn . Bach also began his Orgelbüchlein by a setting of the same tune . In Leipzig , the first Sunday in Advent was the last chance to hear cantata music before Christmas , because tempus clausum was observed during Advent .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements , beginning with chorale fantasia , followed by a series of alternating recitatives and arias and concluded by a chorale . He scored it for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) , including cello ( Vc ) and bassoon ( Fg ) . The autograph score is titled : " Dominica
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1 . Adventus Xsti . / Nun komm der Heyden Heyland . / â . / due Violini / due Viole / Violoncello / è & / Fagotto . / Sopr : Alto . Tenore è Baßo / Col ' / Organo . / da / Joh Sebast Bach / anno . / 1714 " . The duration is given as 18 minutes . According to the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff , the use of two viola parts is French style . Dürr notes that perhaps the strings were doubled by oboes , at least in the Leipzig performance , in a practise that was " not always marked in the score " .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring , keys and time signatures are taken from Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The first Sunday of Advent begins the liturgical year . Bach marked it by creating the opening chorus , " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " ( Now come , Saviour of the Gentiles ) , as a chorale fantasia in the style of a French overture , which follows the sequence slow – fast ( fugue ) – slow . In a French opera performance , the King of France would have entered during the overture ; Bach greets a different king . Two of the four lines of the chorale melody are combined in the first slow section , line three is treated in the fast section , and line four in the final slow section . The melody of line 1 is first presented in the continuo , then sung by all four voices one after another , accompanied by a solemn dotted rhythm in the orchestra . Line 2 is sung by all voices together , accompanied by the orchestra . Line 3 is a fast fugato , with the instruments playing colla parte , marked " gai " . Line 4 is set as line 2 . Wolff notes that Bach possibly followed the model of an opera by Agostino Steffani , Henrico Leone , which uses a chorus in a French overture .
= = = 2 = = =
The recitative for tenor , " Der Heiland ist gekommen " ( The Saviour has come ) , begins secco but continues as an arioso , with tenor and continuo imitating one another . This more lyrical style of recitative derives from early Italian operas and cantatas , where it was known as mezz 'aria – half aria .
= = = 3 = = =
The tenor aria , " Komm , Jesu , komm zu deiner Kirche " ( Come , Jesus , come to Your Church ) , is accompanied by the violins and violas in unison . It is written in the rhythm of a gigue , and the combination of voice , unison strings and continuo gives it the texture of a trio sonata . Dürr comments that the use of the unison string ritornello , played even during the vocal passages , provides a " rather pointedly strict and unified character " . The musicologist Richard Taruskin comments : " This hybridization of operatic and instrumental styles is ... standard operating procedure in Bach 's cantatas . "
= = = 4 = = =
The quote from Revelation , " Siehe , ich stehe vor der Tür und klopfe an " ( See , I stand before the door and knock ) , is given as a recitative to the bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) . The knocking on the door is expressed by pizzicato chords in the strings . Dürr notes : " The most expressive text @-@ engendered declamation is here ingeniously melted down into a structure only ten bars long but of compelling musical logic . " John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , compares it to an Emmaus scene in Bach 's later cantata Bleib bei uns , denn es will Abend werden , BWV 6 , the " post @-@ Resurrection appearance to the disciples " in Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ , BWV 67 , even to " the entry of the Commendatore in Mozart ’ s opera Don Giovanni . Bach would later frequently use the bass as the voice of Christ , in his St Matthew Passion even with a similar string accompaniment .
= = = 5 = = =
The response to the invitation is the individual prayer of the soprano , " Öffne dich , mein ganzes Herze " ( Open , my whole heart ) . It is accompanied only by the continuo , with an adagio middle section .
= = = 6 = = =
In the closing chorale , " Amen , amen ! Komm , du schöne Freudenkrone " ( Amen , amen ! Come , you fair crown of joy ) , Bach sets the Abgesang only of the final stanza of Nicolai 's hymn . The musicologist Julian Mincham offers the thought : " Conceivably the most convincing explanation lies , as it so often does , within the text – ... do not delay , I await You longingly . The hymn tune itself , through its very abbreviation implies a sense of urgency and the feeling of being unable to defer any longer . " In Bach 's setting , the violin adds a jubilant fifth part to the four vocal parts . The violin has to " climb three octaves to convey the extent of the soul 's longing for the joys of a future life and the prospect of Jesus returning at the end of time " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and ensembles are roughly marked as large by red background . Green background indicates performances with one voice per part ( OVPP ) for the vocal column , instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances in the instrumental column Instr ..
= Charles Town expedition =
The Charles Town expedition ( September 1706 ) was a combined French and Spanish attempt under Captain Jacques Lefebvre to capture the capital of the English Province of Carolina , Charles Town , during Queen Anne 's War ( as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession is sometimes known ) .
Organized and funded primarily by the French and launched from Havana , Cuba , the expedition reached Charles Town in early September 1706 after stopping at St. Augustine to pick up reinforcements . After a brief encounter with a privateer the Brillant , one of the expedition 's six ships , became separated from the rest of the fleet . Troops landed near Charles Town were quickly driven off by militia called out by Governor Nathaniel Johnson when word of the fleet 's approache reached the area , and an improvised flotilla commanded by Colonel William Rhett successfully captured the Brillant , which arrived after the other five ships had already sailed away in defeat .
= = Background = =
News of the start of the War of the Spanish Succession had come to southeastern North America in mid @-@ 1702 , and officials of the English Province of Carolina had acted immediately . After failing in December 1702 to capture St. Augustine , the capital of Spanish Florida , they launched a series of destructive raids against the Spanish @-@ Indian settlements of northern Florida . French authorities in the small settlement at Mobile on the Gulf coast were alarmed by these developments , since , as allies of the Spanish , their territory might also come under attack .
The idea of a combined Franco @-@ Spanish expedition first arose in 1704 , when the governor of Florida , José de Zúñiga y la Cerda , discussed the idea with a French naval captain as a means of revenge for the Carolina raids ; however , no concrete action came of this discussion . Pierre LeMoyne d 'Iberville , the founder of Mobile and an experienced privateer who had previously wrought havoc against English colonial settlements in the Nine Years ' War , in 1703 developed a grandiose plan for assaulting Carolina . Using minimal French resources , d 'Iberville planned for a small French fleet to join with a large Spanish fleet at Havana , which would then descend on Carolina 's capital , then known as Charles Town . The expedition was to be paid for by holding other English colonial communities hostage after destroying Charles Town . It was not until late 1705 that d 'Iberville secured permission from King Louis XIV for the expedition . The king provided ships and some troops , but required d 'Iberville to bear the upfront cost of outfitting the expedition .
= = Prelude = =
Two small fleets , one headed by d 'Iberville , who was to lead the expedition , left France in January 1706 , totalling 12 ships and carrying 600 French troops . They first sailed for the West Indies , where additional troops were recruited at Martinique , and d 'Iberville successfully ransacked English @-@ held Nevis . D 'Iberville then released part of his squadron , and sailed for Havana . There he attempted to interest Spanish authorities in supporting the expedition , with limited success , due in part to a raging epidemic of yellow fever . In addition to decimating the expedition 's troops , Spanish Governor Pedro Álvarez de Villarín died of the disease on July 6 , and d 'Iberville himself succumbed on July 8 . Before he died , d 'Iberville handed control of the expedition to Captain Jacques Lefebvre .
Lefebvre sailed from Havana with five ships , carrying about 300 French soldiers under the command of General Arbousset , and 200 Spanish volunteers led by General Esteban de Berroa . The fleet first made for St. Augustine , where Governor Francisco de Córcoles y Martínez provided a sixth ship , another 30 infantry , and about 50 " Christian Indians " from the Timucua , Apalachee , and Tequassa tribes .
The French fleet sailed from St. Augustine on August 31 . During the passage a sloop was spotted , and the Brillant gave chase ; she consequently became separated from the rest of the squadron . The sloop was a privateer sent out by Carolina governor Nathaniel Johnson to intercept Spanish supply ships ; its captain quickly returned to Charles Town with word of the fleet 's movement . The countryside and town , then also suffering the ravages of a yellow fever epidemic , rallied in response to Governor Johnson 's calling out of the militia . The exact number of militia mustered is not known ; of the non @-@ slave population of 4 @,@ 000 , an estimated 900 men served in the colonial militia . Anticipating that a landing would be attempted on James Island , which guarded the southern approach to the harbor , Johnson posted the militia there under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William Rhett . The northern point of James Island was fortified by Fort Johnson , which housed a few cannon whose range was inadequate to prevent ships from entering the harbor . The militia also improvised a small flotilla of ships , which even included a fire ship .
= = Attacks = =
The Spanish fleet arrived off the harbor bar on September 4 ( this date is recorded in contemporary English documents and histories as August 24 due to differences between the Julian calendar then in use in the English colonies , and the modern Gregorian calendar ) . Despite the absence of the Brillant , which carried much of the French force , including " the campaign guns , shovels , spades , shells , and the land commander " ( the latter being General Arbousset ) , Captain Lefebvre and his fleet crossed the bar on September 7 , and delivered an ultimatum the next day . He demanded a ransom of 50 @,@ 000 Spanish pesos , threatening to destroy Charles Town if it was not paid . Governor Johnson contemptuously dismissed the demand as paltry , claiming the town was worth 40 million pesos , and that " it had cost much blood , so let them come " .
On September 9 the invaders landed two separate forces . One large force , numbering about 160 , plundered some plantations near the Charleston neck , but was recalled when the Governor Johnson sent militia out in boats to oppose them . A second smaller force was landed on James Island , but was also driven away by the threat of opposition . Late that night Johnson received word that the party on the neck was still active , and sent Lieutenant Colonel Rhett with 100 men to investigate . Arriving around daybreak on the 10th , they apparently surprised the invaders . The invaders fled after a brief skirmish , but about 60 were captured , and as many as 12 invaders were killed along with one of the defenders . On September 11 Lieutenant Colonel Rhett sailed the colonial flotilla out to find the invaders , only to discover that they had sailed off .
The next day the Brillant showed up , unaware of what had just transpired . Her captain had misjudged the distance from St. Augustine and had made landfall further north before turning around . General Arbousset landed his troops east of Charles Town , but the Brillant was captured by the colonial fleet ; Arbousset and his men surrendered after suffering 14 – 30 killed in a brief battle with the English militia . The prisoners included 90 to 100 Indians ; most of these were " sold for slaves " .
= = Aftermath = =
Carolina officials declared October 17 a day of thanksgiving for their successful defense . The large number of prisoners , however , caused them some trouble . They sent about one third of them off to Virginia , expecting that they would be transported to England . However , by the time the prisoners arrived in Virginia , the annual merchant fleet had already sailed . Virginia authorities were unhappy that they now had to hold the prisoners , who would otherwise have been set free with the ship they arrived on .
In response to the Franco @-@ Spanish expedition , Carolinians led Indian raiding expeditions that besieged Pensacola , one of the few remaining Spanish outposts in Florida . They also mobilized Indian forces to attack Mobile , but these efforts were frustrated by French diplomatic activities in the Indian communities and also by false rumors of another Franco @-@ Spanish expedition .
= Jan Henryk Dąbrowski =
Jan Henryk Dąbrowski ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈjan ˈxɛnrɨk dɔmˈbrɔfskʲi ] ; also known as Johann Heinrich Dąbrowski ( Dombrowski ) in German and Jean Henri Dombrowski in French ; 29 August 1755 – 6 June 1818 ) was a Polish general , widely respected after his death for his patriotic attitude , and described as a national hero .
Dąbrowski initially served in the Saxon Army and joined the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1792 , shortly before the Second Partition of Poland . He was promoted to the rank of general in the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 . After the final Third Partition of Poland , which ended the existence of Poland as independent country , he became actively involved in promoting the cause of Polish independence abroad . He was the founder of the Polish Legions in Italy serving under Napoleon since 1797 , and as a general in Italian and French service he contributed to the brief restoration of the Polish state during the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806 . He participated in Napoleonic Wars , taking part in the Polish @-@ Austrian war and the French invasion of Russia until 1813 . After Napoleon 's defeat , he accepted a senatorial position in the Russian @-@ backed Congress Poland , and was one of the organizers of the Army of Congress Poland .
The Polish national anthem , Poland Is Not Yet Lost , written and first sung by the Polish legionnaires , mentions Dąbrowski by name , and is also known as Dąbrowski 's Mazurka .
= = Biography = =
= = = In Saxony and Poland = = =
Dąbrowski was born to Jan Michał Dąbrowski and Zofia Maria Dąbrowska , née Sophie von Lettow , in Pierzchów , Crown of the Kingdom of Poland , on 29 August 1755 . He grew up in Hoyerswerda , Electorate of Saxony , where his father served as a Colonel in the Saxon Army . He joined the Royal Saxon Horse Guards in 1770 or 1771 . His family was of Polish origin . Nonetheless , in his childhood and youth he grew up surrounded by German culture in Saxony , and signed his name as Johann Heinrich Dąbrowski . He fought in the War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 1779 ) , during which time his father died . Shortly afterward in 1780 he married Gustawa Rackel . He lived in Dresden , and steadily progressed through ranks , becoming a Rittmeister in 1789 . He served as Adjutant general of King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony from 1788 to 1791 .
Following the appeal of the Polish Four @-@ Year Sejm to all Poles serving abroad to join the Polish army , and not seeing much opportunity to advance in his military career in the now @-@ peaceful Saxony , on 28 June 1792 he joined the Army of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth with a rank of podpułkownik and on 14 July he was promoted to the rank of vice @-@ brigadier . Joining in the final weeks of the Polish – Russian War of 1792 , he did not see combat in it . Unfamiliar with the intricasies of Polish politics , like many of Poniatowski 's supporters , he joined the Targowica Confederation in late 1792 .
Dąbrowski was seen as a cavalry expert , and King Stanisław August Poniatowski was personally interested in obtaining Dąbrowski 's services . As a cavalryman educated in a Dresden military school under Count Maurice Bellegarde , a reformer of the Saxon army 's cavalry , Dąbrowski was asked to help modernize the Polish cavalry , serving in the ranks of the 1st Greater Poland Cavalry Brygade ( 1 Wielkpolska Brygada Kawalerii Narodowej ) . In January 1793 , stationed around Gniezno with two units of cavalry , about 200 strong , he briefly engaged the Prussian forces entering Poland in the aftermath of the Second Partition of Poland , and afterward became a known activist advocating the continuation of military struggle against the occupiers .
The Grodno Sejm , held in the fall of 1793 , nominated him for a membership in a military commission ; this caused him to be viewed with suspicion by the majority of the dissatisfied military , and he was not included in the preparations for the upcoming uprising . Thus he was taken by surprise when the Kościuszko Insurrection erupted , and his own brigade mutinied . He declared his support for the insurgents after the libation of Warsaw , and from then on took an active part in the uprising , defending Warsaw and leading an army corps in support of an uprising in Greater Poland . His courage was commended by Tadeusz Kościuszko himself , the Supreme Commander of the National Armed Forces , who promoted him to the rank of general .
= = = In the Napoleonic service = = =
After the failure of the uprising he remained in partitioned Poland for a while , attempting to convince the Prussian authorities that they need Poland as an ally against Austria and Russia . He was unsuccessful , and with the Third Partition of Poland between Russia , Prussia and Austria , Poland disappeared from the map of Europe . Dąbrowski 's next solution was to convince the French Republic that it should support a Polish cause , and create a Polish military formation . This proved to be more successful , and indeed Dąbrowski is remembered in the history of Poland as the organiser of Polish Legions in Italy during the Napoleonic Wars . ( These Legions are also often known as the " Dąbrowski 's Legions " . ) This event gave hope to contemporary Poles , and is still remembered in the Polish national anthem , named after Dąbrowski . He began his work in 1796 , when he came to Paris and soon afterward met Napoleon Bonaparte in Milan . On January 7 , 1797 he was authorized by the Cisalpine Republic to create Polish legions , which would be part of the army of the newly created Republic of Lombardy .
In April Dąbrowski lobbied for a plan to push through to the Polish territories in Galicia , but that was blocked by Napoleon who instead decided to use those troops on the Italian front . Dąbrowski 's Polish soldiers fought at Napoleon 's side from May 1797 until the beginning of 1803 . As a commander of his legion he played an important part in the war in Italy , entered Rome in May 1798 , and distinguished himself greatly at the Battle of Trebia on June 19 , 1799 , where he was wounded , as well as in other battles and combats of 1799 – 1801 . From the time the Legions garrisoned Rome , Dąbrowski obtained a number of trophies from a Roman representative , namely the ones that the Polish king , Jan III Sobieski , had sent there after his victory over the Ottoman Empire at the siege of Vienna in 1683 ; amongst these was an Ottoman standard which subsequently became part of the Legions ' colors , accompanying them from then on . However , the legions were never able to reach Poland and did not liberate the country , as Dąbrowski had dreamed . Napoleon did , however , notice the growing dissatisfaction of his soldiers and their commanders . They were particularly disappointed by a peace treaty between France and Russia signed in Lunéville on 9 February 1801 , which dashed Polish hopes of Bonaparte freeing Poland . Shortly afterwards , in March , Dąbrowski reorganized both Legions at Milan into two 6 @,@ 000 @-@ strong units . Disillusioned with Napoleon after the Lunéville treaty , many legionnaires resigned afterward ; of the others , thousands perished when the Legions were sent to suppress the Haitian Revolution in 1803 ; by that time Dąbrowski was no longer in command of the Legions .
Dąbrowski , meanwhile , spent the first few years of the new century as a general in the service of the Italian republic . In 1804 he received the Officer cross of Legion of Honour , and the next year , the Italian Order of the Iron Crown . Together with Józef Wybicki he was summoned again by Napoleon in fall of 1806 and tasked with recreating the Polish formation , which Napoleon wanted to use to recapture Greater Poland from Prussia . The ensuing conflict was known as the Greater Poland Uprising , and Dabrowski was the chief leader of Polish insurgent forces in it . Dąbrowski distinguished himself at siege of Tczew , siege of Gdańsk and at Battle of Friedland .
In 1807 the Duchy of Warsaw was established in the recaptured territories , essentially as a satellite of Bonaparte 's France . Dąbrowski became disappointed with Napoleon , who offered him monetary rewards , but no serious military or government position . He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari medal that year . Soon , however he set out to defend Poland against an Austrian invasion under the command of Prince Józef Poniatowski in 1809 . Joining the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw shortly after the Battle of Raszyn , he took part in the first stages of the offensive on Galicia , and then organized the defense of Greater Poland . In June 1812 Dąbrowski commanded the 17th ( Polish ) Infantry Division in the V Corps of the Grande Armée , during Napoleon 's invasion of Russia . However , by October the Franco @-@ Russian war was over and the French forces , decimated by a severe winter , had to retreat . At the disastrous Battle of Berezina in late November that year , Dąbrowski was wounded , and his leadership and tactics in it were criticized . After the March reorganization of the Grande Armée , he commanded the 27th ( Polish ) Infantry Division in the VIII Corps . He commanded it at the Battle of Leipzig ( 1813 ) , and subsequently on 28 October he became the commander in chief of the all remaining Polish forces in Napoleon 's service , succeeding Antoni Paweł Sułkowski .
= = = Final years = = =
Dąbrowski always associated independent Poland with a Polish Army , and offered his services to the new power , which promised to organize such a formation : Russia . He was one of the generals entrusted by the tsar Alexander of Russia with the reorganization of the Duchy 's army into the Army of Congress Poland . In 1815 he received the titles of general of cavalry and senator @-@ voivode of the new Congress Kingdom . He was also awarded the Order of the White Eagle on December 9 that year . Soon afterward he withdrew from active politics . He retired in the following year to his estates in Winna Góra in the Grand Duchy of Posen , Kingdom of Prussia , where he died on 6 June 1818 , from a combination of pneumonia and gangrene . He was buried in the church in Winna Góra .
Over the years , Dąbrowski wrote several military treaties , primarily about the Legions , in German , French and Polish .
= = = Remembrance = = =
Dąbrowski was often criticized by his contemporaries , and by the early Polish historiography , but his image improved with time . He has been often compared to the two other military heroes of the time of Partitions and the Legions , Tadeusz Kościuszko and Józef Poniatowski , and to the father of Second Polish Republic , Józef Piłsudski . In particular , his mention in the Polish national anthem , also known as Dąbrowski 's Mazurek , contributed to his fame in Poland . It is not uncommon for modern works of Polish history to describe him as a " ( national ) hero " .
Dąbrowski is also remembered outside of Poland for his historical contributions . His name , in the French version " Dombrowsky " , is inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
= Cape Fear shiner =
The Cape Fear shiner ( Notropis mekistocholas ) is a North American species of freshwater fish in the Cyprinidae family . It is endemic to the central part of the state of North Carolina in the southeastern United States and is only found in the shallow streams of the Cape Fear River basin . The fish is small and yellow with black lips and a black stripe which runs down the middle of the fish 's side . This shiner is normally found in mixed schools with other minnow species . It is unique amongst its genus because it has elongated intestines that are specifically adapted to a primarily herbivorous diet . It can breed twice a year and normally lives for only two or three years in the wild . The males and females are normally similar in appearance but become different colors in the spawning season . This species of shiner was not discovered until 1962 .
The shiner is critically endangered due to its small population size and threats to its habitat from dam construction and pollution . It was first recognized as threatened in 1987 . The species has since undergone a successful captive breeding program and its status has been a significant factor in the destruction of a dam that destroyed part of the shiner 's habitat . However , the species is still limited to just five populations in the wild and some experts believe that a single toxic chemical spill into the Cape Fear River could wipe out the entire wild population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Cape Fear shiner was only discovered in 1962 and described as a distinct species by Franklin F. Snelson , Jr. in 1971 . The specific epithet is derived from the Greek mēkistos / μηκιστος - ' longest / tallest ' or ' very long ' ( a superlative from mēkos / μηκος - length ) and ... cholas / χολας ' intestines ' or ' bile ' . This fish belongs to the carp and minnow family Cyprinidae , and within this family , it belongs to the genus Notropis , which includes a large number of eastern North American minnows . The Cape Fear shiner is unusual in its genus because its intestines are elongated and more convoluted than those of other Notropis species , a trait shared only by the Ozark Minnow . This feature better adapts the shiner to a diet primarily of plant material . It is superficially different from similar members of its genus because of the angle and size of its mouth , head shape , eight anal fin rays , and black edge on its lower lip . It is also one of the few Notropis to have a black peritoneum . Its closest relatives are the Swallowtail Shiner and the Sand Shiner . It has no subspecies .
= = Description = =
The Cape Fear shiner is a small but stocky minnow of about 5 centimeters ( 2 in ) long with a maximum length of 7 @.@ 7 centimeters ( 3 in ) . It is mostly a silvery yellowish shade with a black stripe running down the middle of the fish ’ s side to its caudal peduncle and a lighter stripe above this one . The scales are outlined in black . The shiner 's fins are clear to yellow and moderately pointed . The dorsal fin 's origin is over or slightly before the pelvic fin 's origin . During the spawning season , the males become more golden in color while the females become more silvery . The Cape Fear Shiner 's snout is acute and rounded and has a black upper lip and a lower lip that has a thin black bar stretching across its margin . The upper lip always overhangs above the lower lip .
The shiner only has pharyngeal teeth ( teeth located on the back of the fish 's throat on its gill arches ) , similar to the teeth of other omnivorous shiners . The Cape Fear Shiner 's eyes are moderately sized and on the side of the fish 's head . It has eight anal fin rays . The shiner 's distinctive long dark intestines are coiled and visible through the fish 's belly wall and it also has a distinctive black peritoneum .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Cape Fear shiner is endemic to the Upper Basin of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina ’ s Piedmont . Only five wild populations of this fish are known to exist . These populations are found in the freshwater Deep , Haw , and Rocky rivers in Chatham , Harnett , Lee , Moore , and Randolph counties . The largest of these populations is found where the Deep and Rocky Rivers meet . During the winter , shiners may migrate from their shoals in main river channels to smaller tributary streams . This shiner has the smallest range of any Notropis .
This minnow typically lives in clean streams over gravel , cobble , and boulder substrates , especially where nearby water willows and riverweed are available to provide protection from predators . The shiner rarely ventures into water deeper than 0 @.@ 5 meters ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) . It has been observed in slow runs , riffles , and slow pools .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The Cape Fear shiner is often found swimming in mixed schools with other minnow species ; however , it is never the most numerous minnow in a mixed school . It has been known to survive for six years in captivity but are only believed to survive for two or three years in the wild .
The Cape Fear shiner 's intestines are adapted to help the fish digest plants and they were initially suggested to be primarily herbivorous because of this adaptation . However , recent studies have shown that the shiner eats a variety of both plant and animal matter . It is known to eat detritus , bacteria , phytoplankton , diatoms , and algae .
The shiner is threatened by numerous predators , such as crappie , bass , and the introduced Flathead Catfish . However , the adult Flathead Catfish does not pose a significant threat because of the differences in habitats of the two species within the river ; the juvenile catfish , which share the same habitat as the shiner , may pose a larger threat .
This shiner spawns around May 15 when the water temperature reaches 19 ° C ( 66 @.@ 2 ° F ) . A second spawning may occur in the late summer . Both male and female change color while spawning and the male develops a number of small tubercles along its upper body . The shiner generally moves to slower @-@ flowing pools to lay its eggs in rocky substrates . Eggs hatch after three days , although the young generally live off of their egg yolk for another five days . Juvenile shiners are often found in slow @-@ moving water , particularly amongst large rocks in the middle of a stream or in flooded channels and pools . Juveniles sexually mature after their first year .
= = Conservation = =
The Cape Fear shiner is only known from five different populations , two of which are extremely small and run a high risk of extinction . The other three populations are more stable and are estimated to number between 1500 and 3000 individual fish that are reproductively viable .
The Cape Fear shiner was recognized as " Endangered with Critical Habitat " on September 25 , 1987 under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 . Since 1987 , the shiner has dwindled both in range and population . This fish is also protected from being captured and traded by the Lacey Act . The shiner is not believed to have had historically large populations .
This minnow has been endangered by dam construction on the Cape Fear River , which has led to the flooding and destruction of its shallow water habitat . The small number of geographically separated populations may also threaten the species ’ genetic health , although a 2004 study concluded that genetic diversity was still relatively high . A deterioration of water quality due to pollution at some of the sites has also threatened the shiner . Experiments have shown that the shiner is highly sensitive to contaminating chemicals , and experts believe that the wild population of this species can be wiped out by a single toxic chemical spill .
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has been working to protect this species . Some of the conservation methods used to protect this species include studying its biology in the wild and donating $ 16 @,@ 000 in 1998 to help maintain a captive population at the North Carolina Zoo . Since the first successful captive breeding in 1997 , this species has bred easily in captivity . An experiment was carried out in 2001 in which 900 captive @-@ bred shiners were released temporarily into the wild to judge water quality at potential reintroduction sites .
In the fall of 2005 , work crews began removing the Carbonton Dam , which had destroyed part of the shiner 's habitat . After the work that removed the dam finished in February 2006 , the lake fell back to its historic creek levels , allowing the Cape Fear Shiner to expand its range back into several miles of river that was previously unsuitable for inhabitation because of the dam . In 2009 Deep River 's riverine and riparian habitat was surveyed to identify areas for protection or restoration .
= Higher @-@ speed rail =
Higher @-@ speed rail ( HrSR ) , also known as high @-@ performance rail , higher @-@ performance rail , or almost @-@ high @-@ speed rail , is a jargon used to describe inter @-@ city passenger rail services that have top speeds of more than conventional rail but are not high enough to be called high @-@ speed rail services . The term is also used by planners to identify the incremental rail improvements to increase train speeds and reduce travel time as alternatives to larger efforts to create or expand the high @-@ speed rail networks . Some countries use the term medium @-@ speed rail , or semi @-@ high speed rail instead .
= = Definitions = =
As with the definitions of high @-@ speed rail , there is no universal definition of higher @-@ speed rail either . The term has been used by government agencies , government officials , transportation planners , academia , the rail industry , and the media , but sometime with overlaps in the speed definitions . Some countries with an established definition of higher @-@ speed rail include :
In Canada , according to the Surface Transportation Policy , Department of Transport , the speed range for higher @-@ speed rail is between 160 and 240 km / h ( 99 and 149 mph ) .
In India , according to the Minister of Railways , the speed range for India 's higher @-@ speed rail will be between 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) .
In Indonesia , the government is considering higher @-@ speed rail options , referred to as medium @-@ speed railway . The speed range is between 200 and 250 km / h ( 120 and 160 mph )
In the United Kingdom , the term higher @-@ speed rail is used for upgraded tracks with train speeds up to 125 mph ( 20
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1 km / h )
In the United States , the term " higher @-@ speed rail " , as opposed to " high @-@ speed rail " , is used by regional planners in many U.S. states to describe inter @-@ city passenger rail services with top speeds of between 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . This is the equivalent of the definition of " Emerging High @-@ Speed Rail " as defined by the Federal Railroad Administration . However , the Congressional Research Service defines " Higher Speed Rail " as rail services with speeds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and defines rail services on dedicated tracks with speeds over 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) as " Very High Speed Rail " .
State @-@ level departments of transportation and council of governments may use different definitions . Below is the list of known definitions of higher @-@ speed rail which use some of the 5 speed levels , 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) and 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) :
In Thailand , higher @-@ speed rail , which is called medium @-@ speed rail there , has top speeds of up to 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) .
= = Speed limits = =
In Canada , the assumption about grade crossing is that operating higher @-@ speed rail services between 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) would require " improved levels of protection in acceptable areas " .
In the United States , railroad tracks are largely used for freight with at @-@ grade crossings . Passenger trains in many corridors run on shared tracks with freight trains . Most trains are limited to top speeds of 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) unless they are equipped with an automatic cab signal , automatic train stop , automatic train control or positive train control system approved by the Federal Railroad Administration ( FRA ) . In developing higher @-@ speed rail services , one of those safety systems must be used .
Additionally , the FRA establishes classification of track quality which regulates the speed limits of the trains with Class 5 , Class 6 , Class 7 and Class 8 for top speeds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) and 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , respectively . The FRA also regulates passenger train design and safety standards to ensure trains that operate at speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) up to 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) comply with its Tier I standard and trains that operate at speeds up to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) comply with its Tier II standard .
Another limitation is the safety of grade crossings which limits how fast the trains can go . FRA regulations set speed limits for tracks with grade crossings as follows :
For 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) or less : Grade crossings are permitted . States and railroads cooperate to determine the needed warning devices , including passive crossbucks , flashing lights , two quadrant gates ( close only ' entering ' lanes of road ) , long gate arms , median barriers , and various combinations . Lights and / or gates are activated by circuits wired to the track ( track circuits ) .
For 110 to 125 mph ( 180 to 200 km / h ) : The FRA permits crossings only if an " impenetrable barrier " blocks highway traffic when a train approaches .
Above 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) : No crossings will be permitted .
In Europe , the limit is often 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) over grade crossings . In Sweden there is a special rule permitting 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) if there are barriers and automatic detection of road vehicles standing on the track . In Russia 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) is permitted over grade crossings .
With the above limitations , many regional transportation planners focus on rail improvements to have the top speeds up to 110 mph when proposing a new higher @-@ speed rail service .
= = Similar categories = =
In countries where there had been rail improvement projects in the later part of the 20th century and into the 2000s , there are inter @-@ city rail services with comparable speed ranges of higher @-@ speed rail , but they are not specifically called " higher @-@ speed rail " . Below are some examples of such services that are still in operation .
Europe : The InterCity services in many European countries have top speeds of mostly up to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) , but it can go up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) Intercity trains that cross international borders are usually designated as Eurocity and reach similar speeds where tracks allow it .
Japan : The Mini @-@ shinkansen in Japan are upgraded lines from narrow gauge to allow Shinkansen to pass through with top speeds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . However , the International Union of Railways recognizes the Mini @-@ shinkansen lines as high @-@ speed rail .
Spain : Many inter @-@ city rail services operated by Renfe Operadora , the state @-@ owned company , are not classified as high @-@ speed rail . Those services are Alaris , Altaria , Arco and Talgo ( from Talgo III to Talgo VII ) with top speeds of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph )
In Norway , there is sometimes talked about høy hastighet , which may be compared to higher @-@ speed rail as used here – and høyhastighet , high @-@ speed rail . Most of the rail network is old , with sharp curves , and speeds at only 70 – 130 km / h . The lines around Oslo are upgraded or renewed , or are planned to be so . Some of the sections , like Follobanen ( Oslo – Ski , 22 km ) , are built or planned for 250 km / h – though others to høy hastighet , i.e. 160 or 200 km / h . By the same token , the Norwegian FLIRT trains and the El 18 locomotives have a top speed at 200 km / h . Gardermobanen is called a high @-@ speed line , and the GMB Class 71 and NSB Class 73 are often called high @-@ speed trains – with 210 km / t top speed . However , the limits are blurry . Sometimes , e.g. the FLIRTs are called high @-@ speed trains .
Sweden : SJ ( Swedish Railways ) operates inter @-@ city rail services using X 2000 trains in major routes across the country with top speeds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) . The operator brands it as high @-@ speed rail services ; however , the International Union of Railways only recognizes the 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) line from Stockholm to Malmö and Göteborg as the only high @-@ speed rail line in Sweden which is still in the planning stage .
In Germany regional trains along the Munich @-@ Nuremberg high speed line which was built for 300 km / h run at 200 km / h without being specially designated . Those trains use locomotives that are used for Intercity trains elsewhere and the higher speed was chosen mainly to increase capacity .
= = Rail improvement strategies = =
There are many types of train that can support higher @-@ speed rail operation . Usually , the rail infrastructure needs to be upgraded prior to such operation . However , the requirements to the infrastructure ( signalling systems , curve radii , etc . ) increase much with higher speeds , so an upgrade to a higher @-@ speed standard is often much simpler and less expensive than building new high @-@ speed lines . But an upgrade to existing track currently in use , with busy traffic in some segments , makes challenges associated with the construction work that could potentially disrupt the train services . The followings are some strategies used by regional transportation planners and rail track owners for their rail improvement projects in order to start the higher @-@ speed rail services .
= = = Signal upgrades = = =
In Australia , the increased top speeds from 130 to 160 km / h ( 81 to 99 mph ) in the Regional Fast Rail project required a change to the signalling system to account for increased braking distance . Prior to the project , the system comprised a mixture of equipment from pre @-@ WWI mechanical signalling to the remote control systems of the 1980s . In some cases , operators needed to telephone the local operators to manually control the signal boxes . With the new speeds , the signalling needed to be computerized . The project employed the Solid State Interlocking with the newly laid fiber @-@ optic communication between the components to use three computer systems to control the signals . When the output of one computer differs from the other two , the system will fail that computer and continue the signal operations as long as the outputs from the other two computers are consistent . The project deployed the Train Protection & Warning System which allows the system to automatically applies the brakes at a sufficient distance to stop the train if the driver does not control the speeds adequately . The project also incorporated Train Control and Monitoring System to allow real @-@ time monitoring of the position of trains .
In the United States , the first step to increase top speeds from 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) is to install a new signal system that incorporates FRA @-@ approved positive train control ( PTC ) system that is compatible with higher @-@ speed rail operation . There are both transponder @-@ based and GPS @-@ based PTC systems currently in use in the United States . By a mandate , a significant portion of the railroads in the United States will be covered by PTC by the end of 2015 .
= = = Track improvements = = =
To support trains that run regularly at higher speeds , the rails need to be reliable . Most freight tracks have wooden ties which cause rails to become slightly misaligned over time due to wood rot , splitting and spike @-@ pull ( where the spike is gradually loosened from the tie ) . The concrete ties used to replace them are intended to make the track more stable , particularly with changes in temperature . Rail joints are also an issue , since most conventional rail lines use bolts and fishplates to join two sections of the rail together . This causes the joint to become slightly misaligned over time due to loosening bolts . To make for a smoother ride at higher speeds , the lengths of rail may be welded together to form continuous welded rail ( CWR ) . However , the continuous welded rails are vulnerable to stress due to changes in temperature .
In Australia , the track condition before the Regional Fast Rail project could only support trains up to speeds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . The tracks are with mixture of wooden and concrete ties . The rail weight varies but with majority being 47 kg / m ( 95 lb / yd ) . The track upgrade in the project included changing to use concrete ties and to use new standard of rail weight at 60 kg / m ( 121 lb / yd ) in order to support the new top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) .
There may be restriction in maximum operating speeds due to track geometry of existing line , especially on curves . Straightening the route , where possible , will reduce the travel time by increasing the allowable speeds and by reducing the length of track . When straight routes are not possible , reducing the number of curves and lowering the degree of curvature would result in higher allowable speeds on those curves . An example is the elimination of three consecutive reverse curves in favor of one larger curve . Raising superelevation may be considered for sharp curves which significantly limit speed . The higher speeds on those modified curves , together with the higher superelevation , will require track modification to have transition spirals to and from those curves to be longer .
Old turnouts may need replacement to allow trains to run through the turnouts at higher speeds . In the United States , some old turnouts have speed limit of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Even with newer turnouts ( rated # 20 ) , the diverging speed limit is still at 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) which would significantly slow down the higher @-@ speed train passing through those sections . High @-@ speed turnouts ( rated # 32 @.@ 7 ) are capable of handling maximum diverging speeds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
In order to minimize the downtime to upgrade tracks , a track renewal train ( TRT ) can automate much of the process , replacing rails , ties , and ballast at the rate of 2 miles per day . In the United States , a TRT is used by Union Pacific Railroad on the track shared with future higher @-@ speed rail service in Illinois area .
For electrified track , the old catenary may need to be replaced . The fixed @-@ tension catenary which is acceptable for low speeds may not be suitable for regular higher @-@ speed rail services , where a constant tension is automatically maintained when temperature changes cause the length of the wire to expand or contract .
= = = Crossing improvements = = =
With trains running at higher speeds throughout the route , safety at all at @-@ grade crossings needs to be considered .
In Australia , the levels of upgrade of the crossing in the rail improvements project were based on the risk analysis . The improvements included flashing light protection , automatic full barriers protection , and pedestrian gates crossings . The project also introduced the use of rubber panels at the crossings .
In the United States , the FRA limits train speeds to 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) without an " impenetrable barrier " at each crossing . Even with that top speed , the grade crossings must have adequate means to prevent collisions . Another option is grade separation , but it could be cost @-@ prohibitive and the planners may opt for at @-@ grade crossing improvements instead .
The safety improvements at crossings can be done using combination of techniques . This includes passive devices such as upgraded signage and pavement markings . Another low @-@ cost passive device is median separators which are installed along the center line of roadways , extending approximately 70 to 100 feet from the crossing , to discourage drivers from running around the crossing gates . More active devices include the four @-@ quadrant gate , which blocks both sides of each traffic lane . Longer gate arms can cover 3 / 4 of the roadway . Video cameras can also be installed to catch the violators . A signal monitoring system can also be installed to alert the crews when the crossing equipment has malfunctioned .
In Norway , grade crossings are not permitted at speeds above 160 km / h .
= = = Rerouting and passing sidings = = =
In areas where there is frequent interference between freight and passenger trains due to congestion which causes the passenger trains to slow down , more extensive improvements may be needed . Certain segments of the line in congested areas may need to be rerouted . New track may need to be laid to avoid many curves which slow down the trains . In stretches of heavy
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freight train traffic , adding passing sidings along the segment should be considered . Sometimes certain stations may need to be bypassed .
= = = Electrification = = =
Another consideration is electrification . Electrifying a railway line entails a major upgrade to the rail infrastructure and equipment . On the infrastructure side , it requires catenary lines to be built above the tracks . New transmission lines are needed to carry power from the power plants . Substations are required for each of the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) lengths to reduce severe voltage losses . There is also a need to consider the required amount of power supply and new power plants may be required . For locomotives , new electric locomotives are needed or existing diesel @-@ electric locomotives can be retrofitted into all @-@ electric locomotives , but it is a complicated task . These factors cause electrification to have high initial investment costs . The advantages of all @-@ electric locomotives are that they provide quieter , cleaner and more reliable operations than the diesel @-@ electric counterpart . The fuel consumption , locomotive maintenance costs and track wear of all all @-@ electric locomotives are also lower . Furthermore , electric traction makes the operator more independent of oil price fluctuations and imports , as electricity can be generated from domestic resources or renewable energy . This was a major consideration in the electrification of the GDR network , as lignite ( and therefore electricity ) was cheap and plentiful domestically whereas oil had to be imported at world market prices .
An alternative to catenary lines is to use a third rail system which has a semi @-@ continuous rigid conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track . However the operating speeds of this type of systems cannot be greater than 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) due to its limitation of the power supply gaps at turnouts and grade crossings . Therefore , the third rail system is not generally used for higher @-@ speed rail .
One example in the United States that does involve electrification is the Keystone Improvement Project to provide higher @-@ speed rail service along the Harrisburg @-@ Pittsburgh segment of the Keystone Corridor in Pennsylvania . The plan includes additional track , a new signal system and electrification . If completed as planned , this would allow Amtrak to utilize electric power continuously on service from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh . The first segment ( " Main Line " ) has already been using electric locomotives with a top speed of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) .
= = In operation = =
= = = Australia = = =
In 1999 , the concept of Regional Fast Rail project was initiated by the State Government of Victoria with a goal to provide express higher @-@ speed rail services between 4 main regional centres of Victoria ( Geelong , Ballarat , Bendigo and the Latrobe Valley ) and Melbourne . The initiative included a key component to upgrade rail infrastructure to have top speeds up to 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) . The development phase of initiative was between 2000 and 2002 . Finally , the services on four lines began between 2005 and 2006 with top speeds of 160 km / h using VLocity trains . Additionally , Queensland Rail 's Tilt Train and Transwa Prospector are considered to be higher @-@ speed rail .
= = = China = = =
In China , the higher @-@ speed railways are the railways that are not officially categorised as high @-@ speed rail , but capable to have CRH EMUs run on it with top speed ranging from 140 km / h ( for shorter distance regional rail lines ) to 250 km / h ( for long @-@ haul lines ) . The higher @-@ speed trains have the identifiers starting with D ( for long @-@ distance trains ) , or C ( for regional rail trains ) , while high @-@ speed rail trains have identifiers starting with G ( which is the first letter for high @-@ speed rail in Chinese )
= = = Greece = = =
Since 1997 , ongoing construction to upgrade and built higher @-@ speed lines capable of speeds of up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) is conducted . The P.A.Th.E. Plan ( Patras @-@ Athens @-@ Thessaloniki @-@ Evzonoi ) , as it is called aims at reduced journey times between Greece 's main cities ( Athens , Thessaloniki and Patra ) as well as an improved rail connection between Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia . Currently , only the modernized lines of Domokos – Thessaloniki , Athens Airport – Kiato , and Thessaloniki – Strymonas are in operation at maximum speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) .
= = = United States = = =
This is the list of the current higher @-@ speed rail services from the East Coast to the West Coast :
Brightline is a Florida @-@ based company building a higher @-@ speed rail line that will connect Orlando and Miami by the end of 2017 . It will have stops in Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach with speeds up to 125 mph . When completed it will be the first Inter @-@ city rail not handled by Amtrak in the U.S. since 1983 when the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad discontinued its Rio Grande Zephyr .
= = Earlier attempts = =
= = = Canada = = =
There have been several different attempts at higher speed rail in the Windsor @-@ Quebec City Corridor , and several high speed rail attempts as well .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
The East Rail , the Tung Chung Line and the West Rail , which connect satellite cities in the New Territories with the city centres in Kowloon and Hong Kong , along with the Ma On Shan Line which branches off from the East Rail , are all equipped with train @-@ sets which are capable to run at 140 km / h ( 90 mph ) .
= = = Ireland = = =
In 2010 , there was a report commissioned by the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport as a mid @-@ term review of Transport 21 , an Irish infrastructure plan announced in 2005 . The report recommended , among other things , a development of national rail to provide higher @-@ speed rail services . However , there have been no progress toward the recommendation .
= = = United States = = =
There have been long @-@ range visions to establish high / higher @-@ speed rail networks in different regions of the United States but without adequate funding . During the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , there was a surge of interest to apply for grants from the federal government to start those projects . However , many proposals have been put on hold or cancelled after failing to secure funding or support from the public or key local politicians .
= = = = Amtrak Cascades = = = =
Amtrak Cascades , a 467 @-@ mile ( 747 km ) intercity rail service , stretches from Eugene , Oregon , through the State of Washington to Vancouver , British Columbia , in Canada . As of 2010 , the long @-@ term goal of this corridor was to have the top speeds of the segment of Eugene , Oregon , to Blaine , Washington , with top speeds in the 90 to 120 mph ( 140 to 190 km / h ) range , and eventually 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on a dedicated track . However , as of 2012 , the Washington State Department of Transportation plans for its 300 @-@ mile ( 480 km ) stretch to have top speeds of only 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) , and the plan in Oregon is to limit the speeds to 79 mph as well , with safety and other freight service concerns voiced by the track owner , Union Pacific Railroad . This essentially halts the plan to provide a higher @-@ speed rail service on this corridor in the near future .
= = = = Minnesota = = = =
The Northern Lights Express project , in the planning stages and proposed to begin construction in 2017 , would upgrade the BNSF trackage between Minneapolis and Duluth to support service up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
Other higher @-@ speed rail proposals are periodically considered , but would need to pass through neighboring states , which have thus far not agreed to cooperate . Minnesota transportation planners proposed a higher @-@ speed rail service called the River Route , with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , between Minneapolis – Saint Paul , Minnesota , and Chicago , Illinois , via Milwaukee , Wisconsin , which follows the Empire Builder route . There is no current progress with the River Route project due to the cancellation of the funding in Wisconsin .
Another alternative that has been discussed is to have a new route that heads south to Iowa to join the rail link from Iowa to Chicago . There was a report in 2011 that Iowa would halt its involvement in high / higher @-@ speed rail projects . However , the Iowa Department of Transportation and Illinois Department of Transportation continue to pursue the study of rail link between Chicago and Omaha , Nebraska , through Iowa with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Therefore , the status of the proposal to link Minneapolis – Saint Paul with Chicago via Iowa is unknown .
= = = = New York = = = =
In 1998 , New York State initiated a $ 185 million program in partnership with Amtrak to increase the speeds of the Empire Service to 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) by reconstructing all seven gas @-@ turbine Turboliner trainsets , originally built in 1976 – 1977 , to the new RTL @-@ III specification . The reconstructed trains , coupled with track improvements , would cut the travel time between New York City and Albany by 20 minutes . However , the project ran into many problems including issues with the trains and the unsuccessful implementation of required track improvements . New York ended the rehabilitation program in 2005 after spending $ 70 @.@ 3 million . Fallout over the program led to litigation between New York and Amtrak ; Amtrak would eventually pay New York $ 20 million and commit to funding $ 10 million in track improvements . New York auctioned off its surplus Turboliners in 2012 for $ 420 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Ohio = = = =
The Ohio Hub , a rail improvement project proposed by the Ohio Department of Transportation , is aimed at revitalizing passenger rail service in the Ohio region . The proposal was to increase the top speeds to 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) in the network connecting Cleveland , Columbus , and Cincinnati – commonly referred as the 3 @-@ C corridor . The project is currently in an unknown state after the U.S. government rescinded the federal funding from Ohio and redirected it to other states .
= = = = Wisconsin = = = =
In October 2009 , the Wisconsin Department of Transportation adopted the Connections 2030 plan which is the long @-@ range plan for state transportation needs . The plan includes Wisconsin Rail Plan 2030 , the twenty @-@ year plan to improve the state railroad system by 2030 . In the rail plan , there is a multi @-@ phase project to upgrade the rail service from Chicago , Illinois , to Milwaukee and Madison , Wisconsin , with top speeds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The latter phases of the project will expand the same service to Minneapolis – Saint Paul in Minnesota and another route to Green Bay , Wisconsin . There was a reaction against the project in 2010 , and the $ 810 million grant the state originally received for the project from the federal government was rescinded . As of 2012 , the rail plan is postponed indefinitely .
= = Current efforts = =
= = = Baltic states = = =
The three Baltic states have been working with the European Union as part of the Trans @-@ European Transport Networks ( TEN @-@ T ) initiative on a study to build a higher @-@ speed rail line in the Rail Baltica corridor to connect Warsaw , in Poland , and Tallinn , in Estonia .
= = = Canada = = =
For a rail route to connect Windsor , Ontario to Detroit , Michigan in the United States , a higher @-@ speed rail plan was proposed as an alternative after a study on the Windsor to Quebec City route in Canada was to consider only high @-@ speed rail with top speeds of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) or more . Politicians in Windsor area proposed in 2012 that having higher @-@ speed rail connection between Windsor and Detroit must be part of the consideration .
Another feasibility study is ongoing as part of the Northern New England Intercity Rail Initiative to connect between Boston and Montreal trains at top speeds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
= = = Greece = = =
A project to modernize railway network in Greece is ongoing . A new 106 km ( 66 mi ) alignment between Tithorea and Domokos is designed to avoid the mountainous part . The new line will have speeds of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) .
= = = India = = =
In October 2013 , the Minister of Railways announced at the two @-@ day international technical conference on High Speed Rail Travel ; Low Cost Solution that the focus of India 's rail improvement is to implement a lower cost solution to meet the immediate needs by providing higher @-@ speed rail services as an incremental step before the dedicated track high @-@ speed rail can be achieved . India 's higher @-@ speed rail will be in the range of 160 and 200 km / h ( 99 and 124 mph ) . On 3 July 2014 , a trail run with the new top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) was successfully completed on a journey of 200 km ( 120 mi ) between Delhi and Agra . The new service , to be in operation in March 2016 , will cut the travel time from 126 minutes by the current trains with top speeds of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) down to 99 minutes .
= = = Indonesia = = =
Before September 2015 , Indonesia had a plan to build its first high @-@ speed rail between Jakarta and Bandung . There were biddings from China and Japan to build the new rail line . However , on September 4 , 2015 , the government of Indonesia announced the cancellation of the project . The Coordinating Minister for the Economy gave the reason that the distant between the two cities is only 150 km ( 93 mi ) . The short distant would make it hard to sustain the top speeds of 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) which would not justify the high construction cost to build a high @-@ speed rail line . The government now has a focus on medium @-@ speed railway between the two cities which will be in the range of 200 and 250 km / h ( 120 and 160 mph ) .
= = = Thailand = = =
The Government of Thailand considers a plan to build out its high @-@ speed rail corridors . As an alternative to the high @-@ speed trains , the government also considers medium @-@ speed trains with top speeds of 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) .
= = = United States = = =
This is a partial list of ongoing higher @-@ speed rail projects from the East Coast to the West Coast .
* The study includes higher @-@ speed rail alternatives with top speeds of 9
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consists of two fragmentary lists of Hebrew names contained in the Gospels , Breves causae ( Gospel summaries ) , Argumenta ( short biographies of the Evangelists ) , and Eusebian canon tables . It is probable that , like the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Books of Durrow and Armagh , part of the lost preliminary material included the letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus I beginning Novum opus , in which Jerome explains the purpose of his translation . It is also possible , though less likely , that the lost material included the letter of Eusebius to Carpianus , in which he explains the use of the canon tables . Of all the insular Gospels , only the Lindisfarne manuscript contains this letter .
There are two fragments of the lists of Hebrew names ; one on the recto of the first surviving folio and one on folio 26 , which is currently inserted at the end of the prefatory matter for John . The first list fragment contains the end of the list for the Gospel of Matthew . The missing names from Matthew would require an additional two folios . The second list fragment , on folio 26 , contains about a fourth of the list for Luke . The list for Luke would require an additional three folios . The structure of the quire in which folio 26 occurs is such that it is unlikely that there are three folios missing between folios 26 and 27 , so that it is almost certain that folio 26 is not now in its original location . There is no trace of the lists for Mark and John .
The first list fragment is followed by the canon tables of Eusebius of Caesarea . These tables , which predate the text of the Vulgate , were developed to cross @-@ reference the Gospels . Eusebius divided the Gospel into chapters and then created tables that allowed readers to find where a given episode in the life of Christ was located in each of the Gospels . The canon tables were traditionally included in the prefatory material in most mediaeval copies of the Vulgate text of the Gospels . The tables in the Book of Kells , however , are almost unusable because the scribe condensed the tables in such a way as to make them confused . In addition , the corresponding chapter numbers were never inserted into the margins of the text , making it impossible to find the sections to which the canon tables refer . The reason for the omission remains unclear : the scribe may have planned to add the references upon the manuscript 's completion , or he may have deliberately left them out so as not to spoil the appearance of pages .
The Breves causae and Argumenta belong to a pre @-@ Vulgate tradition of manuscripts . The Breves causae are summaries of the Old Latin translations of the Gospels and are divided into numbered chapters . These chapter numbers , like the numbers for the canon tables , are not used on the text pages of the Gospels . It is unlikely that these numbers would have been used , even if the manuscript had been completed , because the chapter numbers corresponded to old Latin translations and would have been difficult to harmonise with the Vulgate text . The Argumenta are collections of legends about the Evangelists . The Breves causae and Argumenta are arranged in a strange order : first come the Breves causae and Argumenta for Matthew , followed by the Breves and Argumenta for Mark , then , quite oddly , come the Argumenta of both Luke and John , followed by their Breves causae . This anomalous order mirrors that found in the Book of Durrow , although in the latter instance , the misplaced sections appear at the very end of the manuscript rather than as part of a continuous preliminary . In other insular manuscripts , such as the Lindisfarne Gospels , the Book of Armagh , and the Echternach Gospels , each Gospel is treated as a separate work and has its preliminaries immediately preceding it . The slavish repetition in Kells of the order of the Breves causae and Argumenta found in Durrow led scholar T. K. Abbott to the conclusion that the scribe of Kells had either the Book of Durrow or a common model in hand .
= = = Text and script = = =
The Book of Kells contains the text of the four Gospels based on the Vulgate . It does not , however , contain a pure copy of the Vulgate . There are numerous differences from the Vulgate , where Old Latin translations are used in lieu of Jerome 's text . Although such variants are common in all the insular Gospels , there does not seem to be a consistent pattern of variation amongst the various insular texts . Evidence suggests that when the scribes were writing the text they often depended on memory rather than on their exemplar .
The manuscript is written primarily in insular majuscule with some occurrences of minuscule letters ( usually e or s ) . The text is usually written in one long line across the page . Françoise Henry identified at least three scribes in this manuscript , whom she named Hand A , Hand B , and Hand C. Hand A is found on folios 1 through 19v , folios 276 through 289 , and folios 307 through the end of the manuscript . Hand A , for the most part , writes eighteen or nineteen lines per page in the brown gall @-@ ink common throughout the West . Hand B is found on folios 19r through 26 and folios 124 through 128 . Hand B has a somewhat greater tendency to use minuscule and uses red , purple and black ink and a variable number of lines per page . Hand C is found throughout the majority of the text . Hand C also has greater tendency to use minuscule than Hand A. Hand C uses the same brownish gall @-@ ink used by hand A and wrote , almost always , seventeen lines per page .
= = = = Errors and deviations = = = =
There are a number of differences between the text and the accepted Gospels . In the genealogy of Jesus , which starts at Luke 3 : 23 , Kells names an extra ancestor .
Matthew 10 : 34b The canonised Bible reads " I came not to send peace , but a sword , " but the manuscript reads gaudium ( " joy " ) where it should read gladium ( " sword " ) and so translates as " I came not [ only ] to send peace , but joy . "
The lavishly decorated opening page of the Gospel according to John in the Book of Kells had been deciphered by George Bain as : " In principio erat verbum verum " [ In the beginning was the True Word ] . Therefore , the Incipit is a free translation into Latin of the Greek original λογος rather than a mere copy of the Roman version .
= = = Decoration = = =
The text is accompanied by many full @-@ page miniatures , while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities . The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions . The characteristics of the Insular manuscript initial , as described by Carl Nordenfalk , here reach their most extreme realisation : " the initials ... are conceived as elastic forms expanding and contracting with a pulsating rhythm . The kinetic energy of their contours escapes into freely drawn appendices , a spiral line which in turn generates new curvilinear motifs ... " . The illustrations feature a broad range of colours , with purple , lilac , red , pink , green , and yellow being the colours most often used . Earlier manuscripts tend toward more narrow palettes : the Book of Durrow , for example , uses only four colours . As is usual with Insular work , there was no use of gold or silver leaf in the manuscript . The pigments for the illustrations , which included red and yellow ochre , green copper pigment ( sometimes called verdigris ) , indigo , and possibly lapis lazuli , would have been imported from the Mediterranean region and , in the case of the lapis lazuli , from northeast Afghanistan . Though the presence of lapis lazuli has long been considered evidence of the great cost required to create the manuscript , recent examination of the pigments has proven that lapis lazuli was not used .
The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving Insular Gospel book . There are ten surviving full @-@ page illuminations including two evangelist portraits , three pages with the four evangelist symbols , a carpet page , a miniature of the Virgin and Child , a miniature of Christ enthroned , and miniatures of the Arrest of Jesus and the Temptation of Christ . There are thirteen surviving full pages of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of the Gospels . Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have extensive decoration . It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost . In addition to these major pages , there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated initials throughout the text ; in fact only two pages have no decoration .
The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names . This fragment occupies the left @-@ hand column of folio 1r . A miniature of the four evangelist symbols , now much abraded , make up the right @-@ hand column . The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees to view it properly . The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book . They are almost always shown together to emphasise the doctrine of the four Gospels ' unity of message .
The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables . The canon tables themselves inherently illustrate the unity of the Gospels by organising corresponding passages from the Gospels . The Eusebian canon tables normally require twelve pages . In the Book of Kells , the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages ( folios 1v through 7r ) but for unknown reasons , condensed them into ten , leaving folios 6v and 7r blank . This condensation rendered the canon tables unusable . The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean , where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an arcade ( as seen in the London Canon Tables ) . The Kells manuscript presents this motif in an Insular spirit , where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylised geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation . The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the arches . The last two canon tables are presented within a grid . This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow .
The remainder of the book is broken into sections with the divisions set off by miniatures and full pages of decorated text . Each of the Gospels is introduced by a consistent decorative programme . The preliminary matter is treated as one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread . In addition to the preliminaries and the Gospels , the " second beginning " of the Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration .
The preliminary matter is introduced by an iconic image of the Virgin and Child ( folio 7v ) . This miniature is the first representation of the Virgin in a Western manuscript . Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three @-@ quarter pose . This miniature also bears a stylistic similarity to the carved image on the lid of St. Cuthbert 's coffin of 698 . The iconography of the miniature may derive from an Eastern or Coptic icon .
The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the Breves Causae of Matthew , which begins Nativitas Christi in Bethlem ( the birth of Christ in Bethlehem ) . The beginning page ( folio 8r ) of the text of the Breves Causae is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame . The two @-@ page spread of the miniature and the text makes a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material . The opening line of each of the sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated ( see above for the Breves causae of Luke ) , but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of the Breves Causae of Matthew .
The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme . Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols , followed by a blank page . Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the Gospel which was given an elaborate decorative treatment . The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait ( folio 28v ) and its page of Evangelist symbols ( folio 27r , see above ) . The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist portrait but retains its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 129v ) . The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page . The Gospel of John , like the Gospel of Matthew , retains both its portrait ( folio 291v , see at right ) and its Evangelist symbols page ( folio 290v ) . It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed but have been lost . The use of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the Gospels .
The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish . These pages were , in effect , turned into carpet pages . The decoration of these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible . The opening page ( folio 29r ) of Matthew may stand as an example . ( See illustration at left . ) The page consists of only two words : Liber generationis ( " The book of the generation " ) . The lib of Liber is turned into a giant monogram which dominates the entire page . The er of Liber is presented as an interlaced ornament within the b of the lib monogram . Generationis is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page . The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border .
The border and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals and knot work , many of them zoomorphic . The opening words of Mark , Initium evangelii ( " The beginning of the Gospel " ) , Luke , Quoniam quidem multi , and John , In principio erat verbum ( " In the beginning was the Word " ) , are all given similar treatments . Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells , these pages were decorated in all the other Insular Gospel Books .
The Gospel of Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus . At Matthew 1 : 18 , the actual narrative of Christ 's life starts . This " second beginning " to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books , so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works . The second beginning begins with the word Christ . The Greek letters chi and rho were normally used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate the word Christ . In Insular Gospel Books , the initial Chi Rho monogram was enlarged and decorated . In the Book of Kells , this second beginning was given a decorative programme equal to those that preface the individual Gospels . Folio 32 verso has a miniature of Christ enthroned . ( It has been argued that this miniature is one of the lost evangelist portraits . However , the iconography is quite different from the extant portraits , and current scholarship accepts this identification and placement for this miniature . ) Facing this miniature , on folio 33 recto , is the only carpet page in the Book of Kells , which is rather anomalous ; the Lindisfarne Gospels has five extant carpet pages and the Book of Durrow has six . The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early mediaeval period , the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram
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e skuas
Laridae gulls
Sternidae terns
Rhynchopidae skimmers
Alcidae auks
For an alternative taxonomy of these groups , see also Sibley @-@ Ahlquist taxonomy .
= The Witch Way =
The Witch Way is the branding for long @-@ standing English bus route X43 , which runs between Nelson and Manchester . The service is currently operated by Transdev in Burnley & Pendle .
The route has operated continuously since 1948 . It was previously operated by Ribble Motor Services , Stagecoach North West and Burnley & Pendle , while GM Buses briefly competed with Stagecoach on the route . During its history it has served several places no longer on the present route , including Bury , Colne , Skipton and the Trafford Centre . ( Transdev extended the route to Skipton once again in Spring 2016 ) .
The service was rebranded as The Witch Way in 2005 to coincide with the introduction of new vehicles . It had previously been branded as The X43 and before then was unbranded . Between 1982 and 1986 the route was known as Timesaver , with buses carrying dedicated liveries .
= = History = =
Route X43 was introduced between Colne and Manchester by Ribble Motor Services in 1948 , replacing another route between Burnley and Manchester . In the early 1950s it was extended to start from Skipton . In 1978 , the route was rerouted to use the new M66 motorway , bypassing Bury . Some journeys continued to serve the traditional route , as route number 743 .
Ribble Motor Services was privatised in 1986 in a management buyout . In April 1989 it was sold to Stagecoach . In 1992 , in response to competition on route 192 , GM Buses used its Charterplan coaching subsidiary to compete with route X43 between Manchester and Burnley . The competition ended in 1994 following Stagecoach 's withdrawal from route 192 . Stagecoach went on to acquire the southern half of GM Buses in February 1996 .
For a short time in the late 1990s , the route operated through to Keighley , this ceased in 1999 . In 1998 the route was extended south of Manchester to the Trafford Centre . A further change in 2000 saw the northern end of route X43 rerouted to avoid Barnoldswick , prompting some criticism from local residents .
Stagecoach 's operations in the Burnley area were sold to the Blazefield Group on 15 April 2001 and rebranded as Burnley & Pendle.In June 2001 one X43 journey in each direction was extended through to Skipton and Hawes on summer Sundays . This proved relatively successful , and the single @-@ deck coach initially used was replaced by a double @-@ decker . It continued to operate into 2003 , but was withdrawn at the end of September . Fares on the route increased by 30 % in the two years up to August 2004 , prompting some passengers to abandon the route in favour of a car sharing scheme . Despite this , the route saw an average of 12 % yearly growth between 2001 and 2004 .
In August 2005 , the route was upgraded with new vehicles and rebranded as The Witch Way . The service frequency was increased to every 20 minutes , with a Saturday frequency of every 30 minutes and a Sunday frequency of one bus per hour , while the extension to the Trafford Centre was withdrawn . The section of route between Nelson and Colne was also abandoned , prompting criticism from local councillors , although the parallel " Mainline " routes 20 @-@ 29 were increased in frequency to partially replace these journeys .
Blazefield was sold to Transdev in January 2006 . During the first six months after the new vehicles were introduced , passenger numbers on the remaining section of route increased by 24 @.@ 1 % , with total passenger numbers up by 16 @.@ 1 % . The route was shortlisted for a UK Bus Award in October 2006 , going on to win the Viacom Outdoor Bus Marketing Campaign of the Year award .
In October 2011 , the Witch Way services underwent a revamp with an increase of journeys between Burnley and Manchester , running every 15 minutes Monday @-@ Saturday daytime , but with a reduction of journeys between Nelson and Manchester , running every 30 minutes Monday @-@ Saturday daytime . Route X44 , which differed from the regular route by additionally serving Edenfield , was also withdrawn from service , being partly replaced by route X8 , which ran between Burnley , Rawtenstall and Manchester via Bacup , and First Greater Manchester 's route X35 , which was extended from Stubbins .
On 1 November 2013 , all buses were replaced with Volvo B9TL 's which received a new Black , white and grey livery . These buses currently serve the X43 .
On May 1st 2016 the route will see further changes with :
faster buses introduced at peak time between Manchester and Burnley
2 buses an hour will continue beyond Burnley to Skipton via the M65 and Colne
Nelson will no longer be served by Off Peak X43 buses
The 872 number will be dropped in favour of the X43 - All buses to Skipton / Grassington will start in Manchester
= = Route description = =
Route X43 currently runs between Nelson and Manchester , serving the intermediate communities of Burnley , Rawtenstall and Prestwich . The service make use of both the M60 and M66 motorways . The routes also connect three notable educational establishments : Alder Grange Community and Technology School , Burnley College and Nelson and Colne College . Another point of interest on the route is the Singing Ringing Tree near Burnley .
On Sundays , there are 7 journeys continuing on from Burnley towards Grassington via Skipton as the DalesBus service 872 , and 7 return journeys from Grassington towards Burnley from where the normal X43 Sunday service towards Manchester continues . From May 1st 2016 all 872 journeys will be operated as the X43 and will start / end at Manchester .
= = Vehicles and marketing = =
Route X43 was initially served with a mixture of double @-@ deck Leyland Titans and single @-@ deck Leyland Tigers . In the early 1960s these were replaced by new Leyland Leopards . From 1974 coaches were used on the route , with Leyland Leopards again the preferred choice . In 1982 a small number were branded for the route , using the name Timesaver and the tagline Regular Motorway service .
In 1984 the route was converted to double @-@ deck operation using new Leyland Olympians painted in a unique white and blue livery with Timesaver branding . Four Leyland Tiger coaches in a yellow and red livery also using the Timesaver name , arrived a year later . The route branding was replaced by Stagecoach 's corporate image of white with red , orange and blue stripes following their takeover of Ribble Motor Services in 1989 .
New Dennis Javelin coaches were introduced to route X43 by Stagecoach in response to the competition from Charterplan in 1992 . The route was marketed as The Mancunian , with the vehicles carrying the name alongside Stagecoach corporate livery . The route was briefly operated with articulated coaches in 1996 , but this proved short @-@ lived owing to restrictions on their use in Rawtenstall , with services returning to Javelin operation .
The Javelins were transferred away from the route shortly prior to Stagecoach 's sale of the operation to Transdev , and the service was briefly operated with 15 @-@ year @-@ old Leyland Olympians . In July 2001 a fleet of 15 new Volvo B7TLs , which included improved interiors and CCTV cameras , were introduced to the route .
In August 2005 , the route was again re @-@ launched , with 16 new Wright Eclipse Gemini bodied Volvo B7TLs , again with unusual features including CCTV and leather seats . The new service took the branding " The Witch Way " , with buses named after the Pendle witches from the 17th century , and was advertised with the slogan " business class as standard " . The older B7TLs were displaced to Lancashire United 's routes X40 and X41 .
On the 1st of November 2013 new vehicles were introduced to the route , in the form of 15 Wright Gemini bodied Volvo B9TLs . The buses carry a new silver livery which also features a new witch design . Additionally , free WiFi is featured to allow passengers to remain connected on their journey .
= = Variants = =
There has been five alternative routes similar to route X43 operated in the past . When route X43 was diverted away from Bury in 1978 , some journeys continued to serve the town . These were numbered 743 and were operated by Ribble Motor Services with a mixture of coaches and buses . Route X43 's infrequent extension to Skipton was also transferred onto route 743 . The route was withdrawn in 1985 due to a fall in passenger numbers which coincided with the rebranding of the main route as Timesaver .
Route X53 took a different route between Burnley and Rawtenstall , via Water and Waterfoot in the upper Irwell Valley . In the early 1960s these journeys were 4 @-@ hourly and started / ended at Burnley . By the 1970s frequency had declined to a southbound morning and northbound evening peak working , but it survived to be renumbered 753 when X43 became 743 . It was withdrawn along with the 743 .
A variation of the route operating via the Rossendale Valley between Rawtenstall and Burnley was introduced in 2002 , taking the number X45 . It was operated with route branded Volvo B10M coaches , but was cancelled after a year because of low patronage . In early 2002 , route X43 journeys which extended beyond Manchester to the Trafford Centre were renumbered to X42 to distinguish them from the short workings . This pattern continued until the August 2005 rebranding , when the extension was withdrawn . The most recent variation was route X44 , which ran until October 2011 . It ran via Edenfield between Rawtenstall and the M66 motorway . This allowed commuters and shoppers to travel to / from Manchester with the service running several journeys during the day Mondays to Saturdays . The service was partly replaced by route X8 , which operated two weekday journeys to Manchester and four weekday journeys from Manchester , leaving Edenfield without a weekend service to Manchester . Route X8 has since been withdrawn .
= = Accidents = =
In November 1999 , a bus travelling on the route from Manchester to Barnoldswick was involved in a crash with a car travelling in the opposite direction in Earby . Four passengers and the car driver suffered minor injuries .
In September 2006 , the driver of an X43 on the M60 motorway fell unconscious while the vehicle was moving . Irene King , a 47 @-@ year @-@ old passenger , was able to take over control of the bus to prevent a serious accident . She won several awards for this action , including an award for Outstanding Bravery at the 2006 Pride of Britain Awards , a Vodafone Life Savers Award , a Royal Humane Society Testimonial on Vellum , a Chief Constable 's Commendation .
= The Walk ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Walk " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by John Shiban and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode aired in the United States on November 10 , 1995 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " The Walk " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , being watched by 15 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . Critical reception was mixed .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , a failed suicide attempt by a patient in a U.S. Army hospital interests Mulder with the talk of a " phantom soldier " who has prevented the man 's death . The U.S. Army General in charge of the hospital is initially opposed to the FBI 's involvement until the invisible killer begins stalking him . Everyone involved in the case is shocked to learn that the primary suspect could in fact , be a quadruple amputee .
" The Walk " is the first X @-@ Files script by John Shiban , who commented that it was a challenge for him . He was inspired by the film The Men , which features a character who has lost his legs in war and wishes to be able to walk again . The episode required several visual effects which were almost not completed in time .
= = Plot = =
At a VA hospital in Fort Evanston , Maryland , Lieutenant Colonel Victor Stans makes his third suicide attempt ; he claims that a mysterious figure will not let him die . Stans attempts to drown in a tub of scalding water , but is rescued by the hospital staff and subsequently is disfigured due to the hot water .
When Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) question Stans , they learn that his wife and children died in a house fire he claims was started by the mysterious soldier he says will not allow him to die himself . Captain Janet Draper stops the questioning , as Mulder and Scully were not granted permission to see Stans by his superior officer , General Thomas Callahan . After meeting with the agents , Callahan glimpses the phantom soldier Stans described . He also finds his answering machine replaying an unintelligible message . Later , while using the base 's swimming pool , Draper is killed by an invisible force .
Callahan tells the agents about the soldier and the voicemail , which was received twice before at his home . When they visit his house , his young son , Trevor , believes he saw someone go inside ; Scully herself glimpses someone in the backyard . Fingerprints are found on the property which belong to the hospital mailman , Quinton " Roach " Freely . As Mulder and Scully take Roach into custody , Trevor is attacked and killed by the invisible force in his sandbox . Under the agent 's questioning , Roach admits to his role in the deaths and states he is " Rappo 's mailman " .
" Rappo " turns out to be Leonard Trimble ( Ian Tracey ) , a Gulf War veteran and quadruple amputee . Scully doesn 't believe Roach , even though he insists that Rappo will kill him next . Scully later finds Roach dead in his cell with a bedsheet shoved down his throat . Scully assumes that he committed suicide , but Mulder shows her X @-@ ray dental plates he had carried in the rehab room , the pool , Callahan 's office , and Callahan 's house ; all show signs of radiation . Mulder thinks that Rappo is leaving his body through astral projection , doing so with a psychic connection forged through Roach 's letters . He also plays the voicemail backwards ; it is actually a warning from the phantom soldier .
Under questioning , an embittered Rappo states his belief that the Gulf War took his life away . Meanwhile , Callahan finds his wife 's dead body . He goes to the hospital to talk to Stans , who reveals that Rappo — whom he doesn 't know — is responsible for the deaths . When Callahan confronts Rappo , he openly admits his crimes . Rappo tries to goad Callahan to killing him , but Callahan decides to " stand down , " shooting over Rappo 's head . The agents arrive and find Rappo in a trance ; Mulder realizes what is happening and tries to find Callahan . Rappo 's apparition attacks Callahan with steam from the pipes in the hospital 's basement . Stans enters Rappo 's room , locks the door , and smothers Rappo with a pillow . With Rappo dead , his apparition disappears before it attacks Mulder . Callahan remains unharmed .
Since there is no physical evidence to prove that Rappo killed Callahan 's wife and son , the case remains unsolved . Mulder 's narration states that Rappo 's family tries to have him buried at Arlington National Cemetery ; he is instead buried in a civilian cemetery in Pennsylvania .
= = Production = =
" The Walk " is the first X @-@ Files script by John Shiban . He found it challenging to write , particularly Mulder and Scully 's first scene where " they have to come together on a case , yet they have to be at odds " . Shiban was inspired by the film The Men and realizing that the main character , who had been injured in war and lost his legs , wanted to walk more than anything . He stated that the paranormal concept of astral projection " just sort of fit " . Some members of the writing staff were concerned about killing Callahan 's young son , Trevor , but Shiban was not bothered by it and felt that Rappo wanted to take everything from Callahan , and the worst blow would be to kill his son .
Director Rob Bowman felt that Ian Tracey , who played Rappo , was " an incredibly strong actor " and fit the role . Deryl Hayes , who played an army psychiatrist in this episode , previously appeared as a CIA operative in the first season episode " Shadows " . Draper 's drowning was achieved by pulling actress Nancy Sorel down with a cable that was attached to the bottom of the pool . The image of the wave launching over Draper in the pool was accomplished by the teamwork of special effects department members Mat Beck and David Gauthier . One of the crew members was also buried in sand in the scene where Trevor is killed . The effect in the climax when Rappo 's apparition throws Callahan and Mulder across the room was accomplished with a device called the " Air @-@ Ram " that uses compressed air . The visual effects were almost not completed in time .
= = Reception = =
" The Walk " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 10 , 1995 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 15 @.@ 91 million viewers .
In a retrospective of the third season by Entertainment Weekly , " The Walk " was given a grade of C , noting its similarities to other episodes and being critical of the characters . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave it a grade of B , describing it as " straightforward " , with a " well @-@ realized " military hospital and " terrific " directing . However , he felt that Ian Tracey was not a good enough actor to make Rappo 's motives seem believable . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode two and a half stars out of four , calling it a " solid episode " with a good supporting cast and effects . However , she felt the characterization of Mulder and Scully was " off @-@ balance " and noted that some of the military detail was wrong . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three and a half stars out of five , noting its similarities to other episodes such as the previous " 2Shy " , but felt that Shiban " has put real blood and passion into it which raises it high above the trappings of its clichés " . They criticized the plot for being too predictable and formulaic , but said it succeeded in emotion and was " well @-@ written " and " well @-@ directed " .
= Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home =
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " is the opening track on the Scottish post @-@ rock band Mogwai 's 1997 debut album , Mogwai Young Team . It was primarily composed by the band 's bassist , Dominic Aitchison , prior to the 1997 Mogwai Young Team recording sessions .
The song features electric guitar , bass guitar , drum kit , organ , and glockenspiel , bookended by sampled monologues from friends of the band . It is an example of the predominantly electric guitar @-@ based genre the band employed at the time ; featuring quiet , clean sections contrasting with loud , distorted sections , sometimes connected with crescendos and diminuendos . This dynamic contrast was referred to by the band as " serious guitar music . "
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " received a positive reception from music journalists , with album reviews focusing mainly on the effectiveness of the dynamic contrast featured within the song , the band 's usage of instrumentation , and the track 's overall representation of the band 's genre at the time .
= = Origins and recording = =
The first live performance documented of " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " was on 6 April 1997 at Highbury Garage in London — the band 's first show promoting the Ten Rapid ( Collected Recordings 1996 – 1997 ) compilation album . This performance , as well as several other performances of the track throughout 1997 , was instrumental . During this period , " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " sometimes went under the title of " New Dom " .
The song took its title from an exclamation from Lee Cohen , a Chicagoan friend of the band , at Brighton in May 1997 . The band recorded " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " during the Mogwai Young Team sessions from July to August 1997 at MCM Studios in Hamilton , South Lanarkshire , Scotland , where the band had previously recorded the majority of their earlier material . The song was produced by Mogwai and Paul Savage , who handled production and mixing duties on the bulk of the band 's previous recordings .
= = Musical composition = =
" Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " is 5 minutes 58 seconds long , in the key of A major , in 4 / 4 time .
The song begins with an organ pedal point of an A note , accompanied by a recording of a monologue passage from a Bergen Student Newspaper , being recited by Mari Myren , referring to when Mogwai played a show on 15 March 1997 at the Hulen , in Bergen , Norway . Myren describes the band 's music as " bigger than words and wider than pictures " and states that " If the stars had a sound , it would sound like this . " The sound of clapping is heard , followed at ( 0 : 54 ) , by a bassline . This is joined at ( 1 : 09 ) by a soft drumbeat and a clean , two @-@ note guitar melody , based around the chord of A major . At ( 1 : 31 ) , the guitars and bass guitar modulate to the relative minor chord , F ♯ minor , and D major , and play alternate melody , before returning to the main melody .
This is repeated until ( 2 : 32 ) , when the drumbeat gradually fades out , leaving only the ride cymbal keeping the beat , and the guitars , which repeat a melody based around the chord of A major , using harmonics . At ( 3 : 11 ) , the bass guitar joins in , followed by the drum kit , building to a gradual crescendo , eventually climaxing at ( 3 : 42 ) into a distortion @-@ laden chord progression , using the chords F ♯ minor , D major , and A major . At ( 3 : 46 ) , a guitar solo is played over these chords . This continues until ( 5 : 09 ) , after all instruments have faded out except for the tremolo @-@ laden feedback of the guitar .
= = Release and reception = =
During professional reviews , " Yes ! I Am a Long Way from Home " received largely positive reception . Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine described the song as " gorgeous , moving from a gentle beginning to a series of shattering crescendos " , also noting that it " describes almost all of Mogwai ’ s music at this stage of their career . " David Wilson of The Daily Nebraskan described the song as having " low @-@ key harmonics and [ a ] delicate melody " , followed by " a blistering shard of explosive distortion [ bursting ] out of nowhere " , noting that the dynamic contrast within the song , " sets the seesaw pace for the whole record . "
Lee Harvey of Vox also referred to the dynamic contrast , noting that it " [ goads ] and [ entices ] you with gentle percussion , leaving you helpless before the surge of sky @-@ swallowing guitars that follows " . Scott Irvine of UpBeetMusic described it as a " standout track " , also noting " [ the ] track alone is worth checking out 1997 ’ s best bet for an instrumental tour de force " .
Christopher Jackson of Fluffhouse described the track as a " to @-@ the @-@ point introduction to the classic Mogwai sound - elegant musings on a web of bass @-@ heavy guitars , growing patiently to a peak filled out with massive distorted chords and fat drum fills " . Brandon Wu of Ground and Sky described the song 's progression , " [ starting ] with a quietly pretty melody . . . [ building ] to a massive climax of guitar and bass noise . " and " woven through [ the ] crescendo is a beautiful , lyrical guitar line . . . simply stunning . "
= = Personnel and credits = =
= Scotland during the Roman Empire =
Scotland during the Roman Empire refers to the protohistorical period during which the Roman Empire interacted with the area that is now Scotland , which was known to them as " Caledonia " . Roman legions arrived around AD 71 , having conquered the Celtic tribes of " Britain " ( England and Wales ) over the preceding three decades . Aiming to annex all of the island of " Albion " , Romans under Q. Petillius Cerialis and Gn . Julius Agricola invaded the Caledonians in the 70s and 80s . An account by Agricola 's son @-@ in @-@ law Tacitus mentions a Roman victory at " Mons Graupius " which became the namesake of the Grampians but has been questioned by modern scholarship . The Romans then seem to have repeated an earlier Greek circumnavigation of the island and received submission from local tribes , establishing their border of actual control first along the Gask Ridge before withdrawing to a line south of the Solway Firth . This line was fortified as Hadrian 's Wall . Several Roman commanders attempted to fully conquer lands north of this line , including a brief expansion that was fortified as the Antonine Wall . Despite grandiose claims made by an 18th @-@ century forged manuscript , however , it is now believed that the Romans at no point controlled even half of present @-@ day Scotland and that Roman legions ceased to affect the area after around 211 .
The history of the period is complex and not well @-@ documented . The province of Valentia , for instance , may have been the lands between the two Roman walls , or the territory around and south of Hadrian 's Wall , or Roman Wales . Romans held most of their Caledonian territory only a little over 40 years ; they probably only held any Scottish land at all for about 80 years . Some Scottish historians such as Moffat go so far as to say Rome 's presence was entirely uninfluential . " Scots " and " Scotland " proper would not emerge as unified ideas until
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an already long war of secession well into the next century .
The German tradition of local and regional autonomy differed structurally and culturally from the increasingly centralized authority of such other European states as France , England , and Spain . This difference made them vulnerable to the unabashed intervention of Spanish , French , Italian , Dutch , English and Scots mercenaries and the influence of papal gold and changed the dynamic of internal German confessional and dynastic disputes . The great " players " of the Early Modern European political stage realized that they could enhance their own positions vis @-@ a @-@ vis one another by assisting , promoting , or undermining local and regional competition among the German princes , as they did in the localized feud between Gebhard and Ernst . Conversely , German princes , dukes , and counts realized that they could gain an edge over their competitors by promoting the interests of powerful neighbors . The scale of the engagement of such external mercenary armies as Spain 's Army of Flanders set a precedent to internationalize contests of local autonomy and religious issues in the German states , a problem not settled until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 . Even after that settlement , German states remained vulnerable to both external intervention and the religious division exemplified in the Cologne war .
= Every Sunday =
Every Sunday ( sometimes incorrectly listed as Every Sunday Afternoon or Opera vs. Jazz ) is a 1936 American short musical film . It tells the story of two young girls and their efforts to save a public concert series , which was being threatened by poor attendance .
Directed by Felix E. Feist , the film served as a screen test for , and is the first significant screen appearance of , two young actresses who would go on to become major stars , Judy Garland and Deanna Durbin . Although only lightly reviewed at the time of its release , the film has garnered a generally positive reputation among Garland biographers .
= = Plot = =
Small town friends Edna ( Deanna Durbin ) and Judy ( Judy Garland ) are upset . Edna 's grandfather and his orchestra , who play free Sunday concerts at a local park , have been fired by the town council because the concerts are poorly attended . The girls hit upon the idea of singing at the concerts and set about promoting the next concert . The following Sunday Edna and Judy join Granddad on the bandstand . Edna 's operatic style and Judy 's swing bring crowds running from all over the park . The event is a huge success and Granddad 's concerts are saved .
= = Production = =
Deanna Durbin and Judy Garland were both under contract to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer but the studio had not put them to work in films . With their contracts coming up for renewal , feelings among studio executives were that the studio didn 't need two girl singers . Every Sunday would serve as an extended screen test to decide which girl 's contract would be renewed .
Durbin recorded the aria Il Bacio for the film . Composers Con Conrad and Herb Magidson wrote a specialty number for Garland , " The Americana . "
Following the screening of the short for MGM executives , opinion was divided on whether Garland or Durbin should be retained . Finally , Louis B. Mayer , upon his return from a European trip , decreed that both girls should be kept . However , Durbin 's contract option had expired by then . She was signed by Universal Studios , where her first picture , Three Smart Girls , was so successful that it saved Universal from bankruptcy .
= = Critical reception = =
As a short film that served as a second feature , Every Sunday received scant critical attention upon its release . Durbin 's hometown newspaper , the Winnipeg Free Press , did praise the film , lamenting that it was " all too short " and citing Garland as a " girl singer of distinction . "
Garland biographers , when discussing the film in any detail , are generally complimentary both to the film and to Garland . " Unpretentious and fascinating ... Every Sunday gives us a marvelous glimpse of Judy 's talent in an unrefined state " is a typical comment , with the film " reveal [ ing ] how accomplished a performer Judy Garland already was at fourteen . " Durbin does not fare quite as well . Although described by one biographer as appearing " relaxed " and " happy " on film others dismiss her " diffidence " and call her " stiff . "
= StarCraft =
StarCraft is a military science fiction media franchise created by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , and owned by Blizzard Entertainment . The series centers on a galactic struggle for dominance between four species — the adaptable and mobile Terrans , the ever @-@ evolving insectoid Zerg , the powerfully enigmatic Protoss , and the " god @-@ like " Xel 'Naga creator race — in a distant part of the Milky Way galaxy known as the Koprulu Sector at the beginning of the 26th century . The series debuted with the video game StarCraft in 1998 . Since then it has grown to include a number of other games as well as eight novelizations , two Amazing Stories articles , a board game , and other licensed merchandise such as collectible statues and toys .
Blizzard Entertainment began planning StarCraft in 1995 , with a development team led by Metzen and Phinney . The game debuted at E3 1996 , and used a modified Warcraft II game engine . StarCraft also marked the creation of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department ; the game introduced high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series . Most of the original development team for StarCraft returned to work on the game 's official expansion pack , Brood War ; the game 's development began shortly after StarCraft was released . In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software . Unlike the previous real @-@ time strategy games in the series , Ghost was to be a stealth @-@ action game . After three years of development , work on the game was postponed in 2004 . Development of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty began in 2003 ; the game was later announced on May 19 , 2007 and was released on July 27 , 2010 . The StarCraft II franchise continued with the StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm expansion , which was released on March 12 , 2013 . The third StarCraft II installment is titled StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , released on November 10 , 2015 .
The original game and its official expansion have been praised as one of the benchmark real @-@ time strategy games of its time . The series has gathered a solid following around the world , particularly in South Korea , where professional players and teams participate in matches , earn sponsorships , and compete in televised matches . As of May 31 , 2007 , StarCraft and Brood War have sold almost 10 million copies combined . In addition , the series was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006 , and holds four Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition of 2008 .
= = Story = =
The story focuses on the activities of the three species in a part of the Milky Way known as the Koprulu Sector . Millennia before any of the events of the games , a species known as the Xel 'Naga genetically engineered the Protoss and later the Zerg in attempts to create pure beings . These experiments backfire and the Xel 'Naga are largely destroyed by the Zerg . Centuries before the beginning of StarCraft in 2499 , the hardline international government of Earth , the United Earth Directorate ( UED ) , commissions a colonization program as part of a solution to overpopulation . However , the computers automating the colony ships malfunction , propelling the Terran colonists far off course to the edge of Protoss space . Out of contact with Earth , they form various factions to maintain their interests . Intrigued by the behavior and mentality of the Terrans , the Protoss remain hidden to examine the humans , while protecting them from other threats without their knowledge . However , the Zerg target the Terrans for assimilation to harness their psionic potential , forcing the Protoss to destroy tainted Terran colonies to contain the Zerg infestation .
StarCraft begins just days after the first of these attacks , where the predominant Terran government , the Confederacy of Man , falls into a state of panic as it comes under attack by both the Zerg and the Protoss , in addition to increasing rebel activity led by Arcturus Mengsk against its rule . The Confederacy eventually succumbs to Mengsk 's rebels when they use Confederate technology to lure the Zerg into attacking the Confederate capital , Tarsonis . In the consequent power vacuum , Mengsk crowns himself emperor of a new Terran Dominion . However , during the assault on Tarsonis , Mengsk allows the Zerg to capture and infest his psychic second @-@ in @-@ command , Sarah Kerrigan . This betrayal prompts Mengsk 's other commander , Jim Raynor , to desert him with a small army . Having retreated with Kerrigan to their primary hive clusters , the Zerg are assaulted by Protoss forces commanded by Tassadar and the dark templar Zeratul . Through assassinating a Zerg cerebrate , Zeratul inadvertently allows the Overmind to learn the location of the Protoss homeworld , Aiur . The Overmind quickly launches an invasion to assimilate the Protoss and gain genetic perfection . Pursued by his own people as a heretic for siding with the dark templar , Tassadar returns with Zeratul to Aiur and with the assistance of Raynor and the templar Fenix , Tassadar launches an attack on the Overmind and ultimately sacrifices himself to kill the creature .
In Brood War , the Protoss are now led by Zeratul and Artanis . They begin to evacuate the surviving population of Aiur to the dark templar homeworld of Shakuras under a fragile alliance between the two untrusting branches of the Protoss . On Shakuras , they are misled by Kerrigan into attacking the Zerg to advance Kerrigan 's quest to securing power over the Zerg . This deception comes after she reveals that a new Overmind has entered incubation . Meanwhile , Earth decides to take action in the sector , sending a fleet to conquer the Terran Dominion and capture the new Overmind . Although successfully taking the Dominion capital Korhal and enslaving the Overmind , the UED 's efforts to capture Mengsk are thwarted by a double agent working for Kerrigan , Samir Duran . Kerrigan , allying with Mengsk , Fenix and Raynor , launches a campaign against the UED , recapturing Korhal . However , she turns against her allies ; Fenix and Duke both perish in the ensuing attacks . Kerrigan later blackmails Zeratul into killing the new Overmind , giving her full control over the entire Zerg Swarm . After defeating a retaliatory attack by the Protoss , Dominion and the UED , consequently destroying the last of the UED fleet , Kerrigan and her Zerg broods become the dominant power in the sector .
Four years later , in Wings of Liberty , Kerrigan and the Zerg suddenly vanish from the Koprulu Sector , allowing the Protoss to once again take on a passive role in the galaxy . Meanwhile , Raynor forms a revolutionary group named Raynor 's Raiders in order to overthrow Mengsk . On Mar Sara , Raynor liberates the local population from Dominion control and also discovers a component of a mysterious Xel 'Naga artifact . The Zerg suddenly reappear and overrun Mar Sara , forcing Raynor to arrange an evacuation to his battlecruiser , the Hyperion . The Raiders embark on a series of missions to undermine Mengsk , stop frequent Zerg infestations on Terran worlds , gather psychic individuals for military assets , and find the remaining pieces of the Xel 'Naga artifact , which they sell to the enigmatic Moebius Foundation in order to fund their revolution . Soon after , Zeratul delivers a psychic crystal that allows Raynor to share visions involving an ominous prophecy where Zerg @-@ Protoss hybrids and an enslaved Zerg swarm wipe out the Terrans and the Protoss . The vision reveals that only Kerrigan has the power to prevent the eradication of all life in the sector and beyond . After collecting more artifact pieces , the Raiders forge an alliance with Valerian Mengsk , Arcturus ' son , who is their secret benefactor from Moebius Foundation . After recovering the final artifact piece , Valerian and Raynor work together to invade the Zerg world of Char and use the artifact to restore Kerrigan 's humanity , thus weakening the Zerg at the cost of much of the Dominion fleet . However , an agent of Arcturus makes an attempt on Kerrigan 's life , and Raynor defends her and takes her in for medical examination .
In Heart of the Swarm , the Dominion discovers where Raynor and Kerrigan are hiding and launch an attack on them . Kerrigan manages to escape , but is cut off from Raynor and upon hearing news that he was captured and executed , she returns to Zerg territory to retake control of the swarm and enact revenge on Mengsk . During her quest , she has an encounter with Zeratul , who advises her to travel to Zerus , the original homeworld of the Zerg , where she not only regains her powers as the Queen of Blades , returning stronger than ever , but also learns that a fallen Xel 'Naga named Amon was responsible for making the Zerg what they are : A warring swarm , bound to a single overriding will . After confronting a legion of servants of Amon , including a breed of Protoss @-@ Zerg hybrids , Mengsk informs Kerrigan that Raynor is still alive and uses him as a leverage against her , keeping the location where he is imprisoned a secret , until she joins forces with the Hyperion to locate and rescue him . However , seeing that she discarded her humanity after all the effort he took to restore it , Raynor rejects her , despite her confession that she loves him , and part ways with her . Kerrigan then turns her attention to Korhal and sends her forces to bring down Mengsk once and for all . However , during their showdown , Mengsk uses the artifact to immobilize her , but Raynor appears to protect her , and Mengsk is ultimately killed by Kerrigan . With the Dominion under control of Mengsk 's son Valerian , Kerrigan bids farewell to Raynor and departs with the Zerg Swarm to confront Amon and his forces .
In Legacy of the Void , Zeratul invades a Terran installation under control of Amon in order to pinpoint the exact location of his resurrection , taking advantage of a sudden attack by Kerrigan and the Zerg swarm . After obtaining the exact location , he departs to an ancient Xel 'Naga temple where he has a vision of Tassadar , who prompts him to claim the artifact in possession of the Terrans . Zeratul then returns to warn Artanis of Amon 's return , but he decides to proceed with his plans of leading his army to reclaim Aiur . However , Amon awakens on Aiur and takes control of the majority of the Protoss race through the Khala , the telepathic bond that unites all emotions for the Khalai faction of the Protoss . Only Zeratul and the Nerazim , the Dark Templar , are immune due to their lack of connection to the Khala , and the Nerazim proceed to save as many Khalai as they can by severing their nerve chords , which connect them to the Khala , with Zeratul sacrificing himself to save Artanis in the occasion . After escaping the planet with an ancient vessel , the Spear of Adun , Artanis reclaims the artifact as Zeratul suggested and gathers allies among the many Protoss tribes scattered across the galaxy in order to remake his army and launch another assault on Aiur . Using the artifact , Artanis ' forces restrain Amon 's essence , time enough for the other Khalai Protoss who were still under his control to sever their nerve chords and banish Amon to the Void .
In a short epilogue after the end of Legacy of the Void , Kerrigan calls for Artanis and Raynor 's help to confront Amon inside the Void to defeat him once and for all . In the occasion , they meet Ouros , the last of the Xel 'Naga who reveals that to confront Amon on equal terms , Kerrigan must inherit Ouros ' essence and become a Xel 'Naga herself , as Ouros himself is at the last of his strengths . Assisted by the Zerg , Terran and Protoss forces , the empowered Kerrigan vanquishes Amon , before disappearing without a trace . Two years later , Kerrigan appears before Raynor in human form and he departs with her to never be heard from again , while the Zerg , the Terran and the Protoss civilizations begin to rebuild in an age of peace and prosperity .
= = Games = =
The StarCraft series includes a core set of titles which carry the main storyline . These games were released in chronological order , with each new title following on from the events that are depicted in the previous title . A full second game , StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty , was released on July 27 , 2010 , taking place four years after the end of Brood War . Two expansions , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void ( both currently stand alone games ) , were planned from the beginning ; the former was released on March 12 , 2013 .
All the games in the main series are real @-@ time strategy games , where the player views the events as a military commander for each of the three species . In addition , two spin @-@ off titles have been released ; these are authorized expansion packs to the original which focus on other characters and settings based at the same time as the main storyline . Like the main series , these two titles are also real @-@ time strategy games . A spin @-@ off , StarCraft : Ghost , which was to be a third person action @-@ stealth game was in development , but has been placed on indefinite hiatus .
= = = StarCraft = = =
StarCraft , released for Windows on March 31 , 1998 , is the first video game in the StarCraft series . A science fiction real @-@ time strategy game , StarCraft is set in a distant sector of the Milky Way galaxy . A Mac OS version of the game was released by Blizzard Entertainment in March 1999 . A Nintendo 64 port including StarCraft , Brood War and a new secret mission " Resurrection IV " was released in the United States on June 13 , 2000 . The game 's story revolves around the appearance of two alien races in Terran space , and each race 's attempts to survive and adapt over the others . The player assumes three roles through the course of the three campaigns : a Confederate colonial governor who becomes a revolutionary commander , a Zerg cerebrate pushing forward the species ' doctrine of assimilation , and a Protoss fleet executor tasked with defending the Protoss from the Zerg . StarCraft soon gained critical acclaim , winning numerous awards , including being labelled " the best real @-@ time strategy game ever made " and being ranked the seventh best game of all time by IGN in both 2003 and 2005 , and the eleventh best game in 2007 .
StarCraft : Brood War is the official expansion pack for StarCraft , developed by Blizzard Entertainment and Saffire . Released for Windows and Mac OS in the United States on November 30 , 1998 , the expansion directly continues the events of StarCraft . The expansion 's story continues only days after the conclusion of the original game . It starts with the Protoss ' struggle to ensure the survival of their species and continues with the intervention of the United Earth Directorate into local Terran affairs . The livelihood of both the Protoss and the previously silent Earth government is then threatened by the ever @-@ increasing power of Sarah Kerrigan and her Zerg broods . In addition , the expansion introduces new features and improvements . A total of seven new units with different functions and abilities are included , the artificial intelligence behavior was modified , new graphical tilesets for terrain were added and the game 's level editor received improved scripting tools to facilitate cut scenes with the in @-@ game engine . The expansion received critical praise for fixing various balance issues with the original game , development attention on par with that of a full game and for continuing with single player campaigns that were heavily story @-@ driven .
= = = StarCraft II = = =
StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty is the official sequel to StarCraft released for Windows and Mac OS X by Blizzard Entertainment on July 27 , 2010 . The game was announced at the Worldwide Invitational in South Korea on May 19 , 2007 with a pre @-@ rendered cinematic cut scene trailer and a gameplay demonstration of the Protoss . Further demonstrations regarding the game 's new features have been showcased at subsequent Blizzcons and other games conventions . The game incorporates a new 3D graphics engine and adds new features such as the Havok physics engine . StarCraft II also incorporates DirectX 10 level effects in Windows . Originally envisioned as a single game , StarCraft II was split into three parts during development , one for focusing on each race . The base game , Wings of Liberty , follows the Terrans , while two expansion packs , Heart of the Swarm and Legacy of the Void are to be released to complement Wings of Liberty after release and further the story from the views of the Zerg and Protoss , respectively . The story of Wings of Liberty continues from four years after the conclusion of Brood War , and revolves around Jim Raynor 's struggles against the Terran Dominion .
StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm is an expansion pack to StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty and was released on March 12 , 2013 . It is part two of the StarCraft II trilogy . The expansion includes additional units and multiplayer changes from Wings of Liberty , as well as a continuing campaign focusing on Kerrigan and the Zerg race . It spans 27 missions ( 20 main missions and 7 side missions ) .
The saga of StarCraft is ultimately completed with StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , which was released on November 10 , 2015 . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void is a stand @-@ alone game in which new units are added to all three races as well as changing existing units , and also makes groundbreaking changes to the economy @-@ aspect of the game . The story of Starcraft is concluded by following the Protoss Race in their quest to reclaim their homeworld and for Kerrigan to ultimately slay the greatest threat to the entire universe . The game is divided by a 3 @-@ mission prologue , a 19 @-@ mission main story campaign followed by a 3 @-@ mission epilogue wrapping up .
At BlizzCon 2015 during the " Future of Starcraft 2 " presentation it was revealed that Blizzard will release additional mission packs to keep players engaged with Starcraft 2 . The first pack is called Nova Covert Ops , and will center around the character Nova . The mission pack will consist of three episodes , with a total of nine new missions . It does not require the purchase of StarCraft II , and can be played with the Starter Edition . The release date for the first episode is 29 March 2016 . At the same time Blizzard has announced that new commanders are planned to be added to the Co @-@ Op mode in Legacy of the Void as a DLC , with Karax to be the first addition given for free .
= = = Spin @-@ off titles = = =
The success of StarCraft has spurred the creation of two authorized add @-@ on titles to StarCraft , as well as a deviation into genres other than real @
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, and for managing the various consequences of MS.
The primary aims of therapy are returning function after an attack , preventing new attacks , and preventing disability . As with any medical treatment , medications used in the management of MS may have several adverse effects , and many possible therapies are still under investigation . At the same time different alternative treatments are pursued by many people , despite the fact that there is little supporting , comparable , replicated scientific study . Stem cell therapy is being studied .
This article focuses on therapies for standard MS ; borderline forms of MS have particular treatments that are excluded .
= = Acute attacks = =
Administration of high doses of intravenous corticosteroids , such as methylprednisolone , is the routine therapy for acute relapses . This is administered over a period of three to five days , and has a well @-@ established efficacy in promoting a faster recovery from disability after an attack . There is however insufficient evidence to indicate any significant impact on long @-@ term disability of corticosteroid treatments . Steroids administered orally have a similar effectiveness and safety profile at treating MS symptoms as intravenous treatment . Consequences of severe attacks which do not respond to corticosteroids might be treated by plasmapheresis .
= = Disease @-@ modifying treatments = =
As of June 2016 , ten disease @-@ modifying treatments have been approved by regulatory agencies of different countries , including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , the European Medicines Agency ( EMEA ) and the Japanese PMDA .
Medications approved by the FDA include two interferons , beta @-@ 1a and beta @-@ 1b , three monoclonal antibodies : natalizumab , alemtuzumab and daclizumab and five immunomodulators : glatiramer acetate , mitoxantrone , fingolimod , teriflunomide , dimethyl fumarate .
= = = Medications = = =
In 1993 interferon beta @-@ 1b was the first drug to ever be approved for MS , being soon followed by interferon beta @-@ 1a and glatiramer acetate .
Interferon beta @-@ 1a is injected either weekly ( intramuscular injection ) or three times a week ( subcutaneous injection ) depending on commercial formulations , while interferon beta @-@ 1b is injected subcutaneously every second day . In 2014 , a pegylated form of interferon beta @-@ 1a was introduced with the brand name Plegridy , which is available as a subcutaneous injection . This peginterferon beta 1 @-@ a attaches polyethylene glycol to the interferon molecules allowing longer lasting biological effects in the body while decreasing the frequency of administration to once every two weeks . Interferon beta balances the expression of pro- and anti @-@ inflammatory agents in the brain , and reduces the number of inflammatory cells that cross the blood – brain barrier . Overall , therapy with interferon beta leads to a reduction of neuron inflammation . Moreover , it is also thought to increase the production of nerve growth factor and consequently improve neuronal survival .
Glatiramer acetate is a mixture of random polymers of four amino acids which is antigenically similar to the myelin basic protein , a component of the myelin sheath of nerves with which it competes for presentation to T cells . It is injected subcutaneously on a daily basis .
Mitoxantrone is an immunosuppressant also used in cancer chemotherapy which was approved for MS in the year 2000 ; whereas natalizumab is a monoclonal antibody that was initially approved in 2004 . Both are given by intravenous infusion at monthly intervals in the case of natalizumab and every three months in the case of mitoxantrone .
In 2010 fingolimod , a sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate receptor modulator , became the first oral drug approved by the FDA , being followed in 2012 by teriflunomide , a drug that inhibits the synthesis of pyrimidine and disrupts the interaction of T cells with antigen presenting cell . Fingolimod and teriflunomide are taken through a daily single dose . In 2013 one further oral drug , dimethyl fumarate -or BG12- ( which is an improved version of fumaric acid , an already existing drug ) , was approved by the FDA . Dimethyl fumarate is taken twice daily .
Another oral drug , cladribine , was approved in Russia and Australia in 2010 . Its application was rejected by the FDA and EMEA in 2011 due to safety concerns in spite of the promising efficacy of the drug . This led the pharmaceutical to discontinue commercialization and withdraw all marketing applications .
Most of these drugs are approved only for Relapsing @-@ Remitting multiple sclerosis ( RRMS ) .
= = = = Side effects = = = =
Both the interferons and glatiramer acetate are available only in injectable forms , and both can cause skin reactions at the injection site , specially with subcutaneous administration . Skin reactions vary greatly in their clinical presentation and may include bruising , erythema , pain , pruritus , irritation , swelling and in the most extreme cases cutaneous necrosis . They usually appear within the first month of treatment albeit their frequence and importance diminish after six months of use . Mild skin reactions usually do not impede treatment whereas necroses appear in around 5 % of patients and lead to the discontinuation of the therapy . Also over time , a visible dent at the injection site due to the local destruction of fat tissue , known as lipoatrophy , may develop .
Interferons , a subclass of cytokines , are produced in the body during illnesses such as influenza in order to help fight the infection . They are responsible of many of the symptoms of influenza infections , including fever , muscle aches , fatigue , and headaches . Many patients report influenza @-@ like symptoms hours after taking interferon @-@ beta that usually improve within 24 hours , being such symptoms related to the temporary increase of cytokines . This reaction tends to disappear after 3 months of treatment and its symptoms can be treated with over @-@ the @-@ counter nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , such as ibuprofen , that reduce fever and pain . Another common transient secondary effect with interferon @-@ beta is a functional deterioration of already existing symptoms of the disease . Such deterioration is similar to the one produced in MS patients due to heat , fever or stress ( Uhthoff 's phenomenon ) , usually appears within 24 hours of treatment , is more common in the initial months of treatment , and may last several days . A symptom specially sensitive to worsening is spasticity . Interferon @-@ beta can also reduce numbers of white blood cells ( leukopenia ) , lymphocytes ( lymphopenia ) and neutrophils ( neutropenia ) , as well as affect liver function . In most cases these effects are non @-@ dangerous and reversible after cessation or reduction of treatment . Nevertheless , recommendation is that all patients should be monitored through laboratory blood analyses , including liver function tests , to ensure safe use of interferons .
Glatiramer acetate is generally well tolerated . The most common secondary effect with glatiramer acetate after skin problem is a post @-@ injection reaction manifested by flushing , chest tightness , heart palpitations , breathlessness , and anxiety , which usually lasts less than thirty minutes and does not require additional treatment .
Mitoxantrone therapy may be associated with immunosuppressive effects and liver damage ; however its most dangerous side effect is its dose @-@ related cardiac toxicity . Careful adherence to the administration and monitoring guidelines is therefore essential ; this includes obtaining an echocardiogram and a complete blood count before treatment to decide whether the therapy is suitable for the patient or the risks are too great . It is recommended that mitoxantrone be discontinued at the first signs of heart damage , infection or liver dysfunction during therapy . Heart problems ( mainly systolic dysfunction ) appear in over 10 % of patients , while leukemia prevalence is 0 @.@ 8 % .
Soon after its approval natalizumab was withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer after it was linked with three cases of the rare but hazardous neurological condition called progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy ( PML ) . PML is an opportunistic infection with neurological progressive symptoms caused by the replication of the JC virus in the glial cells of the brain . All 3 initial cases were taking natalizumab in combination with interferon beta @-@ 1a . After a safety review the drug was returned to the market in 2006 as a monotherapy for MS under a special prescription program . As of May 2011 , over 130 cases of PML had been reported , all in patients who had taken natalizumab for more than a year . While none of them had taken the drug in combination with other disease @-@ modifying treatments , previous use of MS treatments increases the risk of PML between 3 and 4 @-@ fold . The estimated prevalence of PML is 1 @.@ 5 cases per thousand natalizumab users . Around 20 % of MS patients with PML die , while most of the remaining are importantly disabled .
During clinical trials fingolimod gave rise to side effects such as hypertension and bradycardia , macular edema , elevated liver enzymes or reduction in lymphocite levels . Teriflunomide is considered a very safe drug . Nevertheless , there have been reports of liver failure , and PML . Teriflunomide is also known to be dangerous for fetal development . Most common secondary effects of dimethyl fumarate during clinical trials were flushing and gastrointestinal problems . These problems were generally mild and occurred more frequently during the first month of treatment . While dimethyl fumarate leads to a reduction in white blood cell count and levels should be monitored in patients , there were no reported cases of opportunistic infections during the clinical trials . Moreover , fumaric acid is also used to treat psoriasis , another autoinmune disorder , and there is long term safety data from over 14 years of use without any indication of further dangerous secondary effects .
= = = Clinically isolated syndrome = = =
The earliest clinical presentation of RRMS is the clinically isolated syndrome ( CIS ) , that is , a single attack of a single symptom . During a CIS , there is a subacute attack suggestive of demyelination but the patient does not fulfill the criteria for diagnosis of multiple sclerosis . Treatment with interferons or glatiramer acetate after an initial attack decreases the risk of developing clinical definite MS.
= = = Relapsing @-@ remitting MS = = =
Medications are modestly effective at decreasing the number of attacks in RRMS and in reducing the accumulation of brain lesions , which is measured using gadolinium @-@ enhanced magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . Interferons and glatiramer acetate are roughly equivalent , reducing relapses by approximately 30 % and their safe profile make them the first @-@ line treatments . Nevertheless , not all the patients are responsive to these therapies . It is known that 30 % of MS patients are non @-@ responsive to Beta interferon . One of the factors related to non @-@ respondance is the presence of high levels of interferon beta neutralizing antibodies . Interferon therapy , and specially interferon beta @-@ 1b , induces the production of neutralizing antibodies , usually in the second 6 months of treatment , in 5 to 30 % of treated patients . Moreover , a subset of RRMS patients with specially active MS , sometimes called " rapidly worsening MS " are normally non @-@ responders to immunomodulators and are treated with either mitoxantrone or natalizumab .
Natalizumab and mitoxantrone are considered highly effective both in terms of relapse rate reduction and halting disability progression , however , they are related to dangerous side @-@ effects that have led them to be considered second @-@ line treatments . Natalizumab halves the risk of suffering relapses when compared to interferons , having an overall efficacy of over 70 % . Moreover , mitoxantrone is also highly useful to reduce attacks and disability , but it is generally not considered as a long @-@ term therapy due to its severe cardiac toxicity .
There are no official guidelines yet on the use of disease @-@ modifying oral treatments due to their recent development . While some believe that they will probably reduce the usage of first @-@ line treatments the long @-@ term safety of interferons and glatiramer acetate will probably slow this trend . It has been recommended that at the moment oral treatments should be mainly offered in those cases where patients do not use existing treatments due to needle phobia or other reasons such as perceived inefficacy of interferons and glatiramer acetate . They could also be used in patients taking natalizumab who have developed JC virus antibodies and are therefore at an increased risk of PML . Dimethyl fumarate is potentially one of the most interesting oral drugs due to the long term data from use in psoriasis which points towards a very good safety profile .
While more studies of the long @-@ term effects of the drugs are needed , specially for the newest treatments , existing data on the effects of interferons and glatiramer acetate indicate that early @-@ initiated long @-@ term therapy is safe and it is related to better outcomes .
Oral contraceptive pills have contradictory results from different studies regarding any effect of decreasing relapse rate in women with multiple sclerosis . Certain medications for MS symptoms , such as carbamazepine ( used to treat spasms and pain ) and modafinil ( used to treat fatigue ) can make oral contraceptive pills less effective .
Even with appropriate use of medication , to varying degrees most patients with relapsing @-@ remitting MS still suffer from some attacks and many suffer subsequent disability .
= = = Secondary progressive MS and progressive relapsing MS = = =
Treatment of advanced forms of MS is more difficult than relapsing @-@ remitting MS. A wide range of medications have been used to try to slow the progression of the disease , with results that have been at best fair .
Mitoxantrone has shown positive effects in people with a secondary progressive and progressive relapsing courses . It is moderately effective in reducing the progression of the disease and the frequency of relapses in people after two years . In 2007 it was the only medication approved in the USA for both secondary progressive and progressive relapsing multiple sclerosis ; however , it causes dose @-@ dependent cardiac toxicity which limits its long @-@ term use . It is also not approved in Europe . Natalizumab has shown efficacy and has been approved for secondary progressive MS with relapses . Studies on the use of Interferon @-@ beta @-@ 1b in secondary progressive and progressive relapsing MS do not support that it slows progression of the disease , although it is effective in reducing the number of relapses .
= = = Primary progressive MS = = =
Treatment of primary progressive multiple sclerosis ( PPMS ) is problematic as many patients do not respond to any available therapy , and no treatment has been approved specifically for use in this form of the disease . There have been several trials investigating the efficacy of different drugs for PPMS without positive results . Drugs tested include interferon beta , mitoxantrone , glatiramer acetate or riluzole . People with PPMS have also been included in trials of azathioprine , methotrexate , intravenous immunoglobulin , cyclophosphamide and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation .
= = Managing the effects of MS = =
Disease @-@ modifying treatments only reduce the progression rate of the disease but do not stop it . As multiple sclerosis progresses , the symptoms tend to increase . The disease is associated with a variety of symptoms and functional deficits that result in a range of progressive impairments and handicap . Management of these deficits is therefore very important .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
= = = = Physical therapy = = = =
Symptoms of MS that can be improved include fatigue , spasticity , depression , bladder dysfunction , and neurological symptoms . These symptoms can be improved by physical therapy and medication . Physical therapists can show strengthening exercises and ways to stretch ; ultimately making daily tasks easier and reduces fatigue while muscle strength increases as flexibility increases . Medications can help fatigue , muscle tightness ( spasticity ) , depression , bladder dysfunction , and neurological symptoms . All symptoms are common amongst MS patients .
Both drug therapy and neurorehabilitation have shown to ease the burden of some symptoms , even though neither influence disease progression . For other symptoms the efficacy of treatments is still very limited .
= = = = Neurorehabilitation = = = =
Although there are relatively few studies of rehabilitation in MS , its general effectiveness , when conducted by a team of specialists , has been clearly demonstrated in other diseases such as stroke or head trauma . As for any patient with neurologic deficits , a multidisciplinary approach is key to limiting and overcoming disability ; however there are particular difficulties in specifying a ' core team ' because people with MS may need help from almost any health profession or service at some point . Neurologists are mainly involved in the diagnosis and ongoing management of multiple sclerosis , and any exacerbations . The comprehensive rehabilitation process for patients with multiple sclerosis is generally managed by physiatrists . Allied treatments such as physiotherapy , speech and language therapy or occupational therapy can also help to manage some symptoms and maintain quality of life . Treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms such as emotional distress and clinical depression should involve mental health professionals such as therapists , psychologists , and psychiatrists , while neuropsychologists can help to evaluate and manage cognitive deficits . Multidisciplinary approaches have been shown to be effective in increasing activity levels and participation in multiple sclerosis . Due to the paucity of randomized controlled studies , there is limited evidence of the overall efficacy of individual therapy disciplines , though there is good evidence that specific approaches , such as exercise , psychology therapies , particularly cognitive behavioral approaches and energy conservation instruction are effective . More specifically psychological interventions seem useful in the treatment of depression , while evidence on effectiveness for other uses such as the treatment of cognitive impairments or vocational counseling is less strong . It is difficult to be specific about what types of rehabilitation will be most beneficial because therapies are tailored to meet the individual 's specific needs .
In regards to well @-@ being , physical therapy focused on gait training can be vital to maximizing MS patient participation via reduction of fatigue during walking and activities of daily living ( ADLs ) . Most gait training is performed over @-@ ground ( i.e. , in a gym room or outside on uneven ground ) , on treadmills or , less commonly , using robotic @-@ assisted devices . Robotic @-@ assisted body weight @-@ supported treadmill training may be an effective therapeutic option in MS patients with severe walking impairments . In contrast , over @-@ ground gait training may be most effective in improving gait speed in MS patients with less severe impairments . Equine @-@ assisted therapies such as therapeutic horseback riding and hippotherapy are additional treatments that can positively influence gait , balance and quality of life in people with MS.
Historically , individuals with MS were advised against participation in physical activity due to worsening symptoms . However , under the direction of an expert , participation in physical activity can be safe and has been proven beneficial for persons with MS. Research has supported the rehabilitative role of physical activity in improving muscle power , mobility , mood , bowel health , general conditioning and quality of life . Depending on the person , activities may include resistance training , walking , swimming , yoga , tai chi , and others . Determining an appropriate and safe exercise program is challenging and must be carefully individualized to each person being sure to account for all contraindications and precautions .
An elevated core temperature , leading to increased symptom presentation has been noted during exercise , due to variations in circadian body temperature throughout the day , and due to heat exposure including warm temperatures , warm showers , sun bathing , etc . Care should be taken not to overheat a person with MS during the course of exercise . There is some evidence that cooling measures are effective in allowing a greater degree of exercise : cold showers , cold water limb immersion , applying ice packs , and drinking cold beverages . These strategies are effective when attempting to decrease core temperature post @-@ exercise , and as a method of pre @-@ cooling prior to physical activity or heat exposure . The interaction between an elevated core temperature and the pathological demyelination can cause a transient nerve conduction block that leads to temporarily impaired physical and cognitive function . These effects translate to reduced patient safety and performance of ADLs , however there are viable prevention strategies . Behavioral strategies to minimize heat exposure include performing outdoor physical activity when temperatures are cooler , or installing an air conditioner .
= = = Medical treatments for symptoms = = =
Multiple sclerosis can cause a variety of symptoms including changes in sensation ( hypoesthesia ) , muscle weakness , abnormal muscle spasms , impaired movement , difficulties with coordination and balance , problems in speech ( known as dysarthria ) or swallowing ( dysphagia ) , visual problems ( nystagmus , optic neuritis , or diplopia ) , fatigue and acute or chronic pain syndromes , bladder and bowel difficulties , cognitive impairment , or emotional symptoms ( mainly depression ) . At the same time for each symptom there are different treatment options . Treatments should therefore be individualized depending both on the patient and the physician .
Bladder : Symptomatology of the urinary tract is common in MS. Treatments for bladder problems vary depending on the origin or type of dysfunction but can mainly divided into treatment of bladder control and incontinence , and of urinary tract infections . Regarding bladder control , some examples of medications used are desmopressin for nocturia and anticholinergic drugs such as oxybutynin and tolterodine for urinary urgency . Non @-@ pharmacological management includes pelvic floor muscle training , stimulation , pessaries , bladder retraining , changes to daily life habits such as clothing , use of external urine collection devices for men and incontinence pads for women ; and sometimes intermittent urinary catheterization . Regarding long term catheterization , it is associated to urinary tract infections and should be avoided whenever possible . Some of these recommendations do not come from specific studies in MS but are general recommendations for those who have neurogenic bladder .
Bowel : bowel problems affect around 70 % of the patients , with around 50 % of the patients suffering from constipation and up to 30 % from fecal incontinence . Cause of bowel impairments in MS patients is usually either a reduced gut motility or an impairment in neurological control of defecation . The former is commonly related to inmobility or secondary effects from drugs used in the treatment of the disease . Pain or problems with defecation can be helped with a diet change which includes among other changes an increased fluid intake , oral laxatives or suppositories and enemas when habit changes and oral measures are not enough to control the problems .
Cognitive and emotional : neuropsychiatric symptomatology is common in the course of the disease . Depression and anxiety appear in up to 80 % of patients , . Emotional lability leading to uncontrollable crying is also common . These symptoms can be treated with antidepressants and cognitive behavioral therapy ; however , high quality studies on efficacy are lacking . For example , in the specific case of antidepressants and depression , only two studies were considered worth considering as of 2011 by the Cochrane collaboration and they only showed a trend towards efficacy . Other neuropsychiatric symptoms are euphoria and disinhibition . Cognitive impairment is a frequent complication of MS even after the introduction of disease @-@ modifying treatments in the last 20 years . Although the disease is usually the primary cause of cognitive problems , other factors such as medications , relapses or depression may be enhancing them so a correct evaluation of the deficits and factors exacerbating them is important . Regarding primary deficits , data point towards administration of L @-@ amphetamine and methylphenidate being useful , whereas memantine and anticholinesterase drugs such as donepezil — commonly used in Alzheimer disease — are not considered effective in improving cognitive functions . Effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy is more controverted . For those patients with MS who have pseudobulbar affect ( PBA ) , characterized by uncontrollable episodes of crying and / or laughing , or other emotional displays , Dextromethorphan / quinidine can be considered as treatment as it is the only FDA approved drug for treatment for PBA , though other medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants have been used in clinical practice .
Dysphagia and dysarthria : dysphagia is a difficulty with eating and swallowing which may cause choking and aspiration of food or liquid into the lungs , while dysarthria is a neurological motor speech disorder characterized by poor control over the subsystems and muscles responsible for speech ( " articulation " ) . A speech and language therapist may give advice on specific swallowing techniques , on adapting food consistencies and dietary intake , on techniques to improve and maintain speech production and clarity , and on alternative communication approaches . In the case of advanced dysphagia , food can be supplied by a nasogastric tube , which is a tube that goes through the nose directly to the stomach ; or a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy ( PEG ) , which is a procedure for placing a tube into the stomach and therefore administering food directly to it . This second system , although more invasive , has better results in the long term than nasogastric intake .
Erectile dysfunction : erectile dysfunction is common in male patients with MS. There is some evidence indicating that sildenafil citrate may be a useful treatment .
Fatigue : fatigue is very common and disabling in MS , and at the same time it has a close relationship with depressive symptomatology . When depression is reduced fatigue also tends to improve , so patients should be evaluated for depression before other therapeutic approaches are used . In a similar way , other factors such as disturbed sleep , chronic pain , poor nutrition , or even some medications can contribute to fatigue ; medical professionals are therefore encouraged to identify and modify them . A few medications have been studied to treat MS @-@ related fatigue , such as amantadine pemoline ( which is a psychostimulant also used for attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy ) , or modafinil , as well as psychological interventions of energy conservation , but the effects of all of them are small . Fatigue is therefore a very difficult symptom to manage for which no drugs are recommended .
Pain : acute pain is mainly due to optic neuritis ( with corticosteroids being the best treatment available ) , as well as trigeminal neuralgia , Lhermitte 's sign , or dysesthesias . Subacute pain is usually secondary to the disease and can be a consequence of spending too long in the same position , urinary retention , and infected skin ulcers , amongst others . Treatment will depend on cause . Chronic pain is very common and harder to treat as its most common cause is dysesthesias . Acute pain due to trigeminal neuralgia is usually successfully treated with anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine or phenytoin . Both Lhermitte 's sign and painful dysesthesias usually respond to treatment with carbamazepine , clonazepam , or amitriptyline . Sativex is approved for treatment of pain in MS in different countries , but due to its derivation from cannabis , it is currently not available in others , such as the USA . This medication is also being investigated for the management of other MS symptoms , such as spasticity , and has shown long @-@ term safety and efficacy .
Spasticity : spasticity is characterized by increased stiffness and slowness in limb movement , the development of certain postures , an association with weakness of voluntary muscle power , and with involuntary and sometimes painful spasms of limbs . A physiotherapist can help to reduce spasticity and avoid the development of contractures with techniques such as passive stretching . Nabiximols is safe and effective for relieving spacticity . There is evidence , albeit limited , of the clinical effectiveness of baclofen , dantrolene , diazepam , and tizanidine . In the most complicated cases intrathecal injections of baclofen can be used . There are also palliative measures like castings , splints or customized seatings .
Vision : different drugs as well as optic compensatory systems and prisms can be used to improve the symptoms of nystagmus or diplopia ( double vision ) . Surgery can also be used in some cases .
Walking : dalfampridine ( ampyra ) is a broad @-@ spectrum potassium channel blocker . It is approved by the FDA to treat walking difficulties in MS. It has been shown to increase walking speed , although its high cost ( over 1000 dollars a month ) limits its usage .
Unfortunately , other symptoms , such as ataxia , tremor or sensory losses , do not have proven treatments .
= = Research = =
Research directions on MS treatments include investigations of MS pathogenesis and heterogeneity ; research of more effective , convenient , or tolerable new treatments for RRMS ; creation of therapies for the progressive subtypes ; neuroprotection strategies ; and the search for effective symptomatic treatments .
Advances during the last decades has led to the recent approval of several oral drugs . These drugs are expected to gain in popularity and frequency of use at the expense of previously existing therapies . Further oral drugs are still under investigation , the most notable example being laquinimod , which was announced in August 2012 to be the focus of a third phase III trial after mixed results in the previous ones . Similarly , Other studies are aimed to improve efficacy and ease of use of already existing therapies through the use of novel preparations . Such is the case the PEGylated version of interferon @-@ β @-@ 1a , that has a longer life than normal interferon and therefore it is being studied if given at less frequent doses has a similar efficacy than the existing product . With the completion of a robust two @-@ year study , it is shown that the PEGylated interferon beta @-@ 1a has greater efficacy in decreasing relapse rate and disability progression compared to placebo for MS patients .
Monoclonal antibodies , which are drugs of the same family as natalizumab , have also raised high levels of interest and research . Alemtuzumab , daclizumab and CD20 monoclonal antibodies such as rituximab , ocrelizumab and ofatumumab have all shown some benefit and are under study as potential treatments for MS. Nevertheless , their use has also been accompanied by the appearance of potentially dangerous adverse effects , most importantly opportunistic infections . Related to these investigations is the recent development of a test against JC virus antibodies which might help to predict what patients are at a greater risk of developing progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy when taking natalizumab . While monoclonal antibodies are probably going to have some role in the treatment of the disease in the future , it is believed that it will be small due to the risks associated to them .
Another research strategy is to evaluate the combined effectiveness of two or more drugs . The main rationale for polytherapy in MS is that the involved treatments target different mechanisms of the disease and therefore their use is not necessarily exclusive . Moreover , synergies , in which a drug potentiates the effect of another are also possible . Nevertheless , there can also appear important drawbacks such as antagonizing mechanisms of action or potentiation of deleterious secondary effects . While there have been several clinical trials of combined therapy none has shown positive enough effects to merit the consideration as a viable treatment for MS.
Finally , regarding neuroprotective and specially regenerative treatments , such as stem cell therapy , while their research is considered of high importance at the moment they are only a promise of future therapeutic approaches . Likewise , there are not any effective treatments for the progressive variants of the disease . Many of the newest drugs as well as those under development are probably going to be evaluated as therapies for PPMS or SPMS , and their improved effectiveness when compared with previously existing drugs may eventually lead to a positive result in these groups of patients .
In 2008 , vascular surgeon Paolo Zamboni suggested that MS involves a vascular process he referred to as chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency ( CCSVI ) , in which veins from the brain are constricted . He found CCSVI in all patients with MS in his study , performed a surgical procedure , later called in the media " liberation procedure " to correct it and claimed that 73 % of participants improved . This theory received important attention in the media and among MS patients , specially in Canada . Concern has been raised with Zamboni 's research as it was neither blinded nor controlled , and additionally its assumptions about the pathophisiology of the disease may not be backed by known data . Also further studies have either not found a relationship or found a much less strong one . This has raised serious objections to the hypothesis of CCSVI originating MS. The " liberation procedure " has been criticized for possibly resulting in serious complications and deaths while its benefits have not been proven . Currently it is recommended not to use the proposed treatment unless its effectiveness is confirmed by controlled studies . Research on CCSVI has been fast tracked but researchers have been unable to confirm whether CCSVI has a role in causing MS.
= = Alternative treatments = =
Over 50 % of MS patients may use complementary and alternative medicine , although numbers vary greatly depending on the definition of alternative medicine used . In the United States , it is estimated that 75 % of the MS patient populations use at least one complementary and alternative medicine for treatment and symptomatic control . The evidence for effectiveness for such treatments in most cases is weak or absent . Examples of treatments used by patients include dietary supplementation and regimens such as vitamin D , calcium , vitamin B12 , and antioxidants . The rationale behind the use of Vitamin D supplementation is that studies show an association between vitamin D deficiency and increasing progression of MS , as well as the anti @-@ inflammatory effects of vitamin D.
For antioxidant therapy , studies have shown that reactive oxidative species lead to the formation of multiple sclerosis
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3 ) .
= = = Trinity and angels = = =
Out of a desire to make the abstract visible , arms were also attributed to the unseen spirits ( Neubecker , 222 ; Dennys , 93 ) . Because anthropomorphic representations of the Trinity were discouraged by the Church during the Middle Ages ( Dennys , 95 ) , the Shield of the Trinity quickly became popular . It was often used in decorating not only churches , but theological manuscripts and rolls of arms . An early example from William Peraldus ' Summa Vitiorum ( c . 1260 ) shows a knight battling the seven deadly sins with this shield . A variation included with the shields of arms in Matthew Paris ' Chronica Majora ( c.1250 – 1259 ) adds a cross between the center and bottom circles , accompanied by the words " v 'bu caro f 'm est " ( verbum caro factum est , " the word was made flesh " ; John 1 : 14 ) ( Dennys , 94 ) .
Saint Michael the Archangel appears often in heraldic settings . In one case , the device from the shield of the Trinity is placed on a blue field and attributed to St. Michael ( Dennys , 95 ) . More usually , he is shown in armour with a red cross on a white shield , slaying the devil depicted as a dragon . These attributed arms were later transferred to Saint George ( Dennys , 109 ) .
Heraldry also attributed to Satan , as the commanding general of the fallen angels , arms to identify him in the heat of battle . The Douce Apocalypse portrays him carrying a red shield with a gold fess , and three frogs ( based on Revelation 16 : 13 ) ( Dennys , 112 ) .
= Tuatara =
Tuatara are reptiles endemic to New Zealand and which , although resembling most lizards , are part of a distinct lineage , the order Rhynchocephalia . Their name derives from the Māori language , and means " peaks on the back " . The single species of tuatara is the only surviving member of its order , which flourished around 200 million years ago . Their most recent common ancestor with any other extant group is with the squamates ( lizards and snakes ) . For this reason , tuatara are of great interest in the study of the evolution of lizards and snakes , and for the reconstruction of the appearance and habits of the earliest diapsids ( the group that also includes dinosaurs ( which include birds ) and crocodilians ) .
Tuatara are greenish brown and gray , and measure up to 80 cm ( 31 in ) from head to tail @-@ tip and weigh up to 1 @.@ 3 kg ( 2 @.@ 9 lb ) with a spiny crest along the back , especially pronounced in males . Their dentition , in which two rows of teeth in the upper jaw overlap one row on the lower jaw , is unique among living species . They are even more unusual in having a pronounced photoreceptive eye , the " third eye " , which is thought to be involved in setting circadian and seasonal cycles . They are able to hear , although no external ear is present , and have a number of unique features in their skeleton , some of them apparently evolutionarily retained from fish . Although tuatara are sometimes called " living fossils " , recent anatomical work has shown that they have changed significantly since the Mesozoic era . While mapping its genome , researchers have discovered that the species has between five and six billion base pairs of DNA sequence .
The tuatara Sphenodon punctatus has been protected by law since 1895 . A second species , S. guntheri , was recognised in 1989 but since 2009 its use has been discontinued . Tuatara , like many of New Zealand 's native animals , are threatened by habitat loss and introduced predators , such as the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) . They were extinct on the mainland , with the remaining populations confined to 32 offshore islands , until the first mainland release into the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Sanctuary in 2005 .
During routine maintenance work at Karori Sanctuary in late 2008 , a tuatara nest was uncovered , with a hatchling found the following autumn . This is thought to be the first case of tuatara successfully breeding on the New Zealand mainland in over 200 years , outside of captive rearing facilities .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Tuatara , along with other , now extinct members of the order Sphenodontia , belong to the superorder Lepidosauria , the only surviving taxon within Lepidosauromorpha . Squamates and tuatara both show caudal autotomy ( loss of the tail @-@ tip when threatened ) , and have transverse cloacal slits . The origin of the tuatara probably lies close to the split between the Lepidosauromorpha and the Archosauromorpha . Though tuatara resemble lizards , the similarity is superficial , because the family has several characteristics unique among reptiles . The typical lizard shape is very common for the early amniotes ; the oldest known fossil of a reptile , the Hylonomus , resembles a modern lizard .
Tuatara were originally classified as lizards in 1831 when the British Museum received a skull . The genus remained misclassified until 1867 , when Albert Günther of the British Museum noted features similar to birds , turtles , and crocodiles . He proposed the order Rhynchocephalia ( meaning " beak head " ) for the tuatara and its fossil relatives .
Many disparately related species were subsequently added to the Rhynchocephalia , resulting in what taxonomists call a " wastebasket taxon " . Williston proposed the Sphenodontia to include only tuatara and their closest fossil relatives in 1925 . Sphenodon is derived from the Greek for " wedge " ( σφήν , σφηνός / sphenos ) and " tooth " ( ὀδούς , ὀδόντος / odontos ) .
Tuatara have been referred to as living fossils , which means they retain many basal characteristics from around the time of the squamate – rhynchocephalian split ( 220 MYA ) . However , taxonomic work on Sphenodontia has shown this group has undergone a variety of changes throughout the Mesozoic , and a March 2008 molecular study showed their rate of molecular evolution has been the fastest of any animal yet examined . Many of the niches occupied by lizards today were then held by sphenodontians . There was even a successful group of aquatic sphenodontians known as pleurosaurs , which differed markedly from living tuatara . Tuatara show cold weather adaptations that allow them to thrive on the islands of New Zealand ; these adaptations may be unique to tuatara since their sphenodontian ancestors lived in the much warmer climates of the Mesozoic .
A species of sphenodontine is known from the Miocene Saint Bathans Fauna . Whereas it is refereable to Sphenodon proper is not entirely clear , but is assumed to be closely related to tuataras .
= = = Species = = =
The two extant species are Sphenodon punctatus , or Northern tuatara , and the much rarer Sphenodon guntheri , or Brothers Island tuatara , which is confined to North Brother Island in Cook Strait . The specific name punctatus is Latin for " spotted " , and guntheri refers to German @-@ born British herpetologist Albert Günther . S. punctatus was named when only one species was known , and its name is misleading , since both species can have spots . The Brother 's Island tuatara ( S. guntheri ) has olive brown skin with yellowish patches , while the colour of the other species , ( S. punctatus ) , ranges from olive green through grey to dark pink or brick red , often mottled , and always with white spots . In addition , S. guntheri is considerably smaller . A third , extinct species of Sphenodon was identified in November 1885 by William Colenso , who was sent an incomplete sub @-@ fossil specimen from a local coal mine . Colenso named the new species S. diversum . Sphenodon punctatus is further divided into two subspecies : the Cook Strait tuatara ( unnamed subspecies ) , which lives on other islands in and near Cook Strait , and the northern tuatara ( Sphenodon punctatus punctatus ) , which lives on the Bay of Plenty , and some islands further north . A 2009 paper re @-@ examined the genetic bases used to distinguish the two species of tuatara , and concluded they only represent geographic variants , and only one species should be recognized .
= = Description = =
The tuatara is considered the most unspecialised living amniote ; the brain and mode of locomotion resemble those of amphibians and the heart is more primitive than that of any other reptile . The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . Both species are sexually dimorphic , males being larger . Adult S. punctatus males measure 61 cm ( 24 in ) in length and females 45 cm ( 18 in ) . The San Diego Zoo even cites a length of up to 80 cm ( 31 in ) . Males weigh up to 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , and females up to 0 @.@ 5 kg ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) . Brother 's Island tuatara are slightly smaller , weighing up to 660 g ( 1 @.@ 3 lb ) .
The tuatara 's greenish brown colour matches its environment , and can change over its lifetime . Tuatara shed their skin at least once per year as adults , and three or four times a year as juveniles . Tuatara sexes differ in more than size . The spiny crest on a tuatara 's back , made of triangular , soft folds of skin , is larger in males , and can be stiffened for display . The male abdomen is narrower than the female 's .
= = = Skull = = =
In the course of evolution , the skull has been modified in most diapsids from the original version evident in the fossil record . However , all the original features are preserved in that of the tuatara ; it has two openings ( temporal fenestra ) on each side of the skull , with complete arches . In addition , the upper jaw is firmly attached to the skull . This makes for a very rigid , inflexible construction . Testudines ( turtle and tortoise ) skulls , which lack any temporal fenestra ( anapsid condition ) , are sometimes considered to be the most primitive among amniotes , though evidence strongly indicates they may have lost the temporal holes rather than never having had them .
The tip of the upper jaw is beak @-@ like and separated from the remainder of the jaw by a notch . There is a single row of teeth in the lower jaw and a double row in the upper , with the bottom row fitting perfectly between the two upper rows when the mouth is closed . This specific tooth arrangement is not seen in any other reptile ; although most snakes have a double row of teeth in their upper jaws , their arrangement and function is different from the tuatara 's . The jaws , joined by ligament , chew with backwards and forwards movements combined with a shearing up and down action . The force of the bite is suitable for shearing chitin and bone . Fossils indicate that this jaw structure began developing about 180 million years ago . The tuatara 's teeth are not replaced , since they are not separate structures like real teeth , but sharp projections of the jaw bone . As their teeth wear down , older tuatara have to switch to softer prey such as earthworms , larvae , and slugs , and eventually have to chew their food between smooth jaw bones . The brain of Sphenodon fills only half of the volume of its endocranium . This proportion has actually been used by paleontologists trying to estimate the volume of dinosaur brains based on fossils . However , the proportion of the tuatara endocranium occupied by its brain may not be a very good guide to the same proportion in Mesozoic dinosaurs since modern birds are surviving dinosaurs but have brains which occupy a much greater relative volume within the endocranium .
= = = Sensory organs = = =
The eyes can focus independently , and are specialized with a duplex retina that contains two types of visual cells for both day and night vision , and a tapetum lucidum which reflects onto the retina to enhance vision in the dark . There is also a third eyelid on each eye , the nictitating membrane .
The tuatara has a third eye on the top of its head called the parietal eye . It has its own lens , cornea , retina with rod @-@ like structures , and degenerated nerve connection to the brain , suggesting it evolved from a real eye . The parietal eye is only visible in hatchlings , which have a translucent patch at the top centre of the skull . After four to six months , it becomes covered with opaque scales and pigment . Its purpose is unknown , but it may be useful in absorbing ultraviolet rays to produce vitamin D , as well as to determine light / dark cycles , and help with thermoregulation . Of all extant tetrapods , the parietal eye is most pronounced in the tuatara . It is part of the pineal complex , another part of which is the pineal gland , which in tuatara secretes melatonin at night . Some salamanders have been shown to use their pineal bodies to perceive polarised light , and thus determine the position of the sun , even under cloud cover , aiding navigation .
Together with turtles , the tuatara has the most primitive hearing organs among the amniotes . There is no eardrum and no earhole , and the middle ear cavity is filled with loose tissue , mostly adipose ( fatty ) tissue . The stapes comes into contact with the quadrate ( which is immovable ) , as well as the hyoid and squamosal . The hair cells are unspecialized , innervated by both afferent and efferent nerve fibres , and respond only to low frequencies . Though the hearing organs are poorly developed and primitive with no visible external ears , they can still show a frequency response from 100 to 800 Hz , with peak sensitivity of 40 dB at 200 Hz .
= = = Spine and ribs = = =
The tuatara spine is made up of hourglass @-@ shaped amphicoelous vertebrae , concave both before and behind . This is the usual condition of fish vertebrae and some amphibians , but is unique to tuatara within the amniotes .
The tuatara has gastralia , rib @-@ like bones also called gastric or abdominal ribs , the presumed ancestral trait of diapsids . They are found in some lizards , where they are mostly made of cartilage , as well as crocodiles and the tuatara , and are not attached to the spine or thoracic ribs . The true ribs are small projections , with small , hooked bones , called uncinate processes , found on the rear of each rib . This feature is also present in birds . The tuatara is the only living tetrapod with well @-@ developed gastralia and uncinate processes .
In the early tetrapods , the gastralia and ribs with uncinate processes , together with bony elements such as bony plates in the skin ( osteoderms ) and clavicles ( collar bone ) , would have formed a sort of exoskeleton around the body , protecting the belly and helping to hold in the guts and inner organs . These anatomical details most likely evolved from structures involved in locomotion even before the vertebrates ventured onto land . The gastralia may have been involved in the breathing process in early amphibians and reptiles . The pelvis and shoulder girdles are arranged differently from those of lizards , as is the case with other parts of the internal anatomy and its scales .
= = = Tail and back = = =
The spiny plates on the back and tail of the tuatara resemble those of a crocodile more than a lizard , but the tuatara shares with lizards the ability to break off its tail when caught by a predator , and then regenerate it .
= = Behaviour = =
Adult tuatara are terrestrial and nocturnal reptiles , though they will often bask in the sun to warm their bodies . Hatchlings hide under logs and stones , and are diurnal , likely because adults are cannibalistic . Tuatara thrive in temperatures much lower than those tolerated by most reptiles , and hibernate during winter . They remain active at temperatures as low as 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) , while temperatures over 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) are generally fatal . The optimal body temperature for the tuatara is from 16 to 21 ° C ( 61 to 70 ° F ) , the lowest of any reptile . The body temperature of tuatara is lower than that of other reptiles , ranging from 5 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 41 @.@ 4 – 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) over a day , whereas most reptiles have body temperatures around 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The low body temperature results in a slower metabolism .
Burrowing seabirds such as petrels , prions , and shearwaters share the tuatara 's island habitat during the birds ' nesting seasons . The tuatara use the birds ' burrows for shelter when available , or dig their own . The seabirds ' guano helps to maintain invertebrate populations on which tuatara predominantly prey ; including beetles , crickets , and spiders . Their diets also consist of frogs , lizards , and bird 's eggs and chicks . The eggs and young of seabirds that are seasonally available as food for tuatara may provide beneficial fatty acids . Tuatara of both sexes defend territories , and will threaten and eventually bite intruders . The bite can cause serious injury . Tuatara will bite when approached , and will not let go easily .
= = Reproduction = =
Tuatara reproduce very slowly , taking 10 to 20 years to reach sexual maturity . Mating occurs in midsummer ; females mate and lay eggs once every four years . During courtship , a male makes his skin darker , raises his crests , and parades toward the female . He slowly walks in circles around the female with stiffened legs . The female will either submit , and allow the male to mount her , or retreat to her burrow . Males do not have a penis ; they reproduce by the male lifting the tail of the female and placing his vent over hers . The sperm is then transferred into the female , much like the mating process in birds .
Tuatara eggs have a soft , parchment @-@ like shell . It takes the females between one and three years to provide eggs with yolk , and up to seven months to form the shell . It then takes between 12 and 15 months from copulation to hatching . This means reproduction occurs at two- to five @-@ year intervals , the slowest in any reptile . Wild tuatara are known to be still reproducing at about 60 years of age ; " Henry " , a male tuatara at Southland Museum in Invercargill , New Zealand , became a father ( possibly for the first time ) on 23 January 2009 , at the age of 111 .
The sex of a hatchling depends on the temperature of the egg , with warmer eggs tending to produce male tuatara , and cooler eggs producing females . Eggs incubated at 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) have an equal chance of being male or female . However , at 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , 80 % are likely to be males , and at 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , 80 % are likely to be females ; at 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) all hatchlings will be females . Some evidence indicates sex determination in tuatara is determined by both genetic and environmental factors .
Tuatara probably have the slowest growth rates of any reptile , continuing to grow larger for the first 35 years of their lives . The average lifespan is about 60 years , but they can live to be well over 100 years old . Some experts believe that captive tuatara could live as long as 200 years .
= = Conservation = =
= = = Distribution and threats = = =
Tuatara were once widespread on New Zealand 's main North and South Islands , where subfossil remains have been found in sand dunes , caves , and Māori middens . Wiped out from the main islands before European settlement , they were long confined to 32 offshore islands free of mammals . The islands are difficult to get to , and are colonised by few animal species , indicating that some animals absent from these islands may have caused tuatara to disappear from the mainland . However , kiore ( Polynesian rats ) had recently become established on several of the islands , and tuatara were persisting , but not breeding , on these islands . Additionally , tuatara were much rarer on the rat @-@ inhabited islands .
The recent discovery of a tuatara hatchling on the mainland indicates that attempts to re @-@ establish a breeding population on the New Zealand mainland have had some success . The total population of tuatara is estimated to be greater than 60 @,@ 000 , but less than 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Eradication of rats = = =
Tuatara were removed from Stanley , Red Mercury and Cuvier Islands in 1990 and 1991 , and maintained in captivity to allow Polynesian rats to be eradicated on those islands . All three populations bred in captivity , and after successful eradication of the rats , all individuals , including the new juveniles , were returned to their islands of origin . In the 1991 – 92 season , Little Barrier Island was found to hold only eight tuatara , which were taken into in situ captivity , where females produced 42 eggs , which were incubated at Victoria University . The resulting offspring were subsequently held in an enclosure on the island , then released into the wild in 2006 after rats were eradicated there .
In the Hen and Chicken Islands , Pacific rats were eradicated on Whatupuke in 1993 , Lady Alice Island in 1994 , and Coppermine Island in 1997 . Following this program , juveniles have once again been seen on the latter three islands . In contrast , rats persist on Hen Island of the same group , and no juvenile tuatara had been seen there as of 2001 . In the Alderman Islands , Middle Chain Island holds no tuatara , but it is considered possible for rats to swim between Middle Chain and other islands that do hold tuatara , and the rats were eradicated in 1992 to prevent this . Another rodent eradication was carried out on the Rangitoto Islands east of D 'Urville Island , to prepare for the release of 432 Cook Strait tuatara juveniles in 2004 , which were being raised at Victoria University as of 2001 .
= = = = Brothers Island tuatara = = = =
Sphenodon guntheri is present naturally on one small island with a population of approximately 400 . In 1995 , 50 juvenile and 18 adult Brothers Island tuatara were moved to Titi Island in Cook Strait , and their establishment monitored . Two years later , more than half of the animals had been seen again and of those all but one had gained weight . In 1998 , 34 juveniles from captive breeding and 20 wild @-@ caught adults were similarly transferred to Matiu / Somes Island , a more publicly accessible location within Wellington Harbour . The captive juveniles were from induced layings from wild females .
In late October 2007 , 50 tuatara collected as eggs from North Brother Island and hatched at Victoria University were being released onto Long Island in the outer Marlborough Sounds . The animals had been cared for at Wellington Zoo for the last five years and have been kept in secret in a specially built enclosure at the zoo , off display .
There is another out of country population of Brothers Island tuatara that was given to the San Diego Zoological Society and is housed off @-@ display at the San Diego Zoo facility in Balboa . No successful reproductive efforts have been reported yet .
= = = = Northern tuatara = = = =
Sphenodon punctatus naturally occurs on 29 islands , and its population is estimated to be over 60 @,@ 000 individuals . In 1996 , 32 adult northern tuatara were moved from Moutoki Island to Moutohora . The carrying capacity of Moutohora is estimated at 8 @,@ 500 individuals , and the island could allow public viewing of wild tuatara . In 2003 , 60 northern tuatara were introduced to Tiritiri Matangi Island from Middle Island in the Mercury group . They are occasionally seen sunbathing by visitors to the island .
A mainland release of S. punctatus occurred in 2005 in the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Sanctuary . The second mainland release took place in October 2007 , when a further 130 were transferred from Stephens Island to the Karori Sanctuary
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time I felt like I could write a song based on how good I felt . I have never done that before ever . During another interview with The Washington Post she stated :
" That song -- the last one I wrote for the record -- is definitely the most representative of me now , the way that I feel . If we 're talking about the ' new me , ' that 's it and why it 's at the end of the record . You have to go through those things and make the changes you have to make and be there and go , ' Okay , I did it . ' It doesn 't come that easy . [ ... ] I just didn 't hold back this time , and writing that way has made me feel really purified , like I 've actually gotten a chance to break through instead of just wallowing in all of my problems . It 's not about all the times that I 've been afraid and tormented and sad , it 's about looking at those situations and stomping them out . It feels really good to sing these songs now . "
In a 2004 interview with MTV News , Amy Lee revealed that she was composing music for the film , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . She also revealed that the producers of the movie offered her a small role , saying " They were like , ' Do you want to do a cameo ? ' And I was like , ' Hell yeah ! Let me die . I want to be somebody who gets murdered . ' So I don 't think that 's going to happen . " She later revealed that " Lacrymosa " and another song were originally written for the film , but were not included . According to the producers of the movie , neither Lee or the band were approached to compose music for the film . Another song was also written for the movie , but it was rejected because of its dark sound . On the band 's official blog forum and in a radio interview , Lee stated that a part of the song which was written for the movie was used in " Good Enough " .
= = Composition = =
" Good Enough " is a moderately slow piano ballad with a happy theme . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , the song is in a common time and performed in moderately slow tempo of 92 beats per minute . " Good Enough " is written in the key of F minor , while Lee 's vocals for the song range from the musical note of G3 to the note of E ♭ 5 . The song contains strings , piano and Amy Lee 's vocals as the main instrumentation . In " Good Enough " , Lee " talks about the rapturous hold of something bigger than herself " in the text " Shouldn 't have let you torture me so sweetly … / Shouldn 't have let you conquer me completely / Now I can 't let go of this dream / Can 't believe that I feel / Good enough for you . " In the song she also sings the lines " I 'm still waiting for the rain to fall . Pour down real life on me / Cause I can 't hold onto anything this good enough / Am I good enough / For you to love me too ? " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Good Enough " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . In his review of The Open Door , Ed Thompson of the website IGN , stated that the fans who were " looking for the full @-@ blown piano ballad " reminiscent of " My Immortal " ( 2004 ) had to wait until the album 's final track . He added that at the end of the album they were awarded with " not only the most beautiful song on the album , but also the most unique song Lee has ever released . " He further said , " despite Lee 's voice giving the tune a funereal cast , there is no hiding the fact that the lyrics are of an upbeat nature . ' Shouldn 't have to torture me so sweetly , now I can 't let go of this dream , I can 't breathe but I feel good enough , I feel good enough for you . ' " Bill Lamb of the website About.com , put the song in his list of Top Tracks from The Open Door along with " Sweet Sacrifice " , " Call Me When You 're Sober " , " Your Star " and " Lacrymosa " . Jon Dolan from Entertainment Weekly said that " [ ... ] the deceptively soft ' Good Enough ' flirts again with the dark side , offering ' Drink up sweet decadence / I can 't say no to you ' and striking a final note of cathartic badness . " Kathy McCabe of The Daily Telegraph wrote that Lee 's " newfound confidence " is evident in the song . In his review of The Open Door , Andree Farias of Christianity Today concluded that though the song " leaves a sweet taste in your mouth " , it may not mean much in " a scheme . " He added that the song stands as a contrast to everything else in the album .
A writer for The Boston Globe called the song a " lone glimmer in the gloom " with " incongruously downtrodden groove " , adding that fans of Evanescence would like the song . Blabbermouth.net 's Don Kaye found the song to be a " melancholy ballad " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post found some quiet moments on The Open Door most notably on the " haunting ballad ' Good Enough ' " and on " Like You " . Writing for the magazine St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch , Sara Berry concluded that the band balanced the " scorching rock anthems " with " reflective , piano @-@ heavy ballads " like " Lithium " and " Good Enough " . She further found an " intimate @-@ sounding setting " which featured just Lee and her piano . The Providence Journal 's Rick Massimo , wrote that the song is " being rather melodramatic but melodically successful " . Chris Harris of Rolling Stone wrote that Lee is " stroking the ivories and delivering her lyrics with an elegant sweetness " which he found reminiscent of Tori Amos and Sarah McLachlan . A writer for Reuters called the song " as intense and affecting as anything before it -- and this time , Amy Lee 's lyric steps from the dark side , reveling in the relief of positivity . "
Jason Nahrung of The Courier @-@ Mail praised the song , calling it " sombrely arranged but lyrically uplifting " . A writer for Blender was negative towards the song , writing " Tori Amos for junior high crybabies ? We wish . ' Good Enough ' is a piano ballad so formless and maudlin we were shocked it made the last Evanescence album – and now it 's a single . How bad ? Too corny for Vanessa Carlton , too sophomoric for Jewel , too whispy for Enya . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that in the song Lee sounds " like a very average Middle American girl who yearns to be ' Good Enough ' but who suffers from an above @-@ average attraction to magnetic and destructive dudes . " A writer for Sputnikmusic praised the softness of the song giving it a grade of 4 @.@ 5 . Although Jordan Reimer of The Daily Princetonian praised the song , he added that it couldn 't match " the haunting beauty " of " My Immortal " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic found " Tori @-@ isms " in the song .
= = Music video = =
A music video directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee was filmed in Budapest , Hungary between June 11 and June 14 , 2007 . Lee made a guest appearance on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) on September 10 , 2007 , to premier the video . A writer for MTV News found the video to be " dark and cinematic , it 's almost as if you swallowed an entire feature length film in 3 minutes . " Another writer for the rock magazine Blender was negative towards the video saying that it " makes singer Amy Lee 's soul bearing that much more drawn @-@ out with ill @-@ advised slow motion shots of ( yep ) decay and destruction . ( Oh , look at the record melt ! ) Redemption ? You got it in the form of CGI tree roots , a breaking sunrise and a sudden wet t @-@ shirt contest . And this is supposed to help the kids get over rough break @-@ ups ? "
The music video features Lee in a warehouse and begins with her burying a photograph beneath a hole in the floorboards . After she walks away singing " Under your spell again , I can 't say no to you " while looking directly in the camera , the hole in the floorboard slowly covers up . As she walks by a bookcase , she touches the books placed on it and they start smoking . Then she goes to her desk to write in a diary , while the floorboards and items surrounding her begin to melt . After finishing with the writing , she walks by a mirror and takes a look at herself as it starts to melt . As she begins to play a baby grand piano , the piano and the room surrounding her begin to catch on fire until rain begins to fall and extinguishes the flames . The room appears to be burnt and wasted . As the sun begins to shine through the windows of the building , a small vine grows from the floorboard and expands across the room , and blue flowers begin to blossom from the vines above the piano .
= = Live performances = =
" Good Enough " was performed live by the band at Hammerstein Ballroom in New York in 2006 , at the Air Canada Centre in January , 2007 , in Dunkin ' Donuts Center in Providence , Rhode Island on April 4 , 2007 , and on November 21 , 2007 at WaMu Theater . Evanescence also performed the song live at their secret New York gig which took place on November 4 , 2009 . During their concert at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville , Tennessee , on August 17 , 2011 , Evanescence performed " Good Enough " in promotion of their self @-@ titled album , Evanescence .
= = Formats and track listings = =
German CD single
" Good Enough " ( Radio edit )
" Good Enough " ( Acoustic from Intl Live )
Premium German maxi single
" Good Enough " ( Radio edit )
" Good Enough " ( Acoustic from Intl Live )
" Your Star " ( Live from Tokyo )
" Good Enough " ( Video )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Good Enough " are taken from The Open Door liner notes .
= Antananarivo =
Antananarivo ( / ˌæntəˌnænəˈriːvoʊ / or / ˌɑːntəˌnɑːnəˈriːvoʊ / ; Malagasy pronunciation : [ antananaˈrivʷ ] ) , then temporarily French Tananarive ( / təˌnænəˈriːv / or / ˌtænənəˈriːv / ; French pronunciation : [ tananaʁiv ] ) , also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana , is the capital and largest city in Madagascar . The larger urban area surrounding the city , known as Antananarivo @-@ Renivohitra ( " Antananarivo @-@ Mother Hill " or " Antananarivo @-@ Capital " ) , is the capital of Analamanga region . The city is located 1 @,@ 280 m ( 4 @,@ 199 ft ) above the sea level in the center of the island , and has been the island 's largest population center since at least the 18th century .
Antananarivo was historically the capital of the Merina people , who continue to form the majority of the city 's estimated 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ( 2013 ) inhabitants , as well as the surrounding urban areas which in all have a total metropolitan population approaching three million . All 18 Malagasy ethnic groups , as well as residents of Chinese , Indian , European and other origins , are well represented in the city .
Antananarivo is the political , economic , educational and cultural heart of Madagascar . The Presidency , National Assembly , Senate and Supreme Court are located here , as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs . Antananarivo also hosts the largest number of universities , nightclubs , art venues , medical services and other social service institutions of any city on the island . Several national and local sports teams , including the championship @-@ winning national rugby team , the Makis , and several basketball and football teams , are based in Antananarivo .
Antananarivo was founded from about 1610 to 1625 , when the Merina king Andrianjaka ( 1612 – 1630 ) expelled the Vazimba inhabitants of the village of Analamanga at the highest meeting point of two forested ridges rising above the surrounding highland plains . Declaring it the site of his capital , Andrianjaka built a rova ( fortified royal dwelling ) that expanded to become the royal palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina . According to oral history , he deployed a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to capture and guard the site ; the hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , who renamed it Antananarivo ( " City of the Thousand " ) in honor of Andrianjaka 's soldiers . The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina from its founding until 1710 , when Imerina split into four warring quadrants . Antananarivo was declared the capital of the southern quadrant ; it remained thus until King Andrianampoinimerina of Ambohimanga captured the province and restored its role as capital of a united Kingdom of Imerina in 1794 . His diplomatic and military successes extended Imerina far beyond its traditional borders , bringing the lands of neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control . These conquests were continued under his son , Radama I , whose control ultimately extended over two thirds of the island , leading him to be considered the King of Madagascar by European diplomats , with Antananarivo as the island 's capital . Antananarivo remained the island 's capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897 and remained thus after independence in 1960 . The French killed off many of the original inhabitants of the island and made French the native language .
Antananarivo has expanded gradually from the royal palaces at its center , which dominate every view from their location at the peak of a curving ridge 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the surrounding Betsimitatatra plains . In the 17th century , the plains were transformed into paddy fields to meet the population 's need for rice ; they were covered with housing developments as the city 's population grew rapidly in the 20th century . Around the palaces , which were destroyed in a 1995 fire but have since been partially reconstructed , lies the historic district that was formerly populated by members of the andriana ( noble class ) ; many of their homes are preserved . The Analakely valley at the base of the ridge was the site of a Friday market established in the 18th century that , until being discontinued in 1997 due to traffic congestion , was considered the largest open air market in the world . This neighborhood was further developed under French rule and continues to serve as the capital 's economic heart . The city is managed by the Commune Urbaine d 'Antananarivo ( CUA ) under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation , Ny Havana Andriamanjato , appointed in March 2014 . Limited funds and mismanagement have hampered consecutive CUA efforts to manage overcrowding and traffic , waste management , pollution , security , public water and electricity , and other challenges linked to explosive population growth . Major historic landmarks and attractions in the city include the reconstructed royal palaces and the Andafiavaratra Palace , the tomb of Rainiharo , Tsimbazaza Zoo , Mahamasina Stadium , Lake Anosy , four 19th @-@ century martyr cathedrals , and the Museum of Art and Archaeology .
= = Etymology = =
Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga , meaning " Blue Forest " in the central highlands dialect of the Malagasy language . Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba , the island 's first occupants . Andrianjaka ( approximately 1612 – 1630 ) , king of the Merina people who migrated to the region from the southeast coast , seized the location as the site of his capital city . According to oral history , he deployed a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to successfully capture and guard the site . The hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona ( 1675 – 1710 ) , who renamed it Antananarivo ( " City of the Thousand " ) in honor of Andrianjaka 's soldiers .
= = History = =
= = = Kingdom of Imerina = = =
Unlike most capital cities in southern Africa , Antananarivo was already a major city before the colonial era . After expelling the Vazimba who inhabited the town at the peak of Analamanga hill , Andrianjaka chose the site for his rova ( fortified royal compound ) , which expanded over time to enclose the royal palaces and the tombs of Merina royalty . The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts . Early Merina kings used fanampoana ( statute labor ) to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population . These paddy fields , of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra , continue to produce rice .
Successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalona 's reign . This sovereign gave the growing city its current name ; he established the Andohalo town square outside the town gate , where all successive sovereigns delivered their royal speeches and announcements to the public , and assigned the names of numerous locations within the city based on the names of similar sites in the nearby village of Antananarivokely . Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova ( commoners ) and each andriana ( noble ) subcaste , both within the neighborhoods of Antananarivo and in the countryside surrounding the capital . These territorial divisions were strictly enforced ; members of subcastes were required to live within their designated territories and were not authorized to stay for extended periods in the territories reserved for others . Numerous fady ( taboos ) , including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non @-@ nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits , were imposed .
Upon Andriamasinavalona 's death in 1710 , Imerina split into four warring quadrants and Antananarivo was made the capital of the southern district . During the 77 @-@ year civil war that followed , the eastern district 's capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence . The last king of Ambohimanga , Andrianampoinimerina , successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793 ; he reunited the provinces of Imerina , ending the civil war . He moved the kingdom 's political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794 , and declared Ambohimanga the kingdom 's spiritual capital , a role it still maintains . Andrianampoinimerina created a large marketplace in Analakely , establishing the city 's economic center .
= = = Kingdom of Madagascar = = =
By the time Andrianampoinimerina 's son Radama I had ascended the throne upon his father 's death in 1810 , Antananarivo was the largest and most economically important city on the island , with a population of over 80 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Radama opened the city to the first European settlers , artisan missionaries of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) who arrived in 1820 and opened the city 's first public schools . James Cameron introduced brickmaking to the island and created Lake Anosy to generate hydraulic power for industrial manufacturing . Radama established a military training ground on a flat plain called Mahamasina at the base of Analamanga near the lake . Radama 's subjugation of other Malagasy ethnic groups brought nearly two thirds of the island under his control . The British diplomats who concluded trade treaties with Radama recognized him as the " ruler of Madagascar " , a position he and his successors claimed despite never managing to impose their authority over the larger portion of the island 's south . Thereafter , Merina sovereigns declared Antananarivo the capital of the entire island .
Radama 's successor Ranavalona I invited a shipwrecked craftsman named Jean Laborde to construct the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo , and Manjakamiadana ( built 1839 – 1841 ) , the largest palace at the Rova . Laborde also produced a wide range of industrial products at factories in the highland village Mantasoa and a foundry in the Antananarivo neighborhood Isoraka . Ranavalona oversaw improvements to the city 's infrastructure , including the construction of the city 's two largest staircases at Antaninarenina and Ambondrona , which connect la ville moyenne ( " the middle town " ) to the central marketplace at Analakely . In 1867 , following a series of fires in the capital , Queen Ranavalona II issued a royal decree that permitted the use of stone and brick construction in buildings other than tombs . LMS missionaries ' first brick house was built in 1869 ; it bore a blend of English , Creole and Malagasy design and served as a model for a new style of house that rapidly spread throughout the capital and across the highlands . Termed the trano gasy ( " Malagasy house " ) , it is typically a two @-@ story , brick building with four columns on the front that support a wooden veranda . In the latter third of the 19th century , these houses quickly replaced most of the traditional wooden houses of the city 's aristocratic class . The growing number of Christians in Imerina prompted the construction of stone churches throughout the highlands , as well as four memorial cathedrals on key sites of martyrdom among early Malagasy Christians under the reign of Ranavalona I.
Until the mid 19th century , the city remained largely concentrated around the Rova of Antananarivo on the highest peak , an area today referred to as la haute ville or la haute ( " upper town " ) . As the population grew , the city expanded to the west ; by the late 19th century it extended to the northern hilltop neighborhood of Andohalo , an area of low prestige until British missionaries made it their preferred residential district and built one of the city 's memorial churches here from 1863 to 1872 . From 1864 to 1894 , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony governed Madagascar alongside three successive queens , Rasoherina , Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III , effecting policies that further transformed the city . In 1881 , he reinstated mandatory universal education first introduced in 1820 under Radama I , requiring the construction of numerous schools and colleges , including teacher training colleges staffed by missionaries and the nation 's first pharmacy ( 1862 ) , medical college and modern hospital ( 1865 ) . Rainilaiarivony built the Andafiavaratra Palace in 1873 as his residence and office at a site near the royal palace .
= = = French Madagascar = = =
The French military invaded Antananarivo in September 1894 , prompting the queen 's surrender after a cannon shell blasted a hole through a building at the Rova , causing major casualties . The damage was never repaired . Andohalo square was remodeled to feature a gazebo , walkways and planted landscaping . Claiming the island as a colony , the French administration retained Antananarivo as its capital and transcribed its name as Tananarive . They chose Antaninarenina as the site for the French Governor General 's Residency ; upon independence it was renamed Ambohitsorohitra Palace and converted into presidential offices . Under the French , tunnels were constructed through two of the city 's largest hills , connecting disparate districts and facilitating the town 's expansion . Streets were laid with cobblestones and later paved ; sewer systems and electricity infrastructure were introduced . Water , previously obtained from springs at the foot of the hill , was brought from the Ikopa River .
This period saw a major expansion of la ville moyenne , which spread along the lower hilltops and slopes of the city centered around the French Residency . Modern urban planning was applied in la ville basse ( " lower town " ) , which expanded from the base of the city 's central hills into the surrounding rice fields . Major boulevards like Avenue de l 'Indépendance , planned commercial areas like the arcades lining either side of the Avenue , large parks , city squares and other landmark features were built . A railway system connecting Soarano station at one end of the Avenue de l 'Indépendance in Antananarive with Toamasina and Fianarantsoa was established in 1897 . Beyond these planned spaces , neighborhoods densely populated by working class Malagasy expanded without state oversight or control .
The city expanded rapidly after World War II ; by 1950 its population had grown to 175 @,@ 000 . Roads connecting Antananarivo to surrounding towns were expanded and paved . The first international airport was constructed at Arivonimamo , 45 km ( 28 mi ) outside the city ; this was replaced in 1967 with Ivato International Airport approximately 15 km ( 9 mi ) from the city center . The University of Antananarivo was constructed in the Ankatso neighborhood and the Museum of Ethnology and Paleontology was also built . A city plan written in 1956 created suburban zones where large houses and gardens were established for the wealthy . In 1959 , severe floods in la ville basse prompted the building of large scale embankments along the edges of the Betsimitatatra rice fields and the establishment of new ministerial complexes on newly drained land in the Anosy neighborhood .
= = = Post @-@ independence = = =
After independence in 1960 , the pace of growth increased further . The city 's population reached 1 @.@ 4 million by the end of the 20th century ; in 2013 , it was estimated at nearly 2 @.@ 1 million . Uncontrolled urban sprawl has challenged the city 's infrastructure , producing shortages of clean water and electricity , sanitation and public health problems , and heavy traffic congestion . There are more than 5 @,@ 000 church buildings in the city and its suburbs , including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral . Antananarivo is the see city of Madagascar 's Roman Catholic Archdiocese . The city has repeatedly been the site of large demonstrations and violent political clashes , including the 1972 rotaka that brought down president Philibert Tsiranana and the 2009 Malagasy political crisis , which resulted in Andry Rajoelina replacing Marc Ravalomanana as head of state .
= = Geography = =
Antananarivo is situated approximately 1 @,@ 280 m ( 4 @,@ 199 ft ) above sea level in the central highlands region of Madagascar , at 18 @.@ 55 ' South and 47 @.@ 32 ' East . The city is located centrally along the north @-@ south axis of the country , and east of center along the east @-@ west axis . It is 160 km ( 99 mi ) from the east coast and 330 km ( 210 mi ) from the west coast . The city occupies a commanding position on the summit and slopes of a long , narrow , rocky ridge extending north and south for about 4 km ( 2 mi ) and rising to about 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the extensive rice fields to the west .
The official boundaries of the city of Antananarivo encompass an urban area of approximately 86 @.@ 4 km2 ( 33 @.@ 4 sq mi ) . It was founded 1 @,@ 480 m ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level at the apex of three hill ranges that converge in a Y form , 200 m ( 660 ft ) above the surrounding Betsimitatatra paddy fields and the grassy plains beyond . The city gradually spread out from this central point to cover the hillsides ; by the late 19th century it had expanding to the flat terrain at the base of the hills . These plains are susceptible to flooding during the rainy season ; they are drained by the Ikopa River , which skirts the capital to the south and west . The western slopes and plains , being best protected from cyclone winds originating over the Indian Ocean , were settled before those to the east .
Greater Antananarivo is a continuous , urbanized area spreading beyond the city 's official boundaries for 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north to south between Ambohimanarina and Ankadimbahoaka , and 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) west to east between the Ikopa River dike and Tsiadana . The population of the greater Antananarivo area was estimated at 3 million people in 2012 ; it is expected to rise to 6 million by 2030 .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen @-@ Geiger climate classification system , Antananarivo has a subtropical highland climate ( Cwb ) characterized by mild , dry winters and warm , rainy summers . The city receives nearly all of its average annual rainfall between November and April . Frosts are rare in the city ; they are more common at higher elevations . Mean temperatures range from 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( 69 @.@ 4 ° F ) to 14 @.@ 3 ° C ( 57 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Antananarivo encompasses three ridges that intersect at their highest point . The Manjakamiadana royal palace is located at the summit of these hills and is visible from every part of the city and the surrounding hills . The Manjakamiadina was the largest structures within the rova of Antananarivo ; its stone casing is the only remnant of the royal residences that survived a 1995 fire at the site . For 25 years , the roofless shell dominated the skyline ; its west wall collapsed in 2004 . In 2009 , the stone casing had been fully restored and the building was re @-@ roofed . It is illuminated at night . Conservation and reconstruction work at the site is ongoing . The city skyline is a jumble of colorful , historic houses and churches . More recent residential and commercial buildings and family rice fields occupy lower terrain throughout the capital . The Betsimitatatra and other rice fields surround the city .
The city 's neighborhoods emerge from historic ethnic , religious and caste divisions . The assignment of certain neighborhoods to particular noble sub @-@ castes under the Kingdom of Imerina established divisions ; the highest ranking nobles were typically assigned to neighborhoods closest to the royal palace and were required to live in higher elevation portions of the city . During and after French colonization , expansion of the city continued to reflect these divisions . Today , the calm and quiet haute ville is mainly residential and viewed as a prestigious area in which to live ; many of the city 's wealthiest and most influential Malagasy families live there . The part of la haute closest to the Rova contains much of the city 's pre @-@ colonial heritage and is considered its historic part . It includes the royal palace , Andafiavaratra Palace — the former residence of Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony , Andohalo — the principal town square until 1897 , a cathedral near Andohalo built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs , the city 's most intact historic entrance gate and the 19th @-@ century houses of Merina nobles .
Under the Kingdom of Madagascar , the commoner class ( hova ) settled at the periphery of the noble districts , gradually spreading along the slopes of the lower hills during the late 19th century . This ville moyenne became increasingly populous under French colonial authority , which targeted them for redesign and development . Today , the neighborhoods in the ville moyenne are densely populated and lively , containing residences , historic sites and businesses . The neighborhood of Antaninarenina contains the historic Hôtel Colbert , numerous jewelers ' shops and other luxury goods stores , and administrative offices . In addition to Antaninarenina , the principal neighborhoods of la ville moyenne are Ankadifotsy on the eastern hills and Ambatonakanga and Isoraka to the west , all of which are largely residential . Isoraka has developed lively nightlife , with houses converted to upscale restaurants and inns . Isoraka also houses the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo ( 1833 – 1852 ) , whose sons and later Prime Ministers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony are buried with him . Bordering these neighborhoods are the commercial areas of Besarety and Andravoahangy .
The commercial center of town , Analakely , is located on the valley floor between these two ville moyenne hill ranges . King Andrianampoinimerina established the city 's first marketplace on the grounds today occupied by the market 's tile @-@ roofed pavilions , constructed in the 1930s . Andrianampoinimerina decreed Friday ( Zoma ) as market day , when merchants would erect stalls shaded with white parasols , which extended throughout the valley forming what has been called the largest open air marketplace in the world . The market caused traffic congestion and safety hazards prompting government officials to divide and relocate the Friday merchants to several other districts in 1997 . The city 's other main commercial and administrative neighborhoods , which spread out from Analakely and extend into the adjacent plain , were established by the French , who drained and filled in the extant rice fields and swampland to create much of the area 's current design and infrastructure . The Avenue de l 'Indépendance runs from the gardens of Ambohijatovo south of the market pavilions , through Analakely to the city 's railroad station at Soarano . To the west of Soarano lies the dense commercial district of Tsaralalana ; it is the only district to be built on a grid and is the center of the city 's South Asian community . Behoririka , to the east of Soarano , is built around a lake of the same name and abuts the sprawling Andravoahangy district at the eastern edge of the city . Antanimena borders Soarano and Behoririka to the north . A tunnel built by the French in the early 20th century cuts through the hillside ; it connects Ambohijatovo with Ambanidia and other residential areas in the south of the city .
Since pre @-@ colonial times the lower classes , including those descended from the slave class ( andevo ) and rural migrants , have occupied the flood @-@ prone lower districts bordering the Betsimitatatra rice fields to the west of the city . This area is connected to Analakely by a tunnel constructed by the French in the early 20th century . The tunnel opens toward Lake Anosy and the national Supreme Court buildings , and provides access to the residential neighborhood of Mahamasina and its stadium . The bordering neighborhood of Anosy was developed in the 1950s to house most of the national ministries and the Senate . Anosy , the planned residential district of Soixante @-@ Sept Hectares ( often abbreviated to " 67 " ) and the neighborhood of Isotry are among the city 's most densely populated , crime ridden and impoverished neighborhoods . Approximately 40 percent of inhabitants with electricity in their homes in the ville basse obtain it illegally by splicing into city power lines . In these areas , houses are more vulnerable to fires , flooding and landslides , which are often triggered by the annual cyclone season .
= = = Architecture = = =
Before the mid @-@ 19th century , all houses and marketplaces in Antananarivo , and throughout Madagascar , were constructed of woods , grasses , reeds and other plant @-@ based materials viewed as appropriate for structures used by the living . Only family tombs were built from stone , an inert material viewed as appropriate to use for the dead . British missionaries introduced brick @-@ making to the island in the 1820s , and French industrialist Jean Laborde used stone and brick to build his factories over the next few decades . It was not until the royal edict on construction materials was lifted in the 1860s that stone was used to encase the royal palace . Many aristocrats , inspired by the royal palace and the two @-@
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from him on his behalf . While later acquitted of the crime , both Vitale and Massino would admit to participation after turning state 's evidence .
In March 1975 , Massino was arrested at the scene of the arrest of one of his hijackers , Raymond Wean , and charged with conspiracy to receive stolen goods . Massino was scheduled to go on trial in 1977 , but the charges were dropped after he successfully argued that he had not been properly mirandized , disqualifying statements Massino gave to police from being used in trial .
On June 14 , 1977 , Massino was inducted into the Bonanno family along with Anthony Spero , Joseph Chilli , Jr. and a group of other men in a ceremony conducted by Carmine Galante . He worked as a soldier in James Galante 's crew , and later worked in Philip " Phil Lucky " Giaccone 's crew . Massino nevertheless remained loyal to Rastelli , then vying to oust Galante despite his imprisonment . Fearing Galante wanted him dead for insubordination , Massino delivered a request to the Commission , the governing body of the American Mafia , on Rastelli 's behalf to have Galante killed . The hit was approved and executed on July 12 , 1979 ; Rastelli subsequently took full control of the family and rewarded Massino 's loyalty by promoting him to capo .
By the beginning of the 1980s Massino ran his crew from the J & S Cake social club , a property just behind J & J Catering . The building was seized in 1988 during a crackdown on the Bonannos ' gambling activities .
= = = Three capos and Napolitano murders = = =
Following the Galante hit , Massino began jockeying for power with Dominick " Sonny Black " Napolitano , another Rastelli loyalist capo . Both men were themselves threatened by another faction seeking to depose the absentee boss led by capos Alphonse " Sonny Red " Indelicato , Dominick " Big Trin " Trincera and Philip Giaccone . The Commission initially tried to maintain neutrality , but in 1981 , Massino got word from his informants that the three capos were stocking up on automatic weapons and planning to kill the Rastelli loyalists within the Bonanno family to take complete control . Massino turned to Colombo crime family boss Carmine Persico and Gambino boss Paul Castellano for advice ; they told him to act immediately .
Massino , Napolitano and Gerlando Sciascia , a Sicilian @-@ born capo linked to the Montreal Rizzuto crime family , arranged a meeting at a Brooklyn social club with the three capos for May 5 , 1981 . The three had four gunmen , including Vitale and Bonanno @-@ affiliated Montreal boss Vito Rizzuto , hiding in a closet to ambush them . When Trinchera , Giaccone and Indelicato arrived with Frank Lino to meet Massino they were shot to death , with Massino himself stopping Indelicato from escaping . Lino escaped unscathed by running out the door . The hit further improved Massino 's prestige , but was marred by both Lino 's escape and the discovery of Indelicato 's body on May 20 .
Massino quickly won Lino over to his side , but Indelicato 's son Anthony " Bruno " Indelicato vowed revenge . Napolitano assigned associate Donnie Brasco , who he hoped to make a made man , to kill Indelicato . " Brasco " , however , was in fact an undercover FBI agent named Joseph Pistone ; shortly after the hit was ordered Pistone 's assignment was ended and Napolitano was informed of their infiltration .
Already skeptical of Napolitano 's support of " Brasco " , Massino was deeply disturbed by the breach of security when he learned of the agent 's true identity . Vitale would later testify that this was the reason Massino subsequently decided to murder Napolitano as well ; as he would later quote Massino , " I have to give him a receipt for the Donnie Brasco situation . " In his own testimony , Massino instead claimed Napolitano was targeted for trying to take over the Bonannos himself . On August 17 the former renegade Frank Lino and Steven Cannone drove Napolitano to the house of Ronald Filocomo , a Bonanno family associate , for a meeting . Napolitano was greeted by captain Frank Coppa , then thrown down the stairs to the house 's basement by Lino and shot to death . Napolitano 's body was discovered the following year .
Benjamin " Lefty " Ruggiero , who helped Pistone formally become a Bonanno associate , was also targeted , but was arrested en route to the meeting where he was expected to be murdered . On February 18 , 1982 , Anthony Mirra , the soldier who first " discovered " Pistone , was assassinated on Massino 's orders . Mirra had gone into hiding upon Pistone 's exposure but was ultimately betrayed and murdered by his protégé and cousin Joseph D 'Amico .
= = = Fugitive and Bonventre murder = = =
On November 23 , 1981 , based on information gained by Pistone 's infiltration , six Bonanno mobsters , including the then @-@ missing Napolitano , were indicted on racketeering charges and conspiracy in the three capos hit .
In March 1982 , Massino was tipped off by a Colombo @-@ associated FBI insider that he was about to be indicted and went into hiding in Pennsylvania with Leisenheimer . On March 25 , 1982 , Massino was also charged with conspiracy to murder Indelicato , Giaccone and Trinchera and truck hijacking . In hiding , Massino was able to see the prosecution 's strategy and better plan his defense as well as eventually face trial without association with other mobsters . Pistone later speculated Massino also feared retaliation upon the revelation that his associate Raymond Wean had turned state 's evidence . Massino was visited by many fellow mobsters , including Gotti , and Vitale would secretly deliver cash to support him .
In 1984 , Rastelli was released from prison , and he and Massino ordered the murder of Bonanno soldier Cesare Bonventre . Still a fugitive , Massino summoned Vitale , Louis Attanasio and James Tartaglione to his hideout and gave them the order . By this time , Massino was considered by most mobsters to be the boss in all but name , even though Rastelli was still officially head of the family , as well as heir apparent for the title itself . According to Vitale , Massino had Bonventre killed for giving him no support when he was in hiding .
Bonventre was called to a meeting with Rastelli in Queens . He was picked up by Vitale and Attanasio and driven to a garage . En route , Attanasio shot Bonventre twice in the head but only wounded him ; he would kill Bonventre with two more shots when they reached their destination . The task of disposing of Bonventre 's corpse was handed to Gabriel Infanti . Infanti promised Vitale that Bonventre 's remains would disappear forever . However , after a tipoff , the remains were discovered on April 16 , 1984 , in a warehouse in Garfield , New Jersey , stuffed into two 55 @-@ gallon glue drums .
For his part in the hit , Massino had Vitale initiated into the Bonanno family .
= = = 1986 conviction and 1987 acquittal = = =
Through Gotti associate Angelo Ruggiero , Massino was able to meet with defense attorney John Pollok in 1984 to negotiate his surrender . He finally turned himself in on July 7 and was released on $ 350 @,@ 000 bail . That year , Massino and Salvatore Vitale secured no @-@ show jobs with the Long Island based King Caterers in exchange for protecting them from Lucchese extortion .
In 1985 Massino was indicted twice more , first as a co @-@ conspirator with Rastelli in a labor racketeering case for controlling the Teamsters Local 814 , then with a conspiracy charge for the Pastore murder that was added to the original three capos indictment . The second indictment also charged Vitale as a co @-@ conspirator in the hijacking cases .
The labor racketeering trial began in April 1986 , with Massino as one of twelve defendants including Rastelli and former underboss Nicholas Marangello . While Massino protested in confidence to other mobsters he never had the opportunity to profit from the racket , he was implicated by both Pistone and union official Anthony Gilberti , and on October 15 , 1986 was found guilty of racketeering charges for accepting kickbacks on the Bonannos ' behalf . On January 16 , 1987 Massino was sentenced to ten years imprisonment , his first prison term . Rastelli , also convicted and in poor health during the trial , was sentenced to twelve . Around this time Massino was believed to be the Bonanno family 's official underboss . With Rastelli in declining health , Massino was also reckoned as the operating head of the family , though consigliere Anthony " Old Man " Spero was nominally acting boss .
On April 1987 , Massino and Vitale went on trial for truck hijacking and conspiracy to commit the triple murder , defended by Samuel H. Dawson and Bruce Cutler respectively . Prosecutor Michael Chertoff , describing Massino 's rise in his opening statements , would characterize him as the " Horatio Alger of the mob . " Raymond Wean and Joseph Pistone testified against Massino , but both proved unable to conclusively link Massino with any of the murder charges . On June 3 , while both men were convicted on hijacking charges they were cleared of the murder conspiracy charges . Further , the only proven criminal acts took place outside the RICO act 's five @-@ year statute of limitations ; without evidence that the " criminal enterprise " was still active in this timeframe the jury returned a special verdict clearing Massino and Vitale of these charges as well .
During Massino 's imprisonment at Talladega Federal Prison for his 1986 conviction Vitale functioned as his messenger , effectively becoming co @-@ acting boss alongside Spero . On Massino 's orders , Vitale organized the murder of Gabriel Infanti , who had also botched a 1982 hit on Anthony Gilberti and was suspected of being an informant .
= = Bonanno boss = =
= = = The family regroups = = =
During his meetings with Massino in prison Vitale , on behalf of the Bonannos ' capos , urged his brother @-@ in @-@ law to become boss in name as well as in fact . Rastelli had spent all but two years of his reign behind bars , and many felt Massino would bring the family stability . Massino was reluctant to take over as long as Rastelli was alive . Not only was he respectful of Rastelli 's sponsorship of his Mafia career , but Mafia tradition dictates that a boss keeps his title for life unless he abdicates . However , in the spring of 1991 , Massino ordered Vitale to " make me boss " as soon as Rastelli died . Rastelli died in June 1991 . A few days after his funeral , Massino instructed Vitale to call a meeting of the family 's capos , and Massino was acclaimed as boss .
Upon his release on November 13 , 1992 Massino retained Vitale as his messenger during his probation and promoted him to underboss . He could not associate with convicted mafiosi during his probation . While the FBI suspected Vitale was a mafioso , he had never been convicted of a crime , and the FBI would have no reason to be suspicious of him associating with Massino since they were brothers @-@ in @-@ law . He returned to his job at King Caterers , and in 1996 became co @-@ owner of Casablanca , a well @-@ reviewed Maspeth Italian restaurant .
Massino was 48 years old at the time of his accession , and knew that he potentially had a long reign ahead of him . With this in mind , he was determined to avoid the pitfalls that landed other Mafia bosses in prison . Inspired by Genovese boss Vincent Gigante , Massino forbade his men from saying his name out loud due to FBI surveillance . Instead , they were to touch their ears when referring to him . Massino gained the nickname " The Ear " because of this . Massino took a great number of precautions in regards to security and the possibility of anything incriminating being picked up on a wiretap . He closed the long @-@ standing social clubs of the Bonanno family . He also arranged family meetings to be conducted in remote locations within the United States . In some cases , he held meetings in foreign countries , and had his capos bring their wives along so they could be passed off as vacations . Remembering how Pistone 's infiltration had damaged the family , he also decreed that all prospective made men had to have a working relationship with an incumbent member for at least eight years before becoming made , in hopes of ensuring new mafiosi were as reliable as possible . Unusually for bosses of his era , he actively encouraged his men to have their sons made as well . In Massino 's view , this would make it less likely that a capo would turn informer , since if that happened the defector 's son would face almost certain death .
To minimize the damage from informants or undercover investigations Massino introduced a clandestine cell system for his crews , forbidding them from contacting one another and avoiding meeting their capos . He would instead create a new committee that would relay his orders to the crews . In contrast to his contemporaries , particularly the publicity @-@ friendly Gotti and the conspicuous feigned insanity of Gigante , Massino himself was also able to operate with a relatively low public profile ; both Pistone and mob writer Jerry Capeci would consequently refer to Massino as the " last of the old @-@ time gangsters . "
A side effect of these reforms was the reduction of Vitale , in his own words , to " a figurehead . " By the time of Massino 's release the Bonanno family had grown tired of Vitale , regarding him as greedy and overstepping his authority . In the new structure of the family , Vitale lost the underboss 's usual role as a go @-@ between for the boss , as well as the share of the family 's profits those duties entailed , and Massino made it clear to Vitale his unpopularity was a factor in these changes . Vitale remained loyal , however , and helped Massino organize the March 18 , 1999 murder of Gerlando Sciascia . Massino indicated to fellow mobsters that Sciascia was killed for feuding with fellow Massino @-@ confidant capo Anthony Graziano , accusing him of using cocaine , while in his own testimony Massino claimed Sciascia was killed for killing another mobster 's son . Sciascia 's body was not covertly buried but instead left to be discovered in a street in the Bronx , an attempt to make the hit look like a botched drug deal rather than a Mafia @-@ ordered hit , and Massino had his capos attend Sciascia 's funeral .
Shortly after becoming boss , Massino announced that his men should no longer consider themselves as part of the Bonanno family . Instead , he renamed it the Massino family , after himself . Like many mafiosi , he was angered at family namesake Joseph Bonanno 's tell @-@ all autobiography , A Man of Honor , and regarded it as a violation of the code of omertà . He told Vitale that in his view , " Joe Bonanno disrespected the family by ratting . " The new name was first disclosed after Massino was indicted in 2003 and did not catch on outside the Mafia .
= = = Relations with other families = = =
Before Massino became boss , John Gotti was one of his closest allies . Massino had backed Gotti in his plot to take over the Gambino family , and as Gambino boss , Gotti tried to get Massino a seat on the Commission as the Bonannos ' acting boss . Gotti was reportedly infuriated that Massino had been officially promoted without him being consulted , and Massino would later testify he believed Gotti conspired with Vitale to kill him . Gotti , however , was marginalized by his 1992 racketeering and murder conviction and consequent life imprisonment . Massino , for his own part , was angered at Gotti 's high public profile and later criticized Gotti for killing his predecessor Paul Castellano . Massino also had a poor relationship with Vincent Gigante , who had backed the opposition to Rastelli and blocked Gotti 's attempts to bring Massino onto the Commission .
The Bonanno family had been in decline for the better part of the last quarter century since Joseph Bonanno 's ousting , and it was kicked off the Commission altogether following Pistone 's infiltration . By the late 1990s the situation was reversed , and the Bonanno family was now reckoned as the most powerful crime family in New York and the nation , in no small part because Massino was the only full @-@ fledged New York boss who was still on the streets . As it turned out , being thrown off the Commission actually worked in the Bonannos ' favor ; they were the only family whose leadership wasn 't decimated in the Mafia Commission Trial . Wary of surveillance , Massino generally avoided meeting with members of other Mafia families and encouraged his crews to operate independently as well . In January 2000 , however , Massino did preside over an informal Commission meeting with the acting bosses of the other four families . As the most powerful Mafia leader in both New York and the nation , Massino was in a position to make general policies for the Five Families . Under his direction , the Commission tightened qualifications to become a made man , requiring candidates have full Italian descent ( previously having an Italian @-@ American father was the minimum requirement ) and imposed restrictions on initiating associates convicted on drug charges .
According to Capeci , the murder of Sciascia soured relations between the Bonanno and Rizzuto families . Originally considered merely a Canadian Bonanno crew , the Rizzutos responded by taking even less heed from New York .
= = = Run @-@ up to prosecution = = =
At the beginning of his reign as boss , Massino enjoyed the benefit of limited FBI attention . In 1987 , with the Bonannos weakened , the FBI merged its Bonanno squad with its Colombo family squad , and this squad was initially preoccupied with the Colombos ' third internal war . Another dedicated Bonanno squad would be established in 1996 .
The Bonanno squad 's chief , Jack Stubing , was well aware of the measures Massino had taken to avoid scrutiny . He therefore decided to go after Massino with a rear @-@ guard action . He convinced his bosses to lend him a pair of forensic accountants normally used in fraud investigations , believing that they could easily pinpoint conspirators in the family 's money laundering schemes . Stubing believed that the threat of long prison sentences would be sufficient to get any conspirators to turn informer , and thus make it easier to trace how the money flowed to Massino . In the meantime , the FBI also targeted other members of the Bonanno administration . In 1995 , consigliere Anthony Spero was sentenced to two years imprisonment after being convicted of loansharking , then to life imprisonment in 2002 for murder . Graziano would assume Spero 's duties , but he too plead guilty to racketeering charges in December 2002 and was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment . Vitale would also plead guilty to loansharking charges in June 2002 . Vitale was not immediately sentenced , and was placed under house arrest in the interim , but the relatively low maximum sentence he was eligible for lead Massino to wrongly suspect he was cooperating with law enforcement . He secretly ordered that , if he was arrested , Vitale was to be " taken down " - demoted or killed .
Until 2002 , the Bonannos had been the only family in the modern history of the New York Mafia ( i. e . , since the Castellammarese War ) to have never had a made man turn informant or government witness . Massino used this as a point of pride to rally his crime family . That year Frank Coppa , convicted on fraud and facing further charges from the FBI 's forensic accounting investigation , became the first to flip . He was followed shortly by acting underboss Richard Cantarella , a participant in the Mirra murder , who was facing racketeering and murder charges . A third , Joseph D 'Amico , subsequently turned state 's evidence with the knowledge that Cantarella could implicate him for murder as well . All of these defections left Massino , at last , vulnerable to serious charges .
= = 2004 conviction = =
On January 9 , 2003 , Massino was arrested and indicted , alongside Vitale , Frank Lino and capo Daniel Mongelli , in a comprehensive racketeering indictment . The charges against Massino himself included ordering the 1981 murder of Napolitano . Massino was denied bail , and Vincent Basciano took over as acting boss in his absence . Massino hired David Breitbart , an attorney he had originally wanted to represent him in his 1987 trial , for his defense .
Three more Bonanno made men would choose to cooperate before Massino came to trial . The first was James Tartaglione ; anticipating he would shortly be indicted as well he went to the FBI and agreed to wear a wire while he remained free . The second was Salvatore Vitale . In custody Massino again put out the word , to a receptive Bonanno family , that he wanted Vitale killed . After learning of Massino 's earlier plans to kill his brother @-@ in @-@ law from Coppa and Cantarella , prosecutors informed Vitale . Vitale was already dissatisfied by the lack of support he and his family received from Massino after his arrest . On the day he was arraigned with Massino , Vitale decided to flip as soon as it was safe to do so ; he formally reached a deal with prosecutors in February . He was followed in short order by Lino , knowing Vitale could implicate him in murder as well . Also flipping was longtime Bonanno associate Duane Leisenheimer , concerned for his safety after an investigator for Massino 's defense team visited to find out if he intended to flip .
With these defections , Massino was slapped with a superseding indictment charging him with seven additional murders : the three capos ( this time for participation in the murder itself rather than conspiracy ) , Mirra , Bonventre , Infanti and Sciascia . Of particular interest was the Sciascia hit , which took place after a 1994 amendment to racketeering laws that allowed the death penalty for murder in aid of racketeering .
Massino 's trial began on May 24 , 2004 , with judge Nicholas Garaufis presiding and Greg D. Andres and Robert Henoch heading the prosecution . He now faced 11 RICO counts for seven murders ( due to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty for the Sciascia murder , that case was severed to be tried separately ) , arson , extortion , loansharking , illegal gambling , and money laundering . By this time , Time magazine had dubbed Massino as " the Last Don " , in reference to his status as the only New York boss not serving a prison sentence at that point . The name stuck .
Despite a weak start , with opening witness Anthony Gilberti unable to recognize Massino in the courtroom , the prosecution would establish its case to link Massino with the charges in the indictment through an unprecedented seven major turncoats , including the six turned made men . Vitale , the last of the six to take the stand , was of particular significance . He had spent most of his three decades in the Mafia as a close confidant to Massino , and his closeness to his brother in law allowed him to cover Massino 's entire criminal history in his testimony . Brietbart 's defense rested primarily on cross @-@ examination of the prosecution witnesses , with his only witness being an FBI agent to challenge Vitale 's reliability . His defense was also unusual in that he made no attempt to contest that Massino was the Bonanno boss , instead stressing the murders in the case took place before he took over and that Massino himself " showed a love of life ... because the murders ceased . "
After deliberating for five days the jury found Massino guilty of all eleven counts on July 30 , 2004 . His sentencing was initially scheduled for October 12 , and he was expected to receive a sentence of life imprisonment with no possibility of parole . The jury also approved the prosecutors ' recommended $ 10 million forfeiture of the proceeds of his reign as Bonanno boss on the day of the verdict .
= = Turning state 's evidence = =
Immediately after his July 30 conviction , as court was adjourned , Massino requested a meeting with Judge Garaufis , where he made his first offer to cooperate . He was facing the death penalty if found guilty of Sciascia 's murder – indeed , one of John Ashcroft 's final acts as Attorney General was to order federal prosecutors to seek the death penalty for Massino . Massino thus stood to be the first Mafia boss to be executed for his crimes , and the first mob boss to face the death penalty since Lepke Buchalter was executed in 1944 .
In hopes of saving his life , Massino decided to break his blood oath and turn informer . Massino subsequently claimed he decided to turn informer due to the prospect of his wife and mother having to forfeit their houses to the government . Mob authors and journalists Anthony D. DeStefano and Selwyn Raab both consider the turning of so many made men as a factor in disillusioning Massino with Cosa Nostra , the former also assuming Massino had decided to flip " long before the verdict " . Massino was the first sitting boss of a New York crime family to turn state 's evidence , and the second in the history of the American Mafia to do so ( Philadelphia crime family boss Ralph Natale had flipped in 1999 when facing drug charges ) . It also marked the second time in a little more than a year that a New York boss had reached a plea bargain ; Gigante had pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice charges in 2003 after prosecutors unmasked his long charade of feigning insanity .
At his advice , that October the FBI revisited the Queens mob graveyard where Alphonse Indelicato 's body was found , and unearthed the bodies of Trinchera and Giaccone as well . They also hoped to find the body of John Favara , who accidentally killed Gotti 's son , and the body of Tommy DeSimone . Massino also reported that Vincent Basciano , arrested in November , had conspired to kill prosecutor Greg Andres , but after failing a polygraph test regarding the discussion he agreed to wear a wire when meeting the acting boss in jail . While Massino was unable to extract an unambiguous confession regarding Andres , he did record Basciano freely admit to ordering the murder of associate Randolph Pizzolo .
By the end of January 2005 , when Basciano was indicted for the Pizzolo murder , Massino was identified by news sources as the then @-@ anonymous fellow mobster who secretly recorded his confession , to the public disgust of Massino 's family . Further confirmation of Massino 's defection came in February as he was identified as the source for the graveyard , then in May when the Justice Department dropped the threat of the death penalty regarding the Sciascia case . In a hearing on June 23 , 2005 , Massino finalized his deal and plead guilty to ordering the Sciascia murder . For this and his 2004 conviction he was sentenced to two consecutive life sentences , with a possible reduction depending on his service as a witness . That same day Josephine Massino negotiated a settlement to satisfy the forfeiture claim , keeping the homes of herself and Massino 's mother as well as some rental properties while turning over , among other assets , a cache of $ 7 million and hundreds of gold bars , and the Casablanca restaurant .
Massino was not replaced as Bonanno boss until 2013 when Michael Mancuso , who had replaced Basciano as acting boss , was reported to have formally assumed the title .
= = = Massino 's testimony and release = = =
Massino was conspicuously absent from the prosecution witnesses at the 2006 racketeering trial of Basciano , the prosecution deciding he was not yet needed ; he was also expected to testify against Vito Rizzuto regarding his role in the three capos murder , but the Montreal boss accepted a plea bargain in May 2007 . He finally made his debut as a witness at Basciano 's trial for the murder of Randolph Pizzolo in April 2011 ; Massino 's testified both during the trial itself and , after Basciano was convicted , on behalf of the prosecution 's unsuccessful attempt to impose the death penalty . During his testimony Massino noted , as a result of his cooperation , " I ’ m hoping to see a light at the end of the tunnel . "
Massino testified again in the 2012 extortion trial of Genovese capo Anthony Romanello , primarily to provide background as an expert on the American Mafia . While Massino had not worked closely with Romanello , prosecutors decided to use him after another mobster @-@ turned @-@ witness was dropped ; the case ended in an acquittal . Massino had also been considered as a witness in the 2013 murder trial of Colombo acting boss Joel Cacace , but was dropped after he was unable to fully remember the meeting where he claimed Cacace indicated his involvement in the murder of NYPD officer Ralph Dols .
In June 2013 the U.S. Department of Justice filed a request to Judge Garaufis for a reduction of Massino 's sentence ; prosecutors cited both the impact of Massino 's unprecedented cooperation and his failing health as reasons for a reduction of his sentence . Garaufis granted their request on July 10 , resentencing Massino to time served and supervised release for the remainder of his life .
= Airbus A380 =
The Airbus A380 is a double @-@ deck , wide @-@ body , four @-@ engine jet airliner manufactured by European Union manufacturer Airbus . It is the world 's largest passenger airliner , and the airports at which it operates have upgraded facilities to accommodate it . It was initially named Airbus A3XX and designed to challenge Boeing 's monopoly in the large @-@ aircraft market . The A380 made its first flight on 27 April 2005 and entered commercial service in 25 October 2007 with Singapore Airlines .
The A380 's upper deck extends along the entire length of the fuselage , with a width equivalent to a wide @-@ body aircraft . This gives the A380 @-@ 800 's cabin 550 square metres ( 5 @,@ 920 sq ft ) of usable floor space , 40 % more than the next largest airliner , the Boeing 747 @-@ 8 , and provides seating for 525 people in a typical three @-@ class configuration or up to 853 people in an all @-@ economy class configuration . The A380 @-@ 800 has a design range of 8 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 700 km ) , serving the second longest non @-@ stop scheduled flight in the world , and a cruising speed of Mach 0 @.@ 85 ( about 900 km / h , 560 mph or 490 kn at cruising altitude ) .
As of May 2016 , Airbus had received 319 firm orders and delivered 190 aircraft ; Emirates is the biggest A380 customer with 142 on order and 80 delivered . Thai Airways International , British Airways , Asiana Airlines , Qatar Airways , Etihad Airways are other operators .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In mid @-@ 1988 , Airbus engineers led by Jean Roeder began work in secret on the development of an ultra @-@ high @-@ capacity airliner ( UHCA ) , both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since
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the early 1970s with its 747 . McDonnell Douglas unsuccessfully offered its smaller , double @-@ deck MD @-@ 12 concept for sale . Roeder was given approval for further evaluations of the UHCA after a formal presentation to the President and CEO in June 1990 . The megaproject was announced at the 1990 Farnborough Air Show , with the stated goal of 15 % lower operating costs than the 747 @-@ 400 . Airbus organised four teams of designers , one from each of its partners ( Aérospatiale , British Aerospace , Deutsche Aerospace AG , CASA ) to propose new technologies for its future aircraft designs . The designs were presented in 1992 and the most competitive designs were used .
In January 1993 , Boeing and several companies in the Airbus consortium started a joint feasibility study of a Very Large Commercial Transport ( VLCT ) , aiming to form a partnership to share the limited market . This joint study was abandoned two years later , Boeing 's interest having declined because analysts thought that such a product was unlikely to cover the projected $ 15 billion development cost . Despite the fact that only two airlines had expressed public interest in purchasing such a plane , Airbus was already pursuing its own large plane project . Analysts suggested that Boeing would instead pursue stretching its 747 design , and that air travel was already moving away from the hub and spoke system that consolidated traffic into large planes , and toward more non @-@ stop routes that could be served by smaller planes .
In June 1994 , Airbus announced its plan to develop its own very large airliner , designated the A3XX . Airbus considered several designs , including an unusual side @-@ by @-@ side combination of two fuselages from its A340 , the largest Airbus jet at the time . The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeing 's own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747 . From 1997 to 2000 , as the East Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook , Airbus refined its design , targeting a 15 – 20 % reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747 @-@ 400 . The A3XX design converged on a double @-@ decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single @-@ deck design , in line with traditional hub @-@ and @-@ spoke theory as opposed to the point @-@ to @-@ point theory with the Boeing 777 , after conducting an extensive market analysis with over 200 focus groups . Although early marketing of the huge cross @-@ section touted the possibility of duty @-@ free shops , restaurant @-@ like dining , gyms , casinos & beauty parlours on board , the realities of airline economics have kept such dreams grounded .
On 19 December 2000 , the supervisory board of newly restructured Airbus voted to launch an € 8 @.@ 8 @-@ billion programme to build the A3XX , re @-@ christened as the A380 , with 50 firm orders from six launch customers . The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families , which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340 . It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double @-@ deck cross section , and is a lucky number in some Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed . The aircraft configuration was finalised in early 2001 , and manufacturing of the first A380 wing box component started on 23 January 2002 . The development cost of the A380 had grown to € 11 @-@ 14 billion when the first aircraft was completed .
= = = Production = = =
Major structural sections of the A380 are built in France , Germany , Spain , and the United Kingdom . Due to the sections ' large size , traditional transportation methods proved infeasible , so they are brought to the Jean @-@ Luc Lagardère Plant assembly hall in Toulouse , France , by specialised surface transportation , though some parts are moved by the A300 @-@ 600ST Beluga transport aircraft , which is also used in the movement of other Airbus model components . A380 components are provided by suppliers from around the world ; the four largest contributors , by value , are Rolls @-@ Royce , Safran , United Technologies and General Electric .
For the surface movement of large A380 structural components , a complex route known as the Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit was developed . This involved the construction of a fleet of roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ( RORO ) ships and barges , the construction of port facilities and the development of new and modified roads to accommodate oversized road convoys . The front and rear fuselage sections are shipped on one of three RORO ships from Hamburg in northern Germany to the United Kingdom . The wings are manufactured at Broughton in North Wales , then transported by barge to Mostyn docks for ship transport .
In Saint @-@ Nazaire in western France , the ship exchanges the fuselage sections from Hamburg for larger , assembled sections , some of which include the nose . The ship unloads in Bordeaux . The ship then picks up the belly and tail sections from Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA in Cádiz in southern Spain , and delivers them to Bordeaux . From there , the A380 parts are transported by barge to Langon , and by oversize road convoys to the assembly hall in Toulouse . In order to avoid damage from direct handling , parts are secured in custom jigs carried on self @-@ powered wheeled vehicles .
After assembly , the aircraft are flown to Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport ( XFW ) to be furnished and painted . Airbus sized the production facilities and supply chain for a production rate of four A380s per month .
= = = Testing = = =
Five A380s were built for testing and demonstration purposes . The first A380 , registered F @-@ WWOW , was unveiled in Toulouse 18 January 2005 . It first flew on 27 April 2005 . This plane , equipped with Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 engines , flew from Toulouse Blagnac International Airport with a crew of six headed by chief test pilot Jacques Rosay . Rosay said flying the A380 had been " like handling a bicycle " .
On 1 December 2005 , the A380 achieved its maximum design speed of Mach 0 @.@ 96 , ( its design cruise speed is Mach 0 @.@ 85 ) in a shallow dive . In 2006 , the A380 flew its first high @-@ altitude test at Bole International Airport , Addis Ababa . It conducted its second high @-@ altitude test at the same airport in 2009 . On 10 January 2006 , it flew to José María Córdova International Airport in Colombia , accomplishing the transatlantic testing , and then it went to El Dorado International Airport to test the engine operation in high @-@ altitude airports . It arrived in North America on 6 February 2006 , landing in Iqaluit , Nunavut in Canada for cold @-@ weather testing .
On 14 February 2006 , during the destructive wing strength certification test on MSN5000 , the test wing of the A380 failed at 145 % of the limit load , short of the required 150 % level . Airbus announced modifications adding 30 kg ( 66 lb ) to the wing to provide the required strength . On 26 March 2006 , the A380 underwent evacuation certification in Hamburg . With 8 of the 16 exits arbitrarily blocked , 853 mixed passengers and 20 crew exited the darkened aircraft in 78 seconds , less than the 90 seconds required for certification . Three days later , the A380 received European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) and United States Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) approval to carry up to 853 passengers .
The first A380 using GP7200 engines — serial number MSN009 and registration F @-@ WWEA — flew on 25 August 2006 . On 4 September 2006 , the first full passenger @-@ carrying flight test took place . The aircraft flew from Toulouse with 474 Airbus employees on board , in a test of passenger facilities and comfort . In November 2006 , a further series of route @-@ proving flights demonstrated the aircraft 's performance for 150 flight hours under typical airline operating conditions . As of 2014 , the A380 test aircraft continue to perform test procedures .
Airbus obtained type certificates for the A380 @-@ 841 and A380 @-@ 842 model from the EASA and FAA on 12 December 2006 in a joint ceremony at the company 's French headquarters , receiving the ICAO code A388 . The A380 @-@ 861 model obtained its type certificate on 14 December 2007 .
= = = Production and delivery delays = = =
Initial production of the A380 was troubled by delays attributed to the 530 km ( 330 mi ) of wiring in each aircraft . Airbus cited as underlying causes the complexity of the cabin wiring ( 98 @,@ 000 wires and 40 @,@ 000 connectors ) , its concurrent design and production , the high degree of customisation for each airline , and failures of configuration management and change control . The German and Spanish Airbus facilities continued to use CATIA version 4 , while British and French sites migrated to version 5 . This caused overall configuration management problems , at least in part because wire harnesses manufactured using aluminium rather than copper conductors necessitated special design rules including non @-@ standard dimensions and bend radii ; these were not easily transferred between versions of the software .
Airbus announced the first delay in June 2005 and notified airlines that deliveries would be delayed by six months . This reduced the total number of planned deliveries by the end of 2009 from about 120 to 90 – 100 . On 13 June 2006 , Airbus announced a second delay , with the delivery schedule slipping an additional six to seven months . Although the first delivery was still planned before the end of 2006 , deliveries in 2007 would drop to only 9 aircraft , and deliveries by the end of 2009 would be cut to 70 – 80 aircraft . The announcement caused a 26 % drop in the share price of Airbus ' parent , EADS , and led to the departure of EADS CEO Noël Forgeard , Airbus CEO Gustav Humbert , and A380 programme manager Charles Champion . On 3 October 2006 , upon completion of a review of the A380 program , Airbus CEO Christian Streiff announced a third delay , pushing the first delivery to October 2007 , to be followed by 13 deliveries in 2008 , 25 in 2009 , and the full production rate of 45 aircraft per year in 2010 . The delay also increased the earnings shortfall projected by Airbus through 2010 to € 4 @.@ 8 billion .
As Airbus prioritised the work on the A380 @-@ 800 over the A380F , freighter orders were cancelled by FedEx and UPS , or converted to A380 @-@ 800 by Emirates and ILFC . Airbus suspended work on the freighter version , but said it remained on offer , albeit without a service entry date . For the passenger version Airbus negotiated a revised delivery schedule and compensation with the 13 customers , all of which retained their orders with some placing subsequent orders , including Emirates , Singapore Airlines , Qantas , Air France , Qatar Airways , and Korean Air .
On 13 May 2008 , Airbus announced reduced deliveries for the years 2008 ( 12 ) and 2009 ( 21 ) . After further manufacturing setbacks , Airbus announced its plan to deliver 14 A380s in 2009 , down from the previously revised target of 18 . A total of 10 A380s were delivered in 2009 . In 2010 Airbus delivered 18 of the expected 20 A380s , due to Rolls @-@ Royce engine availability problems . Airbus planned to deliver " between 20 and 25 " A380s in 2011 before ramping up to three a month in 2012 . In fact , Airbus delivered 26 units , thus outdoing its predicted output for the first time . As of July 2012 , production was 3 aircraft per month . Among the production problems are challenging interiors , interiors being installed sequentially rather than concurrently as in smaller planes , and union / government objections to streamlining .
At the July 2016 Farnborough Airshow Airbus announced that in a “ prudent , proactive step , ” starting in 2018 it expects to deliver 12 A380 aircraft per year , down from 27 deliveries in 2015 . The firm also warned production might slip back into red ink on each aircraft produced at that time , though it anticipates production will remain in the black for 2016 and 2017 . “ The company will continue to improve the efficiency of its industrial system to achieve breakeven at 20 aircraft in 2017 and targets additional cost reduction initiatives to lower breakeven further . ” Airbus expects that healthy demand for its other aircraft would allow it to avoid job losses from the cuts .
= = = Entry into service = = =
Nicknamed Superjumbo , the first A380 , MSN003 , ( registered as 9V @-@ SKA ) was delivered to Singapore Airlines on 15 October 2007 and entered service on 25 October 2007 with flight number SQ380 between Singapore and Sydney . Passengers bought seats in a charity online auction paying between $ 560 and $ 100 @,@ 380 . Two months later , Singapore Airlines CEO Chew Choong Seng stated the A380 was performing better than either the airline and Airbus had anticipated , burning 20 % less fuel per seat @-@ mile than the airline 's 747 @-@ 400 fleet . Emirates ' Tim Clark claimed that the A380 has better fuel economy at Mach 0 @.@ 86 than at 0 @.@ 83 , and that its technical dispatch reliability is at 97 % , same as Singapore Airlines . Airbus is committed to reach the industry standard of 98 @.@ 5 % .
Emirates was the second airline to receive the A380 and commenced service between Dubai and New York in August 2008 . Qantas followed , with flights between Melbourne and Los Angeles in October 2008 . By the end of 2008 , 890 @,@ 000 passengers had flown on 2 @,@ 200 flights .
In February 2009 , the one millionth passenger was flown with Singapore Airlines and by May of that year 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 passengers had flown on 4 @,@ 200 flights . Air France received its first A380 in October 2009 . Lufthansa received its first A380 in May 2010 . By July 2010 , the 31 A380s then in service had transported 6 million passengers on 17 @,@ 000 flights between 20 international destinations .
Airbus delivered the 100th A380 on 14 March 2013 to Malaysia Airlines . In June 2014 , over 65 million passengers had flown the A380 , and more than 100 million passengers ( averaging 375 per flight ) by September 2015 , with an availability of 98 @.@ 5 % . In 2014 , Emirates stated that their A380 fleet had load factors of 90 @-@ 100 % , and that the popularity of the aircraft with its passengers had not decreased in the past year .
= = = Post @-@ delivery issues = = =
During repairs following the Qantas Flight 32 engine failure incident , cracks were discovered in wing fittings . As a result , the European Aviation Safety Agency issued an Airworthiness Directive in January 2012 which affected 20 A380 aircraft that had accumulated over 1 @,@ 300 flights . A380s with under 1 @,@ 800 flight hours were to be inspected within 6 weeks or 84 flights ; aircraft with over 1 @,@ 800 flight hours were to be examined within four days or 14 flights . Fittings found to be cracked were replaced . On 8 February 2012 , the checks were extended to cover all 68 A380 aircraft in operation . The problem is considered to be minor and is not expected to affect operations . EADS acknowledged that the cost of repairs would be over $ 130 million , to be borne by Airbus . The company said the problem was traced
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" , noting that there was no " point in labouring over something … because you don 't know what 's going to work " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" City Girl " has been described as " mid @-@ tempo , with an unusual repeating melody and a two @-@ note chorus . The guitar is simple and rough , a bit garage @-@ rock , bouncing over characteristically buried drums that seem an afterthought . " Rolling Stone noted that the song — and other tracks Shields contributed to the Lost in Translation soundtrack — feature " My Bloody Valentine 's ethereal sensibility , but they are more fragile in their construction , without Shields ' furious sheets of guitar . "
Shields has referred to " City Girl " ' s composition as " average and vulnerable " and said of the lyrics : " It 's kind corny words , like ' I love you ' and ' you 're beautiful ' and the kind of corny , simple things that people tend to think when they actually get infatuated with somebody . " According to Rolling Stone , the song 's lyrics " aptly reflects the quiet nature of the film " and Shields has said that both he and Reitzell were " under the influence of the film " while Shields composed the song .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " City Girl " was directed by Lost in Translation director Sofia Coppola . The video was filmed in Tokyo , Japan — where Lost in Translation is based — and features the use of handheld cameras , production techniques such as jump cuts , and " blurry visuals " of the city . Coppola used footage from Lost in Translation that was not included in the final cut alongside selected sequences from the film to create the video .
Critic Geoff King said that the " City Girl " music video , like others Coppola directed around the same time period , " offer little else to go on for an auteurist account . " He noted the contrast between Coppola 's direction and overall quality in the " City Girl " video and her music video for " I Just Don 't Know What to Do with Myself " by The White Stripes , which was released the same year . The music video for " City Girl " was included as a bonus feature on the Lost in Translation DVD , released on 3 February 2004 . A high definition version of the video was later included as a bonus feature on the Blu @-@ ray release of the film , released on 7 December 2010 .
= = Release and reception = =
" City Girl " was released as a one @-@ track promotional CD single in June 2003 on the Australian independent record label , Inertia . It was later released in the United States as a split 7 " single with The Jesus and Mary Chain song " Just Like Honey " , which was also featured on the Lost in Translation soundtrack . The split single was a limited edition release and pressed on yellow and clear vinyl . " City Girl " was later included as the second track on the Lost in Translation soundtrack , released in August 2003 on V2 Records , alongside three other songs Shields composed for the film : " Goodbye " , " Ikebana " and " Are You Awake ? "
Upon its release , " City Girl " received moderate critical acclaim . Pitchfork Media writer Mark Richardson said that " on first listen it sounds like a demo of a pre @-@ Loveless track , possibly from the You Made Me Realise era " and while there was " no exploration on that front … the melody and voice are familiar and welcome . " Writing for Stylus Magazine , Andrew Unterberger called " City Girl " " a worthy opener " and added that " [ the song is ] where Kevin 's at right now — making pretty pop songs . There is so little to this song that it 's almost enough to make you think Kevin 's lost his mind . " Unterberger summarised the song as " gorgeous , and definitely has that sighing quality to it that makes the film so delectable . " Exclaim ! journalist Michael White noted that it was " the indisputable highlight of the soundtrack " and AllMusic 's Heather Phares described " City Girl " as an " open @-@ ended piece " and " naïve [ and ] guitar @-@ driven " but added that it did not compare to Shields ' compositions on Loveless ( 1991 ) .
" City Girl " was among the material that earned Shields nominations for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for Best Film Music , an Irish Film and Television Academy ( IFTA ) award for Best Music in a Film , and an Online Film Critics Society award for Best Original Score in 2003 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Lost in Translation : Original Soundtrack 's liner notes .
Performers
Kevin Shields – vocals , guitar , production , engineering
Brian Reitzell – drums , engineering
Technical personnel
Bryan Mills – engineering
James Brown – engineering
Rob Kirwan – engineering
= Leonore Annenberg =
Leonore Cohn Annenberg ( February 20 , 1918 – March 12 , 2009 ) , also known as Lee Annenberg , was an American businesswoman , government official , and philanthropist , noted for serving as Chief of Protocol of the United States from 1981 to 1982 . Annenberg was married to Walter Annenberg , who was an Ambassador to the United Kingdom and newspaper publishing magnate . She also served as the chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation from 2002 until 2009 .
Born in New York City and raised in Los Angeles , she graduated from Stanford University . After her first two marriages ended in divorce , she married noted businessman Walter Annenberg , who was appointed U.S. Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1969 under President Richard Nixon . In her role as the ambassador 's wife , Leonore directed a major renovation of the ambassador 's official residence . The Annenbergs contributed to Ronald Reagan 's 1980 presidential campaign and upon his inauguration , Leonore was named Chief of Protocol , placing her in charge of advising the president , vice president , and Secretary of State on matters relating to diplomatic protocol .
The Annenbergs became major philanthropists , donating money to education facilities , charitable causes , and the arts . Leonore served on many committees and boards as well . After her husband 's death in 2002 , she continued to donate money and succeeded him as chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation .
= = Early life and family = =
Leonore Cohn was born into a Jewish family in New York City on February 20 , 1918 , to Maxwell and Clara Cohn . Nicknamed " Lee " , her father operated a textile business . She was seven years old when her mother died . She and her younger sister were raised in Fremont Place , an upper @-@ class neighborhood of Los Angeles , by her uncle Harry Cohn , the founder of Columbia Pictures . Leonore and her younger sister , Judith , attended the Page Boarding School for Girls in Pasadena . Harry Cohn 's wife , Rose , raised the girls as Christian Scientists .
Leonore Cohn graduated from Stanford University in 1940 with a B.A. After graduating , she married Beldon Katleman , whose family owned real estate and a national parking lot chain ; they had a daughter , Diane , but the marriage ended in divorce after a few years . In 1946 , she married Lewis Rosensteil , the multimillionaire founder of the Schenley liquor distillery , and they had a daughter named Elizabeth ; that marriage , too , ended in divorce .
She and Walter Annenberg , then editor of The Philadelphia Inquirer , met in 1950 at a party in Florida and the two were married the following year .
= = Ambassador 's wife = =
Upon her husband 's appointment as the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1969 , Mrs. Annenberg ordered a renovation of the thirty @-@ five room Winfield House , the ambassador 's official London residence . The total cost of the project was about US $ 1 million and took six months to complete . While in London , Leonore founded the American Friends of Covent Garden , an organization designed to foster goodwill between the U.S. and Great Britain through musical expression .
= = Chief of Protocol = =
The Annenbergs contributed substantially to Ronald Reagan 's 1980 presidential campaign , and upon Reagan 's election in 1981 , Lee Annenberg was named as Chief of Protocol of the United States . This position placed her in charge of advising the President , Vice President , and Secretary of State on matters dealing with diplomatic protocol , and formally welcoming foreign dignitaries upon their arrival to the United States . Annenberg oversaw a staff of 60 who worked on myriad details , ranging from the choice of the state gifts that will be given to the guest , to the bathrooms the foreign delegation may visit . She said of her position , " It 's all about making your guests feel respected and welcome " . Annenberg attracted some controversy during her tenure when she curtsied before the visiting Prince Charles upon arriving for a diplomatic visit , commentators saying it was unseemly in a republic which gained its independence from the same monarchy .
As Chief of Protocol , she achieved the rank of Ambassador . Friends of Ronald and Nancy Reagan , the Annenbergs hosted the Reagans annually at their Rancho Mirage , California estate , " Sunnylands " . Annenberg resigned her post in January 1982 , stating that she wanted to spend more time with her husband .
= = Philanthropy and committee work = =
After leaving her post at the State Department , Lee Annenberg began work to promote and enhance cultural appreciation in the United States . She and her husband continued to donate money to worthy causes as philanthropists . In 2001 , Annenberg was awarded the Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy . Upon being presented the award , she explained why she and her husband donated to causes as philanthropists :
" Walter and I believe that education is the foundation of a democratic society . When asked what motivates his philanthropic work , my husband has responded with a very powerful statement : ' I regard my philanthropic work as an investment in the future of America . It is the most effective way I can serve my country and help to ensure its benefits for the next generation . ' "
Mrs. Annenberg served many charitable organizations and on many committees . Stemming from her interest in and endowments to the arts , she was a trustee emerita and a member of the Acquisitions Committee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , member of the Board of Trustees of the Philadelphia Museum of Art , one of the managing directors of The Metropolitan Opera , honorary trustee and former board president of the Palm Springs Art Museum , and a member of the American Philosophical Society . Mrs. Annenberg was chairwoman emerita of the Foundation of Art and Preservation in Embassies , and a member of the Committee for the Preservation of the White House .
She was also a member of the Distinguished Daughters of Pennsylvania and an active trustee emeritus of the University of Pennsylvania . She served on the governing boards of both Annenberg Schools for Communication . In 1993 , she and her husband , Walter , were awarded the National Medal of Arts . She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2004 .
= = Later life = =
Walter Annenberg died on October 1 , 2002 , aged 94 . Lee Annenberg succeeded her husband as chairman and president of the Annenberg Foundation , an organization founded by her late husband which funds nonprofit organizations as well as education institutes and programs of the arts . She continued to donate money to worthy causes in the fields of science , education , and art until her death . In 2006 , she was ranked as the 382nd wealthiest person in the world by Forbes magazine , and the 488th in 2007 . Annenberg , in 2007 , was the 165th richest person in the United States , according to Forbes , with a net worth of 2 @.@ 5 billion dollars . Annenberg traveled to Washington , D.C. in May 2007 to attend the state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II , hosted by President George W. Bush . The following month , she accepted the prestigious Philadelphia Award , an honor given to those in the Philadelphia region who worked to better the area .
Most recently before her death , Annenberg became an honorary board member of the Richard Nixon Foundation and an honorary fellow of the Royal Academy of Arts .
= = Death = =
Lee Annenberg resided in Rancho Mirage , California prior to her death on March 12 , 2009 , aged 91 . According to a family spokesperson , Leonore Annenberg died at Eisenhower Medical Center of natural causes . At the time of her death , Annenberg had been in declining health .
At the announcement of her death , statements were issued by former President George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush , as well as former First Lady Nancy Reagan . Mrs. Reagan called Annenberg " a dear and longtime friend " and praised the Annenbergs ' philanthropic work as having " left an indelible print on education in the United States " .
= Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming =
" Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 26 , 1995 . In the episode , Sideshow Bob becomes disturbed when he hears the other inmates laughing at the inane antics of Krusty the Clown 's television show and decides to rid the world of television . He escapes while on work duty at a local Air Force Base , which is being cleaned for an annual air show . He steals a 10 @-@ megaton nuclear weapon and threatens to detonate it unless Springfield gives in to his demand to shut down all television broadcasts .
The episode , the fifth of the series to feature Sideshow Bob , was written by freelance writer Spike Feresten . Although he received credit for the episode , the writing staff completely rewrote the episode and very little of Feresten 's original script was left in the finished version . It was the first episode of The Simpsons to be directed by Dominic Polcino , who described it as being very difficult to direct . R. Lee Ermey , known for his role in Full Metal Jacket , guest stars as Col. Leslie " Hap " Hapablap while Kelsey Grammer reprises his role as Sideshow Bob .
The episode is a parody of " ' 60s @-@ era nuclear war movies " and contains several references to Cold War films including Twilight 's Last Gleaming , Dr. Strangelove and Fail @-@ Safe . In its original broadcast , the episode finished 49th in ratings for the week of November 20 – 26 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 and a 13 % share of the audience .
= = Plot = =
While watching The Krusty the Clown Show , Homer asks what happened to Sideshow Bob , Krusty 's former sidekick . Bart and Lisa remind their father of Bob 's attempts to frame Krusty , kill Selma , rig an election and kill Bart. Meanwhile , at Springfield Minimum Security Prison , Sideshow Bob is disturbed when he hears the other inmates laughing at the inane antics of Krusty 's television show . He believes that television is a fountain of " mindless drivel " and wants to rid the world of it . Bob hatches a plan and escapes while on work duty at a local Air Force Base , which is being cleaned for an annual air show . He impersonates Air Force colonel Leslie " Hap " Hapablap in order to gain access to a restricted area of the hangar , where he finds a 10 @-@ megaton nuclear weapon .
The air show begins , with the Simpson family in attendance , but the signal on the big screen is interrupted by Bob . Bob announces that life would be better without television and so he threatens to detonate the nuclear bomb unless Springfield gives in to his demand to shut down all television broadcasts . Upon hearing the announcement , everyone flees the airfield in panic except for Bart and Lisa , who get separated from their parents during the crowd 's mad rush to evacuate . National Guardsmen frantically search the base for Sideshow Bob to no avail . All out of options , Mayor Quimby decides to give in to Bob 's ultimatum — despite Krusty the Clown 's objections . In accordance with Bob 's demands , television transmitters are destroyed and studios hastily plan farewell programs . Bob , who was televising his demands from a stolen Duff Blimp , celebrates the success of his plan .
Krusty , refusing to submit to Bob 's demands , takes refuge in a civil defense shed in the desert . He uses the emergency broadcast system to transmit a heavily improvised show . Bob finds out about this and becomes outraged . Bart and Lisa find their way into the cockpit of the Duff Blimp , where Bob , having lost his patience thanks to Krusty , tries to detonate the bomb . However , the bomb turns out to be a dud ( there was a label inside the bomb saying " Best Before November 1959 " ) and does not blow up . The police eventually find Bob , thanks to Lisa , who uses the controls inside the blimp to print a message on its electronic ticker outside . When Chief Wiggum tries to arrest Bob , Bob deflates the blimp and kidnaps Bart. Bob steals the original Wright Brothers aircraft , which had been an exhibit at the air show . He then reveals to Bart that he plans to start out a kamikaze attack into the civil defense shed where Krusty is hiding . However , the plane ends up merely bouncing harmlessly off the shack . The authorities quickly arrest Bob and take him into custody while Bart is reunited with his family .
= = Production = =
Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " was the fifth episode of The Simpsons to feature Sideshow Bob after " Krusty Gets Busted " , " Black Widower " , " Cape Feare " and " Sideshow Bob Roberts " . Executive producers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein believed that every season of the show should contain an episode featuring Bob . However , Bob had already been in four episodes and the writers were having a difficult time coming up with new ways to include him . The first draft of the episode was written by Spike Feresten , a freelance writer who later became known for his work on Seinfeld . Although he received credit for the episode , the writing staff completely rewrote the episode and very little of Feresten 's original script was left in the episode . Oakley describes the episode as " one of the most arduous rewrites in the history of the show " because much of the dialogue had to be re @-@ written .
" Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " was the first episode of The Simpsons directed by Dominic Polcino . Polcino had worked as an assistant director on the show and had left the show but was offered a chance to be a director . He describes the episode as a " tough one to start with , " especially the scenes with the Wright Flyer . An early version of the script featured a longer scene at the air show that featured Hans Moleman flying an early flying machine . The scene where Milhouse is in a jet pretending to fire missiles at his parents because he 's upset with them , would later inspire the episode " A Milhouse Divided " . In that episode , Milhouse 's parents become divorced .
A character modelled after Fox Network owner Rupert Murdoch briefly appears in a scene set in jail . The censors said that Murdoch could not be shown but Rupert Murdoch himself gave his permission for his caricature to be used . R. Lee Ermey , known for his role in Full Metal Jacket , guest stars as Col. Leslie " Hap " Hapablap . The role was specifically written for him and much of his dialogue was difficult to write . The line " What is your major malfunction ? " is based on dialogue from Full Metal Jacket .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is a parody of " ' 60s @-@ era nuclear war movies " and contains several references to Cold War films . There were also several references to Dr. Strangelove : the underground compound resembles the War Room from the film ; Professor Frink was redesigned to parody the title character ; The tune that Sideshow Bob whistles while preparing the bomb is " We 'll Meet Again , " as sung by Vera Lynn at the end of the film ; and Krusty 's acting whilst he defends television is based on George
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professional career when he led the Buffalo Bills to overcome a 32 @-@ point deficit and set the NFL comeback record . That season , Maryland also defeated 17th @-@ ranked West Virginia and 20th @-@ ranked Clemson , and secured the ACC championship . In the postseason , they edged Tennessee , 28 – 27 , in the Sun Bowl and finished 12th in the nation . Maryland entered the 1985 season with a number @-@ one preseason rank , and set its all @-@ time home attendance record in Byrd Stadium with an average of 49 @,@ 385 over five games . However , they dropped to a ranking of 17th in Week 2 , and then out of the polls in Week 4 after a shutout by Michigan . Despite the early setbacks , the Terrapins finished undefeated in six conference games to take the ACC championship for the third consecutive year . Maryland defeated Syracuse , 35 @-@ 18 , in the Cherry Bowl and earned a final ranking of 18th . In 1986 , the Terrapins posted a mediocre 5 – 5 – 1 record .
After the season , Ross resigned as head coach . He expressed frustration over the university 's failure to improve Byrd Stadium and its associated facilities . Ross had shown recruits stadium and facility renovation plans as an indication of the program 's direction , and when they did not come to fruition , he felt that he had misled the players . Ross also stated that he was hurt by " innuendo , insinuation , and guilt by association " with respect to the cocaine @-@ induced death of Maryland basketball star Len Bias . He said , " I feel the football team has represented the university well , both on and off the field . " The athletics department investigation report had commended the propriety of the football program , but university chancellor John B. Slaughter did not offer his vocal support for Ross until a month later .
= = = Joe Krivak ( 1987 – 1991 ) = = =
Maryland athletics in general were marred by the death of Len Bias , and the football team was no exception . After Ross resigned , offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach Joe Krivak was promoted to head coach . This was the beginning of a lackluster period for Terrapins football . From 1987 to 2000 , the Terrapins went 55 – 88 overall ( .385 ) with only two winning seasons and one bowl appearance . The Krivak era was met with a brutal schedule with non @-@ conference opponents consisting of national powers Michigan , Miami , Penn State , and Syracuse among others . After a 4 @-@ 7 season in 1987 , a controversial loss to Virginia in the final game of 1988 cost the team a sixth win for bowl eligibility . In 1989 , Maryland tied Joe Paterno 's 13th @-@ ranked Penn State. existence . The following season , the Terrapins beat 25th @-@ ranked West Virginia and upset 8th @-@ ranked Virginia . Maryland received a bid to the Independence Bowl and tied Louisiana Tech in what would be their only postseason appearance during this period . Athletic director Andy Geiger rewarded Krivak with a five @-@ year contract extension , but the 1991 season unraveled after a rash of injuries , and Maryland had its worst finish in two decades with a 2 – 9 mark . After public criticism from several players , Krivak felt he lost credibility as the head coach and resigned on December 6 .
= = = Mark Duffner ( 1992 @-@ 1996 ) = = =
Geiger named Holy Cross head coach Mark Duffner as Krivak 's replacement . Duffner had amassed a 60 – 5 – 1 record and two undefeated seasons in his six years at Holy Cross . At Maryland , he installed a run and shoot offense which shattered many school records . However , his defenses were notoriously weak , usually giving up points so quickly that even his prolific offense couldn 't keep up . For example , in the 1993 game against Virginia Tech , the Terrapins lost by 27 points despite gaining 649 yards of total offense . During this time , quarterbacks Scott Milanovich and John Kaleo set numerous school records for passing under Duffner , most of which still stand . In 1993 , Maryland earned the dubious honor of most yards allowed per game , a record which also stands : in eleven games , the Terrapins surrendered 6 @,@ 083 yards — an average of 553 @.@ 0 yards per game . Maryland also gave up 236 more points than they scored , the worst point differential in school history . After the season , Duffner reorganized his staff by firing three assistant coaches . The team showed moderate improvement the next two years , and in 1995 finished 6 – 5 , which was the first winning record since 1990 . However , Maryland backslid in 1996 with a 5 – 6 record and a struggling offense . Duffner was fired after the season , having accumulated a combined record of 20 – 35 .
= = = Ron Vanderlinden ( 1997 @-@ 2000 ) = = =
Ron Vanderlinden was hired as head coach for the 1997 season under a five @-@ year contract . Vanderlinden had helped engineer turnarounds at Northwestern as defensive coordinator and at Colorado as a defensive assistant . The 1995 Northwestern team in particular had shocked observers when it recorded a 10 – 2 season and the Big Ten championship . In 1999 , Maryland showed signs of significant improvement , and a winning season appeared certain when Maryland possessed a 5 – 2 record . The Terrapins , however , then suffered a three @-@ game losing streak . In their finale against Virginia , the Terrapins needed a win to garner a likely invitation to either the Aloha Bowl or Oahu Bowl — a Maryland alumnus was the chief executive officer of both events . The Terrapins came from behind and held the lead , 30 – 27 , with 5 : 18 left to play . They regained possession with 1 : 40 remaining , but an inexperienced quarterback unintentionally stopped the clock by going out of bounds . After the ensuing punt , Virginia mounted a touchdown drive to win the game and end Maryland 's bowl hopes . Despite narrowly missing a winning season , Vanderlinden was granted a two @-@ year contract extension . In 2000 , Maryland again fell short of a winning season and bowl game . The Terrapins entered their season closer with a 5 – 5 record , and again fell , this time in a rout by 24th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech . Vanderlinden was fired the following day .
Despite the failure to deliver a winning season , Vanderlinden did oversee substantive improvement in the program . In 1998 , the Terrapins were one of the most improved teams in defense , scoring defense , passing defense , and rushing . In 1999 , Maryland allowed a conference low of 11 sacks compared with 56 in 1997 . In that same period , Maryland also improved from last to first in the conference in rushing , due in large part to Heisman Trophy candidate and school career rushing leader LaMont Jordan . During Vanderlinden 's tenure , Maryland also recruited several key players who were instrumental in the team 's later success .
= = = Ralph Friedgen ( 2001 – 2010 ) = = =
Ralph Friedgen , a former Maryland player and assistant under Bobby Ross , was hired as Vanderlinden 's replacement for the 2001 season . Friedgen had previously been denied an interview for the position twice by his alma mater . While offensive coordinator at Georgia Tech , he had been described as an " offensive genius " , and Friedgen later received similar plaudits while at Maryland . When he took over , Maryland had not won a bowl game in 16 years and had only one winning season since 1990 .
In 2001 , Maryland won its first four games and entered the AP Poll for the first time since September 1995 . Maryland beat 15th @-@ ranked Georgia Tech in overtime when placekicker Nick Novak , the ACC 's future all @-@ time scoring leader , equalized and then won the game with 46- and 26 @-@ yard field goals , thereby ensuring a winning season and bowl appearance . In Tallahassee , 18th @-@ ranked Florida State broke a stalemate in the fourth quarter to hand Maryland its only defeat of the regular season , 52 – 31 . Maryland closed the year with a win over NC State , which secured the ACC championship and made the Terrapins the first team other than Florida State to take the title outright since the Seminoles joined the conference in 1991 . Sixth @-@ ranked Maryland then faced fifth @-@ ranked Florida in the Orange Bowl — their first @-@ ever BCS appearance , and their first major bowl of any sort since the 1977 Cotton Bowl . The Terrapins lost , 56 – 23 , and finished with a 10 – 2 record and ranked 10th in the nation .
In 2002 , Maryland had a preseason rank of 20th , but their first three games included a shutout by 12th @-@ ranked Notre Dame , 22 – 0 , and a loss to 16th @-@ ranked Florida State , 37 – 10 . The Terrapins rallied to defeat 13th @-@ ranked West Virginia and 17th @-@ ranked NC State , while losing only to Virginia . That loss , however , prevented Maryland from earning a share of the ACC championship alongside Florida State . The Terrapins routed Tennessee in the Peach Bowl , 30 – 3 , and finished with an 11 – 3 record and final ranking of 18th . Maryland began the 2003 season with losses to Northern Illinois and eighth @-@ ranked Florida State . They later defeated 23rd @-@ ranked West Virginia , but were edged by Georgia Tech . In the postseason , 24th @-@ ranked Maryland delivered a second crushing defeat against 20th @-@ ranked West Virginia in the Gator Bowl , 41 – 7 , and finished the season ranked 17th . The New York Times computer poll ranked Maryland third in the nation , behind only split @-@ national champions Louisiana State and Southern California . The 2004 season was Friedgen 's first with a losing record . Maryland finished with a 5 – 6 mark that included an overtime loss to West Virginia , 19 – 16 . The highlight of the season was an upset victory over fifth @-@ ranked Florida State , which was Maryland 's first against the Seminoles and their first win against a top @-@ 10 team since 1990 . The Terrapins again ended the 2005 season with a 5 – 6 record . That season opened with a victory over Navy , which was the first meeting between the intrastate foes in 40 years .
In 2006 , Maryland returned to a bowl game and finished with a 9 – 4 record . During the season , the Terrapins upset 19th @-@ ranked Clemson , 13 – 12 , and five of their games were won by four points or less . In the Champs Sports Bowl , Maryland beat Purdue , 24 – 7 . In 2007 , Maryland overcame extensive injuries to again secure a postseason appearance . During the season , unranked Maryland tallied two shocking upsets against 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , 34 – 24 , and eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , 42 – 35 . They finished the season with a rout of NC State to attain bowl eligibility , 37 – 0 , but lost to Oregon State in the Emerald Bowl , 21 – 14 . According to the final Sagarin computer @-@ generated rankings , Maryland had the second @-@ hardest schedule in the ACC and the 27th @-@ hardest schedule among Division I teams .
Numerous observers described Maryland 's 2008 season as " wildly inconsistent " . The Terrapins defeated four of their five ranked opponents — 25th @-@ ranked California , 19th @-@ ranked Clemson , 19th @-@ ranked Wake Forest , and 17th @-@ ranked North Carolina — but also lost to heavy underdogs Middle Tennessee and Virginia . Ultimately , Maryland defeated Nevada in the Humanitarian Bowl and finished the season with an 8 – 5 record . Before the 2009 season , many analysts projected the Terrapins to finish last or second @-@ to @-@ last in the Atlantic Division of the ACC , and expressed particular concern with the inexperienced offensive line . The prognostications proved accurate , and Maryland finished 2 – 10 for their first ten @-@ loss season in program history . Maryland rebounded in 2010 to finish with a 9 – 4 record , including a win in the Military Bowl , and ranked 23rd in the AP Poll . The ACC named Friedgen Coach of the Year , while freshman quarterback Danny O 'Brien became the first Terrapin ever named ACC Rookie of the Year . Citing lack of fan support , the athletic department bought out the final year of Friedgen 's contract for $ 2 million .
= = = Randy Edsall ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =
After Friedgen was let go , the Terrapins hired Randy Edsall away from Connecticut to be Maryland 's head coach . The 2011 season was not a successful one for Maryland . After a nationally televised win over Miami , the Terrapins struggled for the remainder of the season . They only managed to record one more win ( against FCS opponent Towson ) and finished with a 2 – 10 record . The team did attract national attention for its " Maryland Pride " uniforms that were created by Under Armour , who had become the official outfitter of the Maryland Athletic Department in September 2008 .
After the 2011 season , Edsall fired both his offensive coordinator Gary Crowton and his defensive coordinator Todd Bradford . Mike Locksley , who had been fired in 2011 from his head coaching position at New Mexico , was hired to be the new offensive coordinator . Locksley had previously worked at Maryland under head coaches Vanderlinden and Friedgen , and was the recruiting coordinator for Maryland before and during the three consecutive 10 + win seasons under Friedgen . Brian Stewart , who had been the defensive coordinator for the Houston Cougars , was hired to replace Bradford as the new defensive coordinator .
Edsall 's 2012 team compiled a 4 – 8 record , losing four quarterbacks to injury , and eventually starting a linebacker at the position . The team 's record improved from 2011 nonetheless but still not as much as fans , alumni and the administration had hoped .
The 2013 Maryland Terrapins football team under head coach Edsall improved to 7 – 6 , capping the season with a loss in the Military Bowl to Marshall , The 61st and final season the Terrapins would be playing football in the Atlantic Coast Conference .
Edsall 's 2014 Terps finished their regular season with a 7 – 5 record , comprising a 4 – 4 record in Big Ten Conference play that put them third in the Big Ten East Division , their Inaugural season in the Big Ten Conference . Maryland ended its season at the Foster Farms Bowl , where it lost to Stanford .
On October 11 , 2015 , Edsall was relieved of his duties with offensive coordinator Mike Locksley named as the interim head coach for the rest of the 2015 season .
= = = D. J. Durkin ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On December 2 , 2015 , the Terps announced that former Michigan defensive coordinator D. J. Durkin will be named the new head coach .
= = Home stadium = =
During its first few decades , the football program had only one poorly suited athletic field on which to play and practice and had no dedicated facilities such as locker rooms . Former coach and contemporary university president Dr. Harry C. Byrd allocated funds for the construction of a stadium in 1915 , and it was completed in 1923 . The Board of Regents voted to name it Byrd Stadium in honor of its main advocate . The stadium 's capacity was 5 @,@ 000 . During this time , it was common for Maryland to play its better @-@ drawing games in larger stadiums in Washington , D.C. or Baltimore .
In 1950 , that small field was replaced by the identically named but much larger Byrd Stadium , which was constructed at the cost of $ 1 million . The new stadium had an initial capacity of 34 @,@ 680 , which has since been upgraded to 51 @,@ 055 through extensive additions . Shortly after its construction , the stadium hosted its dedication game against Navy , which Maryland won 35 – 21 . That same year , the new field held its first and only bowl game , the Presidential Cup Bowl , which featured Texas A & M and Georgia . In 2006 , the University of Maryland became the first school to sell naming rights to its field . The home field was officially branded " Chevy Chase Bank Field at Byrd Stadium " in a 25 @-@ year , $ 20 million contract . In 2008 , Chevy Chase Bank was bought out by Capital One , and the stadium was renamed Capital One Field at Byrd Stadium . On December 11 , 2015 , the Board of Regents voted 12 @-@ 5 to remove the " Byrd " from the stadium 's name because of Harry " Curley " Byrd 's segregationist history , renaming it Maryland Stadium for the time being .
= = Traditions = =
= = = In @-@ Game = = =
A cannon furnished by the Mighty Sound of Maryland is fired to signify that the Terrapins have scored . This tradition has been in place since 1960 . Also , the cannon is fired before the game to let the tailgaters know that the game is about to start .
= = = Nickname = = =
When the school was known as the Maryland Agricultural College , from 1856 to 1916 , the media called the athletics teams the " Farmers " and the " Aggies " . As the University of Maryland , the teams became known as " The Old Liners " in reference to the state nickname . During the 1923 season , The New York Times referred to Maryland as the Orioles , after a bird species endemic to the region that was already the namesake for several baseball teams . In 1932 , Curley Byrd suggested that the namesake become the diamondback terrapin ( Malaclemys terrapin ) , a species of land @-@ dwelling turtle common throughout the state , particularly the Chesapeake Bay area where Dr. Byrd spent his early life . The student newspaper had already been named The Diamondback since 1921 , and the athletics teams were sometimes referred to as the " Terrapins " as early as 1928 . Newspapers began referring to the team simply as the " Terps " to shorten headlines . The truncated name stuck and is now in official use by the school .
The mascot is a diamondback terrapin named Testudo , which means " turtle " in Latin . It is also the name of an ancient Roman military tactic , in which soldiers protected their infantry square from projectiles by completely enclosing it with their shields . Derivations of the word have also been used in scientific nomenclature related to the reptile , such as the order Testudine and the family Testudinidae . In 1933 , the graduating class raised funds for a 300 @-@ pound bronze replica of a terrapin . It was initially placed in front of Ritchie Coliseum , which was then the home arena of the basketball team . In 1951 , after being the subject of numerous pranks , the statue was relocated to Maryland Stadium , reinforced with 700 pounds of concrete , and anchored with steel rods . It was moved again in the 1960s , in front of McKeldin Library , and a second replica was placed at Maryland Stadium in 1992 . In the 2000s , under coach Ralph Friedgen , it was a pregame tradition for the football players to walk 200 yards , through what is known as " Terp Alley " , to the locker rooms , and touch the bronze Testudo .
= = = Colors = = =
Originally , the athletic teams had no official colors and often used gray or maroon and gray for their uniforms . Senior classes would sometimes select colors of their own choosing . In modern times , the uniforms have been based on some combination of the four colors of the Maryland flag : red , white , black , and gold . The dominant colors have occasionally changed back and forth with changes of the head coach . In 1904 , Maryland adopted a state flag based on the heraldry of Lord Calvert : the Calvert family arms ( black and gold ) quartered with his mother 's Crossland family arms ( red and white ) . From the early 1920s until 1942 , the black and gold were adopted as the official school colors .
In 1942 , Clark Shaughnessy left Stanford to coach at Maryland . He brought with him an affinity for a red and white color scheme and changed the team 's uniforms . Shaughnessy left after one season , and the school switched back to the more traditional black and gold . He returned in 1946 and again changed the colors to red and white . When Jim Tatum replaced him the following season , Shaughnessy 's colors were retained . In 1961 , Maryland wore gold jerseys with black numerals for the first time since 1945 for their season opener against Southern Methodist . In 1987 , Joe Krivak introduced black jerseys with the Maryland flag on the sleeves for selected games and then black pants followed in 1991 . Ron Vanderlinden took over in 1997 and a new black and white uniform was adopted . Under Ralph Friedgen , Maryland returned to red and white in 2001 , with black uniforms being reserved for select games . Maryland was one of the first schools to utilize the " blackout " concept , where fans uniformly wear the color to stand out in the stadium . It was introduced unofficially as the " Byrd Blackout " in 2005 . For the 2011 season , Maryland wore new Under Armour uniforms that offered a " dizzying array " of combinations in the four school colors . In the season opener against Miami , the Terrapins unveiled a unique uniform based on the Maryland state flag that received nationwide media attention . In recent years since 2001 under Ralph Friedgen and continued by Randy Edsall , Maryland has worn a uniform combination of all @-@ red , red jerseys and red pants for the annual game on homecoming weekend .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Penn State = = =
Main Article : Maryland – Penn State football rivalry
Maryland and Penn State have met 39 times since the 1917 season . Although Penn State leads the series with a lopsided 36 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 record against Maryland , many of those games were decided by field goals and turnovers . Because Maryland was in the ACC before joining the Big 10 Conference in July of 2014 , this rivalry was mainly kept alive through recruiting . The teams seldom played each other while Maryland was in the ACC but they competed in recruiting in the Baltimore @-@ Washington metropolitan area and Delaware Valley . The teams met in State College on
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in Candide . By the end of February 1759 , the Grand Council of Geneva and the administrators of Paris had banned Candide . Candide nevertheless succeeded in selling twenty thousand to thirty thousand copies by the end of the year in over twenty editions , making it a best seller . The Duke de La Vallière speculated near the end of January 1759 that Candide might have been the fastest @-@ selling book ever . In 1762 , Candide was listed in the Index Librorum Prohibitorum , the Roman Catholic Church 's list of prohibited books .
Bannings of Candide lasted into the twentieth century in the United States , where it has long been considered a seminal work of Western literature . At least once , Candide was temporarily barred from entering America : in February 1929 , a US customs official in Boston prevented a number of copies of the book , deemed " obscene " , from reaching a Harvard University French class . Candide was admitted in August of the same year ; however by that time the class was over . In an interview soon after Candide 's detention , the official who confiscated the book explained the office 's decision to ban it , " But about ' Candide , ' I 'll tell you . For years we 've been letting that book get by . There were so many different editions , all sizes and kinds , some illustrated and some plain , that we figured the book must be all right . Then one of us happened to read it . It 's a filthy book " .
= = Legacy = =
Candide is the most widely read of Voltaire 's many works , and it is considered one of the great achievements of Western literature . However , Candide is not necessarily considered a true " classic " . According to Bottiglia , " The physical size of Candide , as well as Voltaire 's attitude toward his fiction , precludes the achievement of artistic dimension through plenitude , autonomous ' 3D ' vitality , emotional resonance , or poetic exaltation . Candide , then , cannot in quantity of quality , measure up to the supreme classics . " Bottiglia instead calls it a miniature classic , though others are more forgiving of its size . As the only work of Voltaire which has remained popular up to the present day , Candide is listed in Harold Bloom 's The Western Canon : The Books and School of the Ages . It is included in the Encyclopædia Britannica collection Great Books of the Western World . Candide has influenced modern writers of black humour such as Céline , Joseph Heller , John Barth , Thomas Pynchon , Kurt Vonnegut , and Terry Southern . Its parody and picaresque methods have become favourites of black humorists .
Charles Brockden Brown , an early American novelist , may have been directly affected by Voltaire , whose work he knew well . Mark Kamrath , professor of English , describes the strength of the connection between Candide and Edgar Huntly ; or , Memoirs of a Sleep @-@ Walker ( 1799 ) : " An unusually large number of parallels ... crop up in the two novels , particularly in terms of characters and plot . " For instance , the protagonists of both novels are romantically involved with a recently orphaned young woman . Furthermore , in both works the brothers of the female lovers are Jesuits , and each is murdered ( although under different circumstances ) . Some twentieth @-@ century novels that may have been influenced by Candide are dystopian science @-@ fiction works . Armand Mattelart , a French critic , sees Candide in Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World , George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and Yevgeny Zamyatin 's We , three canonical works of the genre . Specifically , Mattelart writes that in each of these works , there exist references to Candide 's popularisation of the phrase " the best of all possible worlds " . He cites as evidence , for example , that the French version of Brave New World was entitled Le Meilleur des mondes ( En. literally " The best of worlds " ) .
Readers of Candide often compare it with certain works of the modern genre the Theatre of the Absurd . Haydn Mason , a Voltaire scholar , sees in Candide a few similarities to this brand of literature . For instance , he notes commonalities of Candide and Waiting for Godot ( 1952 ) . In both of these works , and in a similar manner , friendship provides emotional support for characters when they are confronted with harshness of their existences . However , Mason qualifies , " the conte must not be seen as a forerunner of the ' absurd ' in modern fiction . Candide 's world has many ridiculous and meaningless elements , but human beings are not totally deprived of the ability tomake [ sic ] sense out of it . " John Pilling , biographer of Beckett , does state that Candide was an early and powerful influence on Beckett 's thinking .
= = = Derivative works = = =
In 1760 , one year after Voltaire published Candide , a sequel was published with the name Candide , ou l 'optimisme , seconde partie . This work is attributed both to Thorel de Campigneulles , a writer unknown today , and Henri Joseph Du Laurens , who is suspected of having habitually plagiarised Voltaire . The story continues in this sequel with Candide having new adventures in the Ottoman Empire , Persia , and Denmark . Part II has potential use in studies of the popular and literary receptions of Candide , but is almost certainly apocryphal . In total , by the year 1803 , at least ten imitations of Candide or continuations of its story were published by authors other than Voltaire .
The operetta Candide was originally conceived by playwright Lillian Hellman , as a play with incidental music . Leonard Bernstein , the American composer and conductor who wrote the music was so excited about the project that he convinced Hellman to do it as a " comic operetta " . Many lyricists worked on the show , including James Agee , Dorothy Parker , John Latouche , Richard Wilbur , Leonard and Felicia Bernstein , Stephen Sondheim and Hellman . Hershy Kay orchestrated all the pieces except for the overture , which Bernstein did himself . Candide first opened on Broadway as a musical on 1 December 1956 . The premier production was directed by Tyrone Guthrie and conducted by Samuel Krachmalnick . While this production was a box office flop , the music was highly praised , and an original cast album was made . The album gradually became a cult hit , but Hellman 's libretto was criticised as being too serious an adaptation of Voltaire 's novel . Candide would be more popular seventeen years later with a new libretto by Hugh Wheeler .
Candido , ovvero un sogno fatto in Sicilia ( 1977 ) or simply Candido is a book by Leonardo Sciascia . It was at least partly based on Voltaire 's Candide , although the actual influence of Candide on Candido is a hotly debated topic . A number of theories on the matter have been proposed . Proponents of one say that Candido is very similar to Candide , only with a happy ending ; supporters of another claim that Voltaire provided Sciascia with only a starting point from which to work , that the two books are quite distinct .
The BBC produced a television adaptation for their Play of the Month series in 1973 , with Ian Ogilvy as Candide and Frank Finlay as Voltaire himself , acting as narrator .
Nedim Gürsel wrote his 2001 novel Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul about a minor passage in Candide during which its protagonist meets Ahmed III , the deposed Turkish sultan . This chance meeting on a ship from Venice to Istanbul is the setting of Gürsel 's book . Terry Southern , in writing his popular novel Candy with Mason Hoffenberg adapted Candide for a modern audience and changed the protagonist from male to female . Candy deals with the rejection of a sort of optimism which the author sees in women 's magazines of the modern era ; Candy also parodies pornography and popular psychology . This adaptation of Candide was itself adapted for the cinema by director Christian Marquand in 1968 .
In addition to the above , Candide was made into a number of minor films and theatrical adaptations throughout the twentieth century . For a list of these , see Voltaire : Candide ou L 'Optimisme et autres contes ( 1989 ) with preface and commentaries by Pierre Malandain .
In May 2009 , a play called " Optimism , " based on Candide opened at the CUB Malthouse Theatre in Melbourne . It followed the basic storyline of Candide , incorporating anachronisms , music and stand up comedy from comedian Frank Woodley . It toured Australia and played at the Edinburgh International Festival .
= Mal Evans =
Malcolm Frederick " Mal " Evans ( 27 May 1935 – 5 January 1976 ) was the road manager , assistant , and a friend of the Beatles .
In the early 1960s , Evans was employed as a telephone engineer , and also worked part @-@ time as a bouncer at the Cavern Club . The Beatles ' manager , Brian Epstein , later hired Evans as the group 's assistant road manager , in tandem with Neil Aspinall . Peter Brown ( one of Epstein 's staff ) later wrote that Evans was " a kindly , but menacing @-@ looking young man " . Evans contributed to recordings , and appeared in some of the films the group made . After The Beatles stopped touring in 1966 , Evans carried on assisting them until their break @-@ up in 1970 . From 1969 , Evans also found work as a record producer ( most notably with Badfinger 's top 10 hit " No Matter What " ) .
Evans was killed by police on 5 January 1976 , at his home in Los Angeles . Officers were called when his girlfriend phoned the police and told them that Evans was confused and had a gun . The police mistook the air rifle Evans was holding for a rifle and shot him dead .
= = Early life = =
Details of Evans ’ early life are unknown , apart from his birth date . No book has been written about him , although he wrote his memoirs , Living The Beatles ' Legend , from which extracts were released on 20 March 2005 . Anything known about him starts in 1961 , when Evans married a Liverpool girl , Lily , after meeting her at a funfair in New Brighton opposite Liverpool on the Wirral . Their first child , Gary , was born in the same year . The Beatles were the resident group at Liverpool 's Cavern Club , when Evans first heard them perform during his lunch break . He was then living in Hillside Road , Mossley Hill and working as a telephone engineer for the Post Office . He became a committed fan , even though his musical hero at the time was Elvis Presley .
He first befriended George Harrison , who put forward Evans ' name to the Cavern Club 's manager , Ray McFall , when he needed a doorman . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old Evans was accepted , even though he wore thick @-@ framed glasses , but mainly because of his burly 6 ft 6in frame ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) , which was an asset when holding back unruly fans at the Cavern 's door . He was later nicknamed the " Gentle Giant " and " Big Mal " . In 1962 , Evans wrote that it was " a wonderful year " , as he had Lily ( his wife ) , his son Gary , a house , a car , and he was working at the Cavern club , which he wrote into a 1963 Post Office Engineering Union diary , which also had information concerning Ohm 's law and Post Office pay rates .
= = The Beatles = =
Three months after starting at the Cavern Club , Evans was hired by Brian Epstein as a road manager , on 11 August 1962 . Evans and Aspinall 's duties were to drive the van while on tour , and to set up and test the equipment . Mal 's telephone engineering experience was valuable in setting up and maintaining the electrical equipment . The Beatles were being driven back to Liverpool from London by Evans through heavy fog on 21 January 1963 , when the windscreen was hit by a pebble and crazed over , so Evans had to break a large hole in it to see the road ahead . This was in winter , so the group had to lie one on top of the other in the back with a bottle of whisky and try to stay warm in the freezing temperatures ; something McCartney later referred to as a " Beatle sandwich " .
Evans had many other duties : as well as acting as a bodyguard , he was sent to buy anything they needed , such as suits , boots , meals , or drinks . If Lennon said " Socks , Mal " , Evans would have to rush to a local store and buy pairs of cotton socks for him . In 1967 , Evans wrote in his diaries that he " bought Ringo [ Starr ] some undies for his visit to the doctor " . Although Beatles ' memorabilia is in continuous demand , a full set of autographs by all four could be forgeries : Evans and Aspinall used to sign many of them when Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr were too busy .
The Beatles started their first European tour in January 1964 , and Evans was allowed to take his wife and son with him , but was involved in a " big punch @-@ up " with photographers in Paris while protecting them . Epstein ’ s associate , Alistair Taylor , once asked him why he was driving an Austin Princess limousine , rather than a Daimler , a Bentley , or a Rolls @-@ Royce . Evans explained that The Beatles were forced to choose an Austin , because they had tested every car to see how wide the doors would open as they ( literally ) had to " dive into the car " to escape their fans .
= = = America and the Philippines = = =
The Beatles were introduced to cannabis by Bob Dylan in New York in 1964 . McCartney remembered asking Evans " again and again " to write down McCartney 's newly found cannabis @-@ influenced thoughts about life by repeating " Get [ write ] it down , Mal , get it down ! " Evans was as affected by the drug as everybody else , so took a very long time to find a pencil and a piece of paper . The next morning Evans gave the sheet of paper to McCartney , which read that McCartney had dictated : " There are seven levels ! " ( of life , as he later explained ) . The Beatles attended " The Night of 100 Stars " at the London Palladium on 23 July 1964 , and during the show Evans constantly supplied them with whisky and Coca @-@ Cola , which he delivered to them balanced on a wooden oar he had found backstage .
The Beatles were always assisted by Evans on their American tours , and when they played two shows at the Hollywood Bowl in the summer of 1965 Epstein arranged for them all to have a four @-@ day rest in a luxurious horseshoe @-@ shaped house on stilts in Benedict Canyon off Mulholland Drive in Los Angeles . They spent their time there smoking cannabis joints . Evans and Lennon swam in the large outdoor swimming pool with cigarettes in their mouths , to see who could keep them alight the longest . After recording sessions in London , Lennon , Harrison , and Starr would be chauffeured back to their houses in the " stockbroker belt " of southern England , but Evans , Aspinall , and McCartney would drive to a late @-@ night club to eat steak , chips , and mushy peas . The Bag O 'Nails nightclub was one of their favourites , at 8 Kingly Street in Soho , London , as it also presented live music . In his memoirs Evans wrote : 19 January and 20 : " Ended up smashed in Bag O 'Nails with Paul [ McCartney ] and Neil [ Aspinall ] . Quite a number of people attached themselves , oh that it would happen to me ... freak out time baby for Mal . "
In July 1966 , The Beatles toured the Philippines , and unintentionally snubbed the nation 's first lady , Imelda Marcos . After the supposed snub was broadcast on Philippine television and radio , all of The Beatles ' police protection disappeared . The group and their entourage had to make their way to Manila airport on their own . At the airport , road manager Evans was beaten and kicked , and the group members were pushed and jostled about by a hostile crowd . Once the group boarded the plane , Tony Barrow and Evans were ordered off , and Evans said , " Tell Lil I love her , " thinking he was about to be jailed or killed . Epstein was forced to give back all the money that the group had earned while they were there before being allowed on the plane .
= = = Kenya and Sgt. Pepper = = =
The Beatles ' last concert was at Candlestick Park , San Francisco , on 29 August 1966 , but Evans continued to work for them in the studio , and to run errands . After recording Revolver in 1966 , McCartney went by himself on holiday to France , but asked to meet Evans in Bordeaux , at the Grosse Horloge church ( on the corner of cours Victor Hugo and rue St. James ) . At exactly the pre @-@ arranged time of one o 'clock , Evans was standing under the church clock when McCartney arrived . They then drove to Madrid together , but after feeling bored , McCartney phoned Epstein 's office in London and asked to be booked on a safari holiday in Kenya . When they arrived they visited the Amboseli Reserve at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro , and also stayed at the exclusive Treetops Hotel , where the rooms are built on the branches of trees .
They spent their final night in Nairobi at a YMCA , before they returned to London . The Beatles — according to McCartney — needed a new name , so on the flight back to England , Evans and McCartney played with words to see if they could come up with something new . Evans innocently asked McCartney what the letters " S " and " P " stood for on the pots on their meal trays , and McCartney explained that it was for salt and pepper , which led to the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band name . They arrived back in London on 19 November 1966 . Before the cover of Sgt. Pepper could be completed by Peter Blake , Evans and Aspinall were sent out to find photographs of all of the people that were to be shown on the front cover .
In the spring of 1967 — after the album was completed — Evans flew with McCartney to Los Angeles to see McCartney 's then @-@ fiancée , Jane Asher , who was acting there with the Old Vic theatre company . The three of them went on a trip to the Rockies , returning to LA in Frank Sinatra 's jet . Evans : " We left Denver in Frank Sinatra 's Lear Jet , which he very kindly loaned us . A beautiful job with dark black leather upholstery and , to our delight , a well @-@ stocked bar . " When they were back in LA , they were invited to visit the house of Michelle and John Phillips , from the Mamas & the Papas . Brian Wilson was also there , as he was working on the Beach Boys Smile album . Evans wrote about singing " On Top of Old Smokey " with McCartney and Wilson , but was not impressed by Wilson 's avant @-@ garde attitude to music : " Brian [ Wilson ] then put a damper on the spontaneity of the whole affair by walking in with a tray of water @-@ filled glasses , trying to arrange it into some sort of session . "
= = = Greece and the Magical Mystery Tour = = =
The Beatles and Evans flew to Greece in late 1967 , with encouragement from Greek @-@ born " Magic Alex " , the director of Apple Electronics , to buy an island or a group of islands . The general idea was that The Beatles would live on the islands in their own separate homes , but would be connected to each other by tunnels leading to a central dome . Evans and his family were included in the plan , but it was abandoned as being unworkable after McCartney refused to participate . As McCartney had no housekeeper in 1967 , Evans moved in with him at 7 Cavendish Avenue , St John 's Wood , which is near Abbey Road Studios . It was at Cavendish Avenue that McCartney bought his first Old English Sheepdog , Martha , although Evans often complained about the dog fouling the beds . Evans later bought a house in Sunbury @-@ on @-@ Thames , which was situated between McCartney 's , Lennon 's , Harrison 's and Starr 's houses .
While working on the Magical Mystery Tour film , Evans wrote about his work duties : " I would get requests from the four of them to do six different things at one time , and it was always a case of relying on instinct and experience in awarding priorities . They used to be right sods for the first few days , until they realised that everything was going to go smoothly and they could get into the routine of recording . ... Then I would find time between numerous cups of tea and salad sandwiches and baked beans on toast to listen to the recording in the control room . "
After the Magical Mystery Tour recordings , Evans flew to Nice with McCartney to shoot " The Fool on the Hill " promotional film , although McCartney set off without luggage or a passport . McCartney got past customs by saying " You know who I am " , but he and Evans were not allowed into a hotel restaurant in Nice because they " didn 't look the part " , and had to eat dinner in Evans ' room . Because the money they had with them had been spent on clothes ( NEMS was supposed to send them more ) , they arranged for credit over two nights in a nightclub . Evans : " We took advantage of our credit standing , as
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to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents in the planet 's core . Certain crystals , such as quartz , or even sugar , generate a potential difference across their faces when subjected to external pressure . This phenomenon is known as piezoelectricity , from the Greek piezein ( πιέζειν ) , meaning to press , and was discovered in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie . The effect is reciprocal , and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to an electric field , a small change in physical dimensions takes place .
Some organisms , such as sharks , are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields , an ability known as electroreception , while others , termed electrogenic , are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon . The order Gymnotiformes , of which the best known example is the electric eel , detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes . All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials , whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles . An electric shock stimulates this system , and causes muscles to contract . Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in certain plants .
= = Cultural perception = =
In 1850 , William Gladstone asked the scientist Michael Faraday why electricity was valuable . Faraday answered , “ One day sir , you may tax it . ”
In the 19th and early 20th century , electricity was not part of the everyday life of many people , even in the industrialised Western world . The popular culture of the time accordingly often depicts it as a mysterious , quasi @-@ magical force that can slay the living , revive the dead or otherwise bend the laws of nature . This attitude began with the 1771 experiments of Luigi Galvani in which the legs of dead frogs were shown to twitch on application of animal electricity . " Revitalization " or resuscitation of apparently dead or drowned persons was reported in the medical literature shortly after Galvani 's work . These results were known to Mary Shelley when she authored Frankenstein ( 1819 ) , although she does not name the method of revitalization of the monster . The revitalization of monsters with electricity later became a stock theme in horror films .
As the public familiarity with electricity as the lifeblood of the Second Industrial Revolution grew , its wielders were more often cast in a positive light , such as the workers who " finger death at their gloves ' end as they piece and repiece the living wires " in Rudyard Kipling 's 1907 poem Sons of Martha . Electrically powered vehicles of every sort featured large in adventure stories such as those of Jules Verne and the Tom Swift books . The masters of electricity , whether fictional or real — including scientists such as Thomas Edison , Charles Steinmetz or Nikola Tesla — were popularly conceived of as having wizard @-@ like powers .
With electricity ceasing to be a novelty and becoming a necessity of everyday life in the later half of the 20th century , it required particular attention by popular culture only when it stops flowing , an event that usually signals disaster . The people who keep it flowing , such as the nameless hero of Jimmy Webb ’ s song " Wichita Lineman " ( 1968 ) , are still often cast as heroic , wizard @-@ like figures .
= BOAC Flight 712 =
BOAC Flight 712 ( callsign Speedbird 712 ) was a British Overseas Airways Corporation service operated by a Boeing 707 @-@ 465 from London Heathrow Airport bound for Sydney via Zurich and Singapore . On Monday 8 April 1968 , it suffered an engine failure on takeoff that quickly led to a major fire . The engine fell off the aircraft in flight . After the aircraft had made a successful emergency landing , confusion over checklists and distractions from the presence of a check captain contributed to the deaths of five of the 127 on board .
The actions taken by those involved in the accident resulted in the award of the George Cross posthumously to stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison . Two other crew members received awards ; a BEM and an MBE . As a direct result of the accident , BOAC changed the checklists for engine severe failures and engine fires , combining them both into one checklist , the " engine fire or severe failure " checklist .
= = Flight = =
Flight 712 took off from Heathrow at 15 : 27 GMT ( 16 : 27 BST ) , 12 minutes later than scheduled . Flight 712 had 127 people aboard , including a crew augmented by the addition of an acting flight officer , John Hutchinson , and a check captain for routine performance review of the pilot in command , Captain Cliff Taylor . As well as the passengers , the aircraft was carrying baggage , mail and a radioactive isotope from the Isotope Production Unit at Harwell destined for the University Hospital in Jerusalem .
Seconds after take off from Heathrow 's then 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) long runway 28L ( now 12 @,@ 008 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 660 m ) long and designated 27L ) , there was an unexpected bang and the aircraft started vibrating . The throttle controlling number two engine was shutting down . While Captain Taylor ordered an engine failure drill , Flight Engineer Thomas Hicks carried out the engine failure drill , but both he and Check Captain Geoffrey Moss reached for the switch to cancel the undercarriage warning horn . At the same time , First Officer Francis Kirkland inadvertently cancelled the fire bell . Hicks reached for , but didn 't pull , the engine fire shut @-@ off handle . Moss , observing the fire , exclaimed " Bloody Hell ! The wing 's on Fire ! " A Mayday was broadcast at 15 : 29 .
In the control tower , the takeoff had been observed by John Davis , who saw what he initially thought was the sun reflecting off the aircraft 's wing during its initial climb . Davis quickly realised that the aircraft was on fire . Davis instructed Flight 712 to make a left turn , with the intention that the aircraft would land on runway 28L . He hit the " crash button " which alerted the emergency services and declared an aircraft accident . The emergency services were informed of the type of aircraft involved and given a rendezvous point at which they were to assemble .
By this time , the windows on the port side at the rear of the fuselage were beginning to melt . As the aircraft flew over Thorpe the burning engine broke away from its mounting and fell into a gravel pit where some children were playing , without causing any injury . At this time , the undercarriage was lowered and full flap selected . The flaps stopped some three degrees short of their full travel . The aircraft was at a height of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) and flying at 225 knots ( 417 km / h ) . Cabin crew member Jennifer Suares repeated the emergency landing drill for the benefit of the passengers despite not being sure herself that they would actually manage to land before the aircraft exploded .
The crew realised that the aircraft would not last long enough to enable a landing back on 28L , and declared a Mayday . Davis cleared the aircraft to land on runway 05R , which was 7 @,@ 733 feet ( 2 @,@ 357 m ) long . He also instructed two other aircraft to perform a go @-@ around , as runway 05R crossed runway 28R , which they were due to land on and Davis did not know whether Flight 712 would be able to stop before reaching that runway . The crew accepted Davis 's offer of runway 05R , even though it was much shorter and not equipped with ILS . Taylor was able to safely land the aircraft on 05R , using wheel brakes and reversing the outboard engines ' thrust to halt the aircraft . The aircraft touched down about 400 yards ( 370 m ) beyond the threshold and stopped in 1 @,@ 400 yards ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) . The aircraft had made a perfect emergency landing after just 3m : 32s of flight . Taylor asked Davis for permission to evacuate , but the cabin crew were already opening the emergency doors . The flight crew started the fire drill , but the port wing exploded before this could be completed . As a result , the fire shut off handles were not pulled , and the booster pumps and electrical supply were left switched on . Due to the short period of time between the Mayday being declared at 15 : 29 and the aircraft landing at 15 : 31 , there was no time for the emergency services to lay a carpet of foam , which was standard practice at the time .
= = = Evacuation = = =
The cabin crew started the evacuation , even before the plane had come to a halt , via both forward galley doors , both rear doors and the starboard overwing exits . 18 passengers escaped via the overwing exits before the fire grew too intense to use that route . The forward port galley door escape slide caught fire before it could be used , but one person jumped from there . 84 people escaped via the starboard galley door . Three of the crew escaped by the emergency cockpit rope . The rear starboard door escape slide had twisted on deployment , so Steward Taylor climbed down to straighten it , leaving stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison , known as Jane Harrison , at the door assisting the passengers . Six passengers escaped via this route before the slide was punctured and deflated . Harrison encouraged the passengers to jump , and pushed out those too frightened to do so . 11 people escaped via this route , and five more escaped via the rear port door before the slide was destroyed . Harrison was last seen alive preparing to jump herself , but then she turned back and disappeared into the burning fuselage in a valiant attempt to save the remaining four female passengers , including a disabled woman and eight @-@ year @-@ old girl . It was these actions which led to the award of the George Cross posthumously to Harrison in recognition of her selfless gallantry . 35 people were injured , and five killed .
= = = Fire @-@ fighting = = =
The first two fire engines to arrive were unable to do much to stop the fire , as the drivers misjudged their distance , and also they were unable to make foam whilst on the move . To make foam , the main transfer gearboxes of the fire engines had to be operated , which meant that the vehicles were unable to move . Problems with couplings on the fire hoses exacerbated the situation – the fire hydrants had been regularly painted , and a build up of paint on the coupling threads prevented the hoses from being attached to the hydrants . The driver of a back @-@ up foam tender drove in closer to the burning aircraft and discharged his foam effectively , but the fire had already gained hold by the time this happened .
= = Passengers = =
The aircraft was carrying 116 passengers and 11 crew . Five people were killed in the accident : stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison and four passengers , Esther Cohen , who was severely disabled , Catherine Shearer , a young Australian teacher who was seated with her mother ( who survived ) next to Mrs Cohen in the back row of seats , Mary Smith , a widow , and Jacqueline Cooper , an eight @-@ year @-@ old girl whose parents and two brothers escaped , helped by Miss Harrison . All five victims were found at the Inquest of 17 September 1968 to have died of " Asphyxia due to Inhalation of Fire Fumes " , and a verdict was returned in all five cases of Accidental Death .
One of the survivors was the pop singer Mark Wynter , who was travelling to Australia for his wedding to Janeece Corlass .
Another notable survivor was Katriel Katz , Israeli Ambassador to the Soviet Union . Katz had been expelled from the Soviet Union by Andrei Gromyko on 10 June 1967 , the last day of the Six @-@ Day War . Gromyko is said to have told Katz not to let his emotions get the better of him , advice he was to ignore in the emergency that was to befall him . During the evacuation from the aircraft , Katz was the only passenger to escape through the forward port door , despite the efforts of Hutchinson and Unwin to stop him using that door . The two flight crew were almost carried out through the door by Katz , who was a large man . Katz was seriously injured jumping from the doorway . He was taken to Hillingdon Hospital , where it was initially feared that he would become the sixth victim of Flight 712 . Katz recovered after a few days . He died in 1988 aged 80 .
= = Aircraft involved = =
The aircraft involved in the accident was a Boeing 707 – 465 registered G @-@ ARWE ( manufacturer 's serial number 18373 , Boeing line number 302 ) . First flown on 27 June 1962 , the aircraft was originally to have been operated by Cunard Eagle Airways , but before it entered service it was sold to BOAC @-@ Cunard and was delivered on 7 July 1962 . On 21 November 1967 the aircraft suffered an engine failure on take off from Honolulu International Airport . The take off was aborted , and there were no injuries to any of the passengers or crew . At the time of the Heathrow accident , the aircraft had flown for a total of 20 @,@ 870 hours . The aircraft was insured for £ 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 with Lloyd 's of London .
= = = Salvage = = =
The nose section of the 707 was salvaged for use on a Convair CV @-@ 580 ( N21466 ) for test purposes as part of the Total In Flight Simulator program ( TIFS ) . On 12 April 1969 the nose was airlifted by an Aero Spacelines Guppy from Heathrow to Santa Barbara to support the modification .
References that the nose from G @-@ ARWE was used to repair a damaged TWA 707 are incorrect . G @-@ ARWE 's nose was too fire damaged for use as a repair donor for an airliner . TWA 's Boeing 707 @-@ 331B , N28714 , ( Originally N776TW , c / n 18408 ) had been hijacked on a flight from Rome to Athens . Its cockpit had been destroyed by a bomb at Damascus , Syria , on 29 August 1968 . The rest of the airframe was found to be undamaged . N28714 received a new nose section from Boeing 's Renton production line .
= = Investigation = =
In the subsequent investigation , metal fatigue was ultimately blamed for the failure of the number five compressor wheel in the number two Rolls @-@ Royce 508 Conway turbofan engine , starting the rapid chain of failures . The crew 's omitting to shut off the fuel to the engine was blamed for the rapid growth of the fire and the loss of the aircraft . Check Captain Moss had accidentally cancelled the fire warning bell instead of the undercarriage warning bell . Moss had also issued orders to Captain Taylor , in breach of the normal protocol for his duties . However , the report on the accident also stated that Captain Taylor had briefed Moss to act as an extra set of eyes and ears inside and outside the cockpit . Moss 's actions therefore could be seen as acting within that remit . Although Moss had alerted the crew to the fire , none of them were aware that the number 2 engine had fallen off until after the evacuation on the ground .
As a result of the investigation , and lessons learned from the chain of events , BOAC combined the " Engine Fire Drill " and " Engine Severe Failure Drill " checklists into one list , called the " Engine Fire or Severe Failure Drill " . Modifications were also made to the checklist , including adding to the checklist confirmation that the fire handles had been pulled .
Whiskey Echo 's number 2 port engine No.5097 , constructed in 1961 , had run for 14 @,@ 917 hours from new , and had been overhauled in spring 1965 because of vibration caused by metal fatigue that had led to the failure of a stage 8 high pressure compressor blade . In 1967 the engine had been removed from service because of flame tube deterioration , and as part of the repairs , the low pressure compressor , of which the number 5 wheel was an original component , was overhauled , but the wheel itself was not tested for fatigue . On 22 November 1967 the engine was bench tested and rejected because of excessive vibration of the high pressure compressor , but was later released as serviceable following further analysis . After 1 @,@ 415 hours service on another 707 and modification to the turbine seals , on 5 April 1968 No.5097 became number 2 engine of the port wing of Whiskey Echo , scheduled to fly long @-@ haul to Sydney , Australia , three days later .
Shortly after takeoff at 16 @.@ 27 BST ( 15 @.@ 27 GMT ) on 8 April 1968 , according to the investigations of Rolls @-@ Royce , the 5th stage low pressure compressor wheel failed in fatigue at the run out radius of the wheel web with the rim , causing secondary failures to other wheels and other parts of the engine . The wheel then burst through its casing and disconnected the main fuel pipe , igniting the fuel which was being pumped at 50 gallons ( approx . 150 kg ) per minute . The fire could not be put out because the engine 's two extinguishers had become ineffectual following the destruction caused to the engine cowling by the broken compressor casing . The ferocity of the blaze soon after caused the engine pylon to fatally weaken , which when it gave way , led to the engine falling off of the wing . However , the fuel booster pump continued to function , intensifying the fire until it spread to the wing itself , sweeping back from forward of the leading edge towards the tail . Upon landing , the application of reverse thrust and the westerly crosswind on runway 05R blew the flames underneath the wing and set light to the fuselage . The rapidly intensifying fire then spread under the plane and ignited the fuel lines and oxygen tanks , which , within seconds of Whiskey Echo coming to a stop , caused a series of explosions that broke through the fuselage and set fire to the cabin , ultimately resulting in the deaths of five people .
= = Awards = =
Queen Elizabeth II awarded Barbara Jane Harrison a posthumous George Cross ( GC ) , the only GC ever presented to a woman in peacetime . Her medal was accepted on her behalf by her father , Alan . Harrison is the youngest ever female recipient of the George Cross . Neville Davis @-@ Gordon was awarded the British Empire Medal for Gallantry ( BEM ) . John Davis was appointed a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) .
The citation for Barbara Jane Harrison 's GC reads : -
The citation for Neville Davis @-@ Gordon 's BEM reads : -
In addition , Air Traffic Control Officer John Davis , who was responsible for Flight 712 and had first spotted the port engine fire from the ground , was appointed MBE .
While mistakes had been made in the cockpit that fateful day , Captain Cliff Taylor and Acting First Officer John Hutchinson had managed to safely land their aircraft which , having lost an engine , was on fire carrying about 22 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel , in the most testing of circumstances and almost certainly saved 121 lives . Taylor was recommended for an award by BOAC , but following the publication of the official inquiry report in August 1969 , the decision was taken at ministerial level not to recognise any member of the flight crew . Both Taylor and Hutchinson received , along with First Officer Francis Checkland and Check Captain Geoffrey Moss , but not Flight Engineer Thomas Hicks , commendations from BOAC , and Captain Taylor was awarded the British Airline Pilots Association Gold Medal .
= G and H @-@ class destroyer =
The G- and H @-@ class destroyers were a group of 18 destroyers built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . Six additional ships being built for the Brazilian Navy when World War II began in 1939 were purchased by the British and named the Havant class . The design was a major export success with other ships built for the Argentine and Royal Hellenic Navies . They were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet upon completion and enforced the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 .
Most ships were recalled home or were sent to the North Atlantic from October – November 1939 , after it became clear that Fascist Italy was not going to intervene in World War II . Then they began to escort convoys and patrol for German submarines and commerce raiders . Two ships were lost to German mines in the first six months of the war . Three more were lost during the Norwegian Campaign , one in combat with a German cruiser and two during the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 . The Battle of France was the next test for the destroyers from May – June , with many of the Gs and Havants participating in the evacuation of Dunkirk and the subsequent evacuations of Allied troops from western France . Three ships were sunk , two by bombs and the other to torpedoes . Most of the H @-@ class ships were sent to the Mediterranean in May in case Mussolini decided to attack France and the majority of the surviving Gs were sent to Force H at Gibraltar in July . Several of them participated in the Battle of Dakar , before being assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet with their sister ships . By the end of the year , the ships participated in several battles with the Royal Italian Navy , losing two to Italian mines and torpedoes , while sinking two Italian submarines . The Havants spent most of the war in the North Atlantic on convoy escort duties , losing half their number to German submarines , while helping to sink six in exchange by the end of the war .
The G- and H @-@ class ships of the Mediterranean Fleet escorted numerous Malta convoys , participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and covered the evacuation of troops from Greece and Crete from May – June , losing two to German bombers and another so badly damaged that she was later written off . By the end of the year , they had sunk three submarines , two Italian and one German . Three Hs participated in the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 , during which one was damaged . Further damaged by aerial attacks , she was ordered to Gibraltar and ran aground in transit and had to be destroyed . Another was torpedoed and lost during Operation Vigorous in June . The ships sank two more submarines during 1942 and three destroyers began conversion to escort destroyers late that year and early in 1943 . Two of the four surviving Gs and Hs were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy while under conversion . All of the surviving ships joined their Havant half @-@ sisters on escort duty in the North Atlantic in 1943 .
One ship was sent to the Mediterranean in 1944 while three others were transferred to the UK in preparation for Operation Overlord . Between them they sank five German submarines in 1944 with another in 1945 . Worn @-@ out and obsolete , the survivors were either broken up for scrap or sold off after the war .
= = Design and description ( G and H classes ) = =
The G class were ordered as part of the 1933 Naval Construction Programme , the H class following in 1934 . These ships were based on the preceding F class , but the elimination of cruising turbines and the development of more compact machinery allowed their dimensions and displacement to be slightly reduced . The H class were repeats of the G 's with some minor differences . All of the destroyers were fitted with ASDIC ( sonar ) and the ability to use the Two @-@ Speed Destroyer Sweep ( TSDS ) minesweeping gear .
The G- and H @-@ class destroyers displaced 1 @,@ 340 – 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 360 – 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 854 – 1 @,@ 860 long tons ( 1 @,@ 884 – 1 @,@ 890 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . Their peacetime complement was 137 officers and ratings , which was intended to increase to 146 in wartime . The ships were at their stability limit as built and the Director of Naval Construction believed that no additions in top weight should be made without an equal amount of weight being removed .
They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers that operated at a pressure of 300 psi ( 2 @,@ 068 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) and a temperature of 620 ° F ( 327 ° C ) . Hyperion was fitted with one Johnson boiler in her aft boiler room . The turbines developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . The destroyers carried a maximum of 450 – 475 long tons ( 457 – 483 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
All of the ships had the same main armament , four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The guns had a maximum elevation of 40 ° ; the G class achieved
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this with a lowered section of the deck around the mount , the " well " , that allowed the breech of the gun to be lowered below deck height , but the new gun mount used in the H class was designed to reach that elevation without the necessity for the clumsy " wells " . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) to a range of 16 @,@ 970 yards ( 15 @,@ 520 m ) . Hereward served as the testbed for the twin 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun mount used for the Tribal and the J , K and N classes that temporarily replaced ' B ' gun . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , they had two quadruple mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun on platforms between the funnels . The G- and H @-@ class ships were fitted with two quadruple mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , although Glowworm trialled the new quintuple mount . The ships were also equipped with two throwers and one rack for 20 depth charges .
The main guns were controlled by an Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mk I that used data derived from the manually @-@ operated director @-@ control tower and the separate rangefinder situated above the bridge . They had no capability for anti @-@ aircraft fire and the anti @-@ aircraft guns were aimed solely by eye . Hero and Hereward saw the introduction of a new style of bridge that would become standard on all Royal Navy fleet destroyers from the I class through to the Battle class of 1944 . This was necessary as Hereward was fitted with a prototype twin @-@ gun mounting that had a trunnion height 13 inches ( 33 @.@ 0 cm ) higher than the previous weapons , therefore it was necessary to raise the wheelhouse to allow the helmsman to see over the top . Raising the wheelhouse meant it had to be placed in front of , rather than underneath , the bridge , and it was given angled sides , resulting in a characteristic wedge shape with a sloping roof .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Beginning in May 1940 , the after bank of torpedo tubes was removed and replaced with a QF 12 @-@ pounder Mk V anti @-@ aircraft gun , the after mast and funnel being cut down to improve the gun 's field of fire . Four to eight QF 20 mm Oerlikon cannons were added to the surviving ships , usually replacing the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts between the funnels . One pair of these was added to the bridge wings and the other pair was mounted abreast the searchlight platform . Early in the war , depth charge stowage increased to 44 . By 1943 , only four ships were still afloat and all had the ' Y ' gun on the quarterdeck removed to allow for additional depth charge stowage and two additional depth charge throwers . The 12 @-@ pounder was removed to allow for the installation of a Huff @-@ Duff radio direction finder on a short mainmast and for more depth charges . All of the survivors , except Garland , had ' A ' or ' B ' gun replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , and their director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge removed in exchange for a Type 271 target @-@ indication radar . ' A ' gun was later replaced in Hotspur while Hero had exchanged ' B ' gun for a Hedgehog and a twin @-@ gun mount for QF six @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns for use against U @-@ boats at very close range . A Type 286 short @-@ range , surface @-@ search radar , adapted from the Royal Air Force 's ASV radar , was also added . The early models , however , could only scan directly forward and had to be aimed by turning the entire ship .
= = = Flotilla leaders = = =
As per the E and F class , the flotilla leaders were built to an enlarged design , incorporating a fifth 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch gun in ' Q ' position , between the funnels and were based on the F @-@ class leader , Faulknor . Grenville was shorter and heavier than Hardy as she used compact Yarrow @-@ type side fired boilers while Hardy was slightly beamier . They displaced 1 @,@ 445 – 1 @,@ 465 long tons ( 1 @,@ 468 – 1 @,@ 489 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 953 – 2 @,@ 033 long tons ( 1 @,@ 984 – 2 @,@ 066 t ) at deep load . The ships had an overall length of 330 – 337 feet ( 100 @.@ 6 – 102 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 33 @.@ 75 – 34 feet ( 10 @.@ 3 – 10 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ships carried a total of 175 personnel which included the staff of the Captain ( D ) , commanding officer of the flotilla . Their turbines were 2 @,@ 000 shp ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) more powerful than the private ships , which made them 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ; 0 @.@ 58 mph ) faster ; their propulsion machinery was otherwise identical . Both ships were early wartime losses and consequently received no modifications .
= = Havant class = =
The Havants were laid down in 1938 for Brazil and requisitioned on 5 September 1939 . They were optimized for anti @-@ submarine work and were completed without ' Y ' gun and were equipped with eight throwers and three racks for a total of 110 depth charges . Unlike their half @-@ sisters , they were fitted with a combined rangefinder @-@ director above the bridge . Wartime modifications were similar to the other G- and H @-@ class ships as a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun replaced the aft torpedo tubes , 20 mm Oerlikons were added on the bridge wings and a Type 286 radar was installed . Later modifications replaced the .50 @-@ calibre machine guns with a pair of Oerlikons , a Type 271 radar was added that replaced the rangefinder @-@ director , a Hedgehog was substituted for ' A ' gun , the 12 @-@ pounder removed for more depth charge stowage , and a HF / DF mast was installed aft .
= = Ships = =
= = = Royal Navy = = =
= = = = G class = = = =
= = = = H class = = = =
= = = = Havant class = = = =
These six ships were ordered by the Brazilian Navy , but on the outbreak of World War II , they were requisitioned by the Royal Navy . They are usually included with the H class .
= = = Argentine Navy = = =
Seven ships were built for the Argentine Navy as the Buenos Aires class , they were delivered in 1938 . They were built by Vickers Armstrongs ( Barrow ) , Cammell Laird and John Brown & Company ( Clydebank ) . One ship was lost after a collision in 1941 , but the remaining ships were in service until broken up in the early 1970s .
= = = Brazilian Navy = = =
Brazil ordered six Jurua @-@ class ships from Britain in 1938 . These ships were purchased by Britain on the outbreak of war in 1939 and are described above . The Brazilians decided to produce indigenous destroyers , the Acre class , at the Ilha das Cobras shipyard , Rio de Janeiro . The design was based on the H @-@ class plans supplied by Britain , but with guns and machinery supplied by the United States . Although laid down in 1940 , the ships were not completed until 1949 – 51 .
= = = Royal Hellenic Navy = = =
Two ships , modified versions of the G class , were built for the Greek Royal Hellenic Navy ( RHN ) by Yarrow in the late 1930s . The ships were fitted with German @-@ made 127 @-@ millimetre ( 5 in ) guns and 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) AA guns . The number of torpedo tubes was reduced by two on these ships to compensate for the additional topweight . The installation of the armament was carried out in Greece as the Germans refused to ship the weapons to Britain . Vasilefs Georgios , named after King George I , she served with the RHN during the Greco @-@ Italian War . Damaged by German aircraft , the ship managed to reach the Salamis Navy Yard and was put in dry dock for repairs , where after further damage during German air attacks , she was finally scuttled to prevent capture . The Germans raised and repaired her and she was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as Hermes ( ZG3 ) on 21 March 1942 . Hermes was heavily damaged off Cape Bon , Tunisia , on 30 April 1943 and scuttled on 7 May 1943 . Vasilissa Olga , named after Queen Olga , served with the RHN during the Greco @-@ Italian War . Along with other ships , she escaped to Alexandria in May 1941 and joined the Allied forces . She was lost to German aircraft while anchored in Lakki Bay , Leros on 26 September 1943 .
= = Service = =
Grenville and the G class spent the bulk of their time before the start of World War II assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla ( DF ) in the Mediterranean Fleet , where they made a number of neutrality patrols during the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . With the exception of Garland which was under repair at Malta after a premature explosion of her depth charges , they returned home in October – November after it became clear that the Italians would not enter the war . Hardy and the H @-@ class ships were assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla and joined the Gs in the Mediterranean after commissioning for similar duties .
After a few weeks assigned to Western Approaches Command , the 1st DF was assigned to the Nore Command at Harwich , although some of the ships were transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla , where they were tasked for escort and patrol duty . Gipsy was sunk on 21 November after she struck a mine , as did Grenville on 19 January 1940 . Unlike the 1st DF , the Second was transferred to Force K in Freetown in West Africa , to help search for German commerce raiders . Some ships were later transferred to Bermuda and the West Indies for escort work and patrolling . They returned to the UK in January and spent several months refitting .
After commissioning , Handy and Hearty were renamed Harvester and Hesperus , respectively , to avoid confusion with Hardy . The Havant @-@ class destroyers initially formed the 9th Destroyer Flotilla assigned to Western Approaches Command for anti @-@ submarine patrols and escort duty . The German invasion of Norway caused Havant , Hesperus , and Havelock to be detached to reinforce the Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign .
Garland , Grafton , Gallant , Hasty and Hereward were either under repair or refitting during the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign and did not participate in the Battles of Narvik in April . The remaining ships were assigned to the Home Fleet by this time . Glowworm was separated from the battlecruiser Renown in a heavy storm on 8 April and encountered the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and several destroyers . The British destroyer could not disengage and was sunk after ramming Admiral Hipper . Hardy , Havock , Hostile , Hotspur and Hunter participated in the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April . They sank two German destroyers in exchange for the loss of Hardy and Hunter , while Hotspur was badly damaged . That same day , Hero sank the German submarine U @-@ 50 off the Norwegian coast and was the only G- or H @-@ class destroyer to participate in the Second Battle of Narvik three days later . Griffin and Hasty helped to cover the evacuation of Allied troops from Namsos and Åndalsnes at the end of the month . Havelock escorted the transports conducting the evacuation of Narvik in June . Garland was loaned to the Polish Navy in May after her repairs were finished and she remained in the Mediterranean , escorting convoys between Malta and Alexandria , Egypt , until she was transferred to the Western Approaches Command in September .
In mid @-@ May , the 2nd DF was transferred to the Mediterranean with Hostile , Hyperion , Hero , Hereward , Havock , and Hasty assigned . Later that month , many of the remaining G and Havant @-@ class ships participated in Operation Dynamo . Grafton was torpedoed by U @-@ 62 on 29 May whilst rescuing survivors from the torpedoed destroyer Wakeful and had to be scuttled by the destroyer Ivanhoe . Later that day , Grenade blew up after being set on fire by German bombs ; three days later , on 1 June , Havant was sunk by German bombers . Gallant and Greyhound were damaged while evacuating troops from Dunkirk . Harvester helped to evacuate more troops from Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux in Operation Cycle and , together with Griffin , Highlander , and Havelock , she participated in Operation Aerial , the evacuation of Allied troops from Saint @-@ Nazaire and St. Jean de Luz .
Most of the ships of the 2nd DF participated in the inconclusive Battle of Calabria on 7 – 8 July . Almost two weeks later , Hasty , Hero , Hyperion and Havock were escorting the Australian light cruiser Sydney when they encountered two Italian light cruisers , sinking one of them in the Battle of Cape Spada . The ships escorted convoys and the ships of the Mediterranean Fleet for the rest of the year , although Hostile was sunk when she struck an Italian mine on 23 August and Hyperion was sunk by the Italian submarine Serpente on 22 December . Hotspur was assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla , supporting Force H at Gibraltar in July ; she was joined by Gallant , Greyhound , and Griffin shortly afterwards . The latter two ships escorted Force H during the Battle of Dakar in September against the Vichy French forces there . Havock and Hasty sank the Italian submarine Berillo on 2 October off the coast of Cyrenica while Gallant , Griffin and Hotspur sank the Italian submarine Lafolè on 18 October . Gallant , Greyhound , Griffin , now assigned to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet , together with Hero and Hereward , participated in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November .
The 9th DF returned to the Western Approaches Command ( WAC ) from July to September , before they were briefly transferred to Portsmouth Command for several weeks , in response to the possible invasion ( Operation Sea Lion ) . They returned to the WAC before the end of the month and Harvester and Highlander sank U @-@ 32 on 30 October . In November 1940 , the 9th DF was re @-@ designated as the 9th Escort Group . The Havants remained on escort duty until they began lengthy refits during 1941 .
Gallant , Greyhound and Griffin were covering a convoy to Malta on 10 January when the former struck a mine that blew off her bow . Griffin rescued her crew and the ship was towed to Malta . Repairs were estimated to take until June 1942 , but she was declared a constructive total loss and stripped of equipment after she had to be beached during an aerial attack on 5 April 1942 . On 19 January , Greyhound sank the Italian submarine Neghelli after the latter torpedoed one of the ships in the convoy that Greyhound was escorting . Two months later , she sank the Italian submarine Anfitre on 6 March . Greyhound , Griffin , Hotspur , Hasty , Havock and Hereward participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan on 27 – 28 March . Greyhound was sunk by German dive bombers two months later , on 22 May , off Crete ; Hereward suffered a similar fate a week later . Hotspur , Havock , Hero , and Hasty also participated in the evacuations of Greece and Crete in May . The latter three ships then supported Allied forces during the Syria – Lebanon Campaign in June . All four of the H @-@ class ships , joined by Griffin , began escorting convoys from Alexandria to Tobruk in July , as well as occasional convoys to Malta , and continued to do so for most of the rest of the year . Hasty and Hotspur sank U @-@ 79 on 23 December while returning from Tobruk .
Garland and the five surviving Havants spent most of the year on convoy escort duties in the
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Atlantic aside from brief diversions such as Operation Tiger , a Mediterranean convoy in May that Harvester , Havelock , and Hesperus escorted , and Garland 's participation in the Spitzbergen Raid in July . Hurricane was badly damaged by a German bomb in May that took the rest of the year to repair .
Hesperus was transferred to Force H in December 1941 for anti @-@ submarine defence of the Strait of Gibraltar and sank U @-@ 93 by ramming on 15 January 1942 . In March 1942 , the Havant @-@ class destroyers were designated group leaders of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force through the winter of 1942 – 43 . Garland was assigned to the escort force for Convoy PQ 16 to Murmansk in May , during which she was damaged by a German bomber . After repairs , she rejoined her half @-@ sisters in the North Atlantic . On 26 December , Hesperus sank U @-@ 357 by ramming .
Griffin and Hotspur were transferred to the Eastern Fleet in February 1942 . Havock , Hasty , and Hero participated in the Second Battle of Sirte on 22 March during which the former was damaged . While under repair at Malta , she was further damaged and was then ordered to Gibraltar for repairs in a safer environment . Whilst in transit , she ran aground off the Tunisian coast during the night of 5 / 6 April due to a navigational error and had to be destroyed to prevent her capture . Together with the destroyers Eridge and Hurworth , Hero sank U @-@ 568 on 28 May . To reinforce the escorts for Operation Vigorous , a convoy from Alexandria to Malta in June , Griffin and Hotspur were temporarily recalled to join their sisters . During the mission , Hasty was torpedoed by a German E @-@ boat and had to be scuttled by Hotspur on 15 June . On 30 October , Hero shared the credit for sinking U @-@ 559 with five other destroyers and a Vickers Wellesley bomber of No. 42 Squadron RAF . Griffin arrived home that same month to begin her conversion into an escort destroyer . Garland remained in the North Atlantic until December 1943 when she began escorting convoys between Freetown and Gibraltar .
Hotspur and Hero were sent home and converted into escort destroyers in early 1943 . Griffin and Hero were transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in March and November 1943 and renamed Ottawa and Chaudière , respectively . Hotspur began escort duties in the WAC after her conversion was completed that lasted until October 1944 . While escorting Convoy HX 228 , Harvester rammed U @-@ 444 on 10 March , but was disabled in the process , so the French corvette Aconit finished off the submarine . The following day , Harvester was sunk by U @-@ 432 which was in turn sunk by Aconit . Hesperus sank U @-@ 191 on 23 April and U @-@ 186 on 12 May . Hesperus continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until January 1945 when she was transferred to the UK . Highlander and Hurricane also remained on convoy duties , although the latter ship was torpedoed by U @-@ 415 on 24 December and had to be scuttled by Watchman the next day .
Garland was transferred to the Mediterranean in April 1944 and sank U @-@ 407 on 19 September . She began a lengthy refit in November and had barely finished working up when the war ended . Havelock , Ottawa and Chaudière were escorting convoys in the North Atlantic until they were transferred to the UK in preparation for Operation Overlord in May 1944 . Chaudière and the escorts of Convoy HX 280 sank U @-@ 744 on 6 March . Ottawa sank three German submarines in 1944 , U @-@ 678 with the corvette Statice on 6 July , U @-@ 621 with Chaudière on 16 August and U @-@ 984 , also with Chaudière , two days later .
Ottawa , Chaudière and Hotspur also had lengthy overhauls that began in late 1944 ; the latter 's was completed in March 1945 and she then patrolled the Irish Sea until the end of the war while Ottawa returned to the North Atlantic when her refit was finished in February . Chaudière 's , however , was still not completed by the end of the war . Highlander struck a small iceberg on 15 April that crushed the underwater portion of her bow and was under repair for the next three months . Havelock and Hesperus , assisted by aircraft from No. 201 Squadron RAF , sank U @-@ 242 in the Irish Channel on 30 April .
= = = Postwar = = =
The surviving ships were essentially obsolete and worn @-@ out when the war ended in May . Ottawa made several voyages ferrying Canadian troops back home before she was paid off in October . The ship was sold for scrap in 1946 , but was not actually broken up until 1950 . Chaudière was in the worst shape of any of the Canadian destroyers and was paid off in August , although she was not scrapped until 1950 like her sister . Garland transported food and other supplies to Dutch and Belgian towns immediately after the end of the war and was part of the Home Fleet until she was reduced to reserve in August 1946 . She was purchased by the Royal Netherlands Navy in November 1947 , renamed Marnix , and became a training ship until 1964 . Hotspur remained in service until 1948 when she was sold to the Dominican Republic and renamed Trujillo . Renamed Duarte in 1962 , the ship was sold for scrap in 1972 . Havelock and Hesperus escorted the Norwegian government @-@ in @-@ exile back to Norway in May and then served as a target ship before being broken up in late 1946 and 1947 , respectively . Like her sisters , Highlander served as a target ship after her repairs were completed and was scrapped beginning in May 1947 .
= Hawkhurst Branch Line =
The Hawkhurst Branch Line was a short railway line in Kent that connected Hawkhurst , Cranbrook , Goudhurst and Horsmonden with the town of Paddock Wood and the South Eastern and Medway Valley lines , a distance of 11 miles 24 chains ( 18 @.@ 19 km ) .
The line was promoted by the Cranbrook and Paddock Wood Railway ( C & PWR ) , which was incorporated in 1877 , but took until 1892 to open the first section of the line to Hope Mill . Services were worked by the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . The line was extended to Hawkhurst in 1893 . In 1900 , the SECR absorbed the C & PWR . Sunday services ceased in 1917 . In 1923 , the SECR was absorbed into the Southern Railway at the Grouping . The line became part of British Railways at Nationalisation on 1 January 1948 . The line was closed in June 1961 , before the Beeching Report was published .
= = Origins = =
= = = Background = = =
The construction between 1842 and 1853 of the Ashford to Hastings Line , the Tonbridge to Hastings line and South Eastern Main Line between Redhill and Folkestone left a triangle of land within the Kentish High Weald devoid of rail communication . It was a heavily wooded and agricultural area which comprised many small villages and hamlets . The three largest settlements in this area were Cranbrook ; the former heart of the defunct Wealden cloth industry , Hawkhurst and Tenterden . There were no large landowners or wealthy industrialists to promote a branch line , while the local railway company - the South Eastern Railway ( SER ) - preferred to wait until local enterprise had funded the route 's construction .
A variety of abortive schemes were proposed , including an 1864 proposal by the nominally independent Weald of Kent Railway to run a route from Paddock Wood to Hythe via Cranbrook for which the SER obtained parliamentary authorisation as a defensive measure against a similar scheme proposed by the rival London , Chatham and Dover Railway . The SER 's enthusiasm for the scheme waned after the financial collapse of its rival in the wake of the 1866 Overend Gurney crisis . It was left to another independent company , the locally promoted Cranbrook and Paddock Wood Railway , to revive the scheme in 1877 and pursue it for a further 15 years before its opening in October 1892 . The company was incorporated on 2 August 1877 .
= = = Construction = = =
The Cranbrook and Paddock Wood Railway obtained authorisation for a single track line to link the two towns from which the company took its name . Agreement had been reached with the SER that it would provide £ 50 @,@ 000 towards construction costs once the local company had raised £ 25 @,@ 000 in the district . The necessary funds could not be raised and by April 1878 only £ 11 @,@ 000 had been found and , on the suggestion of the SER , it was decided to save costs by locating Cranbrook station in Hartley , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Cranbrook 's centre , where land prices were higher . Preliminary construction works were commenced in 1879 but soon ground to a halt due to a lack of funds . Undissuaded , the railway company obtained two further Acts of Parliament in 1882 and 1892 which authorised a " cut @-@ price " route between Goudhurst and Hawkhurst .
Financial problems meant that construction was further delayed between 1884 and 1890 , by which time the SER had taken over the board of the Cranbrook Railway on which now sat Alfred Gathorne @-@ Hardy , Lord Brabourne and Alfred Watkin , son of SER Chairman Edward Watkin . Edward Seaton , an engineer and independent consultant to the Metropolitan Railway , was appointed to oversee the works and he recommended the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Holman Fred Stephens as resident engineer . The contract for the construction was awarded to J.T. Firbank who had overseen the building of the Metropolitan 's line between Aylesbury and Quainton Road . Work began in the spring of 1890 , and the first section between Paddock Wood and Hope Mill was opened on 1 October 1892 . The remainder of the line to Hawkhurst followed a year later . The four stations were built by Mancktelow Bros , Horsmonden .
= = = Route of the line = = =
At Paddock Wood , the line 's northern terminus , the rear of the Up platform was adapted to accommodate Hawkhurst services and 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) of single track was laid parallel to the main line up to the point where the routes diverged . This arrangement kept branch services off the main line and avoided the cost of installing a signal box to control the junction . The branch gradually turned to the south and ran on the level , passing under a road bridge and over two level crossings , while climbing gradients of 1 in 78 and 1 in 66 through orchards and hop gardens , before reaching Churn Lane siding . The line then passed an accommodation crossing and under a road bridge carrying Yew Tree Green Road , climbing to 1 in 66 before running on a level for half a mile through Swigs Hole valley on a 42 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 13 m ) embankment . After crossing a deeply wooded cutting , the line reached the 86 @-@ yard ( 79 m ) Horsmonden Tunnel which was situated on the summit level at the end of a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) climb at 1 in 66 and carried the B2162 road over the line .
Horsmonden was the first station to be reached . It was ( 4 miles 20 chains ( 6 @.@ 84 km ) from Paddock Wood ) . The station had a single platform on the up side . Goods facilities consisted a loop on the down side , and two sidings on the up side . The signal on the approach from Goudhurst had arms for traffic from both directions . Leaving Horsmonden , the branch crossed Goudhurst Road by a plate girder bridge , running along the valley of the River Teise towards the Wealden hills . After climbing much of the way through gradients of 1 in 85 and 1 in 60 , Goudhurst was reached ( 6 miles 25 chains ( 10 @.@ 16 km ) ) , although it was a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away and some 250 feet ( 76 m ) lower than Goudhurst village . It was initially more correctly named " Hope Mill , for Goudhurst and Lamberhurst " . Goudhurst station had a passing loop and two platforms , and was signalled so that either platform could be used by down passenger trains . There were three sidings on the up side . The route then continued along the valley of a tributary of the Teise in a south @-@ easterly direction . An intermediate siding at Pattenden served the local farming community and timber industry . Cranbrook ( 9 miles 70 chains ( 15 @.@ 89 km ) ) was the line 's third station and reached following a climb up the valley through woodland . There was a single platform on the down side , with a passing loop opposite it . Four sidings were on the down side of the line , but on the Goudhurst side of the station . Heading towards its southern terminus at Hawkhurst ( 11 miles 24 chains ( 18 @.@ 19 km ) ) , the branch climbed again at 1 in 85 up to the 178 @-@ yard ( 163 m ) Badger 's Oak Tunnel , the line 's summit , before dropping at 1 in 80 . To save costs , the station was situated at Gills Green , around 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) from Hawkhurst village . Hawkhurst station was 46 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 74 @.@ 4 km ) from Charing Cross . The single platform was on the down side of the line , with a passing loop opposite , which also gave access to the two road engine shed . The five sidings were located on the down side of the station .
= = = Proposed extensions = = =
Various abortive proposals were made to extend the line , whose dead @-@ end nature deprived it of much of its usefulness . Even before construction had been completed , businesses in Tenterden were pressing the SER to link with their town . In response , the SER asked Edward Seaton to come forward with proposals for an affordable extension . Three schemes were put forward in October 1893 which would see the line extended from either Cranbrook or Hawkhurst . The first was essentially a continuation to Appledore , passing near the villages of Benenden , Newenden , Sandhurst and Rolvenden , but only passing within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of Tenterden . The second would see the Hawkhurst branch becoming part of the proposed Loose Valley Railway linking Maidstone with Dungeness via Headcorn , Tenterden and Appledore . The final proposal began with a junction at Cranbrook station , before running to Appledore via Sissinghurst , Biddenden , Tenterden and Reading Street . None of these schemes came to fruition due to a lack of impetus on the part of the SER and the merger of operations of the SER with the rival London , Chatham and Dover Railway . The buffer stops at Hawkhurst were nevertheless positioned so as to allow the extension of the line without the need for alterations to the existing layout .
Holman Fred Stephens , the Hawkhurst line 's resident engineer , later became the chief engineer in the construction of the Rother Valley Railway ( RVR ) , later known as the Kent and East Sussex Railway ) which opened in 1900 from Robertsbridge as far as Rolvenden ( then known as " Tenterden " ) . In 1899 , Stephens obtained a light railway order authorising the Cranbrook and Tenterden Light Railway , which would run from Cranbrook station through a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) tunnel under Hartley Road for a distance of 9 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) to join the RVR at a triangular junction just beyond Rolvenden where it would join the proposed extension of the RVR to Headcorn . Due to the increase in the use of motor transport , apart from the section between Rolvenden and Tenterden Town , the line was never built although it continued to appear in Kent and East Sussex Railway reports until 1937 .
= = Operations = =
= = = Official opening = = =
Following a satisfactory inspection carried out by Major Marindin of the Board of Trade on 3 September 1892 , the line between Paddock Wood and Hope Mill , for Goudhurst and Lamberhurst was opened to passenger and goods traffic nine days later . The first service drawn by Cudworth E1 class 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 No. 112 left Hope Mill at 08 : 25 and free travel was offered throughout the day . The official opening took place on 1 October 1892 , and services were extended to Hawkhurst on 4 September 1893 . The line was worked by the SER ( soon to become the SECR ) which formally absorbed the Cranbrook and Paddock Wood Railway on 29 January 1900 .
Shortly before the entire line was opened the residents of Cranbrook , regretful that the village was not directly served , approached the SER with a proposal to construct a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) " light line " between Hartley and Cranbrook at an estimated cost of £ 10 @,@ 000 , which they offered to guarantee themselves . The scheme never came to fruition .
= = = Traffic = = =
= = = = Passengers = = = =
Passenger traffic was always light on the branch , and the addition of through coaches to London in the 1890s failed to encourage patronage . The inaugural passenger service of ten trains daily each way ( two on Sundays ) remained unchanged until 1917 when , as a result of economies imposed by the First World War , the frequency was reduced to four weekday services with no service on Sundays . Initially , passenger trains were worked by Cudworth 118 class 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . Later , Cudworth E class 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s were used , with the occasional use of Stirling B Class and F class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s . Since at least 1912 , services had been drawn by an ageing Stirling Q class 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4T locomotive . After the First World War , Kirtley R and R1 class 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4Ts were introduced . These provided the mainstay of services until they were withdrawn in the 1950s and replaced by Wainwright H class 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4s . In 1922 , the timetable showed six down trains and seven up trains daily except Sundays . The maximum speed allowed on the line was 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) , with a restriction of 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) at Smugley Farm occupation crossing , which was between Pattenden Siding and Cranbrook station .
By 1925 , the frequency had increased to eight with the introduction of push @-@ pull working by former LCDR R1 class 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 4T locomotives . In 1926 , a Sentinel @-@ Cammell steam railbus was trialled on the line for a month . Two extra services had been added by 1928 and an extra Saturday afternoon Paddock Wood working was added in 1930 . By 1938 the timetable had taken on its final form of seven up and six down services plus the Saturday afternoon working ; by special regulation , the push @-@ pull services were guardless except for the first train of the day .
On 6 July 1950 , the Queen Mother travelled the line as far as Cranbrook when she visited the National Sanatorium at Benenden . The five @-@ coach Royal Train was pulled by a Maunsell E1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 No. 31067 , Her Majesty using a Pullman car named Malaga , which was flanked by two corridor composites ; there was a corridor third brake at each end of the train . Malaga was one of six twelve @-@ wheel first @-@ class kitchen cars which had been built in 1920 – 1 ; and following an extensive refit in late 1949 , was occasionally used in the Royal Train . It was withdrawn in 1961 , and is preserved close to Shepperton railway station .
= = = = Goods = = = =
Goods traffic was more substantial , with fruit , hops and timber being sent out and coal being received . The 1937 timetable showed two down freight workings from Paddock Wood and one conditional working for Goudhurst , while in the other direction two conditional workings ran from Hawkhurst and one from Goudhurst . These were market trains and carried wagons for Blackfriars Goods attached to freight services at Paddock Wood . The volume of goods carried fell into steep decline after the Second World War as more and more freight was taken to market by road . Coal traffic remained constant as did the transport of pot plants from local nurseries at Flimwell and Wadhurst for F W Woolworth . This was an important source of revenue for the line with one million pot plants a year being transported from Hawkhurst , bringing in around £ 1 @,@ 000 per week . Up to four parcels and miscellaneous vans were loaded daily at Hawkhurst and attached to the last train to Tonbridge , with further collections possibly being made at Horsmonden ; special services were laid on in the busy period before Mothering Sunday .
There were two sidings on the line which were available for public use . Churn Siding was located between Paddock Wood and Horsmonden stations . The siding was on the up side of the line . It was accessed by a facing connection in each direction . A siding at the Horsmonden end served a brickworks . Although some sources state that Churn Siding was out of use by 1940 , photographs show that it was still in use in 1951 and it was named in the closure notice . Towards the end of the line 's existence , Churn Siding was used for storage of wagons . The siding was located at the start of the 1 in 78 climb to Horsmonden . If wagons had to be left on the running line while shunting took place , they had to be left on the Paddock Wood side of the level crossing , where there was level track . Pattenden Siding was located between Goudhurst and Cranbrook stations , just after milepost 42 and thus 7 miles 20 chains ( 11 @.@ 67 km ) from Paddock Wood . The siding was located on the down side of the line. was accessed by a trailing connection in the down direction ( towards Hawkhurst ) . Its main use was to import shoddy which was used as fertiliser for hop gardens .
= = = = Specials = = = =
During the early 1950s , well over 4 @,@ 000 hop @-@ pickers and some 23 @,@ 000 visitors travelled in 56 " Hopper specials " – extra services laid on during the late August – early October hop season ; at the busiest period , up to six trains per day ran through to the branch from London . In 1912 there had been 26 specials each carrying as many as 350 people ; they generally started at London Bridge and called at New Cross or New Cross Gate . The farmers agreed between themselves when the picking would begin , and informed the railway who then set about the planning of the special trains . A " Hop Control Centre " was set up at Paddock Wood to organise these services , ensuring that hoppers could alight at London Bridge and be taken directly to the nearest hop farm . Since the hopping season generally coincided with the end of the holiday season , most serviceable trains were already in use elsewhere , so spare rolling stock would be brought out of storage and pressed into service for just three weeks ; sometimes carriages had to be borrowed from other parts of the country . The carriages tended to be old or in poor condition , since the hoppers had a reputation for drunkenness and violence . This traffic was however already in decline as rising living standards and paid holidays led to a decline in the hop @-@ picker workforce , and many of those who remained chose to travel by car or van . By 1959 the Sunday service consisted of a single two @-@ coach unit , with an evening working to London Bridge . As mechanical pickers gradually replaced the human workforce , hop @-@ picking had become a memory by the time the branch closed in 1961 .
Special services were also laid on for the Benenden and Cranbrook boarding schools . Special trains to Benenden were laid on from Charing Cross , quite often with six corridor coaches hauled by E1 or D1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . The last special train ran on 2 May 1961 from Charing Cross at 2 : 46pm , hauled by D1 class 31749 . Boarders ' trunks and other belongings occupied so much space that utility vans were required at the end of each term . These were loaded at Hawkhurst and Cranbrook , attached to the daily up goods working and forwarded to Paddock Wood by parcels train . The behaviour of pupils from both schools was described by one regular passenger as " hysterical " , with the girls from Benenden being compared to those of the fictional St Trinian 's .
= = = = Accidents = = = =
On 18 February 1948 C Class locomotive 1225 was wrongly despatched into the north sidings at Goudhurst and derailed .
= = = Decline and closure = = =
The inconvenient siting of stations and the decline in hop @-@ picking in the area all contributed to diminishing returns on the line by the late 1950s . Apart from the 16 : 25 daily working from Paddock Wood which was well patronised by children , few trains carried more than a dozen passengers . Passenger journeys were estimated in 1958 at around 170 per day , to which was added around 100 schoolchildren . Even the school traffic was lost once the local authority hired the services of Maidstone & District Motor Company . The line was unpopular with commuters due to the poor connections to and from London . Only the 07 : 34 service would ensure arrival at Charing Cross before 10 : 00 with one change at Paddock Wood , the following train at 08 @.@ 20 would only get the passenger to Cannon Street at 10 @.@ 15 after two changes . In the evening , the 16 : 32 departed too early for many commuters while the eleven @-@ coach 18 : 18 Ramsgate service was overcrowded and divided at Tonbridge where three coaches were detached for Ashford . Hawkhurst @-@ bound passengers had to change at Paddock Wood and cross over to the bay platform for the branch service which arrived in Hawkhurst at 19 : 58 . Locals preferred the direct bus services to Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells over the indirect railway journey , as shown by the fact that no more than 250 return tickets were sold from Hawkhurst in the final years of the line . Only the line 's expanding pot plant traffic justified its continuing existence .
It was therefore no surprise when closure notices were posted in March 1961 . The last day of regular services was Saturday 10 June 1961 when a pair of C class 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 's replaced the usual H class tanks . The event was recorded by a BBC cameraman who filmed the 09 : 07 departure from Paddock Wood . The Tonbridge crew had chalked on the cabside of the engine " Shed no tears for the single track , for perhaps we may come back . And if we do , you can be sure , we 'll see you all again once more . " Later in the day the trains were lengthened with the addition of former LSWR push @-@ pull set No. 656 and a Maunsell corridor coach . The same locomotive worked the last 17 : 00 train from Hawkhurst , while every seat was taken by locals and railway enthusiasts . The daughter of bandleader Jack Payne was on @-@ hand to toast the final departure .
The line 's last public train ran the next day , hauled by Class O1 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 No. 31065 piloting C class no . 31592 . This was
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966 ) , which also featured Michael Anderson , Jr . By this point , she had adopted the stage name " Barbara Hershey . " Although Hershey said the series helped her career , she expressed some frustration with her role , saying : " One week I was strong , the next , weak " . While on the series , Hershey garnered several other roles , including one in Doris Day 's final feature film , With Six You Get Eggroll .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1969 , Hershey co @-@ starred in the Glenn Ford western Heaven with a Gun . On the set , she met and began a romantic relationship with actor David Carradine , who later starred in the television series Kung Fu ( see Personal life ) . In the same year , she acted in the controversial drama Last Summer , which was based on Evan Hunter 's eponymous novel . In this film , Hershey played Sandy , the " heavy " who influences two young men ( played by Bruce Davison and Richard Thomas ) to rape another girl , Rhoda ( played by Catherine Burns ) . Even though the film , directed by Frank Perry , received an X rating for the graphic rape scene , Burns earned a Best Supporting Actress Oscar nomination for her performance .
During the filming of Last Summer , a seagull was killed . " In one scene , " Hershey explained , " I had to throw the bird in the air to make her fly . We had to reshoot the scene over and over again . I could tell the bird was tired . Finally when the scene was finished the director , Frank Perry , told me the bird had broken her neck on the last throw . " Hershey felt responsible for the bird 's death and changed her stage name to " Seagull " as a tribute to the creature . " I felt her spirit enter me , " she later explained . " It was the only moral thing to do . " The name change was not positively received . When she was offered a part opposite Timothy Bottoms in The Crazy World of Julius Vrooder ( 1974 ) ( AKA Vrooder 's Hooch ) , Hershey had to forfeit half her salary , $ 25 @,@ 000 , to be billed under the name " Seagull " because the producers were not in favor of the billing .
= = = 1970s = = =
In 1970 , Hershey played Tish Grey in The Baby Maker , a film that explored surrogate motherhood . Criticizing the directing and writing of James Bridges , critic Shirley Rigby said of the " bizarre " film , " Only the performances in the film save it from being a total travesty . " Rigby went on to say , " Barbara Hershey is a great little actress , much , much more than just another pretty face . "
Hershey once said that starring in Boxcar Bertha ( 1972 ) " was the most fun I ever had on a movie . " The film , co @-@ starring Hershey 's domestic partner , David Carradine , and produced by Roger Corman , was Martin Scorsese 's first Hollywood picture . Shot in six weeks on a budget of $ 600 @,@ 000 , Boxcar Bertha was intended to be a period crime drama similar to Corman 's Bloody Mama ( 1970 ) or Bonnie and Clyde ( 1967 ) . Although Corman publicized it as an exploitation piece with plenty of sex and violence , Scorsese 's influence made it " something much more . " Roger Ebert , of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , wrote of the film 's direction , " Martin Scorsese has gone for mood and atmosphere more than for action , and his violence is always blunt and unpleasant — never liberating and exhilarating , as the New Violence is supposed to be . " A spread recreating sexually explicit scenes from the movie appeared in Playboy magazine in 1972 .
Hershey 's experience with Scorsese would extend to another major role for her 16 years later in The Last Temptation of Christ ( 1988 ) as Mary Magdalene . During the filming of Boxcar Bertha , Hershey had introduced Scorsese to the Nikos Kazantzakis novel on which the latter film was based . That collaboration resulted in an Academy Award nomination for the director and a Golden Globe nod for Hershey .
By the mid 1970s , Hershey concluded , " I 've been so tied up with David [ Carradine ] that people have forgotten that I am me . I spend 50 percent of my time working with David . " She had , in 1974 , guest @-@ starred in a two @-@ part episode of Carradine 's television series Kung Fu . She played , under the direction of Carradine , a love interest to his character , Kwai Chang Caine , during his time at the Shaolin temple . She also appeared in two of Carradine 's independent directorial projects , You and Me ( 1975 ) and Americana ( 1983 ) , both of which had been filmed in 1973 . Her father , Arnold Herzstein , also appeared in Americana .
She publicly acknowledged the desire to be recognized in her own right . Later , in 1974 , she did just that , winning a Gold Medal at the Atlanta Film Festival for her role in the Dutch @-@ produced film Love Comes Quietly .
Later in the decade , Hershey starred with Charlton Heston in The Last Hard Men ( 1976 ) . She hoped the film would revive her career after the damage she felt it had suffered while she was with Carradine , believing that the hippie label she had been given was a career impediment . By this time she had shed Carradine and her " Seagull " pseudonym . Throughout the rest of the 1970s , however , she was appearing in made @-@ for @-@ TV movies that were described as " forgettable , " like Flood ! ( 1976 ) , Sunshine Christmas ( 1977 ) , and The Glitter Palace ( 1977 ) , in which she played a lesbian .
= = = 1980s = = =
When Hershey landed a role in Richard Rush 's The Stunt Man ( 1980 ) , it marked a return to the big screen after four years and earned her critical praise . Hershey felt that she would be forever in debt to Rush for fighting with financiers to allow her a part in that film . She also felt The Stunt Man was an important transition for her , from playing girls to playing women .
Some of the " women roles " that followed The Stunt Man included the horror movie The Entity ( 1982 ) ; Philip Kaufman 's The Right Stuff ( 1983 ) , in which she played Glennis Yeager , wife of test pilot Chuck Yeager ; and The Natural ( 1984 ) , in which she shot Robert Redford 's character . For the role of Harriet Bird , Hershey had chosen a particular hat as her " anchor . " Director Barry Levinson disagreed with her choice , but she insisted on wearing it . Levinson later cast Hershey as the wife of Danny DeVito 's character in the comedy Tin Men ( 1987 ) .
In 1986 , Hershey left her native California and moved with her son to Manhattan . Three days later , she met briefly with Woody Allen , who offered her the role of Lee in Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) . In addition to a Manhattan apartment , Hershey bought an antique home in rural Connecticut . The Allen picture won three Academy Awards and a Golden Globe . The film also earned Hershey a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role . She described her part as " a wonderful gift . "
Hershey followed Hannah and Her Sisters with back @-@ to @-@ back wins for Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival for Shy People and for her appearance as anti @-@ apartheid activist Diana Roth in A World Apart ( 1988 ) . Her character in the latter film was based on Ruth First . Also in the 1980s , she portrayed Errol Flynn 's first wife , actress Lili Damita , in the TV movie My Wicked , Wicked Ways ( 1985 ) , which was based on Flynn 's autobiography . She also played the love interest to Gene Hackman 's character in the basketball film Hoosiers ( 1986 ) .
Barbara Cloud of the Pittsburgh Press gave attribution to Barbara Hershey for starting a trend when she had collagen injected into her lips for her role in Beaches ( 1988 ) . Humorist Erma Bombeck said of the movie , which also starred Bette Midler , " I have no idea what Beaches was all about . All I could focus on was Barbara Hershey 's lips . She looked like she stopped off at a gas station and someone said , ' Your lips are down 30 pounds . Better let me hit ' em with some air . ' "
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1990 , Hershey won an Emmy and a Golden Globe for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Special for her role as Candy Morrison in A Killing in a Small Town , which was based on Candy Montgomery 's acquittal for the death of Betty Gore . Montgomery had killed Gore on Friday , June 13 , 1980 , in Gore 's Wylie , Texas , home , by hitting her 41 times with an ax . The jury determined that she did so in self @-@ defense . In preparation for the part , Hershey had a phone conversation with Montgomery . Many of the names of the real @-@ life principals in the case were changed for the movie . The film 's alternative title was Evidence of Love , the name of a 1984 book about the case .
Also in 1990 , Hershey drew upon what Woody Allen once described as her " erotic overtones , " portraying a woman who falls in love with her much younger nephew , by marriage , played by Keanu Reeves , in the comedic Tune in Tomorrow .
In 1991 , Hershey played Hanna Trout , the wife of the title character in Paris Trout ( 1991 ) , a made @-@ for @-@ cable television movie . In this Showtime production , Hershey collaborated again with A Killing in a Small Town director Stephen Gyllenhaal to play a woman who has an affair with her husband 's lawyer . Her husband , an abusive bigot ( played by Dennis Hopper ) , is on trial for murdering a young African American girl . The film , which was based on Pete Dexter 's 1988 National Book Award @-@ winning novel , featured Hopper and Hershey enacting a graphic rape scene that the actress found difficult to view . The picture was described as a " dramatic reach deep into the dark hollows of racism , abuse and murder . " Paris Trout was nominated for five Prime Time Emmy Awards , including nods for both Hershey and Hopper .
Later in the year , Hershey played an attorney defending her college roommate for the murder of her husband in the suspenseful whodunit Defenseless ( 1991 ) .
Because of her frequent television appearances , by the end of 1991 Hershey was accused of " selling out to the small screen . " In 1992 , Hershey appeared with Jane Alexander in the ABC miniseries Stay the Night ( 1992 ) , prompting Associated Press writer Jerry Buck to write , " Barbara Hershey is a person who jumps back and forth between features and television very easily . " She starred in another TV miniseries in 1993 , succeeding Anjelica Huston as Clara Allen in the sequel series Return to Lonesome Dove . She was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for another TV appearance , The Staircase ( 1998 ) . Between 1999 and 2000 , she played Dr. Francesca Alberghetti in 22 season 6 episodes of the medical TV drama Chicago Hope .
Hershey co @-@ starred with Joe Pesci as a nightclub owner in the film drama The Public Eye ( 1992 ) and as the estranged wife of homicidal Michael Douglas in the thriller Falling Down ( 1993 ) . Among the other feature films in which she appeared during the 1990s was Jane Campion 's adaptation of the Henry James novel The Portrait of a Lady ( 1996 ) . Hershey earned an Oscar nomination and won the Best Supporting Actress award from the National Society of Film Critics for her role as Madame Serena Merle in that picture . In 1995 , Last of the Dogmen , co @-@ starring Tom Berenger , was released through Savoy Pictures . In 1999 , Hershey starred in an independent film called Drowning on Dry Land ; during production she met co @-@ star Naveen Andrews , with whom she began a romantic relationship that lasted until 2010 ( see Personal life ) .
= = = 2000s = = =
In 2001 , Hershey appeared in the psychological thriller Lantana ( 2001 ) . She was the only American in a mostly Australian cast , which included Kerry Armstrong , Anthony LaPaglia , and Geoffrey Rush . Film writer Sheila Johnson said the film was " one of the best to emerge from Australia in years . " Another thriller followed : 11 : 14 ( 2003 ) also featured Rachael Leigh Cook , Patrick Swayze , Hilary Swank , and Colin Hanks .
Hershey continued to appear on television during the 2000s , including a season on the series The Mountain . She also starred as Anne Shirley as an adult in Anne of Green Gables : A New Beginning ( 2008 ) , the fourth in a series of made @-@ for @-@ TV films based on the character , taking over the role from Megan Follows .
= = = 2010s = = =
Hershey appeared as an American actress , Mrs. Hubbard , in an adaptation of Agatha Christie 's Murder on the Orient Express for the British television series Poirot ( starring David Suchet ) , which aired in the United States on Public Broadcast Service ( PBS ) in July 2010 . Also in 2010 , Hershey co @-@ starred in Darren Aronofsky 's acclaimed psychological thriller Black Swan ( 2010 ) opposite Natalie Portman and Mila Kunis . The following year , she co @-@ starred in the James Wan horror film Insidious ( 2011 ) . From 2012 to 2013 , she had a recurring role in the first two seasons of ABC 's hit drama Once Upon a Time as Cora , the Queen of Hearts and mother of the Evil Queen . In 2014 , she reprised the role in one episode of the show 's spin @-@ off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland . In 2015 , she once more reprised the role when she returned to the show for an episode of its fourth season , and in 2016 she appeared again for two episodes of the show 's fifth season , most notably its landmark 100th episode . In A & E 's new series Damien , Hershey portrayed series regular Ann Rutledge , the world 's most powerful woman , who has been tasked with making sure Damien fulfills his destiny as the Antichrist . The role marks Hershey 's latest TV gig following Once Upon a Time , The Mountain , Chicago Hope , and Lifetime 's Left to Die TV movie .
= = Personal life = =
In 1969 , Hershey met David Carradine while they were working on Heaven With a Gun . The pair began a domestic relationship that would last until 1975 . Carradine said that during the rape scene in that movie , he cracked one of Barbara 's ribs . They appeared in other films together including Martin Scorsese 's Boxcar Bertha . In 1972 , the couple posed together in a nude Playboy spread , recreating some sex scenes from Boxcar Bertha . Later in 1972 , Hershey gave birth to their son , Free , who changed his name to Tom when he was nine years old . The relationship fell apart around the time of Carradine 's 1974 burglary arrest , after he had begun an affair with Season Hubley , who had guest starred in Kung Fu .
During this period , Hershey changed her stage name to " Seagull . " In 1979 , a blunt newspaper article from the Knight News Service referenced this period of her life , saying of her acting career that " it looked as if she blew it . " The article referred to Hershey as a " kook " and stated that she was frequently " high on something . " In addition to that criticism , she had been ostracized for breast @-@ feeding her son during an appearance on The Dick Cavett Show , and for breast @-@ feeding him beyond the age of two years . She said that this period of her life hurt her career ; " Producers wouldn 't see me because I had a reputation for using drugs and being undependable . I never used drugs at all and I have always been serious about my acting career . " After splitting up with Carradine , she changed her stage name back to " Hershey , " explaining that she had told the story of why she adopted the name " Seagull " so many times that it had lost its meaning .
By the time Hershey was 42 , she was described by columnist Luaina Lee as a " private person who was mired in some heavy publicity when she first became a professional actress . " Yardena Arar , writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , confirmed that Hershey had become a private person by 1990 .
On August 8 , 1992 , Hershey married artist Stephen Douglas . The ceremony took place at her home in Oxford , Connecticut , where the only guests were their two mothers and Hershey 's then 19 @-@ year @-@ old son , Tom ( né Free ) Carradine . The couple separated and divorced one year after the wedding .
Hershey began dating actor Naveen Andrews in 1999 . During a brief separation in 2005 , Andrews fathered a child with another woman . In May 2010 , after Andrews won sole custody of his son , the couple announced that they had ended their 10 @-@ year relationship six months earlier .
Hershey has residences in Los Angeles , Hawaii , New York , and Connecticut .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= 2015 Mexican Grand Prix =
The 2015 Mexican Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de México 2015 ) was a Formula One motor race held at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City on 1 November 2015 . The race , which was contested over seventy @-@ one laps , was the seventeenth race of the 2015 Formula One season . It marked the seventeenth time that the Mexican Grand Prix has been run as a round of the Formula One World Championship since its inception in 1950 , and the first time that the race has been run since 1992 .
Nico Rosberg qualified in pole position , having already been fastest in two of the three free practice sessions . He won the race for Mercedes , followed by his teammate Lewis Hamilton , who had secured the Drivers ' Championship at the previous event in the United States . Valtteri Bottas completed the podium in third , driving for Williams . Both Ferrari drivers — Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen — retired after crashes , with both losing one position in the Championship to Rosberg and Bottas respectively . It was the first time since the 2006 Australian Grand Prix that neither Ferrari was classified .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez circuit underwent substantial reconfiguration in the build @-@ up to the event . The first corner complex was tightened on entry , while the middle part of the track was completely re @-@ profiled , retaining much of the original design whilst reducing the reliance on aerodynamic grip . The most significant changes were made in the final part , with the Peraltada corner cut in half and the circuit redirected through the Foro Sol stadium complex in the circuit infield beginning with turn 12 , following a similar layout to the one used by ChampCar between 2002 and 2007 . The track layout featured two drag reduction system ( DRS ) zones , one on the main straight and another between turns three and four .
One week prior to the race , Hurricane Patricia — the largest tropical storm cell in the Northern Hemisphere on record — crossed the Mexican coastline near Cuixmala in Jalisco state . Patricia had previously disrupted the United States Grand Prix .
Tyre supplier Pirelli brought four compounds to the race . As for all races , the blue @-@ banded wet and green @-@ banded intermediate tyres were provided for possible rain . As for dry @-@ weather ( or " slick " ) tyres , Pirelli supplied the teams with the soft and medium compounds , the two middle options of their four tyres for the 2015 season .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were scheduled , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . The first session on Friday started on a damp track , described by Sebastian Vettel as " ridiculously slippery " , with the first half @-@ hour of running done on intermediate tyres . Valtteri Bottas set the fastest time on those tyres , before all teams switched on the medium compound . Even on the dry tyres , still many drivers were fooled by the conditions , going off at turns 8 and 10 in particular . Nico Rosberg 's Mercedes suffered from overheating rear brakes , forcing him back to the pits while he held the fastest time . Carlos Sainz , Jr. recorded the most timed laps with 37 , and finished eighth fastest , ahead of local favourite Sergio Pérez and Felipe Massa . Jolyon Palmer again replaced Romain Grosjean at the wheel of the Lotus , as he would do for the rest of the season , and finished fifteenth fastest , two @-@ tenths of a second slower than teammate Pastor Maldonado . The fastest time of the session was set by Max Verstappen in the Toro Rosso , at 1m25.990s , even though the young Dutchman went off in the second sector of the track . He was followed by Daniil Kvyat and the two Ferraris of Kimi Räikkönen and Sebastian Vettel . While Rosberg was demoted to sixth , newly crowned World Champion Lewis Hamilton was only eleventh fastest .
In the second session on Friday afternoon , Nico Rosberg was fastest , setting a time of 1m21.531s. With the track tarmac still being very new , the surface was slippery and it was another session that saw a lot of drivers get caught out . The biggest accident of the practice came after just five minutes , when Max Verstappen crashed at the exit of the stadium , bringing out red flags . After the running resumed , Valtteri Bottas lost the rear of his Williams FW37 , caused by a fault in his DRS flap , and crashed at turn one . He was not the only one having problems in the first corner , as Sergio Pérez , Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Pastor Maldonado also went off there . Lewis Hamilton meanwhile had an off @-@ track moment at turn four . Romain Grosjean had to end his first practice of the weekend early , when a clutch failure saw him park his car 28 minutes into the session . Jenson Button ran 25 laps and finished ninth fastest albeit spending half of the session in the pits , while the team equipped his car with a new power unit . Behind Rosberg , the two Red Bulls were second and third , ahead of Lewis Hamilton and Sebastian Vettel .
Nico Rosberg was again fastest at the last practice session on Saturday morning with a time of 1m21.083s , edging out teammate Hamilton by just 0.014s. After rainfall during the night , the track was slippery at the beginning of practice . It was not until thirty minutes into the session that the grip improved and many teams then opted to run the faster soft compound tyres . Rosberg set the fastest times early on and while Hamilton was able to close the gap gradually , he ended the session slightly slower than the German . Behind the two Mercedes , Daniel Ricciardo was close , just 0.118s behind , followed by Vettel , another tenth of a second adrift . Reporting vibrations from his engine , Jenson Button again spent much time in the garage , ending the practice with the slowest time , more than eight seconds behind Rosberg . The long main straight of the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez delivered the fastest speeds seen during the 2015 season . Due to their lack of pure power , McLaren expected to struggle during the remainder of the weekend .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . During the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Kimi Räikkönen was able to compete , after the Ferrari crew was able to change his gearbox in time for the session . Not running was Jenson Button , after his team decided not to go out , since a 55 @-@ place grid penalty would have placed him at the back of the grid at any case . Marcus Ericsson was more than half a second quicker than teammate Felipe Nasr , who failed to proceed into Q2 , as did both Manor Marussia drivers . With Button out of the running , just one more driver was eliminated , and that proved to be his McLaren teammate Alonso , who barely missed out on making the cut . At the front , Rosberg set the fastest time ahead of Vettel , while Hamilton was the only driver not to use the soft compound tyre .
Lewis Hamilton did go out on the softer tyres in Q2 , setting the fastest time of the session , the first to lap in under 1 : 20 minutes . Behind him Vettel was second ahead of Rosberg . Räikkönen went out on the harder compound tyre , but aborted his running after spinning in turn one , leaving him fifteenth fastest with a grid penalty for his gearbox change yet to come . Max Verstappen put in a fast lap towards the end of the session , demoting his teammate Sainz , Jr. out of the top ten . Also eliminated were both Lotus and the second Sauber of Ericsson .
In Q3 , both Mercedes drivers set two consecutive fast laps at the beginning of the session , with Rosberg coming out on top , 0.188s ahead of his teammate . All drivers had problems in improving on their times during the second run of timed laps on fresher tyres . While Hamilton did improve early in the lap , his effort was stopped when he made a mistake at turn twelve . This meant that he was unable to challenge Rosberg for pole position , who qualified first for the fourth race in a row . The two Mercedes drivers were closely followed by Vettel , ahead of the two Red Bulls of Kvyat and Ricciardo , both Williams cars and Verstappen in eighth . In the fifth row of the grid , local favourite Sergio Pérez edged out teammate Nico Hülkenberg for ninth .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , Nico Rosberg got away well , fending off an attack by teammate Hamilton into the first corner . Behind them , Vettel had a bad getaway that saw him get in the midst of the Red Bulls . In turn 5 , he touched Daniel Ricciardo 's car , suffering a puncture that forced him into the pits at the end of the first lap . While he was able to get back out , Fernando Alonso ended his race after just one lap due to a loss of power . Therefore , the order after the first lap stood as : Rosberg , Hamilton , Kvyat and Ricciardo . The two Mercedes ( Rosberg and Hamilton ) soon opened a gap on the Red Bulls ( Kvyat and Ricciardo ) , exchanging fastest laps in the process , while Felipe Massa and Max Verstappen got entangled in a fight for sixth place . Kimi Räikkönen , who was told early on to cool his brakes , made good progress up the field and was in 13th position by lap 8 . One lap later , Valtteri Bottas became the first of the front runners to pit , putting on the medium compound , followed just a lap later by teammate Massa . While Räikkönen had moved up to eighth place by lap 12 , Sergio Pérez and Carlos Sainz , Jr. got into a fight for sixth place , with the former being asked by his team to stay out as long as possible .
Sebastian Vettel slowly moved up the field , running eleventh on lap 18 , only to spin a lap later at turn seven , falling back to 16th . He subsequently complained about a flat spot on his tyre , but continued without pitting . On lap 20 , Sergio Pérez pitted for new tyres and a front wing adjustment . Since the stop took longer than expected , he rejoined just before Sainz , Jr . , who used the momentum to pass Pérez into turn one . Meanwhile , Räikkönen and Bottas were racing for sixth place . On lap 24 , Bottas attacked around the outside into turn two , sticking to the inside line at the following corner , where Räikkönen did not back away and ran into the front @-@ left of the Williams , breaking his own rear @-@ right suspension and forcing him to retire on the spot , while Bottas was able to carry on . Rosberg came in for his scheduled pit stop on lap 27 , while Hamilton waited two laps to follow suit , trying to get ahead . This proved unsuccessful , as he rejoined behind Rosberg after his stop on lap 29 . On lap 35 , Sergio Pérez attempted to overtake Carlos Sainz , Jr. for ninth , who ran wide and kept his position . After his team radio informed him that he had done so by going off track , he handed the position to Pérez . Sebastian Vettel pitted for a second time on lap 37 and rejoined in between the two Mercedes of Rosberg and Hamilton , albeit a lap down . He was told to let Hamilton go by as well some laps later .
On lap 48 , Mercedes changed strategies , bringing in both drivers for another tyre stop , much to the dismay of Lewis Hamilton , who complained to his team over the radio . Meanwhile , a fight developed between Massa and Ricciardo for fifth place , with the latter making the pass at the beginning of lap 53 . On the same lap , Sebastian Vettel spun once more at turn seven , this time hitting the barriers , ending his race and bringing out the safety car . The double retirement marked the first time since the 2006 Australian Grand Prix that none of their cars were classified . During the caution period , the order stood as : Rosberg , Hamilton , Kvyat , Bottas , Ricciardo , Massa , Hülkenberg , Pérez , Verstappen and Grosjean . At the restart at the beginning of lap 58 , Bottas made a move on Kvyat into turn one , taking third place . Over the last laps of the race , Hamilton was able to close on Rosberg , as was Massa on the two Red Bulls ahead of him . However , neither were able to overtake , and Rosberg crossed the finish line to take victory , followed by Hamilton and Bottas .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium ceremony , the interviews were conducted by Nigel Mansell , who had won the last race at the venue in 1992 . Both Mercedes drivers complimented each other 's driving , highlighting the atmosphere and the enthusiasm of the fans in Mexico . Valtteri Bottas thanked his team , saying that they were " racing like a race @-@ winning team " . During the post @-@ race press conference , Lewis Hamilton described it as " one of the fun races for me " , since he did not have to worry about points at that point . However , new frictions emerged at Mercedes as Hamilton later asserted that the team had favoured Rosberg over the weekend in order to " keep him happy " .
Local favourite Sergio Pérez , who had been on a one @-@ stop strategy , said after the race that it had been the safety car period that " destroyed " his chances at a better result , but added : " What I could do , I did perfectly , so I 'm happy with that . " His teammate Nico Hülkenberg had finished the race in front of him , and said after the race : " The Safety Car ended up playing into my hands , which is the little bit of luck you always need to get a good result " . Speaking about the race , 14th @-@ placed Jenson Button said : " Painful , I think , is the word . I was on the harder tyre at the start but still it was just waving goodbye to everyone in front really . " He also stated that he believed that McLaren were more affected by the high altitude than the other teams . On his one @-@ lap outing , Fernando Alonso explained
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) north of Findley Lake . The exit is the westernmost exit on NY 17 ; however , the expressway itself continues west to I @-@ 90 near Erie , Pennsylvania , as I @-@ 86 . Past the expressway , NY 426 continues northwest for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) through nondescript terrain to the Pennsylvania state line , where it becomes the northern segment of PA 426 .
= = History = =
The entirety of NY 426 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as a northward extension of PA 189 , a short route leading south to Corry , Pennsylvania . Originally , NY 426 broke from its modern alignment at French Creek – Mina Road to serve the hamlet of French Creek via French Creek – Mina and King roads before rejoining its current route west of the hamlet . The route was realigned onto its present alignment west of French Creek c . 1936 . In the early 1940s , the 426 designation was extended southward into Pennsylvania as PA 426 . It was also extended northwestward into Pennsylvania in the mid @-@ 1940s , effectively making NY 426 the missing segment of an otherwise discontinuous PA 426 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Chautauqua County .
= Iowa Highway 1 =
Iowa Highway 1 ( Iowa 1 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Iowa that extends from Keosauqua to Anamosa . It travels nearly 120 miles ( 190 km ) , mainly through rich farmland and small communities . Iowa 1 provides an important link to Iowa City and the University of Iowa as it passes through campus . Portions of the route today date back to the late 1830s , when Martin Van Buren was president , making Iowa 1 one of the oldest routes in the state , pre @-@ dating the current primary highway system by nearly eighty years . The highway was seriously damaged by the Cedar River in the Iowa flood of 2008 , which closed the highway for seven weeks .
= = Route description = =
Iowa 1 begins at a T @-@ intersection with Iowa 2 in rural Van Buren County , south of Keosauqua . It passes through gently rolling farmland for ten miles ( 16 km ) before entering the Des Moines River valley adjacent to Lacey @-@ Keosauqua State Park . The highway crosses the Des Moines River and enters Keosauqua along Main Street . At Broad Street , Iowa 1 turned north and headed out of town . Between Keosauqua and the southern junction with Iowa 16 , the highway runs parallel to the Des Moines River , the river 's course bending sharply around Keosauqua . South of Birmingham , Iowa 1 briefly overlaps Iowa 16 for two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . The next seven miles ( 11 km ) run due north passing through Birmingham , before the highway crosses Cedar Creek south of Fairfield .
On the south side of Fairfield , the highway meets the new U.S. Highway 34 ( US 34 ) / Iowa 163 bypass at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Iowa 1 enters Fairfield along Main Street . For one block , Iowa 1 overlaps US 34 Business on Burlington Street before turning onto Second Street . Along Second Street , the highway passes under a BNSF Railway / Amtrak viaduct . North of the viaduct , Iowa 1 turns west for two blocks along Merrill Avenue and turns north again onto Fourth Street . On the northern edge of Fairfield , the highway passes next to Maharishi International University .
North of Fairfield , Iowa 1 passes the Fairfield Municipal Airport and Maharishi Vedic City . For the next nine miles ( 14 km ) , the highway continues due north through Jefferson and Keokuk County . Southeast of Richland , Iowa 1 meets Iowa 78 at a T @-@ intersection . Heading east from this intersection , Iowa 1 and Iowa 78 overlap for seven and a half miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) until entering Brighton on Fountain Street . Iowa 1 splits off to the north onto Benton Street while Iowa 78 turns to the south and east . North of Brighton , it crosses the Skunk River and passes through the river 's one @-@ mile @-@ wide ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) valley . For nine miles ( 14 km ) , Iowa 1 passes through southern Washington County heading northeast towards Washington .
At Washington , Iowa 1 intersects Iowa 92 on the southwestern edge of town . The two highways curve around to the north and split three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) later . Iowa 1 passes through flat farmland before crossing the English River south of Kalona . Iowa 1 skirts the western edge of Kalona and intersects Iowa Highway 22 . It continues north for seven miles ( 11 km ) before turning northeast for eight miles ( 13 km ) more towards Iowa City .
Iowa 1 intersects US 218 and Iowa 27 , the Avenue of the Saints , at a diamond interchange on the southwestern edge of Iowa City . It curves to the north of Iowa City Municipal Airport , intersecting US 6 at Riverside Drive . For three @-@ quarters mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) , Iowa 1 overlaps US 6 on Riverside Drive before crossing the Iowa River in downtown Iowa City . On Burlington Street , Iowa 1 passes the University of Iowa library , the old state capitol , and the Ped Mall . Iowa 1 turns north onto the one @-@ way Governor Street ; Dodge Street handles the accompanying southbound lanes of traffic . The one @-@ way streets rejoin as Dodge Street before intersecting Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) at another diamond interchange .
Iowa 1 continues north through Johnson County for twelve miles ( 19 km ) , passing through Solon . At Solon , it intersects County Road F16 , which provides access to Lake MacBride State Park . Six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) southwest of Mount Vernon , Iowa 1 turns to the northeast , entering Linn County and crossing the Cedar River before entering Mount Vernon , where it intersects US 30 . At First Street , Iowa 1 crosses the Lincoln Highway . On the northern edge of Mount Vernon , Iowa 1 crosses a major Union Pacific Railroad line . Iowa 1 continues north towards Martelle , where it enters Jones County. three and a half miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) northeast of Martelle , Iowa 1 ends at a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 151 .
= = History = =
The current Iowa 1 was designated in the 1920s , extending from Iowa 2 near Keosauqua to Iowa 38 near Rochester . Between Keosauqua and Iowa City , Iowa 1 replaced Primary Road No. 11 ; and between Iowa City and Rochester , it replaced Primary Road No. 74 . In 1962 , Iowa 1 was realigned north of Iowa City replacing Iowa 261 from Anamosa to Iowa City . This section approximately follows part of the route of the territorial and military road from Dubuque to Iowa City . This road , authorized by President Martin Van Buren in 1839 , was known as Dillon 's Furrow , named after Dubuque merchant Lyman Dillon who surveyed the route and marked it with a furrow . Most of the deviations of the route of Iowa 1 from Dillon 's original route are the result of road straightening or bypasses around town centers . The leftover section of Iowa 1 from Iowa City to Iowa 38 , part of the Herbert Hoover Highway , became the unsigned Iowa 979 .
In 1997 , it was announced that parts of US 151 and Iowa 1 would become the first Super two highways in Iowa . A 42 @-@ mile ( 68 km ) section between Washington and US 30 was to be improved in 2002 , but because of funding shortages , the project was scratched .
In the Iowa flood of 2008 , flood waters of the Cedar River caused the closure of Iowa 1 between Solon and Mount Vernon on June 12 , 2008 . Once the floods receded , major damage was left behind . Repair work began on July 11 and was completed by July 30 , 2008 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Lessons ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Lessons " is the 19th episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation and was originally aired in the United States on April 5 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. In " Lessons " , Captain Picard 's ( Patrick Stewart ) shared love of music with Lt. Commander Nella Daren ( Wendy Hughes ) leads to romance , resulting in conflicting emotions on his behalf . After incorrectly believing her to have died , he realises that he is incapable of carrying out a relationship with someone under his command .
The episode was directed by Robert Wiemer , the episode was written by Ron Wilkerson and Jean Louise Matthias , with some uncredited revisions by René Echevarria . Stand @-@ ins were used to perform the pieces by Picard and Daren , which required the use of close @-@ up camera angles by the director . The episode was received warmly by critics reviewing it after the end of the series , who praised the performances of Hughes and Stewart .
= = Plot = =
Picard is irritated that the stellar cartography department has shut down several systems on the Enterprise , and heads down there to find out what is going on . He meets the head of the department , Lt. Commander Nella Daren , who makes an impression on Picard . It is a meeting memorable enough to later discuss with Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) . At a musical recital by Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) , Picard is surprised to see Daren , once again , playing the piano . The two discuss music , and later meet in Picard 's quarters and participate in a duet . Daren plays a portable piano and Picard performs on his Ressikan flute .
The two meet more often ; even in a Jefferies tube , which Daren claims has the best acoustics on the ship . In this private setting , their attraction for one another is expressed in a kiss . The moment of intimacy is fleeting , however . When they enter a turbolift , and are joined by another crewmember , Picard resumes the professional demeanour of Captain . The Enterprise is diverted from its mission , when it is directed to investigate a report of firestorms at a Federation outpost . While in transit , Picard consults Counsellor Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) regarding his actions with Daren . Picard then goes to Daren to apologize and to explain . He recounts an earlier experience in which he was scanned by an alien probe ( previously shown in the episode " The Inner Light " ) . The probe imparted to Picard the life experience of a man named Kamin , on the planet Kataan . As Kamin , Picard had a wife and family , became a grandfather , and grew old . And he learned to play the flute . The probe imparted to Picard a deep appreciation of intimacy and family life , as well as knowledge of the probe 's doomed creators . When the probe shut down , and Picard re @-@ awoke on the bridge of the Enterprise , only a few moments had elapsed . When the probe was dismantled , it contained Kamin 's flute , an object of great significance to Picard .
Daren speaks to Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) requesting a transfer for another crew member to stellar cartography . Riker turns down the request . Afterwards , Riker speaks with Picard , explaining that Picard and Daren 's relationship made the decision complicated . The Enterprise arrives at the Federation outpost to find that firestorms are heading toward the facility . Daren suggests a means of deflecting the storms , but the equipment requires trained personnel on the ground to operate it . Daren is assigned to the surface team , along with a number of other crew .
The outpost is evacuated during the dangerous mission , leaving only the Enterprise away team on surface . The firestorms overwhelm the position that Daren 's team occupies before they can be retrieved . Believing Daren to be dead , Picard sits contemplating his decision in his quarters . He then hears that survivors are being transported aboard , and heads to the transporter room . Daren is not among the initial group of survivors , but is later transported to the ship . Eight members of the team have died . Afterwards , Picard and Daren discuss their relationship . They realize that it cannot continue , as Picard could not bear to put her in danger once more . They discuss giving up their Starfleet careers to be together . Daren realizes that Picard , still cherishing the family life he experienced as Kamin , has nonetheless chosen duty , career , and loneliness . They both know that Daren must transfer off the Enterprise . They kiss once more , and Daren makes Picard promise not to give up music .
= = Production = =
Ron Wilkerson and Jean Louise Matthias had previously written the episodes " Imaginary Friend " and " Schisms " , but in both instances the writing of the teleplay for the initial story idea had been given to a staff writer due to time constraints . Co @-@ executive producer Jeri Taylor instead allowed the pair to write the teleplay for " Lessons " , their first for Star Trek . René Echevarria did some minor uncredited re @-@ writes to the final version of the script as staff @-@ writer Brannon Braga wished to avoid working on " Lessons " after recently working on another love story related script for the episode " Aquiel " . Writer and producer Michael Piller likened " Lessons " to the 1945 Noël Coward film Brief Encounter .
The production crew sought to give Picard a romantic peer and equal in Daren , and were pleased with the actors ' performances . Director Robert Wiemer said that " we had really turned @-@ on performances ... if we 'd had only moderate performances it would have fallen flat " . However , as neither Stewart nor Hughes could play their instruments , it required a number of camera techniques to be used in order to disguise the musicians playing just off screen . Husband and wife duo Natalie and Bryce Martin played the piano and tin whistle respectively to portray Daren and Picard 's abilities . Bryce had played his instrument to represent Picard 's Ressikan flute since it first appeared in " The Inner Light " . However , while Stewart did the majority of his flute fingering , he was doubled in several scenes by Noel Webb and John Mayham . Webb also doubled for Brent Spiner early in the episode when Data was playing Frédéric Chopin 's trio in G minor . A variety of pieces are played throughout the episode , including Frère Jacques , Ludwig van Beethoven 's Piano Sonata No. 14 and Johann Sebastian Bach 's Third Brandenburg Concerto . The " Flute song " by Jay Chattaway , which originally appeared in " The Inner Light " , reappears in this episode .
The firestorm itself was created by Dan Curry and Ronald B. Moore by pouring liquid nitrogen onto black velvet and then blowing it with an air hose . The effect was then enhanced by digital effects and was digitally inserted into the background of the exterior standing set ( usually referred to by cast and crew as " planet hell " ) . " Lessons " was the first appearance of the stellar cartography on board the Enterprise , but the set would be completely replaced for its reappearance in the movie Star Trek Generations .
= = Reception and home media = =
James Van Hise and Hal Schuster wrote in their 1995 book , The Complete Next Generation , that they thought the relationship between Picard and Daren was believable , and that the story itself was very effective . They thought that the loneliness Picard feels at the end of the episode was part of an ongoing story which would culminate in the subplot about Picard 's loneliness in Star Trek Generations .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched Star Trek : The Next Generation after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com , and described the performance of Wendy Hughes as " magnificent " and " never not wonderful " . However , he commented that whenever a double was not used to play the piano , it was obvious that Hughes wasn 't playing . Overall , he appreciated the script and thought that the ending was not contrived ; however , he would have preferred for the episodic structure of The Next Generation to have been changed a little to allow for the romance to be portrayed as a subplot over several episodes . He gave the episode a score of 9 / 10 , saying " this is one of TNG 's best romances and an absolute joy . " DeCandido subsequently named " Lessons " as one of the best episodes of season six , which he said was the best season of the series .
Zack Handlen , who reviewed " Lessons " for The A.V. Club , thought that the episode works because of Patrick Stewart and that the episode was well @-@ handled . He gave " Lessons " a score of B + , saying that he " wasn 't hugely sold on Daren , but when Picard makes a special point of explaining the flute 's significance to her , it helps solidify the connection between them . "
The episode was first released on VHS cassette on August 4 , 1998 . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season six DVD box set , released in the United States on December 3 , 2002 , and on Blu @-@ ray on June 24 , 2014 .
= Battle of Hama =
The Battle of Hama was fought some 24 km from the city of Hama in Syria on 29 – 30 November 903 between the forces of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Qarmatians . The Abbasids were victorious , resulting in the capture and execution of the Qarmatian leadership . This weakened the Qarmatian presence in northern Syria , which was finally eradicated after the suppression of another revolt in 906 . More importantly , it paved the way for the Abbasid attack on the autonomous Tulunid dynasty and the reincorporation of the Tulunid domains in southern Syria and Egypt into the Abbasid Caliphate .
= = Background = =
The Qarmatians were a radical Isma 'ili Shi 'ite sect founded in Kufa around 874 by a certain Hamdan Qarmat . They denounced mainstream Sunni Islam for practices they viewed as deviations from the true teachings of the religion , such as the hajj and the worship of the Kaaba , as well as the dwelling in cities and the marginalization of the Bedouin . Consequently , as they gained adherents , the Qarmatians began assaulting the neighbouring Muslim communities . Originally a sporadic and minor nuisance in the Sawad , their power grew swiftly to alarming proportions after 897 , when they launched a series of uprisings against the Abbasid Caliphate . In this period , the movement was based at Salamiyya on the western edge of the Syrian Desert , and its leadership was assumed by Abu Muhammad Abdallah , the future founder of the Fatimid Caliphate . Abdallah 's claims to be the awaited Mahdi caused a split in the movement in 899 . The majority , including Hamdan Qarmat , rejected the Fatimid claims and leaving to continue their proselytization elsewhere .
The missionary efforts of the remaining Qarmatian movement were redirected beyond the Sawad and quickly bore fruit . Under the leadership of Abu Sa 'id al @-@ Jannabi , they seized Bahrayn in 899 and in the next year defeated a caliphal army under al @-@ Abbas ibn Amr al @-@ Ghanawi . Another base was established in the area around Palmyra by the missionaries Yahya ibn Zikrawayh , known by the name Sahib al @-@ Naqa ( " Master of the She @-@ camel " ) and al @-@ Husayn , probably Yahya 's brother , who took the name Sahib al @-@ Shama ( " Man with the Mole " ) . Both in Bahrayn and in Syria , the Qarmatians were able to convert many local Bedouin — the Banu Kalb in Syria and the Banu Kilab and Banu Uqayl in Bahrayn — to their cause , thus acquiring a potent military force . Threatened by the rise of Qarmatian centres around Salamiyya , Abdallah and his followers soon left and travelled secretly to Ifriqiya , where in 909 they would overthrow the ruling Aghlabids and establish the Fatimid state .
From their base in the region around Palmyra , the Qarmatians began launching raids against the Abbasid and Tulunid provinces of Syria , with devastating effect . In 902 , the Qarmatians defeated the Tulunids under Tughj ibn Juff near al @-@ Raqqah , and laid siege to Damascus . The city was successfully held by Tughj and the Sahib al @-@ Naqa was killed . Leadership passed to the Sahib al @-@ Shama , who led the Qarmatians to ravage Homs , Hama , Ba 'albek , Ma 'arrat al @-@ Numan and even Salamiyya , where they massacred the members of Abdallah 's family that had remained there .
= = Battle = =
In view of the apparent impotence of the Tulunid regime to stop the Qarmatian raids , the Syrians called upon the Abbasid government to intervene directly , and on 30 July 903 , Caliph al @-@ Muktafi commanded that a campaign be undertaken . The campaign was nominally headed by Caliph al @-@ Muktafi in person , who left Baghdad on 9 August and went to al @-@ Raqqah . In mid @-@ August , the Qarmatians under a certain al @-@ Mutawwaq surprised an Abbasid army some 10 @,@ 000 strong near Aleppo , while it was resting and dispersed , with many troops seeking to escape the intense heat in a local river ; the Abbasid troops were routed , and only about a thousand managed to reach the city , where , under the command of Abu al @-@ Agharr , they repulsed the Qarmatian attacks . At about the same time , however , the general Badr al @-@ Hammami inflicted a heavy defeat on the Sahib al @-@ Shama and his men near Damascus . The Qarmatians fled to the desert , and Caliph al @-@ Muktafi sent men under al @-@ Husayn ibn Hamdan to pursue them . While al @-@ Muktafi remained at al @-@ Raqqah , command of the army in the field was given to the head of the department of the army ( dīwān al @-@ jund ) , Muhammad ibn Sulayman al @-@ Katib . On Tuesday , 29 November 903 , the Abbasid army under Muhammad met the Qarmatians at a location some 24 km from Hama . The course of the battle is described in a victory dispatch sent by Muhammad to the caliph afterwards and included in the history of al @-@ Tabari .
According to the latter , on the morning of 29 November , the Abbasid army set out from al @-@ Qarwanah towards al @-@ Aly
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expanded upon by Ken Carpenter in 1997 .
In 2012 , a study showed that cranial pathologies in a P. wyomingensis specimen were likely due to agonistic behavior . It was also proposed that similar damage in other pachycephalosaur specimens previously explained as taphonomic artifacts and bone absorptions may instead have been due to such behavior . Peterson et al . ( 2013 ) studied cranial pathologies among the Pachycephalosauridae and found that 22 % of all domes examined had lesions that are consistent with osteomyelitis , an infection of the bone resulting from penetrating trauma , or trauma to the tissue overlying the skull leading to an infection of the bone tissue . This high rate of pathology lends more support to the hypothesis that pachycephalosaurid domes were employed in intra @-@ specific combat . Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis specimen BMR P2001.4.5 was observed to have 23 lesions in its frontal bone and P. wyomingensis specimen DMNS 469 was observed to have 5 lesions . The frequency of trauma was comparable across the different genera in the pachycephalosaurid family , despite the fact that these genera vary with respect to the size and architecture of their domes , and fact that they existed during varying geologic periods . These findings were in stark contrast with the results from analysis of the relatively flat @-@ headed pachycephalosaurids , where there was an absence of pathology . This would support the hypothesis that these individuals represent either females or juveniles , where intra @-@ specific combat behavior is not expected .
Histological examination reveals that pachycephalosaurid domes are composed of a unique form of fibrolamellar bone which contains fibroblasts that play a critical role in wound healing , and are capable of rapidly depositing bone during remodeling . Peterson et al . ( 2013 ) concluded that taken together , the frequency of lesion distribution and the bone structure of frontoparietal domes , lends strong support to the hypothesis that pachycephalosaurids used their unique cranial structures for agonistic behavior .
= = = Diet = = =
Scientists do not yet know what these dinosaurs ate . Having very small , ridged teeth they could not have chewed tough , fibrous plants as effectively as other dinosaurs of the same period . It is assumed that pachycephalosaurs lived on a mixed diet of leaves , seeds , fruit and insects . The sharp , serrated teeth would have been very effective for shredding plants .
= = Paleoecology = =
Nearly all Pachycephalosaurus fossils have been recovered from the Lance Formation and Hell Creek Formation of the western United States . Pachycephalosaurus possibly co @-@ existed alongside additional pachycephalosaur species of the genera Sphaerotholus , Dracorex and Stygimoloch , though these may represent juveniles of Pachycephalosaurus itself , though Sphaerotholus is regarded as a valid species . Other dinosaurs that shared its time and place include Thescelosaurus , the hadrosaurid Edmontosaurus and a possible species of Parasaurolophus , ceratopsids like Triceratops , Torosaurus , Nedoceratops , Tatankaceratops and Leptoceratops , ankylosaurids Ankylosaurus , nodosaurids Denversaurus and Edmontonia , and the theropods Acheroraptor , Dakotaraptor , Ornithomimus , Struthiomimus , Anzu , Leptorhynchos , Troodon , Pectinodon , Paronychodon , Richardoestesia and Tyrannosaurus .
= = In Popular Culture = =
Pachycephalosaurus has often appeared appeared in books and television media , and has been featured throughout several installments of the Jurassic Park franchise and related media , particularly Michael Crichton 's The Lost World ( Crichton novel ) and its film adaptation , The Lost World : Jurassic Park , in which it was portrayed as being only as large as the much smaller Stegoceras , its close relative . Pachycephalosaurus will also have a starring role as one of the four main playable dinosaurs in the simulation game Saurian ( video game ) .
= Battle of Kettle Creek =
The Battle of Kettle Creek ( February 14 , 1779 ) was a major encounter in the back country of Georgia during the American Revolutionary War . It was fought in Wilkes County about eight miles ( 13 km ) from present @-@ day Washington , Georgia . A militia force of Patriots decisively defeated and scattered a Loyalist militia force that was on its way to British @-@ controlled Augusta .
The victory demonstrated the inability of British forces to hold the interior of the state , or to protect even sizable numbers of Loyalist recruits outside their immediate protection . The British , who had already decided to abandon Augusta , recovered some prestige a few weeks later , surprising a Patriot force in the Battle of Brier Creek . Georgia 's back country would not come fully under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston broke Patriot forces in the South .
= = Background = =
The British began their " southern strategy " by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine , East Florida to capture the port of Savannah , Georgia in late 1778 . The New York expedition , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell , arrived first , landing at Tybee Island on December 3 , 1778 , and successfully captured Savannah on December 29 , 1778 .
= = = British occupation of Augusta = = =
When British Brigadier General Augustine Prevost arrived from Saint Augustine in mid @-@ January , he assumed command of the garrison there and sent a force under Campbell to take control of Augusta and raise Loyalist forces .
Leaving Savannah on January 24 , Campbell and more than 1 @,@ 000 men arrived near Augusta a week later , with only minimal harassment from Georgia Patriot militia on the way . Augusta had been defended by South Carolina General Andrew Williamson leading about 1 @,@ 000 militia from Georgia and South Carolina , but he withdrew most of his men when Campbell approached . His rear guard briefly skirmished with Campbell 's men before withdrawing across the Savannah River into South Carolina .
Campbell started recruiting Loyalists . By February 10 , 1779 , about 1 @,@ 100 men signed up , but relatively few actually formed militia companies , forming only 20 companies of the British Army . Campbell then began requiring oaths of loyalty , on pain of forfeiture of property ; many took this oath insincerely , quickly letting Williamson know their true feelings . Early in his march , Campbell dispatched Major John Hamilton to recruit Loyalists in Wilkes County and Lt. Colonel John Boyd on an expedition to raise Loyalists in the backcountry of North and South Carolina . Boyd met with success and recruited several hundred men . As he traveled south back toward Augusta , more Loyalists joined his company until it numbered over 600 men in central South Carolina . As this column moved on , the men plundered and pillaged along the way , predictably drawing angered Patriots to take up arms .
= = = American response = = =
The Continental Army commander in the South , Major General Benjamin Lincoln , based in Charleston , South Carolina , had been unable to respond adequately to the capture of Savannah . With only limited resources ( he was short of both men and funds ) , he was able to raise about 1 @,@ 400 South Carolina militia , but did not have authorization to order them outside the state . On January 30 , he was further reinforced at Charleston by the arrival of 1 @,@ 100 North Carolina militia under General John Ashe . These he immediately dispatched to join Williamson on the South Carolina side of the Savannah River near Augusta .
The Georgia banks of the Savannah in the Augusta area were controlled by a Loyalist force led by Colonel Daniel McGirth , while the South Carolina banks were controlled by a Georgia Patriot militia led by Colonel John Dooly . When about 250 South Carolina militia under Colonel Andrew Pickens arrived , Pickens and Dooly joined forces to conduct offensive operations into Georgia , with Pickens taking overall command . They were at some point joined by a few companies of North Carolina light horse militia .
On February 10 , Pickens and Dooly crossed the Savannah River to attack a British Army camp southeast of Augusta . Finding the camp unoccupied , they learned that the company was out on an extended patrol . Suspecting they would head for a stockaded frontier post called Carr 's Fort , Pickens sent men directly there while the main body chased after the British . The British made it into the fort , but were forced to abandon their horses and baggage outside its walls . Pickens then besieged the fort until he learned that Boyd was passing through the Ninety Six district of South Carolina with seven to eight hundred Loyalists , headed for Georgia . He reluctantly raised the siege and moved to intercept Boyd .
Pickens established a strong presence near the mouth of the Broad River , where he expected Boyd might try to cross . However , Boyd , his force grown by then to 800 men , chose to go to the north . He first tried Cherokee Ford , the southernmost fording of the Savannah River , where he was met with some resistance known as the Engagement at McGowen 's Blockhouse . The encounter consisted of a detachment of eight Patriots commanded by Capt. Robert Anderson with two small swivel guns in an entrenched position , who thwarted Boyd 's approach to Cherokee Ford . Boyd moved north upstream about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) and crossed the Savannah River there , skirmishing with a small Patriot force that had shadowed his movements on the Georgia side . Boyd reported losing 100 men , killed , wounded , or deserted , in the encounter .
By the time Pickens learned that Boyd had crossed the river , he had himself crossed into South Carolina in an attempt to intercept Boyd . He immediately recrossed into Georgia upon learning of Boyd 's whereabouts . On February 14 , Pickens caught up with Boyd when he paused to rest his troops near Kettle Creek , only a few miles from Colonel McGirth 's Loyalist camp .
= = Battle = =
Boyd was apparently unaware that he was being followed so closely , and his camp , even though guards were posted , was not particularly alert . Pickens advanced , leading the center , with his right flank under Colonel Dooly and his left under Georgia Lieutenant Colonel Elijah Clarke . Gunfire between Patriot scouts and the camp guards alerted Boyd to the situation . Boyd formed a defensive line near the camp 's rear and advanced with a force of 100 men to oppose Pickens at a crude breastwork made of fencing and fallen trees . Pickens , whose advance gave him the advantage of high ground , was able to flank this position , even though his own wings were slowed by the swampy conditions near the creek . In heavy fighting , Boyd went down with a mortal wound , and the small company retreated back to the main Loyalist line .
The Patriot flanks then began to emerge from the swamps . The Loyalists , led by Boyd 's second in command , Major William Spurgen , engaged the Patriots in battle for 90 minutes . Some of the Loyalists crossed the creek , abandoning horses and equipment . Clarke alertly noticed some high ground across the creek that they seemed to be heading for and led some of his men there , having his horse shot from under him in the process . The Loyalist line was eventually broken , and its men were killed , captured , or dispersed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Treatment of prisoners = = =
Pickens took 75 prisoners , including most of the wounded , and between 40 and 70 Loyalists were killed . He suffered 7 to 9 killed and 14 @-@ 23 wounded or missing in the battle . Many of Boyd 's men ( including some that escaped the battlefield and others that Pickens paroled ) returned home . A significant number were either captured or surrendered themselves to Patriot authorities in the days following the battle , and the fate of some of his men is unknown . Lieutenant Colonel Campbell reported that 270 of Boyd 's recruits eventually joined him . He organized them into the Royal North Carolina Regiment .
When Pickens approached the mortally wounded Boyd after the battle , the Loyalist leader , who had lived in South Carolina before the war and was known to Pickens , asked the Patriot leader to deliver a brooch to his wife and inform her of his fate . This , Pickens eventually did .
Of the Loyalist prisoners , only about 20 survived their wounds . Pickens first took them to Augusta , and then Ninety Six , where they were held along with a large number of other Loyalists . Seeking to make an example of them , South Carolina authorities put a number of these Loyalists on trial for treason . About 50 of them were convicted , and five men , including some of the men captured at Kettle Creek , were hanged . British military leaders were outraged over this treatment of what they considered prisoners of war , even before the trial was held . General Prevost threatened retaliation against Patriot prisoners he was holding , but did not act out of fear that other American @-@ held British prisoners might be mistreated . His invasion of coastal South Carolina in April 1779 , a counter @-@ thrust against movements by General Lincoln to recover Georgia , prompted South Carolina officials to vacate most of the convictions .
= = = British reaction = = =
In a council held in Augusta on February 12 , Campbell decided to abandon Augusta and began the withdrawal to Savannah on February 14 at 2AM , the morning of the battle . Contrary to opinions expressed by some historians , Campbell did not leave because of the battle 's outcome . He did not learn of the battle until after he had already left Augusta ; his departure was prompted by the arrival of 1 @,@ 200 of patriot General John Ashe 's forces in General Andrew Williamson 's camp across the Savannah River , a shortage of provisions , and uncertainty over whether Boyd would be successful in his mission . The success of Kettle Creek was undone to some extent by the subsequent British victory at the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek , which took place during Campbell 's retreat in present @-@ day Screven County .
Augusta was latter recaptured by the British in June 1780 after Patriot forces collapsed in the aftermath of the Siege of Charleston . It was retaken by siege by Patriot forces on June 5 , 1781 .
= = Legacy = =
The Kettle Creek Battlefield has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Most of the battlefield is owned by Wilkes County , although the full extent of locations where the action took place has not been identified . It is located off Tyrone Road in Wilkes County .
= Battle of Byczyna =
The Battle of Byczyna or Battle of Pitschen ( German : Pitschen ; Polish : Byczyna ) was the deciding battle of the 1587 – 1588 War of the Polish Succession , which erupted after two rival candidates were elected to the Polish throne . Both sides had rough parity in forces , with armies about 6 @,@ 000 strong , divided roughly into half infantry and half cavalry . The battle was an overwhelming victory of the Polish @-@ Swedish faction , led by the Swedish @-@ born king @-@ elect Sigismund III Vasa , over the army of his rival to the throne , Maximilian III , Archduke of Austria . Taking place near the Silesian town of Pitschen ( modern Byczyna ) , then just a few kilometres outside the territory of Poland @-@ Lithuania , on 24 January 1588 , Sigismund 's supporters were commanded by Chancellor and Great Crown Hetman Jan Zamoyski . Besides the commanders , notable participants included Stanisław Stadnicki on the Maximilian 's side , and Stanisław Żółkiewski on Sigismund 's . The army of the Polish @-@ Austrian ( or Habsburg ) faction was largely annihilated , the Archduke was captured and his cause came to an abrupt end . He subsequently renounced his claim to the Polish throne .
= = Background = =
In 1586 , following the death of previous Polish king , Stefan Batory , the Swedish duke Sigismund III Vasa and Habsburg Maximilian III , Archduke of Austria took part in the election to the joint Polish – Lithuanian throne . Each of the two candidates had supporters in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth with the two opposing sides gathered around pro @-@ Sigismund Chancellor and Great Crown Hetman Jan Zamoyski and the Primate of Poland , Stanisław Karnkowski on one side and the pro @-@ Maximilain Zborowski family on the other . The rivalry between Zamoyski and the Zborowski family dated years past and tensions during the elections ran high .
Sigismund , supported by Zamoyski and the former king 's wife , Anna Jagiellon , was elected King of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth on 19 August 1587 and recognized as such by the interrex , the Primate Karnkowski . The election was disputed , however , by Maximilian and opponents of Sigismund chose not to respect the election outcome , decreeing that Maximilian was the rightful monarch three days later on 22 August . The Zborowski family called for the rokosz ( legitimate right to rebel ) and the election ended in chaos , with several killed and many wounded . For both Zamoyski and the Zborowski family , losing was not an option , as they knew the losing side would likely pay a severe price , from confiscations and a loss of prestige to a possible death sentence for treason .
Neither Sigismund nor Maximilian were present in the Commonwealth at that time . After receiving news of the election , both Sigismund and Maximilan made haste for Poland . Sigismund arrived at Danzig ( Gdańsk ) on 28 September and , after approximately two weeks , he had departed to Kraków , where he arrived on 9 December and was crowned on 27 December .
Maximilian attempted to resolve the dispute by bringing a military force to Poland , thereby starting the War of the Polish Succession . After a failed attempt to take Kraków in late 1587 , successfully defended by Zamoyski , he retreated to gather more reinforcements but was pursued by the forces loyal to Sigismund . Zamoyski at first wanted to avoid a large battle , as he hoped for more reinforcements and supplies , but , when it became apparent that Maximilian would be reinforced first , he decided to press an attack . He also received the king 's and royal permission to cross the borders and attack Maximilian in Silesia . Zamoyski divided his army into several regiments that were able to march quickly , at approximately 24 kilometers a day . He reformed his army after a week near Częstochowa . In the meantime , on 22 January 1588 , Maximilian crossed the border into his own territory , towards Byczyna ( Pitschen ) .
= = Opposing forces = =
Each side had comparable forces : Maximilan had about 6 @,@ 500 men , about half of which ( 3 @,@ 290 ) were infantry . His forces consisted primarily of Silesians , Hungarians and Moravians . , with artillery consisting of four heavy and a dozen or so lighter pieces . Zamoyski 's forces numbered about 6 @,@ 000 , including 3 @,@ 700 cavalry , 2 @,@ 300 infantry , and several cannon . Maximilian 's Polish supporters included 600 cavalry under the command of the " devil of Łańcut " Stanisław Stadnicki . Another of Maximilan 's notable Polish supporters at the battle was the poet Adam Czahrowski . Overall Maximilan 's forces held the advantage in infantry , while Zamoyski 's was in cavalry . The Poles favored the cavalry , which had supreme mobility and used the effective charging tactics , but also meant that their infantry was geared too much towards cavalry support .
= = The battle = =
On the night of 24 January the Archduke 's army took positions east of the small town of Byczyna on the royal road leading into Poland . They felt secure in their camp , on the Habsburg side of the border , and did not expect the Poles to cross . Zamoyski marshaled his forces into three lines and was able to position them at an angle to the opponent 's line .
The exact position of the Polish Army is unknown , but part of the Polish right flank , moving quietly in the dense mist , encircled Maximilian 's left flank . After the mist began to clear the Archduke realized his force was being flanked and his retreat to Byczyna was threatened . He ordered an attack , but a miscommunication of his orders confused part of his army and the Hungarian regiment began to retreat . The Polish left wing , under command of future Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski , dispersed the opposing units . The battle saw more infantry action than many others of the Commonwealth but , even so , the Polish cavalry ( Polish winged hussars ) played a major part . The battle began with some duels between elears ( cavalry champions ) , soon followed by Polish cavalry charges , on the left flank and in the center , which did not result in any significant breakthroughs for either side . Zamoyski is said to have commanded the battle very well , turning it at several points . Eventually a Polish hussar counterattack on the left flank mauled Maximilan 's Hungarian cavalry and forced his army to start giving ground . The bloody retreat quickly turned into a general rout during which the Archduke 's army suffered heavy casualties .
The entire battle lasted approximately one to two hours . Maximilian took refuge in Byczyna , but the Poles took control of his artillery and turned the guns on the town . Before the Polish forces began their assault , Maximilian surrendered and was taken prisoner . The battle , therefore , ended up being the decisive victory for the Polish @-@ Swedish faction .
= = Aftermath = =
Exact casualties are unknown , but the Archduke 's army suffered heavier losses , estimated at about 2 @,@ 000 , whereas the Poles lost about 1 @,@ 000 men . Żółkiewski captured an enemy standard , but received a knee wound which lamed him for life . After the intervention of a papal envoy Maximilian was released , but only after spending thirteen months as a " guest " of Zamoyski . In the Treaty of Bytom and Będzin ( signed on 9 March 1589 ) Maximilian was to renounce the Polish crown and Rudolf II , Holy Roman Emperor had to pledge not to make any alliances against Poland with the Muscovy or Sweden . The town of Lubowla , taken early in the conflict by Maximilian , was returned to Poland . Upon his return to Vienna he failed to honor his pledge and renounce his claim to the Polish crown and would not do so until 1598 .
= Stan Coveleski =
Stanley Anthony Coveleski ( born Stanislaus Kowalewski , July 13 , 1889 – March 20 , 1984 ) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher during the 1910s and 1920s who primarily threw the spitball . In 14 seasons in the American League ( AL ) , Coveleski pitched for the Philadelphia Athletics , Cleveland Indians , Washington Senators and New York Yankees . In 450 career games , Coveleski pitched 3 @,@ 082 innings and posted a win – loss record of 215 – 142 , with 224 complete games , 38 shutouts , and a 2 @.@ 89 earned run average ( ERA ) . He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1969 .
Born in Shamokin , Pennsylvania , Coveleski began playing professional baseball in 1908 , following in the footsteps of his brother , Harry Coveleski . He played mostly for the Lancaster Red Roses until he made his major league debut with the Athletics in 1912 . Following three more seasons in the minor leagues , he stayed in the major leagues after signing with the Indians in 1916 . During his nine seasons with the Indians , his accomplishments included winning three games during the 1920 World Series .
After his time with the Indians ended , Coveleski spent three seasons with the Senators and one with the Yankees before retiring after the 1928 season . He retired to South Bend , Indiana , where he died in 1984 . A starting pitcher , Coveleski specialized in throwing the spitball , a pitch where the ball is altered with a foreign substance such as chewing tobacco . It was legal when his career began and outlawed in 1920 , but he was one of 17 pitchers permitted to continue throwing the pitch .
= = Early years = =
Stanislaus Anthony Kowalewski was the youngest of five baseball @-@ playing brothers in the coal @-@ mining community of Shamokin , Pennsylvania . His oldest brother Jacob died serving in the Spanish – American War ; his other brothers Frank and John also played baseball , but never reached the major leagues . His older brother , Harry Coveleski , later won 20 games in a season on three occasions during his major league career .
Like many his age in the Shamokin area , Coveleski began work as a " breaker boy " at a local colliery at the age of 12 . In return for 72 hours of labor per week , Coveleski received $ 3 @.@ 75 , or about five cents an hour . " There was nothing strange in those days about a twelve @-@ year @-@ old Polish kid working in the mines for 72 hours a week at a nickel an hour " , he later recalled . " What was strange is that I ever got out of there " . Coveleski was rarely able to play baseball as a child due to his work schedule .
Nevertheless , he worked on his pitching skills during the evenings , when he threw stones at a tin can placed 50 feet away . When he was 18 years old , Coveleski 's abilities caught the attention of the local semi @-@ professional ball club , which invited him to pitch for them . " When it came to throwing a baseball , why it was easy to pitch " , Coveleski recalled . " After all , the plate 's a lot bigger than a tin can to throw at " . His baseball career in Shamokin was short @-@ lived ; after five games , Coveleski relocated to Lancaster , Pennsylvania .
= = Philadelphia Athletics and minor leagues = =
Coveleski signed his first professional contract in 1909 with the minor league Lancaster Red Roses , a club affiliated with the Tri @-@ State League . Originally reluctant to sign for the club , he only agreed to do so if his older brother John also joined ; at that time he anglicized his name , changing it to Coveleskie , which it would remain throughout his professional career . During his first trip to Lancaster , he recalled that it was " the first time I ever rode on a train " , and he added that he " was too shy to eat in the hotel with the rest of the team " . In 272 innings of work his first season , Coveleski had a 23 – 11 win @-@ loss record with an earned run average of 1 @.@ 95 . He pitched two more seasons for Lancaster , earning a record of 53 – 38 in 109 appearances through three seasons .
In 1912 , he pitched for the relocated Lancaster team , the Atlantic City
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lasting 18 days , the Belgian military , along with its commander @-@ in @-@ chief Leopold III , surrendered on 28 May . Belgium , together with the French province of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , were grouped together under the German Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France ( Militärverwaltung in Belgien und Nordfrankreich ) . Because the country was under military occupation , it initially fell under the control of the Wehrmacht rather than Nazi Party or Schutzstaffel ( SS ) authorities . In July 1944 , the Militärverwaltung was replaced with a civilian administration ( Zivilverwaltung ) , greatly increasing the power of the more radical Nazi Party and SS organisations until the Allied liberation in September 1944 .
= = The Holocaust = =
= = = Early discrimination and persecution , 1940 @-@ 41 = = =
On 23 October 1940 , the German Military Administration adopted anti @-@ Jewish legislation for the first time . The new laws , similar to the Nuremberg Laws adopted in Germany in 1935 , coincided with the adoption of similar legislation in the Netherlands and in France . The laws of 28 October forbade Jews to practice certain professions ( including the civil service ) and forced Jews to register with their local municipality . On the same date , the German administration announced a definition of who was regarded as Jewish . Jewish @-@ owned shops or businesses had to be marked by a sign in the window , and Jewish @-@ owned economic assets had to be registered . From June 1940 , a list of Jewish businesses had already been drawn up in Liège .
In 1940 , the German government began to liquidate Jewish businesses . Some were transferred to German ownership in a process termed Aryanization . Some 6 @,@ 300 Jewish @-@ owned businesses were liquidated before 1942 , and 600 were Aryanized . Around 600 million Belgian francs was raised from the seizures , much less than anticipated .
In total , between 28 October 1940 and 21 September 1942 , 17 anti @-@ Jewish ordinances were proclaimed by the Military Administration .
= = = = Association des Juifs en Belgique = = = =
The " Association of Jews in Belgium " ( AJB ) was a Judenrat created by the Germans to administer the Jewish population of Belgium from November 1941 . Though directed by the Germans , the AJB was run by Jews and acted as an " organizational ghetto " , allowing the Nazis to deal with Belgian Jews as a unit . The AJB played a major role in registering Jews in the country . In total , 43 @,@ 000 Jews were registered with the AJB . This number represents only half of the total Jewish population , reflecting the community 's mistrust of the organization , but it was the figure that SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann presented as the total number of Jews in Belgium at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942 .
During the deportations , around 10 @,@ 000 Jews were arrested based on their affiliation to the AJB . The AJB , closely supervised by the SiPo @-@ SD ( Sicherheitspolizei und Sicherheitsdienst ; " Security Police and Intelligence Service " ) , was also responsible for the administration of the transit camp at Mechelen . The AJB played a major role in persuading Jews to turn up voluntarily for deportation , though whether they knew the fate awaiting the deportees is disputed . From 1942 , following the assassination by the Resistance of Robert Holzinger , an AJB leader , confidence in the association declined and it was regarded with increasing suspicion .
After the war , the leaders of the AJB were tried and acquitted of complicity in the Holocaust .
= = = Radicalisation , 1941 @-@ 42 = = =
= = = = Antwerp Pogrom = = = =
On 14 April 1941 , after watching the German propaganda film Der Ewige Jude , Flemish paramilitaries from the Volksverwering , VNV and Algemeene @-@ SS Vlaanderen began a pogrom in the city of Antwerp . The mob , armed with iron bars , attacked and burned two synagogues in the city and threw the Torah scrolls onto the street . They then attacked the home of Marcus Rottenburg , the town 's chief rabbi . The police and fire brigade were summoned , but they were forbidden to intervene by the German authorities .
= = = = Yellow badge = = = =
As in the rest of occupied Europe , compulsory wearing of the yellow badge was enforced from 27 May 1942 . The Belgian version of the badge depicted a black letter " J " ( standing for " Juif " in French and " Jood " in Dutch ) in the centre of a yellow star of David . The star had to be displayed prominently on all outer clothing when in public and there were harsh penalties for non @-@ compliance . The decree sparked public outrage in Belgium . At great personal risk , the Belgian civil authorities in Brussels and Liège refused to distribute the badge , buying time for many Jews to go into hiding .
The German authorities in Antwerp attempted to enforce the wearing of badges in 1940 , but the policy was dropped when non @-@ Jewish citizens protested and wore the armbands themselves .
= = = Deportation and extermination , 1942 @-@ 44 = = =
From August 1942 , the Germans began deporting Jews , using Arbeitseinsatz ( " recruitment for work " ) in German factories as a pretext . Around half of the Jews turned up voluntarily ( though coerced by the German authorities ) for transportation although round @-@ ups were begun in late July . Later in the war , the Germans increasingly relied on the police to arrest or round up Jews by force .
The first convoy from Belgium , carrying stateless Jews , left Mechelen transit camp for Auschwitz on 4 August 1942 and was soon followed by others . These trains left for extermination camps in Eastern Europe . Between October 1942 and January 1943 , deportations were temporarily halted ; by this time 16 @,@ 600 people have been deported on 17 rail convoys . As the result of Queen Elisabeth 's intervention with the German authorities , all of those deported in this first wave were not Belgian citizens . In 1943 , the deportations resumed . By the time that deportations to extermination camps had begun , however , nearly 2 @,@ 250 Belgian Jews had already been deported as forced laborers for Organisation Todt , a civil and military engineering group , which was working on the construction of the Atlantic Wall in Northern France .
In September , armed Devisenschutzkommando ( DSK ; " Currency protection command " ) units raided homes to seize valuables and personal belongings as the occupants were preparing to report to the transit camp , and in the same month , Jews with Belgian citizenship were deported for the first time . DSK units relied on networks of informants , who were paid between 100 and 200 Belgian francs for each person they betrayed . After the war , the collaborator Felix Lauterborn stated in his trial that 80 per cent of arrests in Antwerp used information from paid informants . In total , 6 @,@ 000 Jews were deported in 1943 , with another 2 @,@ 700 in 1944 . Transports were halted by the deteriorating situation in occupied Belgium before the liberation .
The percentages of Jews which were deported varied by location . It was highest in Antwerp , with 67 per cent deported , but lower in Brussels ( 37 per cent ) , Liège ( 35 per cent ) and Charleroi ( 42 per cent ) . The main destination for the convoys was Auschwitz in German @-@ occupied Poland . Smaller numbers were sent to Buchenwald and Ravensbrück concentration camps , as well as Vittel concentration camp in France .
In total , 25 @,@ 437 Jews were deported from Belgium . Only 1 @,@ 207 of these survived the war . Amongst those deported and killed was the surrealist artist Felix Nussbaum in 1944 .
= = Belgian collaboration in the Holocaust = =
Members of Belgian fascist political parties actively attempted to assist in the deportation of Jews . The VNV and Algemeene @-@ SS Vlaanderen encouraged the deportations , while an association known as La Défense du Peuple / Volksverwering ( " The People 's Defence " ) was specially formed to bring together Belgian anti @-@ Semites and to assist in the deportations . During the early stages of the occupation , they campaigned for harsher anti @-@ Jewish laws . Both Rex and the VNV routinely published anti @-@ Semitic articles in their party newspapers .
Although the Belgian civil authorities ( especially the police and security service ) were officially forbidden to assist the German authorities in anything other than routine maintenance of order , several incidents occurred where individual policemen or police sections assisted in the German arrest of Jews , against orders . In Antwerp , the Belgian authorities facilitated the conscription of Jews for forced labour in France in 1941 and aided in the rounding up of Jews in August 1942 after the SiPo @-@ SD threatened to imprison local officials in Fort Breendonk . Outside Antwerp , the Germans used coercion to force the Belgian police to intervene , and in Brussels at least three police officers disobeyed orders and helped arrest Jews . The historian Insa Meinen argued that around a fifth of the Jews arrested in Belgium were rounded up by the Belgian police .
Nevertheless , the general refusal of the Belgian police to assist in the Holocaust has been cited as a reason for the comparatively high survival rate of Belgian Jews during the Holocaust .
= = Belgian opposition to Jewish persecution = =
Belgian resistance to the treatment of Jews crystallised between August – September 1942 , following the passing of legislation regarding wearing yellow badges and the start of the deportations . When deportations began , Jewish partisans destroyed records of Jews compiled by the AJB . The first organization specifically devoted to hiding Jews , the Comité de Défense des Juifs ( CDJ @-@ JVD ) , was formed in the summer of 1942 . The CDJ , a left @-@ wing organization , may have saved up to 4 @,@ 000 children and 10 @,@ 000 adults by finding them safe hiding places . It produced two Yiddish language underground newspapers , Unzer Wort ( אונזער @-@ ווארט , " Our Word " , with a Labour @-@ Zionist stance ) and Unzer Kamf ( אונזער קאמף , " Our Fight " , with a Communist one ) . The CDJ was only one of dozens of organised resistance groups that provided support to hidden Jews . Other groups and individual resistance members were responsible for finding hiding places and providing food and forged papers . Many Jews in hiding went on to join organised resistance groups . Groups from left wing backgrounds , like the Front de l 'Indépendance ( FI @-@ OF ) , were particularly popular with Belgian Jews . The Communist @-@ inspired Partisans Armés ( PA ) had a particularly large Jewish section in Brussels .
The resistance was responsible for the assassination of Robert Holzinger , the head of the deportation program , in 1942 . Holzinger , an active collaborator , was an Austrian Jew selected by the Germans for the role . The assassination led to a change in leadership of the AJB . Five Jewish leaders , including the head of the AJB , were arrested and interned in Breendonk , but were released after public outcry . A sixth was deported directly to Auschwitz .
The Belgian resistance was unusually well informed on the fate of the deported Jews . In August 1942 ( two months after the start of the Belgian deportations ) , the underground newspaper De Vrijschutter reported that " They [ the deported Jews ] are being killed in groups by gas , and others are killed by salvos of machinegun fire . "
In early 1943 , the Front de l 'Indépendance sent Victor Martin , an academic economist at the Catholic University of Louvain , to gather information on the fate of deported Belgian Jews using the cover of his research post at the University of Cologne . Martin visited Auschwitz and witnessed the crematoria . Arrested by the Germans , he escaped , and was able to report his findings to the CDJ in May 1943 .
= = = Attack on the 20th transport = = =
The best @-@ known Belgian resistance action during the Holocaust was the attack on the 20th rail convoy to Auschwitz . In the evening of 19 April 1943 , three poorly armed members of the resistance attacked the railway convoy as it passed near Haacht in Flemish Brabant . The train , containing over 1 @,@ 600 Jews , was guarded by 16 Germans from the SiPo @-@ SD . Resistance members used a lantern covered with red paper ( a danger signal ) to stop the train , and freed 17 prisoners from one wagon before they were discovered by the Germans . A further 200 managed to jump from the train later in the journey , as the train 's Belgian driver deliberately kept his speed low to allow others to escape . All three resistance members responsible for the attack were arrested before the end of the occupation . Youra Livchitz was executed and Jean Franklemon and Robert Maistriau were deported to concentration camps but survived the war .
The attack on the 20th train was the only attack on a Holocaust train from Belgium during the war , as well as the only transport from Belgium to experience a mass breakout .
= = = Passive resistance = = =
The treatment of Jews by the Germans led to public resistance in Belgium . In June 1942 , the representative of the German Foreign Ministry in Brussels , Werner von Bargen , complained the Belgians did not exhibit " sufficient understanding " of Nazi racial policy .
The Belgian underground newspaper La Libre Belgique called for Belgian citizens to make small gestures to show their disgust at the Nazi racial policy . In August 1942 , the paper called for Belgians to " Greet them [ the Jews ] in passing ! Offer them your seat on the tram ! Protest against the barbaric measures that are being applied to them . That 'll make the Boches furious ! "
Discrimination against Jews was condemned by many high @-@ profile figures in the occupied country . As early as October 1940 , the senior Catholic clergyman in Belgium , Cardinal Jozef @-@ Ernest van Roey , condemned the German policy and particularly the legislation from 1942 .
Van Roey made many of the church 's resources available for hiding Jews , but was prevented from publicly condemning the treatment of the Jews by his peers , who feared a Nazi repression of the Church . German attempts to involve the Belgian authorities and local government in its implementation began to arouse protest from 1942 . The Committee of Secretary @-@ Generals , a panel of Belgian senior civil servants tasked with implementing German demands , refused from the outset to enforce anti @-@ Jewish legislation . In June 1942 , a conference of the 19 mayors of the Greater Brussels region refused to allow its officials to distribute yellow badges to Jews in their districts . At great personal risk , the mayors , led by Joseph Van De Meulebroeck , sent a letter protesting the decree to the German authorities on 5 June . The refusal of Brussels ' council , and later that of the city of Liège , to distribute badges allowed many Jews to go into hiding before the deportations began .
In the same year , members of the AJB met with Queen Elisabeth to appeal for her support against the deportations . She appealed to the Military Governor of Belgium , General Alexander von Falkenhausen , who sent Eggert Reeder , his deputy and head of the non @-@ military aspects of the administration , to Berlin to clarify the policy with Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler . The SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( RSHA ; " Reich Main Security Office " ) made concessions to Elisabeth , allowing Jews with Belgian citizenship to be exempt from deportation , and Jewish families would not be broken up . The RSHA also agreed not to deport Jewish men over the age of 65 and women over 60 , after Belgian protests that they would be too old to be used as forced labor .
= = Legacy and remembrance = =
In the aftermath of the war , emigration to Israel further decreased the Jewish population of Belgium , which as of 2011 was estimated at between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 . The population is still concentrated in Brussels and Antwerp , but new smaller communities ( such as those in Ghent , Knokke , Waterloo and Arlon ) have developed since 1945 . Notable Belgian Holocaust survivors include François Englert , a joint recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013 , and Paul Lévy , a well @-@ known journalist ( who converted to Christianity ) who was also responsible for the design of the European flag .
Since the passing of the Holocaust denial law in 1995 , it is illegal to deny or attempt to justify the Holocaust . The act follows the Belgian Anti @-@ Racism Law , passed in 1981 , which led to the establishment of the Centre for Equal Opportunities and Opposition to Racism , which researches racism and anti @-@ Semitism in Belgium as well as aiding victims of discrimination . Breendonk and Dossin Barracks ( at the site of the former Mechelen transit camp ) are preserved as museums to the Holocaust and to German repression in Belgium during the occupation .
In 2004 , the Belgian Senate commissioned the Centre for Historical Research and Documentation on War and Contemporary Society ( Cegesoma ) to produce a definitive historical report on Belgian collaboration in the Holocaust . The report , entitled " Docile Belgium " ( La Belgique Docile / Gewillig België ) , was published in 2007 . It generated significant public interest in Belgium and abroad . The report 's findings were controversial , as they emphasised the extent to which the Belgian police and authorities had collaborated in the deportation of Jews .
As of 2013 , a total of 1 @,@ 612 Belgians have been awarded the distinction of Righteous Among the Nations by the State of Israel for risking their lives to save Jews from persecution during the occupation .
= Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Baxter Healthcare Pty Ltd =
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission v Baxter Healthcare Pty Ltd ( Baxter ) was a decision of the High Court of Australia , which ruled on 29 August 2007 that Baxter Healthcare Proprietary Limited , a tenderer for various government contracts , was bound by the Trade Practices Act 1974 ( TPA , Australian legislation governing anti @-@ competitive behaviour ) in its trade and commerce in tendering for government contracts . More generally , the case concerned the principles of derivative governmental immunity : whether the immunity of a government from a statute extends to third parties that conduct business with the government .
The High Court 's judgment marked a successful appeal for the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission , the Australian regulator of anti @-@ competitive conduct , having lost at first instance and on appeal in the Federal Court of Australia . The ACCC was again successful when the case was remitted to the Federal Court for reconsideration , ending eight years of litigation between the parties . The High Court 's judgment was received as a significant precedent in the law of derivative governmental immunity in Australia .
= = Background = =
= = = Facts = = =
Baxter Healthcare Proprietary Limited ( Baxter ) , was the Australian subsidiary of the multinational health care company Baxter International . Baxter manufactured intravenous ( IV ) and peritoneal dialysis ( PD ) fluids at various plants in Australia . Because of the cost of importing sterile IV fluids and the absence of a rival domestic producer , Baxter was a monopoly supplier of sterile IV fluids in the Australian market . Its monopoly covered large volume parenteral fluids , irrigating solutions and parenteral nutrition fluids . However , Baxter faced competition in the market for peritoneal dialysis fluids ( PD fluids ) .
A number of state governments issued requests for tender for the supply of sterile fluids and PD fluids . Baxter responded to the requests with tenders that put forward two alternative pricing options : either a state could purchase sterile fluids and PD fluids as a bundled package at a discounted rate , or the state could buy each product separately but at a higher rate .
= = = Legislation = = =
Section 46 of the TPA prohibited corporations from misusing market power . Section 47 prohibited exclusive dealing . The critical provision to the case was Section 2B of the TPA . Section 2B provided that Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA :
bind the Crown in right of each of the States , of the Northern Territory and of the Australian Capital Territory , so far as the Crown carries on a business , either directly or by an authority of the State or Territory
Section 2B thus provided an immunity from state and territory governments from Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA insofar as the governments were not carrying on a business .
= = = The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission = = =
The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission ( ACCC ) , the Australian government authority responsible for regulating the TPA , commenced an action in the Federal Court of Australia seeking declarations that Baxter 's bundling pricing structure in its tenders had contravened Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA . The ACCC sought the imposition of injunctions and pecuniary penalties by the court .
= = = Derivative governmental immunity before Baxter = = =
Derivative governmental immunity refers to the extension of a government 's immunity from a statute to a non @-@ government party on the basis the government would be affected if the statute was to apply to the other party .
Prior to Baxter , the leading case on derivative governmental immunity in Australia was the 1979 High Court judgment in Bradken Consolidated Ltd v Broken Hill Pty Co Ltd . In Bradken , the High Court upheld a claim for derivative governmental immunity by equipment suppliers to the Queensland Commissioner for Railways . The majority 's conclusion was that if the Queensland government was immune from the TPA , it would prejudice the Queensland government if the contracts and arrangements it entered were subject to the TPA through the other parties to the contracts and arrangements .
Bradken 's application of the principle of derivative governmental immunity had been subject to criticism . Robertson Wright SC , a Senior Counsel specialising in competition and trade practices law , argued there are " a number of difficulties " with the judgment , including the " unsatisfactory nature " of the authorities it relied on . The High Court 's judgment in Baxter would mark a retreat from Bradken .
= = = Federal Court litigation = = =
The ACCC conceded that the state governments were not carrying on businesses in procuring the medical products . This meant that the governments were immune from Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA . Baxter argued that this immunity extended to itself , by claiming derivative governmental immunity . On 16 May 2005 , The Federal Court of Australia ( Allsop J presiding ) found in Baxter 's favour at first instance . While the court held that Baxter would have breached the TPA , governmental immunity under Section 2B extended to Baxter Healthcare . Allsop J 's judgment was upheld unanimously on appeal to the full bench of the Federal Court ( Justices Mansfield , Dowsett and Gyles presiding ) . The full bench expressed unease about its own judgment , stating that the question of derivative governmental immunity should be left to the High Court for reconsideration of Bradken .
= = High Court appeal = =
The ACCC was granted special leave to appeal to the High Court against the judgment of the full bench of the Federal Court . The appeal was heard on 16 May 2007 . The Australian Government Solicitor acted for the ACCC , with Lindsay Foster as Senior Counsel ; Blake Dawson and David Yates SC represented Baxter . In addition to Baxter , the states of Western Australia , South Australia and New South Wales were respondents to the appeal . The High Court decided on 29 August 2007 , by a 6 – 1 majority , to allow the ACCC 's appeal and remit the matter back to the full bench of Federal Court for reconsideration . The majority held that Baxter was not covered by derivative governmental immunity in its dealings with the state governments .
= = = Judgments = = =
= = = = Joint judgment = = = =
Five judges ( Chief Justice Gleeson and Justices Gummow , Hayne , Heydon and Crennan ) joined in the leading majority judgment allowing the ACCC 's appeal . The joint judgment reasoned that Parliament could not have intended for corporations that do business with the government to be exempt from the restrictive trade practices provisions in Part IV of the TPA in respect of that business . Emphasising the overall purpose of the TPA , the judges reasoned that the purpose would not be fulfilled if Baxter could claim derivative immunity . In response to the concern that one party to a transaction ( the government ) would be immune from the TPA while the other party would be bound by it , the joint judgment reasoned there was " nothing unusual " about such an outcome .
The joint judgment did not rule out derivative governmental immunity in all cases . In determining the scope of whether governmental immunity from a statutory provision extends to a party dealing with the government , the judgment adopted the following position of Justice Kitto , then dissenting , in the 1955 High Court case of Wynyard Investments v Commissioner for Railways ( NSW ) :
The object in view is to ascertain whether the Crown has such an interest in that which would be interfered with if the provision in question were held to bind the corporation that the interference would be , for a legal reason , an interference with some right , interest , power , authority , privilege , immunity or purpose belonging or appertaining to the Crown .
Wynyard Investments was a case about governmental immunity generally ( not derivative governmental immunity specifically ) , but Justice Kitto 's dissenting judgment extended to derivative governmental immunity .
Having examined the characteristics of the TPA as a law to promote competitive behaviour , the joint judgment held that the extension of derivative governmental immunity from the TPA to a trading corporation would be a " remarkable " conclusion and " far beyond what is necessary to protect the legal rights of governments , or to prevent a divesting of proprietary , contractual or other legal rights and interests . "
= = = = Kirby J = = = =
Justice Kirby 's judgment agreed with the outcome of the joint judgment , for different reasons . Kirby criticised the concept of governmental immunity itself , stating that " persisting with [ governmental immunity ] into the twenty @-@ first century is unacceptable . "
= = = = Callinan J = = = =
Justice Callinan dissented from the majority , holding that derivative governmental immunity extended to Baxter . Callinan followed Bradken , concluding that it remained authoritative .
= = Reaction to judgment = =
= = = Significance = = =
Robertson Wright , writing after the judgment was handed down , claimed that Baxter represented a change to the law , drawing the following conclusions from the judgment :
The application of derivative governmental immunity depends on a construction of the particular statute ( particularly the object and purpose of the statute ) .
As a general rule , derivative governmental immunity applies if the statute 's coverage of a person would divest the government of proprietary , contractual , or other legal rights or interests ( as opposed to commercial or policy rights or interests ) .
The judgment was reported in the press as a significant legal victory for the ACCC . The judgment was also received as an " historic decision " setting a precedent for government procurement , on the basis that businesses might no longer be able to rely on immunity from the TPA when contracting with governments .
= = = Criticism = = =
Nicholas Seddon , a lawyer and academic specialising in commercial and government law , claimed the High Court 's judgment leaves " many uncertainties " , particularly regarding whether derivative governmental immunity will extend to private sector providers carrying out governmental functions that have been contracted to them ( as opposed to merely providing goods or services to the government ) . Robertson Wright echoed these concerns , arguing the joint judgment did not " set out in as helpful detail " as it might the factors to be taken into account in deciding whether governmental immunity will derive to a party dealing with the government . Seddon also criticised the outcome of the case itself , arguing it is " difficult to see how derivative immunity does not inevitably flow " from the governmental immunity from the TPA . He suggested that the application of the TPA to a party that deals with a government compromises the intention of Parliament that State and Territory governments should be immune from the TPA .
= = Later action = =
The ACCC was successful , by a 2 – 1 majority , upon the remittal of the case to the full bench of the Federal Court . The full bench found that Baxter contravened Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA . That judgment ended the eight @-@ year @-@ long litigation between Baxter and the ACCC . It was the first time in over 10 years that a corporation had unsuccessfully defended a prosecution brought by the ACCC for an alleged contravention of Section 46 . The full bench declared that Baxter breached Sections 46 and 47 of the TPA , but left it to the ACCC to seek pecuniary penalties . Baxter was refused special leave to appeal to the High Court against the full bench 's judgment .
= Cylindropuntia imbricata =
The cane cholla ( or walking stick cholla , tree cholla , chainlink cactus , etc . ) ( Cylindropuntia imbricata ) is a cactus found in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico , including some cooler regions in comparison to many other cacti . It occurs primarily in the arid regions of the Southwestern United States in the states of Oklahoma , Texas , New Mexico , Arizona and Nevada . It is often conspicuous because of its shrubby or even tree @-@ like size , its silhouette , and its long @-@ lasting yellowish fruits .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The cane cholla 's range is the arid regions of Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico , Oklahoma , and Texas , south to Durango , Zacatecas , and San Luis Potosí . It occurs at altitudes from 1 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 3 @,@ 900 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) and is hardy for a cactus ( USDA Zone 5A ) .
In parts of its range , often just below the pinyon @-@ juniper belt , it can be abundant , surrounded by low grasses and forbs that are brown most of the year ; in such places chollas are conspicuous as the only tall green plant . Plants may form thickets or be spaced at a few times their width in " gardens " .
The species is naturalised in Australia in old mining localities and along watercourses . It is known there by the common names of Devil 's rope cactus or Devil 's rope pear . It is a declared noxious weed in New South Wales and also occurs in Queensland , Victoria and South Australia .
= = Description = =
The above @-@ ground part consists of much @-@ branched cylindrical stems , the end joints being about 3 cm in diameter . The joints , unlike those of some chollas , are hard to detach . The stems are highly tubercular ( lumpy ) with a pattern of long oval lumps . A typical height is about 1 m , but exceptionally it can grow to 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) with a " trunk " diameter of 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The width is often similar to or somewhat greater than the height . The stems are armed with clusters of up to about 10 red to pink spines , which may be 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long and are barbed and sharp enough to easily penetrate leather gardening gloves . The stems and fruits also have many spines or " glochids " about 1 mm long that can detach and stick in the skin .
There are two kinds of stems or " cladodes " : long plagiotropic , bearing flowers at the ends and falling off after a few years , and long orthotropic , primarily serving for support and transport and staying on the plant . Plagiotropic stems grow in a star- or crown @-@ like pattern around a central orthotropic stem . This species blooms in late spring or early summer . The flowers are purple or magenta , rarely rose @-@ pink , about 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide . The fruits are yellowish , tubercular like the stems , and shaped something like the frustum of a cone , with a hollow at the wide end where the flower fell off ; they are often mistaken for flowers . The plant retains them all winter . They are dry and not tasty , though the Indians of Arizona and New Mexico are said to have eaten them .
In addition to sexual reproduction , the tree cholla reproduces when stem joints fall to the ground and take root . Thus this species spreads and its spread is hard to control , especially where animals defecate seeds and carry stem joints stuck to their hide some distance from the parent plant . ( Some cows , " cholla eaters " , learn to eat cholla fruits despite the pain . ) " Waves of invasion " typically occur four or five years after drought combined with grazing , probably because this combination exposes soil on which the stem joints can take root .
= = Ecology = =
The fruits are also eaten by various wild birds and mammals , including pronghorn , desert bighorn sheep , and deer . The thorny plants provide escape for cover for many small animals .
The leafcutter bee Lithurgus apicalis has been observed to pollinate the flowers .
= = Uses = =
The plants are sometimes grown as ornamentals . Dead stems decay to leave a hollow wooden tube with a pattern of lengthwise slits . These are sometimes used as canes or to make curios . The Roman Catholic Penitentes of New Mexico formerly tied fresh stems to their bare backs in Holy Week processions . The Zuni people use the imbricata variety ceremonially .
= = Images = =
= Sid Meier 's Alpha Centauri =
Sid Meier 's Alpha Centauri is a video game in the 4X genre which is considered a spiritual sequel to the Civilization series . Set in a science fiction depiction of the 22nd century , the game begins as seven competing ideological factions land on the planet Chiron ( " Planet " ) in the Alpha Centauri star system . As the game progresses , Planet 's growing sentience becomes a formidable obstacle to the human colonists .
Sid Meier , designer of Civilization , and Brian Reynolds , designer of Civilization II , developed Alpha Centauri after they left MicroProse to join the newly created developer Firaxis Games . Electronic Arts released both Alpha Centauri and its expansion , Sid Meier 's Alien Crossfire , in 1999 . The following year , Aspyr Media ported both titles to Mac OS while Loki Software ported them to Linux .
Alpha Centauri features improvements on Civilization II 's game engine , including simultaneous multiplay , social engineering , climate , customizable units , alien native life , additional diplomatic and spy options , additional ways to win , and greater mod @-@ ability . Alien Crossfire introduces five new human and two non @-@ human factions , as well as additional technologies , facilities , secret projects , native life , unit abilities , and a victory condition .
The game received wide critical acclaim , being compared favorably to Civilization II . Critics praised its science fiction storyline ( comparing the plot to works by Stanley Kubrick , Frank Herbert , Arthur C. Clarke , and Isaac Asimov ) , the in @-@ game writing , the voice acting , the user @-@ created custom units , and the depth of the technology tree . Alpha Centauri also won several awards for best game of the year and best strategy game of the year .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Space @-@ race victories in the Civilization series conclude with a journey to Alpha Centauri . Beginning with that premise the Alpha Centauri narrative starts in the 22nd century , after the United Nations sends " Unity " , a colonization mission , to Alpha Centauri 's planet Chiron ( " Planet " ) . Unbeknownst to humans , advanced extraterrestrials ( " Progenitors " ) had been conducting experiments in vast distributed nervous systems , culminating in planetary biosphere @-@ sized presentient nervous system ( " Manifold " ) on Chiron , leaving behind monoliths and artifacts on Planet to guide and examine the system 's growth . Immediately prior to the start of the game , a reactor malfunction on the Unity spacecraft wakes the crew and colonists early and irreparably severs communications with Earth . After the captain is assassinated , the most powerful leaders on board build ideological factions with dedicated followers , conflicting agendas for the future of mankind , and " desperately serious " commitments . As the ship breaks up , seven escape pods , each containing a faction , are scattered across Planet .
In the Alien Crossfire expansion pack , it is learned that earlier alien experiments had led to disastrous consequences at Tau Ceti , creating a hundred @-@ million @-
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@ year evolutionary cycle that ended with the eradication of most complex animal life in several neighbouring inhabited star systems . After the disaster ( referred to by Progenitors as " Tau Ceti Flowering " ) , the Progenitors split into two factions : Manifold Caretakers , opposed to further experimentation and dedicated to preventing another Flowering ; and Manifold Usurpers , favoring further experimentation and intending to induce a controlled Flowering in Alpha Centauri 's Planet . In Alien Crossfire , these factions compete along with the human factions for control over the destiny of Planet .
= = = Characters = = =
The game focuses on the leaders of seven factions , chosen by the player from the 14 possible leaders in Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire , and Planet ( voiced by Alena Kanka ) . The characters are developed from the faction leaders ' portraits , the spoken monologues accompanying scientific discoveries and the " photographs in the corner of a commlink – home towns , first steps , first loves , family , graduation , spacewalk . " The leaders in Alpha Centauri comprise : Lady Deirdre Skye , a Scottish activist ( voiced by Carolyn Dahl ) , of Gaia 's Stepdaughters ; Chairman Sheng @-@ Ji Yang , a Chinese Legalist official ( voiced by Lu Yu ) , of the Human Hive ; Academician Prokhor Zakharov , a Russian academic ( voiced by Yuri Nesteroff ) of the University of Planet ; CEO Nwabudike Morgan , a Namibian businessman ( voiced by Regi Davis ) , of Morgan Industries ; Colonel Corazon Santiago , a Puerto Rican militiawoman ( voiced by Wanda Niño ) , of the Spartan Federation ; Sister Miriam Godwinson , an American minister and social psychologist ( voiced by Gretchen Weigel ) , of the Lord 's Believers ; and Commissioner Pravin Lal , an Indian surgeon and diplomat ( voiced by Hesh Gordon ) , of the Peacekeeping Forces .
The player controls one of the leaders and competes against the others to colonize and conquer Planet . The Datalinks ( voiced by Robert Levy and Katherine Ferguson ) are minor characters who provide information to the player . Each faction excels at one or two important aspects of the game and follows a distinct philosophical belief , such as technological utopianism , Conclave Christianity , " free @-@ market " capitalism , militarist survivalism , Chinese Legalism , U.N. Charter humanitarianism , or Environmentalist Gaia philosophy . The game takes place on Planet , with its " rolling red ochre plains " and " bands of lonely terraformed green " .
The seven additional faction leaders in Alien Crossfire are Prime Function Aki Zeta @-@ Five , a Norwegian research assistant @-@ turned @-@ cyborg ( voiced by Allie Rivenbark ) , of The Cybernetic Consciousness ; Captain Ulrik Svensgaard , an American fisherman and naval officer ( voiced by James Liebman ) , of The Nautilus Pirates ; Foreman Domai , an Australian labor leader ( voiced by Frederick Serafin ) , of The Free Drones ; Datajack Sinder Roze , a Trinidadian hacker ( voiced by Christine Melton ) , of The Data Angels ; Prophet Cha Dawn , a human born on Planet ( voiced by Stacy Spenser ) of The Cult of Planet ; Guardian Lular H 'minee , a Progenitor leader ( voiced by Jeff Gordon ) , of The Manifold Caretakers ; and Conqueror Judaa Maar , a Progenitor leader ( voiced by Jeff Gordon ) , of The Manifold Usurpers .
= = = Plot = = =
The story unfolds via the introduction video , explanations of new technologies , videos obtained for completing secret projects , interludes , and cut @-@ scenes . The native life consists primarily of simple wormlike alien parasites and a type of red fungus that spreads rapidly via spores . The fungus is difficult to traverse , provides invisibility for the enemy , provides few resources , and spawns " mindworms " that attack population centres and military units by neurally parasitising them . Mindworms can eventually be captured and bred in captivity and used as terroristic bioweapons , and the player eventually discovers that the fungus and mindworms can think collectively .
A voice intrudes into the player 's dreams and soon waking moments , threatening more attacks if the industrial pollution and terraforming by the colonists is not reversed . The player discovers that Planet is a dormant semi @-@ sentient hive organism that will soon experience a metamorphosis which will destroy all human life . To counter this threat , the player or a computer faction builds " The Voice of Alpha Centauri " secret project , which artificially links Planet 's distributed nervous system into the human Datalinks , delaying Planet 's metamorphosis into full self @-@ awareness but incidentally increasing its ultimate intelligence substantially by giving it access to all of humanity 's accumulated knowledge . Finally , the player or a computer faction embraces the " Ascent to Transcendence " in which humans too join their brains with the hive organism in its metamorphosis to " godhood " . Thus , Alpha Centauri closes " with a swell of hope and wonder in place of the expected triumphalism " , reassuring " that the events of the game weren ’ t the entirety of mankind ’ s future , but just another step . "
= = Gameplay = =
Alpha Centauri , a turn @-@ based strategy game with a science fiction setting , is played from an isometric perspective . Many game features from Civilization II are present , but renamed or slightly tweaked : players establish bases ( Civilization II 's cities ) , build facilities ( buildings ) and secret projects ( Wonders of the World ) , explore territory , research technology , and conquer other factions ( civilizations ) . In addition to conquering all non @-@ allied factions , players may also win by obtaining votes from three quarters of the total population ( similar to Civilization IV 's Diplomatic victory ) , " cornering the Global Energy Market " , completing the Ascent to Transcendence secret project , or for alien factions , constructing six Subspace Generators .
The main map ( the upper two thirds of the screen ) is divided into squares , on which players can establish bases , move units and engage in combat . Through terraforming , players may modify the effects of the individual map squares on movement , combat and resources . Resources are used to feed the population , construct units and facilities , and supply energy . Players can allocate energy between research into new technology and energy reserves . Unlike Civilization II , new technology grants access to additional unit components rather than pre @-@ designed units , allowing players to design and re @-@ design units as their factions ' priorities shift . Energy reserves allow the player to upgrade units , maintain facilities , and attempt to win by the Global Energy Market scenario . Bases are military strongpoints and objectives that are vital for all winning strategies . They produce military units , house the population , collect energy , and build secret projects and Subspace Generators . Facilities and secret projects improve the performance of individual bases and of the entire faction .
In addition to terraforming , optimizing individual base performance and building secret projects , players may also benefit their factions through social engineering , probe teams , and diplomacy . Social engineering modifies the ideologically based bonuses and penalties forced by the player 's choice of faction . Probe teams can sabotage and steal information , units , technology , and energy from enemy bases , while diplomacy lets the player create coalitions with other factions . It also allows the trade or transfer of units , bases , technology and energy . The Planetary Council , similar to the United Nations Security Council , takes Planet @-@ wide actions and determines population victories .
In addition to futuristic technological advances and secret projects , the game includes alien life , structures and machines . " Xenofungus " and " sea fungus " provide movement , combat , and resource penalties , as well as concealment for " mind worms " and " spore launchers " . Immobile " fungal towers " spawn native life . Native life , including the seaborne " Isles of the Deep " and " Sealurks " and airborne " Locusts of Chiron " , use psionic combat , an alternate form of combat which ignores weapons and armor . Monoliths repair units and provide resources ; artifacts yield new technology and hasten secret projects ; landmarks provide resource bonuses ; and random events add danger and opportunity . Excessive development leads to terraforming @-@ destroying fungus blooms and new native life .
Alpha Centauri provides a single player mode and supports customization and multiplayer . Players may customize the game by choosing options at the beginning of the game , using the built @-@ in scenario and map editors , and modifying Alpha Centauri 's game files . In addition to a choice of seven ( or 14 in Alien Crossfire ) factions , pre @-@ game options include scenario game , customized random map , difficulty level , and game rules that include victory conditions , research control , and initial map knowledge . The scenario and map editors allow players to create customized scenarios and maps . The game 's basic rules , diplomatic dialog , and the factions ' starting abilities are in text files , which " the designers have done their best to make it reasonably easy to modify ... , even for non @-@ programmers . " Alpha Centauri supports play by email ( " PBEM " ) and TCP / IP mode featuring simultaneous movement , and introduces direct player @-@ to @-@ player negotiation , allowing the unconstrained trade of technology , energy , maps , and other elements .
= = Development history = =
= = = Inspirations = = =
In 1996 , MicroProse released the lauded Civilization II , designed by Brian Reynolds . However , the firm 's management had changed and moved to California by the time the game shipped , and disagreements between the new management and its employees prompted Reynolds , Jeff Briggs , and Sid Meier ( designer of the original Civilization ) to leave MicroProse and found Firaxis . Although unable to use the same IP as Civilization II , the new company felt that players wanted " a new sweeping epic of a turn @-@ based game " . Having just completed a game of human history up to the present , they wanted a fresh topic and chose science fiction .
With no previous experience in science fiction games , the developers believed future history was a fitting first foray . For the elements of exploring and terraforming an alien world , they chose a plausible near future situation of a human mission to colonize the solar system 's nearest neighbour and human factions . Reynolds researched science fiction for the game 's writing . His inspiration included " classic works of science fiction " , including Frank Herbert 's The Jesus Incident , A Fire Upon the Deep by Vernor Vinge , and The Mote in God 's Eye by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle for alien races ; Kim Stanley Robinson 's Red Mars , Slant by Greg Bear , and Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Real Story for future technology and science ; and Dune by Herbert and Bear 's Anvil of Stars for negative interactions between humans .
Alpha Centauri set out to capture the whole sweep of humanity 's future , including technology , futuristic warfare , social and economic development , the future of the human condition , spirituality , and philosophy . Reynolds also said that " getting philosophy into the game " was one of the attractions of the game . Believing good science fiction thrives on constraint , the developers began with near @-@ future technologies . As they proceeded into the future , they tried to present a coherent , logical , and detailed picture of future developments in physics , biology , information technology , economics , society , government , and philosophy . Alien ecologies and mysterious intelligences were incorporated into Alpha Centauri as external " natural forces " intended to serve as flywheels for the backstory and a catalyst for many player intelligences . Chris Pine , creator of the in @-@ game map of Planet , strove to make Planet look like a real planet , which resulted in evidence of tectonic action . Another concern was that Planet matched the story , which resulted in the fungus being connected across continents , as it is supposed to be a gigantic neural network .
Terraforming is a natural outgrowth of colonizing an alien world . The first playable prototype was just a map generator that tested climate changes during the game . This required the designers to create a world builder program and climatic model far more powerful than anything they 'd done before . Temperature , wind , and rainfall patterns were modeled in ways that allow players to make changes : for example , creating a ridge @-@ line and then watching the effects . In addition to raising terrain , the player can also divert rivers , dig huge boreholes into the planet 's mantle , and melt ice caps .
In addition to scientific advances , the designers speculated on the future development of human society . The designers allow the player to decide on a whole series of value choices and choose a " ruthless " , " moderate " , or " idealistic " stance . Reynolds said the designers don 't promote a single " right " answer , instead giving each value choice positive and negative consequences . This design was intended to force the player to " think " and make the game " addictive " . He also commented that Alpha Centauri 's fictional nature allowed them to draw their characters " a lot more sharply and distinctly than the natural blurring and greyness of history " .
= = = Alpha Centauri = = =
In July 1996 , Firaxis began work on Alpha Centauri , with Reynolds heading the project . Meier and Reynolds wrote playable prototype code and Jason Coleman wrote the first lines of the development libraries . Because the development of Gettysburg took up most of Firaxis ' time , the designers spent the first year prototyping the basic ideas . By late 1996 , the developers were playing games on the prototype , and by the middle of the next year , they were working on a multiplayer engine . Although Firaxis intended to include multiplayer support in its games , an important goal was to create games with depth and longevity in single @-@ player mode because they believed that the majority of players spend most of their time playing this way . Reynolds felt that smart computer opponents are an integral part of a classic computer game , and considered it a challenge to make them so . Reynolds ' previous games omitted internet support because he believed that complex turn @-@ based games with many player options and opportunities for player input are difficult to facilitate online .
Reynolds said that the most important principle of game design is for the designer to play the game as it is developed ; Reynolds claimed that this was how a good artificial intelligence ( AI ) was built . To this end , he would track the decisions he made and why he made them as he played the game . The designer also watched what the computer players did , noting " dumb " actions and trying to discover why the computer made them . Reynolds then taught the computer his reasoning process so the AI could find the right choice when presented several attractive possibilities . He said the AI for diplomatic personalities was the best he had done up to that point .
Doug Kaufman , a co @-@ designer of Civilization II , was invited to join development as a game balancer . Reynolds cited the Alpha Centauri 's balance for the greater sense of urgency and the more pressing pacing than in his earlier game , Sid Meier 's Colonization . According to producer Timothy Train , in designing the strengths and weaknesses of the factions , the goal was to suggest , without requiring , certain strategies and give the player interesting and fun things to do without unbalancing the game . He didn 't want a faction to be dependent on its strength or a faction 's power to be dominant over the rest . Train felt that fun meant the factions always have something fun to do with their attributes .
Around the summer of 1997 , the staff began research on the scientific realities involved in interstellar travel . In late 1997 , Bing Gordon — then Chief Creative Officer of Electronic Arts — joined the team , and was responsible for the Planetary Council , extensive diplomacy , and landmarks . A few months before the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , the team incorporated the Explore / Discover / Build / Conquer marketing campaign into the game . The game was announced in May 1998 at E3 .
In the latter half of 1998 , the team produced a polished and integrated interface , wrote the game manual and foreign language translations , painted the faction leader portraits and terrain , built the 3D vehicles and vehicle parts , and created the music . Michael Ely directed the Secret Project movies and cast the faction leaders . 25 volunteers participated in Firaxis ' first public beta test . The beta testers suggested the Diplomatic and Economic victories and the Random Events .
There were a lot of " firsts " for our team in the making of Alpha Centauri . We had never done a public beta test before Alpha Centauri , and this was also the first time we released a demo before the game was out . Since we 'd not done one before , we didn 't know exactly what to expect when we released it , but it turned out to fit right in with Firaxis ' iterative design method .
The design team started with a very simple playable game . They strengthen the " fun " aspects and fixed or removed the unenjoyable ones , a process Sid Meier called " surrounding the fun " . After the revision , they played it again , repeating the cycle of revision and play . Playing the game repeatedly and in @-@ depth was a rule at Firaxis . In the single @-@ player mode , the team tried extreme strategies to find any sure @-@ fire paths to victory and to see how often a particular computer faction ends up at the bottom . The goal was a product of unprecedented depth , scope , longevity , and addictiveness , where the player is always challenged by the game to come up with new strategies with no all @-@ powerful factions or unstoppable tactics . According to Reynolds , the process has been around since Sid Meier 's early days at Microprose . At Firaxis , as iterations continue , they expand the group giving feedback , bringing in outside gamers with fresh perspectives . Alpha Centauri was the first Firaxis game with public beta testers .
Finally , Brian Reynolds discussed the use of the demo in the development process . Originally a marketing tool released prior to the game , they started getting feedback . They were able to incorporate many suggestions into the retail version . According to Brian Reynolds , they made improvement in the game 's interface , added a couple of new features and fixed a few glitches . They also improved some rules , fine @-@ tuned the game balance and improved the AI . Finally , he adds that they continued to add patches to enhance the game after the game was released . In the months leading to the release of Alpha Centauri , multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote the 35 weekly episodes of Journey to Centauri detailing the splintering of the U.N. mission to Alpha Centauri .
= = = Alien Crossfire = = =
A month after Alpha Centauri 's February 1999 release , the Firaxis team began work on the expansion pack , Sid Meier 's Alien Crossfire . Alien Crossfire features seven new factions ( two that are non @-@ human ) , new technologies , new facilities , new secret projects , new alien life forms , new unit special abilities , new victory conditions ( including the new " Progenitor Victory " ) and several additional concepts and strategies . The development team included Train as producer and designer , Chris Pine as programmer , Jerome Atherholt and Greg Foertsch as artists , and Doug Kaufman as co @-@ designer and game balancer .
The team considered several ideas , including a return to a post @-@ apocalyptic earth and the conquest of another planet in the Alpha Centauri system , before deciding to keep the new title on Planet . The premise allowed them to mix and match old and new characters and delve into the mysteries of the monoliths and alien artifacts . The backstory evolved quickly , and the main conflict centered on the return of the original alien inhabitants . The idea of humans inadvertently caught up in an off @-@ world civil war focused the story .
Train wanted to improve the " build " aspects , feeling that the god @-@ game genre had always been heavily slanted towards the " Conquer " end of the spectrum . He wanted to provide " builders " with the tools to construct an empire in the face of heated competition . The internet community provided " invaluable " feedback . The first " call for features " was posted around April 1999 and produced the Fletchette Defense System , Algorithmic Enhancement , and The Nethack Terminus .
The team had several goals : factions should not be " locked @-@ in " to certain strategies ; players should have interesting things to do without unbalancing the game , and the factions must be fun to play . The team believed the " coolness " of the Progenitor aliens would determine the success or failure of Alien Crossfire . They strove to make them feel significantly different to play , but still compatible with the existing game mechanics . The developers eventually provided the aliens with Battle Ogres , a Planetary survey , non @-@ blind research , and other powers to produce " a nasty and potent race that would take the combined might of humanity to bring them down " . Chris Pine modified the AI to account for the additions . The team also used artwork , sound effects , music , and diplomatic text to set the aliens apart . Other than the aliens , the Pirates proved to be the toughest faction to balance because their ocean start gave them huge advantages .
Upon completion , the team felt that Alien Crossfire was somewhere between an expansion and a full @-@ blown sequel . In the months leading to the release of Alien Crossfire , multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote the 9 episodes of Centauri : Arrival , introducing the Alien Crossfire factions . The game initially had a single production run . Electronic Arts bundled Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire in the Alpha Centauri Planetary Pack in 2000 and included both games in The Laptop Collection in 2003 . In 2000 , both Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire were ported to Mac OS by Aspyr Media and to Linux by Loki Software .
= = Reception = =
Alpha Centauri received wide critical acclaim upon its release , with reviewers voicing respect for the game 's pedigree , especially that of Reynolds and Meier . The video game review aggregator websites Game Rankings and Metacritic , which collect data from numerous review websites , listed scores of 92 % and 89 % , respectively . The game was favorably compared to Reynold 's previous title , Civilization II , and Rawn Shah of IT World Canada praised the expansion for a " believable " plot . However , despite its critical reception , it sold the fewest copies of all the games in the Civilization series . It sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in its first two months of release . This was followed by 50 @,@ 000 copies in April , May and June .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The game showed well at the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) . Walter Morbeck of GameSpot said that Alpha Centauri was " more than hi @-@ tech physics and new ways to blow each other up " , and that the game would feature realistic aliens . Terry Coleman of Computer Gaming World predicted that Alpha Centauri would be " another huge hit " . OGR awarded it " Most Promising Strategy Game " and one of the top 25 games of E3 ' 98 . In a vote of 27 journalists from 22 gaming magazine , Alpha Centauri won " Best Turn Based Strategy " of E3 Show Award . Aaron John Loeb , the Awards Committee Chairman , said " for those that understand the intricacies , the wonder , the glory of turn based ' culture building , ' this is the game worth skipping class for . "
Alpha Centauri 's science fiction storyline received high praise ; IGN considered the game an exception to PC sci @-@ fi cliches , and GamePro compared the plot to the works of writers Stanley Kubrick and Isaac Asimov . J.C. Herz of The New York Times suggested that the game was a marriage of SimCity and Frank Herbert 's Dune . GamePro 's Dan Morris said " As the single @-@ player campaign builds to its final showdown , the ramifications of the final theoretical discoveries elevate Alpha Centauri from great strategy game to science @-@ fiction epic . " Game Revolution said , " The well crafted story , admirable science @-@ fiction world , fully realized scenario , and quality core gameplay are sure to please . " Edge praised the uniqueness of expression saying it was " the same kind of old @-@ fashioned , consensual storytelling that once drew universes out of ASCII . " The in @-@ game writing and faction leaders were also well @-@ received for their believability , especially the voice acting . GameSpot reviewer Denny Atkin called the factions and their abilities Alpha Centauri 's " most impressive aspect " . Greg Tito of The Escapist said , " the genius of the game is how it flawlessly blends its great writing with strategy elements . "
Alpha Centauri 's turn @-@ based gameplay , including the technology trees and factional warfare , was commonly compared to Civilization and Civilization II . The Adrenaline Vault 's Pete Hines said , " While Alpha Centauri is the evolutionary off @-@ spring to [ Civilization ] and [ Civilization II ] , it is not [ Civilization II ] in space . Although the comparison is inevitable because of the lineage , it is still short @-@ sighted . " Edge in 2006 praised " Alpha Centauri ’ s greater sophistications as a strategy game . " IGN said " Alpha Centauri is a better game than Civilization II ; it 's deep , rich , rewarding , thought @-@ provoking in almost every way . " Game Revolution 's reviewer was less magnanimous , saying " Alpha Centauri is at least as good a game as Civilization 2 . But it is its great similarity that also does it the most detriment . Alpha Centauri simply does not do enough that is new ; it just doesn 't innovate enough to earn a higher grade . " The ability to create custom units was praised , as was the depth of the tech tree . The artificial intelligence of computer @-@ controlled factions , which featured adaptability and behavioral subtlety , was given mixed comments ; some reviewers thought it was efficient and logical , while others found it confusing or erratic . Edge was disappointed in the game 's diplomacy , finding " no more and no less than is expected from the genre " and unhappy with " the inability to sound out any real sense of relationship or rational discourse . "
If you 're looking for gratuitous eye candy , then you 're obviously in the wrong place . Alpha Centauri 's graphics are quite good , but they 're not going to make anyone sit up and take notice .
The game 's graphics were widely acknowledged to be above average at the time of its release , but not revolutionary . Its maps and interface were considered detailed and in accordance with a space theme , but the game was released with a limited color palette . The in @-@ game cutscenes , particularly the full motion video that accompanied technological advances , were praised for their quality and innovation . Alpha Centauri 's sound and music received similar comments ; FiringSquad said " [ The sound effect quality ] sort of follows the same line as the unit graphics – not too splashy but enough to get the job done . "
Alpha Centauri has won several Game of the Year awards , including those from the Denver Post and the Toronto Sun . It won the " Turn @-@ based Strategy Game of the Year " award from GameSpot as well . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences named Alpha Centauri the best strategy game of the year , and in 2000 , Alpha Centauri won the Origins Award for Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999 . Alpha Centauri has the distinction of receiving gaming magazine PC Gamer 's highest score ( 98 % ) , surpassing Civilization II 's score ( 97 % ) .
= = Legacy = =
There have been no direct sequels beyond Alien Crossfire , something that writer Greg Tito attributed to Reynolds leaving Firaxis in 2000 to form Big Huge Games . Alien Crossfire producer and lead designer Timothy Train left Firaxis with Reynolds .
However , many of the features introduced in Alpha Centauri were carried over into subsequent Civilization titles ; in fact , upon its release , Civilization III was compared negatively to Alpha Centauri , whose Civilization characteristics were reminiscent of faction bonuses and penalties .
Edge magazine noted that Alpha Centauri remained " highly regarded " in 2006 . The government system in Civilization IV closely resembles Alpha Centauri 's , and Civilization V includes a new victory condition : the completion of the ' Utopia project ' , which is reminiscent of the Ascent to Transcendence secret project .
A decade after its release Sold @-@ Out Software and GOG.com re @-@ released the game for online @-@ download sales . Civilization : Beyond Earth , a spiritual sequel to Alpha Centauri , was announced by Firaxis in April 2014 and released on October 24 , 2014 ; several of those that worked on Alpha Centauri helped to develop the new title .
After the release of the expansion , multimedia producer Michael Ely wrote a trilogy of novels based on the game . Illustrator Rafael Kayanan also wrote a graphic novel entitled Alpha Centauri : Power of the Mindworms . Steve Jackson Games published GURPS Alpha Centauri , a sourcebook for the GURPS role @-@ playing game set in the Alpha Centauri universe .
On May 7 , 2010 , a Brendan Casey ( also known as scient ) released an unofficial patch , which fixes bugs in Alpha Centauri . His project began in February 2009 at Apolyton 's Alpha Centauri site , and moved in June 2009 to the Civilization Gaming Network , where he planned to continue developing further patch versions . He seemed to have resumed work in March 2013 at the http : / / alphacentauri2.info fan site . Currently , the subsequent patches of other modders generally build upon scient 's original 1 @.@ 0 patch . There is a graphics update , Artificial Intelligence update , and an additional modifications patch amongst others there .
= Victory Road ( 2004 ) =
Victory Road ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , which took place on November 7 , 2004 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Victory Road chronology , which became an annual event in 2006 . Nine matches were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was a Ladder match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , in which the champion , Jeff Jarrett , defeated the challenger , Jeff Hardy , by climbing a ladder and retrieving the championship . America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defeated Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) in another featured match contested under Elimination Last Team Standing rules . The event 's undercard featured different varieties of matches . One match on the undercard was contested for the TNA X Division Championship , in which Petey Williams successfully defended it against A.J. Styles . Also a match that was held under no disqualification rules called a Monster 's Ball match was won by Monty Brown by defeating Raven and Abyss .
The event is remembered as being TNA 's first monthly three @-@ hour PPV event . Before Victory Road , TNA only hosted weekly two @-@ hour PPV events . The professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated the entire event a 5 out of 10 , lower than the 2006 event 's rating of 5 @.@ 5 .
= = Background = =
The event featured nine professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Victory Road was a Ladder match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship between the champion , Jeff Jarrett , and the challenger , Jeff Hardy . In a Ladder match , two or more participants fight to climb a ladder to retrieve a contract , championship belt , or some other type of object to win . Jarrett was scripted to defend the championship against Hardy on the October 15 episode of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! , after Hardy won a tournament to become number one contender . Jarrett defeated Hardy to retain the championship once before , on September 6 at TNA 's final weekly PPV , which set up the rivalry between the two . On the October 22 episode of Impact ! , Hardy challenged Jarrett to contest their bout under Ladder match rules , which Jarrett accepted .
The highest promoted match , second only to the main event in importance , scheduled for Victory Road was between the tag team pairings of America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) ( XXX ) , with them competing in an Elimination Last Team Standing match . In this match , the teams fought each other until both members of one team could not stand up before the referee counted to ten . The build up to this match began on the previous weekly PPV , when Storm was not cleared to wrestle so XXX took AMW 's place in challenging for the NWA World Tag Team Championship . Daniels was injured early in the evening after a scripted assault by The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) . Harris was written into the plotline to replace Daniels in challenging and defeating The Naturals for the tag team championship at the PPV . On the September 24 episode of Impact ! , Daniels and Storm were forced to team together and challenge Skipper and Harris for the championship , which they were successful in winning . Storm and Daniels later lost the championship to Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) on the October 15 episode of Impact ! . Harris and Storm then re @-@ joined together to continue as AMW , while Daniels and Skipper did the same as XXX . After a few brawls between the two teams on Impact ! , AMW challenged XXX to a Last Team Standing match at Victory Road on the October 29 episode of Impact ! .
In TNA 's X Division , the TNA X Division Champion Petey Williams was scripted to defend the championship against A.J. Styles . The narrative plot assigned to their rivalry began when Williams assaulted Styles after he defeated Kid Kash in a Tables match on the previous weekly PPV . Williams and the alliance he was associated with at the time , Team Canada , repeatedly attacked Styles following the event on Impact ! . Styles become the number one contender to the X Division Championship by winning a match involving six other men on the October 1 episode of Impact ! , setting up a match between the two at Victory Road for the championship .
TNA held the first ever Monster 's Ball match , featuring Monty Brown , Abyss , and Raven , at Victory Road . There were no disqualifications and pinfalls and submissions were counted anywhere in this match . Brown , Abyss , and Raven were all involved in a tournament to challenge Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Victory Road which set up a rivalry between the three . On the October 29 episode of Impact ! , Raven challenged Brown and Abyss to a Monsters Ball match at Victory Road , which was later booked for the event without Brown nor Abyss accepting the challenge .
The TNA Director of Authority ( DOA ) was voted on at Victory Road . The candidates were the current DOA , Vince Russo , and Dusty Rhodes . After weeks of arguing between the two over how TNA should be run , Russo stated on the October 15 episode of Impact ! that the fans would decide at Victory Road , per an online vote held on TNA 's official website .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match at Victory Road to air live on PPV was a twenty @-@ man Gauntlet match , consisting of wrestlers who compete in TNA 's X Division . In this particular match , wrestlers were eliminated by being thrown over the top rope and down to the floor until there were two left in the ring . Those two men had a standard match until one was pinned or made to submit . The final two participants were Kazarian and Héctor Garza . Kazarian tried to pin Garza with a Cradle , but Garza countered the maneuver with a roll @-@ up for the win .
The second match was an Eight Man Tag Team match consisting of the team of Ron Killings , Erik Watts , Johnny B. Badd and Pat Kenney against the team of Kid Kash , Dallas , and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) . After various offensive maneuvers between the two teams , Killings pinned Stevens after a double underhook DDT .
The third match was a lucha libre midget match between Mascarita Sagrada and Piratita Morgan . Sagrada won the match when he pinned Morgan with a small package .
A Tag Team match for the NWA World Tag Team Championship between the champions , Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) , and the 3Live Kru ( B.G. James and Konnan ) ( 3LK ) followed . The match went back and forth between the two teams with each taking advantage of the pace multiple times . The 3LK won the match and the championship by pinfall after Konnan lifted Roode up in the air , sitdown , and forced Roode 's face into the mat .
Trinity , who was accompanied by The New York Connection ( NYC ) pairing of Johnny Swinger and Glenn Gilberti ,
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= = =
Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? was well received by contemporary music critics . Billboard 's critic Fred Goodman facetiously remarked that the album is an " array of impressive tracks " that he does not recommend for " the weak @-@ hearted " . Colin Larkin , writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music , viewed the album as a vast improvement over their previous record , from both technical and musical aspect . Kerrang ! deemed Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? as the album that saw the inception of Megadeth 's always @-@ distinctive sound . Writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide , author Nathan Brackett said that Megadeth were representing " the dark and nasty side " of American thrash throughout the 1980s . However , he considered the album to be almost identical to the rest of their discography from this period .
= = = Legacy = = =
In retrospect , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? has been regarded as a milestone of the American thrash metal movement . Along with Metallica 's Master of Puppets and Slayer 's Reign in Blood , which were also released in 1986 , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? is considered pivotal in giving prominence to extreme metal . AllMusic 's Steve Huey recognized the record as a notable achievement in the band 's history , and called it a " classic of early thrash " . Similarly , Chad Bowar of About.com said that the album captured Megadeth in their prime , and recommended it as a " mandatory " recording for the fans of this genre . Sputnikmusic 's Mike Stagno named the album a " bona @-@ fide masterpiece " and said it was the main reason why Megadeth became one of the leading acts of the underground scene . Joel McIver , writing in Record Collector , said that the album 's main strength was its fluidity , with all songs moving in a continuous , steady stream . According to him , the album was " flip the bird " to the critics who were hostile to this type of music at the time .
Pitchfork Media 's Jess Harvell said that thanks to this album , Megadeth developed a strong cult following . He viewed the record as a resistance against the glam metal acts from the day , because bands like Megadeth were more appealing to the " dead @-@ end kids " . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters praised the album for making strong impression both musically and visually . Although Begrand acknowledged that this was not Megadeth 's most technically proficient album , he explained that the unique combination of " the extreme and the accessible " is why this album remained a fan @-@ favorite . Spin magazine 's Mike Powell cited the record as an example of " glossy hardcore " with Satanic lyricism . Jeff Treppel from Decibel noted that the album exhibits a distinctive sound , which set Megadeth apart from their contemporaries : " Peace Sells was a leaner , nastier predator . Megadeth preferred to kill with speed and precision instead of size and power . " According to him , the album influenced countless heavy metal bands that followed , from Arch Enemy to DragonForce .
In addition to being critically acclaimed , the album received numerous accolades since its release . It has been featured in Robert Dimery 's book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , as well as in Martin Popoff 's edition of the Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time . About.com ranked it third on their list of " Essential Thrash Metal Albums " , commenting that more than two decades after its release , the record holds a status as an undisputed classic .
= = Reissues = =
In 2003 , Capitol Records re @-@ released the album on DVD @-@ Audio , with the original tracklist , in 96k / 24 @-@ bit resolution for both surround and stereo mixes , and music videos for " Wake Up Dead " and " Peace Sells " . The album was remixed and remastered in 2004 along with the rest of the band 's Capitol Records albums . This reissue featured four alternate mixes of the album 's songs as bonus tracks .
On July 12 , 2011 , the band re @-@ released the album in both a 2 @-@ Disc reissue and a special 5 @-@ Disc + 3 @-@ LP box set , to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the album . The reissue features liner notes written by Mustaine and Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich . The 25th anniversary re @-@ release sold approximately 2 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release .
The 25th Anniversary edition box set features five discs . Discs 1 – 3 all feature the original album , with disc 1 having the original mix ( remastered version from 2011 ) , disc 2 featuring the 2004 remix , and disc 3 featuring the Randy Burns mixes ( several examples of which appear as bonus tracks on the album 's 2004 release ) . Disc 4 features the same 1987 show available on the 2 @-@ disc set . Disc five contains both the original album ( again , remastered version from 2011 ) , and the above listed 1987 show in hi @-@ resolution audio . The 25th anniversary 2 CD edition features the original album on disc one and a previously unreleased 1987 concert on disc two .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine , except " I Ain 't Superstitious " by Willie Dixon .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Accolades = =
Except where otherwise cited , all listed accolades attributed to Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? are adapted from Acclaimed Music .
= The Dark Side of the Moon =
The Dark Side of the Moon is the eighth studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd . Originally released on 1 March 1973 , on the label Harvest . It built on ideas explored in the band 's earlier recordings and live shows , but lacks the extended instrumental excursions that characterised their previous work following the departure in 1968 of founder member , principal composer , and lyricist , Syd Barrett . The Dark Side of the Moon explores themes including conflict , greed , the passage of time , and mental illness , the latter partly inspired by Barrett 's deteriorating mental state .
Developed during live performances , an early version of the suite was premiered several months before studio recording began ; new material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at Abbey Road Studios in London . The group used some of the most advanced recording techniques of the time , including multitrack recording and tape loops . Analogue synthesizers were given prominence in several tracks , and a series of recorded interviews with the band 's road crew and others provided the philosophical quotations used throughout . Engineer Alan Parsons was responsible for many of the album 's most notable sonic aspects and the recruitment of non @-@ lexical singer Clare Torry . The album 's iconic sleeve , designed by Storm Thorgerson , depicts a prism dispersing light into color and represents the band 's stage lighting , the record 's lyrical themes , and keyboardist Richard Wright 's request for a " simple and bold " design .
The Dark Side of the Moon was an immediate success ; it topped the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart for one week and remained in the charts for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988 . With an estimated 45 million copies sold , it is Pink Floyd 's most commercially successful album and one of the best @-@ selling albums worldwide . It has twice been remastered and re @-@ released , and has been covered in its entirety by several other acts . It produced two singles , " Money " and " Us and Them " . The Dark Side of the Moon is Pink Floyd 's most popular album among fans and critics , and has been ranked as one of the greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Following the release of Meddle in 1971 , Pink Floyd assembled for an upcoming tour of Britain , Japan and the United States in December of that year . Rehearsing in Broadhurst Gardens in London , there was the looming prospect of a new album , although their priority at that time was the creation of new material . In a band meeting at drummer Nick Mason 's home in Camden , bassist Roger Waters proposed that a new album could form part of the tour . Waters ' idea was for an album that dealt with things that " make people mad " , focusing on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle , and dealing with the apparent mental problems suffered by former band member Syd Barrett . The band had explored a similar idea with 1969 's The Man and The Journey . In an interview for Rolling Stone , guitarist David Gilmour said : " I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect . There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific . "
Generally , all four members agreed that Waters ' concept of an album unified by a single theme was a good idea . Waters , Gilmour , Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright participated in the writing and production of the new material , and Waters created the early demo tracks at his Islington home in a small recording studio he had built in his garden shed . Parts of the new album were taken from previously unused material ; the opening line of " Breathe " came from an earlier work by Waters and Ron Geesin , written for the soundtrack of The Body , and the basic structure of " Us and Them " was taken from a piece originally composed by Wright for the film Zabriskie Point . The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned by the Rolling Stones , and then at the Rainbow Theatre . They also purchased extra equipment , which included new speakers , a PA system , a 28 @-@ track mixing desk with four quadraphonic outputs , and a custom @-@ built lighting rig . Nine tonnes of kit was transported in three lorries ; this would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour , but it would allow them to refine and improve the new material , which by then had been given the provisional title of Dark Side of the Moon ( an allusion to lunacy , rather than astronomy ) . However , after discovering that that title had already been used by another band , Medicine Head , it was temporarily changed to Eclipse . The new material premièred at The Dome in Brighton , on 20 January 1972 , and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head 's album the title was changed back to the band 's original preference .
Dark Side of the Moon : A Piece for Assorted Lunatics , as it was then known , was performed in the presence of an assembled press on 17 February 1972 – more than a year before its release – at the Rainbow Theatre , and was critically acclaimed . Michael Wale of The Times described the piece as " ... bringing tears to the eyes . It was so completely understanding and musically questioning . " Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times wrote " The ambition of the Floyd 's artistic intention is now vast . " Melody Maker was , however , less enthusiastic : " Musically , there were some great ideas , but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird @-@ cage at London zoo . " However , the following tour was praised by the public . The new material was performed live , in the same order in which it would eventually be recorded , but obvious differences between the live version , and the recorded version released a year later , included the lack of synthesizers in tracks such as " On the Run " , and Bible readings that were later replaced by Clare Torry 's non @-@ lexical vocables on " The Great Gig in the Sky " .
The band 's lengthy tour through Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make continual improvements to the scale and quality of their performances . Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for French director Barbet Schroeder 's film , La Vallée . They then performed in Japan and returned to France in March to complete work on the film . After a series of dates in North America , the band flew to London to begin recording the album , from 24 May to 25 June . More concerts in Europe and North America followed before the band returned on 9 January 1973 to complete work on the album .
= = Concept = =
The Dark Side of the Moon built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings , but lacks the extended instrumental excursions which , according to critic David Fricke , had become characteristic of the band after founder member Syd Barrett left in 1968 . Gilmour , Barrett 's replacement , later referred to those instrumentals as " that psychedelic noodling stuff " , and with Waters cited 1971 's Meddle as a turning @-@ point towards what would be realised on the album . The Dark Side of the Moon 's lyrical themes include conflict , greed , the passage of time , death , and insanity , the latter inspired in part by Barrett 's deteriorating mental state ; he had been the band 's principal composer and lyricist . The album is notable for its use of musique concrète and conceptual , philosophical lyrics , as found in much of the band 's other work .
Each side of the album is a continuous piece of music . The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life , beginning and ending with a heartbeat , exploring the nature of the human experience , and ( according to Waters ) " empathy " . " Speak to Me " and " Breathe " together stress the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever @-@ present threat of madness , and the importance of living one 's own life – " Don 't be afraid to care " . By shifting the scene to an airport , the synthesizer @-@ driven instrumental " On the Run " evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel , in particular Wright 's fear of flying . " Time " examines the manner in which its passage can control one 's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane aspects ; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in " Breathe ( Reprise ) " . The first side of the album ends with Wright and vocalist Clare Torry 's soulful metaphor for death , " The Great Gig in the Sky " . Opening with the sound of cash registers and loose change , the first track on side two , " Money " , mocks greed and consumerism using tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics and cash @-@ related sound effects ( ironically , " Money " has been the most commercially successful track from the album , with several cover versions produced by other bands ) . " Us and Them " addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism of conflict and the use of simple dichotomies to describe personal relationships . " Any Colour You Like " concerns the lack of choice one has in a human society . " Brain Damage " looks at a mental illness resulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self ; in particular , the line " and if the band you 're in starts playing different tunes " reflects the mental breakdown of former bandmate Syd Barrett . The album ends with " Eclipse " , which espouses the concepts of alterity and unity , while forcing the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity .
= = Recording = =
The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios , in two sessions , between May 1972 and January 1973 . The band were assigned staff engineer Alan Parsons , who had worked as assistant tape operator on Atom Heart Mother , and who had also gained experience as a recording engineer on the Beatles ' Abbey Road and Let It Be . The recording sessions made use of some of the most advanced studio techniques of the time ; the studio was capable of 16 @-@ track mixes , which offered a greater degree of flexibility than the eight- or four @-@ track mixes they had previously used , although the band often used so many tracks that to make more space available second @-@ generation copies were made .
Beginning on 1 June , the first track to be recorded was " Us and Them " , followed six days later by " Money " . Waters had created effects loops from recordings of various money @-@ related objects , including coins thrown into a food @-@ mixing bowl taken from his wife 's pottery studio , and these were later re @-@ recorded to take advantage of the band 's decision to record a quadraphonic mix of the album ( Parsons has since expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix , attributed to a lack of time and the paucity of available multi @-@ track tape recorders ) . " Time " and " The Great Gig in the Sky " were the next pieces to be recorded , followed by a two @-@ month break , during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for an upcoming tour of the US . The recording sessions suffered regular interruptions ; Waters , a supporter of Arsenal F.C. , would often break to see his team compete , and the band would occasionally stop work to watch Monty Python 's Flying Circus on the television , leaving Parsons to work on material recorded up to that point . Gilmour has , however , disputed this claim ; in an interview in 2003 he said : " We would sometimes watch them but when we were on a roll , we would get on . "
Returning from the US in January 1973 , they recorded " Brain Damage " , " Eclipse " , " Any Colour You Like " and " On the Run " , while fine @-@ tuning the work they had already laid down in the previous sessions . A foursome of female vocalists was assembled to sing on " Brain Damage " , " Eclipse " and " Time " , and saxophonist Dick Parry was booked to play on " Us and Them " and " Money " . With director Adrian Maben , the band also filmed studio footage for Pink Floyd : Live at Pompeii . Once the recording sessions were complete , the band began a tour of Europe .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
The album is particularly notable for the metronomic sound effects during " Speak to Me " , and the tape loops that open " Money " . Mason created a rough version of " Speak to Me " at his home , before completing it in the studio . The track serves as an overture and contains cross @-@ fades of elements from other pieces on the album . A piano chord , replayed backwards , serves to augment the build @-@ up of effects , which are immediately followed by the opening of " Breathe " . Mason received a rare solo composing credit for " Speak to Me " .
The sound effects on " Money " were created by splicing together Waters ' recordings of clinking coins , tearing paper , a ringing cash register , and a clicking adding machine , which were used to create a 7 @-@ beat effects loop ( later adapted to four tracks in order to create a " walk around the room " effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album ) . At times the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the engineers and band to operate the mixing console 's faders simultaneously , in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs ( particularly " On the Run " ) .
Along with the conventional rock band instrumentation , Pink Floyd added prominent synthesizers to their sound . For example , the band experimented with an EMS VCS 3 on " Brain Damage " and " Any Colour You Like " , and a Synthi A on " Time " and " On the Run " . They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds , such as an assistant engineer running around the studio 's echo chamber ( during " On the Run " ) , and a specially treated bass drum made to simulate a human heartbeat ( during " Speak to Me " , " On the Run " , " Time " and " Eclipse " ) . This heartbeat is most prominent as the intro and the outro to the album , but it can also be heard sporadically on " Time " and " On the Run " . The assorted clocks ticking then chiming simultaneously at the start of " Time " , accompanied by a series of Rototoms , were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons . The engineer recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop , and although his recordings had not been created specifically for the album , elements of the material were eventually used in the track .
= = = Voices = = =
Several tracks , including " Us and Them " and " Time " , demonstrate Richard Wright 's and David Gilmour 's ability to harmonise their voices . In the 2003 documentary The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon , Waters attributed this to the fact that their voices sound extremely similar . To take advantage of this , Parsons utilised studio techniques such as the double tracking of vocals and guitars , which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself . The engineer also made prominent use of flanging and phase shifting effects on vocals and instruments , odd trickery with reverb , and the panning of sounds between channels ( most notable in the quadraphonic mix of " On the Run " , when the sound of the Hammond B3 organ played through a Leslie speaker rapidly swirls around the listener ) .
The album 's credits include Clare Torry , a session singer and songwriter , and a regular at Abbey Road . She had worked on pop material and numerous cover albums , and after hearing one of those albums Parsons invited her to the studio to sing on Wright 's composition The Great Gig in the Sky . She declined this invitation as she wanted to watch Chuck Berry perform at the Hammersmith Odeon , but arranged to come in on the following Sunday . The band explained the concept behind the album , but were unable to tell her exactly what she should do . Gilmour was in charge of the session , and in a few short takes on a Sunday night Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright 's emotive piano solo . She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth , and wanted to apologise to the band – only to find them delighted with her performance . Her takes were then selectively edited to produce the version used on the track . For her contribution she was paid £ 30 , equivalent to about £ 360 in 2016 , but in 2004 she sued EMI and Pink Floyd for songwriting royalties , arguing that her contribution to " The Great Gig in the Sky " was substantial enough to be considered co @-@ authorship . The High Court agreed with her , but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed . All post @-@ 2005 pressings therefore credit Wright and Torry jointly for the song .
Snippets of voices between and over the music are another notable feature of the album . During recording sessions , Waters recruited both the staff and the temporary occupants of the studio to answer a series of questions printed on flashcards . The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened studio three , and shown such questions as " What 's your favourite colour ? " and " What 's your favourite food ? " , before moving on to themes more central to the album ( such as madness , violence , and death ) . Questions such as " When was the last time you were violent ? " , followed immediately by " Were you in the right ? " , were answered in the order they were presented . Roger " The Hat " Manifold proved difficult to find , and was the only contributor recorded in a conventional sit @-@ down interview , as by then the flashcards had been mislaid . Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with another motorist , and Manifold replied " ... give ' em a quick , short , sharp shock ... " When asked about death he responded " live for today , gone tomorrow , that 's me ... " Another roadie , Chris Adamson , who was on tour with Pink Floyd , recorded the snippet which opens the album : " I 've been mad for fucking years – absolutely years " . The band 's road manager Peter Watts ( father of actress Naomi Watts ) contributed the repeated laughter during " Brain Damage " and " Speak to Me " . His second wife , Patricia " Puddie " Watts ( now Patricia Gleason ) , was responsible for the line about the " geezer " who was " cruisin ' for a bruisin ' " used in the segue between " Money " and " Us and Them " , and the words " I never said I was frightened of dying " heard near the beginning of " The Great Gig in the Sky " .
Perhaps the most notable responses " I am not frightened of dying . Any time will do : I don '
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first nuclear weapon , named " Hurricane " , at the Monte Bello Islands off the coast of Western Australia . A year later the first nuclear test on the Australian mainland was Totem 1 ( 9 @.@ 1 kilotonnes of TNT ( 38 TJ ) ) at Emu Field in the Great Victoria Desert , South Australia , on 15 October 1953 . Totem 2 ( 7 @.@ 1 kilotonnes of TNT ( 30 TJ ) ) followed two weeks later on 27 October .
The British government formally requested a permanent test facility on 30 October 1953 . Due to concerns about nuclear fallout from the previous tests at Emu Field and the site 's inadequate infrastructure and water supply , the recently surveyed Maralinga site was selected for this purpose . The new site was announced in May 1955 . It was developed as a joint , co @-@ funded facility between the British and Australian governments .
Prior to selection , the Maralinga site was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara Aboriginal people , for whom it had a great spiritual significance . Many were relocated to a new settlement at Yalata , and attempts were made to curtail access to the Maralinga site . These were often unsuccessful .
= = Major tests = =
Two major test series were conducted at the Maralinga site : Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler .
= = = Operation Buffalo = = =
Operation Buffalo commenced on 27 September 1956 . The operation consisted of the testing of four nuclear devices , codenamed One Tree , Marcoo , Kite and Breakaway respectively . One Tree ( 12 @.@ 9 kilotonnes of TNT ( 54 TJ ) ) and Breakaway ( 10 @.@ 8 kilotonnes of TNT ( 45 TJ ) ) were exploded from towers , Marcoo ( 1 @.@ 4 kilotonnes of TNT ( 5 @.@ 9 TJ ) ) was exploded at ground level , and Kite ( 2 @.@ 9 kilotonnes of TNT ( 12 TJ ) ) was released by a Royal Air Force Vickers Valiant bomber from a height of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . This was the first British launching of a nuclear weapon from an aircraft .
The fallout from these tests was measured using sticky paper , air sampling devices , and water sampled from rainfall and reservoirs . The radioactive cloud from Buffalo 1 ( One Tree ) reached a height of 37 @,@ 500 ft ( 11 @,@ 400 m ) , exceeding the predicted 27 @,@ 900 ft ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) , and radioactivity was detected in South Australia , Northern Territory , New South Wales , and Queensland . All four Buffalo tests were criticised by the 1985 McClelland Royal Commission , which concluded that they were fired under inappropriate conditions .
In 2001 , Dr Sue Rabbit Roff , a researcher from the University of Dundee , uncovered documentary evidence that troops had been ordered to run , walk and crawl across areas contaminated by the Buffalo tests in the days immediately following the detonations ; a fact that the British government later admitted . Dr Roff stated that " it puts the lie to the British government 's claim that they never used humans for guinea pig @-@ type experiments in nuclear weapons trials in Australia . "
= = = Operation Antler = = =
Operation Antler followed in 1957 . Antler was designed to test components for thermonuclear weapons , with particular emphasis on triggering mechanisms . Three tests began in September , codenamed Tadje , Biak and Taranaki . The first two tests were conducted from towers , the last was suspended from balloons . Yields from the weapons were 0 @.@ 93 kilotonnes of TNT ( 3 @.@ 9 TJ ) , 5 @.@ 67 kilotonnes of TNT ( 23 @.@ 7 TJ ) and 26 @.@ 6 kilotonnes of TNT ( 111 TJ ) respectively . The Tadje test used cobalt pellets as a ' tracer ' for determining yield ; later rumours developed that Britain had been developing a cobalt bomb . The Royal Commission found that personnel handling these pellets were later exposed to the active cobalt 60 . Although the Antler series were better planned and organised than earlier series , intermediate fallout from the Taranaki test exceeded predictions .
= = Minor tests = =
In addition to the major tests , a large number of minor trials were also carried out , from June 1955 and extended through to April 1963 . Although the major tests had been carried out with some publicity , the minor tests were carried out in absolute secrecy . These minor tests left a dangerous legacy of radioactive contamination at Maralinga .
The four series of minor trials were codenamed ' Kittens ' , ' Tims ' , ' Rats ' and ' Vixen ' . In all , these trials included up to 700 tests , with tests involving experiments with plutonium , uranium , and beryllium . Operation Kittens involved 99 trials , performed at both Maralinga and Emu Field in 1953 – 1961 . The tests were used in the development of neutron initiators , involving use of polonium @-@ 210 and uranium , and generated " relatively large amounts of radioactive contamination . " Operation Tims took place in 1955 – 1963 , and involved 321 trials of uranium and beryllium tampers , as well as studies of plutonium compression . Operation Rats investigated explosive dispersal of uranium . 125 trials took place between 1956 and 1960 .
The Vixen minor trials ( Vixen A and Vixen B ) were formulated to investigate what would happen to a nuclear device which burnt or was subject to a non @-@ nuclear explosion . 31 Vixen A trials between 1959 and 1961 investigated the effects of an accidental fire on a nuclear weapon , and involved a total of about 1 kg of plutonium . Twelve Vixen B trials , between 1960 and 1963 , attempted to discover the effects of high explosives detonating a nuclear weapon in a fire ( typical of conditions which would occur in aviation accidents ) and involved 22 kg of plutonium . They produced " jets of molten , burning plutonium extending hundreds of feet into the air . " It was the lack of subsequent disposal of the plutonium from these minor trials – Vixen B especially – which created the major radiation problems at the site .
The Vixen experimental tests used TNT to blow up simulated nuclear warheads containing plutonium @-@ 239 . In total , Vixen B scattered 22 @.@ 2 kg of plutonium around the Maralinga test site known as Taranaki , in particles of widely divergent size . Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally - it emits alpha particles which are stopped by 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of air , or the dead layer of skin cells on the body , and is not a very intensive source of radiation , due to its long half @-@ life of 24 @,@ 000 years . It is most dangerous when it enters the body , in the worst case by breathing , and therefore tiny particles , often the result of such explosion testing , are the worst threat . The extreme biological persistence of plutonium 's radioactive contamination and the cancer threat posed by alpha radiation occurring internally together establish plutonium 's dangers .
In terms of regular nuclear testing , Kittens represents bomb component testing , while Tims and Rats were early subcritical hydronuclear tests . Vixen is " safety testing " of a bomb ; assuring that the core would not accidentally undergo criticality in the event of a fire or unintended crash . These are always messy ( see the US equivalent at Plutonium Valley in Project 56 ) , for a successful test subjects the core fuel to high explosives in the hope that it simply scatters rather than undergoes criticality . The differences in the sort of dangers presented by major vs the minor tests is that there was no critical explosion in the minor tests . In the major tests , the bomb cores reached critical mass ; the plutonium or uranium fissile materials " burned " into highly radioactive fission products , and those , along with the unspent fuel and activated bomb case , tower and soil if the explosion was close to the ground , are lofted into the stratosphere to be dropped eventually as fallout globally . In Vixen , an equivalent amount of plutonium fuel was simply smashed by explosives and spread about much more locally . In Kittens , Tims and Rats , smaller amounts of various materials were similar exploded locally and spread about .
= = Legacy = =
In the 1950s , Hedley Marston 's research into nuclear fallout from the Maralinga nuclear tests brought Marston into bitter conflict with the Australian government appointed Atomic Weapons Tests Safety Committee . He was vindicated posthumously by the McClelland Royal Commission , which found that significant radiation hazards existed at many of the Maralinga test sites long after the tests . His project tracked fallout across the continent by examining the thyroids of sheep and cattle as well as devices that filtered radioactive elements from air . Later the results , which showed dramatic increases of certain radioactive elements after British Nuclear Tests , caused a further , controversial study where the bones of deceased people ( especially children ) were burnt to ash and then measured for strontium @-@ 90 . These tests showed that the tests had increased the concentration of strontium @-@ 90 dramatically . As well as finding this after British tests a notable 50 % increase was noticed one year when there were no tests and it was cited as evidence that the previous year 's hydrogen bomb tests had contaminated the majority of the world .
A Maralinga cleanup operation codenamed Operation Brumby was conducted in 1967 . Attempts were made to dilute the concentration of radioactive material by turning over and mixing the surface soil . Additionally , the remains of the firings , including plutonium @-@ contaminated fragments , were buried in 22 concrete @-@ capped pits .
In the 1970s , whistle @-@ blower Avon Hudson disclosed details of the Maralinga testing program to the Australian media at risk of incarceration . His disclosures related to the inadequacy of clean @-@ up measures , persistent contamination and associated health risks of ionizing radiation . Hudson gave testimony to the Royal Commission into British nuclear tests in Australia in 1984 and 1985 and has since continued to work as a spokesperson for nuclear veterans in South Australia .
The McClelland Royal Commission into the tests delivered its report in late 1985 , and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of the Maralinga test sites , particularly at Taranaki , where the Vixen B trials into the effects of burning plutonium had been carried out . A Technical Assessment Group was set up to advise on rehabilitation options , and a much more extensive cleanup program was initiated at the site .
The TAG Report plan was approved in 1991 and work commenced on site in 1996 and was completed in 2000 at a cost of $ 108 million . In the worst @-@ contaminated areas , 350 @,@ 000 cubic metres of soil and debris were removed from an area of more than 2 square kilometres , and buried in trenches . Eleven debris pits were also treated with in @-@ situ vitrification . Most of the site ( approximately 3 @,@ 200 square kilometres ) is now safe for unrestricted access and approximately 120 square kilometres is considered safe for access but not permanent occupancy . Alan Parkinson has observed that " an Aboriginal living a semi @-@ traditional lifestyle would receive an effective dose of 5 mSv / a ( five times that allowed for a member of the public ) . Within the 120 km ² , the effective dose would be up to 13 times greater . "
A Department of Veterans ' Affairs study concluded that " Overall , the doses received by Australian participants were small . ... Only 2 % of participants received more than the current Australian annual dose limit for occupationally exposed persons ( 20 mSv ) . " However , such findings are contested . Australian servicemen were ordered to : repeatedly fly through the mushroom clouds from atomic explosions , without protection ; and to march into ground zero immediately after bomb detonation . Airborne drifts of radioactive material resulted in " radioactive rain " being dropped on Brisbane and Queensland country areas . A 1999 study for the British Nuclear Test Veterans Association found that 30 per cent of involved veterans had died , mostly in their fifties , from cancers .
Successive Australian governments failed to compensate servicemen who contracted cancers following exposure to radiation at Maralinga . However , after a British decision in 1988 to compensate its own servicemen , the Australian Government negotiated compensation for several Australian servicemen suffering from two specific conditions , leukemia ( except lymphatic leukemia ) and the rare blood disorder multiple myeloma .
One author suggests that the resettlement and denial of aboriginal access to their homelands " contributed significantly to the social disintegration which characterises the community to this day . Petrol sniffing , juvenile crime , alcoholism and chronic friction between residents and the South Australian police have become facts of life . " In 1994 , the Australian Government reached a compensation settlement with Maralinga Tjarutja , which resulted in the payment of $ 13 @.@ 5 million in settlement of all claims in relation to the nuclear testing .
= = Media coverage = =
According to Liz Tynan from James Cook University , the Maralinga tests were a striking example of what can happen when the popular media are unable to report on activities that the government may be trying to hide . Maralinga was an example of extreme secrecy , but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British
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best for the boy , but Mowgli accuses him of breaking his promise and runs away . As Baloo sets off in search of Mowgli , Bagheera rallies the help of Hathi and his patrol . However , Shere Khan himself , who was eavesdropping on Bagheera and Hathi 's conversation , is now determined to hunt and kill Mowgli himself .
Meanwhile , Mowgli has encountered Kaa once again , but thanks to the unwitting intervention of the suspicious Shere Khan , Mowgli escapes . As a storm gathers , a depressed Mowgli encounters a group of friendly vultures who accept Mowgli as a fellow outcast . Shere Khan appears shortly after , scaring off the vultures and confronting Mowgli . Baloo rushes to the rescue and tries to keep Shere Khan away from Mowgli , but is injured . When lightning strikes a nearby tree and sets it ablaze , the vultures swoop in to distract Shere Khan while Mowgli gathers flaming branches and ties them to Shere Khan 's tail . Terrified of fire , the tiger panics and runs off .
Bagheera and Baloo take Mowgli to the edge of the Man @-@ Village , but Mowgli is still hesitant to go there . His mind soon changes when he is smitten by a beautiful young girl from the village who is coming down by the riverside to fetch water . After noticing Mowgli , she " accidentally " drops her water pot . Mowgli retrieves it for her and follows her into the Man @-@ Village . After Mowgli chooses to stay in the Man @-@ Village , Baloo and Bagheera decide to head home , content that Mowgli is safe and happy with his own kind .
= = Cast = =
Bruce Reitherman as Mowgli , an orphaned boy , commonly referred to as " man @-@ cub " by the other characters .
Phil Harris as Baloo , a sloth bear who leads a carefree life and believes in letting the good things in life come by themselves .
Sebastian Cabot as Bagheera , a serious black panther who is determined to take Mowgli back to the village and disapproves of Baloo 's carefree approach to life .
Louis Prima as King Louie , an orangutan who wants to be a human , and wants Mowgli to teach him how to make fire .
George Sanders as Shere Khan , an intelligent and sophisticated yet merciless Bengal tiger who hates all humans for fear of their guns and fire and wants to kill Mowgli .
Sterling Holloway as Kaa , an Indian python who also seeks Mowgli as prey , but comically fails each time he attempts to eat him .
J. Pat O 'Malley as Colonel Hathi the Indian elephant / Buzzie the Vulture
Verna Felton as Winifred , Colonel Hathi 's wife .
Clint Howard as Junior , Colonel Hathi 's son .
Chad Stuart as Flaps the Vulture
Lord Tim Hudson as Dizzie the Vulture
John Abbott as Akela the Indian wolf
Ben Wright as Rama the Father Wolf
Darleen Carr as The Human Girl
Leo De Lyon as Flunkey the Langur *
Hal Smith as The Slob Elephant *
Ralph Wright as The Gloomy Elephant *
Digby Wolfe as Ziggy the Vulture *
Bill Skiles and Pete Henderson as monkeys *
Asterisks mark actors listed in the opening credits as " Additional Voices " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
After The Sword in the Stone was released , storyman Bill Peet claimed to Walt Disney that " we [ the animation department ] can do more interesting animal characters " and suggested that Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book could be used for the studio 's next film . Disney agreed and Peet created an original treatment , with little supervision , as he had done with One Hundred and One Dalmatians and The Sword in the Stone . However , after the disappointing reaction to The Sword in the Stone , Walt Disney decided to become more involved in the story than he had been with the past two films , with his nephew Roy E. Disney saying that " [ he ] certainly influenced everything about it . ( ... ) With Jungle Book , he obviously got hooked on the jungle and the characters that lived there . "
Peet decided to follow closely the dramatic , dark , and sinister tone of Kipling 's book , which is about the struggles between animals and man . However , the film 's writers decided to make the story more straightforward , as the novel is very episodic , with Mowgli going back and forth from the jungle to the Man @-@ Village , and Peet felt that Mowgli returning to the Man @-@ Village should be the ending for the film . Following suggestions , Peet also created two original characters : The human girl for which Mowgli falls in love , as the animators considered that falling in love would be the best excuse for Mowgli to leave the jungle ; and Louie , king of the monkeys . Louie was a less comical character , enslaving Mowgli trying to get the boy to teach him to make fire . The orangutan would also show a plot point borrowed from The Second Jungle Book , gold and jewels under his ruins — after Mowgli got to the man village , a poacher would drag the boy back to the ruins in search for the treasure . Disney was not pleased with how the story was turning out , as he felt it was too dark for family viewing and insisted on script changes . Peet refused , and after a long argument , Peet left the Disney studio in January 1964 .
Disney then assigned Larry Clemmons as his new writer and one of the four story men for the film , giving Clemmons a copy of Kipling 's book , and telling him : " The first thing I want you to do is not to read it . " Clemmons still looked at the novel , and thought it was too disjointed and without continuity , needing adaptations to fit a film script . Clemmons wanted to start in medias res , with some flashbacks afterwards , but then Disney said to focus on doing the storyline more straight - " Let 's do the meat of the picture . Let 's establish the characters . Let 's have fun with it . " . Although much of Bill Peet 's work was discarded , the personalities of the characters remained in the final film . This was because Disney felt that the story should be kept simple , and the characters should drive the story . Disney took an active role in the story meetings , acting out each role and helping to explore the emotions of the characters , help create gags and develop emotional sequences . Clemmons would write a rough script with an outline for most sequences . The story artists then discussed how to fill the scenes , including the comedic gags to employ . The script also tried to incorporate how the voice actors molded their characters and interacted with each other .
The Jungle Book also marks the last animated film from the company to have Disney 's personal touches , before his death on December 15 , 1966 .
= = = Casting = = =
Many familiar voices inspired the animators in their creation of the characters and helped them shape their personalities . This use of familiar voices for key characters was a rarity in Disney 's past films . The staff was shocked to hear that a wise cracking comedian , Phil Harris was going to be in a Kipling film . Disney suggested Harris after meeting him at a party . Harris improvised most of his lines , as he considered the scripted lines " didn 't feel natural " . After Harris was cast , Disneyland Records president Jimmy Johnson suggested Disney to get Louis Prima as King Louie , as he " felt that Louis would be great as foil " . Walt also cast other prominent actors such as George Sanders as Shere Khan and Sebastian Cabot as Bagheera . Additionally , he cast regular Disney voices such as Sterling Holloway as Kaa , J. Pat O 'Malley as Colonel Hathi and Buzzie the Vulture and Verna Felton as Hathi 's wife . This was her last film before she died . David Bailey was originally cast as Mowgli , but his voice changed during production , leading Bailey to not fit the " young innocence of Mowgli 's character " at which the producers were aiming . Thus director Wolfgang Reitherman cast his son Bruce , who had just voiced Christopher Robin in Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree . The animators shot footage of Bruce as a guide for the character 's performance . Child actress Darlene Carr was going around singing in the studio when composers Sherman Brothers asked her to record a demo of " My Own Home " . Carr 's performance impressed Disney enough for him to cast her as the role of the human girl .
In the original book , the vultures are grim and evil characters who feast on the dead . Disney lightened it up by having the vultures bearing a physical and vocal resemblance to The Beatles , including the signature mop @-@ top haircut . It was also planned to have the members of the band to both voice the characters and sing their song , " That 's What Friends Are For " . However , the Beatles member John Lennon 's refusal to work on animated films in that period led to the idea being discarded . The casting of the vultures still brought a British Invasion musician , Chad Stuart of the duo Chad & Jeremy . In earlier drafts of the scene the vultures had a near @-@ sighted rhinoceros friend named Rocky , who was to be voiced by Frank Fontaine . However , Walt decided to cut the character for feeling that the film had already much action with the monkeys and vultures .
= = = Animation = = =
While many of the later Disney feature films had animators being responsible for single characters , in The Jungle Book the animators were in charge of whole sequences , since many have characters interacting with one another . The animation was done by xerography , with character design , led by Ken Anderson , employing rough , artistic edges in contrast to the round animals seen in productions such as Dumbo . Anderson also decided to make Shere Khan resemble his voice actor , George Sanders . Backgrounds were hand @-@ painted — with exception of the waterfall , mostly consisting of footage of the Angel Falls - and sometimes scenery was used in both foreground and bottom to create a notion of depth . Following one of Reitherman 's trademarks of reusing animation of his previous films , the wolf cubs are based on dogs from 101 Dalmatians . Animator Milt Kahl based Bagheera and Shere Kahn 's movements on live @-@ action felines , which he saw in two Disney productions , A Tiger Walks and the " Jungle Cat " episode of True @-@ Life Adventures . Baloo was also based on footage of bears , even incorporating the animal 's penchant for scratching . Since Kaa has no limbs , its design received big expressive eyes , and parts of Kaa 's body did the action that normally would be done with hands . The monkeys ' dance during " I Wan 'na Be Like You " was partially inspired by a performance Louis Prima did with his band at Disney 's soundstage to convince Walt Disney to cast him .
= = Music = =
The instrumental music was written by George Bruns and orchestrated by Walter Sheets . Two of the cues were reused from previous Disney films . The scene where Mowgli wakes up after escaping King Louie used one of Bruns ' themes for Sleeping Beauty ; and the scene where Bagheera gives a eulogy to Baloo when he mistakenly thinks the bear was killed by Shere Khan used Paul J. Smith 's organ score from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs .
The score features eight original songs : seven by the Sherman Brothers and one by Terry Gilkyson . Longtime Disney collaborator Gilkyson was the first songwriter to bring several complete songs which followed the book closely but Walt Disney felt that his efforts were too dark . The only piece of Gilkyson 's work which survived to the final film was his upbeat tune " The Bare Necessities " , which was liked by the rest of the film crew . The Sherman Brothers were then brought in to do a complete rewrite . Disney asked the siblings if they had read Kipling 's book and they replied that they had done so " a long , long time ago " and that they had also seen the 1942 version by Alexander Korda . Disney said the " nice , mysterious , heavy stuff " from both works was not what he aimed for , instead going for a " lightness , a Disney touch " . Disney frequently brought the composers to the storyline sessions . He asked them to " find scary places and write fun songs " for their compositions that fit in with the story and advanced the plot instead of being interruptive .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The Jungle Book was released in October 1967 , just 10 months after Walt 's death . Some copies were in a double feature with Charlie , the Lonesome Cougar . Produced on a budget of $ 4 million , the film was a massive success , finishing 1967 as the fourth highest @-@ grossing movie of the year . The Jungle Book was re @-@ released theatrically in North America three times , 1978 , 1984 , and 1990 , and also in Europe throughout the 1980s . The total gross is $ 141 million in the United States and $ 205 million worldwide . The North American total , after adjustments for inflation , is estimated to be the 29th highest grossing film of all time in the United States . An estimated $ 108 million alone came from Germany making it the third highest @-@ grossing film of all time there only behind Avatar ( $ 137 million ) and Titanic ( $ 125 million ) . However , it is Germany 's highest @-@ grossing film of all time in terms of admissions with 27 @.@ 3 million tickets sold , nearly 10 million more than Titanic 's 18 @.@ 8 million tickets sold .
= = = Home media = = =
The Jungle Book was released in the United States on VHS in 1991 as part of the Walt Disney Classics product line , and in 1997 as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection for the film 's 30th anniversary . A Limited Issue DVD was released by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in 1999 . The film was released once again as a 2 @-@ disc Platinum Edition DVD on October 2 , 2007 to commemorate its 40th anniversary . Its release was accompanied by a limited 18 @-@ day run at Disney 's own El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles , with the opening night featuring a panel with composer Richard Sherman and voice actors Bruce Reitherman , Darlene Carr and Chad Stuart . The Platinum DVD was put on moratorium in 2010 . The film was released in a Blu @-@ Ray / DVD / Digital Copy Combo pack on February 11 , 2014 as part of Disney 's Diamond Edition line .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Jungle Book received positive reviews upon release , undoubtedly influenced by a nostalgic reaction to the death of Disney . Time noted that the film strayed far from the Kipling stories , but " the result is thoroughly delightful ... it is the happiest possible way to remember Walt Disney . " The New York Times called it " a perfectly dandy cartoon feature , " and Life magazine referred to it as " the best thing of its kind since Dumbo , another short , bright , unscary and blessedly uncultivated cartoon . " Variety 's review was generally positive , but they stated that " the story development is restrained " and that younger audiences " may squirm at times . " The song " The Bare Necessities " was nominated for Best Song at the 40th Academy Awards , losing to " Talk to the Animals " from Doctor Dolittle . Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences president Gregory Peck lobbied extensively for this film to be nominated for Best Picture , but was unsuccessful .
Retrospective reviews were also positive , with the film 's animation , characters and music receiving much praise throughout the years . On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 86 % . In 1990 , when the film had its last theatrical re @-@ release , Entertainment Weekly considered that The Jungle Book " isn 't a classic Walt Disney film on the order of , say , Cinderella or Pinocchio , but it 's one of Disney 's liveliest and funniest " , while the Los Angeles Times thought the film 's crew was " near the height of their talents " and the resulting film " remains a high @-@ spirited romp that will delight children--and parents weary of action films with body counts that exceed their box @-@ office grosses . " In 2010 , Empire described the film as one that " gets pretty much everything right " , regarding that the vibrant animation and catchy songs overcame the plot deficiencies .
= = Legacy = =
In 1968 , Disneyland Records released the album More Jungle Book , an unofficial sequel also written by screenwriter Larry Simmons , which continued the story of the film , and included Phil Harris and Louis Prima voicing their film roles . In the record , Baloo ( Harris ) is missing Mowgli ( Ginny Tyler ) , so he teams up with King Louie ( Prima ) and Bagheera ( Dal McKennon ) to take him from the man village . On February 14 , 2003 , DisneyToon Studios in Australia released a film sequel , The Jungle Book 2 , in which Mowgli runs away from the man village to see his animal friends , unaware that Shere Khan is more determined to kill him than ever . In 2005 , screenwriter Robert Reece pitched Jungle Book 3 to Disney execs . However , the project never materialized .
Elements of The Jungle Book were recycled in the later Disney feature film Robin Hood due to that film 's limited budget , such as Baloo being inspiration for Little John ( who not only was a bear , but also voiced by Phil Harris ) . In particular , the dance sequence between Baloo and King Louie was simply rotoscoped for Little John and Lady Cluck 's dance . It has been widely acclaimed by animators , with Eric Goldberg declaring The Jungle Book " boasts possibly the best character animation a studio has ever done " . The animators of Aladdin , The Lion King and Lilo & Stitch took inspiration from the design and animation of the film , and four people involved with Disney 's animations , director Brad Bird and animators Andreas Deja , Glen Keane and Sergio Pablos , have declared the film to be their inspiration for entering the business .
Many characters appear in the 1990 – 91 animated series TaleSpin . Between 1996 and 1998 , the TV series Jungle Cubs told the stories of Baloo , Hahti , Bagheera , Louie , Kaa , and Shere Khan when they were children . Disney later made a live @-@ action remake of the film , which was more of a realistic action @-@ adventure film with somewhat @-@ more adult themes . The film , released in 1994 , differs even more from the book than its animated counterpart , but was still a box @-@ office success . In 1998 , Disney released a direct to video film entitled The Jungle Book : Mowgli 's Story . A new live @-@ action version of The Jungle Book was released by Disney in 2016 , which even reused most of the songs of the animated movie , with some lyrical reworking by original composer Richard M. Sherman .
There are two video games based on the film : The Jungle Book was a platformer released in 1993 for Master System , Mega Drive , Game Gear , Super NES , Game Boy and PC . A version for the Game Boy Advance was later released in 2003 . The Jungle Book Groove Party was a dance mat game released in 2000 for PlayStation and PlayStation 2 . Kaa and Shere Khan have also made cameo appearances in another Disney video game , Quackshot . A world based on the film was intended to appear more than once in the Square Enix @-@ Disney Kingdom Hearts video game series , but was omitted both times , first in the first game because it featured a similar world based on Tarzan , and second in Kingdom Hearts : Birth by Sleep , although areas of the world are accessible via hacking codes .
Since the film 's release , many of the film 's characters appeared in House of Mouse , The Lion King 1 ½ , Who Framed Roger Rabbit , and Aladdin and the King of Thieves . In December 2010 , a piece of artwork by British artist Banksy featuring the jungle book characters which had been commissioned by Greenpeace to help raise awareness of deforestation went on sale for the sum of £ 80 @,@ 000 .
= Pyramid Head =
Pyramid Head , also known as " Red Pyramid Thing " ( 赤い三角頭 , Akai Sankakutō ) , " Red Pyramid " , or " Bogeyman " , and Sankaku Atama ( 三角頭 , lit . " Triangle Head " ) , is a fictional character from the Silent Hill series of survival horror video games published by Konami .
Introduced in the 2001 installment Silent Hill 2 , he is the main antagonist and he stalks James Sunderland , the primary player character , who comes to the town of Silent Hill after receiving a letter from his deceased wife , Mary . The Silent Hill series , particularly the second installment , frequently utilizes psychology and symbolism : Pyramid Head represents James ' wish to be punished for Mary 's death . Masahiro Ito , the designer of Silent Hill 2 's monsters , created him because he wanted "
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sound for the entire album while mixing the song .
= = Composition = =
The simpler songs in the album Metallica , including " Enter Sandman " , are a departure from the band 's previous , more musically complex album ... And Justice for All . Ulrich described " Enter Sandman " as a " one @-@ riff song " , in which all of its sections derive from the main riff credited to Kirk Hammett .
" Enter Sandman " moves at a tempo of 123 beats per minute for 5 : 32 , running slightly above the average song length of the album . It begins with a clean guitar intro similar to the main riff ; an E minor chord on a guitar using the wah @-@ wah pedal is then introduced , followed by heavy use of tom @-@ tom drums . Distorted guitars then build up to the main riff , which starts 56 seconds into the song and utilizes variations of the E / B ♭ tritone . P. J. Howorth , in The Wah Wah Book , characterized the main riff as " sinister " . The song then follows a common structure , playing two iterations of a verse , a pre @-@ chorus , and a chorus . On the chorus and pre @-@ chorus , the song modulates one whole tone , up to F ♯ , and after the second chorus , Hammett plays a guitar solo with the main , pre @-@ chorus , and chorus riffs in the background . Hammett makes use of the wah @-@ wah pedal and a wide range of scales , including e minor pentatonic , B minor , F ♯ minor , E minor , and the E dorian mode . One of the final licks of the solo was inspired by the Heart song " Magic Man " as used in Ice @-@ T 's " Personal " . Just a few seconds before the solo ends , the breakdown starts , in which the clean drum intro starts , then the clean guitar intro when the last notes of Kirk 's solo echo over it into the background , are heard together with Hetfield teaching a child the " Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep " bedtime prayer and reciting a variation of the lullaby rhyme " Hush Little Baby " where he is heard saying " Hush little baby don 't say a word , and never mind that noise you heard . It 's just the beasts under your bed , in your closet , in your head " . After building again to a chorus , the song starts to fade out while the band plays the same riffs as the buildup intro in reverse order . Lyrically , the song is about " nightmares and all that come with them " , according to Chris True of Allmusic . The title is a reference to the sandman , a character from Western folklore who makes children sleep .
= = Release and reception = =
Initially , the song " Holier Than Thou " was slated to be the opening track and first single from Metallica ; according to the documentary A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica , producer Bob Rock told Ulrich and Hetfield that the album has " five or six songs that are going to be classics " , not only with fans but also on the radio , and that " the first song that should come out is ' Holier Than Thou ' " . According to Rock , Ulrich was the only band member who felt , even before recording , that " Enter Sandman " was the ideal song to be the first single . Ulrich has said that there was a " big argument " ; however , after explaining his point of view to the rest of the band , " Enter Sandman " eventually became the opening track and first single of the album .
The single was released on July 30 , 1991 , two weeks before the release of Metallica . The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 in the United States and nine other countries , and sold over 22 million copies worldwide , allowing " Enter Sandman " to become , as Chris True describes it , " one of the most recognizable songs of all time in rock " . The single peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and at No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart . On September 30 , 1991 , it became Metallica 's second single to achieve gold status in the United States , for shipping more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . In addition to the nominations received by the album as a whole , the song was nominated for Best Rock Song at the 34th Grammy Awards in 1992 , ultimately losing to " The Soul Cages " by Sting . It was also voted Song of the Year in Metal Edge 's 1991 Readers Choice Awards .
" Enter Sandman " was acclaimed by critics . Chris True of Allmusic declared it " one of Metallica ’ s best moments " and a " burst of stadium level metal that , once away from the buildup intro , never lets up " . According to him , the song 's breakdown " brilliantly utilizes that ' Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep ' bedtime prayer in such a way as to add to the scary movie aspect of the song " . Steve Huey , in Allmusic review of Metallica , described it as one of the album 's best songs , with " crushing , stripped @-@ down grooves " . Robert Palmer of Rolling Stone described " Enter Sandman " as " possibly the first metal lullaby " and wrote that the song " tell [ s ] the tale " of the album 's " detail and dynamic , [ ... ] song structures and impact of individual tracks " . Sid Smith from the BBC called the song " psycho @-@ dramatic " and noted that the " terse motifs served notice that things were changing " with Metallica 's new album . Blender magazine 's Tim Grierson says that the lyrics " juxtapose childhood bedtime rituals and nightmarish imagery " and praises the " thick bottom end and propulsive riff " .
" Enter Sandman " has received many accolades . Rolling Stone magazine listed it as the 408th song on their " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " list , and VH1 placed it 22nd in their list of the " 40 Greatest Metal Songs of All Time " , 18th in their list of the " 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 90s " and 88th in their 2003 list of " The 100 Greatest Songs from the Past 25 Years " . Blender magazine included the song in their " The Greatest Songs Ever ! " series of articles and placed it 65th on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . Q magazine listed it 81st in their list of " The 100 Songs That Changed The World " and 55th in their list of " The 1001 Best Songs Ever " . Total Guitar magazine readers chose the song 's riff as the fifth greatest ever , while Kerrang ! places it fourth on their list of the " 100 Greatest Singles of All Time " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame includes it in their list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock " . It was also featured in Triple J 's " Hottest 100 of All Time " . In 2009 , it was named the 5th greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1 . In 2010 , " Enter Sandman " was included in Kerrang 's Top 100 , as decided by fans .
Since the song 's release , there have been claims that the main riff was taken from the song " Tapping into the Emotional Void " by Excel . " Tapping into the Emotional Void " was released originally on their 1989 album The Joke 's on You . In 2003 , it was reported that Excel members were considering legal action against Metallica due to the similarities between the songs .
= = Music video = =
" Enter Sandman " was the second music video from Metallica . It was also the first of six Metallica music videos directed by Wayne Isham . Recorded on July 3 , 1991 in Los Angeles , it premiered on July 30 , 1991 , two weeks before the release of the album . The plot of the music video directly relates to the theme of the song , combining images of a child having nightmares and images of an old man ( R. G. Armstrong ) with shots of the band playing the song . The child dreams that he is drowning , falling from the top of a building , covered in snakes , being chased by a truck and finally falling from a mountain while escaping the truck . During the part of the song in which the child recites a prayer , he is being watched by the Sandman . Throughout the video , the picture flickers continuously . The music video won Best Hard Rock Video at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards and was nominated for Best Cinematography and Best Editing . Andrew Blackie of PopMatters has said the video 's " narrative suits the sludgy riffs and James Hetfield ’ s twisted lullaby lyric " .
British alternative rock band Skunk Anansie did a homage to the video for their video " Charlie Big Potato " .
= = Appearances and covers = =
" Enter Sandman " has been played in almost every Metallica live performance since its release . The band released live versions of the song in the videos Live Shit : Binge & Purge , Cunning Stunts , and S & M where the band played with the San Francisco Symphony led by maestro Michael Kamen . The song is discussed in the videos A Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica and Classic Albums : Metallica - Metallica , and its video is available in The Videos 1989 @-@ 2004 . Metallica has played the song live at awards ceremonies and benefit concerts , such as the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , the 1992 Grammy Awards , the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert , and Live Earth . Explosives are occasionally set off at 0 : 49 of the song , when the main riffs start . Following its UK terrestrial broadcast of Live Earth , the BBC received 413 complaints and apologized to Metallica fans for cutting the band 's set before " Enter Sandman " .
On tours after the release of their album Load , Metallica staged accidents at indoor shows while playing the song . Among other stunts , a light tower would come crushing down with electrical wires sparking , and a crew member would run onto the stage on fire ; such scenes can be seen in the live video Cunning Stunts . On June 6 , 2004 , at Download Festival , in England the song was performed with Joey Jordison of Slipknot playing the drums replacing Ulrich after he suffered a medical emergency .
" Enter Sandman " has been covered by many artists , including acts as diverse as Injustice ( 2010 ) , Alter Bridge , Sum 41 , Lemmy of Motörhead with Zebrahead , Zac Brown Band , Apocalyptica , " Weird Al " Yankovic ( for his " Polka Your Eyes Out " medley ) , Richard Cheese , The Mighty Mighty Bosstones , Reel Big Fish , Tropikal Forever , Ween , Die Krupps , Björn Again , Youn Sun Nah and Pat Boone . Lemmy & Zebrahead 's cover of the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 42nd Grammy Awards in 2000 but lost to Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " . The song was also covered on the album Metallic Assault : A Tribute to Metallica , and is notable for featuring Robert Trujillo playing bass on the track several years before he became a member of Metallica . Country singer Luke Bryan routinely performs the song as part of a medley along with his own song " All My Friends Say " . Widespread Panic performed the song once as part of a live set on October 31 , 2007 at the Asheville Civic Center in Asheville , NC . Parody band Beatallica recorded a mashup of the song and the Beatles ' " Taxman " titled " Sandman " , on their 2007 album Sgt. Hetfield 's Motorbreath Pub Band . In October 2011 , a video of British children aged 8 – 10 covering the song at the Buckleberry Beer Festival as The Mini Band went viral , eventually gaining more than 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views on YouTube . Punk rock band L7 covered fragments of the song at their concerts .
The song 's driving , building intro has made it popular as entrance music in sports – first used by the Louisville Cardinals and later most notably for New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera ( and he also got his nickname " Sandman " due to the association between the song and him ) . Metallica performed " Enter Sandman " live at Yankee Stadium on September 22 , 2013 , in a pregame ceremony honoring Rivera 's career . It has also been used by Billy Wagner , the Virginia Tech Hokies football team , ECW pro wrestler The Sandman , and former UFC Heavyweight Champion Brock Lesnar in the UFC . It is also played for the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim home games , Bradford Bulls rugby team , the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team , the Iowa Hawkeyes football team , the Wisconsin Badgers men 's hockey team , New Zealand Breakers , and the Southern Illinois Salukis football team .
It is also popular in the entertainment field being used in the opening of the Tom Leykis radio show , and for the entrance music of Larry the Cable Guy during his Comedy Central Roast . In 2010 , the song was parodied by The Fringemunks to recap Fringe episode 2 @.@ 14 , " Jacksonville . " The song is also played during the first ascent on the X ² roller coaster at Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia , California . It is also featured in the video games Rock Band and Guitar Hero : Metallica .
The song was also used by NASA mission control CAPCOM B. Alvin Drew to wake up space shuttle astronauts aboard STS @-@ 123 . The song was selected for Mission Specialist Robert L. Behnken by his fiance .
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq , uncooperative prisoners were exposed to the song for extended periods by American interrogators . According to United States Psychological Operations , the intention was to " break a prisoner 's resistance [ ... by ] playing music that was culturally offensive to them " . Upon discovering that the song was used for these purposes , drummer Lars Ulrich commented saying " If there are people that are dumb enough to use Metallica to interrogate prisoners , you 're forgetting about all the music that 's to the left of us . I can name , you know , 30 Norwegian death metal bands that would make Metallica sound like Simon & Garfunkel " .
Canadian indie rock artist Mac DeMarco often performs the song as an encore performance .
= = Track listing = =
US single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
International CD single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 12 " vinyl single ( 4 tracks )
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Holier Than Thou " ( Work in Progress ... ) – 3 : 48
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 12 " vinyl single ( 3 tracks )
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
" Enter Sandman ( Demo ) " – 5 : 05
International 7 " vinyl single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
International 7 " vinyl picture disc single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 34
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 17
Australian 2 @-@ track CD single
" Enter Sandman " – 5 : 37
" Stone Cold Crazy " – 2 : 19
Japanese 2 @-@ track 3 " CD single
" Enter Sandman "
" Stone Cold Crazy "
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Certification = = =
= = Personnel = =
James Hetfield – rhythm guitar , lead vocals
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Jason Newsted – bass guitar , backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
= Bill Mosienko =
William Mosienko ( November 2 , 1921 – July 9 , 1994 ) was a Ukrainian Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played 14 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Chicago Black Hawks . He is best noted for recording the fastest hat trick in NHL history . In a 1952 game against the New York Rangers , Mosienko scored three goals in 21 seconds .
In the NHL , Mosienko won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy in 1945 as the most gentlemanly player in the league , played in five All @-@ Star Games and was twice named to the second All @-@ Star Team . He left the league in 1955 to help bring professional hockey to his hometown of Winnipeg . He helped create the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League and was a three @-@ time All @-@ Star in his four years of play in the league . He won the league championship in 1956 .
Mosienko was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1965 and into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1980 .
= = Early life = =
Mosienko was born on November 2 , 1921 in Winnipeg , Manitoba . He was one of 14 children , having nine brothers and four sisters . His father was a Ukrainian immigrant and worked as a boilermaker with the Canadian Pacific Railway . Mosienko grew up in Winnipeg 's north end .
He developed a passion for hockey and began playing at the age of 10 with the Tobans and later Sherburn athletic clubs . At 17 , he sought to try out with the St. James Canadians junior team in 1939 and after being told he was too young , instead joined the Winnipeg Monarchs .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Chicago Blackhawks = = =
Chicago Black Hawks player Joe Cooper discovered Mosienko playing on outdoor rinks in Winnipeg and recommended that Hawks management sign him . Mosienko signed with Chicago at the age of 18 and was assigned to their minor league team , the Kansas City Americans . In his first two seasons , he split time between the Americans , the Providence Reds and the Black Hawks . The Black Hawks first recalled Mosienko in 1942 , replacing players who had left to fight World War II . He scored his first two NHL goals on February 9 , 1942 , 21 seconds apart .
Exempted from military service for medical reasons likely related to his small size , Mosienko was unable to cross into the United States as a result of travel restrictions and played the 1942 – 43 season primarily with the Quebec Aces of the Quebec Senior Hockey League . He appeared in two games when the Hawks traveled to Toronto . He finally established himself as an NHL regular in 1943 – 44 and scored a career high 70 points . Mosienko and his linemates Clint Smith and Doug Bentley combined to score 219 points , at that time an NHL record . His 70 points set a team rookie record that stood for 37 years until broken by Denis Savard in 1980 – 81 .
In 1944 – 45 , Mosienko finished sixth in league scoring with 54 points and did not record a single penalty minute throughout the course of the season . He was awarded the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's most gentlemanly player and named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Star . He was also voted the most popular player on the team by its fans .
The following season , Chicago coach Johnny Gottselig paired Mosienko with the Bentley brothers : Max and Doug . The trio formed what came to be known as the " Pony Line " due to their speed and small size and emerged as one of the top scoring trios in the NHL . Max Bentley led the league in scoring in 1945 – 46 , and despite missing time with a knee injury , Mosienko finished sixth . He was again named a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Star . He played in the first National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game prior to the start of the 1947 – 48 season , during which he suffered a broken leg and was initially feared lost for the year . He ultimately missed the first two months of play , while the Pony Line was broken up for good shortly after his injury when Max Bentley was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Mosienko remained a key contributor to the Black
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Hawks offence , appearing in five All @-@ Star Games during his career . His most famous moment came on March 23 , 1952 , in a game against the New York Rangers on the final night of the regular season . He scored three goals in a 21 @-@ second span of the third period against New York 's Lorne Anderson to set a new record for the fastest hat @-@ trick by one player . Linemate Gus Bodnar assisted on all three goals , and he nearly had a fourth goal 45 seconds later on a shot that deflected off the goalpost . Mosienko 's feat remains an NHL record .
Due to his small size , Mosienko was a frequent target of physical abuse from larger opponents , and suffered numerous injuries as a result . Despite this , he refrained from retaliation and was well regarded across the league for his gentlemanly conduct . In 14 NHL seasons , he totaled only 121 penalty minutes and had just one fight .
= = = Winnipeg Warriors = = =
Mosienko left the NHL in 1955 and joined fellow player Alf Pike in bringing professional hockey back to Winnipeg . They established the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League . He led the Warriors to the President 's Cup championship in the team 's first year of 1955 – 56 and helped the Warriors defeat the Quebec Hockey League 's Quebec Aces for the Edinburgh Cup , Canada 's minor professional championship . He scored two goals in the deciding sixth game of a 3 – 1 victory to capture the trophy . He was named to the WHL All @-@ Star Team three times : 1957 , 1958 and 1959 . Though he scored 88 points in the 1958 – 59 season , Mosienko announced his retirement after 18 seasons of professional hockey . He coached the team for one season in 1959 – 60 .
At the time of his retirement from the NHL , Mosienko was seventh all @-@ time in league scoring with 540 points . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1965 , and to the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum in 1980 . Additionally , Mosienko is honoured by the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame and in 2000 was named to its provincial All @-@ Century First All @-@ Star Team .
= = Off the ice = =
Following his retirement , Mosienko and Joe Cooper operated a string of bowling alleys in Winnipeg , one of which continues to be operated by his family . He was a supporter of Winnipeg minor hockey and Manitoba oldtimers associations . There is an arena named in Mosienko 's honor in his hometown of Winnipeg .
Mosienko died of cancer in Winnipeg in 1994 at the age of 72 . He had a wife , Wanda , two sons and one daughter . His grandson , Tyler , is also a professional hockey player . The younger Mosienko remembers his grandfather as a humble man who would join him on the family 's backyard rink when he was learning to skate as a child .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Level @-@ 5 . It was released in Japan for the Nintendo DS on December 9 , 2010 . Players control Oliver , a young boy who sets out on a journey to save his mother . The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on foot or by boat . While players navigate Oliver throughout the game 's world , other characters can be controlled during battles against enemies ; during these battles , players use magic abilities and creatures known as " imajinn " , which can be captured and tamed .
Development of Dominion of the Dark Djinn began in 2008 . The game 's animated sequences were produced by Studio Ghibli , while the original score was co @-@ composed by Joe Hisaishi . The artwork was also inspired by Studio Ghibli 's other productions . The character development of Oliver was a large focus of the game , intending to make children empathize with the character and for adults to relive their adolescence . The developers chose to develop for the Nintendo DS due to its suitability for gameplay .
Following its announcement , Ni no Kuni was widely anticipated . It was acclaimed by reviewers , with praise particularly directed at its story , art style and music . An enhanced version of the game , titled Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch , was released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 , featuring similar gameplay and story elements .
= = Gameplay = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn is a role @-@ playing game that uses a fixed third @-@ person perspective . Players complete quests — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . Outside of quests , players can freely roam the open world . Players explore towns , villages , dungeons and dangerous places scattered throughout the world , and possess the ability to travel between the world and Oliver 's hometown of Hotroit . Upon leaving a location , players enter the World Map , which can be navigated , or used to select a destination . The world may be fully explored from the beginning of the game without restrictions , although story progress unlocks more gameplay content and forms of transport to navigate the world .
When players encounter enemies , they enter a battle mode . The battles employ a grid layout , whereby players can create formations to avoid attacks , or lessen damage . During battles , players command a single human ally , or one of the " imajinn " accompanying them ; changing primary command to a different human ally allows players to control their imajinn . To fight enemies , players use magical abilities and imajinn . Imajinn are creatures that can be tamed , in order to be suitable to send out in battle to fight for players . Familiars level up and evolve alongside the human characters ; each have unique statistics and capabilities , and can be guided through their upgrades with treats and equipped with items . When all enemies in a battle are defeated , players may receive experience points , currency and items . When a specific amount of experience is earned , characters ' levels will increase , and their abilities improve . Should a party member lose health or mana points , they can be restored by using provisions .
The errands that can be undertaken at the request of townspeople and the bounty hunts available from the Taskmaster are collectively known as " tasks " . When tasks are completed , players will earn a number of stamps for their current merit stamp card , which can be exchanged for upgrades . Players take part in battles using the Wizard Companion book , which contains various spells that are activated using drawings with the stylus . During battles , players can arrange their characters anywhere on the bottom screen to implement various tactics ; for example , a character that can block certain attacks can be placed in front of others to shield them .
= = Plot = =
Ni no Kuni follows the journey of Oliver , a resident of Hotroit . While trying out a new vehicle designed by his friend Mark , Oliver almost drowns , but is saved by his mother Allie ; however , she immediately dies from heart problems after saving him . As Oliver cries , his tears cause his doll , a gift from his mother , to come to life and reveal itself as a fairy named Shizuku , who tells Oliver that he is from another world where an evil wizard named Jabou took control . He also tells Oliver that each person from his world has a " soulmate " , a person that shares a link with someone in Oliver 's world , and that his mother looks very much like a great sage , Alicia , who was captured by Jabou . Realizing that Alicia must have been Allie 's soulmate , Oliver sets out with Shizuku to travel to the other world and rescue Alicia in the hope that doing so will bring Allie back in his world .
In the other world , Oliver finds a multitude of broken @-@ hearted people affected by Jabou , and uses his new @-@ found magic abilities to restore those pieces of heart which they lack , and travels the world to seek out the four great sages who may be able to help . Along the way , he meets Maru , daughter of one of the great sages , and Jairo , a thief who initially steals a crucial item from them , but who ultimately decides to help . As they enlist the sages ' help , they learn of a wand that could be used to defeat Jabou , but are at a loss as to how to retrieve it , as it was recently destroyed by Jabou . Soon after , they find themselves many years in the past by the actions of a stranger , and are able to retrieve the wand there .
After returning to the present and retrieving three magical stones to complete the wand , Oliver learns that his mother Allie was in fact the great sage , Alicia . Realizing she could not defeat Jabou , and that he had destroyed his soulmate in the other world to avoid the possibility of being defeated through them , she chose to travel into both the future and into Oliver 's world in the hopes of finding his next soulmate ; after settling in to this new world , she eventually gave birth to her son , Oliver , who unknowingly became Jabou 's soulmate . After he is defeated , Jabou 's past is shown . He was once a soldier who helped a young girl against orders , and whose hometown was destroyed to set an example . The spirit of Alicia talks to the dying Jabou , who realises that the girl he saved was the young Alicia herself . Jabou then uses his power to sever the link between himself and Oliver , in order to save Oliver from dying as well .
= = Development = =
Conceived as a project for Level @-@ 5 's tenth anniversary in 2008 , Ni no Kuni : The Another World was announced in the September 2008 issue of Famitsu , as a title for the Nintendo DS . In June 2010 , Level @-@ 5 announced that the game would also be released for the PlayStation 3 , with significant differences ; the DS version was renamed Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn , while the PlayStation 3 version was given the title Ni no Kuni : Wrath of the White Witch . Both versions were revealed to be in development separately , only retaining the same " story axle " , while features such as artwork , graphics and specifications all received significant changes . Journalists noted that the game 's announcement ignited widespread anticipation within the gaming industry .
The development team found that the Nintendo DS was best suited to the game 's development . The team planned to bring the game to PlayStation 3 from the beginning of development , but opted to work on the DS version of the game beforehand due to the larger number of DS users in Japan at the time .
= = = Art design = = =
Level @-@ 5 collaborated with Studio Ghibli to produce the game 's animated sequences , and the game features graphics and visuals replicating the traditional animation style of Studio Ghibli films . The collaboration began when musician Naoya Fujimaki , who had previously worked with both companies , introduced Level @-@ 5 president Akihiro Hino to Studio Ghibli president Toshio Suzuki . At the time , Studio Ghibli had completed work on Ponyo ( 2008 ) , and the animation team had no ongoing projects , which influenced Suzuki 's decision to collaborate with Level @-@ 5 . Another influencing factor of the collaboration was witnessing Hino 's passion for the project . Studio Ghibli approached the production process in the same way that they would create an animated film . Work on the animation began in July 2008 , and took much longer than the predicted three months .
Studio Ghibli 's Yoshiyuki Momose served as the game 's director of animation , staging the scenes and directing actors during the motion capture sessions . He was also assigned to drawing character designs and storyboards , incorporating a " Ghibli @-@ like " style . Hino wished to incorporate the " heartwarming touch " of Studio Ghibli productions into the game ; the artwork and character movements was greatly inspired by Studio Ghibli 's work , particularly due to their attention to detail , as well as their talent in creating storyboards and utilizing camera control . The development team constantly watched Studio Ghibli 's films during development . Game director Ken Motomura regularly worked with Studio Ghibli , swapping and reviewing assets , while Hino worked with the studio in regards to the game 's dialogue and animated sequences . When designing the familiars , the team accounted for the characteristics of their surrounding area , which inspired the later design . Some of the initial familiar designs were deemed either creepy or " overly @-@ cute " , and adapted accordingly to match the style of Studio Ghibli 's artwork .
= = = Story and setting = = =
The team wanted the theme of the game to resonate with children ; they initially considered the idea of expressing adventure and dreams . They later explored the concept of a child 's greatest influence , their mother , and the possibility of losing them . Although the framework of the story was completed prior to Studio Ghibli 's involvement with the game , they still took part in many discussions regarding some ideas , including the game 's final scenes .
The majority of the game takes place in a magical world , referred to as the " other world " . To avoid making the world map feel outdated , the team modernized the design by arranging the terrain in " fun and fascinating ways " . The game 's open world was designed to remind players of a " miniature diorama " , intending to invoke reminiscence to an older time , as well as the feeling of freshness . Other segments of the game are set in Oliver 's fictional hometown of Hotroit . The town is modelled after an American town in the peak of the automotive industry during the 1950s and 1960s ; this decision was made due to Oliver 's interest in cars and machines .
= = = Character development = = =
The game 's characters were particularly inspired by Level @-@ 5 's previous work on the Professor Layton series ( 2007 – present ) . During development , Momose suggested that the team design the clothes in a modern fashion , in order for players to gain a " stronger sense that you have stepped out of the familiar and into a different world " . The game 's main playable character , Oliver , is a 13 @-@ year @-@ old boy . The team decided to make him a child as they wished to showcase a coming of age story . They wanted children to empathize with Oliver 's development , and adults to relive the excitement of their adolescence . A major part of the story is Oliver 's personal development , which Hino describes as " the process of how a child grows into an adult " . In regards to Oliver 's physical appearance , Momose made his outfit represent a young boy in 1950s America , which was the inspiration for his hometown .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn received high acclaim upon release . Reviewers highly praised the art style , unique gameplay , story and characters , and the soundtrack . Michael Baker of RPGamer named it the " best overall game " at the time , and Janelle Hindman of RPGLand wrote that the game is " a reminder of why people used to flock to the JRPG genre in the first place " . Nintendo Gamer 's Matthew Castle called it " one of the best experiences on DS " . Editors of the magazine Famitsu felt that game 's animation , music and story are effectively utilized to maintain excitement .
The game 's artistic design received acclaim , being favorably compared to Studio Ghibli 's previous work ; Gigazine found the art style to be " Ghibl @-@ ish " . Famitsu praised the gimmicks in the design , similarly calling them " extremely Level @-@ 5 like " . RPGamer 's Baker felt that the graphics are the best in a Nintendo DS game , particularly praising the animated cutscenes . Nintendo Gamer 's Castle echoed these remarks , calling it " visual perfection " . RPGLand 's Hindman called the graphics " beautiful and lovingly rendered " , praising their effective use of building the world , and its lack of repetition . Chris Carter of Destructoid approved of the visuals , though found the graphics in Wrath of the White Witch to be far superior .
The gameplay was met with positive reactions . Hindman of RPGLand found the battle system " fun " , and admired the variety of styles present in battles . Baker of RPGamer praised the simplicity of the battles , but reprimanded the puzzles and level design for their lack of depth . Gigazine found the touchscreen controls " innovative " and unique , yet felt that the battle sequences were " not very thrilling " and lacking excitement . Warotan.com felt that game 's combat was frustrating for the game 's first half , until enough resources had been obtained . Edge found that the gameplay was too similar to other games , noting the collaboration with Studio Ghibli was the game 's only unique point . The inclusion of the Wizard 's Companion book with the game was also met with positive reactions ; Famitsu called it " innovative " , and RPGLand 's Hindman praised the presentation , although criticized the constant necessity of the book for gameplay . Castle of Nintendo Gamer called the book a " genuine work of art " , praising its relevance to the gameplay .
Reviewers commended the game 's story and characters . RPGLand 's Hindman appreciated the genuineness of the characters , and found that the script makes the game unique compared to other role @-@ playing games . Edge favorably compared the characters to previous works by Level @-@ 5 and Studio Ghibli , the former for their ability to present believable worlds , and the latter for their presentation of " complex , adult problems from a child 's perspective " . Baker of RPGamer felt that the story is " comfortably cliché @-@ ridden " , noting that the writing " really shines " due to the characters . Tomomi Yamamura of Game Watch praised the game 's voice acting , comparing it favorably to Studio Ghibli films . Conversely , Warotan.com found the story to be " flat " , criticising the repetitive tasks .
Baker of RPGamer found the game 's music to be " top @-@ notch " , noting its appropriation for gameplay . Patrick Gann of RPGFan called the soundtrack " beautiful " , comparing it favorably to Koichi Sugiyama 's work on the Dragon Quest series . RPGLand 's Hindman lauded the music as " gorgeously crafted " , appreciating the lack of electronic or synthesized songs , and Gigazine named it " magnificent " . Nintendo Gamer 's Castle lauded the music , favorably comparing it to film soundtracks .
= = = Sales = = =
Within three days of release , Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn sold over 170 @,@ 000 units , charting second for the week behind Monster Hunter Portable 3rd . Within one month , it had sold over 330 @,@ 000 units , making it the 33rd best @-@ selling game in Japan for 2010 . By March 2011 , over 500 @,@ 000 units had been sold . By the end of 2011 , sales figures had reached over 560 @,@ 000 units ; the additional 230 @,@ 000 sold units sold in 2011 made it the 45th best @-@ selling game of the year .
= = = Awards = = =
Ni no Kuni : Dominion of the Dark Djinn received nominations and awards from gaming publications . It won the award for Future Division from the Japan Game Awards in 2009 and 2010 , and the Excellence Award in 2011 . The game was also awarded the Rookie Award from Famitsu in 2011 .
= Nancy Drew =
Nancy Drew is a fictional American character in a mystery fiction series created by publisher Edward Stratemeyer . The character first appeared in 1930 . The books are ghostwritten by a number of authors and published under the collective pseudonym Carolyn Keene . Over the decades , the character evolved in response to changes in US culture and tastes . The books were extensively revised and shortened , beginning in 1959 , in part to lower printing costs and to eliminate racist stereotypes , with arguable success . In the revision process , the heroine 's original character was changed to be less assertive and more feminine . In the 1980s , an older and more professional Nancy emerged in a new series , The Nancy Drew Files , that included romantic subplots for the sleuth . The original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series started in 1930 , and ended in 2004 . Launched that same year , the Girl Detective series features Nancy driving a hybrid electric vehicle and using a cell phone . In 2013 , the Girl Detective series ended , and a new current series called Nancy Drew Diaries was launched . Illustrations of the character evolved over time to reflect contemporary styles . The character proves continuously popular worldwide : at least 80 million copies of the books have been sold , and the books have been translated into over 45 languages . Nancy Drew is featured in five films , two television shows , and a number of popular computer games ; she also appears in a variety of merchandise sold around the world .
A cultural icon , Nancy Drew is cited as a formative influence by a number of women , from Supreme Court Justices Sandra Day O 'Connor and Sonia Sotomayor to Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and former First Lady Laura Bush . Feminist literary critics have analyzed the character 's enduring appeal , arguing variously that Nancy Drew is a mythic hero , an expression of wish fulfillment , or an embodiment of contradictory ideas about femininity .
= = Character = =
Nancy Drew is a fictional amateur sleuth . In the original versions of the series , she is a 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school graduate , and in later versions , is rewritten and aged to be an 18 @-@ year @-@ old high school graduate and detective . In the series , she lives in the fictional town of River Heights with her father , attorney Carson Drew , and their housekeeper , Hannah Gruen . As a child ( age ten in the original versions and age three in the later version ) , she loses her mother . Her loss is reflected in her early independence — running a household since the age of ten with a clear @-@ cut servant in early series and deferring to the servant as a surrogate parent in later ones . As a teenager , she spends her time solving mysteries , some of which she stumbles upon and some of which begin as cases of her father 's . Nancy is often assisted in solving mysteries by her two closest friends : cousins Bess Marvin and George Fayne . Bess is delicate and feminine , while George is a tomboy . Nancy is also occasionally joined by her boyfriend Ned Nickerson , a student at Emerson College .
Nancy is often described as a super girl . In the words of Bobbie Ann Mason , she is " as immaculate and self @-@ possessed as a Miss America on tour . She is as cool as Mata Hari and as sweet as Betty Crocker . " Nancy is well @-@ off , attractive , and amazingly talented :
At sixteen she ' had studied psychology in school , and was familiar with the power of suggestion and association . ' Nancy was a fine painter , spoke French , and had frequently run motor boats . She was a skilled driver who at sixteen ' flashed into the garage with a skill born of long practice . ' The prodigy was a sure shot , an excellent swimmer , skillful oarsman , expert seamstress , gourmet cook , and a fine bridge player . Nancy brilliantly played tennis and golf , and rode like a cowboy . Nancy danced like Ginger Rogers and could administer first aid like the Mayo brothers .
Nancy never lacks money , and in later volumes of the series often travels to faraway locations , such as France in The Mystery of the 99 Steps ( 1966 ) , Nairobi in The Spider Sapphire Mystery ( 1968 ) , Austria in Captive Witness ( 1981 ) , Japan in The Runaway Bride ( 1994 ) , Costa Rica in Scarlet Macaw Scandal ( 2004 ) , and Alaska in Curse of The Arctic Star ( 2013 ) . Nancy is also able to travel freely about the United States , thanks in part to her car , which is a blue roadster in the original series and a blue convertible in the later books . Despite the trouble and presumed expense to which she goes to solve mysteries , Nancy never accepts monetary compensation ; however , by implication , her expenses are often paid by a client of her father 's , as part of the costs of solving one of his cases .
= = Creation of character = =
The character was conceived by Edward Stratemeyer , founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate . Stratemeyer had created the Hardy Boys series in 1926 ( although the first volumes were not published until 1927 ) , which had been such a success that he decided on a similar series for girls , featuring an amateur girl detective as the heroine . While Stratemeyer believed that a woman 's place was in the home , he was aware that the Hardy Boys books were popular with girl readers and wished to capitalize on girls ' interest in mysteries by offering a strong female heroine .
Stratemeyer initially pitched the new series to Hardy Boys publishers Grosset & Dunlap as the " Stella Strong Stories " , adding that " they might also be called ' Diana Drew Stories ' , ' Diana Dare Stories ' , ' Nan Nelson Stories ' , ' Nan Drew Stories ' , or ' Helen Hale Stories ' . " Editors at Grosset & Dunlap preferred " Nan Drew " of these options , but decided to lengthen " Nan " to " Nancy " . Stratemeyer accordingly began writing plot outlines and hired Mildred Wirt , later Mildred Wirt Benson , to ghostwrite the first volumes in the series under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene . Subsequent titles have been written by a number of different ghostwriters , all under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene .
The first four titles were published in 1930 and were an immediate success . Exact sales figures are not available for the years prior to 1979 , but an indication of the books ' popularity can be seen in a letter that Laura Harris , a Grosset and Dunlap editor , wrote to the Syndicate in 1931 : " can you let us have the manuscript as soon as possible , and no later than July 10 ? There will only be three or four titles brought out then and the Nancy Drew is one of the most important . " The 6 @,@ 000 copies that Macy 's ordered for the 1933 Christmas season sold out within days . In 1934 Fortune magazine featured the Syndicate in a cover story and singled Nancy Drew out for particular attention : " Nancy is the greatest phenomenon among all the fifty @-@ centers . She is a best seller . How she crashed a Valhalla that had been rigidly restricted to the male of her species is a mystery even to her publishers . "
= = = Ghostwriters = = =
Consistent with other Stratemeyer Syndicate properties , the Nancy Drew novels were written by various writers , all under the pen name Carolyn Keene . In accordance with the customs of Stratemeyer Syndicate series production , ghostwriters for the Syndicate signed contracts that have sometimes been interpreted as requiring authors to sign away all rights to authorship or future royalties . Contracts stated that authors could not use their Stratemeyer Syndicate pseudonyms independently of the Syndicate . In the early days of the Syndicate , ghostwriters were paid a fee of $ 125 , " roughly equivalent to two month 's wages for a typical newspaper reporter , the primary day job of the syndicate ghosts . "
During the Great Depression this fee was lowered to $ 100 and eventually $ 75 . All royalties went to the Syndicate , and all correspondence with the publisher was handled through a Syndicate office . The Syndicate was able to enlist the cooperation of libraries in hiding the ghostwriters ' names ; when Walter Karig , who wrote volumes eight through ten of the original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories , tried to claim rights with the Library of Congress in 1933 , the Syndicate instructed the Library of Congress not to reveal the names of any Nancy Drew authors , a move with which the Library of Congress complied .
The Syndicate 's process for creating the Nancy Drew books consisted of creating a detailed plot outline , drafting a manuscript , and editing the manuscript . Edward Stratemeyer and his daughters Harriet Adams and Edna Stratemeyer Squier wrote most of the outlines for the original Nancy Drew series until 1979 . Volume 30 , The Clue of the Velvet Mask ( 1953 ) , was outlined by Andrew Svenson . Usually , other writers wrote the manuscripts . Most of the early volumes were written by Mildred Wirt Benson . Other volumes were written by Walter Karig , George Waller , Jr . , Margaret Scherf , Wilhelmina Rankin , Alma Sasse , Charles S. Strong , Iris Vinton , and Patricia Doll . Edward Stratemeyer edited the first three volumes , and Harriet Adams edited most subsequent volumes until her death in 1982 . In 1959 , the earlier titles were revised , largely by Adams . From the late 1950s until her death in 1982 , Harriet Adams herself wrote the manuscripts for most of the books .
After Adams 's death , series production was overseen by Nancy Axelrad ( who also wrote several volumes ) . The rights to the character were sold in 1984 , along with the Stratemeyer Syndicate itself , to Simon & Schuster . Book packager Mega @-@ Books subsequently hired authors to write the main Nancy Drew series and a new series , The Nancy Drew Files .
= = = Legal disputes = = =
In 1980 , Harriet Adams switched publishers to Simon & Schuster , dissatisfied with the lack of creative control at Grosset & Dunlap and the lack of publicity for the Hardy Boys ' 50th anniversary in 1977 . Grosset & Dunlap filed suit against the Syndicate and the new publishers , Simon & Schuster , citing " breach of contract , copyright infringement , and unfair competition . "
Adams filed a countersuit , claiming the case was in poor taste and frivolous , and that , as author of the Nancy Drew series , she retained the rights to her work . Although Adams had written many of the titles after 1953 , and edited others , she claimed to be the author of all of the early titles . In fact , she had rewritten the older titles and was not their original author . When Mildred Benson was called to testify about her work for the Syndicate , Benson 's role in writing the manuscripts of early titles was revealed in court with extensive documentation , contradicting Adams ' claims to authorship . The court ruled that Grosset had the rights to publish the original series as they were in print in 1980 , but did not own characters or trademarks . Furthermore , any new publishers chosen by Adams were completely within their rights to print new titles .
= = Evolution of character = =
The character of Nancy Drew has gone through many permutations over the years . The Nancy Drew Mystery series was revised beginning in 1959 ; with commentators agreeing that Nancy 's character changed significantly from the original Nancy of the books written in the 1930s and 1940s . Commentators also often see a difference between the Nancy Drew of the original series , the Nancy of The Nancy Drew Files , and the Nancy of Girl Detective series . Nevertheless , some commentators find no significant difference between the different permutations of Nancy Drew , finding Nancy to be simply a good role model for girls . Despite revisions , " [ w ] hat hasn 't changed , however , are [ Nancy 's ] basic values , her goals , her humility , and her magical gift for having at least nine lives . For more than six decades , her essence has remained intact . " Nancy is a " teen detective queen " who " offers girl readers something more than action @-@ packed adventure : she gives them something original . Convention has it that girls are passive , respectful , and emotional , but with the energy of a girl shot out of a cannon , Nancy bends conventions and acts out every girl 's fantasies of power .
Other commentators see Nancy as " a paradox — which may be why feminists can laud her as a formative ' girl power ' icon and conservatives can love her well @-@ scrubbed middle @-@ class values . "
= = = 1930 – 1959 = = =
The earliest Nancy Drew books were
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States , and the last combat glider to be built for the U.S. military . It featured a high @-@ mounted wing and retractable tricycle landing gear , with an auxiliary power unit supplied hydraulic power to the landing gear and flaps . The nose section was reinforced to provide optimal protection to the pilots in the event of a crash on landing , and to allow for the strongest possible towing connection . The cargo hold was 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide ; it featured an innovative configuration , the rear fuselage being upswept with an integrated loading ramp . This allowed vehicles to be driven directly on and off of the aircraft , speeding loading and unloading times .
= = Operational history = =
Although the first prototype XG @-@ 20 never flew as a glider , the second prototype conducted the aircraft 's first flight in April 1950 . Following being displayed to the public at Pope Air Force Base as part of Exercise Swarmer during that month , the XG @-@ 20 underwent thorough flight testing ; during the late summer , it was evaluated against a variety of other transport aircraft at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida . Although it possessed no obvious faults , the test program confirmed that the powered " assault transport " was the equal of the glider in landing performance ; having been rendered obsolete , the assault glider fell out of favor with the Air Force , and the XG @-@ 20 project was cancelled .
However , Chase had designed the aircraft to allow for the easy installation of engines ; the first XG @-@ 20 had already been modified with two radial piston engines , becoming the XC @-@ 123 , the prototype of the long @-@ serving C @-@ 123 Provider family of transports . Meanwhile , the second prototype XG @-@ 20 was returned to Chase Aircraft , to be fitted with two twin pods for General Electric J47 turbojets , becoming the XC @-@ 123A , the first jet @-@ powered transport aircraft built in the United States .
= = Specifications = =
Data from " C @-@ 123 Provider in action "
General characteristics
Crew : 3
Length : 77 ft 1 in ( 23 @.@ 50 m )
Wingspan : 110 ft 0 in ( 33 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 33 ft 10 in ( 10 @.@ 31 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 222 @.@ 78 sq ft ( 113 @.@ 600 m2 )
Airfoil : NACA 23017
Max takeoff weight : 70 @,@ 000 lb ( 31 @,@ 751 kg ) limited by tow aircraft to 40 @,@ 000 pounds ( 18 @,@ 000 kg )
= Raja of Panagal =
Sir Panaganti Ramarayaningar KCIE , ( 9 July 1866 – 16 December 1928 ) , also known as the Raja of Panagal , was a zamindar of Kalahasti , a Justice Party leader and the Chief Minister or Premier of Madras Presidency from 11 July 1921 to 3 December 1926 .
Ramarayaningar was born in Kalahasti , Chittoor District , Madras Presidency on 9 July 1866 . He was educated in Madras and obtained degrees in Sanskrit , law , philosophy and Dravidian languages before entering politics . He was one of the founder @-@ members of the Justice Party and served as its President from 1925 to 1928 .
From 17 December 1920 to 11 July 1921 , Ramarayaningar served as the Minister of Local Self @-@ Government in the first Justice Party government led by A. Subbarayalu Reddiar . He served as the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency from 11 July 1921 to 3 December 1926 . He introduced a number of reforms during his tenure . The Theagaroya Nagar locality in Chennai was developed during his Chief @-@ Ministership . Ramarayaningar resigned as Chief Minister in 1926 when the Justice Party failed to obtain a majority in the 1926 elections to the Madras Legislative Council . He , however , continued to remain active in politics and served as the President of the Justice Party until his death on 16 December 1928 .
Ramarayaningar was regarded as an advocate of democracy and a staunch supporter of empowerment of the depressed classes . Historians generally attribute the decline of the Justice Party in the mid @-@ 1930s to the absence of charismatic leaders in the Justice Party following his death .
= = Early life = =
Ramarayaningar was born in a family of landlords . He belonged to the Telugu Velama community . Ramarayaningar 's family patronised Brahmins and the Raja had his early education in the household of Calamur Sundara Sastri , the father @-@ in @-@ law of C. P. Ramaswami Iyer . He completed his schooling from Triplicane High School in 1886 and graduated in Sanskrit from the Presidency College in 1893 with Advanced Chemistry as his optional subject . He graduated in BL and M.A. ( Philosophy and Dravidian Languages ) in 1899 . In 1919 , he was appointed a fellow of the Presidency College .
= = Early political career = =
Ramarayaningar got his first taste of politics when he was appointed to the district board of North Arcot . In 1912 , he was nominated to the Imperial Legislative Council of India and represented the landlords and zamindars of South India . He served as a legislator until 1915 . During this period , Ramarayaningar earned the praise of the Viceroy , Lord Hardinge . He actively supported reforms in the Hindu society . In 1914 , Ramarayaningar moved a legislation for the creation of separate Provincial departments for the welfare of depressed classes . In 1915 , he was elected President of the Third Andhra Congress .
In 1914 , the Madras Dravidian Association was established by C. Natesa Mudaliar . Ramarayaningar was elected as the first President of the Association . On 19 July 1917 , at a conference in Coimbatore presided over by the Ramarayaningar , the four different non @-@ Brahmin associations got together to form the South Indian Liberal Federation , unofficially known as the Justice Party . In 1921 , Ramarayaningar was sent along with Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu and Koka Appa Rao Naidu to lobby on behalf of the Justice Party before the authorities in England .
Ramarayaningar was also active in the All @-@ India Non @-@ Brahmin movement . He was a friend of Shahu Maharaj and was closely associated with the former 's Satya Shodhak Samaj . He attended the All India Non @-@ Brahmin Conference held at Belgaum on 26 December 1924 and presided over the Second All @-@ India Non @-@ Brahmin Conference held at Victoria Hall , Madras on 25 May 1925 .
When the Government of India Act was passed in 1919 , provisions were made to hold elections in the Madras Presidency for the first time in history . The Justice Party unanimously decided to contest the elections and was elected to power in the province . A. Subbarayalu Reddiar became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency . Ramarayaningar served as Minister of Local Self @-@ Government in the Subbarayalu Reddiar Government . When Subbarayalu Reddiar resigned , citing health reasons , Ramarayaningar was appointed Chief Minister .
= = Chief Minister of Madras = =
Ramarayaningar served as the Chief Minister of Madras from 11 July 1921 till 3 December 1926 . A. P. Patro of Berhampur was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by Subbarayalu Reddiar 's resignation , and he took the portfolio of education .
= = = B & C Mills strike of 1921 = = =
In 1921 , a labour strike erupted in the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Madras . This strike was led by V. Kalyanasundara Mudaliar , a leader of the Indian National Congress . The strike lasted for over six months during which around 10 @,@ 000 workers struck work . A crackdown was ordered . Eventually , two factions emerged ; one group of workers desired to return to work while another wished to continue the strike . Violent riots broke out when striking workers prevented the others from returning to work . The riots began to assume communal colours as the workers who wished to continue the strike were mostly caste Hindus while those who desired to end it were largely untouchables or Dalits .
Ministers in the Madras government and ruling party members supported the strike . On 29 August 1921 , the police opened fire killing six of the workers on the spot . Top Justice Party leaders like O. Thanikachalam Chetti severely censured the police for the measures they adopted . The main reason was the fact that the police was under the control of the Governor and the government was looking for an opportunity to harass the executive . Another probable reason was that the striking workers had the caste sympathies of the Justice Party Government whose ministers and chief whips were caste Hindus like themselves .
The Justice Party leaders were extremely vociferous in their attacks on Dalits and the Labour Department . Their views were endorsed by the Raja of Panagal who joined Thanickachalam Chetti in admonishing the Dalits . The party 's organ Justice blamed the riots on the " pampering " of Dalits by the Labour Department . M. C. Rajah , the leader of the Dalits in the Justice Party , in turn , retorted by describing the criticism of Dalits by Justice Party members as " the high @-@ handed poisonous action of members of a party who after inflicting all known and unknown injury on our community shed crocodile tears and pose as friends of the Depressed classes " . Though the B & C mills strike was eventually settled through the mediation of C. Natesa Mudaliar , the communal riots which had accompanied it estranged Dalits from the Justice Party. and was one of the reasons for Rajah quitting the party at a later stage .
= = = Second general elections = = =
Polling for the second general elections in the Madras Presidency began on 11 September 1923 . However , owing to heavy rains , polling was not completed until 10 November . Though the Justice Party returned to power , its majority had been considerably reduced . Observers attribute this decline in performance to the rift between the Tamil and Telugu members of the Justice party . Ramarayaningar assumed office as Chief Minister on 19 November 1923 and retained the same Cabinet with one change – K. V. Reddi Naidu , the Minister of Development was replaced with T. N. Sivagnanam Pillai . In 1923 , the British government bestowed upon Ramarayaningar , the honorific title of " Raja of Panagal " .
= = = No @-@ confidence motion = = =
In 1923 , a few prominent members of the Justice Party broke off to form the United Nationalist Party and projected themselves as " Democrats " . The dissidents were led by C. R. Reddy , a leader of the Justice Party , who complained of the dictatorial rule of the Raja and his insensitive , unimaginative policies . On 27 November 1923 , a no @-@ confidence motion was introduced against the government of the Raja of Panagal . The no @-@ confidence motion was defeated by a margin of 65 votes to 44 .
= = = Reforms = = =
Ramarayaningar introduced a number of reforms during his tenure as Chief Minister .
Hindu Religious Endowments Bill
In 1921 , the Raja of Panagal introduced the Hindu Religious Endowments Bill . As per this bill , trusts were established to maintain temple funds and given complete power over the administration of temples . This act evoked severe protests from some sections of the assembly which felt that this was an intrusion in the religious affairs of the populace . However , the Shankaracharya of Kanchi gave his support to the bill even while expressing his concern over some of its provisions .
Madras State Aid to Industries Act
In 1922 , the Madras State Aid to Industries Act was passed . Through this act , the government made it a state policy to advance loans to developing industries . It received less opposition in the assembly . This eventually became Madras Act V of 1923 .
Educational reforms
The Madras University Act was passed in the year 1923 . The bill was introduced by Education Minister Sir A. P. Patro . As per the provisions of this bill , the governing body of the Madras University was completely reorganised on democratic lines . The bill asserted that the governing body would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro @-@ Chancellor who was usually the Minister of Education . Apart from the Chancellor and the pro @-@ Chancellor who were elected , there was to be a Vice @-@ Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor . In 1925 , the Andhra University Act was passed which included similar reforms in Andhra University .
However , the tenure of the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal is largely remembered for the introduction of caste @-@ based reservations in 1921 . In August 1921 , the First communal Government Order ( G.O. No.613 ) was passed . As per the order , 44 percent of jobs were reserved for non @-@ Brahmins , 16 percent for Brahmins , 16 percent for Muslims , 16 percent for Anglo @-@ Indians and Christians and eight percent for the Scheduled Castes .
In 1923 , M. C. Rajah , a Justice Party leader from the Dalit community protested against the government order arguing that the act did not guarantee adequate representation of Dalits who he felt deserved 30 % reservation in the administration and the services . When the Justice Party failed to respond , he resigned from the primary membership of the party .
Dr. Gour 's Bill
Dr. Gour 's Bill , introduced in 1921 , brought about an amendment in the Special Marriages Act , sanctioning the legal validity of inter @-@ caste marriages .
Municipal development
The rapid growth of the population of Madras necessitated the expansion of the city and the creation of more residential colonies . To fulfill this requirement , the Madras Town Planning Act of 1920 had been passed on 7 September 1920 before the dyarchy was established . As per the provisions of this Act , numerous town planning measures were taken during the tenure of the Raja of Panagal . The 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) long and 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) broad Long Tank , which extended from Nungambakkam to Saidapet , forming an arc along the city 's western frontier , was drained out in 1923 . The development of the tract to the west of the Long Tank had been initiated by the British Government in 1911 with the construction of a railway station at the village of Marmalan or Mambalam . Following the draining out of the Long Tank , the Justice Party government of the Raja of Panagal conceived the creation of a residential colony adjoining this little village .
The residential colony was named Theagaroya Nagar after Justice Party stalwart Sir Pitti Theagaroya Chetty , who had died shortly before the township was inaugurated , and was centred around a park named Panagal Park after the Raja of Panagal . The streets in this new locality were named after prominent members of the Justice Party or officials in the municipal administration .
Other reforms
The Raja of Panagal reorganised the Public Works Department in the Presidency , improved medical facilities , water supply and communications in rural areas and patronised Siddha medicine . Sir Muhammed Usman , later minister in the government of the Raja of Bobbili was appointed Secretary of the Committee on siddha medicine . He also sponsored endowments to the University of Madras to produce scientific literature in Telugu .
= = President of the Justice Party = =
Theagaroya Chetty , the founder @-@ President of the Justice Party died in 1925 and the Raja , then Chief Minister of Madras succeeded Chetty as the second President of the Justice Party . The Raja served as the President of the party until his death in 1928 .
= = Later years = =
Ramarayaningar was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire on 5 June 1926 . In the Assembly elections which took place on 8 November 1926 , no party was able to get a clean majority . The Swarajya Party won 41 of the 98 seats and emerged as the single largest party while the Justice party won 21 . The Raja resigned as the Chief Minister of the Presidency as the popular verdict appeared to be against the Justice Party . As no party had a clean majority and the Swarajya Party which was the single largest party in the assembly was reluctant to form the government , the Governor appointed P. Subbarayan as the independent Chief Minister and nominated 34 members to the Council to support him .
In 1927 , the Simon Commission which was appointed to report on the working of the progress of the Montagu @-@ Chelmsford reforms landed in India . The Swarajya Party moved a resolution to boycott the Commission and this was passed 61 to 50 with 12 remaining neutral . The Justice Party and the Swarajists supported the resolution while the Chief Minister P. Subbarayan opposed it and requested his ministers to resign . However , Lord Goschen , the Governor , was able to obtain the support of the Raja of Panagal by making a Justice Party member , M. Krishnan Nair , a Cabinet minister . Led by the Raja of Panagal , the Justice Party switched sides and lent its support to the Subbarayan government . Soon afterwards , the Justice Party passed a resolution welcoming the Simon Commission . The Simon Commission visited Madras on 28 February 1928 and 18 February 1929 and was boycotted by the Swarajya Party and the Indian National Congress . However , the Justicites and the Subbarayan Government accorded the Commission a warm reception .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ramarayaningar died on 16 December 1928 of influenza .
He was succeeded as the President of the Justice Party by B. Munuswamy Naidu . On his death , leading newspapers and magazines poured accolades on him . S. Srinivasa Iyengar , a political opponent of the Raja , said of him :
The Rajah Sahib had singular gifts to leadership , tact and of high diplomacy . He had not only led his party with remarkable success but he fought the bureaucracy with even greater skill and courage
The Hindu paid rich tributes to the Raja :
Essentially a conservative by instinct and training , he showed remarkable ability to perceive the trend of the popular upheaval in our province no less in social than in political matters and he showed consummate strategy and great ability in maintaining the influence and integrity of his party , when the mantle of leadership fell on him after the death of Sir P. Theagaraya Chetti a few years ago . In many respects he was a contrast to the other leader who was frank , outspoken and vehement in his lift and conduct . The Rajah Saheb was , on the other hand , reserved and restrained , tactful and polished to a degree and his courtesy and consideration to friends and opponents alike has always been marked
The Justice Party began to decline with the death of the Raja of Panagal . The lack of efficient leadership in the party is regarded as the main reason for its decline .
= = Ideology = =
Despite his aristocratic birth , Ramarayaningar was known for his egalitarian views . Despite the fact that he was regarded as a communalist and anti @-@ Brahmin , he nominated a Brahmin , T. Sadasiva Iyer as the Commissioner of the Hindu Religious Endowment Board .
Ramarayaningar , however , strongly opposed what he perceived as the monopolisation of education by Brahmins . On being interviewed by Katherine Mayo , he responded :
What did the Brahmans do for our education in the five thousand years before Britain came ? I remind you : They asserted their right to pour hot lead into the ears of the low @-@ caste man who should dare to study books . All learning belonged to them , they said . When the Muhammadans swarmed in and took us , even that was an improvement on the old Hindu régime . But only in Britain 's day did education become the right of all , with state schools , colleges , and universities accessible îo all castes , communities , and peoples
= French submarine Mariotte =
The French submarine Mariotte ( Q74 ) was a submarine built for the French Navy prior to World War I. Intended to accompany the fleet , she was designed for high speed on the surface . Although the navy was unsatisfied with her performance on the surface , the boat had a higher underwater speed than any French submarine before or during the following 35 years . Mariotte was plagued with engine problems during her construction and the navy spent years fixing the various issues before finally commissioning her five years after beginning construction . During the war , she participated in the Dardanelles Campaign , but had to be scuttled after she became entangled in the cables of a minefield on her first attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles .
= = Design and description = =
Mariotte was the winning design in a competition conducted by the Ministère de la Marine ( Navy Ministry ) in 1906 for a submarine ( displacing 530 metric tons ( 520 long tons ) that could accompany a squadron of battleships on the surface and had a submerged range of 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) . The winning design , by Constructor , First Class ( Ingénieur de 1ère classe ) Charles Radiguer , was optimized for good sea @-@ keeping qualities and high speed with moderate buoyancy , a long , thin hull , and high freeboard . The most unusual feature of his design was the prominent forecastle that was built atop the forward part of the pressure hull , while the rear was virtually awash . This odd configuration gave the boat her nickname of toothbrush ( brosse à dents ) .
The submarine actually displaced slightly more than planned , 545 metric tons ( 536 long tons ) surfaced and 634 metric tons ( 624 long tons ) submerged . She measured 64 @.@ 75 meters ( 212 ft 5 in ) between perpendiculars and had a beam of 4 @.@ 3 meters ( 14 ft 1 in ) . Mariotte had a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 82 meters ( 12 ft 6 in ) and had a depth of 7 @.@ 25 meters ( 23 ft 9 in ) from the bottom of her keel to the top of the conning tower . This latter was faired into the rear of the forecastle . Two lead weights were located in the keel and could be dropped in an emergency .
Her hull was divided into nine compartments and she was fitted with five internal trim tanks , an internal central ballast tank and three external ballast tanks . She had a test depth of 35 meters ( 115 ft ) . Mariotte had two rudders , one above the waterline for submerged use and the other below the waterline for regular use . She had two sets of diving planes , fore and aft , to control her depth below the water . The boat was evaluated in 1914 and the commission felt that she was generally successful except for her surface speed and range . It noted that she had problems with a following sea as the superstructure rapidly filled with water , but drained slowly so that she was much heavier by the bow and would tend to wallow . It also felt that she was insufficiently buoyant and had mediocre stability on the surface .
For surface running , the boat was powered by two Sautter & Harlé six @-@ cylinder , 700 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 690 bhp ; 515 kW ) diesel engines , each driving a 1 @.@ 72 @-@ meter ( 5 ft 8 in ) propeller . When submerged each propeller was driven by a Breguet 500 @-@ metric @-@ horsepower ( 493 shp ; 368 kW ) electric motor using electricity from two 124 @-@ cell batteries . Mariotte could reach 14 @.@ 2 knots ( 26 @.@ 3 km / h ; 16 @.@ 3 mph ) on the surface and 11 @.@ 7 knots ( 21 @.@ 7 km / h ; 13 @.@ 5 mph ) underwater . This latter speed was a record that would not be exceeded by a French submarine for 35 years . On the surface , the boat had a range of 1 @,@ 658 nmi ( 3 @,@ 071 km ; 1 @,@ 908 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , submerged , she had a range of 143 nmi ( 265 km ; 165 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) .
She was armed with four internal 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes in the bow and two Drzewiecki drop collars in the forecastle . Two reloads were stowed internally , which gave her a total of eight torpedoes . During World War I , the boat probably used Modèle 1911V torpedoes . These had a 110 @-@ kilogram ( 240 lb ) warhead and a range of 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) at a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) .
= = Construction and service = =
Mariotte , named after the physicist Edme Mariotte , was ordered from the Arsenal de Cherbourg on 31 December 1906 . The boat was laid down on 30 March 1908 and launched on 2 February 1911 with only the starboard electric motor in place . The port electric motor was under repair at the time and was installed from 3 May to 21 June and a brief series of trials were conducted . The boat was refitted and further repairs were made to the port @-@ side motor , although continuing problems with her propulsion system often immobilized Mariotte into 1912 . She was able , however , to conduct diving , torpedo and underwater speed trials in August and September 1911 . The boat was lightly damaged when the air heater of a Modèle 1909R torpedo exploded in its tube on 27 December . Her diesel engines , three years delayed by problems during factory testing , were installed from 1 March to 28 July 1912 . They were judged satisfactory after the oil sump and the compressors were changed . After repeated breakdowns , Mariotte conducted her testing of the diesels from 23 October to 11 December and she was finally commissioned ( armament définitif ) on 5 February 1913 after a complete overhaul of her propulsion system .
The boat was assigned to the 2nd Division ( escadrille ) of the Light Squadron of submarines on 16 January and she joined them at Calais on 11 February . Mariotte visited Brest on 20 February and was inspected by Rear Admiral Charles Eugène Favereau . During the inspection the oil @-@ fired galley stove in the forecastle exploded , lightly burning two sailors . The boat was in Calais for the visit of King Christian X of Denmark later in the year .
When World War I began in August 1914 , Mariotte was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron at Toulon where she patrolled off the coast of Provence . In July 1915 , she was transferred to Mudros to attempt to penetrate the Dardanelles . After making a reconnaissance flight over the straits and having studied the reports of the British submarines that had successfully entered the Dardanelles , Lieutenant de vaisseau Auguste Farbre ordered his crew to cast off on the evening of 25 July . Escorted by the French destroyer Poignard to the mouth of the Dardanelles , she rounded Cape Helles on the surface , but dived to avoid being spotted by a searchlight about an hour later and attempted to pass underneath a minefield near Çanakkale . The boat became entangled in the cables and when she surfaced in an unsuccessful attempt to free herself , she was immediately engaged by a Turkish gun battery at close range . Mariotte could not submerge because her conning tower had been penetrated by shells so Farbre decided to scuttle the boat and surrender . The Turks ceased fire when he signaled his surrender and so his crew was able to destroy documents and equipment before opening the seacocks to sink the submarine . The wreck lies off Cape Nara near a Turkish naval base at a depth of 5 meters ( 16 ft ) .
= Sprain Brook Parkway =
The Sprain Brook Parkway ( also known as The Sprain ) is a 12 @.@ 65 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 36 km ) long north – south parkway in Westchester County , New York , United States . It begins at an interchange with the Bronx River Parkway in the city of Yonkers , and ends at the former site of the Hawthorne Circle , where it merges into the Taconic State Parkway . The parkway serves an alternate to the Bronx River Parkway , boasting an interchange connection through western Westchester with Interstate 287 . New York 's Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) refers to it internally as New York State Route 987F ( NY 987F ) , an unsigned reference route .
The Sprain Brook was first proposed in the early 1920s as a parkway between the Bronx River Parkway and the Hawthorne Circle . The parkway sold a majority of its right @-@ of @-@ way in the 1920s , but the proposed parkway met strong opposition from the village of Bronxville and Yonkers . The Sprain Brook proposal sat on the table until 1949 , when the State Council of Parks , run by Robert Moses , sought to ease congestion on the Bronx River Parkway . Moses proposed that a new state park would be constructed in Westchester , with the Sprain Brook Parkway serving as a traffic alternative to the Bronx River , and nearly a decade and a half after the parkway was deeded land . This time , Bronxville opposed the project rather than Yonkers , but an agreement was worked out in 1951 . This new alignment would bypass the parts of Bronxville and Yonkers to construct the freeway .
Construction of the alternative highway began in 1958 , with the stretch from the Bronx River Parkway to Tuckahoe Road in Greenburgh This section was completed in 1961 . The next piece , from Tuckahoe Road to Jackson Avenue , was constructed during 1962 and 1963 , with it opening in the latter . Construction continued to the Cross Westchester Expressway ( I @-@ 287 ) and was completed in 1969 . At this point , the last missing piece was between the Cross Westchester and the Hawthorne Circle . This piece was delayed until 1976 , when construction began on the last 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) of parkway . The last piece of the parkway was opened on October 28 , 1980 at the cost of $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) .
From its opening in 1961 until 1979 , the parkway was maintained by the East Hudson Parkway Authority , a commission created to maintain tolls on the Saw Mill River Parkway , the Bronx River Parkway and to provide general maintenance for the Taconic State Parkway . The authority was abolished in 1979 , at which time , all maintenance of the Sprain Brook Parkway was turned over to NYSDOT .
= = Route description = =
The Sprain Brook Parkway , designated by the New York
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State Department of Transportation as NY 987F , a state reference route , begins at a fork from the Bronx River Parkway along the latter 's right @-@ of @-@ way along the Bronx River in the city of Yonkers . Crossing through the Northeast Yonkers neighborhood as a six @-@ lane freeway design , the Sprain Brook crosses an interchange with NY 100 ( Central Park Avenue ) south of Andrus Park . Bending to the north through Yonkers , the Sprain Brook reaches an interchange with Tuckahoe Road , with the northbound and southbound lanes splitting around the Grassy Sprain Reservoir . The two directions bend northeast along the reservoir . The southbound lanes cross Sprain Ridge Park , while the northbound lanes cross through a golf course . Leaving Yonkers for the town of Greenburgh , the lanes of the Sprain Brook come back together , reaching an interchange with Jackson Avenue . The six lane parkway continues northward and to the northeast through Greenburgh , crossing under Ardsley Road . After turning northward once again , the Sprain Brook crosses under a former alignment of NY 131 ( Underhill Road ) and passes by the Sunningdale Country Club .
Continuing its north / northeast winding , the Sprain Brook enters an interchange with NY 100B ( Dobbs Ferry Road ) , passing by East Rumbrook Park . Crossing over NY 119 in Elmsford , the parkway enters an interchange with Interstate 287 ( the Cross Westchester Expressway ) . After crossing through the interchange , the Spain continues northward as a six @-@ lane parkway back through the town of Greenburgh , entering an interchange with NY 100C ( Grasslands Road ) . Paralleling NY 100 to the west , the parkway , bending northward into Mount Pleasant and an interchange with County Route 301 ( Bradhurst Entrance North Road ) , which connects to NY 100 ( Bradhurst Avenue ) . North of that junction , the southbound lanes of the Sprain Brook interchange with a crossing NY 100 . After several bends to the north , the Sprain Brook enters the merging Taconic State Parkway and terminates as the right @-@ of @-@ way continues as the Taconic .
The Sprain Brook Parkway sees an average of 95 @,@ 442 vehicles per day throughout its entire length . The stretch between I @-@ 287 and NY 100C sees the highest amount , with 101 @,@ 460 cars in a 2011 report . The stretch between NY 100 in Yonkers and Jackson Avenue in Greenburgh sees the second @-@ highest , at 100 @,@ 900 , which is an upgrade of over 19 @,@ 000 vehicles since the same report in 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Original proposal = = =
What ultimately became the Sprain Brook Parkway began taking form in the 1920s , when the Westchester County Road Commission acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for a planned 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) extension of the Taconic State Parkway . The land , bought from 1925 to 1927 for $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 20 @.@ 4 million in modern dollars ) , was , however , not used as a parkway , and in 1938 , was proposed to be used instead as an arterial state highway , rather than a parkway . The commission sent a request in April 1938 to the State Council of Parks to have the state take over the right @-@ of @-@ way after the state withdrew its support for the parkway extension . In April 1938 , the county was approached by the Westchester County Park Commission to transfer the new project to the state for construction by the State Council of Parks . The project , which at the time would have cost $ 7 million ( $ 118 million in modern dollars ) , was to connect to the Robert Moses @-@ proposed highway between New York City and Albany .
Opposition to this plan was immediate . Yonkers officials publicly disapproved , saying that the county would lose any hope for state aid . In January 1939 , the village of Bronxville joined the opposition , deeming the new parkway as a " needless expenditure of public money " that would adversely affect local property values and cause flooding . At the same time , proposals in the state legislature provided a sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 for the project . County executive William Bleakley said that a new parkway should be built , but not so close to the Saw Mill River and Bronx River parkways . He argued instead for the use of New York Central Railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way , or a parkway on the Hudson River . There were also fears a new parkway would siphon off toll @-@ paying drivers who previously used the Cross County Parkway and its new Fleetwood Viaduct . Nor would it help the county 's largest bottleneck , the Hawthorne Circle . The county 's Board of Supervisors , however , disagreed with the executive .
In April 1941 , county officials admitted that it was likely that the $ 7 million appropriated would not be enough , and instead it would be better spent on improving other nearby parkways . The proposed parkway would have needed $ 400 @,@ 000 more for additional right @-@ of @-@ way , and the construction costs would leave no money to repave the Bronx River Parkway , the link to the Cross County Parkway , and to extend the Saw Mill River Parkway . The county would have had to spend $ 8 million of its own money as well . The parkway was instead shortened from Bronxville to Elmsford .
= = = Revival = = =
In March 1949 , the State Council of Parks , led by Robert Moses , recommended the development of a new state park in the Sprain Valley . This new state park , which would also have a parkway built through it , would intend to take traffic off the congested Bronx River Parkway . This new parkway would be one of the construction projects involved , which included rebuilding the Bronx River and the development of Ridge Road Park . The Moses @-@ led committee also suggested that $ 25 @,@ 000 be appropriated for a study , survey and report on the new parkway and possible expansion of the Ridge Road Park . The city of Yonkers also became involved in the proposal because a 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) section of land needed between NY 100 ( Central Park Avenue ) and Palmer Road was deeded over to the state by Westchester County for the new $ 13 million ( 1949 USD ) parkway . Residents in Yonkers protested that this December 1949 transfer would require the demolition or defacing of $ 1 million worth of homes in the city .
In April 1950 , the State Council of Parks met in Ardsley . Bronxville opposed the construction , claiming that there would be property value depreciation . However , there was no cited opposition for the parkway from any communities further north of Bronxville , and that officials from Westchester County were looking into ideas for an alternate route around Bronxville . At the time , the county had most of the right @-@ of @-@ way in Bronxville claimed , short of one piece . The need for the parkway was helped by the fact that widening of the Bronx River Parkway was not applicable due to land limitations and the prohibitory cost of acquiring land for a widening . The parkway , while creating a needed connection between the Saw Mill River Parkway and the Bronx River Parkway , would not answer the need for diverting traffic off the Hawthorne Circle and the issue of what to do with truck traffic . The parkway , if started , would take about three years to complete and would be constructed by the Taconic State Park Commission .
= = = " Route A " = = =
In February 1951 , Westchester County started getting ready to approve the new parkway plans from the State of New York . The new $ 16 – 18 million ( 1950 USD ) parkway still had a short section still in question , with various groups preferring two different alignments . The State Council of Parks wanted to use the alignment used by the Odell Parkway , which still would require demolition of thirty homes in the Cedar Knolls section of Yonkers , while other groups wanted the parkway to be aligned through Crestwood , which would cost 100 homes . Five different sites were proposed at the meeting with the Westchester County Board of Supervisors on February 15 . However , an agreement could not be reached by the committee and it was delayed to the next week . On February 19 , the county board gave approval to the state plans , at a vote of 32 to 9 . The letters of discontent amounted to fifty @-@ nine letters or telegrams . Chairman Jefferson Armstrong spoke that the new parkway would lead to the " planning for the destruction of Westchester . " He stated that the county was giving away $ 8 million in taxpayer funds to the state with a debt of $ 2 @.@ 3 million after collecting tolls on the Saw Mill River and Hutchinson River parkways . Residents of the town of Greenburgh protested the county 's decision to give the undeveloped Rochambeau Park for development into a state park .
In July 1951 , the county of Westchester approved " Route A " , one of the proposed alignments for the Sprain Brook through the city of Yonkers . Costing $ 10 @.@ 512 million ( 1951 USD ) , the route was approved by the state and the fact that the county still owned the right @-@ of @-@ way would determine whether the county would give it to the state . This 4 @.@ 98 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 01 km ) section of parkway as part of Route A began at the Bronx River Parkway , extending to a point just north of Jackson Avenue . A hearing was held on June 18 that mentioned that only " Route F @-@ 1 " , which would cost $ 14 @.@ 579 million , and was longer would be the only other acceptable proposal . People living along the " Route A " track preferred " Route F @-@ 1 " , which would take fifty @-@ four homes , over the thirty from the accepted proposal .
During the meeting of the Westchester County Board of Supervisors on August 6 , two officials from Yonkers attempted to filibuster the meeting to avoid the transfer of the Sprain Brook right @-@ of @-@ way , along with the " Route A " proposal , to the state . This filibuster failed , as the board voted 39 to 2 to transfer the right @-@ of @-@ way . The Taconic State Parkway Commission , Westchester County Park Commission , and the Westchester County Planning Commission all endorsed " Route A " over " Route F @-@ 1 " . However , the Ridge Road picnic area in Greenburgh was not given to the state . Remaining opposition stated that the route would cut $ 517 @,@ 000 from tax revenue , and damage now $ 3 million worth of homes in the " Route A " section , which included the house of Jefferson Armstrong .
= = = Construction = = =
In December 1953 , the county executive for Westchester County , Herbert Gerlach , proposed that the now $ 22 million ( 1953 USD ) parkway should be constructed with tolls to help pay for the new roadway . At this time , the southern 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) of the Bronx River Parkway was being reconstructed for use in the new Sprain Brook Parkway , with funds received before the Korean War . Jefferson Armstrong declared the new plan as a scheme by Robert Moses to " spend beyond his pocketbook " and that Gerlach was " intolerant " for proposing this just before the start of the holiday season . At the same time , the proposal was made that the county could gain funds by re @-@ appropriating usage of Westchester County Airport , which would cost the county $ 11 million a year , but would only gain the county $ 26 @,@ 000 in revenue .
On September 30 , 1958 , the State Department of Public Works notified Westchester County that it would begin construction of the Sprain Brook Parkway . Bids on the new parkway through Yonkers , with 2 @.@ 27 miles ( 3 @.@ 65 km ) of six @-@ lane divided parkway plus 4 @.@ 69 miles ( 7 @.@ 55 km ) of access roads to the new roadway , would be opened on October 30 , estimating the cost at $ 11 @.@ 116 million . Slated to open in August 1961 , this first leg of the Sprain Brook Parkway would connect from the Bronx River Parkway near Bronxville to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) north of Tuckahoe Road in North Yonkers . At that point in North Yonkers , it would meet with a connector to the New York State Thruway , which could open doors to getting tolls on the new roadway . Overpasses would be constructed at Midland Avenue , DeWitt Avenue , Central Park Avenue , Tuckahoe Road , Palmer Road , Kimball Avenue and the Bronx River Parkway , along with overpasses over the Sprain Brook , Sunny Brook and Grassy Sprain Brook .
The section of the Sprain Brook Parkway between Tuckahoe Road and Jackson Avenue in the town of Greenburgh was slated to cost $ 4 @.@ 103 million ( 1961 USD ) , a stretch of 2 @.@ 6 miles ( 4 @.@ 2 km ) with 3 @.@ 45 miles ( 5 @.@ 55 km ) of access roads . This new portion would have six lanes , with three on each side of the Grassy Sprain Reservoir , which would split the parkway in each direction . Bids were expected to be opened on November 16 , 1961 for the extension of the new parkway , maintained by the East Hudson Parkway Authority . The new stretch of parkway was constructed throughout 1962 and 1963 , with the East Hudson Parkway Authority announcing the opening of the extension on December 23 , 1963 at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 6 million ( 1963 USD ) . The new interchange with Jackson Avenue would also serve Sprain Ridge Park , which was also being opened at the same time as the new parkway .
The 5 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 4 km ) long section of the Sprain Brook Parkway was opened on November 27 , 1969 from Jackson Avenue in Greenburgh to the Cross Westchester Expressway in Elmsford . This new section of Sprain Brook Parkway cost $ 15 @.@ 4 million , extending the parkway to a length of 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the Bronx to Elmsford . Then @-@ Governor of New York Nelson Rockefeller also noted that the extension of the parkway north from the Cross Westchester to the Hawthorne Traffic Circle was still in final design and would begin construction in 1971 with completion of a new interchange in Hawthorne .
= = = Completion = = =
The delay of the final 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long portion of the Sprain Brook from the Cross Westchester Expressway and the Taconic State Parkway near Hawthorne Circle spent multiple years without progress until demands were placed upon Governor Hugh Carey to get state funds attached to the project . The project had been delayed multiple times and local lobbying interests including Union Carbide threatened to back out of opening corporate locations in the area of the new extension , which in 1976 was slated to cost $ 20 million ( 1976 USD ) . The East Hudson Parkway Authority ( EHPA ) originally proposed raising the tolls on the Saw Mill River and Hutchinson River parkways and building new tolls on the Hutchinson , along with the Bronx River and Taconic parkways . However , NYSDOT reported during a meeting in Albany that contracts on the new extension would be given in 1978 . However , the EHPA also wanted more monetary funds for the maintenance of the parkway system in Westchester and wanted to raise the tolls to help pay for that cost .
Along the state funding from Albany , the rest of the money for the Sprain Brook extension was to be paid for through federal funds . The new parkway extension , which had a slated completion in December 1980 , was bid on in 1978 and won by Yonkers Contracting Company for a total of $ 22 @.@ 8 million ( 1978 USD ) . Various materials in the extension included 100 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of gravel , 37 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete , 24 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 650 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of asphalt and 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) of steel . While the project started under the eyes of NYSDOT and EPHA , when the new parkway was complete , the East Hudson Parkway Authority had been disestablished in 1979 and control of the Sprain Brook had been turned back to NYSDOT .
The new parkway would lower traffic on NY 9A through Elmsford while also connecting to the Westchester County Medical Center , a local jail , and Westchester Community College . Economic improvements of the parkway extension would include nearly 6 @,@ 000 new jobs and over $ 2 million ( 1978 USD ) in tax rebates . The fourth and final section of the Sprain Brook Parkway was opened on October 28 , 1980 at the cost of $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) . The last section , deemed a 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long missing link , finished the parkway to its full length between the Bronx River Parkway and the traffic circle in Hawthorne . This new piece of the parkway was built with 70 % of the required funds provided by the federal government , and was designed to redistribute traffic along different parkways , with NYSDOT estimating about 44 @,@ 000 cars daily using the completed roadway .
The effects of the completion of the parkway were nearly immediate . Traffic on the Saw Mill River Parkway lessened with the new parkway , along with a 20 % reduction on the Taconic State Parkway . However , while the route south of the Sprain Brook was seeing less traffic , the portion north of Hawthorne to Campfire Road , a 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) section , was seeing much more traffic with the new parkway . Proposals for solving this problem included a $ 50 million ( 1982 USD ) proposal to widen the Taconic State Parkway to six lanes . NY 9A south of Hawthorne also saw a considerable reduction in traffic and an improvement in the corridor north of NY 100C , becoming more of a commercial center . New industrial parks and office parks were being constructed within a couple years of completion of the new parkway along NY 9A .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Westchester County . All exits are unnumbered .
= Ladislaus IV of Hungary =
Ladislaus the Cuman ( Hungarian : IV . ( Kun ) László , Croatian : Ladislav IV . Kumanac , Slovak : Ladislav IV . Kumánsky ; 5 August 1262 – 10 July 1290 ) , also known as Ladislas the Cuman , was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1272 to 1290 . His mother , Elizabeth , was the daughter of a chieftain from the pagan Cumans who had settled in Hungary . At the age of seven , he married Elisabeth ( or Isabella ) , a daughter of King Charles I of Sicily . Ladislaus was only ten when a rebellious lord , Joachim Gutkeled , kidnapped and imprisoned him .
Ladislaus was still a prisoner when his father , Stephen V , died on 6 August 1272 . During his minority , many groupings of barons — primarily the Abas , Kőszegis , and Gutkeleds — fought against each other for supreme power . Ladislaus was declared to be of age at an assembly of the prelates , barons , noblemen , and Cumans in 1277 . He allied himself with Rudolf I of Germany against Ottokar II of Bohemia . His forces had a preeminent role in Rudolf 's victory over Ottokar in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August 1278 .
However , Ladislaus could not restore royal power in Hungary . A papal legate , Philip , Bishop of Fermo , came to Hungary to help Ladislaus to consolidate his authority , but the prelate was shocked at the presence of thousands of pagan Cumans in Hungary . Ladislaus promised that he would force them to adopt a Christian lifestyle , but they refused to obey the legate 's demands . Ladislaus decided to support the Cumans , for which Philip of Fermo excommunicated him . The Cumans imprisoned the legate , and the legate 's partisans captured Ladislaus . In early 1280 , Ladislaus agreed to persuade the Cumans to submit to the legate , but many Cumans preferred to leave Hungary .
Ladislaus vanquished a Cuman army that invaded Hungary in 1282 . Hungary also survived a Mongol invasion in 1285 . Ladislaus had , by that time , become so unpopular that many of his subjects accused him of inciting the Mongols to invade Hungary . After he imprisoned his wife in 1286 , he lived with his Cuman mistresses . During the last years of his life , he wandered throughout the country with his Cuman allies , but he was unable to control the most powerful lords and bishops any more . Pope Nicholas IV planned to declare a crusade against him , but three Cuman assassins murdered Ladislaus .
= = Childhood ( 1262 – 1272 ) = =
Ladislaus was the elder son of Stephen V , son of Béla IV of Hungary , and Stephen 's wife , Elizabeth the Cuman . Elizabeth was the daughter of a chieftain of the Cumans who had settled in Hungary . She was born as a pagan and was only baptized before her marriage to Stephen . Ladislaus was born under the sign of Mars in 1262 , according to Simon of Kéza , who was his chaplain in the 1270s .
Conflicts between Ladislaus 's father and grandfather developed into a civil war in 1264 . Béla IV 's troops , which were under the command of Ladislaus 's aunt , Anna , captured the castle of Sárospatak , where Ladislaus and his mother were staying , and imprisoned them . Ladislaus was initially kept in the Turóc Castle , but two months later , he was sent to the court of Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow , who was Béla IV 's son @-@ in @-@ law . After his grandfather and father made peace in March 1265 , Ladislaus was set free and returned to his father .
Ladislaus 's father made an alliance with Charles I , King of Sicily , in September 1269 . According to the treaty , Charles I 's daughter , Elizabeth , who was about four years old at that time , was engaged to the seven @-@ year @-@ old Ladislaus . The children 's marriage took place in 1270 .
Béla IV died on 3 May 1270 and Ladislaus 's father was crowned king two weeks later ; the new monarch , however , could not stabilize his rule . Béla IV 's closest advisors — Duchess Anna , and Béla IV 's former palatine , Henry Kőszegi — left Hungary and sought assistance from Anna 's son @-@ in @-@ law , King Ottokar II of Bohemia . The newly appointed Ban of Slavonia , Joachim Gutkeled , also turned against Stephen V and kidnapped Ladislaus in the summer of 1272 . Gutkeled held Ladislaus in captivity in the fortress of Koprivnica in Slavonia . Historian Pál Engel suggests that Joachim Gutkeled planned to force Stephen V to divide Hungary with Ladislaus . Stephen V besieged Koprivnica , but could not take it . Stephen fell seriously ill and died on 6 August .
= = Reign = =
= = = Minority ( 1272 – 1277 ) = = =
Joachim Gutkeled departed for Székesfehérvár as soon as he was informed of Stephen V 's death , because he wanted to arrange the boy – king 's coronation . Ladislaus 's mother joined him , infuriating Stephen V 's partisans who accused her of having conspired against her husband . Stephen V 's master of the treasury , Egyed Monoszló , laid siege to her palace in Székesfehérvár , but Gutkeled 's supporters routed him . Monoszló fled to Pressburg ( now Bratislava , Slovakia ) ; he captured the town and ceded it to Ottokar II of Bohemia .
Archbishop Philip of Esztergom crowned Ladislaus king in Székesfehérvár on about 3 September . In theory , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Ladislaus ruled under his mother 's regency , but in fact , baronial parties administered the kingdom . In November of that year , Henry Kőszegi returned from Bohemia and assassinated Ladislaus 's cousin , Béla of Macsó . Duke Béla 's extensive domains , which were located along the southern borders , were divided among Henry Kőszegi and his supporters . In retaliation for Hungarian incursions into Austria and Moravia , Austrian and Moravian troops invaded the borderlands of Hungary in April 1273 . They captured Győr and Szombathely , plundering the western counties . Joachim Gutkeled recaptured the two forts two months later , but Ottokar II of Bohemia invaded Hungary and seized many fortresses , including Győr and Sopron in the autumn .
Peter Csák and his allies removed Joachim Gutkeled and Henry Kőszegi from power , but Gutkeled and Kőszegi seized Ladislaus and his mother in June 1274 . Although Peter Csák liberated the king and his mother , Gutkeled and Kőszegi captured Ladislaus 's younger brother , Andrew , and took him to Slavonia . They demanded Slavonia in Duke Andrew 's name , but Peter Csák defeated their united forces near Polgárdi at the end of September . Kőszegi was killed in the battle . Peter Csák then launched a campaign against Kőszegi 's son and Ladislaus accompanied him . At the end of 1274 , Rudolf I , the new King of Germany , and Ladislaus concluded an alliance against Ottokar II of Bohemia .
Ladislaus contracted an unidentified serious illness , but recovered from it . He attributed this recovery to a miracle by his deceased saintly aunt , Margaret , and approached the Holy See to promote her canonization in 1275 . In the same year , a new civil war broke out between Joachim Gutkeled and Peter Csák . Ladislaus took part in Csák 's military expedition against the Kőszegis , who were Gutkeled 's supporters . However , Gutkeled and his supporters removed their opponents from power at an assembly of the barons and noblemen at Buda around 21 June 1276 .
Taking advantage of the war between Rudolf I and Ottokar II , Ladislaus made an incursion into Austria in the autumn . Sopron soon accepted Ladislaus 's suzerainty and Ottokar II promised to renounce of all towns he occupied in western Hungary . However , new armed conflicts began in Hungary during 1277 : the Transylvanian Saxons captured and destroyed Gyulafehérvár ( now Alba Iulia in Romania ) , the see of the Bishop of Transylvania , and the Babonići rose up in rebellion in Slavonia .
= = = First years of majority ( 1277 – 1278 ) = = =
Joachim Gutkeled died while battling against the Babonići in April 1277 . A month later , an assembly of the prelates , barons , noblemen , and Cumans declared Ladislaus to be of age . The Estates of the realm also authorized the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old monarch to restore internal peace with all possible means . Ladislaus then invaded the Kőszegis 's domains in Transdanubia , but could not defeat them . He met Rudolf I of Germany in Hainburg an der Donau on 11 November to confirm their alliance against Ottokar II of Bohemia .
After the royal army captured the rebellious Nicholas Geregye 's fortress at Adorján ( now Adrian in Romania ) , Ladislaus held a " general assembly " for seven counties along the River Tisza in early summer of 1278 . The assembly condemned two rebellious local noblemen to death . In Transdanubia , Ivan Kőszegi attempted to play off Ladislaus 's father 's first cousin , Andrew the Venetian , against Ladislaus . Andrew demanded Slavonia for himself , but returned to Venice without success .
Ladislaus joined forces with Rudolf I of Germany to launch a campaign against Ottokar II . Ladislaus 's troops played a decisive role in Rudolf 's victory in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August . Ottokar was killed in the battlefield . After the battle , King Rudolf I gave Ladislaus " his thanks , declaring that through his help all Austria and Styria had been restored to him " , according to Ladislaus 's chronicler , Simon of Kéza .
= = = The Cuman question ( 1278 – 1285 ) = = =
Pope Nicholas III sent Philip , Bishop of Fermo , to Hungary to help Ladislaus restore royal power on 22 September 1278 . The papal legate arrived in Hungary in early 1279 . With the legate 's mediation , Ladislaus concluded a peace treaty with the Kőszegis . Bishop Philip soon realized , however , that most Cumans were still pagans in Hungary . He extracted a ceremonious promise from the Cuman chieftains of giving up their pagan customs , and persuaded the young King Ladislaus to swear an oath to enforce the keeping of the Cuman chieftans ' promise . An assembly held at Tétény passed laws which , in accordance with the legate 's demand , prescribed that the Cumans should leave their tents and live " in houses attached to the ground " . The Cumans did not obey the laws , however , and Ladislaus , himself a half @-@ Cuman , failed to force them . In retaliation , Bishop Philip excommunicated him and placed Hungary under interdict in October . Ladislaus joined the Cumans and appealed to the Holy See , but the Pope refused to absolve him .
On Ladislaus 's demand , the Cumans seized and imprisoned Philip of Fermo in early January 1280 . However , Finta Aba , Voivode of Transylvania captured Ladislaus and handed him over to Roland Borsa . In less than two months , both the legate and the king were set free and Ladislaus took a new oath to enforce the Cuman laws .
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, including on talk shows , her 2007 concert tour and also during her 2009 concert tour , though Allen claimed to be " sick " of it . In 2008 , it won a Pop Award at the London Broadcast Music Incorporated Awards .
= = Background = =
After meeting George Lamb on a holiday in Ibiza , Allen made him her manager . Lamb later introduced the singer to production duo Future Cut , with whom she had written and produced demos , which were sent to various labels . In 2005 , Allen was signed to Regal Records , who gave her £ 25 @,@ 000 to produce an album . The singer considered it to be a " small development idea " , as they were also unable to provide much support for it due to their preoccupation with other releases . Taking advice from Lady Sovereign , the singer created an account on MySpace and began posting demo songs in November 2005 . By March 2006 , they attracted thousands of listeners , and 500 limited edition 7 " vinyl singles of one of the demos , a song titled " LDN " , were rush @-@ released and sold for as much as £ 40 . Allen also produced two mixtapes to promote her work . As she accumulated tens of thousands of MySpace friends , The Observer Music Monthly took interest . Few people outside of her label 's A & R department had heard of Allen , so the label was slow in responding to publications who wanted to report about her . Her label wasn 't pleased with the sound of the demos , so they assigned the singer to " more mainstream producers and top @-@ line writers " . After that , they finally approved some of her songs , being confident of their inclusion on the album . " Smile " was among the chosen ones , that Allen claimed she was happy with . It was the first song she had ever written , claiming :
When I set out to do this I knew I wanted to make songs that sounded a ) up to date and now and b ) really organic . Because you can 't get really good players without spending loads of money these days , the only other option is to sample . The first song I ever wrote was ' Smile ' . We just went through about seven or eight sample lyrics , found a beat , put it all in ... Then when it comes to writing lyrics I write ... like a rapper would , I suppose , with absolutely no melody involved whatsoever , I 'm just getting my flow sorted . Then I write the whole text of the song and then ad lib the melody into the microphone . It 's not terribly clever !
" Smile " was released as a single , and the maxi single format for it contains two B @-@ Sides , " Absolutely Nothing " and " Cheryl Tweedy " , which Allen struggled to get on the album , but lost them in favour of " Take What You Take " . The latter is a satirical song about celebrity , finding the commercial promotion side of the celebrity machine uncomfortable , while mentioning Girls Aloud member Cheryl Tweedy , but argued she doesn 't " have anything against her " .
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , " Smile " is a bubbly , mid @-@ tempo tune with " a barroom piano lick " , subdued horns and a reggae beat , singing in a light falsetto , while the organ riff contains a sample of Jackie Mittoo playing keyboards on the 1960s rocksteady song " Free Soul " by The Soul Brothers , also written by Mittoo . He and Clement Dodd received credit on the song as co @-@ writers . It was described to have a " cod @-@ reggae groove that smoulders like a barbecue " , as a guitar and piano were used for the background music , following the notes Gm — F as its basic chord progression . It is set in the time signature of common time , having a metronome of 96 beats per minute , and is played in the key of F major . Lyrically , the song describes Allen 's satisfaction in her former lover 's suffering , being in a vengeful mood : " At worst / I feel bad for a while , / But then I just smile / I go ahead and smile , " thus creating a contrast between " the peppy melody and brassy lyrics " . The inspiration for the song came from a real life experience , when Allen broke up with her then boyfriend , Lester Lloyd , resulting in a drug overdose and hospitalization for her depression . The singer claimed " I started to get depressed and anyone who suffers from depression knows that it can soon get so bad that you can 't get out of bed . It was then that I checked into the Priory . That was really tough as I was an emotional mess . [ ... ] The lyrics are definitely bitter @-@ sweet " . Allen said she later regretted the direct approach of her lyrics :
I 'm now less inclined to do that , because everything that I do say gets repeated in a way that I haven 't said it , or taken out of context and spun in some negative way — and it makes me really sad . I 'm not , like , a negative person . I 'm actually quite positive , but this industry has really made me feel angry and negative recently . I 'm not enjoying it at the moment .
= = Critical reception = =
" Smile " was met with mixed to positive reviews from music critics . According to Heather Phares of Allmusic , the song " has a silky verse melody that just barely conceals [ the singer 's ] spite " , while she keeps " her revenge sweet , the extra sting being given to it by the way she sounds like she 's singing about how ice cream or puppies or being in love makes her smile " . Blender reporter Jon Dolan claims that Allen " deploys a sugary melody as a Trojan horse for a smackdown on a douche @-@ bag ex @-@ boyfriend " , as Rob Webb from Drowned in Sound called " Smile " an " infectious slice of bouncing , carnival reggae that punches hard with its opening line : ' When you first left me / I was wanting more / But you were fucking that girl next door / What you do that for ? , ' " and went on to say that the theme of the song is melancholy , " set against breezy beats " , and while not being " an obvious TOTP contender on the surface , [ it ] is good but far from one of the LP 's choice cuts " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone gave a rather negative review , claiming the singer " doesn 't sound as if she 's trying too hard " , singing the song with a " breezy sha @-@ la @-@ la lilt that just made the song seem even nastier " . Later , he called Allen a " theoretical pop princess , who just entered the breakup @-@ song hall of fame " . Dom Passantino of Stylus suggested that " ' Smile ' gets burned off the lights by both Sean Paul and Abs when it comes to facsimiles of ' Uptown Top Ranking , ' but neither of them could bring the quality of lyricism the singer does , " while Slant Magazine reporter Sal Cinquemani was baffled as to why the song , which she " sings without a smirk of irony " , is a UK chart @-@ topper .
The reviewer from NME considered that the song sashays along with sass , while still remaining charming , and said that though it doesn 't mark Allen out as excellent dating material , as a soundtrack to the summer , " it ’ s a dead fackin ’ cert " . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters called " Smile " just as good as " LDN " , " its loose reggae arrangement augmented by the clever sample of Jackie Mittoo ’ s piano from the Soul Brothers ’ 60s rocksteady tune " Free Soul " , as Allen sings bitterly about her ex , with just a hint of vulnerability at first , before going to her friends for reassurance , and confronting the guy during the chorus with a mean @-@ spirited confidence that has us cheering inside " . While John Murphy of MusicOMH praised the song and its " gently lilting reggae rhythm " , Priya Elan from NME considered that the Althea & Donna groove of " Smile " is what made fans " fall for her in the first place " . The former argued that " even people who profess to hate pop music will secretly be tapping a foot to it and claiming it is just downright perfect pop for lolling around during the lazy warm , guaranteed to cheer the listeners up , no matter how down they 're feeling " . Other reviews came from The Guardian reporter Sophie Heawood , who didn 't consider the song as Allen 's greatest effort , but still thought she was far better than being called " the female Mike Skinner " .
In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 104 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Smile " was released to the iTunes Store in the United Kingdom in the spring of 2006 and spent its first week at number 1 on the iTunes chart , before entering the main UK Singles Chart at number thirteen , based on download sales alone . The next week , on the issue of 15 July 2006 , it rose to the summit of the chart , selling 39 @,@ 501 copies , knocking Shakira 's Hips Don 't Lie off the top spot and spending two consecutive weeks there . It later descended to number four , being replaced by McFly 's Please , Please . It was her very first single in her home country 's main charts , following a top 40 entry with the limited release of " LDN " the same year . It ended 2006 as UK 's 11th best selling single of the year . Allen was surprised at the success of it , stating : " Of course , I never thought the record would chart - I didn 't even think I 'd get a record contract " . She was named " one of the brightest hopes for domestic crossover rap " because of this single . The song shared similar success in Ireland , where it debuted on the issue of 6 July 2006 and peaked inside the top ten at six , holding on the chart for nine weeks . In mainland Europe , it broke the top 40 of most countries , but wasn 't as successful as in the singer 's home country . Notable successes were ten on the Dutch Top 40 , sixteen on the French Singles Chart and 21 on the Swiss Singles Chart . Across the ocean , " Smile " reached 14 on the ARIA Charts and in New Zealand peaked inside the top ten at six .
In North America , the song only managed to peak at 49 on the main Billboard chart in the U.S. on the issue of 24 February 2007 and spent 12 weeks on the chart . On the same week , it climbed to 29 on the Hot Digital Songs and , later in May , reached 35 on the Pop Songs and 20 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks . Despite its low position , " Smile " managed to slowly sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paid digital download and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 9 February 2009 ; it remained Allen 's highest @-@ charting single in the country until " 5 O 'Clock " which featured Allen , peaked at number 10 in 2011 . Nonetheless , " Smile " remains Allen 's highest @-@ charting song as a solo artist in the United States , as well as one of three entries ( after " Fuck You " and " The Fear " ) . It also peaked at 86 on the Canadian Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was released on 3 July 2006 . Having been directed by Sophie Muller , it contained a vengeance theme , similar to that of the song . It starts off with Allen sitting on the bed in her apartment , eating chocolate and cheeseballs . Interleaved , there are shots of her and her ex @-@ boyfriend spending time together appear as a memory . He is played by Elliott Jordan . As the bridge comes up , the scene changes to the singer standing on the corner of a street , talking to a man and paying him money . The man leaves and goes to some gangsters , giving them instructions and each a share of money . As Allen 's former lover walks down the street talking on his mobile phone , one of the gangsters pushes him into an abandoned playground ; where they are joined by a second gangster , and the pair give Allen 's ex a beating . In this time , Allen , witnessing the scene , smiles . She then meets with her bruised ex @-@ boyfriend , and takes him to a coffee shop . There , he tried to explain to her how he was beaten by the muggers , not knowing that , meanwhile , they were breaking down his apartment door and destroying his furniture and possessions , including scratching his gramophone records . The ex @-@ boyfriend leaves the table for a while , enough time for Allen to put laxative pills in his coffee ; upon returning , he drinks it and leaves the shop . After , he goes to his apartment , only to find it trashed and destroyed . Scavenging through what 's left , he happily finds the record box , thinking they are intact , but he suddenly gets diarrhoea as a result of the laxatives , but is unable to use his toilet , as it is clogged with his clothes . He goes to Allen 's apartment with his records , seeking consolation , unaware that she is laughing behind his back . As the video finishes , the scene changes to Allen walking down the street , at night , smiling , singing the last chorus , while her ex @-@ boyfriend , actually a disc jockey , is in a nightclub , getting ready to put his music , but finds out that all his records have been scratched .
After the video was banned on MTV in the United Kingdom , Allen commented regarding this in an inverview :
I got really offended when my single ' Smile ' got banned [ during after @-@ school hours ] from MTV in the U.K. because it had the word fuck in it . They said , ' We don 't want kids to grow up too quickly . ' But then you have Paris Hilton and the Pussycat Dolls taking their clothes off and gyrating up against womanizing , asshole men , and that 's acceptable . You 're thinking your kids are gonna grow up quicker because they heard the word fuck than from thinking they should be shoving their tits in people 's faces ?
DJ Ron Slomowicz of About.com criticised the music video , saying it was " mean @-@ spirited " , it would " alienate any sort of club fan base she might discover " , and that if a male " had his friends beating up his ex @-@ girlfriend , trashing her living space , drugging her and destroying her possessions , he would be branded as violent " and would be shunned , thus questioning the singer 's taste level .
= = Live performances and promotion = =
On the day the single was released , Allen appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge with DJ Jo Whiley , performing an acoustic version of " Smile " , and a cover of The Kooks ' song , " Naïve " . At the Secret Garden Party , in September 2006 , Allen made a rendition of the song and afterwards stated : " The festival was well good , particularly as Lester , my ex , who I wrote ' Smile ' about , and subsequently sold his story to the papers , had a tent called ' the shit tent ' positioned directly opposite the main stage . So he and his new girlfriend had no option but to watch me perform to a couple of thousand people singing ' Smile ' back to me . Oh , it 's the little things eh ! " " Smile " was performed live as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour . During the 2007 South By Southwest music festival , Allen said " I 'm so sick of this song , but I 'll play it for you , Austin " before singing it . On 3 February 2007 , the singer was invited as a musical guest on Saturday Night Live and played this single and " LDN " . In 2009 , it was on the setlist of Allen 's 2009 concert tour , as part of the encore .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Covers = = =
" Smile " received its own answer song when rapper Example recorded a track called " Vile " in 2006 , from We Didn 't Invent the Remix , with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics written from the boyfriend 's perspective . While it also features elements from Keith Allen 's single " Vindaloo " , Example added " I think Lily has heard the track . I gave it to her producer to play to her . We just did it for a laugh . Hip @-@ hop artists take life too seriously . " Upon hearing the reply single , Chris Moyles , from BBC Radio 1 , recorded his own parody version of the song for The Chris Moyles Show . Allen herself re @-@ recorded the single in Simlish , the fictional language used in The Sims games , to help promotion . The Simlish version was used in the Sims expansion pack The Sims 2 : Seasons soundtrack , and Allen also had her own character in the game . She declared : " Recording ' Smile ' was a great experience for me . Sometimes revenge can be fun . But getting to sing it again [ in Simlish ] came very naturally and it was hilarious to practice ! The silly language and whimsy of The Sims games are a perfect fit for the song . I was laughing the entire time ! " Also , an animated music video was made for the Simlish version .
= = = Media = = =
" Smile " appears on another video game soundtrack , that of Thrillville : Off the Rails , which is a theme park simulation . Among other citations , the song is present in the film He 's Just Not That Into You and featured on the 2007 Judd Apatow 's film Knocked Up and on the soundtrack . In 2009 , the season one episode " Mattress " of the Fox musical comedy / drama Glee , " Smile " was covered by the character Rachel , voiced by Lea Michele ; the version was made available as an iTunes single download and was later included on the second volume of the season one soundtracks .
In the first scene of the first episode of Big Bang Theory Penny is listening to Smile in her apartment when Leonard and Sheldon first meet her .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = = 2009 versions = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= New York State Route 33 =
New York State Route 33 ( NY 33 ) is an east – west state highway in western New York in the United States . The route extends for just under 70 miles ( 113 km ) from NY 5 in Buffalo in the west to NY 31 in Rochester in the east . It is , in fact , the only state highway that directly connects both cities , although it is rarely used today for that purpose . The westernmost 10 miles ( 16 km ) of NY 33 in Buffalo and the neighboring town of Cheektowaga have been upgraded into the Kensington Expressway . This section of NY 33 is one of several expressways leading out of downtown and serves as a main route to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport .
On the Rochester end , NY 33 primarily serves as a paralleling local route to Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) , of less importance to the area 's traffic patterns . Between the two cities , it is mostly a rural two @-@ lane highway . The largest location on this stretch is the Genesee County city of Batavia , where NY 33 reconnects to NY 5 and crosses NY 63 and NY 98 , two regionally important north – south highways . NY 33 overlaps with all three routes at one point or another as it traverses Batavia . A southerly alternate route , designated NY 33A , leaves NY 33 northeast of Batavia in Bergen and rejoins its parent in Rochester .
NY 33 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s , but only to the portion of its modern routing between Batavia and Rochester . It was extended on both ends — to Buffalo in the west and Marion in the east — as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , the eastern extension was eliminated in 1949 . In Buffalo , NY 33 was moved onto the Kensington Expressway in the mid @-@ 1960s , and its former surface routing along Genesee Street subsequently became the short @-@ lived New York State Route 33B . Smaller realignments in the years since have moved NY 33 's western terminus from the heart of downtown Buffalo to the northern fringe of the city 's center .
= = Route description = =
Most of NY 33 , including the entirety of the highway in Erie County , is state @-@ maintained ; however , two sections — from NY 5 to the eastern Batavia city line and all of NY 33 within the city of Rochester — are maintained by the cities of Batavia and Rochester , respectively .
= = = Kensington Expressway = = =
The Kensington Expressway was started in 1958 , and its construction radically changed the nature of the neighborhoods on the east @-@ side . The below grade construction was an attempt to minimize noise .
The highway begins as two one @-@ way streets , Goodell Street ( traveling west ) and East Tupper Street ( traveling east ) . Both intersect with NY 5 ( Ellicott Street ) in Buffalo , from where they serve as a one @-@ way couplet for three blocks before they merge to become the Kensington Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway . It initially travels through dense urban areas by way of a cut , in which both roadways are separated only by a Jersey barrier . The expressway runs past the Buffalo Museum of Science , located at Martin Luther King , Jr . Park , and through the middle of Humboldt Parkway in Buffalo , where the Scajaquada Expressway ( NY 198 ) leaves at the former exit for Main Street . The section of the expressway between the Scajaquada and Harlem Road ( NY 240 ) just outside the city limit is the busiest on all of NY 33 , handling in excess of 100 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in areas .
East of NY 198 , the road becomes more open as it passes through neighborhoods with a more suburban residential feel to them . Along this stretch , NY 33 connects to several streets , including Bailey Avenue ( U.S. Route 62 or US 62 ) and Harlem Road ( NY 240 ) . Past Harlem Road , the expressway makes a slight curve to the south as it prepares to meet a toll @-@ free section of the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) at a cloverleaf interchange . Beyond I @-@ 90 , the expressway veers to the south again , traversing an S @-@ curve before connecting to Union Road ( NY 277 ) by way of a partial interchange . After another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , NY 33 curves south under Genesee Street before joining it at a traffic light in front of the Buffalo Niagara International Airport .
= = = Buffalo Airport to Batavia = = =
Now returning to its pre @-@ Kensington route , NY 33 follows a six @-@ lane , divided Genesee Street past the airport on one side and numerous associated businesses such as hotels and fast food restaurants on the other . The large aerospace contractor Calspan has its headquarters here , and Westinghouse once operated a large industrial lathe plant on the airport side of the road ( it was torn down when the airport was rebuilt in the late 1990s ) . Beyond the airport , the divider ends , the travel lanes are reduced to four and , after a short curve and minimal descent , NY 33 intersects Transit Road ( NY 78 ) and enters the town of Lancaster . After this junction , the highway becomes a two @-@ lane route once again through the small hamlet of Bowmansville , where it crosses Ellicott Creek near some rapids .
For the next several miles , NY 33 runs parallel to the Thruway and very close to it , with both roads visible from the other . Much of this section of Lancaster has remained rural in character ; however , that began to change in the mid @-@ 1990s when Tops Friendly Markets , the regional supermarket chain headquartered in nearby Williamsville , chose a site near the Gunnville Road intersection for a major distribution center . It necessitated the widening of the highway and construction of a traffic light and turn lanes at its entrance .
NY 33 becomes a two @-@ lane route once again as it heads out into Alden and eventually joins another state @-@ maintained street radiating out from the city , Walden Avenue , unsigned NY 952Q . NY 33 and the Genesee Street name take over Walden 's straight , slightly north @-@ trending course as it leaves Erie County for Genesee County . In the latter , it intersects with NY 77 in the center of the first community it encounters , the small village of Corfu . At the Batavia town line , it becomes Pearl Street , a name it keeps until it reaches NY 98 within the city of Batavia .
= = = Batavia to Bergen = = =
In the knot of highways that is the Genesee County seat , NY 33 crosses and briefly overlaps with not only NY 5 , the other east – west route in town , but both north – south routes , NY 63 and NY 98 . While concurrent with NY 98 on Oak Street Extension , NY 33 passes over Tonawanda Creek , which travels through Batavia on a roughly northwest – southeast alignment . The brief overlap with NY 98 ends at Main Street , which carries NY 5 and NY 63 through the western portion of the city . NY 33 turns east here , overlapping with NY 5 and NY 63 for five blocks along the four @-@ lane , mostly commercial Main Street . NY 63 leaves in downtown Batavia at Ellicott Street ; however , NY 5 and NY 33 continue to follow Main Street through much of the city 's eastern half .
At the eastern fringe of Batavia , NY 33 splits in a northeast direction from NY 5 , becoming Clinton Street , and , once outside the city limits , Clinton Street Road . In the town of Batavia , the highway passes through a residential area on its way to a junction with Batavia – Stafford Town Line Road , a county road providing access to Genesee Community College , located about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north of NY 33 . The route continues on a northeastward course into the town of Stafford , where it crosses over the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision railroad line and the Thruway by way of overpasses less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) apart . Unlike in Buffalo , there is no connection between NY 33 and the Thruway at this point .
It remains close to the Interstate Highway for about 4 miles ( 6 km ) , intersecting NY 237 less than a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the overpass taking that highway over the Thruway , but leaves it behind for good shortly thereafter as it turns even more to the north , taking it into the town of Bergen and the small village of the same name in the county 's northeast corner . Here , NY 33 crosses NY 19 , a long north – south route . Shortly afterward , NY 33A begins to the east while the main route turns to the north yet again and becomes Buffalo Road . Just east of this point , NY 33A connects to I @-@ 490 , which briefly runs along the Monroe County line through this area . From the west end of NY 33A to the county line , NY 33 and I @-@ 490 follow virtually identical northeasterly alignments .
= = = Monroe County = = =
Once across the county line , NY 33 crosses over the Rochester Subdivision rail line for a second time before returning to a more easterly orientation . It parallels the CSX main line and I @-@ 490 — both located a short distance to the south of NY 33 — into the village of Churchville , where the route has a brief concurrency with NY 36 . Farther east , NY 33 intersects NY 259 at North Chili and picks up another short concurrency with NY 386 as the suburbs begin at Gates . Here , NY 33 finally has a direct exit with I @-@ 490 . Also directly accessible from this junction is NY 531 , which begins about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to the north . At this point , I @-@ 490 trades positions with NY 33 as it continues to parallel the latter , but now to the north instead .
The route continues another 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to Gates Center , meeting Howard Road ( formerly part of NY 47 and still state @-@ maintained as unsigned NY 940L ) and crossing over , but not connecting to I @-@ 390 . A crossing of the Erie Canal soon follows , bringing the route into the city of Rochester . Across the city line , NY 33 runs along the Rochester Subdivision rail line for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , serving an industrial area built up along the north side of the railroad . It connects to Mount Read Boulevard by way of a signalized traffic circle before abruptly turning southward to pass under the tracks and meet up with West Avenue .
At West Avenue , NY 33 turns east into the densely populated western portion of the city , taking on the West Avenue name for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to a junction with Chili Avenue , which carries NY 33A into the city . Here , NY 33A completes its southern loop and NY 33 picks up its final designation as West Main Street . NY 33 travels east – northeast along Main Street to the junction of West Main and West Broad Streets adjacent to where I @-@ 490 passes over the former . NY 33 ends here , giving way to NY 31 , which enters from the north on Broad Street and continues to the east on Main Street . Nick Tahou Hots , a local restaurant , is located on the northwest corner of the junction .
= = History = =
= = = Designation = = =
NY 33 was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s to the portion of its modern alignment east of NY 5 in Batavia . West of Batavia , what is now NY 33 was unnumbered and only partially state @-@ maintained . At the time , state maintenance of this segment began at the Buffalo city line and ended at current NY 77 in Corfu . The Corfu – Batavia segment was taken over by the state of New York in the late 1920s , and NY 33 was extended west over the now entirely state @-@ maintained Genesee Street to Main Street ( NY 5 ) in downtown Buffalo as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
At the same time , the route was extended east through Rochester to the Wayne County town of Marion 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the east . It was routed along West Main Street and East Avenue from NY 31 in Rochester to Penfield Road in Brighton , overlapping NY 15 ( now NY 96 ) from downtown Rochester to Brighton . NY 33 broke from NY 15 at Penfield Road and continued generally eastward on Penfield , Walworth – Penfield , and Walworth – Marion Roads through Brighton , Penfield and Walworth to Marion , where it ended at an intersection with NY 21 . The route was cut back to its current eastern terminus at the end of a brief over lap of NY 31 in downtown Rochester on January 1 , 1949 , at which time the portion of NY 33 's former routing east of NY 96 in Brighton was redesignated as NY 441 .
= = = Buffalo area = = =
Construction began c . 1961 on the Kensington Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway connecting downtown Buffalo to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport . The first section of the expressway was completed between 1962 and 1964 and extended from Michigan Avenue ( Harriet Tubman Way ) to Best Street . The remainder of the highway was completed c . 1965 , at which time NY 33 was realigned to follow the new expressway from Michigan Avenue to the airport . Its former routing on Genesee Street became NY 33B . There were once plans to extend the Kensington Expressway west to I @-@ 190 at exit 8 ; however , this extension was never built .
The western end of NY 33 has been located in downtown Buffalo since 1930 ; however , the exact location of its terminus has varied over time . In the mid @-@ 1970s , the northbound and southbound directions of NY 5 were split and rerouted to follow a series of streets through downtown Buffalo . Northbound NY 5 left the southbound direction at the north end of the Skyway and followed Church , South Division , Ellicott , and Chippewa Streets around downtown to Main Street , where both directions converged and continued north on Main Street . As a result , NY 33 was truncated eastward to the junction of Genesee and Ellicott Streets . At some point between 1979 and 1985 , a pair of ramps were constructed between the west end of the Kensington Expressway and Oak and Elm Streets , a pre @-@ existing one @-@ way couplet one block to the west of Michigan Avenue . NY 33 initially followed the new ramps to Genesee Street ; however , the route was altered in the latter half of the 1980s to connect to Ellicott Street ( by this point part of NY 5 north ) by way of Goodell and East Tupper Streets , another pre @-@ existing one @-@ way couplet .
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private bill presented to Parliament in November 1898 . The station was to be the southern terminus of an underground railway line planned to run from Wood Green station ( now Alexandra Palace ) via Finsbury Park and King 's Cross and was originally to be located at the corner of Stanhope Street and Holles Street , north of the Strand . When the two streets were scheduled for demolition as part of the London County Council 's plans for the construction of Kingsway and Aldwych , the GN & SR moved the location to the junction of the two new roads . Royal Assent to the bill was given and the Great Northern and Strand Railway Act 1899 was enacted on 1 August .
In September 1901 , the GN & SR was taken over by the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway ( B & PCR ) , which planned to build an underground line from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus via Knightsbridge . Both were under the control of Charles Yerkes through his Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company and , in June 1902 , were transferred to Yerkes ' new holding company , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) . Neither of the railways had carried out any construction , but the UERL obtained permission for new tunnels between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn to connect the two routes . The companies were formally merged as the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) following parliamentary approval in November 1902 . Prior to confirmation of the merger , the GN & SR had sought permission to extend its line southwards from the future junction of Kingsway and Aldwych , under Norfolk Street to a new interchange under the Metropolitan District Railway 's station at Temple . The extension was rejected following objections from the Duke of Norfolk under whose land the last part of the proposed tunnels would have run .
In 1903 , the GNP & BR sought permission for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to run under Leicester Square , Strand , and Fleet Street and into the City of London . The branch would have passed and interchanged with the already approved Strand station , allowing travel on the GNP & BR from Strand in three directions . The deliberations of a Royal Commission on traffic in London prevented parliamentary consideration of the proposal , which was withdrawn .
In 1905 , with the Royal Commission 's report about to be published , the GNP & BR returned to Parliament with two bills for consideration . The first bill revived the 1903 proposal for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to the City of London , passing and interchanging with Strand station . The second proposed an extension and relocation of Strand station to the junction of Strand and Surrey Street . From there the line was to continue as a single tunnel under the River Thames to Waterloo . The first bill was again delayed and withdrawn . Of the second , only the relocation of Strand station was permitted .
= = = Construction = = =
The linking of the GN & SR and B & PCR routes meant that the section of the GN & SR south of Holborn became a branch from the main route . The UERL began constructing the main route in July 1902 . Progress was rapid , so that it was largely complete by the Autumn of 1906 . Construction of the Holborn to Strand section was delayed while the London County Council constructed Kingsway and the tramway subway running beneath it and while the UERL decided how the junction between the main route and the branch would be arranged at Holborn .
Strand station was built on the site of the Royal Strand Theatre , which had closed on 13 May 1905 and been demolished . Construction of the station began on 21 October 1905 , to a design by the UERL 's architect Leslie Green in the UERL house style of a two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed building faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The station building is L @-@ shaped , with two façades separated by the building on the corner of Strand and Surrey Street . The Strand façade is narrow with a single semi @-@ circular window above the entrance . The façade in Surrey Street is wider with a separate entrance and exit and a shop unit . In anticipation of a revival of the extension to Waterloo and the City route , the station was built with three circular lift shafts able to accommodate six trapezium @-@ shaped lifts . Only one of the shafts was fitted out , with two lifts . The other two shafts rose from the lower concourse to the basement of the station , but could have been extended upwards into the space of the shop unit when required . A fourth smaller @-@ diameter shaft accommodated an emergency spiral stair .
The platforms are 92 feet 6 inches ( 28 @.@ 19 m ) below street level and are 250 feet ( 76 m ) long ; shorter than the GNP & BR 's standard length of 350 feet ( 110 m ) . As with other UERL stations , the platform walls were tiled with distinctive patterns , in this case cream and dark green . Only parts of the platform walls were decorated because it was planned to operate the branch with short trains . Owing to the reduced lift provision , a second route between the platforms and lifts was never brought into use and was left in an unfinished condition without tiling .
= = = Operation = = =
The GNP & BR 's main route opened on 15 December 1906 , but the Strand branch was not opened until 30 November 1907 . Initially , shuttle trains operated to Holborn from the eastern platform into the through platform at Holborn . At peak times , an additional train operated alternately in the branch 's western tunnel into the bay platform at Holborn . During the first year of operation , a train for theatregoers operated late on Monday to Saturday evenings from Strand through Holborn and northbound to Finsbury Park ; this was discontinued in October 1908 .
In March 1908 , the off @-@ peak shuttle service began to use the western platform at Strand and the through platform at Holborn , crossing between the two branch tunnels south of Holborn . Low usage led to the withdrawal of the second peak @-@ hour shuttle and the eastern tunnel was taken out of use in 1914 . On 9 May 1915 , three of the Underground stations in the area were renamed and Strand station became Aldwych . Sunday services ended in April 1917 and , in August of the same year , the eastern tunnel and platform at Aldwych and the bay platform at Holborn were formally closed . A German bombing campaign in September 1917 led to the disused platform being used as storage for around 300 paintings from the National Gallery from then until December 1918 .
In October 1922 , the ticket office was replaced by a facility in the lifts . Passenger numbers remained low : when the station was one of a number on the network considered for closure in 1929 , its annual usage was 1 @,@ 069 @,@ 650 and takings were £ 4 @,@ 500 . The branch was again considered for closure in 1933 , but remained open .
Wartime efficiency measures led to the branch being closed temporarily on 22 September 1940 , shortly after the start of The Blitz , and it was partly fitted out by the City of Westminster as an air @-@ raid shelter . The tunnels between Aldwych and Holborn were used to store items from the British Museum , including the Elgin Marbles . The branch reopened on 1 July 1946 , but patronage did not increase . In 1958 , the station was one of three that London Transport announced would be closed . Again it survived , but the service was reduced in June 1958 to run only during Monday to Friday peak hours and Saturday morning and early afternoons . The Saturday service was withdrawn in June 1962 .
After operating only during peak hours for more than 30 years , the closure announcement came on 4 January 1993 . The original 1907 lifts required replacement at a cost of £ 3 million . This was not justifiable as only 450 passengers used the station each day and it was losing London Regional Transport £ 150 @,@ 000 per year . The Secretary of State for Transport granted permission on 1 September 1994 to close the station and the branch closed on 30 September . Recognising the station 's historical significance as a mostly unaltered station from the early 20th century , the station was given Grade II listed building status in 2011 .
= = = Proposals for extension and new connections = = =
Although the Piccadilly Circus to City of London branch proposal of 1905 was never revisited after its withdrawal , the early plan to extend the branch south to Waterloo was revived a number of times during the station 's life . The extension was considered in 1919 and 1948 , but no progress towards constructing the link was made .
In the years after the Second World War , a series of preliminary plans for relieving congestion on the London Underground had considered various east @-@ west routes through the Aldwych area , although other priorities meant that these were never proceeded with . In March 1965 , a British Rail and London Transport joint planning committee published " A Railway Plan for London " which proposed a new tube railway , the Fleet line ( later renamed the Jubilee line ) , to join the Bakerloo line at Baker Street then run via Bond Street , Green Park , Charing Cross , Aldwych and into the City of London via Ludgate Circus , Cannon Street and Fenchurch Street before heading into south @-@ east London . An interchange was proposed at Aldwych and a second recommendation of the report was the revival of the link from Aldwych to Waterloo . London Transport had already sought parliamentary approval to construct tunnels from Aldwych to Waterloo in November 1964 , and in August 1965 , parliamentary powers were granted . Detailed planning took place , although public spending cuts led to postponement of the scheme in 1967 before tenders were invited .
Planning of the Fleet line continued and parliamentary approval was given in July 1969 for the first phase of the line , from Baker Street to Charing Cross . Tunnelling began on the £ 35 million route in February 1972 and the Jubilee line opened north from Charing Cross in May 1979 . The tunnels of the approved section continued east of Charing Cross under Strand almost as far as Aldwych station , but no work at Aldwych was undertaken and they were used only as sidings . Funding for the second phase of the work was delayed throughout the 1970s whilst the route beyond Charing Cross was reviewed to consider options for serving anticipated development in the London Docklands area . By 1979 , the cost was estimated as £ 325 million , a six @-@ fold increase from the £ 51 million estimated in 1970 . A further review of alternatives for the Jubilee line was carried out in 1980 , which led to a change of priorities and the postponement of any further effort on the line . When the extension was eventually constructed in the late 1990s it took a different route , south of the River Thames via Westminster , Waterloo and London Bridge to provide a rapid link to Canary Wharf , leaving the tunnels between Green Park and Aldwych redundant .
In July 2005 , Ove Arup & Partners produced a report , DLR Horizon 2020 Study , for the Docklands Light Railway ( DLR ) examining " pragmatic development schemes " to expand and improve the DLR network between 2012 and 2020 . One of the proposals was an extension of the DLR from Bank to Charing Cross via City Thameslink and Aldwych . The disused Jubilee line tunnels would be enlarged to accommodate the larger DLR trains and Aldwych station would form the basis for a new station on the line , although requiring considerable reconstruction to accommodate escalators . The estimated cost in 2005 was £ 232 million for the infrastructure works and the scheme was described as " strongly beneficial " as it was expected to attract passengers from the London Underground 's existing east @-@ west routes and from local buses and reduce overcrowding at Bank station . The business case assessment was that the proposal offered high value , although similar values were calculated for other extension proposals from Bank . Further detailed studies were proposed .
In 2015 , a scheme was proposed by the design firm Gensler to convert disused London Underground tunnels into subterranean rail trails , enabling the disused branches of the Piccadilly line and Jubilee line to be used as cycle paths . The scheme , which would involve re @-@ opening Aldwych station as an access point for cyclists , has not been officially approved .
= = Use in media = =
Because it was a self @-@ contained section of the London Underground which was closed outside weekday peak hours , Aldwych station and the branch line from Holborn were popular locations for filming scenes set on the Tube even before their closure . Since the branch 's closure in 1994 , its use in film productions has continued , with the station appearing as itself and , with appropriate signage , as other stations on the network . The track and infrastructure are maintained in operational condition , and a train of ex @-@ Northern line 1972 tube stock is permanently stabled on the branch . This train can be driven up and down the branch for filming . The physical connection with the Piccadilly line northbound tracks remains , but requires manual operation .
Films and television productions that have been shot at Aldwych include :
The Gentle Gunman ( 1952 )
Battle of Britain ( 1969 )
Death Line ( 1972 )
Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1986 )
The Krays ( 1990 )
Patriot Games ( 1994 )
Creep ( 2004 )
V for Vendetta ( 2006 )
The Good Shepherd ( 2006 )
Atonement ( 2007 )
28 Weeks Later ( 2007 )
The Edge of Love ( 2008 )
Mr Selfridge ( 2013 )
Sherlock ( 2014 )
The pre @-@ war operation of the station features in a pivotal scene in Geoffrey Household 's novel Rogue Male , when the pursuit of the protagonist by an enemy agent sees them repeatedly using the shuttle service on the branch line . A chase through Aldwych station ends with the agent 's death by electrocution on the track . A much modified and expanded version of the station appears as a level in the video game Tomb Raider III . The music video for The Prodigy 's song " Firestarter " was filmed in the disused eastern tunnel and one of the unused lift shafts . The station was the subject of an episode of Most Haunted in 2002 .
= Cher =
Cher ( / ˈʃɛər / ; born Cherilyn Sarkisian ; May 20 , 1946 ) is an American singer and actress . Called the Goddess of Pop , she is described as embodying female autonomy in a male @-@ dominated industry . She is known for her distinctive contralto singing voice and for having worked in numerous areas of entertainment , as well as adopting a variety of styles and appearances during her five @-@ decade @-@ long career .
Cher gained popularity in 1965 as one @-@ half of the folk rock husband @-@ wife duo Sonny & Cher after their song " I Got You Babe " reached number one on the American and British charts . She began her solo career simultaneously , releasing in 1966 her first million @-@ seller song , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " . She became a television personality in the 1970s with her shows The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour , watched by over 30 million viewers weekly during its three @-@ year run , and Cher . She emerged as a fashion trendsetter by wearing elaborate outfits on her television shows . While working on television , she established herself as a solo artist with the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart @-@ topping singles " Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves " , " Half @-@ Breed " , and " Dark Lady " . After her divorce from Sonny Bono in 1975 , Cher launched a comeback in 1979 with the disco @-@ oriented album Take Me Home and earned $ 300 @,@ 000 a week for her 1980 – 82 residency show in Las Vegas .
In 1982 , Cher made her Broadway debut in the play Come Back to the Five and Dime , Jimmy Dean , Jimmy Dean and starred in the film adaptation of the same title . She subsequently earned critical acclaim for her performances in films such as Silkwood ( 1983 ) , Mask ( 1985 ) , and Moonstruck ( 1987 ) , for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress . She then revived her musical career by recording the rock @-@ inflected albums Cher ( 1987 ) , Heart of Stone ( 1989 ) , and Love Hurts ( 1991 ) , all of which yielded several successful singles . She reached a new commercial peak in 1998 with the album Believe , whose title track became the biggest @-@ selling single of all time by a female artist in the UK ; it features the pioneering use of Auto @-@ Tune , also known as the " Cher effect " . Her 2002 – 05 Living Proof : The Farewell Tour became one of the highest @-@ grossing concert tours of all time , earning $ 250 million . In 2008 , she signed a $ 180 million deal to headline the Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas for three years . After seven years of absence , she returned to film in the 2010 musical Burlesque . Cher 's first studio album in 12 years , Closer to the Truth ( 2013 ) , became her highest @-@ charting solo album in the U.S. to date at number three .
Cher has won a Grammy Award , an Emmy Award , an Academy Award , three Golden Globe Awards , a Cannes Film Festival Award , and a special CFDA Fashion Award , among several other honors . Throughout her career , she has sold 100 million records worldwide . She is the only artist to date to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each decade from the 1960s to the 2010s . Outside of her music and acting , she is noted for her political views , philanthropic endeavors and social activism , including LGBT rights and HIV / AIDS prevention .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1946 – 61 : Early life = = =
Cher was born Cherilyn Sarkisian in El Centro , California , on May 20 , 1946 . Her father , John Sarkisian , was an Armenian @-@ American truck driver with drug and gambling problems , and her mother , Jackie Jean Crouch , was an occasional model and bit @-@ part actress who claimed Irish , English , German and Cherokee ancestry . Cher 's father was rarely home when she was an infant , and her parents divorced when Cher was ten months old . Her mother later married actor John Southall , by whom she had a daughter , Georganne Southall .
Now living in Los Angeles , Cher 's mother began acting while working as a waitress . She changed her name to Georgia Holt and played minor roles in films and on television . Holt also secured acting parts for her daughters as extras on television shows like The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet . Her mother 's relationship with Southall ended when Cher was nine years old , but she considers him her father and remembers him as a " good @-@ natured man who turned belligerent when he drank too much " . Holt remarried and divorced several more times , and she moved her family around the country ( including New York , Texas , and California ) . They often had little money , and Cher remembers using rubber bands to hold her shoes together . At one point , her mother left Cher at an orphanage for several weeks . Although they met every day , both found the experience traumatic .
When Cher was in fifth grade , she produced a performance of the musical Oklahoma ! for her teacher and class . She organized a group of girls , directing and choreographing their dance routines . Unable to convince boys to participate , she acted the male roles and sang their songs . By age nine , she had developed an unusually low voice . Fascinated by film stars , Cher 's role model was Audrey Hepburn , particularly due to her role in the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany 's . Cher began to take after the unconventional outfits and behavior of Hepburn 's character . She was disappointed by the absence of dark @-@ haired Hollywood actresses whom she could emulate then . She had wanted to be famous since childhood but felt unattractive and untalented , later commenting , " I couldn 't think of anything that I could do ... I didn 't think I 'd be a singer or dancer . I just thought , well , I 'll be famous . That was my goal . "
In 1961 , Holt married bank manager Gilbert LaPiere , who adopted Cher ( under the name Cheryl LaPiere ) and Georganne , and enrolled them at Montclair College Preparatory School , a private school in Encino , whose students were mostly from affluent families . The school 's upper @-@ class environment presented a challenge for Cher ; biographer Connie Berman wrote , " [ she ] stood out from the others in both her striking appearance and outgoing personality . " A former classmate commented , " I 'll never forget seeing Cher for the first time . She was so special ... She was like a movie star , right then and there ... She said she was going to be a movie star and we knew she would . " Despite not being an excellent student , Cher was intelligent and creative , according to Berman . She earned high grades , excelling in French and English classes . As an adult , she discovered that she had dyslexia . Cher achieved notoriety for her unconventional behavior : she performed songs for students during the lunch hours and surprised peers when she wore a midriff @-@ baring top . She later recalled , " I was never really in school . I was always thinking about when I was grown up and famous . "
= = = 1962 – 65 : Solo career breakthrough = = =
At age 16 , Cher dropped out of school , left her mother 's house , and moved with a friend into Los Angeles , where she took acting classes and worked to support herself . She danced in small clubs along Hollywood 's Sunset Strip , introducing herself to performers , managers , and agents . According to Berman , " [ Cher ] did not hesitate to approach anyone she thought could help her get a break , make a new contact , or get an audition . " Cher met performer Sonny Bono in November 1962 when he was working for record producer Phil Spector . Cher 's friend moved out , and Cher accepted Sonny 's offer to be his housekeeper . Sonny introduced Cher to Spector , who used her as a backup singer on many recordings , including the Ronettes ' " Be My Baby " and the Righteous Brothers ' " You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' " . Spector produced her first single , the commercially unsuccessful " Ringo , I Love You " , which Cher recorded under the name Bonnie Jo Mason .
Cher and Sonny became close friends , eventual lovers , and performed their own unofficial wedding ceremony in a hotel room in Tijuana , Mexico , on October 27 , 1964 . Although Sonny had wanted to launch Cher as a solo artist , she encouraged him to perform with her because she suffered from stage fright , and he began joining her onstage , singing the harmonies . Cher disguised her nervousness by looking at Sonny ; she later commented that she sang to the people through him . In late 1964 , they emerged as a duo called Caesar & Cleo , releasing the poorly received singles " Do You Wanna Dance ? " , " Love Is Strange " , and " Let the Good Times Roll " .
Cher signed with Liberty Records ' Imperial imprint in the end of 1964 , and Sonny became her producer . The single " Dream Baby " , released under the name " Cherilyn " , received airplay in Los Angeles . Encouraged by Imperial , Cher worked with Sonny on her second solo single on the label , a cover version of Bob Dylan 's " All I Really Want to Do " , which peaked at number 15 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 1965 . Meanwhile , the Byrds had released their own version of the same song . When competition on the singles charts started between Cher and the Byrds , the group 's record label began to promote the B @-@ side of the Byrds ' single . Roger McGuinn of the Byrds commented , " We loved the Cher version ... We didn 't want to hassle . So we just turned our record over . " Cher 's debut album , All I Really Want to Do ( 1965 ) , reached number 16 on the Billboard 200 ; it was later described by AllMusic 's Tim Sendra as " one of the stronger folk @-@ pop records of the era " .
= = = 1965 – 67 : Sonny and Cher 's rise to pop stardom = = =
In early 1965 , Caesar and Cleo began calling themselves Sonny & Cher . Following the recording of " I Got You Babe " , they traveled to England in July 1965 at the Rolling Stones ' advice ; Cher recalled , " [ they ] had told us ... that Americans just didn 't get us and that if we were going to make it big , we were going to have to go to England . " According to writer Cintra Wilson , " English newspaper photographers showed up when S & C were thrown out of the London Hilton [ because of their outfits ] the night they arrived — literally overnight , they were stars . London went gaga for the heretofore @-@ unseen S & C look , which was neither mod nor rocker . "
" I Got You Babe " reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became , according to AllMusic 's Bruce Eder , " one of the biggest @-@ selling and most beloved pop / rock hits of the mid- ' 60s " ; Rolling Stone listed it among " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2003 . As the song knocked the Beatles off the top of the British charts , English teenagers began to emulate Sonny and Cher 's fashion style , such as bell @-@ bottoms , striped pants , ruffled shirts , industrial zippers and fur vests . Upon their return to the U.S. , the duo made several appearances on the teen @-@ pop showcases Hullabaloo and Shindig ! and completed a tour of some of the largest arenas in the U.S. Their shows attracted Cher look @-@ alikes — " girls who were ironing their hair straight and dyeing it black , to go with their vests and bell @-@ bottoms " . Cher expanded her creative range by designing a clothing line .
Sonny and Cher 's first album , Look at Us ( 1965 ) , released for the Atco Records division of Atlantic Records , spent eight weeks at number two on the Billboard 200 , behind the Beatles ' Help ! . Their material became popular , and the duo successfully competed with the dominant British Invasion and Motown sounds of the era . Sonny and Cher charted ten Billboard top 40 singles between 1965 and 1972 , including five top @-@ ten singles : " I Got You Babe " , " Baby Don 't Go " , " The Beat Goes On " , " All I Ever Need Is You " , and " A Cowboy 's Work Is Never Done " . At one point , they had five songs in the top 50 at the same time , a feat equaled only by the Beatles and Elvis Presley . By the end of 1967 , they had sold 40 million records worldwide and had become , according to Time magazine 's Ginia Bellafante , rock 's " it " couple .
Cher 's following releases kept her solo career fully competitive with her work with Sonny . The Sonny Side of Chér ( 1966 ) features " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " , which reached number two in America and became her first million @-@ seller solo single . Chér , also released in 1966 , contains the Burt Bacharach and Hal David composition " Alfie " , which was added to the credits of the American version of the 1966 film of the same name and became the first stateside version of the popular song . With Love , Chér ( 1967 ) includes songs described by biographer Mark Bego as " little soap @-@ opera stories set to rock music " such as the U.S. top @-@ ten single " You Better Sit Down Kids " .
= = = 1967 – 70 : Backlash from the younger generation , first marriage = = =
By the end of the 1960s , Sonny and Cher 's music had ceased to chart . According to Berman , " the heavy , loud sound of groups like Jefferson Airplane and Cream made the folk @-@ rock music of Sonny and Cher seem too bland . " Cher later commented , " I loved the new sound of Led Zeppelin , Eric Clapton , the electric @-@ guitar oriented bands . Left to myself , I would have changed with the times because the music really turned me on . But Son [ ny ] didn 't like it — and that was that . " Their monogamous lifestyle during the period of the sexual revolution and the anti @-@ drug position they adopted at the height of the drug culture eventually made the duo lose their popular appeal among American youths . According to Bego , " in spite of their revolutionary unisex clothes , Sonny and Cher were quite ' square ' when it came to sex and drugs . " In an attempt to recapture their young audience , the duo produced and starred in the film Good Times ( 1967 ) , which was commercially unsuccessful .
Cher 's next album , Backstage ( 1968 ) , in which she runs in diverse musical directions , including Brazilian jazz and anti @-@ war protest settings , was not a commercial success . In 1969 , she was dropped from Imperial Records . Sonny and Cher had been dropped from Atco ; however , the label wanted to sign Cher for a solo album . 3614 Jackson Highway ( 1969 ) was recorded without the guidance of Sonny and incorporates experiments in soul music ; AllMusic 's Mark Deming proclaimed it " the finest album of her career " . Displeased with the 3614 Jackson Highway album , Sonny prevented Cher from releasing more recordings for Atco .
Meanwhile , Sonny repeatedly cheated on Cher , and by the end of the 1960s their relationship had begun to unravel . According to People magazine , " [ Sonny ] tried desperately to win her back , telling her he wanted to marry and start a family . " They officially married after she gave birth on March 4 , 1969 to Chastity Bono ( who years later became Chaz Bono ) . That year , the duo spent $ 500 @,@ 000 and mortgaged their home to make the film Chastity . Written and directed by Sonny , who did not appear in the movie , it tells the story of a young woman , played by Cher , searching for the meaning of life . The art film failed commercially , putting the couple $ 190 @,@ 000 in debt with back taxes . However , some critics noted that Cher showed signs of acting potential ; Cue magazine wrote , " Cher has a marvelous quality that often makes you forget the lines you are hearing . "
At the lowest point of their career , the duo put together a nightclub routine that relied on a more adult approach to sound and style . According to writer Cintra Wilson , " Their lounge act was so depressing , people started heckling them . Then Cher started heckling back . Sonny ... reprimanded her ; then she 'd heckle Sonny " . The heckling became a highlight of the act and attracted viewers . Television executives took note , and the couple began making guest appearances on prime @-@ time shows , in which they presented a " new , sophisticated , and mature " image . Cher adopted alluring , low @-@ cut gowns that became her signature outfits .
= = = 1971 – 74 : Television career breakthrough , first musical comeback = = =
CBS head of programming Fred Silverman offered Sonny and Cher their own television program after he noticed them as guest @-@ hosts on The Merv Griffin Show in 1971 . The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour premiered as a summer replacement series on August 1 , 1971 , and had six episodes . Because it was a ratings success , the couple returned that December with a full @-@ time show .
Watched by more than 30 million viewers weekly during its three @-@ year run , The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour was praised for the comedic timing , and deadpan Cher mocked Sonny about his looks and short stature . According to Berman , they " exuded an aura of warmth , playfulness , and caring that only enhanced their appeal . Viewers were further enchanted when a young Chastity also appeared on the show . They seemed like a perfect family . " Cher honed her acting skills in sketch comedy roles such as the brash housewife Laverne , the sardonic waitress Rosa , and historical vamps , including Cleopatra and Miss Sadie Thompson . The designer clothing Cher wore were part of the show 's attraction , and her style influenced the fashion trends of the 1970s .
In 1971 , Sonny and Cher signed with the Kapp Records division of MCA Records , and the latter singer released the single " Classified 1A " , in which she sings from the point of view of a soldier who bleeds to death in Vietnam . Written by Sonny , who felt that her first solo single on the label had to be poignant and topical , radio station programmers quickly rejected the song as uncommercial . Since Sonny 's first attempts at reviving their recording career as a duo had also been unsuccessful , Kapp Records recruited Snuff Garrett to work with them . He produced Cher 's first U.S. solo number @-@ one single , " Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves " , which " proved that ... Garrett knew more about Cher 's voice and her persona as a singer than Sonny did " , writes Bego . The song was featured on the 1971 album Chér ( eventually reissued under the title Gypsys , Tramps & Thieves ) , which was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Its second single , " The Way of Love " , reached number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and established Cher 's more confident image as a recording artist .
In 1972 , Cher released the all @-@ ballad set Foxy Lady , demonstrating the evolution of her vocal
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New Text scholars distributed alternate versions of the text and freely integrated non @-@ canonical commentaries into their work , as well as propagating alternate systems of divination such as the Taixuanjing . Most of this early commentary , such as the image and number work of Jing Fang , Yu Fan and Xun Shuang , is no longer extant . Only short fragments survive , from a Tang dynasty text called Zhou yi jijie .
With the fall of the Han , I Ching scholarship was no longer organized into systematic schools . The most influential writer of this period was Wang Bi , who discarded the numerology of Han commentators and integrated the philosophy of the Ten Wings directly into the central text of the I Ching , creating such a persuasive narrative that Han commentators were no longer considered significant . A century later Han Kangbo added commentaries on the Ten Wings to Wang Bi 's book , creating a text called the Zhouyi zhu . The principal rival interpretation was a practical text on divination by the soothsayer Guan Lu .
= = = Tang and Song dynasties = = =
At the beginning of the Tang dynasty , Emperor Taizong of Tang ordered Kong Yingda to create a canonical edition of the I Ching . Choosing the 3rd @-@ century Zhouyi zhu as the official commentary , he added to it a subcommentary drawing out the subtler levels of Wang Bi 's explanations . The resulting work , the Zhouyi zhengi , became the standard edition of the I Ching through the Song dynasty .
By the 11th century , the I Ching was being read as a work of intricate philosophy , as a jumping @-@ off point for examining great metaphysical questions and ethical issues . Cheng Yi , patriarch of the Neo @-@ Confucian Cheng – Zhu school , read the I Ching as a guide to moral perfection . He described the text as a way to for ministers to form honest political factions , root out corruption , and solve problems in government .
The contemporary scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers , although he did not intend his arrangement to be used mathematically .
= = = Neo @-@ Confucian = = =
The 12th century Neo @-@ Confucian Zhu Xi , cofounder of the Cheng – Zhu school , rejected both of the Han dynasty lines of commentary on the I Ching , proposing that the text was a work of divination , not philosophy . However , he still considered it useful for understanding the moral practices of the ancients , called " rectification of the mind " in the Great Learning . Zhu Xi 's reconstruction of I Ching yarrow stalk divination , based in part on the Great Commentary account , became the standard form and is still in use today .
As China entered the early modern period , the I Ching took on renewed relevance in both Confucian and Daoist study . The Kangxi Emperor was especially fond of the I Ching and ordered new interpretations of it . Qing dynasty scholars focused more intently on understanding pre @-@ classical grammar , assisting the development of new philological approaches in the modern period .
= = = Korean and Japanese = = =
In 1557 , the Korean Neo @-@ Confucian Yi Hwang produced one of the most influential I Ching studies of the early modern era , claiming that the spirit was a principle ( li ) and not a material force ( qi ) . Hwang accused the Neo @-@ Confucian school of having misread Zhu Xi . His critique proved influential not only in Korea but also in Japan . Other than this contribution , the I Ching was not central to the development of Korean Confucianism , and by the 19th century , I Ching studies were integrated into the silhak reform movement .
In medieval Japan , secret teachings on the I Ching were publicized by Rinzai Zen master Kokan Shiren and the Shintoist Yoshida Kanetomo . I Ching studies in Japan took on new importance in the Edo period , during which over 1 @,@ 000 books were published on the subject by over 400 authors . The majority of these books were serious works of philology , reconstructing ancient usages and commentaries for practical purposes . A sizable minority focused on numerology , symbolism , and divination . During this time , over 150 editions of earlier Chinese commentaries were reprinted in Japan , including several texts that had become lost in China . In the early Edo period , writers such as Itō Jinsai , Kumazawa Banzan , and Nakae Toju ranked the I Ching the greatest of the Confucian classics . Many writers attempted to use the I Ching to explain Western science in a Japanese framework . One writer , Shizuki Tadao , even attempted to employ Newtonian mechanics and the Copernican principle within an I Ching cosmology . This line of argument was later taken up in China by the Qing scholar and official Zhang Zhidong .
= = = Early European = = =
Leibniz , who was corresponding with Jesuits in China , wrote the first European commentary on the I Ching in 1703 , arguing that it proved the universality of binary numbers and theism , since the broken lines , the " 0 " or " nothingness " , cannot become solid lines , the " 1 " or " oneness " , without the intervention of God . This was criticized by Hegel , who proclaimed that binary system and Chinese characters were " empty forms " that could not articulate spoken words with the clarity of the Western alphabet . In their discussion , I Ching hexagrams and Chinese characters were conflated into a single foreign idea , sparking a dialogue on Western philosophical questions such as universality and the nature of communication . In the 20th century , Jacques Derrida identified Hegel 's argument as logocentric , but accepted without question Hegel 's premise that the Chinese language cannot express philosophical ideas .
= = = Modern = = =
After the Xinhai Revolution , the I Ching was no longer part of mainstream Chinese political philosophy , but it maintained cultural influence as China 's most ancient text . Borrowing back from Leibniz , Chinese writers offered parallels between the I Ching and subjects such as linear algebra and logic in computer science , aiming to demonstrate that ancient Chinese cosmology had anticipated Western discoveries . The Sinologist Joseph Needham took the opposite stance , arguing that the I Ching had actually impeded scientific development by incorporating all physical knowledge into its metaphysics . The psychologist Carl Jung took interest in the possible universal nature of the imagery of the I Ching , and he introduced an influential German translation by Richard Wilhelm by discussing his theories of archetypes and synchronicity . Jung wrote , " Even to the most biased eye , it is obvious that this book represents one long admonition to careful scrutiny of one 's own character , attitude , and motives . " The book had a notable impact on the 1960s counterculture and on 20th century cultural figures such as Philip K. Dick , John Cage , Jorge Luis Borges , and Herman Hesse .
The modern period also brought a new level of skepticism and rigor to I Ching scholarship . Li Jingchi spent several decades producing a new interpretation of the text , which was published posthumously in 1978 . Gao Heng , an expert in pre @-@ Qin China , reinvestigated its use as a Zhou dynasty oracle . Edward Shaughnessy proposed a new dating for the various strata of the text . New archaeological discoveries have enabled a deeper level of insight into how the text was used in the centuries before the Qin dynasty . Proponents of newly reconstructed Western Zhou readings , which often differ greatly from traditional readings of the text , are sometimes called the " modernist school . "
= = Translations = =
The I Ching has been translated into Western languages dozens of times , the most influential edition being the 1923 German translation of Richard Wilhelm . The earliest complete published I Ching translation in a Western language was a Latin translation done in the 1730s by Jesuit missionary Jean @-@ Baptiste Régis that was published in Germany in the 1830s . Although Thomas McClatchie and James Legge had both translated the text in the 19th century , the text gained significant traction during the counterculture of the 1960s , with the translations of Wilhelm and John Blofeld attracting particular interest . Richard Rutt 's 1996 translation incorporated much of the new archaeological and philological discoveries of the 20th century . Gregory Whincup 's 1986 translation also attempts to reconstruct Zhou period readings and is arguably easier to read .
The most commonly used English translations of the I Ching are :
Legge , James ( 1882 ) . The Yî King . In Sacred Books of the East , vol . XVI . 2nd edition ( 1899 ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press ; reprinted numerous times .
Wilhelm , Richard ( 1950 ) . The I Ching or Book of Changes . Cary Baynes , trans . Bollingen Series 19 . Introduction by Carl G. Jung . New York : Pantheon Books . 3rd edition ( 1967 ) , Princeton : Princeton University Press ; reprinted numerous times .
Other notable English translations include :
McClatchie , Thomas ( 1876 ) . A Translation of the Confucian Yi @-@ king . Shanghai : American Presbyterian Mission Press .
Blofeld , John ( 1965 ) . The Book of Changes : A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching . New York : E. P. Dutton .
Lynn , Richard John ( 1994 ) . The Classic of Changes . New York , NY : Columbia University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 231 @-@ 08294 @-@ 0 .
Rutt , Richard ( 1996 ) . The Book of Changes ( Zhouyi ) : A Bronze Age Document . Richmond : Curzon . ISBN 0 @-@ 7007 @-@ 0467 @-@ 1 .
Shaughnessy , Edward L. ( 1996 ) . I Ching : the Classic of Changes . New York : Ballantine Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 36243 @-@ 8 .
= Béla H. Bánáthy =
Béla Heinrich Bánáthy ( Hungarian : Bánáthy Béla ; December 1 , 1919 – September 4 , 2003 ) was the founder of the White Stag Leadership Development Program , organized the International Systems Institute , and was co @-@ founder of the General Evolutionary Research Group , A Hungarian @-@ American who remained loyal to his birth country his entire life , he served as an influential professor of systems theory , systems scientist and professor at San Jose State University and UC Berkeley . He became a widely read and respected author in the United States .
He grew up in largely rural Hungary and served in the Hungarian military during World War II . When Russia invaded Hungary in April 1945 , he and his family fled to Allied occupied Austria and lived in a displaced persons camp for six years . In 1951 , they emigrated to Chicago , sponsored by the Presbyterian church . Within the year his former commanding officer suggested to the U.S. government that they hire Bánáthy as a Hungarian instructor at the Army Language School in Monterey , California . While living in Monterey , he founded the White Stag Leadership Development Program . His program gained national attention , and the Boy Scouts of America conducted research into incorporating leadership training into its programs . The Boy Scouts of America 's Wood Badge and junior leader training programs had until then focused primarily on Scoutcraft skills , not leadership , and William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt among others resisted the change .
After 20 years , Bánáthy left the renamed Defense Language Institute and went to work for the Far West Laboratory for Research and Development in Berkeley and later San Francisco . He retired from Far West in 1989 but maintained an active interest in social systems and science , including attending many conferences and advising students and others in those fields . In 1992 , he helped restart the Hungarian Scout Association within his native country . In 2003 , Bánáthy and Eva moved to live with their son Tibor in Chico , California . After a brief and unexpected illness , Bánáthy died on September 4 , 2003 .
= = Biography = =
Béla Bánáthy was born in 1919 in Gyula , Hungary , as the oldest of four sons . His father Peter was a minister of the Reformed Church in Hungary and his mother Hildegard Pallmann was a teacher . Peter Bánáthy had earned the honorary title Vitéz for his service during World War I , and Béla , as his oldest son , inherited the title .
= = = Youth spent in Hungary = = =
When Bánáthy was about six years old , their family informally adopted Tamas Feri . Tamas was about 13 years old and from a poor gardener 's family . Tamas took Bánáthy on his first overnight camp out with his patrol to a small forest near Gyula . Bánáthy 's father became the Scoutmaster of the " small scouts " troop ( similar to American Cub Scouts ) .
When Bánáthy was nine years old , he became the troop leader ; during one national holiday , led the troop in a parade . About that time , the entire troop spent two weeks camping at a church camp at Leányfalu , north of Budapest . The church groups lived in wooden barracks , but Bánáthy 's troop stayed in tents , " as Scouts are supposed to do " .
The family moved about 84 kilometres ( 52 mi ) from Bánáthy 's birthplace of Gyula , to Makó , Hungary , about 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) southeast of Budapest . He joined the regular scout program of the Hungarian Scout Association and " Csanad Vezer " Troop 92 . During the 1930s , the troop had more than 50 Scouts and 30 " small scouts " . They held their monthly troop meetings on Sunday in a large gimnazium and met weekly every Saturday as a patrol . Bánáthy reported : " Our weekly patrol meetings focused on scoutcraft and Scout spirit and guiding us to move through the various stages of advancement in rank . "
The Hungarian Scout program had four stages . During the first three years , Bánáthy advanced three stages . The last stage required Bánáthy to earn 25 merit badges . This last stage was called Turul , after the mythical bird of Hungary . From spring to fall , as weather permitted , the patrol had many outings . Every summer the troop went on a two- to three @-@ week long summer camp . Bánáthy and his troop attended the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 . Up until this time , he had intended to follow his father into the ministry , but changed his mind .
Bánáthy later wrote ,
The highlight of the Jamboree for me was meeting Baden Powell , the Chief Scout of the World . One day , he visited our camp with the Chief Scout of Hungary , Count Pál Teleki ( who later became our Prime Minister ) , and the chief of the camp staff , Vitez Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas , a general staff officer of the Hungarian Royal Army . A few years later he became the commander of the Royal Ludovika Akademia ( when I was a student there ) . In the 1940s , he became the Chief Scout of Hungary . ( I was serving on his staff as head of national junior leadership training . )
For me the Jamboree became a crucial career decision point . I resolved to choose the military as a life work ... There were two sources of this decision . One was my admiration of Lord Baden @-@ Powell , and his life @-@ example as a hero of the British Army and the founder and guide of scouting . The other was the influence of Captain Varkonyi , a staff officer of the Jamboree , who was assigned to our Subcamp . We spent hours in conversation about scouting and the military as a career , as a major service in the character development of young Hungarian adults . After the Jamboree we corresponded for a while . By the end of the year I shared my decision with my parents .
While at the Jamboree , Bánáthy briefly met Joseph Szentkiralyi , another Scout from Hungary . Hungarian Sea Scout Paul Ferenc Sujan and American Maurice Tripp also attended . More than 20 years later , these three men collaborated in helping Bánáthy build a leadership program for youth in the United States .
Also in 1933 , Bánáthy attended the regional patrol leader training week . Later in 1934 , Bánáthy and six other members of his troop traveled to the National Jamboree in Poland . They camped in a large pine forest and visited Kraków and Warsaw . The Polish government hosted a banquet for all of the Scouts in the Presidential Palace . In 1934 , he was awarded the best notebook prize of the national spring leadership camp and in 1935 , he was invited to serve on the junior staff of the same camp at Hárshegy , Budapest . In 1935 , the troop traveled to the Bükk Mountains in northeastern Hungary for their summer camp . As a Senior Patrol leader , Bánáthy and two others took a bicycle tour in advance of the summer camp to preview the camping site .
= = = Military service during World War II = = =
The two military men that Bánáthy had met , and from whom he developed a desire to serve in the military , soon played roles on the national stage that would affect Bánáthy . In 1937 , Bánáthy entered the Ludovika Akadémia , as was the custom for young men aspiring to military careers . In 1940 , at age 21 , Bánáthy was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the armored infantry . Later that year he met his future wife Eva Balazs .
Pál Teleki , whom Bánáthy had met at the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 , was Chief Scout of Hungary and Prime Minister of Hungary . He and Regent Miklós Horthy tried to keep Hungary out of the war . They did seek reversal of what they believed was the unjust geographic division of Hungary by the 1920 Treaty of Trianon , which Germany promised to them . Through the First Vienna Award , the country gained a portion of Czechoslovakia that had historically been part of Hungary , and via the Second Vienna Award , they regained additional Romanian territory that had formerly been Hungarian .
When Yugoslavia 's government fell in a bloodless coup d 'état , Germany 's southern flank was exposed , and its planned invasion of Russia was threatened . Germany planned to invade and compel Belgrade 's support for the Axis ; it suggested that Hungary should also attack . Teleki refused , and the Germans asked permission to transport their troops across Hungary .
The British , with whom Teleki had had a long relationship , sent word via the Hungarian Minister in London that they would declare war if he assented to this action . Teleki soon learned that Regent Horthy and General Henrik Werth , Chief of Staff of the Hungarian Army , had permitted the Germans to cross Hungary 's borders . On 3 April 1941 , Teleki committed suicide . Horthy named General Farkas as the country 's new Chief Scout .
Bánáthy served two tours on the Russian front in World War II as an armored infantry officer . The peace @-@ time Hungarian Army had received very little training . The Hungarian Army expanded rapidly from an initial force of 80 @,@ 000 , but when fighting started , the rank @-@ and @-@ file of the army had undergone only eight weeks of training .
In 1941 , Bánáthy 's unit advanced as part of German Army Group South to within 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) of Moscow , during a severe November ice storm . Wounded during the action , Banathy returned from the front to Budapest for convalescence . He married his fiancé , Eva Balazs , with his arm in a sling .
In 1942 , as a soldier in the 109 @,@ 000 strong Second Hungarian Army , Bánáthy returned to the Russian front with the Hungarian Second Army ( Second Magyar Honved ) . They fought at the Don River bend , supporting the German attack during the Stalingrad . They were charged with protecting the 8th Italian Army 's's northern flank between the Novaya Pokrovka on the Don River to Rossosh , part of the larger force defending the drive by the German 6th Army against Soviet General Vasily Chuikov 's 62nd Army , which was defending Stalingrad .
On 13 January 1943 , the Russian troops , with an overwhelming force in numbers and equipment , began the Voronezh @-@ Kharkov Strategic Offensive Operation on the Bryansk , Voronezh , and Southwestern Fronts . They rapidly destroyed the Hungarian Second Army in which Bánáthy served near Svoboda on the Don River . During the Second Hungarian Army 's 12 months of activity on the Russian front , from an initial force of about 200 @,@ 000 Hungarian soldiers and 50 @,@ 000 Jewish forced laborers , it had lost about 100 @,@ 000 to death , 35 @,@ 000 wounded , and 60 @,@ 000 taken prisoners of war . About 40 @,@ 000 men returned to Hungary , where they became scapegoats by Hitler for the catastrophic Axis defeat . " No nation lost as much blood during World War II in such a short period of time . "
Bánáthy had been seriously wounded and returned to Budapest , where he spent seven months recuperating . Afterward he was promoted as a junior officer of the Royal Hungarian Army and served on the faculty of the Ludovika Akademia under Commandant General Farkas . Farkas sought a volunteer to teach junior leader training at the academy and Bánáthy volunteered . Farkas also asked Bánáthy to organize a Scout Troop for young men , 19 years and older , which was a common practice within the Hungarian Scout Association at the time . Bánáthy became committed to training the young men in officer 's leadership skills ; he served as the voluntary national director for youth leadership development and a member of the National Council of the Hungarian Scout Association .
In July 1944 Bánáthy 's mentor Colonel @-@ General Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas was Commander of the Hungarian VI Army Corps , which had been garrisoned at Debrecen . He replaced General Beregfy , who was loyal to the fascist Arrow Cross Party . During that month , Farkas ' VI Army Corp was instrumental in repelling a Red Army attack across the Carpathian mountains . On 15 October 1944 , Farkas was named commander of the Pest bridgehead and Government Commissioner for Evacuation . In early November 1944 , the first Russian units appeared on the southeastern edge of Budapest . As an associate of Farkas , Bánáthy likely had advance notice of the Russian advance . He also knew he would likely be executed if captured . Bánáthy was able to get his wife Eva , one @-@ year @-@ old son Béla and two @-@ week @-@ old son László out of Budapest . Bánáthy 's family , along with other officers and their families , found shelter at first in farmhouses , and later in bunkers , caves , and trenches .
When the Hungarian Second Army was disbanded on 1 December 1944 due to a lack of equipment and personnel , the remaining units of the Second Army , including Bánáthy 's , were transferred to the Third Army . The Siege of Budapest began when the city was encircled on 29 December 1944 by the Red Army . Bánáthy fought with the remainder of his unit against the Russians until after Budapest fell on 13 February 1945 . The Axis was striving to protect the last oil fields they controlled in western Hungary around Lake Balaton . By late March 1945 , most of what was left of the Hungarian Third Army was surrounded and destroyed about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) to the west of Budapest in an advance by the Soviet 46th Army towards Vienna . The remaining shattered units fought on as they retreated progressively westward through the Transdanubian Mountains towards Austria .
Bánáthy 's family and others of the remainder of his and other military units made their way west , along with tens of thousands of other refugees , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) into Austria , trying to stay ahead of advancing Russian troops . Temperatures through the time of their flight remained near 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) .
= = = Life in displaced persons camp = = =
Bánáthy reunited with his family in Austria . As the war ended and Austria was occupied in April 1945 by the French , British , Soviet and US military forces , the family was placed in an Allied displaced persons camp . They were housed in a single 6 by 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 by 3 @.@ 0 m ) room in a wooden barrack ; it served as their bedroom , kitchen , living room and firewood storage area . Food was extremely scarce and for five years they subsisted on around 600 calories per person per day . They were among 1 @.@ 4 million displaced persons in Austria at the time during a worldwide food shortage as a result of the war . Food was also severely restricted by punitive U.S. policies including directive JCS 1067 . In 1947 German citizens were surviving on 1040 calories a day , but the Allies were also suffering from food shortages .
Bánáthy later traded for milk to give two @-@ year @-@ old B
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by high winds on the river .
= = Aftermath = =
The Americans never held up their side of the prisoner exchange . Formally repudiating the agreement over the protests of George Washington , Congress accused Forster of mistreating American prisoners by turning them over to the Indians . In a breach of etiquette , the letter containing the repudiation was delivered to Lieutenant General John Burgoyne , instead of the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief and governor of the province , Guy Carleton . The Congressional action may have been tainted by overly lurid accounts of the action — Charles Carroll , part of a Congressional delegation that was in Montreal at the time , reported that " a hundred or more [ American troops ] were barbarously murdered by savages . " Arnold 's report of the incident included otherwise unsubstantiated allegations that two prisoners were killed by Forster 's Indians . Some histories of the action ( for example , the 1882 history by Jones ) include accounts of significant atrocities committed by the Indians , but little supporting evidence has been found . The Congressional repudiation complicated an attempted prisoner exchange in 1781 involving Burgoyne and Henry Laurens , a congressman from South Carolina whom the British were holding in the Tower of London ; Laurens was eventually freed in exchange for a promise to help negotiate Lord Cornwallis 's release .
Arnold initially blamed Bedel for the defeat . He removed both Bedel and Butterfield from command and sent them to Sorel for court @-@ martial . Due to the army 's retreat , the two men were not tried until August 1 , 1776 at Fort Ticonderoga . Both were convicted and cashiered from the army . Bedel continued to volunteer his services , and following Burgoyne 's surrender at Saratoga in October 1777 , he was given a new commission by Congress .
The site of some of the skirmishes was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1928 .
= Bert Trautmann =
Bernhard Carl " Bert " Trautmann , OBE ( 22 October 1923 – 19 July 2013 ) was a German professional footballer who played for Manchester City from 1949 to 1964 .
Brought up during times of inter @-@ war strife in Germany , Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe early in the Second World War , serving as a paratrooper . He fought on the Eastern Front for three years , earning five medals , including an Iron Cross . Later in the war , he was transferred to the Western Front , where he was captured by the British as the war drew to a close . One of only 90 of his original 1 @,@ 000 @-@ man regiment to survive the war , he was transferred to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in Ashton @-@ in @-@ Makerfield , Lancashire . Trautmann refused an offer of repatriation , and following his release in 1948 , settled in Lancashire , combining farm work with playing goalkeeper for a local football team , St Helens Town .
Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an outstanding goalkeeper , resulting in interest from Football League clubs . In October 1949 , he signed for Manchester City , a club playing in the country 's highest level of football , the First Division . The club 's decision to sign a former Axis paratrooper sparked protests and 20 @,@ 000 people attended a demonstration . Over time , he gained acceptance through his performances in the City goal , playing in all but five of the club 's next 250 matches .
Named FWA Footballer of the Year for 1956 , Trautmann entered football folklore with his performance in the 1956 FA ( Football Association ) Cup Final . With 17 minutes of the match remaining , Trautmann suffered a serious injury while diving at the feet of Birmingham City 's Peter Murphy . Despite his injury , he continued to play , making crucial saves to preserve his team 's 3 – 1 lead . His neck was noticeably crooked as he collected his winner 's medal ; three days later an X @-@ ray revealed it to be broken .
Trautmann played for Manchester City until 1964 , making 545 appearances . After his playing career , he moved into management , first with lower @-@ division sides in England and Germany , and later as part of a German Football Association development scheme that took him to several countries , including Burma , Tanzania and Pakistan . In 2004 , he was appointed an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) for promoting Anglo @-@ German understanding through football . Trautmann died at home in Valencia , Spain , on 19 July 2013 , aged 89 .
= = Early life in Germany = =
Trautmann was born on 22 October 1923 in Walle , a middle class area in west Bremen , living with his father who worked in a fertiliser factory by the docks , and his mother Frieda , a housewife . He had a brother , Karl @-@ Heinz , three years his junior , with whom he enjoyed a close relationship . The bleak economic climate of the early 1930s forced the Trautmanns to sell their house and move to an apartment block in the working class area of Gröpelingen , where Bernhard lived until 1941 .
The young Bernhard had a keen interest in sport , playing football , handball and völkerball ( a form of dodgeball ) . To this end , he joined the YMCA and football club Blau und Weiss . He took to playing for the football club with enthusiasm , but the YMCA activities did not interest him to the same extent .
In August 1933 , he joined a new organisation , the Jungvolk , a precursor to the Hitler Youth . The following year , he won several local junior athletics events and was awarded a certificate for athletic excellence signed by Paul von Hindenburg , the President of Germany . At the onset of the Second World War , Trautmann was working as an apprentice motor mechanic .
= = Second World War = =
Trautmann joined the Luftwaffe as a radio operator in 1941 . During training , he showed little aptitude for radio work , and transferred to Spandau to become a Fallschirmjäger ( paratrooper ) . He served first in Occupied Poland , though being stationed far behind the front line resulted in boredom for his regiment , which resorted to sports and practical jokes to pass the time . One such practical joke involving a car backfired on Trautmann , resulting in a staff sergeant burning his arms . Trautmann was court @-@ martialled , and received a three @-@ month prison sentence . At the start of his confinement , Trautmann came down with acute appendicitis , and spent the remainder of his sentence in a military hospital .
In October 1941 , he rejoined the 35th Infantry Division at Dnepropetrovsk , Ukraine , where the German advance had halted . Over @-@ winter hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Soviet Army supply routes were the unit 's main focus and in spring , Trautmann was promoted to Unteroffizier ( corporal ) . Gains were made in 1942 , but the Soviet counter @-@ offensive hit Trautmann 's unit hard , and by the time it was withdrawn from the Eastern Front , only 300 of the original 1 @,@ 000 men remained . Trautmann won five medals for his actions on the Eastern Front , including an Iron Cross First Class .
Promoted to Feldwebel ( sergeant ) , Trautmann was part of a unit formed from the remnants of several others which had been decimated in the east , and moved to France in anticipation of the Allied invasion of Normandy . In 1944 , he was one of the few survivors of the Allied bombing of Kleve , and with no unit left decided to head home to Bremen . By this point , German soldiers without valid leave papers were being shot as deserters , so Trautmann sought to avoid troops from either side . However , a few days later , he was captured in a barn by two American soldiers . Deciding that Trautmann had no useful intelligence to give them , the soldiers marched him out of the barn with his hands raised . Fearing he was about to be executed , Trautmann fled . After evading his captors , he jumped over a fence , only to land at the feet of a British soldier , who greeted him with the words " Hello Fritz , fancy a cup of tea ? " Earlier in the war , he had been captured by the Russians and later the French Resistance , but escaped both times . With the war drawing to a close , Trautmann did not attempt a third escape .
He was imprisoned near Ostend , Belgium , then transferred to a transit camp in Essex , where he was interrogated . As a volunteer soldier who had been subject to indoctrination from a young age , he was classified a category " C " prisoner by the authorities , meaning he was regarded as a Nazi . Trautmann , one of only 90 of his original regiment to survive the war , was then transferred to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp at Marbury Hall , near Northwich , Cheshire , and interned with other category " C " prisoners . He was soon downgraded to non @-@ Nazi " B " status , after which he was taken to Fort Crosby in Hightown near Liverpool where he stayed for a short while working on local farms and mixing with the locals , from here he was sent to PoW Camp 50 ( now Byrchall High School ) in Ashton @-@ in @-@ Makerfield in Lancashire between St Helens and Wigan , where he stayed until 1948 .
Football matches were regularly held at the camp , in which Trautmann played outfield . However , in a match against amateur team Haydock Park , Trautmann was injured while playing centre @-@ half . He swapped positions with goalkeeper Günther Lühr , and from that day forward played as a goalkeeper . During this time he became known as " Bert " , as the English had trouble pronouncing " Bernd " , the abbreviated version of his name .
= = Early football career = =
With closure of the PoW camp imminent , Trautmann declined an offer of repatriation and stayed in England , working on a farm in Milnthorpe then subsequently working on bomb disposal in Huyton .
In August , 1948 he started playing amateur football for the non @-@ league Liverpool County Combination club St Helens Town , through which he met the club secretary 's daughter , Margaret Friar , whom he later married . Over the course of the 1948 – 49 season , Trautmann 's goalkeeping reputation steadily grew and a series of large crowds were attributed to his performances , including a record 9 @,@ 000 attendance in the final of a local cup competition , the Mahon Cup . The success of that season elevated the club into Division Two of the Lancashire Combination League for the start of 1949 – 50 .
= = Joins Manchester City = =
Performances for St Helens gained Trautmann a reputation as an able goalkeeper , resulting in interest from Football League clubs . As the following season commenced , a number of League clubs showed interest in signing him . The first to offer him a contract was Manchester City , a club playing in the highest level of football in the country , the First Division . On 7 October 1949 Trautmann signed for the club as an amateur and turned professional shortly after . Trautmann became the first sportsman in Britain to wear Adidas , thanks to his friendship with Adolf Dassler .
= = = Supporter discontent = = =
Some Manchester City fans were unhappy about signing a former member of the Luftwaffe . Season ticket holders threatened a boycott , and various groups in Manchester and around the country bombarded the club with protest letters . In addition to this difficulty , Trautmann was replacing the recently retired Frank Swift , one of the greatest keepers in the club 's history . Though privately expressing doubts about the signing , the club captain , Eric Westwood , a Normandy veteran , made a public display of welcoming Trautmann by announcing , " There 's no war in this dressing room " . Trautmann made his first team debut on 19 November against Bolton Wanderers , and after a competent display in his first home match , protests shrank as fans discovered his talent . He continued to receive abuse from crowds at away matches , which affected his concentration in some early games ; in December 1949 , he conceded seven goals at Derby County .
City 's match against Fulham in January 1950 was Trautmann 's first visit to London . The match received widespread media attention , as most of the British press were based there ; several leading sportswriters watched Trautmann in action for the first time . The damage caused to the city by the Luftwaffe meant former paratrooper Trautmann was a target of hatred for the crowd , who yelled " Kraut " and " Nazi " . City were struggling in the league , and widely expected to suffer a heavy defeat but a string of saves from Trautmann meant the final score was a narrow 1 – 0 loss . At the final whistle , Trautmann received a standing ovation , and was applauded off the pitch by both sets of players . The Manchester City team struggled throughout the season , and was relegated to the Second Division .
= = = Early Manchester City career = = =
Manchester City returned to the top flight at its first attempt , and in the following years Trautmann established himself as one of the best keepers in the league , playing in all but five of his club 's next 250 league matches . By 1952 , his fame had spread to his home country , leading Schalke 04 to offer Manchester City £ 1 @,@ 000 for his services . The offer was refused ; the club responded that they thought Trautmann to be worth twenty times more .
In the mid @-@ 1950s , the Manchester City manager Les McDowall introduced a new tactical system using a deep @-@ lying centre @-@ forward , which became known as the Revie Plan after Don Revie who played centre @-@ forward . The system depended on maintaining possession of the ball wherever possible , which required Trautmann to make use of his throwing ability . For goalkeepers of Trautmann 's era , it was usual to kick the ball as far as possible downfield after making a save . By contrast , Trautmann , influenced by the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics , sought to start attacks by throwing the ball to a wing @-@ half , typically Ken Barnes or John McTavish . The wing @-@ half then passed to Revie to develop the attack .
= = 1955 FA Cup Final = =
Using the Revie Plan , Manchester City reached the 1955 FA Cup Final , in which Trautmann became the first German to play in an FA Cup final . City faced Newcastle United , winners of the cup in 1951 and 1952 . Nerves affected the City players , and they went behind to a Jackie Milburn goal after only 45 seconds . Further problems were caused by the loss of Jimmy Meadows to injury after 18 minutes , leaving City with 10 men , a disadvantage that meant Trautmann 's ability to start attacks from throws was limited . Though City equalised in the first half , they struggled in the second , and after 57 minutes Trautmann was outwitted by Bobby Mitchell , who scored Newcastle 's second goal . The match finished as a comfortable 3 – 1 win for Newcastle , and Trautmann gained a runners @-@ up medal .
= = 1956 FA Cup Final = =
Manchester City had a strong season in 1955 – 56 , finishing fourth in the league and reached the FA Cup final against Birmingham City . Trautmann , one of the team 's most prominent performers , won the FWA Footballer of the Year Award shortly before the match , the first goalkeeper to win the award . Two days later , Trautmann stepped out onto the Wembley pitch for the match that would gain him worldwide acclaim .
During the previous final , nerves had contributed to the opposition scoring an early goal , but the City team was more settled on this occasion . Under the influence of Don Revie who was outstanding on the day , City scored an early goal , a left @-@ footed strike by Joe Hayes . Birmingham equalised on 14 minutes . The match remained level until midway through the second half , when Jack Dyson and Bobby Johnstone scored two goals in as many minutes to give Manchester City a 3 – 1 lead . Birmingham attacked strongly in the next ten minutes . In the 75th minute , Trautmann , diving at an incoming ball , was knocked out in a collision with Birmingham 's Peter Murphy in which he was hit in the neck by Murphy 's right knee . No substitutes were permitted in those days , so Trautmann , dazed and unsteady on his feet , carried on . For the remaining 15 minutes he defended his net , making a crucial interception to deny Murphy once more . Manchester City held on for the victory , and Trautmann was the hero because of his spectacular saves in the last minutes of the match . Trautmann admitted later that he had spent the last part of the match " in a kind of fog " .
His neck continued to cause him pain , and Prince Philip commented on its crooked state as he gave Trautmann his winner 's medal . Trautmann attended that evening 's post @-@ match banquet despite being unable to move his head , and went to bed expecting the injury to heal with rest . As the pain did not recede , the following day he went to St George 's Hospital , where he was told he merely had a crick in his neck which would go away . Three days later , he got a second opinion from a doctor at Manchester Royal Infirmary . An X @-@ ray revealed he had dislocated five vertebrae , the second of which was cracked in two . The third vertebra had wedged against the second , preventing further damage which could have cost Trautmann his life .
= = = Recovery from injury = = =
Trautmann 's convalescence took several months , resulting in him missing a large part of the 1956 – 57 season . Jack Savage deputised during his absence . At the start of December , Trautmann played two reserve matches , but lacked confidence . He was restored to the first team on 15 December for a match against Wolverhampton Wanderers , but conceded three goals . He struggled to regain his form in the remainder of the season , leading to calls from some fans and media for him to retire . Others criticised the club , believing that Trautmann had been forced to play while still not fully recovered from injury .
The 1957 – 58 season was an unusual one for Manchester City , which became the first and thus far only English team to both score and concede 100 goals in a season . Trautmann played in 34 matches , and though he did not play in the 9 – 2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion , an 8 – 4 defeat to Leicester City was a record for the most goals conceded by Trautmann in a match in his career , and in the entire season he kept only two clean sheets .
= = Testimonial = =
Trautmann appeared in 545 matches for City during the 15 @-@ year period between 1949 and 1964 .
On 15 April 1964 , he ended his career with a testimonial in front of a crowd officially numbered at 47 @,@ 000 , though the true figure was estimated to be closer to 60 @,@ 000 . Trautmann captained a combined Manchester City and Manchester United XI that included Bobby Charlton and Denis Law , against an International XI that included Tom Finney , Stanley Matthews , Ronnie Clayton and Jimmy Armfield .
= = International football = =
Though recognised as one of the leading goalkeepers of his era , he never played for his native country . Trautmann met with the German national coach , Sepp Herberger , in 1953 , who explained that travel and political implications prevented him from selecting a player who was not readily available , and that he could only consider including Trautmann if he were playing in a German league . Consequently , Trautmann 's international isolation prevented him from playing in the 1954 World Cup , in which his countrymen were victorious . Trautmann 's only experience of international football came in 1960 , when the Football League decided to include non @-@ English players in the Football League representative team for the first time . Trautmann captained the League against the Irish League , and also played against the Italian League .
= = Later career = =
After leaving City , Trautmann played briefly for Wellington Town , who offered him £ 50 per match . Age had diminished his abilities , but his debut at Hereford showed he still had the ability to draw crowds . However , he was sent off at Tonbridge for violent conduct in his second match , and never played again .
= = Style of play = =
Trautmann excelled at shot @-@ stopping , particularly penalties , saving 60 % of those he faced over the course of his career . The Manchester United manager Matt Busby mentioned Trautmann 's anticipation in his pre @-@ match team talks : " Don 't stop to think where you 're going to hit it with Trautmann . Hit it first and think afterwards . If you look up and work it out he will read your thoughts and stop it . " Similar sentiments were expressed by the Manchester City forward Neil Young , who recalled that " the only way to beat him with a shot in training was to mis @-@ hit it " . As a former handball player , Trautmann was adept at throwing the ball long distances , an attribute he used to start attacking moves , particularly after witnessing the Hungarian goalkeeper Gyula Grosics use such tactics to good effect in Hungary 's 6 – 3 victory over England in 1953 .
Trautmann found it difficult to accept criticism , and allowed only close friends to suggest changes to his game . He occasionally
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a day . The subsequent " reformasi " period of relative political openness and transition , included unprecedented debate about Indonesia 's relationship with East Timor . For the remainder of 1998 , discussion forums took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum . Foreign Minister Alatas , described plans for phased autonomy leading to possible independence as " all pain , no gain " for Indonesia . On 8 June 1998 , three weeks after taking office , Suharto 's successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy .
In late 1998 , the Australian Government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy , and advocating for the staging of referendum on independence within a decade . President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying " colonial rule " by Indonesia and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue .
Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that it had agreed to hold a vote allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence . The vote , to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor ( UNAMET ) , was originally scheduled for 8 August but later postponed until 30 August . Indonesia also took responsibility for security ; this arrangement caused worry in East Timor , but many observers believe that Indonesia would have refused to allow foreign peacekeepers during the vote .
= = = 1999 referendum = = =
As groups supporting autonomy and independence began campaigning , a series of pro @-@ integration paramilitary groups of East Timorese began threatening violence — and indeed committing violence — around the country . Alleging pro @-@ independence bias on the part of UNAMET , the groups were seen working with and receiving training from Indonesian soldiers . Before the May agreement was announced , an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead . On 16 May 1999 , a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara ; in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana . Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese , but Ramos @-@ Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions . In February 1999 he said : " Before [ Indonesia ] withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization , as it has always promised . We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor . "
As militia leaders warned of a " bloodbath " , Indonesian " roving ambassador " Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared : " If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor . " One paramilitary announced that a vote for independence would result in a " sea of fire " , an expression referring to the Bandung Sea of Fire during Indonesia 's own war of independence from the Dutch . As the date of the vote drew near , reports of anti @-@ independence violence continued to accumulate .
The day of the vote , 30 August 1999 , was generally calm and orderly . 98 @.@ 6 percent of registered voters cast ballots , and on 4 September UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan announced that 78 @.@ 5 percent of the votes had been cast for independence . Brought up on the " New Order " ' s insistence that the East Timorese supported integration , Indonesians were either shocked by , or disbelieved that the East Timorese had voted against being part of Indonesia . Many accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution .
Within hours of the results , paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili . Foreign journalists and election observers fled , and tens of thousands of East Timorese took to the mountains . Islamic gangs attacked Dili 's Catholic Diocese building , killing two dozen people ; the next day , the headquarters of the ICRC was attacked and burned to the ground . Almost one hundred people were killed later in Suai , and reports of similar massacres poured in from around East Timor . The UN withdrew most of its personnel , but the Dili compound had been flooded with refugees . Four UN workers refused to evacuate unless the refugees were withdrawn as well , insisting they would rather die at the hands of the paramilitary groups . At the same time , Indonesian troops and paramilitary gangs forced over 200 @,@ 000 people into West Timor , into camps described by Human Rights Watch as " deplorable conditions " .
When a UN delegation arrived in Jakarta on 8 September , they were told by Indonesian President Habibie that reports of bloodshed in East Timor were " fantasies " and " lies " . General Wiranto of the Indonesian military insisted that his soldiers had the situation under control , and later expressed his emotion for East Timor by singing the 1975 hit song " Feelings " at an event for military wives .
= = = Indonesian withdrawal and peacekeeping force = = =
The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia , Portugal and elsewhere and activists in Portugal , Australia , the United States and other nations pressured their governments to take action . Australian Prime Minister John Howard consulted United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and lobbied US President Bill Clinton to support an Australian led international peace keeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence . The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an " over @-@ horizon " deterrent presence , but did not commit forces to the operation . Finally , on 11 September , Bill Clinton announced :
Indonesia , in dire economic straits relented . President BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that Indonesia would withdraw Indonesian soldiers and allow an Australian @-@ led international peacekeeping force to enter East Timor .
On 15 September 1999 , the United Nations Security Council expressed concern at the deteriorating situation in East Timor , and issued UNSC Resolution 1264 calling for a multinational force to restore peace and security to East Timor , to protect and support the United Nations mission there , and to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations until such time as a United Nations peacekeeping force could be approved and deployed in the area .
The International Force for East Timor , or INTERFET , under the command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove , entered Dili on 20 September and by 31 October the last Indonesian troops had left East Timor . The arrival of thousands of international troops in East Timor caused the militia to flee across the border into Indonesia , from whence sporadic cross @-@ border raids by the militia against INTERFET forces were conducted .
The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) was established at the end of October and administered the region for two years . Control of the nation was turned over to the Government of East Timor and independence was declared on 20 May 2002 . On 27 September of the same year , East Timor joined the United Nations as its 191st member state .
The bulk of the military forces of INTERFET were Australian — more than 5 @,@ 500 troops at its peak , including an infantry brigade , with armoured and aviation support — while eventually 22 nations contributed to the force which at its height numbered over 11 @,@ 000 troops . The United States provided crucial logistic and diplomatic support throughout the crisis , while the cruiser USS Mobile Bay protected the INTERFET naval fleet and a US Marine infantry battalion of 1 @,@ 000 men — plus organic armour and artillery — was also stationed off the coast aboard the USS Belleau Wood to provide a strategic reserve in the event of significant armed opposition .
= = International response = =
Indonesia used fear of communism to garner varying degrees of support among western countries , including the United States and Australia , for its East Timor invasion and occupation . The invasion and suppression of East Timor 's independence movement caused great harm to Indonesia 's reputation and international credibility . Criticism from the developing world undermined efforts in the 1980s to secure the Non @-@ Aligned Movement chair which Suharto strongly desired for Indonesia and condemnation of Indonesia continued through the 1990s .
= = = Australia = = =
See main article Australian Involvement in the East Timor Invasion
In September 1974 , Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam met with Suharto and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor . On 11 November 1975 , the Whitlam government was dismissed . This placed restrictions on the caretaker government of Fraser . Until the results of the 13 December election were known any action required approval from both political parties and the Governor General . On 4 December 1975 Australia unsuccessfully sought a UN resolution to determine the independence of East Timor , the Australian Government evacuated Australians and other foreign nationals from Dili . José Ramos @-@ Horta arrived in Darwin on 5 December saying that aid agencies the Australian Red Cross and Australian Society for Intercountry Aid Timor ( ASIAT ) had been banned from East Timor . In the same news conference Horta said that East Timor , Fretlin Government would not accept any UN assistance that included Australia .
After winning the December elections , the Fraser government took the approach that trade with Southeast Asia and political ties with Southeast Asia were too important to be put at risk for what was seen as a lost cause . Australia abstained from the 1976 and 1977 UN General Assembly Resolutions , and by 1978 became the only government to officially recognise East Timor as a province of Indonesia .
One year later , Australia and Indonesia began drafting a treaty to share resources in the Timor Gap . The treaty was signed in December 1989 , with estimates ranging from one to seven billion barrels of oil to be secured . This agreement , along with general economic partnership with Indonesia , is frequently cited as a crucial factor for the Australian government 's position . And yet given that nearly 60 @,@ 000 East Timorese had died during the fighting between Australian and Japanese forces that followed the invasion of Timor by the Japanese during the Pacific War some Australians believed their government owed a special debt to the former Portuguese colony . James Dunn , a senior Foreign Affairs adviser to the Australian Parliament before and during the occupation , condemned the government 's position , saying later : " What had been of vital strategic value in 1941 was , in 1974 , irrelevant and dispensable . " Some Australian World War II veterans protested the occupation for similar reasons .
Successive Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia ( Australia 's largest neighbour ) as providing an important security buffer to Australia 's north , but the East Timor issue complicated co @-@ operation between the two nations . Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos @-@ Horta ( who based himself in Australia during his exile ) . Australia 's trade with Indonesia grew through the 1980s and the Keating Labor Government signed a security pact with Indonesia in 1995 and gave relations with Jakarta a high priority . The fall of Indonesian President Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the Howard Government in 1998 helped precipitate a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence for East Timor . In late 1998 , Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer drafted a letter to Indonesia setting out a change in Australian policy , suggesting that East Timor be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade . The letter upset Indonesian President B. J. Habibie , who saw it as implying Indonesia was a " colonial power " and he decided to announce a snap referendum . A UN sponsored referendum held in 1999 showed overwhelming approval for independence , but was followed by violent clashes and a security crisis , instigated by anti @-@ independence militia . Australia then led a United Nations backed International Force for East Timor to end the violence and order was restored . While the intervention was ultimately successful , Australian @-@ Indonesian relations would take several years to recover .
The Australian Labor Party altered its East Timor policy in 1999 and adopted a policy of support for East Timorese independence and opposition to the Indonesian presence there , through its Foreign Affairs spokesperson Laurie Brereton . Breretons ' credibility was attacked by the governing Liberal @-@ National Coalition government and its Foreign Affairs Minister Alexander Downer , and Prime Minister Howard . They were assisted in their campaign by the then @-@ Labor @-@ backbencher Kevin Rudd ( who would later lead the Labor Party to victory in the 2007 Australian federal election ) .
= = = Philippines = = =
Owing to its strong relation with Indonesia , the Philippines initially was cold on the issue . In fact , not only that it denied José Ramos @-@ Horta entry in 1997 ( when he was supposed to give a lecture to the University of the Philippines Diliman ) , then President @-@ Fidel V. Ramos even included him in the immigration blacklist .
However , with the widespread support from various countries , the Philippines finally changed its policy . After Timorese Independence , the Philippines contributed medical and logistics personnel to Interfet , rather than ground troops . The UN named a Filipino , Lieutenant General Jaime delos Santos , to command the full @-@ fledged UN peacekeeping force which takes over from Interfet on Tuesday .
Sharing the same Roman Catholic heritage , the Philippines became a natural ally and has maintained a good relationship with East Timor until now . It has since removed José Ramos @-@ Horta from the blacklist ; he frequently gives lectures in various universities in the Philippines , most notably in the University of the Philippines Diliman , Polytechnic University of the Philippines , De La Salle University and Ateneo de Davao University .
= = = Portugal = = =
The day after the invasion , Portugal cut diplomatic ties with Indonesia and went on to support UN resolutions condemning the invasion . However , in the late 1970s and early 1980s , the Portuguese government appeared reluctant to push the issue ; American Indonesia specialist , Benedict Anderson suggests this stemmed from uncertainty at the time over its application to the European Community . Portugal 's criticism mounted sharply from the mid @-@ 1980s , and due to public pressure , the country became one of the highest profile campaigners in international forums for East Timorese self @-@ determination . Throughout the 1990s , Portugal took part in UN @-@ brokered mediations with Indonesia .
= = = United States = = =
In 1975 , the United States was completing a retreat from Vietnam . A staunchly anti @-@ communist Indonesia was considered by the United States to be an essential counterweight , and friendly relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than a decolonisation process in East Timor . The United States also wanted to maintain its access to deep water straits running through Indonesia for undetectable submarine passage between the Indian and Pacific oceans .
On the day before the invasion , US President Gerald R. Ford and US Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger met with Indonesian president Suharto and reportedly gave their approval for the invasion . In response to Suharto saying " We want your understanding if it was deemed necessary to take rapid or drastic action [ in East Timor ] . " Ford replied , " We will understand and not press you on the issue . We understand the problem and the intentions you have . " Kissinger similarly agreed , though he had fears that the use of US @-@ made arms in the invasion would be exposed to public scrutiny , talking of their desire to " influence the reaction in America " so that " there would be less chance of people talking in an unauthorised way . " The US also hoped the invasion would be swift and not involve protracted resistance . " It is important that whatever you do succeeds quickly , " Kissinger said to Suharto . Kissinger 's main fear appears to have been that a violent take @-@ over by the partly communist FRETILIN party might inspire similar Communist victories throughout Asia and possibly even lead to secessionist revolts threatening the very survival of Indonesia as a state .
The US supplied weapons to Indonesia during the invasion and the subsequent occupation . A week after the invasion of East Timor , the National Security Council prepared a detailed analysis which found that the vast majority of the military equipment was US supplied . While the US government said they had suspended military assistance from December 1975 to June 1976 , military aid was actually above what the US Department of State proposed and the US Congress continued to increase it , nearly doubling it . Between 1975 and 1980 , when the violence in East Timor was at its climax , the United States furnished approximately $ 340 million in weaponry to the Indonesian government . US military aid and arms sales to Indonesia increased from 1974 and continued through to the Bush and Clinton years until it was stopped in 1999 . US arms provisions to Indonesia between 1975 and 1995 amounted to approximately $ 1 @.@ 1 billion .
The UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor ( CAVR ) stated in the " Responsibility " chapter of its final report that US " political and military support were fundamental to the Indonesian invasion and occupation " of East Timor between 1975 and 1999 . The report ( p . 92 ) also stated that " U.S. supplied weaponry was crucial to Indonesia 's capacity to intensify military operations from 1977 in its massive campaigns to destroy the Resistance in which aircraft supplied by the United States played a crucial role . "
Fretilin has claimed that the degree of US support for the Indonesian government 's efforts in East Timor may have extended beyond that of diplomatic support and material assistance . A UPI report from Sydney , Australia dated 19 June 1978 , quoted a Fretilin press release , which stated : " American military advisers and mercenaries fought alongside Indonesian soldiers against FRETILIN in two battles ... In the meantime , American pilots are flying OV @-@ 10 Bronco aircraft for the Indonesian Air Force in bombing raids against the liberated areas under FRETILIN control . "
The United States abstained from most of the UN resolutions censuring the Indonesian invasion . Daniel Patrick Moynihan , the US Ambassador to the UN at the time , wrote later in his memoirs : " The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook . This task was given to me , and I carried it forward with no inconsiderable success . "
= = = Other countries = = =
Britain , Canada , Japan , and other nations supported Indonesia during the occupation of East Timor . Britain abstained from all of the UN General Assembly resolutions relating to East Timor , and sold arms throughout the occupation . In 1978 Indonesia purchased eight BAE Hawk jet trainers , which were used during the " encirclement and annihilation " campaign . Britain sold dozens of additional jets to Indonesia in the 1990s . Canada abstained from early General Assembly resolutions about East Timor , and opposed three . The Canadian government regularly sold weapons to Indonesia during the occupation , and in the 1990s approved over CDN $ 400 million in exports for spare weapons parts . Japan voted against all eight General Assembly resolutions regarding East Timor .
The Indian government also supported Indonesia , likening the occupation to its own seizure of Goa in 1961 . Some analysts remarked that Indonesia 's delayed action also prevented peaceful transfer of East Timor to it , similar to the manner in which the French transferred Pondicherry to India in 1962 .
Member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) , consistently voted against the General Assembly resolutions calling for self @-@ determination in East Timor .
= = Impacts = =
= = = Number of deaths = = =
Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine . The 2005 report of the UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor ( CAVR ) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict @-@ related deaths of 102 @,@ 800 ( + / - 12 @,@ 000 ) . Of these , the report says that approximately 18 @,@ 600 ( + / -1,000 ) were either killed or disappeared , and that approximately 84 @,@ 000 ( + / -11,000 ) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality . These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically @-@ based principal finding . The report did not provide an upper bound , however , CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict @-@ related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183 @,@ 000 . The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70 % of the violent killings .
Researcher Ben Kiernan says that " a toll of 150 @,@ 000 is likely close to the truth , " although one can throw out an estimate of 200 @,@ 000 or higher . The Center for Defense Information also estimated a total close to 150 @,@ 000 . A 1974 Catholic church estimate of the population of East Timor was 688 @,@ 711 people ; in 1982 the church reported only 425 @,@ 000 . This led to an estimate of 200 @,@ 000 people killed during the occupation , which was widely reported around the world . Other sources such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch also support an estimate of over 200 @,@ 000 killed .
According to specialist Gabriel Defert
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. Look out for this guy ... " . Sify said : " It ’ s hard to believe that it is Karthi ’ s debut film as he is just spectacular . His expressions , anger , laughter and anguish are all so realistic that you can feel the fire in him . " Rediff called his performance " excellent " , and " ... one of the top performances of 2007 " . Karthi received several accolades for his performance , including the Filmfare Award for Best Actor in Tamil .
= = = 2010 – 2011 : Break after Paruthiveeran = = =
In October 2006 , Karthi signed his second project under Selvaraghavan 's direction , Idhu Maalai Nerathu Mayakkam , which was supposed to be a romance film , featuring Sandhya as the female lead . Karthi 's character was a " ... sophisticated upmarket stylish guy ... " . Selvaraghavan abandoned that project and in July 2007 , he announced the production of an adventure film titled Aayirathil Oruvan with Karthi in the lead role . Filming began later that year and was expected to be completed by February 2008 . The producers planned to release it in mid @-@ 2008 , but production was delayed and filming continued until early 2009 . He had agreed to play the lead character in Linguswamy 's next film , Paiyaa , in September 2007 . Because of the slow progress of Aayirathil Oruvan , Paiyaa was postponed several times . He later said that he became anxious because he received several film offers but could not work on them because he needed to maintain the continuity of his looks . During the filming of Aayirathil Oruvan , producer Ravindran complained that Karthi was trying to change his look and move on to Paiyaa before finishing his commitments .
Aayirathil Oruvan was released in early 2010 . Karthi 's portrayal of a chief coolie was often compared to that in his debut film . Sify called Karthi 's performance " ... a scream . " , and said , " Right from his introduction scene till the end , he is lovable and provides humour . " , and that he had " ... made a sensational comeback ... " .
In April 2010 , Linguswamy 's Paiyaa released . A romantic road @-@ trip film , featuring a blockbuster album by Yuvan Shankar Raja , it was very successful . For the first time , he enacted a character that lives in an urban area . He said that he accepted the film because he desperately wanted to play a cool dude on screen . Karthi 's performances in Aayirathil Oruvan and Paiyaa earned him further nominations at the 58th Filmfare Awards South in the Best Actor category . Both films were dubbed into Telugu as Yuganiki Okkadu and Aawara , respectively , and were successful .
Karthi 's third film in 2010 was Suseenthiran 's thriller Naan Mahaan Alla , in which he played a middle class youth from Chennai whose life is disrupted when his father is killed . It received good reviews , was very popular , and Karthi 's performances was praised by critics . Sreedhar Pillai wrote for Sify : " [ Karthi ] nails the character to perfection " ... He is one good reason to see the film . " Bhama Devi Ravi of Times of India wrote : " ... what a pleasure to see Karthi deliver his best performance to date ... " . Rediff wrote that " Karthi has simply had a ball ... " and " It 's been a long time since you saw an actor who can be as convincing in sadness and rage , as in happiness . " Naan Mahaan Alla was dubbed into Telugu and released as Naa Peru Shiva in 2011 ; it was very successful and earned Karthi some Telugu film offers .
Karthi 's next film was the action – masala Siruthai ( 2011 ) , a remake of the 2006 Telugu film Vikramarkudu . He played two roles ; a thief and a police officer . Karthi 's performances received favourable reviews . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu wrote : " Karthi looks and performs better with every film . Siruthai exemplifies the observation " . Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff wrote : " But the film belongs to Rocket Raja ( Karthi ) , the sort of adorable ruffian Tamil cinema has been missing for a while . He picks pockets , slices off handbags , charms women and even bashes ( ! ) them up without a single jolt to his conscience . " Despite gaining mixed critical response , the film achieved financial success , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing Tamil films of 2011 . In 2011 , Siruthai became Karthi 's biggest commercial success , cementing his position in the Tamil film industry . Sify said that Karthi had become " ... one of the hottest stars in Kollywood " . He made a special appearance in a song in K. V. Anand 's Ko ( 2011 ) , alongside other prominent actors from Tamil cinema .
= = = 2012 – present : Career slump and resurgence = = =
In May 2011 , Karthi began working on a political comedy film , Saguni , directed by Shankar Dayal and featuring him amongst an ensemble cast of supporting actors . He played Kamalakannan in the film , a villager who comes to the city to save his palatial house in Karaikudi from being destroyed for a politician 's personal gain and unknowingly transforms to become a kingmaker in Tamil Nadu politics . The film opened to negative reviews from critics , and became a box @-@ office failure . He later appeared in the 2013 Pongal release Alex Pandian , opposite Anushka Shetty , which also opened to negative critical response upon release .
Karthi 's next release was Rajesh M 's All in All Azhagu Raja , which featured him opposite Kajal Aggarwal and Santhanam . The film was released on Diwali 2013 , and received mostly negative reviews from critics , with Behindwoods saying " Though the laughs are spread across a few moments , when [ All in All Azhagu Raja ] is pitted against Rajesh 's other wholesome ' laughathons ' such as OKOK and Boss [ Engira Bhaskaran ] , it falls way short " and Sify saying " The trouble with [ All in All Azhagu Raja ] is that it lacks basic storyline and took the audiences for granted . The film has no real script to speak of , at best a skeletal plot . " His next film was Venkat Prabhu 's Biriyani , which was released in December 2013 , opening to positive reviews and became a box office success . He also sang the song " Mississippi " under Yuvan Shankar Raja 's direction for both the Tamil and Telugu versions of the film . In 2014 , Karthi appeared in Pa . Ranjith 's Madras , a critical and commercial success . His next release was the 2015 action drama Komban . His first release in 2016 was the Tamil @-@ Telugu bilingual film Oopiri . The film received positive reviews . Karthi 's performance was also praised , with Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu stating ( in his review of the Tamil version Thozha ) , " At a time every leading man ( including Karthi ) seems to be participating in a game @-@ show titled Who Wants To Be The Next Rajinikanth ? , here ’ s a simple “ buddy movie ” ( in the Hollywoodian sense ) , with no punch dialogues , no action sequences , with just one duet ( with Tamannaah , who plays Vikram ’ s secretary ; her romance with Seenu is strangely unresolved ) . We see , all the time , character actors striving to become larger @-@ than @-@ life heroes . For a change , here ’ s a hero scaling himself down to play a life @-@ sized character . " Karthi has signed on for director Gokul 's Kaashmora in which he plays three characters . Karthi is an actor who is never tired of trying different roles and stories .
= = Personal life = =
Karthi is the second son of actor Sivakumar and his wife Lakshmi . He has two siblings ; an elder brother , Suriya , also an actor in the Tamil film industry , and a younger sister named Brindha . Tamil film actress Jyothika is Karthi 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . On 3 July 2011 , Karthi married Ranjani , who graduated with a master 's degree in English literature from Stella Maris College , Chennai . They were engaged on 29 April 2011 at Ranjani 's native village , Goundampalayam in Erode District , and the wedding was held at the CODISSIA trade fair complex in Coimbatore . The wedding was arranged by the elders of the family . They have a daughter named Umayaal , born on 11 January 2013 .
= = Other work = =
Karthi has been involved in several charities and social service activities . On his 31st birthday , he inaugurated the Makkal Nala Mandram , in order to encourage his fans to become involved in welfare activities . During the event , Karthi donated blood , donated bicycles to handicapped people , sewing machines to women and schoolbags to children . He presented a cheque of ₹ 50 @,@ 000 to YRG Care Centre , which helps AIDS affected children . In 2011 , Karthi became a cause ambassador for promoting awareness of lysosomal storage disease . He had also adopted a white tiger cub at Vandalur Zoo and contributed ₹ 72 @,@ 000 to protect and preserve the animal . On his birthdays , Karthi visits orphanages and donates funds to them . He told Indiaglitz ; " When I see people in need , I make sure I go and help . If I am going on birthdays to reach out to kids in orphanages , it is for my own satisfaction . I feel happier to be with them and it 's nice to make them smile on that particular day . "
On September 2010 , Karthi signed a contract with Bharti Airtel to become its brand ambassador in South India and appear in its " Indraikku enna plan " advertising campaign . He has also appeared in advertisements for Bru Instant Coffee along with Kajal Aggarwal , who had earlier acted opposite him in Naan Mahaan Alla and All in All Azhagu Raja .
In 2015 , Karthi joined fellow actors Vishal , Nassar , Karunas , and Ponvannan to campaign against the concurrent office bearers of the Nadigar Sangam , led by R. Sarathkumar and Radha Ravi . He was successful in the election , becoming the association 's treasurer .
= = Filmography = =
= French destroyer Panthère =
The French destroyer Panthère was a Chacal @-@ class destroyer built for the French Navy during the 1920s . Aside from cruises to the English Channel and the French West Indies , she spent her entire career in the Mediterranean Sea . The ship was assigned to the Torpedo School at Toulon in 1932 and remained there until World War II began in September 1939 . She was then assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic and was being refitted when the Battle of France began in May 1940 . After the surrender of France a month later , Panthère was reduced to reserve . When the Germans attempted to seize the French fleet there in November 1942 , she was one of the few ships that was not scuttled and was captured virtually intact .
The Germans later turned her over to the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) who renamed her FR 22 when they recommissioned her in early 1943 . The ship was scuttled when Italy surrendered in September and scrapped after the war .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 20 April 1927 , Panthère 's turbines provided 56 @,@ 900 metric horsepower ( 41 @,@ 800 kW ; 56 @,@ 100 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 7 knots ( 66 @.@ 1 km / h ; 41 @.@ 1 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the
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forced the organization to omit it from the stage . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) .
The combination classification , represented by a blue jersey , was calculated by summing up the points obtained by each rider in the other classifications ; the leader was the rider with the lowest total of points . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
After the race , Andrew Hampsten told El Mundo Deportivo that he believed this was the biggest win of his career so far and thought he could win the upcoming Tour de France . Hampsten stated that Jean @-@ François Bernard and Pedro Delgado both lacked awareness when attacking in the mountains and did not make the most of the time trials , but believed they would be more active in the Tour de France . In addition , Hampsten thought Bernard and Roberto Visentini did not perform to their expectations . He did not go on to win the Tour de France , but placed fifteenth overall . Runner @-@ up Erik Breukink stated he was satisfied with his second @-@ place finish and that he came to the race in order to prepare for the Tour de France in July . At the Tour , he finished in twelfth overall and won the young rider classification for being the highest ranked rider in the general classification under the age of 25 . Third place finisher Urs Zimmermann reflected on the race and stated that his chance of winning the overall race were gone after the Gavia stage. l 'Unita writer Gino Sala looked back on the race and believed Delgado did not perform well and was not a serious threat to win the race . Luis Gómez , a writer for El País , thought Delgado did not prepare properly for the Giro .
In 2012 , the organizer of the Giro d 'Italia , RCS Sport , did a survey on the greatest moments in the history of the Giro by interviewing over 100 journalists . The 1988 race was mentioned several times as one of the most memorable , with the journalists citing the fourteenth stage that traversed the Gavia Pass as the highlight . Several writers have referred to the fourteenth stage as being " epic " or " iconic " due to the weather conditions the riders battled over difficult climbs and unpaved roads to finish the stage . According to CyclingNews writer Jason Sumner , a photo from the fourteenth stage depicting the future winner Andrew Hampsten climbing the Gavia while a snowstorm blows in the foreground has become a widely known image even non @-@ cycling fans would recognize . After the stage , La Gazzetta dello Sport called the stage " The Day the Big Men Cried , " with the stage still being commonly referred to as such .
= M @-@ 57 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 57 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The 105 @.@ 377 @-@ mile ( 169 @.@ 588 km ) highway connects US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) near Rockford on the west end to M @-@ 15 near Otisville in the Lower Peninsula . In between , the mostly rural highway passes through farmland and connects several highways and smaller towns together . Three of these highways are freeways : US 131 , US 127 and Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) . Along the way , between 3 @,@ 700 and 22 @,@ 300 vehicles use the highway daily .
The current highway that bears the M @-@ 57 moniker is the second to do so . The first is now M @-@ 75 in the Northern Lower Peninsula . This second highway was designated in the 1930s along a different , but parallel , routing . The first major changes shifted that routing southward to the current corridor in stages . Through additional extensions and truncations , the modern routing was formed by the 1970s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 57 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway crossing the south central Lower Peninsula . The western terminus is at US 131 , 14 miles ( 23 km ) north of Grand Rapids near Rockford in northern Kent County . East of the terminus is Rosie 's Diner , which is the original shooting location for the Bounty Paper Towel commercials of the 1970s featuring Rosie the Waitress . The diner was moved from Little Ferry , New Jersey to its current location in 1990 . From Rockford , M @-@ 57 runs east through rural farmland on 14 Mile Road into southern Montcalm County . East of the county line , the highway follows Carson City Road into the outskirts of Greenville . M @-@ 57 runs through a retail corridor before becoming Washington Street in town where it meets M @-@ 91 . Washington Street crosses the Flat River and exits Greenville . Continuing eastward , the trunkline passes through more farmland on Carson City Road . It meets M @-@ 66 at a rural four @-@ way intersection before passing into Carson City near the Gratiot county line . M @-@ 57 follows Cleveland Road , passing to the south of the communities of Middleton and Perrinton . Near Pompeii , M @-@ 57 meets US 127 at a folded diamond interchange along the expressway portion of the latter highway .
Cleveland Road continues east running near Ashley and into Saginaw County . In between Ashley and the county line , the highway crosses a branch of the Great Lakes Central Railroad . M @-@ 57 follows Brady Road and crosses M @-@ 52 just west of Chesaning . Further east , the trunkline crosses another line of the Great Lakes Central . The highway follows Broad Street into town and over the Shiawassee River . On the east banks , M @-@ 57 runs along Main Street south along the river to a junction with Peet Road where it then turns east along the latter road out of town . The highway passes through more farm fields and through Layton Corners on the way to a junction with M @-@ 13 on the Saginaw – Genesee county line . At Montrose , M @-@ 57 crosses the Flint River , and a line of the Huron and Eastern Railway . Now running along Vienna Road , the trunkline meets I @-@ 75 / US 23 west of Clio . As it enters town , it crosses a line of the Saginaw Bay Southern Railway . This segment of the highway passes through the northernmost suburbs of Flint , and this section is where the heaviest traffic levels along the whole highway are found . As part of its maintenance duties , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks these traffic levels using a metric known as average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This figure is a calculation of the average traffic volume for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that an average of 22 @,@ 280 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 57 through Clio daily . East of this area , the highway once again passes through rural agricultural lands on the way to its eastern terminus at M @-@ 15 , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Otisville . This terminal section of the trunkline had the lowest traffic levels in 2009 at 3 @,@ 737 vehicles AADT . No section of M @-@ 57 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department signposted the highway system in the state for the first time . At that time , M @-@ 57 designation was originally used in Charlevoix County from Boyne Falls at M @-@ 13 ( now US 131 ) through Boyne City and back to then M @-@ 13 . That highway 's number was changed to M @-@ 75 in 1926 . By the next year , the number was then assigned to a state trunkline that connected between Quinnesec and the Wisconsin state line in the Upper Peninsula . This second iteration was short @-@ lived as it was replaced by an extension of US 141 into Michigan .
= = = Current designation = = =
In 1930 , M @-@ 57 was designated from M @-@ 66 ( now M @-@ 91 ) near Langston to M @-@ 47 ( now M @-@ 52 ) in St. Charles . By the mid 1936 , the section between Ithaca and St. Charles was removed from the state highway system when the designation was shifted south to run between Ashley and Chesaning . In the process , M @-@ 57 was run concurrently along US 27 between Ithaca and Ashley . The western section was similarly shifting by May 1938 . The new routing started at a junction with US 131 between Rockford and Cedar Springs and continued through Greenville and Carson City to Ashley . The eastern end was also extended from Chesaning to the Clio area . It was extended a second time by early 1941 to a junction with Belsay Road . By the middle of 1946 , the eastern end was extended a third time to end in Otisville . M @-@ 57 was lengthened after a western extension in late 1948 or early 1949 . The highway was routed concurrently with US 131 to Cedar Springs and then west to M @-@ 37 at Kent City .
A new routing on the eastern end was designated in late 1956 or early 1957 ; this routing shifted the eastern terminus out of Otisville to its current location . The last gravel section of highway was paved near Fenmore by the Gratiot – Saginaw county line in the late 1950s . The last change to M @-@ 57 's routing came in 1973 . Then @-@ Congressman Gerald R. Ford opened a section of US 131 freeway on September 21 . The freeway ran between the two M @-@ 57 junctions along US 131 near Rockford and Cedar Springs . Afterwards , M @-@ 57 was truncated to the Rockford area , and the segment previously part of M @-@ 57 between Kent City and Cedar Springs was made part of M @-@ 46 afterwards .
= = Major intersections = =
= Six moments musicaux ( Rachmaninoff ) =
Six moments musicaux ( French for " Six Musical Moments " ; Russian : Шесть музыкальных моментов , Shest ’ muzykál ’ nykh moméntov ) , Op. 16 , is a set of solo piano pieces composed by the Russian composer Sergei Rachmaninoff between October and December , 1896 . Each Moment musical reproduces a musical form characteristic of a previous musical era . The forms that appear in Rachmaninoff 's incarnation are the nocturne , song without words , barcarolle , virtuoso étude , and theme and variations .
The individual pieces have been described as " true concert works , being best served on a stage and with a concert grand . " Although composed as part of a set , each piece stands on its own as a concert solo with individual themes and moods . The pieces span a variety of themes ranging from the somber funeral march of number three to the majestic canon of number six , the Moments musicaux are both Rachmaninoff 's return to and revolution of solo piano composition . A typical performance lasts 30 minutes .
In an interview in 1941 , Rachmaninoff said , " What I try to do , when writing down my music , is to make it say simply and directly that which is in my heart when I am composing . " Even though Moments musicaux were written because he was short of money , the pieces summarize his knowledge of piano composition up to that point . Andantino opens the set with a long , reflective melody that develops into a rapid climax . The second piece , Allegretto , is the first of the few in the set that reveal his mastery of piano technique . Andante cantabile is a contrast to its two surrounding pieces , explicitly named " funeral march " and " lament . " Presto draws inspiration from several sources , including the Preludes of Frédéric Chopin , to synthesize an explosion of melodic intensity . The fifth , Adagio sostenuto is a respite in barcarolle form , before the finale Maestoso , which closes the set in a thick three @-@ part texture . In six musical moments , Rachmaninoff illustrates completely , " that which is in my heart . "
= = Background = =
By the fall of 1896 , 23 @-@ year old Rachmaninoff 's financial status was precarious , not helped by his being robbed of money on an earlier train trip . Pressed for time , both financially and by those expecting a symphony , he " rushed into production . " On December 7 , he wrote to Aleksandr Zatayevich , a Russian composer he had met before he had composed the work , saying , " I hurry in order to get money I need by a certain date ... This perpetual financial pressure is , on the one hand , quite beneficial ... by the 20th of this month I have to write six piano pieces . " Rachmaninoff completed all six during October and December 1896 , and dedicated all to Zatayevich . Despite the hasty circumstances , the work evidences his early virtuosity , and sets an example for the quality of his future works .
Six moments musicaux is a sophisticated work that is of longer duration , thicker textures , and greater virtuosic demands on the performer than any of Rachmaninoff 's previous solo piano works . It is similar to Alexander Scriabin 's momentous Étude in D @-@ sharp minor ( Op. 8 , No. 12 ) — in both compositions , detail is more functional than ornamentative in their musical argument . It is here , rather than in Morceaux de fantaisie ( Op. 3 , 1892 ) or Morceaux de salon ( Op. 10 , 1894 ) , that Rachmaninoff places specific qualities of his own playing into his music . There is passionate lyricism in numbers three and five , but the others require a pianist with virtuoso technique and musical perception . These were composed during the middle of Rachmaninoff 's career , and created a foundation of inner voices that he would elaborate on in his Preludes ( Op. 23 ) and Études @-@ Tableaux ( Op. 33 ) . Although he usually gave the première of his own piano works , he was not the first to perform these , and the date of the first public performance has not yet been determined .
The set 's name is inspired by Franz Schubert 's piano cycle , also called Six moments musicaux ( Op. 94 , 1828 ) , which are written on a much more intimate scale .
= = Composition = =
= = = 1 . Andantino , B @-@ flat minor = = =
The first piece has an andantino ( moderate ) tempo , is 113 measures long , and is marked at 72 quarter notes per minute . It is divided into three distinct sections . The first presents a theme in common time ( 4 / 4 ) with a typical nocturne figure for the left hand . A mid @-@ piece pause at roughly the same area in Schubert 's first Moments musicaux further emphasizes the influence of Schubert . The second part is marked con moto ( with motion ) , at 76 quarter notes per minute , and is a variation of the first theme in the unusual configuration of seven quarter notes per measure ( 7 / 4 ) . This part ends in a cadenza . The third section presents the last variation of the theme , again in common time , but in the fastest tempo yet , Andantino con moto , at 84 quarter notes per minute . The piece ends in a coda that returns to the first tempo , and repeats portions of the previous three parts . It ends with a perfect authentic cadence into B @-@ flat minor .
Andantino is the longest in the set by playing time ( about 8 : 30 ) . It is described as a " generic @-@ hybrid , " combining elements of the nocturne and theme and variation genres . The melody is chromatic , syncopated , and long , all idiosyncratic elements Rachmaninoff often includes in his works . Because of this , the Andantino is sometimes called an extension of his Nocturne in A minor of the Morceaux de Salon set ( Op. 10 , No. 1 , 1894 ) . However , Andantino stands on its own with difficulties , such as the sections with multiple phrases in a single hand .
= = = 2 . Allegretto , E @-@ flat minor = = =
The second piece , referred to as a " glittering showpiece " , is positioned in contrast to the lyrical and " atmospheric " melody of the first piece . The piece is in the quick tempo allegretto ( quickly ) , at 92 quarter notes per minute . It is 131 measures long , the most of all six pieces , but the second shortest in terms of playing time , usually no longer than three and a half minutes ( the shortest is number four ) . This piece represents a typical nineteenth @-@ century étude , similar in style to Frédéric Chopin 's Études ( Opp . 10 , 25 ) , with a melody interspersed between rapid sextuplet figures . It is in strict ternary form with a coda : identical beginning and ending sections beginning on measures 1 and 85 , and a contrasting middle section starting on measure 45 . The second section radically changes dynamics , constantly changing from piano to fortissimo and even sforzando . It is , throughout , a relentless torrent of descending half steps and a cascading left hand figure reminiscent of Chopin 's Revolutionary Étude ( Op. 10 , No. 12 , 1831 ) . Ending the piece is a slow coda in Adagio ( at ease ) which closes with a perfect authentic cadence in E @-@ flat Minor .
Rachmaninoff revised this piece in March 1940 , changing the melody but leaving the constant sextuplets , proving that the rushing figures are not simple bravura or flair .
= = = 3 . Andante cantabile , B minor = = =
The continual gauntlets of number two are relieved by the third piece in the set , an " introspective rêverie [ daydream ] . " Drawing on the previous illustration of a " generic hybrid , " this piece is described as a mixture between the song without words and funeral march genres , to create what is called the " most Russian " piece of the set , containing both sonorous bass and a solid melody , characteristics of Russian music .
Comprising only 55 measures , this piece is one of the shortest but has one of the longer playing times of about seven minutes . The piece is structured as a three @-@ part form . The theme of the first section is played entirely in minor thirds , accompanied by a left hand figure of open fifths and octaves . The middle section has the melody in minor sixths , alongside a staccato octave bass . The lament of the opening theme transforms into an explicit funeral march as the left @-@ hand octaves become regular .
= = = 4 . Presto , E minor = = =
The fourth piece is similar to the second in the quality of its performance . The fourth piece reveals resemblance to Chopin 's Revolutionary étude in the taxing left hand figure place throughout . The piece is 67 measures long , with a duration of about three minutes , and has the fastest tempo of the set , Presto ( quick ) at 104 quarter notes per minute , and is the shortest work in terms of playing time .
Presto is in ternary form with a coda . The piece begins with a fortissimo introduction with a thick texture in the left hand consisting of chromatic sextuplets . The melody is a " rising quasi @-@ military " idea , interspersed between replications of the left hand figure , the mostly two @-@ note melody being a strong unifying element . The middle section is a brief period of pianississimo falling figures in the right hand and rising scales in the left . The third section is marked Più vivo ( more life ) and is played even faster than the intro , 112 quarter notes per minute . At this point the piece develops a very thick texture , with the original left hand figure played in both hands in varying registers . The technique of rapidly changing the octave in which a melody is played , sometimes called " registral displacement " , is used to present the figure in a more dramatic form that increases the intensity of the ending . The ending , a coda in Prestissimo ( very quick ) , 116 quarter notes per minute , is a final , sweeping reiteration of the theme that closes in a heavy E minor chord , which revisits Rachmaninoff 's preoccupation with bell sounds , prominent in his Piano Concerto No. 2 and Prelude in C @-@ sharp minor ( Op. 3 , No. 2 ) .
The piece is a major exercise in endurance and accuracy : the introduction opens in a left hand figure requiring span of a tenth interval . Additionally , octave intervals invariably appear before fast sextuplet runs , making quick wrists and arm action necessary . The double melodies Rachmaninoff uses in this work exists purposely to " keep both hands occupied , " obscuring the melody and making it difficult for the right hand to project . This is the only piece in the set with indicated pedal markings .
= = = 5 . Adagio sostenuto , D @-@ flat major = = =
The piece is similar to the form of a barcarolle , a folk song with a rhythmic tuplet accompaniment . Playing it takes approximately five minutes , and it is 53 measures long , the shortest in terms of measures . It is an adagio sostenuto ( sustained at ease ) at 54 quarter notes per minute , with a simple melody presented in ternary form .
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a sense of contrast and variety that allows each miniature to stand alone while complementing the work on either side of it . " Although it is unknown whether the financial reaction of this composition recouped his stolen money , the emotional reaction to it would be overshadowed for the following years by the catastrophic premiere in 1897 of his two @-@ years ' labor : the Symphony No. 1 , Op. 13 , 1895 .
= Abraham Lincoln =
Abraham Lincoln ( / ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən / ; February 12 , 1809 – April 15 , 1865 ) was the 16th President of the United States , serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865 . Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War — its bloodiest war and its greatest moral , constitutional , and political crisis . In doing so , he preserved the Union , abolished slavery , strengthened the federal government , and modernized the economy .
Born in Hodgenville , Kentucky , Lincoln grew up on the western frontier in Kentucky and Indiana . Largely self @-@ educated , he became a lawyer in Illinois , a Whig Party leader , and a member of the Illinois House of Representatives , in which he served for twelve years . Elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846 , Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks , tariffs , and railroads . Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term in Congress , and because his opposition to the Mexican – American War was unpopular among Illinois voters , Lincoln returned to Springfield and resumed his successful law practice . Reentering politics in 1854 , he became a leader in building the new Republican Party , which had a statewide majority in Illinois . In 1858 , while taking part in a series of highly publicized debates with his opponent and rival , Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery , but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas .
In 1860 , Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state . Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the South , he swept the North and was elected president in 1860 . Lincoln 's victory prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America before he moved into the White House - no compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery and secession . Subsequently , on April 12 , 1861 , a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union in a declaration of war . As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party , Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans , who demanded harsher treatment of the South , War Democrats , who called for more compromise , anti @-@ war Democrats ( called Copperheads ) , who despised him , and irreconcilable secessionists , who plotted his assassination . Politically , Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other , by carefully planned political patronage , and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory . His Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism , republicanism , equal rights , liberty , and democracy .
Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war . His primary goal was to reunite the nation . He suspended habeas corpus , leading to the controversial ex parte Merryman decision , and he averted potential British intervention in the war by defusing the Trent Affair in late 1861 . Lincoln closely supervised the war effort , especially the selection of top generals , including his most successful general , Ulysses S. Grant . He also made major decisions on Union war strategy , including a naval blockade that shut down the South 's normal trade , moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee , and using gunboats to gain control of the southern river system . Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond ; each time a general failed , Lincoln substituted another , until finally Grant succeeded . As the war progressed , his complex moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 ; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves , encouraged the border states to outlaw slavery , and pushed through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which permanently outlawed slavery .
An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state , Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re @-@ election campaign in the 1864 presidential election . Anticipating the war 's conclusion , Lincoln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction , seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness . On April 14 , 1865 , five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee , Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth , a Confederate sympathizer .
Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents .
= = Family and childhood = =
= = = Early life and family ancestry = = =
Abraham Lincoln was born February 12 , 1809 , the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln , in a one @-@ room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County , Kentucky ( now LaRue County ) . He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln , who migrated from Norfolk , England to Hingham , Massachusetts , in 1638 . Samuel 's grandson and great @-@ grandson began the family 's western migration , which passed through New Jersey , Pennsylvania , and Virginia . Lincoln 's paternal grandfather and namesake , Captain Abraham Lincoln , moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County , Kentucky in the 1780s . Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786 . His children , including six @-@ year @-@ old Thomas , the future president 's father , witnessed the attack . After his father 's murder , Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier , working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee , before settling with members of his family in Hardin County , Kentucky , in the early 1800s .
Lincoln 's mother , Nancy , is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks , although no record of Nancy Hanks ' birth has ever been found . According to William Ensign Lincoln 's book The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln , Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks ; however , the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock . Still another researcher , Adin Baber , claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia .
Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12 , 1806 , in Washington County , and moved to Elizabethtown , Kentucky , following their marriage . They became the parents of three children : Sarah , born on February 10 , 1807 ; Abraham , on February 12 , 1809 ; and another son , Thomas , who died in infancy . Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky , including the Sinking Spring farm , where Abraham was born ; however , a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move . In 1811 the family moved eight miles north , to Knob Creek Farm , where Thomas acquired title to 230 acres ( 93 ha ) of land . In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm . Of the 816 @.@ 5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky , he lost all but 200 acres ( 81 ha ) of his land in court disputes over property titles . Frustrated over the lack of security provided by Kentucky courts , Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814 , and began planning a move to Indiana , where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure .
In 1816 the family moved north across the Ohio River to Indiana , a free , non @-@ slaveholding territory , where they settled in an " unbroken forest " in Hurricane Township , Perry County . ( Their land in southern Indiana became part of Spencer County , Indiana , when the county was established in 1818 . ) The farm is preserved as part of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial . In 1860 Lincoln noted that the family 's move to Indiana was " partly on account of slavery " ; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky . During the family 's years in Kentucky and Indiana , Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer , cabinetmaker , and carpenter . He owned farms , several town lots and livestock , paid taxes , sat on juries , appraised estates , served on country slave patrols , and guarded prisoners . Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a Separate Baptists church , which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol , dancing , and slavery . Within a year of the family 's arrival in Indiana , Thomas claimed title to 160 acres ( 65 ha ) of Indiana land . Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to 80 acres ( 32 ha ) of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community in Spencer County . Prior to the family 's move to Illinois in 1830 , Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property .
Several significant family events took place during Lincoln 's youth in Indiana . On October 5 , 1818 , Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness , leaving eleven @-@ year @-@ old Sarah in charge of a household that included her father , nine @-@ year @-@ old Abraham , and Dennis Hanks , Nancy 's nineteen @-@ year @-@ old orphaned cousin . On December 2 , 1819 , Lincoln 's father married Sarah " Sally " Bush Johnston , a widow from Elizabethtown , Kentucky , with three children of her own . Abraham became very close to his stepmother , whom he referred to as " Mother " . Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah 's death on January 20 , 1828 , while giving birth to a stillborn son .
As a youth , Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life . Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his " reading , scribbling , writing , ciphering , writing Poetry , etc . " , and must have done it to avoid manual labor . His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy " physical labor " , but loved to read . Lincoln was largely self @-@ educated . His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent , the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year ; however , he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning . Family , neighbors , and schoolmates of Lincoln 's youth recalled that he read and reread the King James Bible , Aesop 's Fables , Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress , Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe , Weems 's The Life of Washington , and Franklin 's Autobiography , among others .
As he grew into his teens , Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household . He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty @-@ one . Abraham became adept at using an axe . Tall for his age , Lincoln was also strong and athletic . He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as " the Clary 's Grove boys " .
In early March 1830 , fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River , the Lincoln family moved west to Illinois , a non @-@ slaveholding state . They settled on a site in Macon County , Illinois , 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Decatur . Historians disagree on who initiated the move . After the family relocated to Illinois , Abraham became increasingly distant from his father , in part because of his father 's lack of education , and occasionally lent him money . In 1831 , as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County , Illinois , Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own . Traveling down the Sangamon River , he ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County . Later that spring , Denton Offutt , a New Salem merchant , hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon , Illinois , and Mississippi rivers . After arriving in New Orleans — and witnessing slavery firsthand — Lincoln returned to New Salem , where he remained for the next six years .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
Lincoln 's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge , whom he met when he first moved to New Salem ; by 1835 , they were in a relationship but not formally engaged . She died at the age of 22 on August 25 , 1835 , most likely of typhoid fever . In the early 1830s , he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister .
Late in 1836 , Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem . Mary did return in November 1836 , and Lincoln courted her for a time ; however , they both had second thoughts about their relationship . On August 16 , 1837 , Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship . She never replied and the courtship ended .
In 1840 , Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd , who was from a wealthy slave @-@ holding family in Lexington , Kentucky . They met in Springfield , Illinois , in December 1839 and were engaged the following December . A wedding set for January 1 , 1841 , was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln 's initiative . They later met again at a party and married on November 4 , 1842 , in the Springfield mansion of Mary 's married sister . While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again , Lincoln , when asked where he was going , replied , " To hell , I suppose . " In 1844 , the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln 's law office . Mary Todd Lincoln kept house , often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl .
He was an affectionate , though often absent , husband and father of four children . Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln ( Eddie ) in 1846 . Edward died on February 1 , 1850 , in Springfield , probably of tuberculosis . " Willie " Lincoln was born on December 21 , 1850 , and died of a fever on February 20 , 1862 . The Lincolns ' fourth son , Thomas " Tad " Lincoln , was born on April 4 , 1853 , and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16 , 1871 . Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children . His last descendant , great @-@ grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith , died in 1985 . Lincoln " was remarkably fond of children " , and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own .
The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents . Later in life , Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons , and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875 . Abraham Lincoln suffered from " melancholy " , a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression .
Lincoln 's father @-@ in @-@ law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders . Lincoln was close to the Todds , and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington .
During his term as President of the United States of America , Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often . Since she was raised by a wealthy family , her cooking abilities were simple , but satisfied Lincoln 's tastes , which included , particularly , imported oysters .
= = Early career and militia service = =
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made man or the great war president , but as the advocate of the common man who they believe would have supported the welfare state . In the Cold War years , Lincoln 's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes .
By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives for his intense nationalism , support for business , his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage , his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition , and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers . As a Whig activist , Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests , favoring high tariffs , banks , internal improvements , and railroads in opposition to the agrarian Democrats . William C. Harris found that Lincoln 's " reverence for the Founding Fathers , the Constitution , the laws under it , and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism " . James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation " in his preference for orderly progress , his distrust of dangerous agitation , and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform " . Randall concludes that , " he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so @-@ called ' radicalism ' which involved abuse of the South , hatred for the slaveholder , thirst for vengeance , partisan plotting , and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders . "
By the late 1960s , liberals , such as historian Lerone Bennett , were having second thoughts , especially regarding Lincoln 's views on racial issues . Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968 . He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs , told jokes that ridiculed blacks , insisted he opposed social equality , and proposed sending freed slaves to another country . Defenders , such as authors Dirck and Cashin , retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day ; and that he was a " moral visionary " who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause , as fast as politically possible . The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln @-@ the @-@ emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery , or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation . Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln 's image suffered " erosion , fading prestige , benign ridicule " in the late 20th century . On the other hand , Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability , defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were " content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts , and not compelled toward fact or reason " .
Today 's U.S. President , however , seems to be promoting a sympathetic resurgence for his predecessor , Lincoln . Indeed , President Obama , has insisted on using Lincoln 's Bible for his swearing in of office at both his inaugurations .
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood , almost always in a flattering light .
= = Memory and memorials = =
Lincoln 's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency , the penny and the $ 5 bill . His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and he has been memorialized in many town , city , and county names , including the capital of Nebraska .
The most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln 's sculpture on Mount Rushmore ; Lincoln Memorial , Ford 's Theatre , and Petersen House ( where he died ) in Washington , D.C. ; and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield , Illinois , not far from Lincoln 's home , as well as his tomb .
There was also the Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln exhibit in Disneyland , and the Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World , which had to do with Walt Disney admiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy .
Barry Schwartz , a sociologist who has examined America 's cultural memory , argues that in the 1930s and 1940s , the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with " a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life " . During the Great Depression , he argues , Lincoln served " as a means for seeing the world 's disappointments , for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful " . Franklin D. Roosevelt , preparing America for war , used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan . Americans asked , " What would Lincoln do ? " However , Schwartz also finds that since World War II , Lincoln 's symbolic power has lost relevance , and this " fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness " . He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept .
= = = Cited in footnotes = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Burkhimer , Michael ( 2003 ) . One Hundred Essential Lincoln Books . Cumberland House . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58182 @-@ 369 @-@ 1 .
Foner , Eric ( 2008 ) . Our Lincoln : New Perspectives on Lincoln and His World . W.W. Norton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 06756 @-@ 9 .
Holzer , Harold and Craig L. Symonds , eds . Exploring Lincoln : Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President ( 2015 ) , essays by 16 scholars
Manning , Chandra , " The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation " , Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association , 34 ( Winter 2013 ) , 18 – 39 .
Smith , Adam I.P. " The ' Cult ' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars " , Twentieth Century British History , ( Dec 2010 ) 21 # 4 pp. 486 – 509
Spielberg , Steven ; Goodwin , Doris Kearns ; Kushner , Tony . " Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood " , Smithsonian ( 2012 ) 43 # 7 pp. 46 – 53 .
= = = Additional references = = =
= Government of Singapore =
The Government of Singapore is defined by the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore to mean the Executive branch of government , which is made up of the President and the Cabinet of Singapore . Although the President acts in his personal discretion in the exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore , his role is largely ceremonial . It is the Cabinet , composed of the Prime Minister and other Ministers appointed on his advice by the President , that generally directs and controls the Government . The Cabinet is formed by the political party that gains a simple majority in each general election .
A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of Parliament and overseen by a government ministry . Unlike ministries and government departments that are subdivisions of ministries , statutory boards are not staffed by civil servants and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations .
There are five Community Development Councils ( CDCs ) appointed by the board of management of the People 's Association ( PA ) for districts in Singapore . Where there are not less than 150 @,@ 000 residents in a district , the PA 's board of management may designate the Chairman of a CDC to be the Mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for . As it is the practice for MPs to be appointed as Chairmen of CDCs , these MPs have also been designated as Mayors .
From the founding of modern Singapore in 1819 until 1826 , Singapore was headed by two Residents in succession . Following Singapore 's amalgamation into the Straits Settlements in 1826 , it was governed by a Governor together with a Legislative Council . An Executive Council of the Straits Settlements was introduced in 1877 to advise the Governor but wielded no executive power . In 1955 , a Council of Ministers was created , appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Leader of the House . Constitutional talks between Legislative Assembly representatives and the Colonial Office were held from 1956 to 1958 , and Singapore gained full internal self @-@ government in 1959 . The Governor was replaced by the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara , who had power to appoint to the post of Prime Minister the person most likely to command the authority of the Assembly , and other Ministers of the Cabinet on the Prime Minister 's advice . In the 1959 general elections , the People 's Action Party ( PAP ) swept to power with 43 out of the 51 seats in the Assembly , and Lee Kuan Yew became the first Prime Minister of Singapore . The executive branch of the Singapore Government remained unchanged following Singapore 's merger with Malaysia in 1963 , and subsequent independence in 1965 . The PAP has been returned to power in every general election and has thus formed the Cabinet since 1959 . The Government is generally perceived to be competent in managing the country 's economy and largely free from political corruption . On the other hand , it has been criticized for using unfair election tactics and violating freedom of speech .
= = Terminology = =
The term Government of Singapore can have a number of different meanings . At its widest , it can refer collectively to the three traditional branches of government – the Executive branch , Legislative branch ( the President and Parliament of Singapore ) and Judicial branch ( the Supreme Court and Subordinate Courts of Singapore ) . The term is also used colloquially to mean the Executive and Legislature together , as these are the branches of government responsible for day @-@ to @-@ day governance of the nation and lawmaking . At its narrowest , the term is used to refer to the Members of Parliament ( MPs ) belonging to a particular political party ( or coalition of parties ) holding a majority of seats in Parliament sufficient to enable the party ( or coalition ) to form the Cabinet of Singapore – this is the sense intended when it is said that a political party " forms the Government " .
The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore uses the word Government to mean the Executive branch , made up of the President and the Cabinet . This article describes the Government of Singapore in this technical sense , as well as selected aspects of the Executive branch of the Government .
= = History = =
On 30 January 1819 Sir Stamford Raffles , an Englishman who was the Governor of Bencoolen ( now Bengkulu , Indonesia ) , entered into a preliminary agreement with the Temenggung of Johor , Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah , for the British East India Company to establish a " factory " or trading post on the island of Singapore . This was confirmed by another agreement signed by Raffles , the Temenggung and Sultan Hussein Shah on 6 February . In June 1823 Singapore ceased to be a dependency of Bencoolen and was placed under the control of the Presidency City of Calcutta ( Kolkata ) in the Bengal Presidency . On 24 June 1824 , Singapore and Malacca were formally transferred to the East India Company , with the result that they came under the control of Fort William . Full cession of Singapore to the Company by the Sultan and Temenggung was effected by a treaty of 19 November 1824 , which was ratified by Calcutta on 4 March 1825 . Between 1819 and 1826 , Singapore was headed by two Residents of Singapore in succession , Maj.-Gen. William Farquhar and Dr. John Crawfurd .
In 1826 , Malacca , Penang and Singapore were amalgamated into the Straits Settlements , which were made a Crown colony with effect from 1 April 1867 . The Colony was governed by a Governor together with a Legislative Council . An Executive Council was introduced in 1877 by letters patent issued by the Crown , Composed of " such persons and constituted in such manner as may be directed " by royal instructions , it existed to advise the Governor and wielded no executive power . The Governor was required to consult the Executive Council on all affairs of importance unless they were too urgent to be laid before it , or if reference to it would prejudice the public service . In such urgent cases , the Governor had to inform the Council of the measures he had taken .
Following the Second World War , the Straits Settlements were disbanded and Singapore became a Crown colony in its own right . The reconstituted Executive Council consisted of six officials and four nominated " unofficials " . In February 1954 , the Rendel Constitutional Commission under the chairmanship of Sir George William Rendel , which had been appointed to comprehensively review the constitution of the Colony of Singapore , rendered its report . Among other things , it recommended that a Council of Ministers be created , composed of three ex officio Official Members and six Elected Members of the Legislative Assembly of Singapore appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Leader of the House , who would be the leader of the largest political party or coalition of parties having majority support in the legislature . The recommendation was implemented in 1955 . In the general election held that year , the Labour Front took a majority of the seats in the Assembly , and David Saul Marshall became the first Chief Minister of Singapore . Major problems with the Rendel Constitution were that the Chief Minister and Ministers ' powers were ill defined , and that the Official Members retained control of the finance , administration , and internal security and law portfolios . This led to confrontation between Marshall , who saw himself as a Prime Minister governing the country , and the Governor , Sir John Fearns Nicoll , who felt that important decisions and policies should remain with himself and the Official Members .
In 1956 , members of the Legislative Assembly held constitutional talks with the Colonial Office in London . The talks broke down as Marshall did not agree to the British Government 's proposal for the casting vote on a proposed Defence Council to be held by the British High Commissioner to Singapore , who would only exercise it in an emergency . Marshall resigned as Chief Minister in June 1956 , and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock . The following year , Lim led another delegation to the UK for further talks on self @-@ government . This time , agreement was reached on the composition of an Internal Security Council . Other constitutional arrangements were swiftly settled in 1958 , and on 1 August the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the State of Singapore Act 1958 , granting the colony full internal self @-@ government . Under Singapore 's new constitution which came into force on 3 June 1959 , the Governor was replaced by the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara ( Head of State ) , who had power to appoint as Prime Minister the person most likely to command the authority of the Legislative Assembly , and other Ministers of the Cabinet on the Prime Minister 's advice . The Constitution also created the post of the British High Commissioner , who was entitled to receive the agenda of each Cabinet meeting and to see all Cabinet papers . In the 1959 general elections , the People 's Action Party ( PAP ) swept to power with 43 out of the 51 seats in the Assembly , and Lee Kuan Yew became the first Prime Minister of Singapore . Nine other Ministers were appointed to the Cabinet .
The British High Commissioner 's role became that of an ambassador following Singapore 's independence from Britain and merger with Malaysia in 1963 . Apart from that , the executive branch of the Singapore Government remained largely unchanged , although now it governed a state within a larger federation . However , with effect from 9 August 1965 , Singapore left the Federation of Malaysia and became a fully independent republic . On separation from Malaysia , the Singapore Government retained the executive authority it held , and took on additional executive authority over Singapore that the Parliament of Malaysia relinquished . The Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong , the Supreme Head of State of Malaysia , also ceased to be the Supreme Head of Singapore and relinquished his sovereignty , jurisdiction , power and authority , executive or otherwise in respect of Singapore , which was revested in the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara of Singapore . The Republic of Singapore Independence Act 1965 then vested the executive authority of Singapore in the newly created post of President , and made it exercisable by him or by the Cabinet or by any Minister authorized by the Cabinet .
The PAP has been repeatedly returned to power by voters and has thus formed the Cabinet since Singapore 's 1959 general election . The Government is generally perceived to be competent in managing the country 's economy , and largely free from political corruption . Transparency International 's 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index , which compares countries according to the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians , ranked Singapore in joint first place with Denmark and New Zealand out of 178 countries . In addition , Singapore was second only to New Zealand in the Asia @-@ Pacific region . On the other hand , the Government has been criticized for using unfair election tactics , such as discouraging voting for opposition parties in the 2006 general election by stating that wards that elect opposition candidates will receive state @-@ subsidized improvements to public housing only after all PAP @-@ held wards have been attended to . It has also been accused of violating freedom of speech through Ministers bringing defamation suits against opposition politicians , and by restricting the circulation of foreign newspapers deemed to have engaged in domestic politics .
= = Composition = =
The Constitution defines the Government of Singapore as the President and the Cabinet of Singapore . The executive authority of Singapore is vested in the President and is exercisable by him or by the Cabinet of Singapore or any Minister authorized by the Cabinet . However , the President normally plays a nominal and largely ceremonial role in the executive branch of government . Although the President acts in his personal discretion in the exercise of certain functions as a check on the Cabinet and Parliament of Singapore , he is otherwise required to act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet . It is the Cabinet that has the general direction and control of the Government . As Singapore follows the Westminster system of government , the legislative agenda of Parliament is determined by the Cabinet . At the start of each new Parliamentary session , the President gives an address prepared by the Cabinet that outlines what the Cabinet intends to achieve in the session .
Each parliament lasts for a maximum of five years from the date of its first sitting , and once a parliament has been dissolved a general election must be held within three months . Following a general election , the President appoints as Prime Minister an MP who , in his judgment , is likely to command the confidence of the majority of the MPs . In practice , the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the political party holding the majority of the seats in Parliament . The President also appoints other Ministers from among the MPs , acting in accordance with the Prime Minister 's advice .
= = = Ministries and responsibilities of Ministers = = =
The Prime Minister may , by giving written directions , charge any Minister with responsibility for any department or subject . In practice , this is done by issuing notifications that are published in the Government Gazette . For instance , the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Responsibility of Senior Minister and Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security , Prime Minister 's Office ) Notification 2009 states :
It is hereby notified for general information that , pursuant to Article 30 ( 1 ) of the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore , the Prime Minister has directed that Mr S. Jayakumar shall , with effect from 1st April 2009 , be charged with the responsibility for the following matters :
( a ) national security issues involving or affecting more than one Ministry ;
( b ) Chairmanship of the Security Policy Review Committee ;
( c ) foreign policy issues involving or affecting more than one Ministry ; and
( d ) foreign policy issues which involve legal negotiation or international adjudication ,
and that he shall be designated as Senior Minister and Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security .
Ministers may be designated by the Prime Minister to be in charge of particular ministries , or as Ministers in the Prime Minister 's Office . Such Ministers were formerly known as Ministers without portfolio . The Prime Minister may retain any department or subject in his charge . Some Ministers are appointed as Second Ministers for portfolios other than their own to assist the primary Minister in his or her duties . For instance , with effect from 1 April 2009 during the 11th Parliament , Lim Hwee Hua , who was a Minister in the Prime Minister 's Office , also held the posts of Second Minister for Finance and Second Minister for Transport .
On 31 July 2012 , the Prime Minister announced that , as of 1 November 2012 , the Ministry of Community Development , Youth and Sports ( MCYS ) and the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ( MICA ) would be reorganized into three ministries : the Ministry of Communications and Information ( MCI ) ; the Ministry of Culture , Community and Youth ( MCCY ) ; and the Ministry of Social and Family Development ( MSF ) . Thus , the ministries of the Government as of that date are the following :
Prime Minister 's Office ( PMO )
Ministry of Communications and Information ( MCI )
Ministry of Culture , Community and Youth ( MCCY )
Ministry of Defence ( MINDEF )
Ministry of Education ( MOE )
Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources ( MEWR )
Ministry of Finance ( MOF )
Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( MFA )
Ministry of Health ( MOH )
Ministry of Home Affairs ( MHA )
Ministry of Law ( MinLaw )
Ministry of Manpower ( MOM )
Ministry of National Development ( MND )
Ministry of Social and Family Development ( MSF )
Ministry of Trade and Industry ( MTI )
Ministry of Transport ( MOT )
A ministry is usually composed of a headquarters and a number of departments , boards or other subordinate entities , and statutory boards . For instance , as of May 2007 the Ministry of Law had three departments ( the Chief Information Officer 's Office , Insolvency and Public Trustee 's Office and Legal Aid Bureau ) , three boards and tribunals ( the Appeals Board for Land Acquisitions , Copyright Tribunal and Land Surveyors Board ) , and two statutory boards ( the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore and Singapore Land Authority ) .
The names in bold are the surnames of Chinese persons , and the personal names of Indian and Malay persons ( except for Vivian Balakrishnan and Tharman Shanmugaratnam , where they indicate surnames as well ) .
Sources : Transcript of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong 's Statement at the Press Conference on the new Cabinet Line @-@ Up on 28 September 2015 , Prime Minister 's Office , 29 September 2015 , archived from the original on 29 September 2015 ; Rachel Chang ( 29 September 2015 ) , " PM names Cabinet aimed at leadership succession : Coordinating ministers will help tackle complex matters , mentor younger ministers " , The Straits Times , p . A1 ; Laura Elizabeth Philomin ( 29 September 2015 ) , " Five new faces to become office @-@ holders " , Today , archived from the original on 29 September 2015 .
= = Other aspects of the Government = =
= = = Ministers of State and Parliamentary Secretaries = = =
As in the United Kingdom and in a number of Commonwealth countries , Members of Parliament ( MPs ) may be appointed as Ministers of State to aid Ministers in the performance of their functions . In addition , the Constitution provides that the President , acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister , may appoint Parliamentary Secretaries from among the MPs to assist Ministers in the discharge of their duties and functions . Such office holders are not regarded as members of the Cabinet .
Where in any written law a Minister is empowered to exercise any power or perform any duty , he may , in the absence of any provision of law to the contrary , with the approval of the President and by notification in the Government Gazette , depute any person by name or the person for the time being discharging the duties of an office designated by him to exercise that power or perform that duty on behalf of the Minister subject to such conditions , exceptions and qualifications as the President may determine . For instance , under the Delegation of Powers ( Ministry of Law ) ( Consolidation ) Notification , the Senior Minister of State for Law is deputed to exercise certain powers of the Minister for Law under the Copyright Act , Criminal Procedure Code , Land Acquisition Act , Land Surveyors Act , and Pawnbrokers Act ; while the Parliamentary Secretary for Home Affairs is deputed the powers of the Minister for Home Affairs under regulation 157 of the Prisons Regulations pursuant to the Delegation of Powers ( Ministry of Home Affairs ) ( Consolidation ) Notification .
Template : Fourth Lee Hsien Loong Cabinet / Current Ministers of State and Parliamentary Secretaries
= = = Statutory boards = = =
A statutory board is an autonomous agency of the Government that is established by an Act of Parliament and overseen by a government ministry . The Act sets out the purposes , powers and rights of the agency . Unlike ministries and government departments that are subdivisions of ministries , statutory boards may not be staffed by civil servants and have greater independence and flexibility in their operations . They are managed by boards of directors whose members usually include businessmen , professionals , senior civil servants and officials of trade unions . The Agency for Science , Technology and Research ( A * STAR ) , the Central Provident Fund Board ( CPF ) , the Housing and Development Board ( HDB ) , the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore ( IPOS ) , the Land Transport Authority ( LTA ) , the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore ( MPA ) , the National Heritage Board ( NHB ) , and the Urban Redevelopment Authority ( URA ) are all statutory boards .
The National Heritage Board is an example of a typical statutory board . It was established on 1 August 1993 with the enactment of the National Heritage Board Act . Section 3 of the Act states : " There shall be established a body to be known as the National Heritage Board which shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and shall , by that name , be capable of — ( a ) suing and being sued ; ( b ) acquiring , owning , holding , developing and disposing of property , both movable and immovable ; and ( c ) doing and suffering all such acts or things as bodies corporate may lawfully do or suffer . " The functions of the Board are :
to explore and present the heritage and nationhood of the people of Singapore in the context of their ancestral cultures , their links with South @-@ East Asia , Asia and the world through the collection , preservation , interpretation and display of objects and records ;
to promote public awareness , appreciation and understanding of the arts , culture and heritage , both by means of the Board ’ s collections and by such other means as it considers appropriate ;
to promote the establishment and development of organizations concerned with the national heritage of Singapore ;
to provide a permanent repository of records of national or historical significance and to facilitate access thereto ;
to conduct records management programmes for the Government ;
to record , preserve and disseminate the history of Singapore through oral history methodology or other means ; and
to advise the Government in respect of matters relating to the national heritage of Singapore .
The Board is empowered to " do all things necessary or convenient to be done for or in connection with the performance of its functions " . Without prejudice to the generality of that provision , the Board also has power to , for example , develop and manage museums , archives , oral history centres and other facilities related to its functions ; to advise and facilitate the preservation of historic sites ; and to establish liaison with other museums , archives , oral history centres , universities and other institutions to secure maximum collaboration of all activities relevant to its functions .
The Board consists of a Chairman , a Deputy Chairman , and not less than 10 nor more than 25 other members as the Minister for Information , Communications and the Arts may from time to time determine . The members of the Board are appointed by the Minister , and hold office for such term as the Minister may determine unless they resign during their term of office or their appointment is revoked by the Minister . The Minister is not required to provide any reason for revoking the appointment of a board member . The Minister may , in consultation with the Board or otherwise , give the Board directions as he thinks fit that are not inconsistent with the provisions of the Act concerning the exercise and performance by the Board of its functions , and the Board is required to give effect to such directions .
With the approval of the Minister , the Board is required to appoint a chief executive officer who is responsible to the Board for the proper administration and management of the Board 's affairs in accordance with the policy laid down by the Board . The Board is entitled to appoint employees and officers on such terms as to remuneration or otherwise as it may determine , and to engage other persons and pay for their services as it considers necessary for carrying out its functions and duties .
= = = Community Development Councils and Mayors of districts = = =
The People 's Association ( PA ) is a statutory board , the objects of which include the organisation and the promotion of group participation in social , cultural , educational and athletic activities for the people of Singapore in order that they may realize that they belong to a multiracial community , the interests of which transcend sectional loyalties ; and the establishment of institutions for the purpose of leadership training in order to instill in leaders a sense of national identity and a spirit of dedicated service to a multiracial community .
There are five Community Development Councils ( CDCs ) appointed by the board of management of the PA for districts in Singapore , namely , the Central Singapore CDC , North East CDC , North West CDC , South East CDC and South West CDC . The functions of a CDC include fostering community bonding and strengthening social cohesion amongst the people of Singapore ; and advising the PA on matters affecting the well @-@ being of residents in districts , the provision and use of public facilities and services within districts , and the use of public funds allocated to districts for community activities .
Each CDC consists of a Chairman and between 12 and 80 other members . Where the number of residents in a district is not less than 150 @,@ 000 , the PA 's board of management is empowered to designate the Chairman of a CDC to be the Mayor for the district that the CDC is appointed for . As it is the practice for MPs to be appointed as Chairmen of CDCs , these MPs have also been designated as Mayors . As of 1 October 2015 , the Mayors are :
The names in bold are the surnames of Chinese persons , and the personal names of Indian and Malay persons .
Even if Mayors are required to vacate their seats in Parliament because Parliament has been dissolved or otherwise , they continue to hold office until their terms of office expire or they are directed to vacate their office by the PA 's board of management .
= Aries ( album ) =
Aries is the ninth studio album by Mexican recording artist Luis Miguel . It was released by WEA Latina on 22 June 1993 . After attaining success in 1991 with his previous album , Romance , Miguel decided to record an album of original recordings rather than a follow @-@ up to Romance . Aries , which is similar to his earlier work prior to Romance , features pop ballads and dance numbers with R & B influences . The record was produced by Miguel , who was assisted by Kiko Cibrian , Rudy Pérez , David Foster , and Juan Luis Guerra .
Three singles were released to promote the album . Its first two singles , " Ayer " and " Hasta Que Me Olvides " , topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart while " Suave " peaked at number nine on the chart . " Hasta el Fin " and " Tu y Yo " both peaked at number four on
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Bingos of the Eastern League , going 1 for 4 with a single . He played as Brown University 's catcher for the 1893 and 1894 seasons . In 1894 , the team had a 23 – 8 record and were selected as national champions by Harper 's Weekly . The night of his senior dinner , Tenney received a telephone message from Frank Selee , the manager of the Beaneaters , asking him to play a game for the team at catcher , due to the injuries of other players .
= = = Boston = = =
In his MLB debut on June 16 , 1894 , Tenney had to be removed from the game in the fifth inning due to a fractured finger on his throwing hand from a foul tip . After Tenney had his finger addressed , James Billings , an owner of the Beaneaters , offered him a contract worth US $ 300 a month from that day . Tenney , later writing about the day , stated :
I thought they were trying to have a little joke with me , and I concluded that I could do a little kidding myself . So I thought I would call their bluff by asking for some advance money . I screwed up my courage and asked Mr. Billings whether , if I signed the contract at once , I could get some advance money . He asked how much I wanted , and I thought I would mention a big sum in order to call their bluff good and strong . So I said $ 150 . He consulted with Mr. Conant , another Director , and said that I could have the money all right , and asked me how I would like to have it – cash or check . [ ... ] I replied that I would take half cash and then half in check , and immediately he wrote out a check for $ 75 , counted out $ 75 in cash , shoved the contract over to me to sign , laying the cash and check beside it .
He returned to the team a month later , and finished the year batting .395 in 27 games . The following season , Tenney moved to the outfield due to an erratic throwing arm behind the plate , according to manager Selee . For the season , he hit .272 in 49 games , while also playing minor league baseball for the New Bedford Whalers . In 1896 , Tenney again caught and played outfield ; offensively , however , Tenney hit .336 in nearly double the games from the previous year ( 88 ) despite playing in the minors for the Springfield Ponies .
In 1897 , Tenney moved to first base to replace the aging Tom Tucker . According to Alfred Henry Spink , within two weeks of the move it was evident that Tenney had become " one of the finest first sackers that the game [ had ] ever seen . " On June 14 , 1897 , in a game against the Cincinnati Reds , Tenney turned the first 3 @-@ 6 @-@ 3 double play in MLB history . Offensively , Tenney led MLB in plate appearances ( 646 ) and tied Duff Cooley , Gene DeMontreville , and George Van Haltren for the lead in at bats ( 566 ) as the Boston club became National League ( NL ) champions with a 93 – 39 record .
Boston again won the NL in 1898 while Tenney hit .328 with 62 RBIs . In 1899 he collected 209 hits , fifth most in MLB , and recorded 17 triples , good for fourth best in MLB . In 1900 Tenney , at age 28 , batted .279 over 112 games played . He began a streak of seven consecutive seasons where he led the NL in assists in 1901 ; he holds the record for most seasons leading a league in assists , with eight , including one in 1899 . He was suspended for ten games for fighting Pittsburg Pirates manager Fred Clarke in May 1902 , and finished the 1902 season with the second most sacrifice hits ( 29 ) in the majors , to go along with a .315 average . Throughout the 1901 – 1902 seasons , Tenney received contract offers worth up to $ 7 @,@ 000 ( $ 193 @,@ 172 in 2012 ) from St. Louis , Cleveland , and Detroit ; Tenney , however , decided to remain in Boston , and was named captain of the club in 1903 . For the season , he hit .313 , with 41 RBIs and three home runs , as he led his team in walks ( 70 ) and had the best on @-@ base percentage mark ( .415 ) on the squad . In 1904 , Tenney again led his team in walks and on @-@ base percentage , as he tied for the team lead in runs with Ed Abbaticchio .
He was named manager of the team in 1905 , but did not receive additional pay ; he was , however , offered a bonus if the team didn 't lose money . In 1905 , Tenney tried to sign William Clarence Matthews , an African @-@ American middle infielder from Harvard University , to a contract . Tenney later retracted his offer due to pressure from MLB players . Defensively , he led the majors in errors committed by a first baseman and finished second in most putouts for any position . Tenney led the 1906 Beaneaters to a 49 – 102 record . For the second straight year , the Boston team lost more than 100 games .
After a 158 – 295 record as manager , on December 3 , 1907 , Tenney was traded to the Giants , along with Al Bridwell and Tom Needham , for Frank Bowerman , George Browne , Bill Dahlen , Cecil Ferguson and Dan McGann ; the trade was called " one of the biggest deals in the history of National League baseball " .
= = = New York Giants = = =
In his first season with the Giants , Tenney led MLB with 684 plate appearances and finished third in runs scored , with 101 . In a game against the Chicago Cubs on September 23 , Tenney could not play due to an attack of lumbago ; it was the only game he did not play in during the season . Rookie Fred Merkle took his spot at first base . The game was at a 1 – 1 tie in the bottom of the ninth . Merkle , after hitting a single , was at first , and Moose McCormick was at third , with two outs . Al Bridwell singled to center field , but Hank O 'Day called Merkle out because Merkle had not touched second base . O 'Day ruled the game a 1 – 1 tie due to darkness . With both teams finishing the season at a 98 – 55 record , a replay game had to be played to determine who would win the National League pennant . The game was held on October 8 , with the Cubs winning , 4 – 2 .
After batting a career low .235 in 1909 , Tenney was released by the Giants . He spent the 1910 season as a player – manager for the minor league Lowell Tigers , leading the team to a 65 – 57 record , good for fourth ( out of eight teams ) in the New England League .
= = = Return to Boston = = =
On December 19 , 1910 , Tenney signed a two @-@ year contract with the Boston Rustlers . For the 1911 season , Tenney hit .263 over 102 games . He was released by the Braves on March 20 , 1912 , after 44 – 107 record in one season ; Tenney was paid not to manage for the second year on his contract .
In 1916 , he bought the Newark Indians of the International League with James R. Price for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 527 @,@ 450 in 2012 ) . Mayor Thomas Lynch Raymond declared April 27 a " half @-@ holiday " for the city of Newark for the Indians ' Opening Day . Tenney played in 16 games for the Indians , hitting .318 with seven hits over 22 at @-@ bats , and managed the team to a 52 – 87 record .
= = Personal life and death = =
Tenney married Bessie Farnham Berry on October 21 , 1895 . The couple had two children together ; Barbra , born July 4 , 1899 , and Ruth , born December 8 , 1901 . Early in his career , he refused to play baseball on Sundays due to his religion , although he later changed his mind . Tenney was known as the " Soiled Collegian " at the major league level because it was unpopular for college players to become professional . Tenney served as a journalist for The Boston Post , Baseball Magazine , and The New York Times . He painted and sketched during the winter .
After retiring from baseball , Tenney worked for the Equitable Life Insurance Society and continued writing for The New York Times . In 1912 , he was vice @-@ president of the Usher – Stoughton shoe manufacturing company in Lynn , Massachusetts ; later , he formed the Tenney – Spinney Shoe Company in partnership with Henry Spinney . He was balloted for the National Baseball Hall of Fame from 1936 – 1942 and again in 1946 , but never received more than eight votes , receiving eight ( 3 @.@ 1 % of total ballots cast ) during the Baseball Hall of Fame balloting in 1938 . Tenney died on July 3 , 1952 at Massachusetts General Hospital after a long illness . He was interred at Harmony Chapel and Cemetery in Georgetown .
= Los Angeles Lakers =
The Los Angeles Lakers are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles , California . The Lakers compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , as a member club of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division . The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center , an arena shared with the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers , the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association , and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League . The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA , and have won 16 NBA championships , their last being in 2010 . As of 2015 , the Lakers are the second most valuable franchise in the NBA according to Forbes , having an estimated value of $ 2 @.@ 7 billion .
The franchise began with the 1947 purchase of a disbanded team , the Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) . The new team began playing in Minneapolis , Minnesota , calling themselves the Minneapolis Lakers in honor of the state 's nickname , " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " . Initially a member of the NBL , the Lakers won the 1948 NBL championship before joining the rival Basketball Association of America and winning five of the next six BAA and NBA championships in Minneapolis after the NBA formed in 1949 . The team was propelled by center George Mikan , who is described by the NBA 's official website as the league 's " first superstar " . After struggling financially in the late 1950s following Mikan 's retirement , they relocated to Los Angeles before the 1960 – 61 season .
Led by Hall of Famers Elgin Baylor and Jerry West , Los Angeles made the NBA Finals six times in the 1960s , but lost each series to the Boston Celtics , beginning their long and storied rivalry . In 1968 , the Lakers acquired four @-@ time NBA Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Wilt Chamberlain to play center , and after losing in the Finals in 1969 and 1970 , they won their sixth NBA title — and first in Los Angeles — in 1972 , led by new head coach Bill Sharman . After the retirement of West and Chamberlain , the team acquired another center , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , who had won multiple MVP awards , but was unable to make the Finals in the late 1970s . The 1980s Lakers were nicknamed " Showtime " due to their Magic Johnson @-@ led fast break @-@ offense , and won five championships in a 9 @-@ year span , including their first ever Finals championship against the Celtics in 1985 . This team featured Hall of Famers in Johnson , Abdul @-@ Jabbar , and James Worthy , and a Hall of Fame coach , Pat Riley . After Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Johnson 's retirement , the team struggled in the early 1990s before acquiring Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant in 1996 . Led by O 'Neal , Bryant , and another Hall of Fame coach , Phil Jackson , Los Angeles won three consecutive titles between 2000 to 2002 , securing the franchise its second " three @-@ peat " . After losing both the 2004 and 2008 NBA Finals , the Lakers won two more championships by defeating the Orlando Magic in 2009 and Boston in 2010 .
The Lakers hold the record for NBA 's longest winning streak , 33 straight games , set during the 1971 – 72 season . 21 Hall of Famers have played for Los Angeles , while four have coached the team . Four Lakers — Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Johnson , O 'Neal , and Bryant — have won the NBA MVP Award for a total of eight awards .
= = Team history = =
= = = 1947 – 48 & 1948 – 59 : Beginnings and Minneapolis dynasty = = =
The Lakers ' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) for $ 15 @,@ 000 from Gems owner Maury Winston . Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team . Inspired by Minnesota 's nickname , " Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes " , the team christened themselves the Lakers . Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas , to be their first head coach , by meeting with him and selling him on the team .
The Lakers had a solid roster which featured forward Jim Pollard , playmaker Herm Schaefer , and center George Mikan , who became the most dominant player in the NBL . In their first season , they led the league with a 43 – 17 record .
In 1948 , the Lakers moved from the NBL to the Basketball Association of America ( BAA ) , and Mikan 's 28 @.@ 3 point per game ( ppg ) scoring average set a BAA record . In the 1949 BAA Finals they won the championship , beating the Washington Capitols four games to two . The following season , the team improved to 51 – 17 , repeating as champions . In the 1950 – 51 season , Mikan won his third straight scoring title at 28 @.@ 4 ppg and the Lakers went 44 – 24 to win their second straight division title . One of those games , a 19 – 18 loss against the Fort Wayne Pistons , became infamous as the lowest scoring game in NBA history . In the playoffs , they defeated the Indianapolis Olympians in three games but lost to the Rochester Royals in the next round .
During the 1951 – 52 season , the Lakers won 40 games , finishing second in their division . They faced the New York Knicks in the NBA Finals , which they won in seven games . In the 1952 – 53 season , Mikan led the NBA in rebounding , averaging 14 @.@ 4 rebounds per game ( rpg ) , and was named MVP of the 1953 NBA All @-@ Star Game . After a 48 – 22 regular season , the Lakers defeated the Fort Wayne Pistons in the Western playoffs to advance to the NBA Finals . They then defeated the New York Knicks to win their second straight championship . Though Lakers star George Mikan suffered from knee problems throughout the 1953 – 54 season , he was still able to average 18 ppg . Clyde Lovellette , who was drafted in 1952 , helped the team win the Western Division . The team won its third straight championship in the 1950s and fifth in six seasons when it defeated the Syracuse Nationals in seven games .
Following Mikan 's retirement in the 1954 off @-@ season , the Lakers struggled but still managed to win 40 games . Although they defeated the Rochester Royals in the first round of the playoffs , they were defeated by the Fort Wayne Pistons in the semifinals . Although they had losing records the next two seasons , they made the playoffs each year . Mikan came back for the last half of the 1955 – 56 season , but struggled and retired for good after the season . Led by Lovellette 's 20 @.@ 6 points and 13 @.@ 5 rebounds , they advanced to the Conference Finals in 1956 – 57 . The Lakers had one of the worst seasons in team history in 1957 – 58 when they won a league @-@ low 19 games . They had hired Mikan , who had been the team 's general manager for the previous two seasons , as head coach to replace Kundla . Mikan was fired in January when the team was 9 – 30 , and Kundla was rehired .
The Lakers earned the top pick in the 1958 NBA draft and used it to select Elgin Baylor . Baylor , who was named NBA Rookie of the Year and co @-@ MVP of the 1959 NBA All @-@ Star Game , averaged 24 @.@ 9 ppg and 15 @.@ 0 rpg helping the Lakers improve to second in their division despite a 33 – 39 record . After upsetting the Hawks in six games in the division finals , they returned to the NBA Finals , but were swept by the Celtics , beginning their long rivalry .
= = = 1959 – 68 : Move to Los Angeles and Celtics rivalry = = =
In their last year in Minneapolis , the Lakers went 25 – 50 . On January 18 , 1960 , the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash @-@ landed . Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield . No one was hurt . Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft . The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University . During the 1960 off @-@ season , the Lakers became the NBA 's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles . Led by Baylor 's 34 @.@ 8 ppg and 19 @.@ 8 rpg , Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West 's first season . On November 15 that season , Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds . In doing so , Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points . Despite a losing record , the Lakers made the playoffs . They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis .
Led by Baylor and West at 38 @.@ 3 and 30 @.@ 8 ppg respectively , the Lakers improved to 54 – 26 in 1961 – 62 , and made the finals . In a game five victory , Baylor grabbed 22 rebounds and set the still @-@ standing NBA record for points in a finals game with 61 , despite fouling out of the game . The Lakers , however , lost to the Celtics by three points in overtime of game seven . Frank Selvy , after making two jumpers in the final 40 seconds to tie the game , missed a potential game @-@ winning 18 foot jump shot in regulation , a miss which he said in June 2010 still haunted him more than 40 years later .
Los Angeles won 53 games in 1962 – 63 , behind Baylor 's 34 @.@ 0 ppg and West 's 27 @.@ 1 ppg but lost in the NBA Finals in six games to the Celtics . After falling to 42 – 38 and losing in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs to the Hawks , the team won 49 games in 1964 – 65 . The Lakers surged past the Baltimore Bullets in the division finals , behind West 's record @-@ setting 46 @.@ 3 ppg in the series . They lost again to Celtics in the Finals however , this time in five games .
Los Angeles lost in the finals to Boston in seven games again in 1966 , this time by two points . Down by 16 entering the fourth quarter , and 10 with a minute and a half to go , the Lakers mounted a furious rally in the closing moments which fell just short . After dropping to 36 wins and losing in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs , they lost in the finals to the Celtics again in 1968 . Los Angeles moved to a brand @-@ new arena , The Forum , in 1967 , after playing seven seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena .
= = = 1968 – 73 : Wilt arrives = = =
On July 9 , 1968 , the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff , Archie Clark , and Jerry Chambers . In his first season as a Laker , Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league @-@ leading 21 @.@ 1 rpg . West , Baylor , and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points , and Los Angeles won their division . The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals , and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry . They won the first game behind Jerry West 's 53 points , and had a 3 – 2 lead after five . Boston won the series in seven games however , and earned their 11th NBA Championship in 13 seasons . West was named the first @-@ ever Finals MVP ; this remains the only time that a member of the losing team has won the award . In 1970 , West won his first scoring title at 31 @.@ 2 ppg , the team returned to the finals , and for the first time in 16 years , they did not have to face the Celtics ; instead playing the New York Knicks , who defeated them 4 – 3 . The next season the Lakers were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks , led by future Laker Lew Alcindor ( now known as Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar ) in the Western Conference Finals .
The 1971 – 72 season brought several changes . Owner Jack Kent Cooke brought in Bill Sharman as head coach , and Elgin Baylor announced his retirement early in the season after realizing that his legs were not healthy enough . Sharman increased the team 's discipline . He introduced the concept of the shootaround , where players would arrive at the arena early in the morning before a game to practice shots . They won 14 straight games in November and all 16 games played in December . They won three straight to open the year of 1972 but on January 9 , the Milwaukee Bucks ended their winning streak by defeating the Lakers , 120 – 104 . By winning 33 straight games , Los Angeles set a record for longest winning streak of any team in American professional sports . The Lakers won 69 games that season , which stood as the NBA record for 24 years until the Chicago Bulls won 72 games in 1995 – 96 . Chamberlain averaged a career @-@ low 14 @.@ 8 points but led the league in rebounding at 19 @.@ 2 a game . West 's 9 @.@ 7 assists per game ( apg ) led the league , he also averaged more than 25 points , and was named MVP of the 1972 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The team failed to score 100 points just once all year , and at the end of the season , Bill Sharman was named Coach of the Year . The Lakers went on to reach the finals against the New York Knicks where they would avenge their 1970 finals loss by defeating them 4 games to 1 . Chamberlain tallied 24 points and 29 rebounds in game five and won the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award .
The Lakers won 60 games in the 1972 – 73 NBA season , and took another Pacific Division title . Wilt Chamberlain , playing in his final season , again led the league in rebounding and set the still standing NBA record for field @-@ goal percentage at 72 @.@ 7 % . The team defeated the Chicago Bulls in seven games in the conference semifinals , then the Golden State Warriors in five in the Western Division Finals . They played the New York Knicks in the 1973 NBA Finals . Los Angeles took the first game by three points , but New York won the series in five games .
= = = 1973 – 79 : Building " Showtime " = = =
During the 1973 – 74 season , the team was hampered by the loss of West , who played only 31 games before his legs gave out . Goodrich , averaging 25 @.@ 3 points , helped the team to a late @-@ season surge . Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play , the Lakers rallied to finish 47 – 35 and win the Pacific Division . They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals . Following the season , West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke , and filed a suit for unpaid back wages .
After missing the playoffs in the 1974 – 75 season , the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , who had won three league MVP 's by that time . Abdul @-@ Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee , demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles . He was traded for Elmore Smith , Brian Winters , Junior Bridgeman , and Dave Meyers . Abdul @-@ Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975 – 76 , leading the league in rebounding , blocked shots , and minutes played . The Los Angeles struggled in January , going 3 – 10 , and finished out of the playoffs at 40 – 42 .
West and Cooke settled their differences — and the former Laker 's lawsuit — and Cooke hired him to replace Sharman as the team 's coach . West became upset , however , when Cooke refused to spend the money necessary to acquire forward Julius Erving , who the Nets were selling . Behind another MVP season from Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Los Angeles won the Pacific Division , finishing the 1976 – 77 season a league @-@ best 53 – 29 . They defeated the Warriors in a seven @-@ game series to open the postseason before being swept by Portland in the Western Conference Finals . During the offseason , Los Angeles picked up Jamaal Wilkes from Golden State and signed first @-@ round draft pick Norm Nixon . In the first two minutes of the first game of the 1977 – 78 season , Abdul @-@ Jabbar punched Bucks center Kent Benson for an overly aggressive elbow and broke his hand . Two months later , a healthy Abdul @-@ Jabbar got into an altercation with Houston Rockets center Kevin Kunnert after a rebound . The team 's starting power forward , Kermit Washington , who was averaging 11 @.@ 5 points and 11 @.@ 2 rebounds , entered the fight , and when Rudy Tomjanovich ran in from the bench to break up the action , Washington punched him in the face . Tomjanovich nearly died from the punch , suffering a fractured skull and other facial injuries which prematurely ended his playing career . Washington , who stated that he assumed Tomjanovich was a combatant , was suspended for two months by the NBA , and released by the Lakers . The team won 45 games despite being down a starter in Washington and not having Abdul @-@ Jabbar for nearly two months , but lost in the first round of the playoffs to Seattle . During the 1978 – 79 season , the team posted a 47 – 35 record but lost to the SuperSonics in the semifinal round of the playoffs .
= = = 1979 – 91 : " Showtime " = = =
In the 1979 NBA draft , Los Angeles selected 6 @-@ foot , 9 @-@ inch point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick . It took Johnson 's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability , as his " no @-@ look " passes often caught them unaware . Once they adjusted , his passing became a key part of Los Angeles ' offense . The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson 's rookie year , and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals . Johnson won the series Finals MVP award , after starting at center for the injured Abdul @-@ Jabbar in game six , and tallying 42 points , 15 rebounds , and seven assists . The team fell off in the 1980 – 81 season , though , as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury . The team turned in a 54 – 28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division . The Rockets , led by Moses Malone , defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs .
Early in the 1981 – 82 season , Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade . Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson 's criticisms , and although Lakers ' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson 's comments did not factor into the decision , Johnson was vilified by the national media and booed both on the road and at home . Buss promoted assistant coach Pat Riley to " co @-@ head coach " with Jerry West ( although West considered himself Riley 's assistant ) on November 19 and the team won 17 of its next 20 games . Nicknamed " Showtime " due to the team 's new Johnson @-@ led fast break @-@ offense , the Lakers won the Pacific Division title and swept both the Suns and Spurs . Los Angeles stretched its postseason winning streak to nine games by taking the first contest of the NBA Finals from the 76ers . The team won the Finals 4 – 2 to finish a 12 – 2 playoff run . On draft night in 1982 , the Lakers had the first overall pick and selected James Worthy from North Carolina . The Lakers won the Pacific Division at 58 – 24 , but Worthy suffered a leg injury in the last week of the season and missed the rest of the season however . Nevertheless , they advanced to play Philadelphia in the 1983 NBA Finals by defeating Portland and San Antonio in the first two rounds . The Sixers , however , won the series and the championship in four games . After the season West replaced Sharman as the team 's GM .
In the 1983 – 84 season Los Angeles went 54 – 28 , and played Boston in the Finals for the first time since 1969 . They won two of the first three games . Kevin McHale 's hard clothesline foul of Lakers forward Kurt Rambis on a fast break is credited as a turning point of the series . Boston won three of the next four to win the title and send Los Angeles 's record to 0 – 8 in Finals series against the Celtics .
Using the past year 's Finals defeat as motivation , the team won the Pacific Division for the fourth straight year and lost just twice in the Western Conference playoffs . In the NBA Finals , the Celtics were again the Lakers ' final hurdle . Los Angeles lost game one of the NBA Finals by a score of 148 – 114 , in what is remembered as the " Memorial Day Massacre " . The Lakers , behind 38 @-@ year @-@ old Finals MVP Abdul @-@ Jabbar , recovered to defeat the Celtics in six games . The team won the title in the Boston Garden , becoming the only visiting team to ever win an NBA championship there .
In the 1985 – 86 season , the Lakers started 24 – 3 . They won 62 games , and their fifth straight division title . The Rockets , however , defeated the Lakers in five games in the Western Conference Finals . Houston won the series when Ralph Sampson hit a 20 @-@ foot jumper as time expired in game five at The Forum . Prior to the 1986 – 87 season , the Lakers moved A. C. Green into the starting lineup , and acquired Mychal Thompson from the Spurs . Johnson won his first career MVP Award while leading the Lakers to a 65 – 17 record , and Michael Cooper was named NBA Defensive Player of the Year . Before the season Riley had made the decision to shift the focus of the offense to Johnson over the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Abdul @-@ Jabbar .
The Lakers advanced to the NBA Finals by sweeping the Nuggets , defeating the Warriors in five games , and sweeping the SuperSonics in the Western Conference Finals . The Lakers defeated Boston in the first two games of the Finals , and the teams split the next four games , giving Los Angeles their second championship in three seasons . The series was highlighted by Johnson 's running " baby hook " shot to win game four at Boston Garden with two seconds remaining . Johnson was
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Jæren Line . However , there would be no need for standard gauge until the Sørlandet Line was extended to Rogaland , so the line was planned to be built with narrow gauge track , but all other installations would be prepared for standard gauge .
Siting of the Ålgård Line from Ganddal to Ålgård started in 1920 . The final cost estimate was NOK 2 @.@ 82 million and the plan was passed by Parliament on 20 July 1921 , with construction commencing on 21 December . The construction was organized by Just Broch and led by Olaf Bakke . Between 200 and 250 people worked on the line during construction . Because of the recession , the railway works were seen as way to create jobs . Most of the workers came from Stavanger and nearly all had families to support . The first train to operate on the line went from Stavanger on 20 December 1924 , with the official opening by Minister of Labour Lars Oftedal taking place when it reached Ålgård . The line became the last state @-@ owned railway in Norway to be opened with narrow gauge .
At the start , there were one or two daily round trips with steam locomotive @-@ hauled trains . In the first year of operation , the line transported 18 @,@ 500 passengers . The initial ticket price from Sandnes to Ålgård was NOK 1 @.@ 50 , compared to NOK 1 for a bus ticket . This was in part because NSB operated with a standard price based on the length of the line , and the line was longer than the corresponding roads . After a while NSB 's board accepted that tickets be priced as if they were the length of the road , and the price was reduced to NOK 1 @.@ 10 . Because of competition from truck drivers picking up random passengers for NOK 0 @.@ 75 , the price was then reduced to NOK 0 @.@ 80 in 1927 . The line made a profit during until the late 1940s , after which it started to operate with a deficit . In the financial year 1948 – 49 , the line transported 79 @,@ 700 passengers .
In 1923 , Parliament voted for a plan for the Sørlandet Line to run via Bjerkreim instead of the city of Egersund , and then onwards via Gjesdal . This plan meant that the section from Ganddal to Stavanger would have dual gauge . During further planning , it became clear that the Gjesdal alternative , although 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) shorter , had a greater elevation difference than that needed for connecting the Sørlandet Line to the Jæren Line . This changed the NSB board 's and Rogaland County Council 's opinion , and the Jæren alternative was chosen . The final decision to build via Jæren was made by parliament in 1937 .
An inter @-@ municipal railway committee was established in 1941 . Led by Sigval Bergesen , it considered the possibility of extending the Ålgård Line towards Hunnedalen via Setesdalsheiene to Lunde in Telemark . The line would be built with a higher standard than the Sørlandet Line and have a shorter route , allowing travel time from Stavanger to Oslo to be reduced to four to five hours . A detailed plan was made for the extension from Ålgård to the county border with Telemark . To consider the proposal , parliament established a committee in 1949 to look at the various proposals . After considering the impact and value of the various railways that had been proposed in the 1940s , it recommended not building the Inner Trunk Line , as the expansion had been christened .
In 1930 , an NSB Class Cmb1 diesel multiple unit was taken into use , and the number of daily trips increased to four . On days with heavy traffic , it hauled a trailer , which was normally stationed at Sandnes Station . On 10 November 1935 , the new Ganddal Station opened , simplifying the stopping at the station . During World War II , the multiple units were disused , and instead the trains were hauled with steam locomotives . From 1 May 1944 , the line was converted to standard gauge , and NSB Class 14 multiple units were taken into use , running on wood gas until the end of the war . In 1945 , there were four daily round trips , but at the start of 1946 , the number of daily round trips increased to six , and from mid @-@ 1946 , to ten . From 1947 to 1953 , there were eight or nine daily round trips , and from 1953 ten . Class 14 was eventually replaced with NSB Class 86 and NSB Class 87 in 1953 . By then , the driving time from Ålgård to Sandnes had been reduced from 38 to 25 minutes .
In the 1940s and 1950s , several companies started a competing bus service . There were accusations that the route was cross @-@ subsidized and that price dumping was occurring along the route from Sandnes to Ålgård . In the early 1950s , discussion started about closing the line , and on 1 November 1955 , all passenger transport was terminated , after a decision in parliament on 26 May 1955 . This is the line with the most frequent passenger traffic in Norway to have been closed .
After it was decided that passenger transport on the railway was to be terminated , both NSB 's bus division and other private companies , particularly Sverre Hage , wanted to have the concession to operate the line . Both established a bus services with a frequency as if the other operator did not exist . At the peak of the conflict , NSB 's operations were at one point stopped by the police , although in the end , the concession was granted to them . As a response , Haga applied for concession to operate passenger transport on the railway , but this was denied by the authorities . The transfer to bus operations increased the ticket prices and travel time .
Freight trains to the various industrial companies along the line remained until the 1980s , when traffic sank drastically . From 1988 , the line was closed from Foss @-@ Eigeland , although the line from there to Ganddal was kept for use for a cement factory . Until 2001 only the three first kilometers ( two first miles ) of the line were used , for transport of concrete structures , but then the Norwegian National Rail Administration stopped all traffic on the line .
= = Heritage = =
The non @-@ profit organization Friends of the Ålgård Line ( Ålgårdbanens venner ) have preserved 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) of the line and Figgjo Station . The station has been converted to a museum , while the railway between Figgjo and Ålgård is used for renting out draisines . At Figgjo , there is a railway car and a shunter on display .
= = Future = =
Several local politicians have proposed re @-@ opening the line and either making it part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or part of the planned light rail in Greater Stavanger . Additionally , the Norwegian National Rail Administration has supported a future re @-@ opening of the line . Estimates show that the line has a traffic potential for 600 @,@ 000 passengers per year . In a proposal from the National Rail Administration , the Ålgård Line is seen as a possible branch of the commuter rail , with stations at Vagle , Figgjo , Kongeparken and Ålgård . Without making any investments to the Sørlandet Line , it would be possible to extend the two hourly services that terminate at Sandnes to Ålgård . Ålgård is also a good location for a park and ride for European Route E39 . However , the Ålgård Line would need a full upgrade , including new tracks , electric system and signaling . This would give a travel time from Ganddal to Ålgård of 10 to 12 minutes . The estimated cost of re @-@ opening the line is NOK 500 million . The Center Party has proposed converting the line to a bus lane . The borough council of Figgjo has voted to convert the line to a bicycle path , but this has been rejected by the National Rail Administration .
= Peter of Canterbury =
Peter of Canterbury or Petrus ( died c . 607 or after 614 ) was the first abbot of the monastery of SS . Peter and Paul in Canterbury ( later St Augustine 's Abbey ) and a companion of Augustine in the Gregorian mission to Kent . Augustine sent Peter as an emissary to Rome around 600 to convey news of the mission to Pope Gregory I. Peter 's death has traditionally been dated to around 607 , but evidence suggests that he was present at a church council in Paris in 614 , so he probably died after that date .
= = Life = =
It is presumed that Peter was a native of Italy , like the other members of the Gregorian mission . This mission was dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . It landed in Kent in 597 , and soon converted King Æthelberht of Kent , who gave Augustine the land on which he founded the abbey that later became St Augustine 's , Canterbury .
The medieval chronicler Bede records that sometime after the mission 's arrival in England , probably in late 600 , Peter , along with fellow @-@ missionary Laurence , was sent back to Gregory . This deputation was to relay the news of Augustine 's successes in Kent , and to request more missionaries . They also conveyed to the pope a number of inquiries from Augustine about how to proceed with the mission , and when they returned in 601 , they brought back Gregory 's replies to Augustine .
Peter became the abbot of the monastery that Æthelberht founded in Canterbury , originally dedicated to the saints Peter and Paul , but later rededicated as St Augustine 's , after the leader of the mission . Bede describes Peter as both abbot and presbyter , a word usually translated as priest .
= = Death and veneration = =
Peter drowned while crossing the English Channel on the way to Gaul , at a place called Ambleteuse , near Boulogne . At first he was buried hastily nearby , but Bede reports that after a light illuminated the grave every night , the locals realised Peter was a saint and exhumed him and re @-@ interred him in Boulogne . The actual date of death is unknown , and since his feast day was celebrated on two different days , 30 December or 6 January , that information does not clear up the mystery . The date of his death is reported to have been 1 year , 7 months and 3 weeks after Augustine 's , by Thomas of Elmham , a 15th @-@ century chronicler . If this is true , this would give a year of death between 605 and 611 . This information , however , is contradicted by the fact that Peter was present at the Council of Paris in 614 , convened by Chlothar II . It is possible that he died during his return from the Council of Paris .
Peter is a considered a saint , with a feast day on 6 January . His cult was confirmed in 1915 . A Vita Petri , or Life of Peter , written by Eadmer in the 12th century , exists in manuscript form , but it is unreliable . There is evidence that Peter was the object of veneration in Boulogne in the 15th century , and a church in that town was associated with Peter , although probably not from the start of his cult .
= Battletoads Arcade =
Battletoads Arcade , also known as Super Battletoads or just Battletoads , is a 1994 scrolling beat ' em up arcade game in the Battletoads series developed by Rare and published by Electronic Arts . Up to three players , as the Battletoads , brawl aliens and mutant rodents through six levels to save the universe from the Dark Queen . The game also includes vertical and bonus levels . Each Toad has its own signature attack , and as customary for the series , players can knock enemies towards the screen , breaking the fourth wall .
Rare took greater liberties with violence and gore in Battletoads Arcade since the product was not destined for home consoles . It was Rare 's first game to use the 3D graphics technology that was implemented in Donkey Kong Country and Killer Instinct . Although the game playtested well and appeared financially viable , the publisher hesitated to release the game . A port for the Super NES was in production but canceled . The game received its console debut when it was emulated in the 2015 Rare Replay , a compilation of games from Rare 's history for the Xbox One .
A Rare employee reported that the game was unsuccessful in the arcades . An AllGame reviewer found that the game was true to the original 's style and had better graphics but was still a let down . Retro Gamer has stated that the game is obscure now but had all the hallmarks of a Rare release . Rare Replay reviewers were surprised by the quality of the game and some considered it a highlight of the package . Battletoads Arcade remains the last entry in the Battletoads series .
= = Gameplay = =
Battletoads Arcade is a coin @-@ operated , scrolling beat ' em up arcade video game . Up to three players , as the Battletoads ( Rash , Pimple , and Zitz ) , punch and kick oncoming enemies through six levels to save their alternate universe from the Dark Queen . Arcade was the first Battletoads game to feature three @-@ player cooperative multiplayer . Players control their characters with eight @-@ directional joysticks and two buttons ( attack and jump ) . Characters can run if the player pushes the joystick twice in the same direction . The Toads vary in fighting style : Rash is nimble , Pimple is burly , and Zitz is a balance of the two . As customary for the series , the Toads can knocked enemies offscreen such that they appear to fly towards the players , breaking the fourth wall . The Toads can also eat flies to regenerate health . Each Toad has its own signature exaggerated power and attack , in which their limbs turn into objects such as axes and drills . Enemies include aliens , mutant rodents , and snowmen .
Each level has a unique theme , such as a " Christmas grotto " , and a boss fights finale . Some bosses , such as General Slaughter , return from previous games . Some levels differ in presentation and gameplay . Some levels are Double Dragon @-@ style 2.5D brawlers , while others are strictly two @-@ dimensional . In one level , the Toads wear jetpacks and descend a tunnel , and in the final level , the Toads shoot enemies from a vehicle . Players can also destroy a spaceship in a Street Fighter II @-@ style bonus stage . Battletoads Arcade is displayed in standard definition raster graphics in horizontal orientation with either mono or stereo sound within an upright arcade cabinet .
= = Development = =
The game was developed by Rare , published by Electronic Arts , and released in 1994 as the fifth game in the Battletoads series . Rare founders Tim and Chris Stamper created the series in response to interest in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . The Battletoads series — especially the 1991 original Battletoads for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) — became popular in its own right and led to a series of sequels . Since this sequel was in development for arcades rather than consoles , Rare took greater liberties in its depiction of violence , unlike their obligations in the rest of the series . While the original NES Battletoads censored blood , Battletoads Arcade showed gore and decapitation . The Dark Queen was also depicted in a more lascivious style . Rare had begun to experiment with 3D graphics around this time , and went with PowerAnimator ( later Autodesk Maya ) . Battletoads Arcade was the first Rare game to use PowerAnimator , well before it was implemented in Killer Instinct and Donkey Kong Country . Rare 's George Andreas had worked on the game and recalled it sitting around " for ages " despite being finished . Andreas could not discern why the game was unsuccessful , as it had playtested and sold well in their market tests . A port for the Super NES was planned but canceled , likely due to the game 's mediocre reception in arcades . Rare 's Brendan Gunn had worked on the port and said that the team had nearly finished the first level before the project was scrapped . He figured that the decision may have been linked to mediocre sales but was not sure . Battletoads Arcade is also known as Super Battletoads .
Battletoads Arcade received its first console release as Battletoads Arcade when it was emulated for the Xbox One as part of the 2015 Rare Replay compilation of 30 games from Rare 's 30 @-@ year history . In the Rare Replay version , additional features include a setting for unlimited continues , the ability to " rewind " time ( and replay a section ) , and the opportunity to save game progress at any time .
= = Reception = =
In a 2013 interview , Rare 's Chris Tilson said that the company had low expectations for future arcade releases after Battletoads Arcade " bombed badly " . Sales were mediocre . Christopher Michael Baker ( AllGame ) wrote that the arcade release rode the success of its console game predecessor when the order is usually reversed . He found the two games similar in brawling style with simple controls , but felt that the arcade game had better graphics . He noted how both included the effect of knocking enemies towards the players off @-@ screen . Baker felt that the signature attacks were interesting and added replay value . Overall , he was somewhat let down by the arcade game , having expected something more , but rated Battletoads Arcade four of five stars . AllGame compared Battletoads Arcade to Turtles in Time and The Simpsons Arcade Game .
Retro Gamer retrospectively wrote that Battletoads Arcade was a " relatively obscure " game , but the best in the series . They described it as " unmistakeable " Rare : " bombastic , colorful , and well @-@ designed " . Retro Gamer put it on par with the arcade games of Konami and Sega and praised its humor , combat , and character . They added that Arcade was a swan song for the series , with numerous references to moments and levels from previous games . For example , the first stage atop the Dark Queen 's ship was similar to the opening of Battletoads & Double Dragon and the jetpack level was reminiscent of the " Wookie Hole " level in the original Battletoads . The magazine added that the level of gore set it apart from previous series entries and that the game had a mediocre reception in arcades . They called its console cancellation " a tragedy " .
Chris Carter ( Destructoid ) wrote that the game was an unexpected favorite in his Rare Replay review . Philip Kollar ( Polygon ) was also " surprised " by the game , which he found incredibly fun . Kollar ranked the game near the middle of the Rare Replay collection . Timothy Seppala ( Engadget ) was grateful to be introduced to Battletoads Arcade on Rare Replay . He considered the game among Rare 's " finest moments " and one of two retro titles worth playing . Sam Machkovech ( Ars Technica ) described the game as one of the rarest in the compilation .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2011 , Battletoads Arcade remains the last Battletoads game released . Rare had begun planning on a possible sequel in the mid @-@ 2000s but ultimately decided that there was no original direction for the game apart from its past . They did not want to repeat the failed Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles reboot . Battletoads Arcade served as an inspiration for the cooperative play mode in the 2011 Ratchet & Clank : All 4 One . Kotaku included Battletoads Arcade in its list of 16 @-@ bit era beat ' em ups with the best graphics .
= Battle of Tsimba Ridge =
The Battle of Tsimba Ridge was an engagement of the Second World War involving Australian and Japanese forces . Part of the wider Bougainville Campaign of the Pacific theatre , the battle occurred in the northern sector of Bougainville Island between 17 January and 9 February 1945 , when the lead battalion of the Australian 11th Brigade — the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion — advanced towards the Genga River as part of a drive north to the Bonis Peninsula .
On the peninsula , an enclave of Japanese troops had established itself after withdrawing north following earlier engagements in the centre of the island throughout 1944 – 45 . Coming up against heavy resistance along Tsimba Ridge , the Australians ' advance was halted for three weeks as they fought to wrest control of the ridge from the defending Japanese from the 81st Infantry Regiment , whose strength was roughly equal to that of the Australians . The main Australian attack took place on 6 February , but it was not until 9 February that the Japanese completely withdrew from the position . Small @-@ scale fighting in the surrounding area
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Huntington ( 1992 ) :
The intention of Parliament when it uses an Anisminic clause is that questions as to validity are not excluded . When paragraphs such as those considered in ex p . Ostler are used , then the legislative intention is that questions as to invalidity may be raised on the specified grounds in the prescribed time and in the prescribed manner , but that otherwise the jurisdiction of the court is excluded in the interest of certainty .
= = Conclusive evidence clauses = =
Provisions in statutes declaring that certain decisions by public authorities shall be conclusive evidence of some facts have been found by the Singapore courts to be valid , and therefore have the effect of preventing applicants from challenging most – but not all – of such decisions by way of judicial review . In Galstaun v. Attorney @-@ General ( 1980 ) , the applicant alleged that the Collector of Land Revenue had compulsorily acquired more of his land that was required for public purposes pursuant to the Land Acquisition Act . The High Court held that the argument had to be rejected in the light of section 5 ( 3 ) of the Act , which provided that the President 's declaration that land was needed for a public purpose " shall be conclusive evidence that the land is needed for the purpose specified therein " . The Court said : " When the Government declares that a certain purpose is a public purpose it must be presumed that the Government is in possession of facts which induce the Government to declare that the purpose is a public purpose " . However , in Teng Fuh Holdings Pte . Ltd. v. Collector of Land Revenue ( 2006 ) , the Court clarified that section 5 ( 3 ) cannot prevent judicial intervention if there is evidence that the Government exercised its power of compulsory acquisition in bad faith .
= = Subjectively worded powers = =
Another method employed by the legislature to restrict judicial review by the courts is to cast statutory language in a subjective form . A subjectively worded power suggests that the discretion to exercise this power rests entirely with the minister , statutory body or agency referred to , in which case the view might be taken that a court should not query how the power has been exercised . Examples of subjectively worded powers include powers that are stated to be exercisable " if the Minister so directs " or " as the Minister thinks fit " . However , as with ouster clauses , courts have traditionally displayed resistance to such provisions . In practice , they are subject to the normal grounds of judicial review set forth in the UK case Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service ( " the GCHQ case " , 1983 ) ; in other words , the exercise of power may be invalidated if determined to be illegal , irrational or procedurally improper .
= = = In the Internal Security Act = = =
= = = = Subjective or objective test ? = = = =
Section 8 ( 1 ) of the Internal Security Act ( " ISA " ) empowers the Minister for Home Affairs to detain a person without trial if the President " is satisfied " that this step is necessary because the person is , among other things , a threat to national security . Section 10 of the Act states that the Minister can direct that a detention order be suspended subject to conditions " as the Minister sees fit " , and can also revoke such a direction " if he is satisfied " that the detainee failed to observe any condition or if it is necessary in the public interest to do so .
In the seminal Court of Appeal decision Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the respondents submitted that the President 's discretion under section 8 ( 1 ) was subjective , and so was not open to review by the courts . The appellants argued that the discretion was objective , and thus a court of law could review the grounds on which the discretion had been exercised . The Court held that an objective test applied to the subjectively worded powers in sections 8 and 10 , and hence the exercise of these powers was normally challengeable on the GCHQ grounds of judicial review . In coming to this decision , it disapproved of a 1971 High Court decision , Lee Mau Seng v. Minister for Home Affairs , which had held to the contrary . While the Court 's views regarding the applicability of an objective test were obiter , later Singapore decisions have confirmed this as the correct approach . It gave several reasons for its decision . First , the reasoning in cases supporting a subjective test was found to be questionable , and , secondly , such a test was inconsistent with Article 12 ( 1 ) of the Constitution . Finally , the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion was contrary to the rule of law and all powers had legal limits .
= = = = 1989 legislative intervention = = = =
On 25 January 1989 , the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment ) Act 1989 and the Internal Security ( Amendment ) Act 1989 were passed by Parliament to confirm the applicability of the subjective test laid down in Lee Mau Seng as the law governing judicial review of the executive 's discretionary powers under the ISA . These Acts came into force on 27 and 30 January 1989 respectively . Speaking during the Second Reading of the constitutional amendment bill , Minister for Law S. Jayakumar said the Government was taking this step because it was of the view that the courts ' application of an objective test would amount to judicial usurpation of the executive 's functions in matters pertaining to national security , which the judiciary is ill @-@ equipped to deal with . Its stance was that the objective test would empower the courts to substitute their views on the proper exercise of discretionary power conferred under the ISA for that of the executive in contravention of the separation of powers doctrine . Moreover , the judicial process , unlike executive decision @-@ making , was not conducive to a swift response to national security threats . The courts , unlike the executive , lacked access to inadmissible evidence relevant to security matters , and judges did not possess the skill and knowledge of the security experts employed by the executive . Furthermore , the objective test did not find favour with the Government because it had been imported from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth jurisdictions . Since the objective test had been formulated by foreign judges without consideration of Singapore 's local conditions , the Government was averse to the idea of allowing the objective test to shape the development of Singapore law on matters of national security under the ISA .
Jayakumar said that while the Government recognized that the subjective test enhanced the potential for abuse of executive discretion under the ISA , the best safeguard against such abuse of power was not to give the courts powers of judicial review because an unscrupulous government could still tamper with the composition of the courts to impair this judicial check . Instead , the crucial safeguard was for the electorate to make wise voting choices to put an honest and incorruptible government into power .
The amendments to the Constitution paved the way for intended amendments to the ISA . The new Article 149 ( 3 ) stated that if the issue of the validity of any act done or decision made by the President or the Minister for Home Affairs arose in any court proceedings commenced before or after 27 January 1989 , it was to be determined in accordance with any law enacted by Parliament for this purpose , and Article 93 of the Constitution could not be relied upon to invalidate such a law . Pursuant to Article 149 ( 3 ) , Parliament then inserted new sections into the ISA . In particular , section 8B ( 1 ) confirmed the judgment in Lee Mau Seng by declaring that " the law governing the judicial review of any decision made or act done in pursuance of any power conferred upon the President or the Minister by the provisions of this Act shall be the same as was applicable and declared in Singapore on the 13th day of July 1971 ; and no part of the law before , on or after that date of any other country in the Commonwealth relating to judicial review shall apply " . In addition , section 8B ( 1 ) was made subject to section 8B ( 2 ) , which seeks to oust judicial review in any court of any act done or decision made by the President or the Minister under the ISA , save where there is any question which relates to compliance with any procedural requirement of the ISA governing such acts or decisions . Jayakumar said in Parliament that section 8B ( 2 ) sought not only to prevent the courts from questioning the soundness of the subjective test , but also to anticipate any legal challenges on the basis that the subjective test laid down in Lee Mau Seng only applies to the judicial review of detention orders and not to other acts or decisions under the ISA by the President or Minister , such as suspension directions and revocations of such directions .
= = = = Operation of subjectively worded powers in the ISA after the 1989 amendments = = = =
The 1989 amendments to the ISA were challenged before the High Court in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1989 ) . Justice Frederick Arthur Chua held that sections 8B ( 1 ) and 8B ( 2 ) of the ISA govern judicial review in the context of that Act , and thus preclude any consideration of the legal position laid down in the obiter remarks of the Court of Appeal in Chng Suan Tze . Therefore , applying the subjective test , the respondents ' burden of justifying the legality of the applicant 's detention was discharged as the respondents had produced a valid detention order and evidence of the subjective satisfaction of the President , acting on the advice of the Cabinet , that the applicant was a risk to national security .
The applicant then appealed to the Court of Appeal . The Court of Appeal construed section 8B ( 1 ) in accordance with the clear legislative intention expressed through the plain wording of the provision . It held that the provision reinstates the legal position laid down in Lee Mau Seng as the law governing judicial review of decisions made or acts done pursuant to the executive 's powers under the ISA . In order to determine the law on judicial review of the exercise of executive discretion under the ISA , it is necessary to ascertain the exact decision laid down in Lee Mau Seng . However , the Court declined to opine whether the Lee Mau Seng decision meant that a detention order cannot be challenged on the basis that it was made for reasons completely outside the scope of the ISA . This was because on the facts of the case it had not been established that the applicant was re @-@ detained for reasons not contemplated by section 8 ( 1 ) of the ISA and completely unrelated to national security . Notably , the Court did not decide whether section 8B ( 2 ) of the ISA precludes it from reviewing a detention order shown to have been made for purposes other than national security , or whether the 1989 amendments to the ISA are outside the scope of the legislative power conferred on Parliament by the amended Article 149 of the Constitution .
= = = In other statutes = = =
Due to the 1989 amendments to the Constitution and the ISA , the exercise of the subjectively worded powers in the ISA is not judicially reviewable by the courts , except when there has been some non @-@ compliance with the procedures set out in the Act . On the other hand , the objective test laid down in Chng Suan Tze continues to be the law governing judicial review of the exercise of executive discretion under subjectively worded provisions in statutes other than the ISA . In Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General ( 2011 ) , the Court of Appeal opined that the 1989 legislative amendments did not completely reverse Chng Suan Tze . Apart from restricting the courts ' supervisory jurisdiction to reviewing decisions made under the ISA for procedural impropriety , Parliament did not disturb the principle laid down in Chng Suan Tze that the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion – that is , power without legal limits – is contrary to the rule of law , which demands that courts should be able to examine the exercise of discretionary power . Since Parliament did not undermine this principle when it legislatively reversed Chng Suan Tze , it should be taken to have implicitly endorsed the principle .
In Kamal Jit Singh v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1992 ) , the statutory provision in question was section 30 of the Criminal Law ( Temporary Provisions ) Act ( " CLTPA " ) , which states as follows :
Whenever the Minister [ of Home Affairs ] is satisfied with respect to any person , whether the person is at large or in custody , that the person has been associated with activities of a criminal nature , the Minister may , with the consent of the Public Prosecutor —
( a ) if he is satisfied that it is necessary that the person be detained in the interests of public safety , peace and good order , by order under his hand direct that the person be detained for any period not exceeding 12 months from the date of the order ; or
( b ) if he is satisfied that it is necessary that the person be subject to the supervision of the police , by order direct that the person be subject to the supervision of the police for any period not exceeding 3 years from the date of the order . [ Emphasis added . ]
The Court of Appeal suggested that , in the light of Chng Suan Tze , the validity of an order for preventive detention made by the Minister under section 30 of the CLTPA is dependent on the objective satisfaction of the Minister . Moreover , in Re Wong Sin Yee ( 2007 ) , which also involved judicial review of an applicant 's detention under section 30 of the CLTPA , the High Court , following the decision in Chng Suan Tze , held that the absence of the need to establish a jurisdictional or precedent fact meant that the scope of judicial review as regards the exercise of the Minister 's discretion under section 30 was limited to the GCHQ grounds of judicial review . The Court thus applied an objective test to the subjectively worded powers in section 30 ; if it Court had applied a subjective test , it would have deferred to the subjective satisfaction of the Minister that the detention was in the interests of public safety , peace and good order .
= = = Cases = = =
Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission [ 1968 ] UKHL 6 , [ 1969 ] 2 A.C. 147 , House of Lords ( UK ) .
Re Application by Yee Yut Ee [ 1977 – 1978 ] S.L.R. ( R. ) [ Singapore Law Reports ( Reissue ) ] 490 , High Court ( Singapore ) .
Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1988 ] SGCA 16 , [ 1988 ] 2 S.L.R. ( R. ) 525 , Court of Appeal ( Singapore ) , archived from the original on 24 December 2011 .
Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1989 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 461 , H.C. ( Singapore ) ( " Teo Soh Lung ( H.C. ) " ) .
Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs [ 1990 ] 1 S.L.R. ( R. ) 347 , C.A. ( Singapore ) ( " Teo Soh Lung ( C.A. ) " ) .
R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council , ex parte Page [ 1992 ] UKHL 12 , [ 1993 ] A.C. 682 , H.L. ( UK ) .
R. ( Cart ) v. Upper Tribunal [ 2011 ] UKSC 28 , [ 2012 ] 1 A.C. 663 , Supreme Court ( UK ) .
Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney @-@ General [ 2011 ] SGCA 9 , [ 2011 ] 2 S.L.R. 1189 , C.A. ( Singapore ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Cane , Peter ( 2004 ) , " Substantive Review " , An Introduction to Administrative Law ( 4th ed . ) , Oxford : Clarendon Press , pp. 228 – 261 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 926898 @-@ 6 .
Leyland , Peter ; Anthony , Gordon ( 2009 ) , " Express and Implied Limits on Judicial Review : Ouster and Time Limit Clauses , the Prerogative Power , Public Interest Immunity " , Textbook on Administrative Law ( 6th ed . ) , Oxford ; New York , N.Y. : Oxford University Press , pp. 392 – 437 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 921776 @-@ 2 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 10 May 2013 .
= = = Articles = = =
Harding , Andrew J. ( 1980 ) , " Jurisdictional Theory in the Melting Pot : South East Asia Fire Bricks Sdn . Bhd. v. Non @-@ Metallic Mineral Products Manufacturing Employees Union and Others " , Malaya Law Review 22 : 285 – 292 .
Todd , Paul ( 1977 ) , " Review of Ouster Clauses in Administrative Law " , Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 28 ( 3 ) : 274 – 282 .
Wade , H [ enry ] W [ illiam ] R [ awson ] ( 1969 ) , " Constitutional and Administrative Aspects of the Anisminic Case " , Law Quarterly Review 85 : 198 – 212 .
= = = Books = = =
Craig , P [ aul ] P. ( 1995 ) , " Jurisdiction , Judicial Control , and Agency Autonomy " , in Loveland , Ian , A Special Relationship ? American Influences on Public Law in the UK , Oxford : Clarendon Press , p . 173 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 826014 @-@ 1 .
Forsyth , Christopher ( 1998 ) , " ' The Metaphysic of Nullity ' – Invalidity , Conceptual Reasoning and the Rule of Law " , in Forsyth , Christopher ; Hare , Ivan , The Golden Metwand and the Crooked Cord : Essays on Public Law in Honour of Sir William Wade QC , Oxford : Clarendon Press , pp. 141 – 160 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 826469 @-@ 9 .
Wade , [ Henry ] William [ Rawson ] ; Forsyth , Christopher ( 2009 ) , " Restriction of Remedies " , Administrative Law ( 10th ed . ) , Oxford : Oxford University Press , pp. 582 – 634 at 610 – 631 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 923161 @-@ 4 .
= Maryland Route 228 =
Maryland Route 228 ( MD 228 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Berry Road , the state highway runs 6 @.@ 88 miles ( 11 @.@ 07 km ) from MD 210 in Accokeek east to U.S. Route 301 ( US 301 ) and MD 5 Business in Waldorf . MD 228 , which is a four @-@ lane divided highway for its entire length , is a major commuter route between southwestern Prince George 's County and northern Charles County . In conjunction with MD 210 , the state highway serves as an alternative to US 301 and MD 5 as a route to Washington from Southern Maryland . MD 228 also serves as part of the connection , again via MD 210 , between Waldorf and Indian Head Naval Surface Warfare Center .
MD 228 did not originally connect Waldorf with Accokeek ; instead , the state highway headed west from Waldorf and turned south near the Prince George 's – Charles county line , following what is now MD 229 to Pomfret . The state highway was built from Pomfret to Berry in the late 1920s . MD 228 was completed between Berry and Waldorf in the mid @-@ 1930s . MD 228 was expanded to a divided highway in Charles County and extended into Prince George 's County in the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2000 , the Prince George 's County section of the state highway was reconstructed as a divided highway west to the MD 210 intersection , which was rebuilt as the second continuous @-@ flow intersection in the U.S.
= = Route description = =
MD 228 begins at a continuous @-@ flow intersection with MD 210 ( Indian Head Highway ) in Accokeek . Three lanes leave southbound MD 210 and intersect northbound MD 210 . A short distance to the southeast , those lanes intersect a single lane from westbound MD 228 to southbound MD 210 ; that lane intersects northbound MD 210 to the northwest . The two lanes from westbound MD 228 seamlessly join northbound MD 210 , while a single lane ramp from northbound MD 210 joins eastbound MD 228 . The auxiliary lanes from the continuous @-@ flow intersection merge into the state highway 's four @-@ lane divided profile before intersecting Manning Road East ( unsigned MD 810I ) , which serves a shopping center to the west and the historic home Bellevue to the east .
MD 228 heads east through a forested area , intersecting Bealle Hill Road ( unsigned MD 228A ) immediately before crossing over Mattawoman Creek into Charles County . On the east side of the stream crossing , the state highway intersects MD 229 ( Bensville Road ) , the old alignment of MD 228 . MD 228 continues east between residential subdivisions along the northern tier of Charles County . The state highway crosses Piney Branch , a tributary of Mattawoman Creek , and passes the highway 's old alignment of Bunker Hill Road to the south in the hamlet of Berry . MD 228 curves to the southeast after passing Ironwood Drive and enters Waldorf . At Western Parkway , a county @-@ maintained suburban boulevard that parallels US 301 to the west through Waldorf , MD 228 gains continuous right @-@ turn lanes in both directions and enters a commercial area . The state highway reaches its eastern terminus at US 301 ( Robert Crain Highway ) . The roadway continues on the east side of the intersection as MD 5 Business ( Leonardtown Road ) , which heads southeast through the center of Waldorf before intersecting MD 5 on the east side of town .
MD 228 is a part of the main National Highway System for its entire length .
= = History = =
MD 228 originally included Bensville Road and Berry Road east of the highway 's modern intersection with MD 229 . The two named roads met at a defunct intersection with Bealle Hill Road south of Mattawoman Creek . A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide gravel road was constructed from MD 227 in Pomfret to Bennsville in 1925 and 1926 . The highway was extended to the crossing of Piney Branch in 1927 and to Berry in 1928 . MD 228 was constructed west from MD 3 ( later US 301 and now MD 925 ) to Hamilton Road ( now Western Parkway ) in 1933 . The state highway was completed in 1936 when the gap between Berry and Hamilton Road was filled . The Berry Road portion of MD 228 was reconstructed in 1958 and 1959 , leaving behind Bunker Hill Road as an old alignment .
The reconstruction of MD 228 in its modern form and course began in the early 1990s . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway from US 301 west to Sharpersville Road in Berry in 1993 . MD 228 was extended into Prince George 's County on a pair of new bridges over Mattawoman Creek in 1995 . The divided highway extended to just west of a new intersection with Bealle Hill Road ; the state highway continued west as a two @-@ lane road to a standard intersection with MD 210 . Bennsville Road was renumbered as MD 229 by 1997 . The MD 228 divided highway was extended west to MD 210 and the MD 228 – MD 210 junction was reconstructed as a continuous @-@ flow intersection in 2000 . That intersection became the second continuous @-@ flow intersection in the U.S.
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 228A is the designation for a 0 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 26 km ) section of Bealle Hill Road immediately to the north of the highway 's intersection with MD 228 just west of Mattawoman Creek in Accokeek .
= 2nd Army ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 2nd Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : 2 @.@ armija ) was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković that opposed the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II . It consisted of three infantry divisions and one horsed cavalry regiment . It formed part of the 2nd Army Group , and was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border along the Drava river from Slatina to the Danube .
The 2nd Army was not directly attacked during the first few days after the invasion commenced , but attacks on its flanks from 10 April resulted in successive orders to withdraw to the lines of the Danube and then the Sava . On 11 April , the Hungarians crossed the border in the sector for which the 2nd Army had been responsible , but the Yugoslavs were already withdrawing and the Hungarians faced almost no resistance . On the same day , the German 8th Panzer Division , driving on Belgrade into the flank of the 2nd Army , had effectively routed the entire 2nd Army Group . The disintegration of the 2nd Army as a combat force was accelerated by fifth column activities and desertion by many of its Croat soldiers . The Germans captured Belgrade on 12 April . Remnants of the 2nd Army continued to resist along the line of the Sava on 14 April , and the headquarters of the 2nd Army was rebuffed when it contacted the Germans in an attempt to negotiate a separate ceasefire . On 14 – 15 April , tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were captured . The Germans closed on Sarajevo , capturing it on 15 April , and accepted the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April , which came into effect at 12 : 00 the following day .
= = Composition = =
The 2nd Army was commanded by Armijski đeneral Dragoslav Miljković , and his chief of staff was Brigadni đeneral Bogdan Maglić . It was organised and mobilised on a geographic basis from the 2nd Army District , which was divided into divisional districts , each of which was subdivided into regimental regions . The 2nd Army consisted of :
10th Infantry Division Bosanska
17th Infantry Division Vrbaska
30th Infantry Division Osiječka
76th Cavalry Regiment ( horse )
Its support units included the 76th Artillery Regiment , the 2nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Battalion , the 2nd Army Anti @-@ Aircraft Company , and a border guard battalion at Subotica . The 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group comprising sixteen Breguet 19s was attached from the Royal Yugoslav Air Force and was based at Staro Topolje just east of Brod .
= = Deployment = =
The 2nd Army was part of the 2nd Army Group , which was responsible for the eastern section of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border , with the 2nd Army in the Baranya and Slavonia regions between Slatina and the Danube , and the 1st Army in the Bačka region between the Danube and the Tisza . On the left flank of the 2nd Army was the 4th Army of the 1st Army Group , which was responsible for the defence of the Yugoslav – Hungarian border west of Slatina . The boundary with the 4th Army ran from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . The Yugoslav defence plan saw the 2nd Army deployed from the boundary with the 4th Army to the Danube , with two divisions along the line of the Drava and one division in depth . Of the formations of the 2nd Army , the 10th Infantry Division Bosanska and the 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska were partly mobilised , and the 30th Infantry Division Osiječka had only commenced mobilisation . The deployment of the 2nd Army from west to east was :
17th Infantry Division Vrbaska south of the Drava from just east of Slatina to Valpovo
30th Infantry Division Osiječka astride the Drava from Valpovo to the confluence with the Danube , centred on Osijek
10th Infantry Division Bosanska in depth on the right flank , behind the Vuka river , centred on Vinkovci
The 33rd Infantry Division Lička , which was under the direct command of the General Headquarters of the VKJ , was deployed further south behind the Sava river , centred on Doboj .
= = Operations = =
The 2nd Army faced the Hungarian 3rd Army , and during the first few days after the commencement of the invasion , there were exchanges of fire with Hungarian border guards , but the 2nd Army faced no direct attacks . Neither the 2nd Army nor the Hungarians were ready for full @-@ scale fighting , as they were still mobilising and deploying their forces . On 9 April , due to events in other parts of Yugoslavia , the 6th Army on the right flank of the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw south of the Danube and deploy on a line facing east to defend against an attack from the direction of Sofia , Bulgaria . The headquarters of the 2nd Army issued orders to evacuate Baranja and reinforce the left flank .
The following day , the situation deteriorated significantly when the German XLI Motorised Corps crossed the Yugoslav – Romanian border into the Yugoslav Banat and struck the 6th Army , halting its withdrawal and disrupting its ability to organise a coherent defence behind the Danube . Also on 10 April , the main thrust of the XLVI Motorised Corps of the 2nd Army , consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs in the 4th Army sector on the left of the 2nd Army . The 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers , and meeting almost no resistance and with strong air support , had reached the left flank of the 2nd Army at Slatina by evening , despite poor roads and bad weather .
Later that day , as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country , Dušan Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff , broadcast the following message :
All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .
The 2nd Army was able to evacuate Baranja and organised a defence of the left flank of the 2nd Army Group , now threatened by the 8th Panzer Division , but Croat reservists began to desert their units due to the fifth column activities of the fascist Ustaše and their sympathisers . This significantly reducing the combat power of the 2nd Army . By the evening of 10 April , the 2nd Army Group was ordered to withdraw from this line and form a defensive line behind the Sava , from Debrc to the confluence with the Vrbas river , for which one or two days would be needed . On the night of 10 / 11 April , the whole 2nd Army Group continued its withdrawal , but units of the 2nd Army that included significant numbers of Croats began to dissolve .
At dawn on 11 April , Hungarian forces , consisting of the Mobile , IV and V Corps of Altábornagy ( Lieutenant General ) Elemér Gorondy @-@ Novák 's 3rd Army , crossed the Yugoslav border north of Osijek and near Subotica , overcame Yugoslav border guards and advanced on Subotica and Palić . The XLVI Motorised Corps continued to push east south of the Drava , with the 8th Panzer Division capturing Našice , Osijek on the Drava , and Vukovar on the Danube , followed by the 16th Motorised Infantry Division which advanced east of Našice , despite bridge demolitions and poor roads . The 8th Panzer Division had effectively routed the 2nd Army Group by 11 April . On the same day , the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group Breguet 19s were flown from Staro Topolje to Bijeljina . The following day , Messerschmitt Bf 110s of I Group of the 26th Heavy Fighter Wing ( German : Zerstörerg
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J allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced . In response , Singapore 's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city @-@ state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with .
A week after the delivery of the ICJ 's judgment , the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ( " Island " ) for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as " Batu Puteh " or " Pedra Branca " . On 21 July 2008 , in response to questions from Singapore Members of Parliament about Pedra Branca , the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Balaji Sadasivan stated that the maritime territory around the island included a territorial sea of up to 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) and an Exclusive Economic Zone . This was condemned by Malaysia 's Foreign Minister Rais Yatim as " against the spirit of Asean and the legal structure " as the claim was " unacceptable and unreasonable and contradicts the principles of international law " . In response , a Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman said that Singapore first stated its claim to a territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone on 15 September 1980 , and reiterated this claim on 23 May 2008 following the ICJ 's judgment . Both statements had made clear that if the limits of Singapore 's territorial sea or Exclusive Economic Zone overlapped with the claims of neighbouring countries , Singapore would negotiate with those countries to arrive at agreed delimitations in accordance with international law . In August 2008 , Rais said Malaysia took the view that Singapore was not entitled to claim an Exclusive Economic Zone around Pedra Branca as it considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .
At the National Day Awards in August 2008 , Singapore announced that awards would be conferred on a number of people and organisations for their special contributions towards the Pedra Branca case . Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong ; Tommy Koh , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large ; and Justice Chao Hick Tin , then Attorney @-@ General of Singapore , who appeared as counsel and advocates for Singapore , would respectively be awarded the Darjah Utama Temasek ( Order of Temasek ) ( Second Class ) , the Darjah Utama Nila Utama ( Order of Nila Utama ) ( First Class ) , and the Darjah Utama Bakti Cemerlang ( Distinguished Service Order ) . The Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorius Service Medal ) would be conferred on Sivakant Tiwari s / o Thakurprasad Tiwari , Special Consultant to the International Affairs Division of the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers . Twenty @-@ two people from the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers , Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore , Ministry of Defence , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , National Archives of Singapore , National Library Board , National University of Singapore and Supreme Court of Singapore would receive the Pingat Pentadbiran Awam ( Public Administration Medal ) , the Pingat Kepujian ( Commendation Medal ) and the Pingat Berkebolehan ( Efficiency Medal ) . The President 's Certificate of Commendation would be issued to the Coastal Command ( COSCOM ) , Republic of Singapore Navy ; the Police Coast Guard , Singapore Police Force ; the Centre for Heritage Services , Ministry of Defence ; the National Archives of Singapore ; and the Hydrographic Department , Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore . The awards were presented on 17 November 2008 .
= = = Resolution of outstanding issues = = =
Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge . Following a meeting on 3 June 2008 , the Committee agreed that a technical sub @-@ committee would be established to oversee the conduct of joint survey works to prepare the way for talks on maritime issues in and around the area . If any incident occurred in and around the waters of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , either side would provide humanitarian assistance to the vessels involved . Finally , both Malaysian and Singaporean fishermen could continue traditional fishing activities in those waters . In September 2008 , the Joint Technical Committee reported that its Sub @-@ Committee on Joint Survey Works was finalising technical preparations for a hydrographic survey that would provide data for future delimitation discussions . A Sub @-@ Committee on Maritime and Airspace Management and Fisheries had also been formed , and after a meeting on 20 August 2008 it decided that traditional fishing activities by both countries should continue in waters beyond 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 0 @.@ 9 km ; 0 @.@ 6 mi ) off Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge .
= = = Articles = = =
" Pedra Branca " , Singapore : The Encyclopedia , Singapore : Editions Didier Millet for the National Heritage Board , 2006 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4155 @-@ 63 @-@ 2 , archived from the original on 29 April 2010 .
= = = Books = = =
Hall @-@ Jones , John ( 1995 ) , The Horsburgh Lighthouse , Invercargill , N.Z. : John Hall @-@ Jones , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 473 @-@ 03205 @-@ 0 ( pbk . ) .
Jayakumar , S. ; Koh , Tommy ( 2008 ) , Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court , Singapore : NUS Press in association with MFA Diplomatic Academy , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 474 @-@ 6 ( hbk . ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 457 @-@ 9 ( pbk . ) .
Pavitt , J.A.L. ( 1966 ) , First Pharos of the Eastern Seas : Horsburgh Lighthouse , Singapore : Donald Moore Press , OCLC 1855904 .
Thomson , J [ ohn ] T [ urnbull ] ( 1852 ) , Account of the Horsburgh Light @-@ house , Erected on Pedra Branca , near Singapore , Singapore : G.M. Fredrick , OCLC 500001469 .
= = = News reports = = =
I Made Andi Arsana ( 24 June 2008 ) , " Singapore gets Pedra Branca : What 's next ? " , The Jakarta Post .
Majawat , Evangeline ( 24 July 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca EEZ : Singapore 's claim on shaky ground " , New Straits Times , archived from the original on 30 July 2008 .
Zakir Hussain ( 20 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca story told in a book : Jayakumar and Tommy Koh give behind @-@ the @-@ scenes account of 30 @-@ year saga " , The Straits Times , p . A4 .
Teo Xuanwei ( 20 – 21 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca : Through storm and fire " , Today , pp. 1 and 6 , archived from the original on 21 December 2008 .
= = = Images = = =
Pedra Branca , Singapore – an aerial photograph from Flickr
Satellite image of the island from Google Maps
= City of Manchester Stadium =
The City of Manchester Stadium in Manchester , England , also known as the Etihad Stadium for sponsorship reasons , is the home ground of Manchester City Football Club and , with a domestic football capacity of 55 @,@ 097 , is the third @-@ largest stadium in the Premier League and eighth @-@ largest in the United Kingdom .
Built to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games , the stadium has since staged the 2008 UEFA Cup Final , England football internationals , rugby league matches , a boxing world title fight , the England rugby union team 's last match of the 2015 Rugby World Cup and music concerts .
The stadium , originally proposed as an athletics arena in Manchester 's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics , was converted after the 2002 Commonwealth Games from a 38 @,@ 000 capacity arena to a 48 @,@ 000 seat football stadium at a cost to the city council of £ 22 million and to Manchester City of £ 20 million . It was agreed in 1997 that Manchester City F.C. would lease the stadium from Manchester City Council and move from their aging Maine Road ground - a move which took place in the summer of 2003 .
The stadium was built by Laing Construction at a cost of £ 112 million and was designed and engineered by ArupSport , whose design incorporated a cable @-@ stayed roof structure , suspended by twelve exterior masts and attached cables . The stadium design has received much praise and many accolades , including an award from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004 for its innovative inclusive building design , and a special award in 2003 from the Institution of Structural Engineers for its unique structural design .
In August 2015 , a 7 @,@ 000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed , in time for the start of the 2015 – 16 football season . The expansion was designed to be in keeping with the existing roof design . A North Stand third tier has planning approval and work on it is expected to begin by 2017 , increasing capacity to around 61 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Plans to build a new stadium in Manchester were formulated before 1989 as part of the city 's bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics . Manchester City Council submitted a bid that included a design for an 80 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium on a greenfield site west of Manchester city centre . The bid failed and Atlanta hosted the Games . Four years later the city council bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics , but this time focusing on a brownfield site 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) east of the city centre on derelict land that was the site of Bradford Colliery , known colloquially as Eastlands . The council 's shift in focus was driven by emerging government legislation on urban renewal , promising vital support funding for such projects ; the government became involved in funding the purchase and clearance of the Eastlands site in 1992 .
For the February 1993 bid the city council submitted another 80 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium design produced by design consultants Arup Associates , the firm that helped select the Eastlands site . On 23 September 1993 , the games were awarded to Sydney , but the following year Manchester submitted the same scheme design to the Millennium Commission as a " Millennium Stadium " , only to have this proposal rejected . Undeterred , Manchester City Council subsequently bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games , once again proposing the same site along with downsized stadium plans derived from the 2000 Olympics bid , and this time were successful . In 1996 , this same planned stadium competed with Wembley Stadium to gain funding to become the new national stadium , but the money was used to redevelop Wembley .
After successful athletics events at the Commonwealth Games , conversion into a football venue was criticised by athletics figures such as Jonathan Edwards and Sebastian Coe as , at the time , the United Kingdom still lacked plans for a large athletics venue due to the capability of installing an athletics track having been dropped from the designs for a rebuilt Wembley Stadium . Had either of the two larger stadium proposals developed by Arup been agreed for funding , then Manchester would have ended up with a venue capable of being adapted to hosting large @-@ scale athletics events through the use of movable seating .
Sport England wished to avoid creating a white elephant , so they insisted that the City Council agree to undertake and fund extensive work to convert CoMS from a track and field arena to a football stadium , thereby ensuring its long @-@ term financial viability . Sport England hoped either Manchester City Council or Manchester City F.C. would provide the extra £ 50 million required to convert the stadium to a 65 @,@ 000 seater athletics and footballing venue with movable seating . However , Manchester City Council did not have the money to facilitate movable seating and Manchester City were lukewarm about the idea . Stadium architects Arup Sport believed history demonstrated that maintaining a rarely used athletics track often does not work with football – and cited examples such as the Stadio delle Alpi and the Munich Olympic Stadium , with both Juventus and Bayern Munich moving to new stadiums less than 40 years after inheriting them .
= = = 2002 Commonwealth Games = = =
The stadium 's foundation stone was laid by Prime Minister Tony Blair in December 1999 , and construction began in January 2000 . The stadium was designed by Arup Associates and constructed by Laing Construction at a cost of approximately £ 112 million , £ 77 million of which was provided by Sport England , with the remainder funded by Manchester City Council . For the Commonwealth Games , the stadium featured a single lower tier of seating running around three sides of the athletics track , and second tiers to the two sides , with an open @-@ air temporary stand at the northern end ; initially providing a seating capacity for the Games of 38 @,@ 000 , subsequently extended to 41 @,@ 000 through the installation of additional temporary trackside seating along the east and south stands .
The first public event at the stadium was the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games on 25 July 2002 . Among the dignitaries present was Queen Elizabeth II who made a speech , delivered to her in an electronic baton , and ' declared the Commonwealth Games open ' . During the following ten days of competition , the stadium hosted the track and field events and all the rugby sevens matches . Sixteen new Commonwealth Games track and field records ( six men 's and ten women 's ) were set in the stadium , eight of which ( three men 's and five women 's records ) are still extant after three subsequent series of Games in 2006 , 2010 and 2014 . Prior to the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London , the 2002 Games was the largest multi @-@ sport event ever to be staged in the UK , eclipsing the earlier London 1948 Summer Olympics in numbers of teams and competing athletes ( 3 @,@ 679 ) , and it was the world 's first multi @-@ sport tournament to include a limited number of full medal events for elite athletes with a disability ( EAD ) . In terms of number of participating nations , it is still the largest Commonwealth Games in history , featuring 72 nations competing in 281 events across seventeen ( fourteen individual and three team ) sports .
= = = Stadium conversion = = =
Sections of the track were removed and relaid at other athletics venues , and the internal ground level was lowered to make way for an additional tier of seating , on terracing already constructed then buried for the original configuration . The two temporary stands with a total capacity of 16 @,@ 000 were dismantled , and replaced with a permanent structure of similar design to the existing one at the southern end . This work took nearly a year to complete and added 23 @,@ 000 permanent seats , increasing the capacity of the converted stadium by 7 @,@ 000 to approximately 48 @,@ 000 . Manchester City F.C. moved to the ground in time for the start of the 2003 – 04 season . The total cost of this conversion was in excess of £ 40 million , with the track , pitch and seating conversion being funded by the city council at a cost of £ 22 million ; and the installation of bars , restaurants and corporate entertainment areas throughout the stadium being funded by the football club at a cost of £ 20 million . The Games had made a small operating surplus , and Sport England agreed that this could be reinvested in converting the athletics warm @-@ up track adjacent to the main stadium into the 6 @,@ 000 seat Manchester Regional Arena at a cost of £ 3.5m.
= = = Stadium expansion = = =
The stadium is owned by Manchester City Council and leased by the football club . The 2008 takeover made the football club one of the wealthiest in the world , prompting suggestions that it could consider buying the stadium outright . Manchester City signed an agreement with Manchester City Council in March 2010 to allow a £ 1 billion redevelopment led by architect Rafael Viñoly .
During the 2010 closed season the football pitch and hospitality areas were renovated , with a £ 1 million investment being made in the playing surface so that it is better able to tolerate concerts and other events without damage . In October 2010 , Manchester City renegotiated the stadium lease , obtaining the naming rights to the stadium in return for agreeing to now pay the City Council an annual fixed sum of £ 3 million where previously it had only paid half of the ticket sales revenue from match attendances exceeding 35 @,@ 000 . This new agreement occurred as part of a standard 5 @-@ year review of the original lease and it amounts to an approximate £ 1 million annual increase in council revenues from the stadium . During 2011 @-@ 14 the club sold all 36 @,@ 000 of its allocated season tickets each season and experienced an average match attendance that is very close to its maximum seating capacity ( see table in previous section ) . Consequently , during the 2014 @-@ 15 season an expansion of the stadium was undertaken . The South Stand was extended with the addition of a third tier which , in conjunction with an additional three rows of pitch side seating , increased stadium capacity to approximately 55 @,@ 000 . Construction commenced on the South Stand in April 2014 and was completed for the start of the 2015 @-@ 16 season .
A final phase of expansion , that received planning approval at the same time as the others but which remains unscheduled , will add a matching third tier of seats to the North Stand . Once this last phase is completed it will bring the stadium 's total seating capacity up to approximately 61 @,@ 000 , making the Etihad Stadium the nation 's second largest capacity club ground .
= = Architecture = =
When planning the development , Manchester City Council required a sustainable landmark structure that would be an icon for the regeneration of the once heavily industrialised site surrounding Bradford Colliery , as well as providing spectators with good sightlines in an atmospheric arena . Arup Associates designed the stadium to be " an intimate , even intimidating , gladiatorial arena embodying the atmosphere of a football club " with the pitch six metres below ground level , a feature of Roman gladiatorial arenas and amphitheatres . The attention to detail , often absent in stadium design , has been remarked upon , including the cigar @-@ shaped roof supports with blue lighting beacons , sculpted rainwater gutters , poly @-@ carbonate perimeter roof edging and openable louvres to aid pitch grass growth with similarities also made to High @-@ tech architecture .
= = = Iconic roof design = = =
The toroidal @-@ shaped stadium roof is held together by a tensioned system , which has been described as " ground @-@ breaking " by New Steel Construction magazine . The stadium 's architectural focal point is the sweeping roof and support masts which are separate from the concrete bowl . A catenary cable is situated around the inner perimeter of the roof structure which is tied to the masts via forestay cables . Backstay cables and corner ties from the masts are connected to the ground to support the structure . With the expansion of the South Stand in 2015 to accommodate a third tier of seating , the original south end roof was dismantled ; but with the southern masts and corner ties remaining , so as to continue to tie the catenary cable which now runs below the new roof . The new higher South Stand roof is a separate structure , with its own set of braced masts and cables ; and it is expected that a counterpart arrangement will be adopted for the proposed North Stand expansion .
Cables are attached to the twelve masts circling the stadium with rafters and purlins for additional rigid support . The cigar @-@ shaped masts double as visual features , with the highest at 70 metres ( 230 ft ) . Access to the upper tiers of seats is provided by eight circular ramps with conical roofs resembling turrets above which eight of the twelve masts rise up providing the support structure for the roof .
The roof of the south , east and west stands built for the athletics stadium configuration was supported by the cable net system . The temporary open stand at the north end was built around the masts and tie down cables that would ultimately support the roof of the North Stand . After the games the track and field were excavated . The temporary bleachers at the north end were removed and the North Stand and lower tier of seats constructed on the prepared excavation . The North Stand roof was completed by adding rafters , purlins and cladding .
= = = Facilities and pitch = = =
The stadium has facilities for players and match officials in a basement area below the west stand , which also contains a kitchen providing meals for up to 6 @,@ 000 people on match days , press rooms , ground staff storage , and a prison cell . The stadium also has conference facilities and is licensed for marriage ceremonies . Fitting out of the hospitality suites , kitchens , offices , and concourse concessions was accomplished by KSS Architects , and included the installation of the communications cabling and automatic access control system .
The stadium 's interior comprises a continuous oval bowl , with three tiers of seating at the sides , and two tiers at each end . Entry by patrons is gained by contactless smart card rather than traditional manned turnstiles . The system can admit up to 1 @,@ 200 people per minute through all entrances . A service tunnel under the stadium provides access for emergency vehicles and the visiting team 's coach to enter the stadium directly . Once inside the stadium patrons have access to six themed restaurants , two of which have views of the pitch , and there are 70 executive boxes above the second tier of seating in the north , west and east stands .
To create the optimum grass playing surface in the stadium bowl , the roof was designed to maximise sunlight by using a ten @-@ metre band of translucent polycarbonate at its periphery . Additionally , each of the corners of the stadium without seating have perforated walls with moveable louvres that can be adjusted to provide ventilation of the grass and general airflow through the stadium . Drainage and under @-@ pitch heating were installed to provide optimum growing conditions for the grass . The pitch has a UEFA standard dimension of 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) . and is covered with natural grass reinforced by artificial fibres made by Desso . The field of play is lit by 218 2000 @-@ watt floodlights , consuming a total of 436 @,@ 000 watts . The grass playing surface is recognised as being one of the best in English football , and has been nominated five times in the last nine seasons for best Premier League pitch , an accolade it won in 2010 – 11 among other awards .
= = Names = =
The stadium was named the City of Manchester Stadium by Manchester City Council before construction began in December 1999 , but has a number of commonly used alternatives . City of Manchester Stadium is abbreviated to CoMS when written and spoken . Eastlands refers to the site and the stadium before they were named SportCity and CoMS respectively , and remains in common usage for both the stadium and the whole complex , as does SportCity but with less frequency . The stadium was also officially referred to as Manchester City Stadium for the 2015 Rugby World Cup . The football club , under its new ownership , renegotiated its 250 @-@ year lease with the city council in October 2010 , gaining the naming rights in return for a substantial increase in rent . The stadium was renamed the Etihad Stadium by the club in July 2011 as part of a ten @-@ year agreement with the team kit sponsors Etihad Airways . The agreement encompasses sponsorship of the stadium 's name , extends the team kit sponsorship for ten years , and includes plans to relocate the club 's youth academy and training facilities to the City Football Academy on a new campus development adjacent to the stadium .
Despite being a continuous oval bowl , each side of the stadium is named in the manner of a traditional football ground . All sides were initially named by compass direction ( North Stand and South Stand for the ends , East Stand and West Stand for the sides ) . In February 2004 , after a vote by fans , the West Stand was renamed the Colin Bell Stand in honour of the former player . The vote was almost cancelled ( and the stand instead named after Joe Mercer ) due to suspicions it had been hijacked by rival fans who wished to dub the renamed stand The Bell End . However , core supporters of the club made it clear they still wished the stand named after their hero . The East Stand is unofficially known by fans as the Kippax as a tribute to the very vocal east stand at the club 's Maine Road ground .
The North Stand is the only part of the stadium built after the Commonwealth Games , during the stadium 's conversion . The temporary unroofed north stand it replaced had been dubbed the New Gene Kelly Stand by supporters , a reference to the unroofed corner between the Kippax and the North Stand at the club 's former Maine Road home , because , being exposed to the elements , they frequently found themselves " singing in the rain . " Commencing season 2010 – 11 , seating in the North Stand has been restricted to only supporters accompanied by children , resulting in this end of the ground now being commonly referred to as the Family Stand . Although the North Stand has never been officially renamed and is still frequently referenced that way , most external ticketing offices and stadium guides , in addition to the club itself , now preferentially label and refer to this section of the ground as the Family Stand when discussing seating and ticket sales . Supporters initially dubbed the South Stand the Scoreboard End ( the former name of the North Stand at Maine Road ) , and it houses the majority of City 's more vocal fans . Supporters of visiting teams are also normally allocated seats in this stand . From 2003 to 2006 it was renamed the Key 103 Stand for sponsorship reasons , though this was largely ignored by regular patrons .
= = SportCity = =
The stadium is the centrepiece of SportCity , which includes several other nationally important sporting venues . Adjacent to the stadium is the Manchester Regional Arena , which served as a warm @-@ up track during the Commonwealth Games and is now a 6 @,@ 178 @-@ capacity venue that hosts national athletics trials , but has previously also hosted the home games of both the Manchester City women 's team and the club 's U21 reserve team . The Regional Arena has regularly hosted the AAA Championships and Paralympic World Cup , and is currently the home ground of amateur rugby league side Manchester Rangers .
The National Squash Centre and the National Cycling Centre , which includes both the Manchester Velodrome and the National Indoor BMX Arena , are all a short distance from the stadium . The Squash Centre - which has hosted the British National Squash Championships since 2003 - was added to the SportCity complex for the Commonwealth Games along with CoMS . The Velodrome , another showpiece venue used to stage all the track cycling events for the Games , was already in place and had been home to British Cycling , the governing body for cycling in Britain , since it was built in 1994 as part of Manchester ’ s unsuccessful 2000 Olympics bid . Prior to the completion of the Lee Valley VeloPark for the 2012 Summer Olympics , the Velodrome had been the only indoor Olympic @-@ standard track in the United Kingdom . The collocated BMX Arena houses the United Kingdom ’ s only permanent indoor BMX track and provides seating for up two thousand spectators . It was added to the National Cycling Centre at SportCity in 2011 .
Other major sporting and sport @-@ related venues located in SportCity in the immediate vicinity of the Etihad Stadium - all legacies of the 2002 Commonwealth Games - are the English Institute of Sport , west of the stadium , adjacent to the southwest corner of the Regional Arena ; the Manchester Regional Tennis Centre , adjacent to the north end of the stadium ; and the Manchester Tennis & Football Centre , also adjacent to the stadium , which is operated and administered by the Manchester Sport and Leisure Trust .
= = = Public sculpture = = =
Between 11 March ( Commonwealth Day ) and 10 August 2002 , as part of the preparations for the upcoming Commonwealth Games and to celebrate Her Majesty the Queen 's Golden Jubilee , a national Spirit of Friendship Festival was organised . On 9 July , a few weeks before the Games began , a sculpture outside the new national headquarters of the English Institute of Sport at SportCity was unveiled by the middle @-@ distance runner , Steve Cram MBE . This sculpture , commissioned in late 2001 , was created in a little over eight weeks by Altrincham @-@ based artist , Colin Spofforth , who had submitted to Manchester City Council his idea for a heroic @-@ sized sculpture of a sprinter as a means of celebrating the beauty , power and determination of the competing athletes . Reaching thirty feet high , weighing seven tonnes , and titled The Runner , this unique larger @-@ than @-@ life bronze statue of a male sprinter surmounting a bronze globe was , at the time , the UK 's largest sporting sculpture . It depicts the very moment the runner leaves the blocks once the starter 's gun has fired .
From 2005 to 2009 a Thomas Heatherwick sculpture , B of the Bang , was situated to the southeast of the stadium at the junction of Ashton New Road and Alan Turing Way . Built after the Commonwealth Games to commemorate them , it was the tallest sculpture in the UK . However , numerous structural problems led to the 184 ft. sculpture being dismantled in 2009 for safety reasons . In 2014 , money recovered by the Manchester City Council as a result of lengthy legal battles consequent to this debacle was used to fund a new £ 341 @,@ 000 public sculpture a few hundred yards further south .
= = Stadium firsts = =
The first public football match at the stadium was a friendly between Manchester City and Barcelona on 10 August 2003 . Manchester City won the game 2 – 1 , with Nicolas Anelka scoring the first ever goal in the stadium .
The first competitive match followed four days later , a UEFA Cup match between Manchester City and Welsh Premier League side The New Saints , which City won 5 – 0 with Trevor Sinclair scoring the first competitive goal in the stadium . Having started the Premier League season with an away match , Manchester City 's first home league fixture in the new stadium was on 23 August , a game drawn 1 – 1 with Portsmouth , with Pompey 's Yakubu scoring the first league goal in the stadium .
2011 – 2012 saw the Etihad Stadium play host to the setting of a number of new club and Premier League footballing records , such as the club becoming the first ever team to win 11 of its opening 12 games in a Premier League season , and going on to remain unbeaten at the Etihad Stadium in all nineteen of the Premier League games played there . The club 's record of 55 home points out of a possible 57 at the stadium is a joint best Premier League record , and the club 's record of twenty consecutive home wins at the stadium ( going back to the end of the previous season ) also set a new Premier League record in March 2012 .
The record football attendance at the stadium not involving its host team Manchester City is 43 @,@ 878 which was set at the 2008 UEFA Cup Final game between Zenit Saint Petersburg and Rangers on 14 May 2008 . As is customary for such games , the then 47 @,@ 715 maximum physical capacity of the stadium had been reduced by UEFA to around 44 @,@ 000 for this final . However , neither limit would have been able to accommodate the vast number of supporters of the Scottish club , estimated to be in excess of 130 @,@ 000 , that travelled down from Glasgow to Manchester on the day of the game , despite the club 's official ticket allocation being just 13 @,@ 000 and police requests for fans without tickets to stay home . This order of magnitude mismatch between the numbers of traveling fans and those holding tickets ultimately led to a serious public disorder incident in the centre of the city now inextricably associated with this final , despite the fact that the 44 @,@ 000 or so crowd who watched the game inside the stadium were perfectly well @-@ behaved .
= = Reception = =
The 2002 Commonwealth Games were deemed a success and the stadium gained critical acclaim for its atmosphere and architectural design . It has won a number of design awards , including the 2004 Royal Institute of British Architects Inclusive Design Award for inclusive building design , the 2003 Institution of Structural Engineers Structural Special Award , and in 2002 a BCI Major Project high commendation was awarded by the British Construction Industry . In July 2014 , the stadium was declared one of the United Kingdom 's five most iconic structures by the Construction Industry Training Board .
In 2003 , initial reception by Manchester City supporters was polarised , with some lukewarm about moving from Maine Road which had a reputation for being one of English football 's most atmospheric grounds , whilst others were enthusiastic about the bigger stadium and move back to East Manchester where the club was formed . Since 2010 , the club has boasted more than 36 @,@ 000 season ticket holders each season , which is more than the 35 @,@ 150 maximum capacity of Maine Road just before the club moved homes .
A 2007 Premier League survey found that fans thought sight lines at the stadium were the second best in the Premier League after the Emirates Stadium . Opposition fans have generally given positive feedback , with CoMS coming second to Old Trafford in a 2005 poll to find the United Kingdom 's favourite football ground . In 2010 , the City of Manchester Stadium was the third most visited stadium after Old Trafford and Anfield by overseas visitors .
In the early years of Manchester City 's tenure , the stadium suffered from a poor atmosphere , a common problem with modern stadia when compared with traditional football grounds such as Maine Road . In the 2007 Premier League
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survey , Manchester City supporters rated the atmosphere as second worst in the league , but the atmosphere has since significantly improved and continues to do so .
In October 2014 , the club received two national VisitFootball awards for the quality of its customer care of Premier League fans visiting the Etihad Stadium during the previous season . VisitFootball , a joint venture between the Premier League and the national tourism board 's VisitEngland , has been assessing the care that patrons receive at football grounds since August 2010 , and presents annual awards for those clubs who deliver outstanding customer service . Manchester City had been one of the first four clubs to receive an inaugural VisitFootball award in 2011 , but in 2014 it was the recipient of both the Club of the Year and Warmest Welcome awards . According to the panel of experts from the football and customer service industries that assess the services and facilities provided at each of the twenty Premier League club stadia , " Manchester City are the gold standard in providing fans with the best matchday experience . "
= = Etihad Campus = =
= = = Etihad Campus and CFA = = =
In July 2011 , CoMS was renamed the Etihad Stadium , sponsored by Etihad Airways who fought off competition from Ferrostaal and Aabar to gain the stadium naming rights . This lucrative 10 @-@ year sponsorship deal included not just the naming rights to the stadium itself but to the whole £ 200 million complex of football @-@ related facilities into which it was soon to be incorporated . In mid @-@ September 2011 , development plans were duly announced for a new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art youth academy and training facility - now known as the City Football Academy ( CFA ) - to be built on derelict land adjacent to the stadium and which would include a 7 @,@ 000 capacity mini @-@ stadium plus fifteen additional outdoor football pitches , six swimming pools and three gyms . The planned CFA facility was not only to become the new home base of the Manchester City first team squad , reserve ( U21 youth ) team squad , and all of the Academy younger age group squads , but also the new home of the prior loosely affiliated Manchester City Ladies team ( which was re @-@ branded in 2012 as Manchester City Women 's F.C. and more formally merged into the Manchester City family of affiliated football teams ) . Also fully integrated into the new CFA facility would be the parent club 's world headquarters .
At the beginning of March 2014 , the structural framework for a new pedestrian walkway / footbridge over the junction of Alan Turing Way and Ashton New Road connecting the CFA with the Etihad Stadium was lowered into place . With sponsor Suisse Power & Gas SA having subsequently secured the naming rights , the completed SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened and turned over to Manchester City Council for general public access on 26 November 2014 . Twelve days later , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , George Osborne , presided over the official opening of the CFA .
= = = Community outreach / Urban regeneration = = =
As part of Manchester City 's commitment to community outreach in their redevelopment plans for the areas of East Manchester adjacent to the Etihad Stadium , other urban regeneration plans incorporated into the overall Etihad Campus development project include the new £ 43 million Beswick Community Hub , that includes Connell Sixth Form College ; a community leisure centre ( with swimming pool , dance studio , health and fitness gym , rugby pitch , and grass sports pitches ) ; and a planned Manchester Institute of Health and Performance . On 26 November 2014 , the same day the SuisseGas Bridge was officially opened , a " globally admired " grouping of stainless steel sculptures - consisting of three towering metallic chess pieces called Dad 's Halo Effect by its internationally acclaimed creator , Ryan Gander - was likewise unveiled to the public . Commissioned by the Manchester City Council to represent both the past industrial and current sporting heritage of this area of east Manchester , the public artwork is located in front of the Connell Sixth Form College , close to the central circus of the Beswick Community Hub and only a few hundred yards south from where the area 's last public sculpture , B of the Bang , had been situated .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is 2 @.@ 5 km east of Manchester city centre . Manchester Piccadilly railway station , which serves mainline trains . It is a 20 @-@ minute walk away along a well @-@ lit signposted route that is supervised by stewards close to the ground . Piccadilly station also has a Metrolink tram stop ( in the undercroft ) ; from which regular trams along the East Manchester Line to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne serve the stadium and Etihad Campus , with enhanced service frequencies and doubled tram units on matchdays . The Etihad Campus tram stop close to Joe Mercer Way to the immediate north of the stadium opened in February 2013 , and handles several thousand travellers each matchday ; spectators travelling by tram from Manchester city centre being able to board services at Piccadilly Gardens , the journey taking approximately 10 minutes . The Velopark tram stop also opened in February 2013 and provides access to the southeastern approach to the stadium , as well as closer access to other areas of SportCity such as the Manchester Velodrome and the City Football Academy .
There are many bus routes from the city centre and all other directions which stop at , or close to , SportCity . On match and event days special bus services from the city centre serve the stadium . The site has 2 @,@ 000 parking spaces , with another 8 @,@ 000 spaces in the surrounding area provided by local businesses and schools .
= = Other uses = =
Under the terms of its lease , the stadium is able to host non @-@ football events such as concerts , boxing and rugby fixtures at Manchester City 's prerogative . Manchester City applied for a permanent entertainment licence in 2012 in a bid to expand the number of non @-@ footballing events at the stadium .
= = = Concerts = = =
Outside the football season the stadium hosts occasional concerts , and is one of the UK 's largest music venues , having a maximum capacity of 60 @,@ 000 for performances . It was the largest stadium concert venue in England before the new Wembley Stadium was built .
The first concert was a performance by the Red Hot Chili Peppers supported by James Brown in 2004 . An Oasis concert at the ground was featured on the DVD , Lord Don 't Slow Me Down and the band 's concert in 2005 set the attendance record of 60 @,@ 000 . Take That released a DVD of their 2006 performance at the stadium , Take That : The Ultimate Tour . Other artists who have played the stadium are U2 , George Michael , Rod Stewart , Foo Fighters , Pet Shop Boys , Manic Street Preachers , Bastille , Dizzee Rascal , The Futureheads , the Sugababes , Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor , Coldplay , Bruce Springsteen , Muse , Bon Jovi ( three times ) , Robbie Williams and One Direction .
Concerts and boxing matches eventually took their toll on the pitch . In 2008 , late post @-@ concert pitch renovation , combined with an early start to the football season , led to the pitch not being ready for the first home fixture , causing the club to play its UEFA Cup first round qualifying match at Barnsley 's Oakwell Stadium and a moratorium to be imposed on the staging of non @-@ football events at Eastlands . In May 2010 , the club invested in a new pitch and summer concerts resumed in 2011 when Take That played eight nights , with ticket sales totalling approximately 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = Other football events = = =
CoMS is rated a category 4 stadium by UEFA and has hosted several major football matches in addition to Manchester City 's home fixtures . It became the fiftieth stadium to host an England international football match when the English and Japanese national teams played on 1 June 2004 . In June 2005 , the stadium hosted England 's opening game in the UEFA Women 's Championship , setting an attendance record of 29 @,@ 092 for the competition . The stadium also hosted the 2008 UEFA Cup Final , in which Zenit Saint Petersburg defeated Rangers 2 – 0 .
In May 2011 , the stadium hosted the Conference National Play @-@ off final between A.F.C Wimbledon and Luton Town ; Wimbledon gained promotion to the Football League beating Luton in a penalty shootout . The stadium was used for the play @-@ offs because the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final was due to take place at Wembley on Saturday 28 May 2011 and UEFA regulations stipulate the stadium hosting the Champions League final must not be used for other matches during the previous two weeks .
= = = Other sports = = =
In October 2004 , the stadium played host to a rugby league international match between Great Britain and Australia in the Tri @-@ Nations series in front of nearly 40 @,@ 000 spectators . The stadium more recently hosted the Magic Weekend for three consecutive seasons ( 2012 – 2014 ) . This is a rugby league competition in which all 14 members of the Super League competition play each other over a full weekend . After a record attendance in 2012 – both for a single day ( 32 @,@ 953 ) and the aggregate for the whole weekend ( 63 @,@ 716 ) – the Etihad Stadium became the venue of choice for this annual rugby league event , setting another attendance record ( 36 @,@ 339 / 64 @,@ 552 ) for it in May 2014 . However , the current construction work involved with the expansion of the South Stand caused this competition to be relocated to St. James ' Park for the summer of 2015 , but it is expected to return to the Etihad again once the expansion work is complete .
On 24 May 2008 , Stockport born and twice IBF and IBO light welterweight champion boxer Ricky Hatton defeated Juan Lazcano in a contest billed as " Hatton 's Homecoming " . The fight was held in front of 56 @,@ 337 fans , setting a record attendance for a British boxing event post World War II .
On October 10 , 2015 it hosted a 2015 Rugby World Cup Pool A match between hosts nation England and Uruguay . England won 60 – 3 with 50 @,@ 778 in attendance .
= 1953 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1953 Pacific hurricane season was the least active season on record . The season officially began on May 15 in the northeast Pacific Ocean and on June 1 in the central northern Pacific . They ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the time of year when most tropical cyclones form in northeast Pacific Ocean . Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data prior to that time on Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable as most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land .
Of the four known tropical systems , two became hurricanes . Although only a tropical storm , the first storm of the season was the deepest , with a pressure of 981 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . This season is unusual in that no one was killed , no damage was inflicted , and no tropical cyclones made landfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Only four known systems were observed during the 1953 season . This was below the average at that time , which was six . Furthermore , the season was well below the 1949 @-@ 2006 average of 13 named storms and had the fewest number of storms in the hurricane database . Only two tropical cyclones reached hurricane status , compared to the modern @-@ day average of seven . Furthermore , 1953 is also one of the few seasons without a major hurricane . This season was part of a decade @-@ long absence of major hurricanes ; from 1950 – 56 , no major hurricanes ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ) were reported in the Eastern Pacific basin . However , it is possible that some storms were missed due to the lack of satellite coverage in the region in addition to the lack of Hurricane Hunter data , which did not become available until the following year .
The four known storms developed between the 14 ° N and the 20 ° N. All of the storms remained at sea throughout their lifetime ; no deaths nor damages were noted during the season , though moisture from two of them reached the Southwestern United States . The season got onto an extremely slow start . The first storm formed in late August . At that time , it was believed that two systems would have long formed by then on average . According to the modern @-@ day National Hurricane Center , 8 @-@ 10 storms would have by that time on average . Additionally , 1953 had the latest start date of any Pacific hurricane season on record . Additionally , 1953 is the only season in the database to have no storms by August . Throughout the 1953 hurricane season , the Weather Bureau office in Los Angeles ( WBOLA ) issued 42 advisories during the season , mostly due to the storms ' threat to Southern California .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
Thunderstorm activity off the Mexican coast was quite for the first half of August . Based on data from six ships , a closed atmospheric circulation may have formed near the Revillagigedo Islands at 0000 UTC on August 23 , which are situated roughly 350 mi ( 565 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . At this time , winds were estimated to be no higher than 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) . After formation , One moved west @-@ northwest and on August 25 , the storm attained its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Furthermore , the ship S.S. Sirocco measured a minimum barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . Although the WBOLA reported that the storm dissipated that night near the peninsula , the HURDAT database suggests that the storm maintained peak intensity for another day , until August 27 when it dissipated .
The remnants of Tropical Storm One brought heavy rains to Arizona at the very end of the month . Rainfall peaked at 3 @.@ 22 in ( 82 mm ) in Williams , while two other weather stations reported more than 3 in ( 76 mm ) of precipitation .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Ships reports from the Hawaiian Islands to Panama indicated that an area of disturbed weather formed just west of the Revillagigedo island group . Initially , evidence of closed wind circulation was not sufficient enough to warrant an upgrade into a tropical disturbance . By the afternoon , pressures in the region began to fall . By that night , it was estimated to have developed winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . A tropical storm formed on September 9 ; meanwhile , ship reports indicated a pressure of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) and sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Maintaining peak intensity for a day , the low moved northwest before dissipating on September 10 as barometric pressures began to rise . The remnants of the storm later brought rain to Central California on September 15 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
A tropical cyclone first formed on September 13 near Western Mexico ( in the extreme southern Gulf of California ) while generating winds of 30 – 40 mph ( 50 – 65 km / h ) . It traveled north @-@ northeastward and Three was upgraded into a hurricane on September 14 while reaching its maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . After turning east @-@ northeast , Hurricane Three attained its peak pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The storm held on to its wind speed , until September 17 , when the storm dissipated . The remnants of the storm deluged the Mexican coast with rain , especially in Sinaloa . Winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) were reported in Mazatlan on land ; however , no damage was recorded .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On October 1 , a closed low formed in the Gulf of Tehuantepec from an area of disturbed weather , which had persisted for several days prior . The next day , the hurricane database suggests that Four became a hurricane on October 2 while peaking in intensity , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . That day , a peak pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) was measured . The hurricane dissipated on October 8 later after holding on to its maximum wind speed for six days before finally dissipating nowhere near land .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alice = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on October 22 Tropical Storm Alice crossed the International Dateline , entering into CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . The storm eventually became extratropical on October 23 over open waters .
= No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 4 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 4 EFTS was established in January 1940 at Mascot , New South Wales , and initially operated in conjunction with civilian flying organisations based at Mascot and Newcastle . The school was disbanded in April 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 6 Elementary Flying School at Tamworth .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 4 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 4 EFTS ) was formed at Kingsford Smith Aerodrome , Mascot , New South Wales , on 2 January 1940 , and came under the control of No. 2 Group . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader A.W.L. Ellis . Mascot had been Sydney 's civil airport since 1920 , and was home to several private aviation organisations . It was the airfield 's position as the hub of civilian flight instruction in New South Wales that led to it becoming the base for the fourth flying school the RAAF raised during World War II . The same principle was followed in basing No. 1 EFTS at Parafield , South Australia , No. 2 EFTS at Archerfield , Queensland , and No. 3 EFTS at Essendon , Victoria .
The first training courses at No. 4 EFTS were not conducted under the auspices of EATS but by civil organisations under government contract . The instructors from these organisations were commissioned as officers in the RAAF . The flying school was divided into four flights : " A " ( training conducted by the Royal Aero Club of New South Wales ) , " B " ( conducted by Kingsford Smith Air Services Pty Ltd ) , " C " ( conducted by Airflite Pty Ltd ) , and " D " ( conducted at Newcastle by the Newcastle Aero Club ) . The training aircraft were de Havilland Tiger Moths and Gipsy Moths . All air cadets were subject to RAAF discipline , and the school 's training program was directed by the commanding officer . The initial intake of twenty @-@ four students arrived on 8 January 1940 . Accommodation was severely limited at the new flying school : No. 4 EFTS headquarters was housed in the clubhouse of the Royal Aero Club , the base sick quarters utilised the Department of Civil Aviation 's casualty room , and cadets had to pay for their own rooms at the nearby Brighton @-@ Le @-@ Sands Hotel .
No. 4 EFTS 's strength as at 1 February 1940 was four officers , twenty @-@ one airmen , one civilian , and twenty @-@ four cadets . The second intake of twenty @-@ four cadets arrived four days later . The school 's inaugural EATS course commenced on 29 April . The government 's contracts with the civilian organisations for flying instruction at Mascot and Newcastle were terminated during August 1940 , and their aircraft — fifteen Tiger Moths and eight Gipsy Moths — were impressed by the RAAF . Airflite was engaged to provide maintenance . On 18 November , an instructor was killed when he fell into a Randwick street from a Tiger Moth performing a slow roll after his safety harness broke ; neither he nor his student , who though badly shaken was able to land the plane , were wearing parachutes . One Tiger Moth landed on top of another on 27 December ; both planes were badly damaged but no @-@ one was killed .
No. 4 EFTS 's strength as at 1 February 1941 was twenty officers , 101 airmen , and sixty @-@ two aircrew trainees . Two Tiger Moths collided over the Lakes Golf Club on 6 April , killing the instructor and his pupil in one of the aircraft ; the pilots of the other plane survived after crash @-@ landing on the golf course . Owing to urgent requirements to house elements of the United States Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) , No. 4 EFTS was disbanded on 24 April 1942 , and its operations transferred to No. 6 Elementary Flying School at Tamworth , New South Wales . No. 4 EFTS 's graduates included Clive Caldwell , who became Australia 's top @-@ scoring fighter ace of World War II .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 4 EFTS was commanded by the following officers :
= Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve =
The Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve ( in French Réserve naturelle régionale de la carrière des Nerviens ) is a protected area in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of northern France . It was established on 25 May 2009 to protect a site containing rare plants and covers just over 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) . It is located in the municipalities of Bavay and Saint @-@ Waast in the Nord department .
The reserve was created to protect fifteen plants of regional interest and three plant communities listed in the Habitats Directive . Its flora are linked to calcium present in marl . It is located in a transition zone between the oceanic and semi @-@ continental climates and that gives increased biodiversity , with typical species of the atlantic areas and others more continental . The reserve also plays a role in a wildlife corridor .
The site consists of an old quarry of sandstone dated to the Famennian stage in the Late Devonian epoch . It was backfilled in the 1970s with marl . The new soil was re @-@ colonized by pioneer species , which coexist alongside an established afforestation , forming a mosaic of habitats .
CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois , a non @-@ governmental organization , is the owner and operator of the reserve . The main objective is to maintain the current diversity . To this end , regular management mainly struggles against the afforestation and against invasive species , such as Japanese knot weed . The secondary objectives are environmental education , heritage interpretation , improvement of knowledge fauna and flora , and environmental monitoring .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
The Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve is located in the Arrondissement of Avesnes @-@ sur @-@ Helpe between the cities of Valenciennes and Maubeuge , in the Nord department , Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . It is 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) west of downtown Bavay and 1 @,@ 700 metres ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) south @-@ east of Saint @-@ Waast .
The reserve is triangular in shape . It is bordered to the south by the 942 main road , north @-@ east by an unused railtrack , and to the west by a small path known as Chemin de Rametz . It covers 3 @.@ 11 hectares ( 7 @.@ 7 acres ) . CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois owns a parcel of land on the other side of the railtrack . Though not yet included in the reserve , it is expected to be added when the current agreement is renewed .
= = = Relief = = =
The reserve is located in the valley of the stream Ruisseau de Bavay , with an elevation of between 110 and 115 metres ( 361 and 377 ft ) . It has an overall north @-@ south gradient of − 5 metres ( − 16 ft ) . A mound of accumulated debris , which rises to about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) above the path Chemin de Rametz , is located north @-@ west of the site . After quarrying operations ceased , the quarry was filled mainly with the marl of the Bellignies quarry . The area has since been completely recolonized by vegetation through ecological succession .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The reserve is located in the valley of the Ruisseau de Bavay , a tributary of the Hogneau , and is part of the greater drainage basin of the Scheldt . The reserve is not in direct contact with the river . It is supplied with water only by precipitation , which is retained by the natural properties of marl .
= = = Climate = = =
The reserve 's nearest weather station is at Cambrai , about 42 kilometres away , inland , to the southeast . However , the nature reserve is affected by the nearby presence of the Ardennes Mountains , which gives a continental influence to the climate .
The regular precipitation and the absence of drought , as well as the predominance of south @-@ southwest winds and rain vectors , show the influence of oceanic climate . However , some significant rainfall variability between seasons , the moderate temperature range , and the high proportion ( 69 @.@ 8 percent ) of low winds ( less than 4 metres per second ( 13 ft / s ) ) compared to strong winds ( 3 @.@ 2 percent over 8 metres per second ( 26 ft / s ) ) winds are typical of a continental influence . This combination is atypical of an altered oceanic climate , a transition zone between the oceanic and semi @-@ continental climates , characterized by mild winters and cool summers .
In the reserve , this climatic transition leads to increased biodiversity . For example , common bluebell ( Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta ) is a typical species of the Atlantic areas , while the common butterbur ( Petasites hybridus ) is more continental .
= = History = =
= = = Quarry = = =
The site is a former quarry , used for its sandstone deposits as early as the late nineteenth century. by the Chevallier & Cie company , which employed about 70 workers , including 25 miners . In 1909 , the annual production was 12 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 420 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of macadam , 500 cubic metres ( 18 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of ballast and 25 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 880 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of cobblestones .
Boreholes were drilled manually . Stone blocks were divided using a mass and a steel heavy hammer ( up to 14 kilograms ( 31 lb ) ) called refenderesse . Stones obtained were then classified by eye into stone for cobble and rubble for macadam . The first were épincés : asperities were removed by épinceurs to form regular cobblestones . They were then sorted by size . The rubble was crushed in a jaw crusher . Debris were mechanically separated according to their size . Each particle has a particular use . Macadam , made of stones between 2 and 8 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 and 3 @.@ 15 in ) , was used for the construction and maintenance of roads . Ballast is a gravel 10 to 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) used
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“ Persona ” . [ A , S , I , T ] Yamagata Museum of Art ( Yamagata ) , December 2011 – January 2012 .
“ Tokyo Labyrinth ” . [ S ] Zen Foto Gallery ( Roppongi , Tokyo ) , May 2013 .
“ Persona ” / “ Perusona ” ( ペルソナ ) . [ A ] 14th Documentary Photo Festival Miyazaki , Miyazaki Prefectural Art Museum , August – September 2013 .
“ Asakusa Portraits ( 1973 – 2008 ) et India ( 1982 – 2008 ) ” . [ A , I ] In between Gallery ( Paris ) , November 2013 .
“ India 1982 – 2011 ” . [ I ] Canon Gallery S ( Shinagawa , Tokyo ) , May – June 2014 .
“ Retratos de Asakusa ” . [ A ] Tabacalera , Promoción del Arte ( Madrid ) , September – November 2014 .
“ India 1982 – 2011 ” . [ I ] The Museum of Art , Ehime ( Matsuyama , Ehime ) , September – October 2014 .
“ Tôkyô : voyage à Asakusa ” . [ A , S ] Société d 'encouragement pour l 'industrie nationale , Paris 6 . 13 – 23 October 2015 .
= = = Selected group exhibitions = = =
“ The Hitachi Collection of Contemporary Japanese Photography ” . Center for Creative Photography , University of Arizona , 1988 .
“ Nyū dokyumentsu 1990 ” ( ニュー ・ ドキュメンツ 1990 ) / “ New Documents 1990 ” . Museum of Modern Art , Toyama ( Toyama ) , 1990 .
“ Shashin toshi Tōkyō ” ( 写真都市Tokyo ) / “ Tokyo / City of Photos ” . [ A ] ( Other photographers exhibited were Takanobu Hayashi , Ryūji Miyamoto , Daidō Moriyama , Shigeichi Nagano , Ikkō Narahara , Mitsugu Ōnishi , Masato Seto , Issei Suda , Akihide Tamura , Tokuko Ushioda , and Hiroshi Yamazaki . ) Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , 1995 .
“ Shashin wa nani o katareru ka ” ( 写真は何を語れるか 。 What can photographs say ? ) . [ I ] Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , June ; Osaka Umeda Canon Salon , July ; Fukuoka Canon Salon , August ; Nagoya Canon Salon , September ; Sapporo Canon Salon , October ; Sendai Canon Salon , November 1997 .
“ Berlin – Tokyo ” . Neue Nationalgalerie , Berlin , 2006 .
“ Tōkyō meiro / Andesu Kuero ” ( 東京迷路 ・ アンデスケロ村 ) / “ Tokyo Labyrinth / Andes Qero ” . [ S ] ( With Yoshiharu Sekino , who exhibited photographs taken of the Q ’ ero . ) Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) , July 2007 .
“ Heavy Light : Recent Photography and Video from Japan ” . [ A ] International Center of Photography ( New York ) , May – September 2008 .
“ Sander ’ s Children ” . [ A ] Danziger Projects , New York , 2008 .
Mit anderen Augen . Das Porträt in der zeitgenössischen Fotografie = With Different Eyes : The Portrait in Contemporary Photography . [ A ] Die Photografische Sammlung / SK Stiftung Kultur , Cologne , 26 February – 29 May 2016 ; Kunstmuseum Bonn , 25 February – 8 May 2016 .
“ Faces from Places ” . [ A ] L. Parker Stephenson Photographs , Manhattan , 6 May – 16 July 2016 . With Mike Disfarmer , Sirkka @-@ Liisa Konttinen , J. D. ' Okhai Ojeikere , Malick Sidibé , and Jacques Sonck .
= = Permanent collections = =
Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography : 17 photographs from the series Ōtachi no shōzō ( later known as Persona or Asakusa Portraits ) , 1985 – 86 .
Museum of Modern Art , Toyama ( Japan )
Domon Ken Photography Museum ( Sakata , Yamagata , Japan )
Neue Nationalgalerie ( Berlin )
Center for Creative Photography ( University of Arizona , Tucson )
Hood Museum of Art ( Dartmouth College , Hanover , New Hampshire )
Museum of Fine Arts , Houston ( Texas )
Museum of the International Center of Photography ( New York )
Mead Art Museum ( Amherst College , Amherst , MA )
Philadelphia Museum of Art
= = Publications = =
= = = Books by Kikai = = =
Ōtachi no shōzō : Sensō @-@ ji keidai ( 王たちの肖像 ： 浅草寺境内 ) / Ecce homo : Portraits of kings . Yokohama : Yatate , 1987 . Photograph collection , with captions in Japanese and English , and an essay by Sadayoshi Fukuda . There are forty @-@ one monochrome plates .
India . Tokyo : Misuzu Shobō , 1992 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 04385 @-@ 8 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Kikai and Munesuke Mita ) in Japanese and English , and captions in English . There are 106 monochrome plates ( all “ landscape ” format ) .
Ya @-@ Chimata : Ōtachi no kairō ( や ・ ちまた ： 王たちの回廊 , Ya @-@ Chimata : A gallery of kings ) . Tokyo : Misuzu Shobō , 1996 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 04409 @-@ 9 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Kikai and ten other writers ) in Japanese only . There are 183 monochrome plates .
Tōkyō meiro ( 東京迷路 ) / Tokyo Labyrinth . Tokyo : Shōgakukan , 1999 . ISBN 4 @-@ 09 @-@ 681241 @-@ 2 . Photograph collection , with text ( by Andrzej Wajda , Genpei Akasegawa , and Suehiro Tanemura ) in Japanese only . There are 108 monochrome plates .
Indo ya Gassan ( 印度や月山 , India and Gassan ) . Tokyo : Hakusuisha , 1999 . ISBN 4 @-@ 560 @-@ 04928 @-@ 9 . Thirty essays and forty @-@ one photographs ; text in Japanese only . The monochrome photographs are a mixture of “ landscape ” ( across two pages ) and “ portrait ” ( on single pages ) .
Shiawase : Indo daichi no kodomo @-@ tachi ( しあわせ ： インド大地の子どもたち ) / Shanti : Children of India . Tokyo : Fukuinkan , 2001 . ISBN 4 @-@ 8340 @-@ 1779 @-@ 6 . Photograph collection ( all monochrome ) : thirteen “ landscape ” photographs across both pages ; and ninety @-@ four “ portrait ” . There are no captions , and the text is in Japanese only .
Persona . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2003 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1240 @-@ 2 . Photograph collection , with captions and text ( by Andrzej Wajda , Suehiro Tanemura , and Kikai ) in both Japanese and English . Between an additional plate at the front and back , there are twelve plates in a prefatory section ( photographs taken well before the others ) , and in the body of the book twenty @-@ eight plates four to a page and 138 plates on their own pages .
Perusona ( ぺるそな ) / Persona . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1450 @-@ 2 . Second , popular edition of the 2003 Persona in a smaller format . There are additional essays and photographs by Kikai ; captions in both Japanese and English , other text in Japanese only . The twelve prefatory plates of the first edition and 191 plates of the main series are each presented on a separate page ; there are also three more plates of photographs outside the series .
In @-@ between 8 : Kikai Hiroo Porutogaru , Maruta ( In @-@ between 8 鬼海弘雄 ポルトガル 、 マルタ ) / In @-@ between , 8 : Hiroh Kikai , Portugal , Malta . Tokyo : EU – Japan Fest Japan Committee , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 903152 @-@ 07 @-@ 3 . Photograph collection ; captions and text in both Japanese and English . There are twenty @-@ eight colour photographs of Portugal and twenty @-@ seven of Malta .
Tōkyō mutan ( 東京夢譚 ) / Labyrinthos . Tokyo : Sōshisha , 2007 . ISBN 4 @-@ 7942 @-@ 1572 @-@ X. Collection of 118 monochrome photographs and essays ; captions ( for each , the approximate address and the year ) and essays are in Japanese only .
Asakusa Portraits . New York : International Center of Photography ; Göttingen : Steidl , 2008 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86521 @-@ 601 @-@ 4 . Collection of monochrome photographs ; captions and texts in English only . With an interview of Kikai by Noriko Fuku , essays by Kikai ( translated from Perusona ) and an essay on Asakusa by Hiromichi Hosoma ( 細馬宏通 ) .
Anatoria ( アナトリア ) / Anatolia . Tokyo : Crevis , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 904845 @-@ 10 @-@ 3 . Collection of 140 monochrome photographs ( all “ landscape ” format ) of Turkey ( not only Anatolia ) . With afterwords by Toshiyuki Horie and Kikai .
Tōkyō pōtoreito ( 東京ポートレイト ) / Tokyo Portraits . Tokyo : Crevis , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 904845 @-@ 14 @-@ 1 . Exhibition catalogue of over 150 monochrome photographs of the “ Asakusa portraits ” and “ portraits of spaces ” series . Afterwords ( by Shinji Ishii [ いしいしんじ ] , Iwao Matsuyama [ 松山巖 ] , and Nobuyuki Okabe [ 岡部信幸 ] ) in Japanese only ; captions in Japanese and English .
Me to kaze no kioku : Shashin o meguru esē ( 眼と風の記憶 写真をめぐるエセー ) . Tokyo : Iwanami , 2012 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 00 @-@ 024952 @-@ 2 . Essay collection .
Seken no hito ( 世間のひと ) . Chikuma Bunko . Tokyo : Chikuma Shobō , 2014 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 480 @-@ 43156 @-@ 1 . A bunkobon anthology of the Asakusa portrait series .
Dare o mo sukoshi suki ni naru hi : Memekuri bōbiroku ( 誰をも少し好きになる日 眼めくり忘備録 ) . Tokyo : Bungei shunjū , 2015 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 16 @-@ 390215 @-@ 9 . Essay collection .
Tokyo View . Kyoto : Kazetabi @-@ sha , 2016 . A large @-@ format collection of 117 monochrome photographs of the “ portraits of spaces ” series . Captions in Japanese and English ; afterword by Hideki Maeda in Japanese only .
Kutsuzoku no herikata ( 靴族の減り方 ) . Tokyo : Chikuma Shobō , 2016 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 480 @-@ 87621 @-@ 8 . Essay collection , contains 32 full @-@ page plates from the “ portraits of spaces ” series .
= = = Other books with contributions by Kikai = = =
Shashin toshi Tōkyō ( 写真都市Tokyo ) / Tokyo / City of Photos . Tokyo : Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography , 1995 . Catalogue of an exhibition held in 1995 . Plates 113 – 29 , admirably printed , are from Kikai ’ s series of Asakusa portraits . Captions and texts in both Japanese and English .
Literatura na świecie ( Warsaw , ISSN 0324 @-@ 8305 ) number 1 – 3 , 2002 . This special issue on Japanese literature , Japonia , is illustrated with photographs by Kikai , taken from Ya @-@ Chimata and Tōkyō meiro / Tokyo Labyrinth . Text in Polish .
Ueda Makoto . Shūgō jūtaku monogatari ( 集合住宅物語 , The story of collective housing ) . Tokyo : Misuzu , 2004 . ISBN 4 @-@ 622 @-@ 07086 @-@ 3 . A book about collective housing in Japan from the Dōjunkai buildings onward , with 165 illustrative color photographs , all by Kikai . ( Some monochrome photographs are older and are by other photographers . ) The text , by Ueda , is in Japanese only . Content previously ( 1997 – 2001 ) published in Tokyojin .
In @-@ between : 13 @-@ nin no shashinka 25 @-@ kakoku ( In @-@ between 13人の写真家 25ヶ国 ) / In @-@ between : 13 photographers , 25 nations . Tokyo : EU – Japan Fest Japan Committee , 2005 . ISBN 4 @-@ 903152 @-@ 13 @-@ 8 . Kikai is one of the thirteen in this supplementary collection of photographs in six themes ( “ Stones and walls ” , “ Words ” , etc . ) ; captions and text in both Japanese and English .
Miyako Harumi . Messēji ( メッセージ ) / The Message . Tokyo : Juritsusha , 2006 . ISBN 4 @-@ 901769 @-@ 41 @-@ 3 . A book of which about half consists of quotations from interviews with the enka singer Harumi Miyako , and the other half of color photographs by Kikai . The photographs are not described or identified ; a handful are of Miyako but most are of sea and provincial views . ( In many , the scenes are recognizably of the Kumano area just west of Kumanogawa , Wakayama . ) The text is all in Japanese .
Heavy Light : Recent Photography and Video from Japan . New York : International Center of Photography ; Göttingen : Steidl , 2008 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86521 @-@ 623 @-@ 6 . Captions and texts in English only .
Higashi @-@ Nihon dai @-@ jishin : Shashinka 17 @-@ nin no shiten ( 東日本大地震 写真家17人の視点 , The great east Japan earthquake : The perspectives of 17 photographers ) . Special compilation by Asahi Camera . Tokyo : Asahi Shinbunsha , 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 4 @-@ 02 @-@ 330996 @-@ 8 . A collection of photographs of the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Text in Japanese only . Kikai contributes six pages : Sōma in early June , and three towns in Miyagi in late August .
Kikai Hirô and Jean @-@ François Sabouret . Tôkyô : voyage à Asakusa . Atlantique , Éditions de l 'Actualité Scientifique Poitou @-@ Charentes , 2015 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 911320 @-@ 55 @-@ 2 . An introduction to the work of Kikai , in French and Japanese .
Gabriele Conrath @-@ Scholl and Stephan Berg , eds . Mit anderen Augen . Das Porträt in der zeitgenössischen Fotografie = With Different Eyes : The Portrait in Contemporary Photography . Cologne : Snoeck , 2016 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 86442 @-@ 158 @-@ 7 . Catalogue of the exhibition .
= Casimir Pulaski =
Kazimierz Michał Władysław Wiktor Pułaski of Ślepowron coat of arms ( Polish pronunciation : [ kaˈʑimʲɛʂ puˈwaskʲi ] ; English : Casimir Pulaski ; March 6 , 1745 – October 11 , 1779 ) was a Polish noblemanb , soldier and military commander who has been called with his fellow Hungarian friend Michael Kovats de Fabriczy " the fathers of the American cavalry " .
Born in Warsaw and following in his father 's footsteps , he became interested in politics at an early age and soon became involved in the military and the revolutionary affairs in Poland ( the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . Pulaski was one of the leading military commanders for the Bar Confederation and fought against Russian domination of the Commonwealth . When this uprising failed , he was driven into exile . Following a recommendation by Benjamin Franklin , Pulaski emigrated to North America to help in the cause of the American Revolutionary War . He distinguished himself throughout the revolution , most notably when he saved the life of George Washington . Pulaski became a general in the Continental Army , created the Pulaski Cavalry Legion and reformed the American cavalry as a whole . At the Battle of Savannah , while leading a daring charge against British forces , he was gravely wounded , and died shortly thereafter .
Pulaski has been remembered as a hero who fought for independence and freedom both in Poland and in the United States . Numerous places and events are named in his honor , and he is commemorated by many works of art . Pulaski is one of only eight people to be awarded honorary United States citizenship . He never married and had no descendants . Despite his fame , there have been uncertainties and controversies surrounding both his place and date of birth and burial .
= = Personal life = =
Pulaski was born on March 6 , 1745 , in the manor house of the Pułaski family in Warsaw , Poland.a Casimir was the eldest son of Marianna Zielińska and Józef Pułaski , who was an advocatus at the Crown Tribunal , the Starost of Warka , and one of the town 's most notable inhabitants . He was a brother of Franciszek Ksawery Pułaski and Antoni Pułaski . His family bore the Ślepowron coat of arms . The Pułaski family was Roman Catholic and early in his youth , Casimir Pulaski attended an elite college run by Theatines , a male religious order of the Catholic Church in Warsaw , but did not finish his education .
There is some circumstantial evidence that Pulaski was a Freemason . When Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette laid the cornerstone of the monument erected in Pulaski 's honor in Savannah in 1824 , a full Masonic ceremony took place with Richard T. Turner , High Priest of the Georgia chapter , conducting the ceremony . Other sources claim Pulaski was a member of the Masonic Army Lodge in Maryland . A Masonic Lodge in Chicago is named Casimir Pulaski Lodge , No.1167 and a brochure issued by them claims he obtained the degree of Master Mason on June 19 , 1779 , and was buried with full Masonic honors . To date no surviving documents of Pulaski 's actual membership have been found .
= = Military career = =
In 1762 , Pulaski started his military career as a page of Carl Christian Joseph of Saxony , Duke of Courland and vassal of the Polish king . He spent six months at the ducal court in Mitau , during which the court was interned in the palaces by the Russian forces occupying the area . He then returned to Warsaw , and his father gave him the village of Zezulińce in Podole ; from that time Pulaski used the title of Starost of Zezulińce .
= = = Bar Confederation = = =
With his family , he took part in the 1764 election of the new Polish monarch , Stanisław II August . In December 1767 , Pulaski and his father became involved with the Bar Confederation , which saw King Stanisław as a Russian puppet and sought to curtail Russian hegemony over the Commonwealth . The confederation was actively opposed by the Russian forces stationed in Poland . Pulaski recruited a unit and on February 29 , 1768 , signed the act of the confederation , thus declaring himself an official supporter of the movement . On March 6 , he received the rank of a pułkownik and commanded a choragiew of cavalry . In March and April he agitated among the Polish military , successfully convincing some forces to join the Confederates . He fought his first battle on April 20 near Pohorełe ; it was a victory , as was another on April 23 near Starokostiantyniv . An engagement at Kaczanówka on April 28 resulted in a defeat . In early May he garrisoned Chmielnik , but was forced to retreat when allied reinforcements were defeated . He retreated to a monastery in Berdyczów , which he defended during a siege by royalist forces for over two weeks until June 16 . Eventually he was forced to surrender and was taken captive by the Russians . On June 28 , he was released in exchange for a pledge that he would not again take up arms with the Confederates , and that he would lobby the Confederates to end hostilities . However , Pulaski considered the pledge to be non @-@ binding , and made a public declaration to that effect upon reaching a camp of the Confederates at the end of July . Agreeing to the pledge in the first place weakened his authority and popularity among the Confederates , and his own father considered whether or not he should be court @-@ martialed ; some heated debates followed and Pulaski was reinstated to active duty only in early September .
In 1769 , Pulaski 's unit was again besieged by numerically superior forces , this time in the old fortress of Okopy Świętej Trójcy , which has served as his base of operations since December the previous year . However , after a staunch defense , he was able to break the Russian siege . On April 7 , he was made the regimentarz of the Kraków Voivodeship . In May and June he operated near Przemyśl , but failed to take the town . Criticized by some of his fellow Confederates , Pulaski departed to Lithuania with his allies and a force of about 600 men on June 3 . There , Pulaski attempted to incite a larger revolt against Russia ; despite no decisive military successes , he was able to assemble a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army and deliver it back to a Confederate staging point . This excursion received international notice and gained him a reputation as the most effective military leader in the Bar Confederation . Next , he moved with his unit towards Zamość and after some skirmishes was defeated at the Battle of Włodawa on September 15 . He spent the rest of the year rebuilding his unit in the region of Podkarpacie .
In February 1770 , Pulaski moved near Nowy Targ , and in March , helped to subdue the mutiny of Józef Bierzyński . Based in Izby , he subsequently operated in southern Lesser Poland and on May 13 his force was defeated at the Battle of Dęborzyn . Around June 9 – 10 in Prešov , in a conference with other Confederate leaders , he met Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who complimented Pulaski on his actions . On July 3 –
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on the upper turrets for anti @-@ aircraft duties . Four 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one each in the bow , stern and on each broadside ; twelve torpedoes were carried .
= = Service history = =
= = = Archduke Franz Ferdinand 's visit to Sarajevo = = =
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria traveled aboard Viribus Unitis in late June 1914 en route to Bosnia to observe military maneuvers . On 25 June , he boarded the ship in Trieste Harbor and travelled to the mouth of the Neretva River , where he transferred to another vessel . On 30 June , two days after Ferdinand and his wife were killed by Gavrilo Princip in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo , Viribus Unitis transported their bodies back to Trieste .
= = = World War I = = =
Prior to the war , Viribus Unitis was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . During World War I , the battleship saw limited service due to the Otranto Barrage which prohibited Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships from leaving the Adriatic sea . As a result , she hardly ever left Pola .
Viribus Unitis , along with her sister ships Tegetthoff , Prinz Eugen and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , was mobilized on the eve of World War I to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops and vessels and make their way to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy . Viribus Unitis also participated in the bombardment of the Italian city of Ancona in May 1915 . Following these operations Viribus Unitis remained in Pola for most of the remainder of the war .
Her tenure in Pola was livened up by a visit from the new Emperor Charles I on 15 December 1916 and another by Kaiser Wilhelm II on 12 December 1917 during his inspection of the German submarine base there . The Italians conducted no less than eighty air raids on Pola between 1915 and 1917 .
= = = The Otranto Raid = = =
By 1918 , the new commander of the Austrian fleet , Konteradmiral Miklós Horthy , decided to conduct another attack on the Otranto Barrage to allow more German and Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats to safely get through the heavily defended strait . During the night of 8 June , Horthy left the naval base of Pola with Viribus Unitis and Prinz Eugen . The other two dreadnoughts , Szent István and Tegetthoff , along with one destroyer and six torpedo boats departed Pola on 9 June . At about 3 : 15 on the morning of 10 June , two Italian MAS boats , MAS 15 and MAS 21 , spotted the Austrian fleet . The MAS platoon was commanded by Capitano di fregata Luigi Rizzo while the individual boats were commanded by Capo timoniere Armando Gori and Guardiamarina di complemento Giuseppe Aonzo respectively . Both boats successfully penetrated the escort screen and split to engage each of the dreadnoughts . MAS 21 attacked Tegetthoff , but her torpedoes failed . MAS 15 managed to hit Szent István with her torpedoes at about 3 : 25 am . Both boats were then chased away from the scene by the Austrian escort vessels .
Despite attempts to take the crippled Szent István into tow by Tegetthoff , the ship continued to sink and the attempt was abandoned . A few minutes after 6 : 00 am Szent István sank . Admiral Horthy , commander of the proposed attack , soon canceled the attack because he thought that the Italians had discovered his plan and ordered the ships to return to Pola . On the contrary , the Italians did not even discover that the Austrian dreadnoughts had departed Pola until later on 10 June when aerial reconnaissance photos revealed that they were no longer there . This was the last military operation that the Viribus Unitis was to take part in and she spent the rest of her career at port in Pola .
= = = Italian sabotage and sinking = = =
After it was clear that Austria @-@ Hungary had lost World War I , the Austrian government decided to give the ship , along with much of the fleet , to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . This move would have avoided handing the fleet to the Allies , since the new state had declared neutrality . Following the transfer of Viribus Unitis to the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , she was renamed Jugoslavija .
On 1 November 1918 , two men of the Regia Marina , Raffaele Paolucci and Raffaele Rossetti , rode a primitive manned torpedo ( nicknamed Mignatta or " leech " ) into the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola . Using limpet mines , they then sank Viribus Unitis now wearing the Croatian flag on its mast as well as the freighter Wien . It is not clear if the Italians participating in the action knew that the ship no longer belonged to Austria @-@ Hungary .
Traveling down the rows of Austrian battleships , the two men encountered Viribus Unitis at around 4 : 40 am . Rossetti placed one canister of TNT on the hull of the battleship , timed to explode at 6 : 30 am . He then flooded the second canister , sinking it on the harbor floor close to the ship . This second canister exploded close to the Austrian freighter Wien , resulting in her sinking . The men had no breathing sets , and therefore had to keep their heads above water . They were discovered and taken prisoner just after placing the explosives under the battleship 's hull . The two @-@ man team were captured and taken aboard Viribus Unitis , where they informed the new captain of the battleship what they had done but did not reveal the exact position of the explosives . Admiral Vuković then arranged for the two prisoners to be taken safely to the sister ship Tegetthoff , and ordered the evacuation of the ship . The explosion did not happen at 6 : 30 as predicted and Vuković returned to the ship with many sailors ( believing mistakenly that the Italians had lied ) . He therefore remained on his ship and went down with her and 300 – 400 of her crew when the mines exploded shortly afterwards at 6 : 44 . Following the explosion , the battleship sank in 15 minutes .
The two Italian crew were interned for a few days until the end of the war and were honored by the Kingdom of Italy with the Gold Medal of Military Valor .
= = Commemorations = =
SMS Viribus Unitis was selected as the main motif of a high value collectors ' coin : the Austrian SMS Viribus Unitis commemorative coin , minted on 13 September 2006 . The obverse side shows the flagship Viribus Unitis as seen from the deck of an accompanying ship in the fleet . Two other ships of an older class can be seen in the background . The reverse of the coin is a tribute to the old Austro @-@ Hungarian Imperial Navy , showing the SMS Viribus Unitis from a front angle . A naval biplane circles overhead and a submarine surfaces in the foreground . The coin commemorates not only the ship Viribus Unitis , but also the three main arms of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the First World War . The coin was the last of the series " Austria on the High Seas " .
There is a cutaway model of Viribus Unitis in the Museum of Military History in Vienna . The model is at a scale of 1 : 25 and has a total length of 6 metres . It was built between 1913 and 1917 by eight craftsmen of the shipyard Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino . The model is true to the original in structure , layout , and engine system . It is accurate to the point that , for instance , the painting in the wardroom of the model exactly replicates the original not only in subject but also in the painting technique ( oil on canvas ) .
= Coat of arms of Singapore =
The National Coat of Arms of Singapore is the heraldic symbol representing the Southeast Asian island nation of Singapore . It was adopted in 1959 , the year Singapore became self @-@ governing within the British Empire . The committee that created it , headed by then Deputy Prime Minister Toh Chin Chye , was also responsible for the national flag and the national anthem of Singapore .
At the centre of the emblem is a red shield bearing a white crescent ( a new moon , representing a rising young nation ) and five white stars ( representing various national ideals including multiculturalism ) , supported by a lion and a tiger ( representing Singapore and Malaysia respectively ) ; below them is a blue ribbon inscribed with Majulah Singapura in gold , Malay for " Onward Singapore " . While the use of the coat of arms is restricted to the government , the symbol enjoys wide use on the national currency and state decorations , and appears on the cover of the national passport .
= = History = =
When Singapore became self @-@ governing in 1959 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew was determined to create for the new state a coat of arms , among other symbols , to replace the coat of arms of the United Kingdom that had been in use until then . A committee was formed to design the state symbols , headed by the deputy prime minister Toh Chin Chye , who wanted both the arms and flag of Singapore to represent the country 's united , multi @-@ ethnic society .
The coat of arms and the flag were created over a span of two months by Toh and his committee . A law establishing the state symbols of Singapore was presented to the National Assembly by the Minister of Culture , S Rajaratnam , and approved in November 1959 . On 3 December 1959 , the state coat of arms , flag and anthem were presented to the people of Singapore for the first time .
Toh said in a 1989 interview that when tasked with the creation of the state symbols , " apart from the anthem we have to produce the flag and the crest " , and he felt that the new flag of Singapore should be flying next to the Union Jack . Toh further stated :
In the case of the state crest , again we got the five stars and the new moon ... A lion next to the tiger . Tiger of course is a more local animal than the lion . The old City Council had a lion . It did merge with our own ideas of self governing of Singapore .
= = Symbolism = =
The central emblem of the coat of arms is a red shield with five white stars resting above a white crescent , similar to the crescent and stars used on the Singapore flag and such other national symbols as the national ensign for civilian ships . Red symbolises " universal brotherhood and equality of man " and white " pervading and everlasting purity and virtue " . The crescent represents a new moon , which reflects " a young nation on the ascendant " , while the five @-@ pointed stars " stand for the nation 's ideals of democracy , peace , progress , justice and equality " .
The supporters of the shield are a lion and a tiger : the tiger symbolises the nation 's historical and close connections to Malaysia ( which Singapore was a state of from 1963 to 1965 ) while the lion represents Singapore itself . Below the supporters is a blue ribbon on which the national motto , Majulah Singapura , is written in gold . Majulah Singapura is also the title of the national anthem ; it means " Onward Singapore " in Malay , the national language of Singapore .
= = Uses = =
In 1985 the Monetary Authority of Singapore ( MAS ) began to issue their second series of coins . The coat of arms is displayed on the obverse side of these coins , surrounded by an inscription comprising the name of Singapore in the four official languages ( Chinese , Malay , Tamil and English ) and the year of minting . In 1987 the dollar coin entered circulation with this same pattern .
According to the MAS , the coat of arms has also appeared on all Singaporean banknotes since the " Orchid " series of 1967 . State decorations of Singapore also depict the coat of arms on the medallions . For example , the medallions of the Darjah Utama Temasek and the Sijil Kemuliaan use the full achievement of arms , while the Darjah Utama Bakti Cemerlang medal displays the shield .
= = Guidelines = =
According to the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Rules , the use of the coat of arms is restricted to the government . Without explicit permission from the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ( MICA ) , no person or group is permitted to physically print , manufacture , display or sell anything depicting the coat of arms , or to allow such actions to happen . It is also forbidden to use any symbol that can be easily mistaken for the coat of arms . Persons who wish to use the coat of arms in a literary work must also obtain prior permission from MICA . The only exception provided by the Rules is that the arms can be used by government officials and ministries on their building 's exteriors and on printed documents .
= Hsu Tain @-@ tsair =
Hsu Tain @-@ tsair ( traditional Chinese : 許添財 ; simplified Chinese : 许添财 ; pinyin : Xǔ Tiāncái ; Wade – Giles : Hsǔ Tiēn @-@ tsái ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Khó ͘ Thiam @-@ châi ) , a Taiwanese politician who served as the mayor of Tainan City from 2001 to 2010 . Born in Tainan County ( now part of Tainan City ) , Hsu got his PhD candidacy in economics in the United States , where he started participating in the independence movement of Taiwan . He was placed on the black list of Kuomintang and was not allowed to return to Taiwan until 1990 .
When Hsu returned to Taiwan , he joined the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) . Having been elected legislator three times , Hsu is considered a privy councilor to the DPP in the field of economics . He was nominated to run for the mayor of Tainan and was elected in 2001 . During his terms as mayor , Hsu worked on public projects and encouraged tourism . For example , a police unit was established to facilitate tourists in 2007 , and he also improved the environment of the city .
In 2009 , Hsu worked with the Tainan County government to push for a merger that would form a special municipality . The merger was set to take effect in December 2010 , giving Hsu one additional year in his mayoral term . During the DPP primary election for the nomination of a new Tainan mayor in May , he lost to William Lai by 12 % of the votes.After Lai elected mayor , Hsu later run for Lai 's seat as member of Legislative Yuan and finally elected .
= = Early years = =
After graduating from Duba Elementary School in Tainan County , Hsu attended Tsengwen Junior High School ( 曾文中學 ; now the Madou Junior High School ) , where he was a classmate of former President of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Chen Shui @-@ bian for four years . He then attended the Cheng Kung Senior High School . In 1976 , Hsu got his Master of Economics degree from the Chinese Culture University and started teaching banking the next year at the same school .
In 1982 , Hsu went to the United States as a Columbia University exchange scholar . In the same year , he joined the World United Formosans for Independence , and he also served as the literary editor for the Taiwan Tribune . As a result , he was placed on the Kuomintang 's black list and was unable to return to Taiwan . He then earned his PhD candidacy from New School for Social Research . In 1990 , Hsu was invited to a meeting by President Lee Teng @-@ hui and returned to Taiwan as a Taiwanese @-@ American professor . With the influence of then @-@ legislators Chen Shui @-@ bian , Peng Pai @-@ hsien ( 彭百顯 ) , Hung Chi @-@ chang ( 洪奇昌 ) , and Lu Hsiu @-@ yi , the government relented and removed the restriction for Hsu to exit and enter the country , finally issuing him a new passport .
Hsu started helping members of the World United Formosans for Independence return to Taiwan in 1991 . In 1992 , after being nominated by the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) , Hsu was elected to become a member of the Legislative Yuan . In 1995 , he was not nominated by the DPP , but was still elected as an independent candidate . He lost the election for the office of mayor of Tainan in 1997 and instead became the secretary @-@ general of the New National Coalition ( 新國家連線 ) shortly after the establishment of the organization . He was re @-@ elected legislator in the 1998 legislative election . Hsu stepped out of the New National Coalition and rejoined the DPP shortly after his re @-@ election to the Legislative Yuan . He was nominated by the DPP Central Executive Committee as the party 's candidate for the Tainan mayoral race .
= = Tainan mayoralty = =
Hsu was elected mayor of Tainan in 2001 and was re @-@ elected to that post in 2004 . In his terms as mayor , he focused on projects to beautify the city , to set up cultural parks and to strive for major constructions . He worked to help the city profit from historical assets and restore Tainan 's former splendor . He made 2007 Tainan 's " year of culture and tourism " to promote Tainan 's tourism attractions . His major mayoral achievements were the renovation of the city transportation system and overseeing the city 's successful bids for the 2005 and 2006 Taiwan Lantern Festivals , the 2007 International Chihsi Arts Festival , and the 2007 National Games of Taiwan ( 全國運動會 ) . One of his major goals , the renovation of the Tainan Railway Station and National Cheng Kung University , is scheduled to be completed during his term in office and has earned him high compliments .
Hsu supported a merger between Tainan City and Tainan County to form a special municipality . The Executive Yuan passed a resolution to upgrade the city , and the official merger will occur in December 2010 . In January 2010 , Hsu declared his candidacy in the 2010 municipal election . During the DPP primary election in May , he lost to fellow Tainan politician William Lai by 12 % of the votes , ending his candidacy .
= = = Development = = =
During the DPP primary election for the nomination of presidential candidate , Hsu expressed that he " will not support the candidate that opposes the construction of an underground railway system in Tainan . " Then @-@ Premier Su Tseng @-@ chang promised that the construction would be financially supported by the central government if he were elected . As a result , Hsu openly supported Su in the primary election .
He also believes that in order to improve the competitive advantage of Taiwan , the government should review the distribution of resources between northern and southern Taiwan , with the purpose of balancing their development . Hsu , as a member of the Democratic Progressive Party , also supports the independence movement of Taiwan . Hsu thinks that the United Nations membership referendum is an important step for democracy . He participated in the " UN for Taiwan " rally on September 15 , 2007 .
While the National Central Library is located in Taipei , Hsu strongly supports the establishment of a regional branch in Tainan City . The branch might be established in Kaohsiung City , another southern city . Hsu , however , is confident about Tainan being chosen as the location for the new branch because of the transport convenience and academic resources of the region .
= = = Environment = = =
Under his term , the environment of the city greatly improved . Hsu started a program of having the city 's garbage trucks ring out brief English lessons in 2002 . He promoted the use of eco @-@ friendly chopsticks by requiring government officials and teachers to use their own reusable chopsticks when dining , expressing that the goal of the campaign is to reduce the use of disposable chopsticks by 100 @,@ 000 pairs per day .
During his second term in office , Tainan City became the first Taiwanese city to enter the Alliance for Healthy Cities of the World Health Organization . In addition , Tainan also became the first Taiwanese city to enter the Global Cities Dialogue . Hsu also believes that Tainan should become a city of international tourism and culture , and he is working towards that purpose . In September 2007 , he spoke to the 2007 Asia @-@ Pacific Cities Summit participants and stated that Tainan is blessed with natural , historic , cultural and humanistic characteristics , and that Tainan also possesses
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from organizations supporting Indonesian human rights , women 's rights , and grass @-@ roots development .
In March 1977 , Dunham , under the supervision of agricultural economics professor Leon A. Mears , developed and taught a short lecture course at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Indonesia ( FEUI ) in Jakarta for staff members of BAPPENAS ( Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional ) — the Indonesian National Development Planning Agency .
From June 1977 through September 1978 , Dunham carried out research on village industries in the Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta ( DIY ) — the Yogyakarta Special Region within Central Java in Indonesia under a student grant from the East – West Center . As a weaver herself , Dunham was interested in village industries , and moved to Yogyakarta City , the center of Javanese handicrafts .
In May and June 1978 , Dunham was a short @-@ term consultant in the office of the International Labour Organization ( ILO ) in Jakarta , writing recommendations on village industries and other non @-@ agricultural enterprises for the Indonesian government 's third five @-@ year development plan ( REPELITA III ) .
From October 1978 to December 1980 , Dunham was a rural industries consultant in Central Java on the Indonesian Ministry of Industry 's Provincial Development Program ( PDP I ) , funded by USAID in Jakarta and implemented through Development Alternatives , Inc . ( DAI ) .
From January 1981 to November 1984 , Dunham was the program officer for women and employment in the Ford Foundation 's Southeast Asia regional office in Jakarta . While at the Ford Foundation , she developed a model of microfinance which is now the standard in Indonesia , a country that is a world leader in micro @-@ credit systems . Peter Geithner , father of Tim Geithner ( who later became U.S. Secretary of the Treasury in her son 's administration ) , was head of the foundation 's Asia grant @-@ making at that time .
From May to November 1986 and from August to November 1987 , Dunham was a cottage industries development consultant for the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan ( ADBP ) under the Gujranwala Integrated Rural Development Project ( GADP ) . The credit component of the project was implemented in the Gujranwala district of the Punjab province of Pakistan with funding from the Asian Development Bank and IFAD , with the credit component implemented through Louis Berger International , Inc . Dunham worked closely with the Lahore office of the Punjab Small Industries Corporation ( PSIC ) .
From January 1988 to 1995 , Dunham was a consultant and research coordinator for Indonesia 's oldest bank , Bank Rakyat Indonesia ( BRI ) in Jakarta , with her work funded by USAID and the World Bank . In March 1993 , Dunham was a research and policy coordinator for Women 's World Banking ( WWB ) in New York . She helped WWB manage the Expert Group Meeting on Women and Finance in New York in January 1994 , and helped the WWB take prominent roles in the UN 's Fourth World Conference on Women held September 4 – 15 , 1995 in Beijing , and in the UN regional conferences and NGO forums that preceded it .
On August 9 , 1992 , she was awarded PhD in anthropology from the University of Hawaii , under the supervision of Prof. Alice G. Dewey , with a 1 @,@ 043 @-@ page dissertation titled Peasant blacksmithing in Indonesia : surviving and thriving against all odds . Anthropologist Michael Dove described the dissertation as " a classic , in @-@ depth , on @-@ the @-@ ground anthropological study of a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ year @-@ old industry " . According to Dove , Dunham 's dissertation challenged popular perceptions regarding economically and politically marginalized groups , and countered the notions that the roots of poverty lie with the poor themselves and that cultural differences are responsible for the gap between less @-@ developed countries and the industrialized West . According to Dove , Dunham :
found that the villagers she studied in Central Java had many of the same economic needs , beliefs and aspirations as the most capitalist of Westerners . Village craftsmen were " keenly interested in profits " , she wrote , and entrepreneurship was " in plentiful supply in rural Indonesia " , having been " part of the traditional culture " there for a millennium .
Based on these observations , Dr. Soetoro concluded that underdevelopment in these communities resulted from a scarcity of capital , the allocation of which was a matter of politics , not culture . Antipoverty programs that ignored this reality had the potential , perversely , of exacerbating inequality because they would only reinforce the power of elites . As she wrote in her dissertation , " many government programs inadvertently foster stratification by channeling resources through village officials " , who then used the money to strengthen their own status further .
= = Illness and death = =
In late 1994 , Dunham was living and working in Indonesia . One night , during dinner at a friend 's house in Jakarta , she experienced stomach pain . A visit to a local physician led to an initial diagnosis of indigestion . Dunham returned to the United States in early 1995 and was examined at the Memorial Sloan – Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and diagnosed with uterine cancer . By this time , the cancer had spread to her ovaries . She moved back to Hawaii to live near her widowed mother and died on November 7 , 1995 , 22 days short of her 53rd birthday . Following a memorial service at the University of Hawaii , Obama and his sister spread their mother 's ashes in the Pacific Ocean at Lanai Lookout on the south side of Oahu . Obama scattered the ashes of his grandmother ( Madelyn Dunham ) in the same spot on December 23 , 2008 , weeks after his election to the presidency .
Obama talked about Dunham 's death in a 30 @-@ second campaign advertisement ( " Mother " ) arguing for health care reform . The ad featured a photograph of Dunham holding a young Obama in her arms as Obama talks about her last days worrying about expensive medical bills . The topic also came up in a 2007 speech in Santa Barbara :
I remember my mother . She was 52 years old when she died of ovarian cancer , and you know what she was thinking about in the last months of her life ? She wasn 't thinking about getting well . She wasn 't thinking about coming to terms with her own mortality . She had been diagnosed just as she was transitioning between jobs . And she wasn 't sure whether insurance was going to cover the medical expenses because they might consider this a preexisting condition . I remember just being heartbroken , seeing her struggle through the paperwork and the medical bills and the insurance forms . So , I have seen what it 's like when somebody you love is suffering because of a broken health care system . And it 's wrong . It 's not who we are as a people .
Dunham 's employer @-@ provided health insurance covered most of the costs of her medical treatment , leaving her to pay the deductible and uncovered expenses , which came to several hundred dollars per month . Her employer @-@ provided disability insurance denied her claims for uncovered expenses because the insurance company said her cancer was a preexisting condition .
= = Posthumous interest = =
In September 2008 , the University of Hawaii at Mānoa held a symposium about Dunham . In December 2009 , Duke University Press published a version of Dunham 's dissertation titled Surviving against the Odds : Village Industry in Indonesia . The book was revised and edited by Dunham 's graduate advisor , Alice G. Dewey , and Nancy I. Cooper . Dunham 's daughter , Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng , wrote the foreword for the book . In his afterword , Boston University anthropologist Robert W. Hefner describes Dunham 's research as " prescient " and her legacy as " relevant today for anthropology , Indonesian studies , and engaged scholarship " . The book was launched at the 2009 annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association in Philadelphia with a special Presidential Panel on Dunham 's work ; The 2009 meeting was taped by C @-@ SPAN .
In 2009 , an exhibition of Dunham 's Javanese batik textile collection ( A Lady Found a Culture in its Cloth : Barack Obama 's Mother and Indonesian Batiks ) toured six museums in the United States , finishing the tour at the Textile Museum of Washington , D.C. in August . Early in her life , Dunham explored her interest in the textile arts as a weaver , creating wall hangings for her own enjoyment . After moving to Indonesia , she was attracted to the striking textile art of the batik and began to collect a variety of different fabrics .
In December 2010 Dunham was awarded the Bintang Jasa Utama , the highest civilian award in Indonesia .
A lengthy major biography of Dunham by former New York Times reporter Janny Scott , titled A Singular Woman , was published in 2011 .
The University of Hawaii Foundation has established the Ann Dunham Soetoro Endowment , which supports a faculty position housed in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa , and the Ann Dunham Soetoro Graduate Fellowships , providing funding for students associated with the East – West Center ( EWC ) in Honolulu , Hawaii .
In 2010 the Stanley Ann Dunham Scholarship was established for young women graduating from Mercer Island High School , Ann 's alma mater . In its first six years the scholarship fund has awarded eleven college scholarships .
On January 1 , 2012 , President Obama and family visited an exhibition of his mother 's anthropological work on display at the University of Hawaii .
Filmmaker Vivian Norris 's feature length biographical film of Ann Dunham entitled Obama Mama ( La mère d 'Obama @-@ French title ) premiered on May 31 , 2014 as part of the 40th annual Seattle International Film Festival , not far from where Dunham grew up on Mercer Island .
= = Personal beliefs = =
In his 1995 memoir Dreams from My Father , Barack Obama wrote , " My mother 's confidence in needlepoint virtues depended on a faith I didn 't possess ... In a land [ Indonesia ] where fatalism remained a necessary tool for enduring hardship ... she was a lonely witness for secular humanism , a soldier for New Deal , Peace Corps , position @-@ paper liberalism . " In his 2006 book The Audacity of Hope Obama wrote , " I was not raised in a religious household ... My mother 's own experiences ... only reinforced this inherited skepticism . Her memories of the Christians who populated her youth were not fond ones ... And yet for all her professed secularism , my mother was in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I 've ever known . " " Religion for her was " just one of the many ways — and not necessarily the best way — that man attempted to control the unknowable and understand the deeper truths about our lives , " Obama wrote .
Dunham 's daughter , Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng , when asked later if her mother was an atheist , said , " I wouldn 't have called her an atheist . She was an agnostic . She basically gave us all the good books — the Bible , the Hindu Upanishads and the Buddhist scripture , the Tao Te Ching — and wanted us to recognize that everyone has something beautiful to contribute . " " Jesus , she felt , was a wonderful example . But she felt that a lot of Christians behaved in un @-@ Christian ways . " On the other hand , Maxine Box , Dunham 's best friend in high school , said that Dunham " touted herself [ then ] as an atheist , and it was something she 'd read about and could argue . She was always challenging and arguing and comparing . She was already thinking about things that the rest of us hadn 't . "
In a 2007 speech , Obama contrasted the beliefs of his mother to those of her parents , and commented on her spirituality and skepticism : " My mother , whose parents were nonpracticing Baptists and Methodists , was one of the most spiritual souls I ever knew . But she had a healthy skepticism of religion as an institution . "
Obama also described his own beliefs in relation to the religious upbringing of his mother and father :
My father was from Kenya and a lot of people in his village were Muslim . He didn 't practice Islam . Truth is he wasn 't very religious . He met my mother . My mother was a Christian from Kansas , and they married and then divorced . I was raised by my mother . So , I 've always been a Christian . The only connection I 've had to Islam is that my grandfather on my father 's side came from that country . But I 've never practiced Islam .
= = Publications = =
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . Civil rights of working Indonesian women . OCLC 428080409 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . The effects of industrialization on women workers in Indonesia . OCLC 428078083 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1982 ) . Women 's work in village industries on Java . OCLC 663711102 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1983 ) . Women 's economic activities in North Coast fishing communities : background for a proposal from PPA . OCLC 428080414 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Haryanto , Roes ( 1990 ) . BRI Briefing Booklet : KUPEDES Development Impact Survey . Jakarta : Bank Rakyat Indonesia .
Dunham , S Ann ( 1992 ) . Peasant blacksmithing in Indonesia : surviving against all odds ( Thesis ) . Honolulu : University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa . OCLC 608906279 , 607863728 , 221709485 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Liputo , Yuliani ; Prabantoro , Andityas ( 2008 ) . Pendekar @-@ pendekar besi Nusantara : kajian antropologi tentang pandai besi tradisional di Indonesia [ Nusantara iron warrior @-@ warrior : anthropological studies of traditional blacksmiths in Indonesia ] ( in Indonesian ) . Bandung , Indonesia : Mizan . ISBN 9789794335345 . OCLC 778260082 .
Dunham , S Ann ( 2010 ) [ 2009 ] . Dewey , Alice G ; Cooper , Nancy I , eds . Surviving against the odds : village industry in Indonesia . Foreword by Maya Soetoro @-@ Ng ; afterword by Robert W. Hefner . Durham , NC : Duke University Press . ISBN 9780822346876 . OCLC 492379459 , 652066335 .
Dunham , S Ann ; Ghildyal , Anita ( 2012 ) . Ann Dunham 's legacy : a collection of Indonesian batik . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia . ISBN 9789834469672 . OCLC 809731662 .
= = Ancestry = =
= New Jersey Route 49 =
Route 49 is a state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 53 @.@ 80 mi ( 86 @.@ 58 km ) from an interchange with the Delaware Memorial Bridge extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 295 and U.S. Route 40 ) in Deepwater , Salem County , where it continues north as U.S. Route 130 southeast to Route 50 and County Route 557 in Tuckahoe , Cape May County . The route serves Salem , Cumberland , Atlantic , and Cape May Counties , passing through rural areas and the communities of Salem , Bridgeton , and Millville along the way . It is a two @-@ lane , undivided road for most of its length .
Route 49 was established in 1927 to run from Salem to Clermont , running along its present alignment between Salem and Millville , following current Route 47 between Millville and South Dennis , and running along present @-@ day Route 83 between South Dennis and Clermont . It replaced a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis . In 1953 , Route 49 was routed onto its current alignment , replacing a part of Route 44 between Salem and Deepwater and following the former alignment of Route 47 between Millville and Tuckahoe . In the 1960s , a freeway was planned for Route 49 between Deepwater and Millville ; it was never built . In the 2000s , many improvements have been or are being made to bridges along Route 49 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Salem County = = =
Route 49 heads south on Broadway from an interchange with the Delaware Memorial Bridge extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 295 / U.S. Route 40 ) in the community of Deepwater in Pennsville Township , Salem County . North of here , the road continues to the north as U.S. Route 130 . Route 49 passes through residential areas of Pennsville and intersects County Route 630 ( Fort Mott Road ) , continuing into farmland . Route 49 then intersects the southern terminus of County Route 551 ( Hook Road and County Route 632 ( Lighthouse Road ) . It crosses the Salem River into Salem and becomes Front Street .
In Salem , the route intersects County Route 657 ( Griffith Street ) and makes a right turn . It turns left onto Broadway and forms the main business district of the town . In downtown Salem , Route 49 intersects County Route 625 ( Chestnut Street ) , the southern terminus of Route 45 ( Market Street ) , and County Route 665 ( Walnut Street ) . It crosses County Route 658 ( Keasbey Street / York Street ) and enters Quinton Township , becoming Main Street and heading into agricultural areas . Route 49 heads east , meeting County Route 650 ( Hancocks Bridge Road ) and County Route 653 ( Action Station Road ) . It crosses the Alloway Creek into the community of Quinton , where it intersects the southern terminus of County Route 581 ( Quinton Alloway Road ) and County Route 654 ( Sickler Street ) . The route leaves Quinton and intersects County Route 626 ( Jericho Road ) , continuing southeast into wooded areas , where Route 49 crosses County Route 667 ( Pecks Corner Road ) and County Route 647 ( Telegraph Road / Jericho Road ) .
= = = Cumberland County = = =
Route 49 crosses a stream , Sarah Run , into Stow Creek Township , Cumberland County and heads into farmland as Shiloh Pike . Here , it crosses County Route 624 ( Jericho Road ) and County Route 617 ( Columbia Highway ) . The route then intersects County Route 635 ( Old Cohansey Road ) and continues south along the border of Stow
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Creek Township to the west and Hopewell Township to the east , entering Shiloh at the intersection with Mill Road . In Shiloh , Route 49 meets County Route 620 ( Roadstown Road ) and County Route 753 ( East Avenue / West Avenue ) in the center of town and heads southeast , crossing County Route 695 ( Maple Avenue / Randolph Road ) . The route enters Hopewell Township and intersects County Route 661 ( Barretts Run Road ) .
Past this intersection , Route 49 enters a more suburban landscape , crossing County Route 621 ( W. Park Drive ) . The route enters Bridgeton and becomes Broad Street . In Bridgeton , it intersects County Route 607 ( West Avenue ) , County Route 650 ( Fayette Street ) , and County Route 697 ( Atlantic Street ) . Route 49 crosses the Cohansey River and comes to an intersection with Pearl Street , which heads to the north as Route 77 and to the south as County Route 609 . Past Pearl Street , Route 49 crosses County Route 670 ( Commerce Street / Buckshutem Road ) and Route 49 continues to the east on Commerce Street . It crosses County Route 638 ( N. Burlington Road ) and enters Fairfield Township .
Route 49 continues east through a mix of woods and farms , intersecting County Route 553 ( Gouldtown @-@ Woodruff Road ) and County Route 675 ( Fordville @-@ Gouldtown Road ) . It enters Millville and becomes Main Street , intersecting County Route 682 ( Sugarman Avenue ) and County Route 634 ( Nabb Avenue ) . It intersects three more county routes , County Route 714 ( Morias Avenue ) , County Route 625 ( Hogbin Road ) , and County Route 712 ( Reick Road ) , before heading into the city . It intersects County Route 608 ( Carmel Road ) and County Route 698 ( Beech Street ) , County Route 667 ( Sharp Street ) , and County Route 610 ( Brandriff Avenue ) before meeting County Route 555 ( Cedar Street ) , which it forms a concurrency with . The route crosses the Maurice River and enters downtown Millville , where it intersects Route 47 ( Second Street ) . Past Route 47 , County Route 555 splits from Route 49 by turning north onto Third Street . Route 49 heads east through the eastern part of Millville , intersecting County Route 678 ( Wade Boulevard ) and interchanging with Route 55 . Past Route 55 , Route 49 heads southeast into woodland and crosses into Maurice River Township . In Maurice River Township , Route 49 intersects County Route 671 ( Union Road ) , County Route 646 ( Port Elizabeth @-@ Cumberland Road ) , and County Route 644 ( Hesstown Road ) . Route 49 eventually forms the border of Maurice River Township to the north and Upper Township , Cape May County to the south .
= = = Atlantic and Cape May Counties = = =
Route 49 crosses the Tuckahoe River into Estell Manor , Atlantic County . It runs a short distance to the north of the Tuckahoe River and intersects County Route 649 ( Aetna Avenue ) and County Route 666 ( Cape May Avenue ) . The route crosses the Tuckahoe River into Upper Township , Cape May County and intersects the eastern terminus of County Route 548 ( Tuckahoe Road ) , heading to the east . It intersects County Route 632 ( Marshallville Road ) and then comes to County Route 617 ( Woodbine Road ) , which heads south to provide access to County Route 557 . Route 49 continues east into Tuckahoe , where it intersects County Route 659 ( Railroad Avenue ) and ends at Route 50 and County Route 557 .
= = History = =
Route 49 was legislated in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering to run from Route 45 in Salem to Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Clermont . The route replaced a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 6 between Salem and Bridgeton and a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Bridgeton and South Dennis . A spur route of Route 49 , Route S49 , was created in 1927 to run from Route 49 in South Dennis to Route 4 in Rio Grande along the remainder of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 . Route S49 was extended to Wildwood in 1938 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 49 was extended west along what was a part of Route 44 to Deepwater to end at U.S. Route 40 and U.S. Route 130 near the Delaware Memorial Bridge . The eastern part of the route was realigned to head from Millville east to Route 50 in Tuckahoe , replacing what had been the southern part of Route 47 . Meanwhile , Route 47 was realigned to head south from Millville , replacing Route 49 from Millville to South Dennis and the length of Route S49 . The portion of Route 49 from South Dennis to Clermont became Route 83 .
A freeway was proposed for Route 49 in the early 1960s , running from Interstate 295 and U.S. Route 40 at the Delaware Memorial Bridge to Route 55 in Millville . However , this freeway was canceled by 1967 as it closely paralleled the planned Route 60 freeway , which itself was never built .
In the 2000s , construction has occurred to replace many bridges along Route 49 . The drawbridge over the Salem River was replaced by a fixed span in the mid @-@ 2000s . On October 1 , 2008 , the bridge over the railroad line in Tuckahoe was closed for reconstruction and is expected to reopen in June 2009 . The bridge over the Cohansey River in Bridgeton is also being reconstructed . Construction on this bridge started in October 2008 and is expected to be completed in July 2009 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Thomas S. Hinde =
Thomas Spottswood Hinde ( April 19 , 1785 – February 9 , 1846 ) was an American newspaper editor , opponent of slavery , author , historian , real estate investor , Methodist minister and a founder of the city of Mount Carmel , Illinois . Members of the Hinde family were prominent in Virginia , Kentucky , Ohio , and Illinois . His sons Charles T. Hinde became a shipping magnate and Edmund C. Hinde an adventurer . He was the father @-@ in @-@ law of judge Charles H. Constable .
Hinde was an active businessman , pursuing real estate , construction , and publishing opportunities in Kentucky , Ohio and Illinois . In his early years , Hinde publicly opposed slavery . He also used his newspaper , The Fredonian , in Chillicothe , Ohio between 1806 @-@ 1808 , to highlight issues about Indian treaties and the conspiracy of Aaron Burr . He served in the War of 1812 . In later years he was a pioneer in the settlement of Indiana and Illinois , and the expansion of the Methodist Church in these areas . He contributed to the Madoc Tradition and was a noted historian and biographer . Hinde cofounded the Wabash Navigation Company , which engaged in real estate speculation and dam construction . The company dammed the Wabash River next to Hinde 's property , creating the Grand Rapids Dam . The dam was abandoned by the Federal government in 1931 .
Hinde was an ordained Methodist minister and traveled extensively to advance the interests of the church . He was a pioneering circuit rider in the early 1800s in Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , and Missouri . Hinde wrote and published religious articles in many leading publications . Francis Asbury , one of the first two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States , considered Hinde important to the church . He frequently met with him and mentioned him in his journals . Historian Lyman Draper spent more than twenty years collecting documents by and about the Hinde family , along with papers of other important figures of the Trans @-@ Allegheny West . The Draper Manuscript Collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society holds 47 volumes of Hinde 's personal papers , donated by his family after his death .
= = Early years = =
Thomas S. Hinde was born April 19 , 1785 in Hanover County , Virginia , to Dr. Thomas Hinde ( 1737 – 1828 ) and Mary Todd Hubbard ( 1734 – 1830 ) , as the seventh of eight children . His father was an English doctor who served as a physician to Patrick Henry and General James Wolfe . Little is known about Hinde 's early years except that the family moved from Virginia to Newport , Kentucky , in 1797 when his father was awarded a land grant of 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 km2 ) for his services in the American Revolutionary War . In a letter to President James Madison many years later , Hinde related that while walking to school in the wilderness of Kentucky , he once successfully fought off a wolf and a panther . Daniel Boone and Simon Kenton were neighbors of the Hinde family while they lived in Kentucky , and the three men grew up as colleagues . One of Hinde 's sisters married Richard Southgate ; his nephews William Wright Southgate and William Taylor became prominent lawyers and politicians .
After a conversion by his mother Mary and older sister Susannah in 1798 , all of Hinde 's family , including his father , converted to Christianity as Methodists . Thomas delayed a while . Shortly afterward the younger Hinde became close friends with Francis Asbury , who became a prominent bishop in the church . Hinde later described the conversion of his youngest sister , Martha Harrison Hinde , in an 1827 article published in the Methodist Review under his pen name , Theophilus Arminius . Hinde recounted Bishop Asbury visiting his father 's home in 1803 and telling Martha that she had better find God , because before he could meet her again she would be dead . The bishop 's prophecy came true when Martha died in 1811 without having seen Asbury again . Hinde said she had converted before her death and tried to convert the nonbelievers in the room while on her deathbed . He shared a letter in which his sister had tried to convert her close friends . Hinde named his first daughter after his late sister Martha . Hinde did not immediately convert but attended Methodist camp meetings of the period . During his life , he frequently wrote about the importance of the camp meeting in bringing Christianity and democracy to the west .
In 1801 , Hinde got a job as deputy clerk for the Kentucky Court of Appeals . William Kavanaugh , the husband of Hinde 's older sister Hannah , assigned him to Achilles Sneed of Frankfort . He received a good legal education with Sneed , who was Clerk of the Court of Appeals . During this time , Hinde became acquainted with many of the state 's leading men , and acquired a knowledge of the law . He also developed a reputation as one of Kentucky 's most efficient businessmen . Hinde wrote to Henry Clay that he was the first lawyer whom Hinde heard address a court . Hinde resided in a boarding house , shared with many of the leading judges and politicians of the day , where he strengthened his personal and political contacts .
= = Newspaper publisher = =
From an early age , Hinde opposed slavery . Although their parents owned slaves , he and his siblings repudiated slavery on religious grounds . Hinde 's opposition increased and eventually he and other friends became outspoken critics of the institution in Kentucky , where slavery was commonplace in the middle and western parts of the state . In the Great Awakening , Methodists were prominent among those who opposed slavery , although they also converted slaves and welcomed them into congregations . In Kentucky Hinde joined other Methodist ministers in the abolitionist movement .
In a letter to President Madison , Hinde attributed his opposition to slavery to the influence of his mother . He wrote :
In 1805 , Messrs. Wood and Street , from Richmond , Va . , found their way to Kentucky . Friendly considerations led me to patronize them . This was done through the solicitations of a young friend from Virginia . They commenced a paper , published in 1806 , called the ' Western World . ' Imbibing strong prejudices against slavery , perhaps from my mother 's repeating , in my infancy , the nurse 's songs composed by Cowper , designed to make such impressions . In June 1806 , to the great astonishment of my friends , I left Kentucky , with all the flattering prospects a youth could have , and hastened to Ohio . Connecting circumstances , and from hints that fell from Wood and others , a deep impression had been made on my mind , that an eventful period was fast approaching .
Because of the slavery issue , in 1806 Hinde moved from Kentucky to Chillicothe in the free state of Ohio . In partnership with his brother @-@ in @-@ law R.D. Richardson , beginning in 1806 , he edited and published a newspaper titled the Fredonian . Fredonian was a sonorous name for ' a citizen of the United States . ' In later years it was applied to an American @-@ inspired rebellion to separate Texas from Mexico .
From early in his career , Hinde fought the projects of Aaron Burr . He collected and published material in The Fredonian related to what he said was Burr 's conspiracy to overthrow the US government . Hinde sent
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the evidence to Henry Clay , a longtime friend of his family and later secretary of state , but the papers disappeared .
While working at the Kentucky Court of Appeals , Hinde had developed a close relationship with George Madison and his nephew John Madison . In 1829 Hinde wrote to their relation , President James Madison , to provide him with information about the Burr conspiracy for a political history the president was said to be writing . Madison denied the project , but asked Hinde to send copies of The Fredonian to include in his presidential papers . Hinde sent newspaper issues dealing with the Burr Conspiracy . The copies of the newspaper were filed with the President 's papers .
After moving to Ohio , Hinde was unanimously elected by the Ohio House of Representatives to the position of clerk pro tempore . He held the position for three years before shifting to focus on his successful speculation in military lands .
= = Marriages and family = =
On October 19 , 1809 , with minister William Lynes officiating , Hinde at the age of 24 married Belinda Bradford , the daughter of the late James Bradford , in Hamilton County , Ohio . His father @-@ in @-@ law was a descendant of William Bradford of Plymouth Colony . He had been killed in 1791 in St. Clair 's Defeat , and buried in Fort Recovery .
Hinde and Belinda had three children : James B. , John Madison , and Martha . The second son was named after Hinde 's friend Dr. John Madison , a nephew of George Madison and a relative of James Madison . The daughter Martha married Charles H. Constable , who became a prominent Illinois politician . He is notable for his decision as judge to allow four Union deserters to go free during the Civil War . Belinda died in 1827 .
In 1828 , Hinde married Sarah Neal ( Daugherty ) Cavileer . They had three children : Edmund C. , Charles T. and Belinda . Edmund was a pioneer who participated in the California Gold Rush ; after his death , his journals were published . Charles became a business tycoon in Southern California , playing a pivotal role in its development through his shipping expertise . Belinda married Jacob Zimmerman , a successful newspaper editor and owner who in later years held a number of political offices in Illinois .
= = Conversion to Methodism = =
Hinde was involved with the newspaper for less than two years . He converted from Deism to Methodism and decided that operating a political journal conflicted with his new religious views . After retiring from the newspaper business , he engaged in locating military lands and in land speculation . For the rest of his life , Hinde published editorials in newspapers and religious publications . He organized several camp meetings with other preachers , saying that the camp meeting could unite the different Protestant denominations .
At times , Francis Asbury ventured into the wilderness to visit Hinde . An 1856 account states ,
In 1810 Bishop Asbury visited an obscure part of the western country ( Kanawha ) which was then a wilderness , and pleasantly told the Rev. Thomas S. Hinde that he had visited the region in order that the people might see and know their superintendent ; remarking , " The shepherd ought to know the flock , and the flock the shepherd : they ought to know what man it is that governs them , and I have come nearly one hundred miles out of my way to see them . " The writer exclaims , " O Asbury , the inhabitants of these hills and mountains will long make mention of thee ! "
Hinde is thought to have received his license to preach sometime around 1810 . His first sermon was in Chillicothe in either 1807 or 1808 , and people were so eager to hear him that they filled the church . The sermon was described as having " ... no coherence in his discourse . " During the sermon , Hinde repeatedly stated , " My bowels , my bowels ! "
According to a 19th @-@ century account ,
As a preacher , he was rather eccentric . He was not very fluent and gifted as a speaker , but had the power of engaging the attention of his hearers , and was very successful and useful in a revival of religion . He entertained rather singular views on the subject of the orders in the ministry , objecting to the order of deacons , and holding that the eldership is the only true order . In consequence of these peculiar views , he would never consent to be ordained a deacon , and therefore never entered into orders at all .
Hinde became a circuit rider in the early 1800s . While his circuit varied over the years , he served large portions of Kentucky , Indiana , Illinois , and Missouri . Much of the territory he covered was generally lawless , violent and dangerous . Circuit riders served numerous churches and were supposed to plant new ones in new or underserved communities . They were critical to the development of the frontier .
An avid writer , Hinde wrote mostly about Methodism and church songs . He wrote a popular hymnal entitled The Pilgrams ' songster ; or , A choice collection of spiritual songs , which was said to have sold more than 10 @,@ 000 copies . Rev. Thomas S. Hinde was said to be , " ... exceedingly earnest , and very zealous in promoting the interests of the Church and of religion and morality . His zeal , however , was rather of the ascetic kind ; and he usually took prominent part in the arraignment and trial of brethren accused of offenses . " He was quoted as saying that he was , " ... doing God service . "
= = Indian affairs = =
Growing up in Kentucky in the late 1790s , Hinde learned of the danger of Indian attacks . After moving to Chillicothe , he became interested in prehistoric Indian sites . In a letter to President James Madison , he mentioned taking friends to Windship 's mound ( now the Hopewell Culture National Historical Park ) , but focused on his opposition to slavery , saying he called
their attention to the surrounding scenery , my former pursuits , my friends , my country , my prospects — all these had been abandoned for the pride of opinion , against the entailment and perpetuation of slavery upon the rising generation ! I remember their looks when I remarked , that after all , ( pointing to the sun eclipsed , ) I spoke of the gloom that overshadowed my future prospects !
Hinde purchased property from William Mc 'Intosh near the Wabash River , an area that had been a Piankashaw Indian campground . It contained numerous earthwork mounds built by cultures that predated the Piankashaw .
Hinde met the Shawnee chief Tecumseh in Chillicothe and in Vincennes , Indiana , during either the 1810 or the 1811 meeting between Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison at Grouseland . Hinde also met prominent Shawnee Blue Jacket and reported on him for the local newspapers . One source says that Hinde played a crucial role in negotiating early Indian treaties signed with the United States government , without defining his actions .
= = War of 1812 = =
Hinde served in the U.S. Army in the War of 1812 under William Henry Harrison , then governor of the Indiana Territory . Both from Virginia families , the two men were close in age . Hinde was made responsible for prisoners of war starting in 1813 , when he was about 27 or 28 years old .
Hinde served under Captain Oliver Hazard Perry , who was the commander at the Battle of Lake Erie . Captain Perry 's decisive victory ensured American control of the lake , improved American morale after a series of defeats , and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit . In 1813 , Hinde was placed in charge of prisoners captured at this battle .
= = Founding Mount Carmel = =
In the early 1800s , Hinde purchased large land holdings in what would become Wabash County , Illinois . In 1817 , he , William McDowell and William Beauchamp collectively founded the city of Mount Carmel , Illinois . All three men were ministers . They chose the Biblical name " Mount Carmel " , because it meant " the garden of the Lord " and was a historic city in Palestine . According to one source :
The site chosen for the town was a point on the west bank of the Wabash opposite the mouth of the White River , and twenty @-@ four miles southwest of Vincennes . This point was selected because of the available water power and of the likelihood that main roads from east to west would pass here . The town became a railroad and manufacturing center and justified the wisdom of its founders . An elaborate circular , called the " Articles of Association for the City of Mount Carmel , " was issued at Chillicothe in 1817 . The purpose of the association was announced to be " to build a city on liberal and advantageous principles , and to constitute funds for the establishment of seminaries of learning and for religious purposes . " The proprietors reserved for themselves one @-@ fourth of the lots , these being called " proprietors ' lots ; " one @-@ fourth were called " private donation lots . " The plan of survey and sale was described as follows : " The in @-@ lots are six poles in front , and eleven and a half in back ; containing each sixty @-@ eight perches , nearly half an acre . The most of the out @-@ lots contain four acres and eight square poles ; some of them more , ( five and six acres on the back range ) ; and a few of them less . There are 748 in @-@ lots , and 331 out @-@ lots --1079 in the whole .
Hinde donated the majority of the land for the city . Shortly after it was incorporated , he gave permission for city residents to use part of his land near the Wabash River as a " commons " for livestock . Hinde , Beauchamp and McDowell were granted permission by the legislature to establish a ferry on Hinde 's land at the river . During this time Hinde did the primary survey work for the Grand Rapids Dam on the river . According to a local history published in 1883 , he was believed to reside in a house located on the " bluff " in Mount Carmel . In letters to Congress written in the 1820s , Hinde said that he resided near the Grand Rapids Dam . He wrote a poem about Mount Carmel and had it published in Ohio .
Originally , Mount Carmel was located in Edwards County . After a drought in 1820 killed a majority of the settlers , the county seat was moved from Palmyra , Illinois to Albion . At that time Albion was settled primarily by English immigrants . The Americans from Mount Carmel and surrounding settlements were resentful and tried to return the county seat to Mount Carmel by force . During the bickering for the county seat location , Hinde ran for county commissioner in 1821 against John Buckles , receiving only two votes against Buckles ' 151 . In 1822 Hinde ran for the office of Illinois House of Representatives and narrowly lost to Gilbert T. Pell . On December 24 , 1824 the Illinois Legislature resolved the county seat issue by creating Wabash County from the eastern half of Edwards County .
Based on newspaper accounts , the lots held by Hinde did not sell quickly . More than 27 years after having developed the plans for Mount Carmel , Hinde was still advertising lots for sale there in national newspapers . In one advertisement Hinde said , " The place I offer is midway between St. Louis and Louisville and the next improvement will be the completion of the railroad connecting the two places , and a dam across the Great Wabash , at the Grand Rapids , at the junction of the White , Patoka , and Wabash , giving the greatest water power in the great West . "
Another source notes that Hinde and other founders " ... may have been over zealous and puritanical in the construction of their laws ... no theater or play @-@ house shall ever be built within the boundary of the city ; no person shall be guilty of drunkenness , profanity , sabbath @-@ breaking , and many other offenses of greater magnitude , etc . , he shall be subject to trial by the court of Mayor and on conviction , was disqualified from holding any office in the city , or the bank ; was disqualified to vote ; ostracism was to continue for three years after the commission of the so @-@ called crimes . "
Around 1825 , Hinde settled in Mount Carmel , leaving the Methodist circuit to focus on religious and historical writing , and business . He founded one of the first churches in the town and occasionally held Methodist gatherings at his home . On September 20 , 1827 more than 27 Methodist ministers met in the upper room of his house . It was one of the largest gatherings of the time .
= = Real estate disputes = =
After his father died in 1828 , Hinde inherited real estate in Kentucky . Shortly thereafter , he began investing in real estate in Ohio . Property titles were frequently complicated in this period due to turnover of military lands , as well as issues related to acquisition of former Native American lands . Several of his Ohio property disputes reached the Supreme Court of the United States , including Hinde v. Vattier and Mallow v. Hinde .
= = = Johnson v. M 'Intosh = = =
William M 'Intosh was a former Revolutionary War veteran who had become a fur trader and investor in military lands along the Wabash River . Hinde and M 'Intosh lived on adjoining tracts of land near what would become the site of the Grand Rapids Dam .
M 'Intosh became associated with the Supreme Court Case of Johnson v. M 'Intosh . Chief Justice John Marshall , an acquaintance of Hinde and his father , used the case to establish the " Discovery Doctrine , " which ruled that the discovering people gain title over the indigenous peoples in respect to land title . Hinde also knew Associate Justice Thomas Todd , a justice on the Kentucky Court of Appeals when Hinde served as the court 's clerk . In the case , in which Johnson and M 'Intosh were claiming title to the same property , the Supreme Court ruled that private citizens could not purchase land from Native Americans , and therefore the plaintiff Johnson 's land purchases were invalid . M 'Intosh 's land purchases from the Federal government were affirmed as legal .
Hinde purchased a portion of M 'Intosh 's litigated property not long after the litigation . Correspondence between Hinde and M 'Intosh discussing land sales form part of the Hinde documents at the Lyman Draper Manuscripts Collection in the Wisconsin Historical Society . Due to the favorable ruling in the case , Hinde benefited greatly because of his large land holdings in the area . After the ruling had settled ownership issues between the Indians and settlers , Hinde founded the towns of Mt . Carmel , Powhaten , and Selima in the Illinois territory .
= = = Hinde v. Vattier = = =
One of Hinde 's own real estate disputes was based on property he owned in Cincinnati . The dispute was between the Hinde family and Charles Vattier . Vattier was a known scam artist and underworld giant in Cincinnati . One source described Vattier as owning " ... a gambling empire , including grog shops , Bawdy houses and taverns . " Vattier was involved in a number of other fraudulent real estate schemes with other people in Ohio . In 1807 Vattier was convicted of burglary and larceny for stealing large sums of money from James Findlay , Receiver of Public Monies for the District of Cincinnati . Hinde knew Findlay since they were both involved in exposing the Burr conspiracy and both were prominent in Ohio .
Allegedly , Vattier had tried to take title to a piece of property in Cincinnati already owned by the Hinde family . Hinde challenged Vattier in court . Henry Clay represented Hinde in the Ohio State Court proceedings . Hinde claimed that Vattier tried to use the lot to pay Findlay by claiming to have a bill of sale and title that was superior to the Hinde family . After more than fifteen years , the case reached the United States Supreme Court in 1833 . The Court ruled that Vattier took title to the property illegally and that the property belonged to Hinde and his children . Originally owned by Hinde 's father @-@ in @-@ law , James Bradford , after his death the property passed to Hinde 's wife , Belinda ( Bradford ) Hinde .
= = Wabash Navigation Company = =
In 1825 , Hinde joined the Wabash Navigation Company . Seventeen members of the company came from prominent families in Indiana and Illinois . The company had capital of more than $ 1 million . Hinde was one of the company 's first nine directors and remained active until his death . The company charter was eventually approved by both the Illinois and Indiana legislatures . The company built a dam next to land Hinde owned .
In a letter to Congress in 1842 , Hinde stated that his goal was to connect the Wabash River with the Maumee River that flowed to Lake Erie . He cited in support the opinion of unnamed hunters and traders and George Washington 's hope of connecting the waters of the east with the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . Hinde also declared , " ... I have seen the whole wilderness of the West subdued and savages and wild beasts or prey receding before civilization and enterprise . " He said that , on the Wabash from the Grand Rapids to Terre Haute , steamboats could navigate almost all year ; therefore it was essential to connect the river to the Ohio . He also suggested that an armory should be built by the U.S. Government next to the proposed dam .
Dr. John Lescher was a business partner and friend of Thomas S. Hinde . Both men invested in the Wabash Navigation Company . Lescher later joined Hinde 's children in a lawsuit against the company . Not long after the death of Hinde , his son James and his son @-@ in @-@ law Charles H. Constable joined with Lescher and sued the Company for entering their land and taking timber and other materials for the construction of dam . But , the company 's charter permitted them to enter the land and take construction material without the owner 's consent , forcing the owner to seek legal redress . The court ordered compensation .
A letter written by Jacob Lescher in 1841 and submitted to Congress in support of the Grand Rapids Dam project and the building of a U.S. Armory , stated that he and Hinde owned more than 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 km2 ) acres of land around the proposed dam site . Additional information submitted to Congress stated that the town of Powhatan was owned by Hinde and Lescher and was a " river addition " to Mount Carmel . The location of the town of Selima was not clearly stated , but was near the dam . Hinde did the original surveying for Grand Rapids Dam .
The wooden timber dam deteriorated and needed to be replaced in the late nineteenth century . On September 19 , 1890 , Congress appropriated money for the construction of a new dam , to be built by the Army Corps of Engineers . The report stated that the old dam had partially washed away and that the new dam would raise the water level by 11 @.@ 5 feet . According
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to an annual report to the Secretary of War in 1908 , the mid @-@ 19th century lock and dam were " ... not of a substantial character .... , " and " ... rapidly deteriorated and became useless . " The same report said that by March 31 , 1881 expenditures for the dam were $ 317 @,@ 845 @.@ 44 and the government was forced to pay the Wabash Navigation Company an additional $ 7 @,@ 000 to extinguish their franchise and purchase their property .
= = Later years and legacy = =
Hinde settled in Mount Carmel toward the end of his life . During Hinde 's final years , he was an active letter writer and watched over his many business and real estate interests . Hinde was prominent in church and Illinois society and compiled many documents and interviews . During his later years , he shared much of this information with various writers and publications .
In his later writings , Hinde espoused some questionable theories such as the Hollow Earth theory and the Madoc tradition . Hinde was published in the Methodist Magazine , the " Short Sketches of Revivals of Religion in the Western Country " ( incomplete ) , the Advocate and Journal ( New York ) and the Western Christian Advocate ( Cincinnati ) . His writings have been described as , " ... abound [ ing ] in vague philosphical and religious reflections-- this is especially true of his diaries-- thus making them of slight value .... "
Hinde dedicated a substantial amount of time to investigating the Madoc Tradition in North America . Madoc or Madog ab Owain Gwynedd was , according to folklore , a Welsh prince who sailed to America in 1170 , more than 300 years before Christopher Columbus 's voyage in 1492 . Hinde interviewed hundreds of individuals on the topic . In 1824 , Hinde wrote a letter to John S. Williams , editor of The American Pioneer regarding the Madoc Tradition . He claimed to have testimony from numerous sources that said Welsh people under Owen Ap Zuinch had come to America in the twelfth century , over 300 years before Christopher Columbus . Hinde claimed that in 1799 , the remains of six soldiers had been dug up near Jeffersonville , Indiana with breastplates containing Welsh coats of arms . In 1799 , John Sevier , the first governor of Tennessee , also wrote of the alleged discovery of six skeletons in brass armor bearing Welsh coat @-@ of @-@ arms . Hinde claimed that M 'Intosh recounted that American Indians and Welshmen living on the Mississippi River were conversing in Welsh in the late 1700s .
In an 1842 letter Hinde stated , " I have just returned from the East , having visited the Atlantic cities generally for the first time , after forty @-@ five years pioneering in the wilderness of the West . I have been three time a citizen of Kentucky , twice of Ohio , and twice of Illinois . " After returning from the visit , Hinde claimed that eastern ministers were unsuccessful because they underrated the people of the West . He said ,
" If we expect to find on crossing the mountains a people either illiterate or ignorant as a body , we will assuredly , in many instances be disappointed . It too often happens , that one puffed up with self @-@ importance , and possesses a conceited and heated imagination , will form wild conjectures as to men and things . We have been amused at the bewildered minds of such , with the ' whys ' and ' wherefores ' ; and one of the most ridiculous whims of some , is to endeavor to press every thing into their own mould ; and shape it , be it what it may , if possible , after their own manner , custom , or operation , forgetting that ' we have to take the world as it is , and not as we would have it to be . ' "
A large collection of Hinde 's diaries are held among the Lyman Draper Manuscripts in the Wisconsin Historical Society . In his diaries Hinde stated that he supported the Hollow Earth theory . Throughout his life Hinde maintained correspondence with many of the prominent men of the day . His correspondents included James Madison , George Madison , Thomas Jefferson , Henry Clay , Simon Kenton , Daniel Boone , and John Marshall .
= = = Death = = =
Hinde was sick a few days before dying from " winter fever . " Hinde is buried in Sandhill Cemetery in Mount Carmel next to his daughter Belinda and his second wife , Sarah Doughty Cavileer Neal . The wrought iron fence surrounding their graves was paid for by his son Charles in the early 1900s . Since he died at a relatively early age and his wife died shortly after him , his orphaned children were forced to live with other relatives or fend for themselves . Martha married Judge Charles H. Constable ; together they looked after many of her younger siblings until they married or found work . Her brother Charles Hinde became a successful businessman and riverboat captain . One of Captain Hinde 's accomplishments was investing in the Hotel del Coronado in San Diego , California . Hinde 's grandson , Frederick Zimmerman , built the Grand Rapids Hotel on the Hinde family farm in Mount Carmel near the Grand Rapids Dam and Hanging Rock .
= Cyrus K. Holliday =
Colonel Cyrus Kurtz Holliday ( April 3 , 1826 – March 29 , 1900 ) was one of the founders of the township of Topeka , Kansas , in the mid 19th century ; and was Adjutant General of Kansas during the American Civil War . The title Colonel , however , was honorary . He was the first president of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway , as well as one of the railroad 's directors for nearly 40 years , up to 1900 . A number of railway locomotives have been named after him .
= = Education and early career = =
He was born on April 3 , 1826 , to David and Mary ( Kennedy ) Holliday , in Kidderminster , Pennsylvania ( near Carlisle ) . The younger Holliday received a public school education , graduating from Allegheny College in Meadville , Pennsylvania , where he studied law , in 1852 . Although he moved to Kansas in 1854 , Allegheny College 's alumni records show Holliday receiving a master 's degree in 1855 .
While he was still in Meadville , he was asked to prepare legal documentation for a new railroad that would connect to the city . The proposed railroad ( likely the Pittsburgh and Erie Railroad which was sometimes known as " The Meadville Line " ) would almost connect with a larger nearby system ( the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad ) , which meant that it could become a feeder route to the larger railroad . Holliday saw the potential of the line and instead of asking for a standard fee to create the documents , he asked for and was granted a partnership in the new railroad . When this railroad was purchased by the larger system , Holliday earned $ 20 @,@ 000 from the sale .
After the sale was completed , he married Mary Dillon Jones . He soon followed the many others making the migration to settle land west of the Mississippi River , but Mary stayed behind in Pennsylvania . The two were reunited later in Kansas after the births of their children , Lillie and Charles King .
= = Founding Topeka and military service = =
In 1854 he moved to Kansas , leaving his wife behind in Pennsylvania to follow later . He first settled in Lawrence in October 1854 . On December 10 , 1854 , after helping to find a location for the new townsite of Topeka , he wrote a letter to his wife saying :
" I am now thirty miles above Lawrence on the Kansas River assisting in starting a new town . We are just about in the central portion of the " settled " Territory and with perhaps the best landing and the most eligible site for a city in the entire country . ... So I think it must be , and in a few years when civilization by its magic influence shall have transformed this glorious country from what it is now to the brilliant destiny awaiting it , the Sun in all his course will visit no land more truly lovely and desirable than this . Here , Mary , with God 's kind permission , we will make our home ; and I have every reason to believe a home it will truly be . "
In 1855 Holliday received the honorary title of Colonel for supervising a regiment during the Wakarusa War . He also served as the Adjutant General of Kansas during the Civil War from May 2 , 1864 to March 31 , 1865 . Although his Colonel title was only honorary , he continued to use it long after his military service .
In 1861 , Holliday served in the Kansas State Senate , and although he ran for Congress in 1874 , he was defeated in that election . He was a Republican .
Holliday had broad interests in developing the natural resources of Kansas . In the 1890s he became mistakenly convinced that Ellis and Trego counties in central Kansas contained mineral deposits of tin , zinc , and gold . In 1899 his son Charles K. Holliday founded Smoky Hill City , Kansas near the supposed mineral deposits .
= = The Santa Fe Railroad = =
Once Topeka was founded , it needed transportation to connect it to the rest of the country . Holliday 's legal skills were called on again to create the paperwork for a new railroad . In 1859 he singlehandedly wrote the charter for the Atchison and Topeka Railroad Company , which would connect the two cities by rail following the route of the Santa Fe Trail . Kansas Territory governor Samuel Medary approved the charter on February 11 , 1859 . Holliday was named a director and president of the new railroad on September 17 , 1860 , which was renamed in 1863 to the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad . During his tenure as president , Holliday secured land grants from the federal government that would soon be used by the railroad to populate the western portion of Kansas in order to build a customer base for the railroad . He stepped down from the presidency at the end of 1863 , but remained on the board of directors until July 27 , 1865 . He rejoined the board on September 24 , 1868 , this time serving until his death on March 29 , 1900 .
= = Legacy = =
Holliday is buried in Topeka Cemetery , Topeka , Kansas . He is memorialized for his contributions to Kansas and the Santa Fe :
Cyrus K. Holliday , Locomotive # 1 , a vintage locomotive was displayed by the A , T & SF into the 1960s .
He is portrayed in the 1940 movie " Santa Fe Trail " by Henry O 'Neill as a promoter of commerce and development in the American West of his time .
In World War II , the United States liberty ship SS Cyrus K. Holliday was named in his honor .
Locomotive # 1 on the Disneyland Railroad bore the name " C.K. Holliday " since the park 's opening in 1955 .
Locomotive # 2 of the Paris Disneyland Railroad was also named C.K. Holliday in his honor .
= Adrian Crowley =
Adrian Crowley is a singer @-@ songwriter from Galway , based in Dublin and was born in Sliema , Malta .
Beginning his career at the age of 25 , Crowley has released six albums , with his debut A Strange Kind arriving in 1999 . He followed this with When You Are Here You Are Family ( 2002 ) , A Northern Country ( 2004 ) , Long Distance Swimmer ( 2007 ) , Season of the Sparks ( 2009 ) and " I See Three Birds Flying " ( 2012 ) In a 2005 Rolling Stone interview , Ryan Adams cited Crowley when asked " Who 's the best songwriter that no one 's heard of " . The Irish Times placed this artist at number eight in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 .
Crowley has won the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year on one occasion for Season of the Sparks and been nominated on two another occasion for Long Distance Swimmer and " I See Tree Birds Flying " .
= = Early life = =
Crowley is from a multicultural background , ( his father is Irish and mother is Maltese ) He was born in Sliema in Malta but reared in Galway . Crowley 's parents met in Africa and the family spent time in Sierra Leone , Cameroon and Malta . After his birth his family departed Malta for Cameroon . Crowley has been based in Dublin since the 1990s but has also spent time living in France .
= = Career = =
Crowley was a late developer as a musician , having originally spent time on other pursuits , such as studying architecture , painting and photography . Alongside this he wrote songs but did not perform his first show until the age of 25 , some days after finding material he had written in the early 1990s in his attic . He departed from a career in photography around 2004 to enter the music profession on a full @-@ time basis .
Crowley released his debut album A Strange Kind independently in 1999 . The song " Capricorn " was played regularly on No Disco that year . When You Are Here You Are Family followed in 2002 , being recorded at the Electrical Audio studios of one of his heroes , Steve Albini , in Chicago . This successful spell in the United States inspired him to begin communicating with American record labels .
He joined the label Ba Da Bing who were keen to produce his next two albums . A Northern Country was due for release in on 2 July 2004 , though was delayed before appearing on a smaller label with little publicity . Crowley later referred to A Northern Country as " the least ceremonious album of them all " .
Long Distance Swimmer was released as soon as it was recorded as , according to Crowley , he became " fed up waiting " . It was recorded with engineer Stephen Shannon . The record received positive reviews and was nominated for the Choice Music Prize . The NME said it was " a lo @-@ furnished , snug , auburn @-@ tinged folk album which calls to mind Bill Callahan , Johnny Cash , and Edwyn Collins " . The Irish Independent 's John Meagher named it his favourite album of 2007 and sixteenth best Irish album of the decade , while his colleague Eamon Sweeney suggested Crowley 's record was one of the few Irish albums preventing that year from being " an absolute stinker " . It was around this time that Crowley began working with The Fence Collective and members of Halfset . He featured on the edition of 12 March 2008 of the sixth series of Other Voices . Also that month , he performed a residency at Whelan 's .
Season of the Sparks was released on 24 April 2009 and featured an expanded palette of instruments including marxophone , shruti box , upright harmonium , viola de gamba , baroque viola . It was generally well received by critics in both and Ireland and the UK , and , so pleased was the reviewer with the French magazine Les Inrockuptibles that he wrote a letter of thanks to Crowley . He was also one of the first acts to be announced for Electric Picnic 2010 .
= = Other work = =
Crowley collaborated with Estel on " Electric Eels " , a track from the 2003 album A Guide in Time of Great Danger . He performed at the Elliott Smith Memorial Tribute Show in Dublin on 19 January 2004 . He has performed with James Yorkston on several occasions . The pair have recorded an eight track mini @-@ album as a tribute to Daniel Johnston . Crowley also curates the Homelights Festival in Dublin . He is also interested in film and has composed a number of scores . He is responsible for scoring the Irish feature film , ' Where The Sea Used To Be ' directed by Paul Farren . His song , ' The Wishing Seat ' prominently features in the award winning feature film , ' Love Eternal ' ( 2014 ) directed by Brendan Muldowney and stars Pollyanna Mackintosh and Robert de Hoog .
= = Style = =
Crowley 's style has been compared to that of Bill Callahan , Nick Drake and Tim Buckley , while Irish Independent reviewer Eamon Sweeney has said the singer is " a master of understatement " . The vocals of Noah and the Whale 's Charlie Fink are said to be reminiscent of Crowley 's . As well as singing Crowley plays the electric guitar and the Rhodes piano ; he never plays the acoustic guitar . He experiences music while he sleeps :
= = Discography = =
Adrian Crowley has released seven albums .
A Strange Kind ( 1999 )
When You Are Here You Are Family ( 2002 )
A Northern Country ( 2004 )
Long Distance Swimmer ( 2007 )
Season of the Sparks ( 2009 )
I See Three Birds Flying ( 2012 )
Some Blue Morning ( 2014 )
= = Band members = =
The following have performed with Crowley .
Mary Barnecutt -Cello
Katie Kim - vocals
Jeff Martin – Guitar
Steven Shannon – Bass guitar
Cillian Mc Donnell – Drums
Kevin Murphy – Cello
Marja Tuhkanen Gaynor – Viola , violin , viola de gamba , viol
Adem Ilhan – Harmonium , vocals , percussion
Kate Ellis – Cello
Thomas Haugh – Drums , zither
Andrew Bushe – Drums
Sarah Fox – Bass guitar , double bass , vocals
Emma Smith – Violin , vocals
Vince Sipprell – Viola
Cameron Miller – Bass guitar , double bass , vocals
Sarah Jones – Drums
Christopher Mayo – Bass guitar
James Yorkston – Concertina , guitar , vocals
Alex Neilson – Drums
Otto Hauser – Drums
Jesse Sparhawk – Bass guitar
Viking Moses
Dave Hingerty - drums
Bill Blackmore - flugelhorn , trumpet
= = Awards = =
The Irish Times placed Crowley at number eight in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , noting his " majestic songs , rich voice and subtle blend of atmospherics and master @-@ level wordplay " .
In a 2005 Rolling Stone interview , Ryan Adams cited Crowley when asked " Who 's the best songwriter that no one 's heard of " .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Long Distance Swimmer was nominated for the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year 2007 but lost to Super Extra Bonus Party 's Super Extra Bonus Party LP .
Season of the Sparks won the Choice Music Prize for Irish Album of the Year 2009 . Crowley received a prize of € 10 @,@ 000 cheque . He described himself as " totally flabbergasted " , adding " I didn 't really think it was the sort of record that was going to win awards " . Crowley promised to use the money to fund his music . He was one of eight nominees who performed at the awards ceremony . He is a friend of fellow nominee Valerie Francis .
= Curse of Enchantia =
Curse of Enchantia is a graphic adventure game developed and released by the British video game company Core Design for the PC DOS and Amiga in 1992 . The game tells the comic fantasy story of Brad , a teenage boy from modern Earth who was magically abducted to the world of Enchantia by an evil witch @-@ queen . Brad needs to escape and take on the forces of darkness to find a way back to his own dimension .
Curse of Enchantia was Core Design 's first attempt in the adventure genre as they set up to compete with LucasArts and Sierra On @-@ Line . The game features several highly unconventional and controversial game mechanics and design choices for an adventure title from that era , including having many simple action game style sequences and being practically devoid of in @-@ game text and conversations .
Nevertheless , Curse was generally well received upon its release , especially by the Amiga magazines , where the game 's graphics and animation received particular praise even as its illogical puzzles and unusual design choices were often criticized . A direct sequel was briefly planned but eventually turned into a spiritual successor game titled Universe and released in 1994 .
= = Gameplay = =
Curse of Enchantia uses a point and click style user interface , similar to Sierra 's Creative Interpreter from the King 's Quest series . The player character is commanded with an icon based control bar that is accessible by pressing the right mouse button , which also pauses the game . The control bar features seven main actions : inventory , pick up / take , manipulate / use ( opening up a sub @-@ menu with eight further actions : unlock , insert , push / pull , eat , wear , throw , give and combine ) , look , talk ( only either " Help ! " or " Hi ! " ) , attack , and jump . Usually , the protagonist has to stand in the immediate vicinity to the game 's objects and characters , which then appear as icons in a separate bar , in order to interact with them . A joystick or computer keyboard input can also be used .
The game does not feature text @-@ based object descriptions or conversations , as its few short scenes of rudimentary communication with friendly non @-@ player characters use only a minimalist system of pictograms in comic book @-@ style speech balloons , usually displaying the objects that the characters need to be delivered . Instead , the game features several action @-@ style sequences , such as dodging hazards or timing the use of items . However , the character is never at risk of dying , being effectively ' immortal ' no matter the dangers , and thus every such task can be repeated until successfully completed , risking only losing a few points from the score . Jewels , gold coins , and other objects of value can be collected throughout the game for a higher score .
= = Plot = =
In a parallel universe , a fantasy world of Enchantia is suffering under the terrible rule of a powerful coven of wicked witches . Their queen , who managed to surpass the rest in her boundless cruelty and depravity , frantically seeks a live male child from another dimension as the main ingredient of her desired spell of eternal youth . Having borrowed magic powers from all the other witches in Enchantia on the promise to make them too young forever , she created an invisible portal connection to Earth . One day in our world in the 1990s , an American young teenager named Brad plays a baseball practice with his sister Jenny when the witch spots him through the portal and incants a summoning spell , making him suddenly vanish in a flash of light . The game begins as Brad , dressed in medieval @-@ style clothing , wakes up in a dungeon cell . But the boy soon manages to escape , and then sets out on a journey to return home safely . In the course of his surreal adventure , he braves various dangers , meets a host of friendly and hostile characters , and rises to become a reluctant hero who just might break the titular curse and bring down the evil 's reign .
After breaking out from his prison , Brad falls into a moat before coming to a halt in a maze of an underground cavern . Reaching the surface , he arrives at a nearby village ; this location is repeatedly revisited throughout the game , as Brad comes back there after traveling to the various corners of the land , encountering bizarre characters and experiencing absurd adventures : the Edge of the World cliff , the Ice Palace , and the Valley of the Lost ( a place where all kinds of things lost on Earth have gone to ) , all while searching for an unlikely set of items that would help him emerge victorious from the game 's final showdown ( including a fire extinguisher and an mechanical fan ) . In the end , the boy enters the evil Queen 's castle to find and defeat her once and for all . Once she is no more , he gets instantly transported back to the baseball field where it all had started .
= = Development = =
Core Design 's original concept for the game was to make it more like an action @-@ adventure , before the project has evolved into a more classic adventure game . The game was supposed to be " an adventure for people who hadn 't played that kind of game before . " The protagonist 's effective invincibility was a late demand by the executive producer Jeremy Heath @-@ Smith , resulting in a series of minor plot changes . The game 's co @-@ designer and the Amiga version 's chief programmer Rob Toone said that their idea was to make these parts of the game " interesting without being difficult . " Co @-@ designer and the PC version programmer Ian Sabine stated that the lack of text " speeds up gameplay " . Regarding the decision to keep the onscreen text to a minimum , Toone said that " too much reading can slow the game or kill it , like The Adventures of Willy Beamish , " with the main artist Rolf Mohr adding that " hopefully , a picture will say a thousand words and make this system easy to use . " According to Toone , " Lucasfilm gets most of its humour out of its text , whereas we hopefully get ours from comical animations and daft happenings . "
The both versions of the game , for the PC and the Amiga , were developed separately and simultaneously , in order to make the best possible product for each platform rather than a quick port from one system to another . A version for the Amiga CD32 had also been planned . The game mixes backgrounds hand @-@ drawn with acrylic paint and then digitized by the Mohr , and sprite bitmap graphics made in Deluxe Paint and Brilliance on the Amiga with some rotoscoped animations . The animators Billy Allison and Stuart Atkinson created " huge " DPaint @-@ made character sequences but they had to implement them in game in more efficient way due to computer memory limitations . In addition , the PC version used the full 8 @-@ bit color of a 256 color palette , but the Amiga version had to be downscaled to only 32 colors ( including 24 colors for the background and eight colors for the main character ; the other characters had to be drawn with these colors ) . The game also uses various digitized sound effects . Allison said , " there were whole sections that never made it in , like a roller skating frankenstein , that shattered into loads of tiny versions of him if you ' killed ' him , I did the sprites etc , it just never made it to the game . "
It took a month for the project to be completely storyboarded before any programming work started on it . While the game 's design evolved over time , its original plot remained largely intact . Several revisions resulted in some of the already made some graphics and other content being cut from the game , in particular in the final area of the castle 's interior ( which at first was intended to be much longer and to feature monsters that would guard it , but in the end was reduced to a small area with the task basically limited to finding a secret chamber ) . The game 's story and elements were partially inspired by The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , The Wonderful Wizard of Oz , The Snow Queen , and Disney animated films , and relies heavily on surreal humor and slapstick . It contains several Easter egg pop culture references , including the shop called " Benn 's Costume Shop " ( complete with a costume of Batman ) , a band named " The Slugs " ( consisting of four humanoid slugs ) , getting into a frozen realm through a wardrobe , and encountering the wreck of Marie [ sic ] Celeste . Curse of Enchantia was described by Stuart Campbell as " a funny version of Lure of the Temptress with a different plot . " He was not the only one who noted the both games ' similarities to each other . Its working title was initially Zeloria , which later caused some confusion as several video game magazines continued to use " Zeloria " as the name of the world in the game ( some other magazines also incorrectly assumed Enchantia to be the name of the game 's antagonist , who is actually unnamed ) . Some articles featured an earlier and slightly different version of the plot , which involved a castle of three witches , who needed to drink a special potion every hundred years or else they would turn to dust , and the protagonist Brad 's original task involved a rescue of his captured sister Jenny .
= = Release = =
Curse of Enchantia was officially revealed under this title at the European Computer Trade Show ( ECTS ) in April 1992 . The game was originally planned to be released in September 1992 , but got delayed two months to November 1992 . It was the first adventure game by Core Design as well as one of the first CD @-@ ROM adventure games . Virgin Games bundled it with many of the earliest PC CD @-@ ROM drives in 1993 . It was also re @-@ released on CD as part of Encore Multipack , together with Heimdall and Thunderhawk . The game 's original release was accompanied by a promotional campaign with valuable prizes ( computers and money ) in some magazines such as France 's Joystick . Owners of computers with newer PC operating systems need to run it using DOSBox .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of Curse of Enchantia was mostly positive , especially in regard to its graphics and animation . However , the game was derided by some for its confusing user interface system , often illogical puzzle solutions and what some reviewers thought was a lack of quality humor , plot development and atmosphere , attributing it to the absence of text and dialogue .
British reviewers in particular have often praised the Amiga version of the game . Brian Sharp of Amiga Action gave this " well @-@ made and cleverly constructed package " the Amiga Action Accolade award , calling it " flawless " and " easily the best adventure game on the Amiga to date . " It hinted that using a joystick for control may make certain sections of the game " less annoying to play . " Amiga Computing gave it the Gamer Gold award , calling the game " excellent " , " down @-@ right bloody enchanting " and Core Design 's " easily greatest and most impressive game yet , " and even advising to " buy it today because if you don 't you will more than likely commit suicide , it 's that good . " Tony Gill of CU Amiga gave the game the CU Gold Screen award and said that while " some of the puzzles are a bit illogical , the further into the game you get the more luxurious it becomes . Around each bend the graphics get better and better . " Les Ellis of Amiga Power said it was one of funniest games he has ever played and called it " a classic adventure , which with a few tweaks could have easily beaten the Monkey Island [ series ] and a worthy addition to any collection and will stand as a challenge to any adventurer . " According to Amiga Power one year later , " with such a high degree of humour this adventure is well on its way to becoming a classic . It 's slightly overpriced and some of the puzzles are a little obscure but these are minor quibbles . Overall this is a great game . " Atari ST User even called it a " contender for the best game of the year . "
There was also much positive reception in the gaming press elsewhere in the English world . The " absolutely enchanted " Ken Simpson from Australia 's ACAR said the game 's " delightful " graphics and animation " are among the most tastefully executed [ he has ] ever seen , " but noted the problems with its interface system and difficulty . One preview in North American magazine Computer Gaming World called it " a pretty looking product " of " a Loom / KQV / Legend of Kyrandia approach , " even as another called it " actually more of a multi @-@ screen puzzle game than a traditional animated adventure , " adding that " gamers with a strong penchant for puzzle should find it entertaining " despite its " a bit clumsy " interface . Bill Holder of Australia 's OZ Amiga called it " a light @-@ hearted and funny adventure that appeals to almost everyone " and " one of the better releases of 1993 . "
On the other hand , Ed Ricketts of Amiga Format called Curse of Enchantia " light years behind " Monkey Island with " no comparison " to Monkey Island 2 , as " the textless interface just doesn 't work - despite the designers ' belief , you do need words " and there is " no humour to speak of , no genuinely amusing humour , anyway . " Even as a preview in The One Amiga called it a " game set to rival even the mightiest of American adventures , " the magazine 's David Upchurch wrote that " the game lacks real humour and atmosphere . This may be partly due to the lack of text in the game - it 's hard to relate to the characters you meet , " and " although entertaining , Curse of Enchantia is to Monkey Island 2 what Smash is to mashed potato , " that is " just a weaker substitute . " Lee Perkins of The Age opined that " Curse of Enchantia might be seen as a mite disappointing by fantasy gamers with moderately sophisticated tastes . " PC Gamer UK described it an " average generic fare " as " the graphics are pretty " but the game " lacks atmosphere and feels too much like a succession of annoyingly vague puzzles rather than an adventure story . "
In France , Curse of Enchantia was given the high ratings of 84 % in Génération 4 ( PC ) and 90 % ( Amiga ) / 91 % ( PC ) in Joystick . The game also received a score of 79 % from Sweden 's Datormagazin . Nevertheless , German magazine PC Player gave it only 38 % , saying that the game may make the players " nostalgic for Sierra titles . " It received better scores from other German magazines , including 53 / 60 in ASM , 79 % in Amiga Joker , 81 % in Power Play ( DOS ) , 68 % in both PC Joker and PC Games , and 70 % ( DOS ) and 71 % ( Amiga ) in Power Play . Italian magazines The Games Machine and K gave scores of 91 % and 802 / 1000 , respectively . Reception was also strong in Poland , where Curse of Enchantia was positively reviewed in C & A ( 95 % ) and Secret Service ( 77 % ) , and featured among " the best adventure games " of 1992 ( alongside Alone in the Dark , Indiana Jones IV and The Legend of Kyrandia ) by Computer Studio . However , in a 1993 ranking of graphic adventures games by Spanish magazine PCmanía , Curse of
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YBI ) , in the heart of the downtown , houses several start @-@ up technology companies that have received office space , furnishings , and access to utilities . Some companies supported by the incubator have earned recognition , and a few are starting to outgrow their current space . One such company – Turning Technologies – has been rated by Inc . Magazine as the fastest @-@ growing privately held software company in the United States and 18th fastest @-@ growing privately held company overall . In an effort to keep such companies downtown , the YBI secured approval to demolish a row of vacant buildings nearby to clear space for expansion . The project will be funded by a $ 2 million federal grant awarded in 2006 . In 2014 , the YBI was ranked as the number 1 university associated business incubator in the world by the Swedish UBII ( University Business Incubator Index ) . In 2015 , the YBI was the top University Associated Incubator in North America , and came in second to the Dublin Enterprise & Technology Centre , also known as the Guinness Enterprise Centre , in Dublin .
Extensive coverage of Youngstown 's economic challenges has overshadowed the city 's long entrepreneurial tradition . A number of products and enterprises introduced in Youngstown later became national household names . Among these is Youngstown @-@ based Schwebel 's Bakery , which was established in neighboring Campbell in the 20th century . The company now distributes bread products nationally . In the 1920s , Youngstown was the birthplace of the Good Humor brand of ice cream novelties , and the popular franchise of Handel 's Homemade Ice Cream & Yogurt was established there in the 1940s . In the 1950s , Youngstown @-@ born developer Edward J. DeBartolo , Sr. established one of the country 's first modern shopping plazas in the suburb of Boardman . The fast @-@ food chain , Arby 's , opened the first of its restaurants in Boardman in 1964 , and Arthur Treacher 's Fish & Chips was headquartered in Youngstown in the late 1970s . More recently , the city 's downtown hosted the corporate headquarters of the now @-@ defunct pharmacy chain store Phar @-@ Mor , which had been established by Youngstown native Mickey Monus .
= = Government = =
Youngstown is governed by a mayor who is elected every four years and limited to a maximum of two terms . Mayors are traditionally inaugurated on or around January 2 . The city has tended to elect Democratic mayors since the late 1920s because of the local unions ' support for Democratic candidates for office . Youngstown 's current mayor is John McNally IV . Jay Williams was the city 's first African @-@ American mayor and its first independent mayor since 1922 . Williams belonged to the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition , a bi @-@ partisan group with the stated goal of " making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets " . He left his position in Youngstown to become President Barack Obama 's auto czar , directing the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry .
Residents elect an eight @-@ member city council composed of representatives of the city 's seven wards and a council president . The council , in turn , appoints a city clerk . The council traditionally meets every first and third Wednesday of the month . City council meetings are generally held from the third week in September to the third week in June . Meanwhile , the board of control oversees contracts for public projects within the municipal limits . The Youngstown Police Department and Youngstown Fire Department fall under the board 's supervision , as do the parks , civil service , community development , health , planning , and water departments .
Youngstown 's finance department oversees all municipal finances and supervises the departments of economic development and income tax . The city 's department of public works has sweeping supervisory responsibilities and oversees the departments of engineering , building inspection , building and grounds , signal and sign , demolition and housing , litter and recycling , street , and water waste treatment . The city 's law department represents the city on all legal issues , serving as counsel to all municipal departments .
= = Crime = =
Crime has been a lingering problem in many of the Rust Belt 's big and small urban communities , hampering economic recovery . In the late 1950s and early 1960s , Youngstown was nationally identified with gangland slayings that were often committed with car bombs . The town gained the nicknames " Murdertown , USA " and " Bomb City , USA , " while the phrase " Youngstown tune @-@ up " became a nationally popular slang term for car @-@ bomb assassination . The image of Youngstown 's association with crime was reinforced by the construction of prisons inside the metropolitan area . As of 2012 , three adult correctional facilities continue to operate within city limits : the Mahoning County Justice Center the Northeast Ohio Correctional Center , and the Ohio State Penitentiary .
For decades , Youngstown was a haven for organized crime , and related corruption was ingrained into the fabric of its society . A 2000 publication in The New Republic listed a " chief of police , the outgoing prosecutor , the sheriff , the county engineer , members of the local police force , a city law director , several defense attorneys , politicians , judges , and a former assistant U.S. attorney " as controlled by the Mob . The city accelerated measures to limit the influence of organized crime upon all sectors of municipal life . The climax of this ongoing effort was the arrest , trial , and 2002 conviction of former U.S. Representative James A. Traficant , Jr . ( D ) , on bribery , tax fraud , and racketeering charges . Although this has since been cleaned up somewhat , in 2006 , Youngstown was ranked by Morgan Quitno Press , a Kansas @-@ based publishing and research company , as the 9th most dangerous city in the United States .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary = = =
The Youngstown City School District manages all public education within the city . As of 2007 , the school district was engaged in a process of reconfiguration , consolidating existing schools while building some new ones . District high schools once included South , North , Chaney , Rayen , East , Woodrow Wilson , Youngstown Early College , and Choffin Career and Technical Center . This roster has changed ; Chaney expanded , North , South , and the original East were closed , and Rayen and Wilson were closed to make way for a newly built and re @-@ opened East High School . Youngstown City School District participate in an " Early College " program , in cooperation with Youngstown State University . This program enables high school students to attend classes on campus and earn college credit .
The Diocese of Youngstown once oversaw more than 20 schools within the city limits . As a result of dwindling enrollment , only three Catholic schools continue to operate within Youngstown proper . These include one elementary school – St. Christine 's – and two secondary schools , Ursuline and Cardinal Mooney . ( The two high schools share a heated and longstanding rivalry in athletics . ) Several additional Catholic schools operate in Mahoning , Trumbull , Columbiana , Portage , Stark , and Ashtabula counties .
Youngstown hosts a small number of private schools . These include Valley Christian School , a nondenomenational K @-@ 12 school located on the south side of the city ; Akiva Academy , a progressive K @-@ 8 school located in the Jewish Community Center ; and the Montessori School of the Mahoning Valley , which offers alternative learning environments for students ranging from preschool to eighth grade .
Youngstown has a high school graduation rate of 65 %
= = = Higher education = = =
Youngstown State University , the primary institution of higher learning in the Youngstown @-@ Warren metropolitan area , traces its origins to a local YMCA program that began offering college @-@ level courses in 1908 . YSU joined the Ohio system of higher education in 1967 . The university consists of six colleges : The College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences ( CLASS ) ; The College of Science , Technology , Engineering and Math ( STEM ) ; The Willamson College of Business ; The Bitonte College of Health and Human Services ; The College of Fine and Performing Arts ( FPA ) , and the College of Education . Once regarded as a commuter school , YSU serves about 13 @,@ 000 students , many from outside the Youngstown area . The campus is just north of the city 's downtown and south of Youngstown 's historic Fifth Avenue district , a neighborhood of Tudor- , Victorian- , and Spanish Colonial Revival @-@ style homes .
YSU offers tuition rates that are lower than the average of other public universities in Ohio , at $ 3 @,@ 856 per semester for undergraduates . The university 's assets include the Dana School of Music , an All @-@ Steinway school . The Dana School of Music is one of the six oldest continuously operating schools of music in the United States . Youngstown State 's Engineering programs are accredited through ABET , making it one of the best Engineering Schools in the country , many graduates from the school have gone on to become the founders and heads for various Fortune 100 companies .
= = Attractions = =
In 2012 , Forbes.com ranked Youngstown , Ohio 4th among the best cities in the U.S. for raising a family . The article included the city 's schools , current low crime , cost @-@ of @-@ living , and property rates in its decision .
= = = Covelli Centre = = =
Despite the impact of regional economic decline , Youngstown offers an array of cultural and recreational resources . Moreover , the community 's range of attractions has increased in recent years . The newest addition is the Covelli Centre , a venue for Tier I Jr . A hockey games , concerts , " on ice " shows , and other forms of entertainment .
= = = Theater = = =
The community 's culture center is Powers Auditorium , a former Warner Brothers movie palace that serves as the area 's primary music hall while providing a home for the Youngstown Symphony Orchestra . This downtown landmark is one of five auditoriums within the city limits . Ford Recital Hall was built in 2006 as an addition to newly renovated Powers Auditorium . Imposing and neo @-@ classical Stambaugh Auditorium , on the city 's north side , has served for decades as a site of concerts and is often rented for private events . The facility also hosts the Stambaugh Youth Concert Band . Bruce Springsteen , who sang about the decline of Youngstown 's steel industry and its adverse effects on local workers in his ballad " Youngstown " , played at Stambaugh Auditorium on January 12 , 1996 , as part of his solo Ghost of Tom Joad Tour .
Oakland Center for the Arts , in the downtown area , is a venue for locally produced plays . This institution is
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the simulated German squadron , tasked with defending against a simulated enemy fleet in the North Sea . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , Blitz was withdrawn from active service . In 1903 , she was used as a tender for the fleet .
In 1912 , she was assigned as the tender for the new dreadnought battleships of the I Battle Squadron . While in the II Squadron , she wore a white identification band on her funnel , to distinguish her from her sister Pfeil , which wore a yellow identification stripe . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was mobilized as a coastal defense ship , though this duty lasted only until 1915 . That year , she returned to her fleet tender duties ; she served in this capacity for the remainder of the war . She was stricken from the naval register on 8 March 1921 , and sold for 520 @,@ 000 marks . She was broken up for scrap later that year in Wilhelmshaven .
= M @-@ 183 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 183 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It serves Fayette State Park as an access route from US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) . The highway runs through rural farmlands of the Garden Peninsula and next to Big Bay de Noc , a bay of Lake Michigan . The community at Fayette dates back to the 1860s . It has been a state park since the late 1950s , and the connecting road has been a state highway since the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 183 lies on the Garden Peninsula in Delta County . Running along the east shore of Big Bay de Noc , the highway starts at the gate to Fayette State Park . South of entrance to the park , the roadway continues under local jurisdiction as Delta County Road 483 ( CR 483 ) . From there north , it is a rural two @-@ lane road that runs northeasterly through woodland . The trunkline turns north along LI Road through farmland , and then east along 16th Road near Puffy Bay . South of Garden , the highway turns north through the village on State Street . M @-@ 183 continues north of town running through the farms of the Garden Peninsula along Big Bay de Noc through the Lake Superior State Forest to the northern terminus at US 2 in Garden Corners .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains the highway like all other state trunkline highways under its jurisdiction . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic along its highways . These surveys are expressed using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a calculation of the traffic counts for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that 692 vehicles a day used the segment near the state park . Through the middle section in Garden , the peak volume was 892 vehicles daily which dropped to 878 at the US junction . The commercial AADT was 54 trucks for the entire highway . M @-@ 183 has not been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Fayette State Park encompasses an historical iron smelting town site from the 1800s . Now a ghost town , the Jackson Iron Company operations lasted here from 1867 – 1891 . The town was used as a location to produce charcoal iron , a purified form of the iron ore mined in the UP . After the furnaces shut down , the town operated as a resort community until the park was created . The Michigan Conservation Department created the park in 1959 after it traded land to obtain the 90 acres ( 36 ha ) from the Escanaba Paper Company and the 71 acres ( 29 ha ) from Cleveland @-@ Cliffs Iron Company . The Delta County Commission had been requesting state assistance for improving the road since 1975 . In February 1985 , MDOT took control of the road from the county road commission and designated it M @-@ 183 . The number was chosen to reflect the CR 483 designation it once bore . After the transfer , the state resurfaced the road as part of a program of improvements to benefit park visitors .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Delta County .
= Ilyushin Il @-@ 32 =
The Ilyushin Il @-@ 32 was a Soviet heavy military glider developed after World War II to deliver 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo . To facilitate loading and unloading the glider 's nose and tail sections were hinged to swing sideways . The Il @-@ 32 required a four @-@ engined aircraft to tow it safely ; it was canceled when it became clear that no such tug was going to be available after the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 and Ilyushin Il @-@ 18 programs were both canceled because of shortages of their intended Shvetsov ASh @-@ 73 engines .
= = Development = =
After the end of World War II the Soviets devoted a considerable amount of effort to developing heavy transport gliders to deliver troops during an airborne assault . As part of this effort the Council of Ministers ordered the Ilyushin design bureau on 20 September 1947 to begin work on a glider capable of carrying 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo , including 60 troops or a 122 mm ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) cannon with its prime mover , ammunition and crew . Its intended tug was the Tupolev Tu @-@ 75 , a four @-@ engined transport derived from the Tupolev Tu @-@ 4 .
The Il @-@ 32 was an aluminum @-@ bodied , high @-@ wing cantilever monoplane with a fixed tricycle undercarriage whose fuselage was square in cross @-@ section to fit as much cargo as possible . The two @-@ spar wings had a moderate aspect ratio . It was regarded as expendable and was built very simply to facilitate large @-@ scale manufacture . The nose and tail sections swung up to 95 ° to starboard to facilitate loading .
The Il @-@ 32 made its first flight on 20 August 1948 , towed by a twin @-@ engined Ilyushin Il @-@ 12 , but the Il @-@ 12 wasn 't powerful enough to tow a fully loaded glider and the four @-@ engined Il @-@ 18 airliner prototype was adapted to tow it from 20 September . During these flight tests it reached a cruising speed of 323 km / h ( 201 mph ) at an altitude of 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and a weight of 16 @,@ 000 kg ( 35 @,@ 000 lb ) . The flight tests were satisfactory and preparations were made to begin series production , but the lack of suitable tugs was a problem . None of the Soviet four @-@ engined aircraft that could be used were either in production or available . Both the Tupolev Tu @-@ 70 and Il @-@ 18 airliners had been canceled , as had the Tu @-@ 75 transport , and the Tu @-@ 4 was dedicated to the strategic bombing mission . Experiments were made with a pair of Il @-@ 12s towing the Il @-@ 32 , but this was both difficult and risky for all involved . The Il @-@ 32 was therefore canceled for lack of a proper tug .
= = Specifications = =
Data from OKB Ilyushin : A History of the Design Bureau and its Aircraft
General characteristics
Capacity : 60 troops or 7 @,@ 000 kg ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo
Length : 24 @.@ 84 m ( 81 ft 6 in )
Wingspan : 35 @.@ 8 m ( 117 ft 5 in )
Wing area : 159 @.@ 5 m2 ( 1716 @.@ 84 ft2 )
Empty weight : 9600 kg ( 21 @,@ 164 lb )
Gross weight : 16 @,@ 600 kg ( 36 @,@ 597 lb ) each each
Performance
Cruising speed : 327 km / h ( 203 mph )
Service ceiling : 4000 m ( 13 @,@ 100 ft )
= Dougherty Valley High School =
Dougherty Valley High School ( commonly Dougherty , Dougherty Valley , Dougherty Valley High , DVHS , or DV High ) is a public high school located in the Windemere development of San Ramon , California , United States . Dougherty is one of four high schools in the San Ramon Valley Unified School District ( SRVUSD ) , along with California High School , San Ramon Valley High School , and Monte Vista High School . Constructed by Shapell Industries of California and Windemere Ranch Partners BLC , Dougherty was the first developer @-@ built school in the SRVUSD . The school opened its doors in 2007 .
Dougherty 's nickname is the wildcats , and its school colors are navy , Columbia blue , and silver . Dougherty is known for its state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art campus , which features a performing arts center and aquatics center in a joint @-@ use agreement with the city . Dougherty is the top school in the district based on Academic Performance Index and is developing as an athletic force . The school is also home to over 120 various clubs .
= = History = =
= = = Conception ( 1988 – 2006 ) = = =
Dougherty Valley High School was built by Shapell Industries of California and Windemere Ranch Partners BLC , which were also the two main developers of the Dougherty Valley area in general . Shapell was obligated through a December 1988 agreement with the SRVUSD to " contribute its fair share of the cost of additional high school space needed to serve students generated by the project , " with the project mentioned being the construction of 11 @,@ 000 houses in the area . Dougherty is the first developer @-@ built high school in the SRVUSD , in contrast with the typical method of a developer and the state funding the school district for construction of any necessary schools . The district and developers began further negotiations regarding the school 's construction in 2001 .
The school 's name was chosen from more than 150 suggestions submitted to an online survey , although the name , school colors , and mascot had to be approved by the Board of Education . The school logo was designed in 2006 by Jennifer Wong , at the time a senior at Monte Vista High School , after winning a student logo design contest with 12 other entries . Wong received $ 500 for her design and was honored alongside the contest 's runners @-@ up at a school board meeting . Denise Hibbard , who had been an assistant principal at California High School for six years , was chosen as Dougherty 's first principal .
= = = Construction ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
An official groundbreaking at the school was held on September 23 , 2005 , with school board members Nancy Petsuch , Greg Marvel , and San Ramon Mayor H. Abram Wilson in attendance . The construction of the school was divided into two phases . The first phase , which involved site grading , utilities , and paving , commenced in May 2005 and was completed by January 2006 ; the second phase , which involved constructing buildings , landscaping and creation of ball fields , commenced in February 2006 and was completed by August 2007 . In a December 2006 meeting , the City Council of the City of San Ramon approved the construction of a performing arts center and aquatics center for joint @-@ use between the city and the SRVUSD . Total construction took 16 months , five months less than predicted .
The construction of the school cost
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.S. warships bombarded the Sirri platform and set it ablaze , a UH @-@ 60 with a SEAL platoon flew toward the platform but was unable to get close enough because of the roaring fire . Secondary explosions soon wrecked the platform . Thereafter , Iranian attacks on neutral ships dropped drastically . On 18 July , Iran accepted the United Nations cease fire ; on 20 August 1988 , the Iran – Iraq War ended . The remaining SEALs , patrol boats , and helicopters then returned to the United States . Special operations forces provided critical skills necessary to help CENTCOM gain control of the northern Persian Gulf and balk Iran 's small boats and minelayers . The ability to work at night proved vital , because Iranian units used darkness to conceal their actions . Additionally , because of Earnest Will operational requirements , USSOCOM would acquire new weapons systems — the patrol coastal ships and the Mark V Special Operations Craft .
= = = Somalia = = =
Special Operations Command first became involved in Somalia in 1992 as part of Operation Provide Relief . C @-@ 130s circled over Somali airstrips during delivery of relief supplies . Special Forces medics accompanied many relief flights into the airstrips throughout southern Somalia to assess the area . They were the first U.S. soldiers in Somalia , arriving before U.S. forces who supported the expanded relief operations of Restore Hope . The first teams into Somalia were CIA Special Activities Division paramilitary officers with elements of JSOC . They conducted very high risk advanced force operations prior to the entry of the follow on forces . The first casualty of the conflict came from this team and was a Paramilitary officer and former Delta Force operator name Larry Freedman . Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for " extraordinary heroism " for his actions .
The earliest missions during Operation Restore Hope were conducted by Navy SEALs . The SEALs performed several hydro @-@ graphic reconnaissance missions to find suitable landing sites for Marines . On 7 December , the SEALs swam into Mogadishu Harbor , where they found suitable landing sites , assessed the area for threats , and concluded that the port could support offloading ships . This was a tough mission because the SEALs swam against a strong current which left many of them overheated and exhausted . Furthermore , they swam through raw sewage in the harbor , which made them sick . When the first SEALs hit the shore the following night , they were surprised to meet members of the news media . The first Marines came ashore soon thereafter , and the press redirected their attention to them . Later , the SEALs provided personal security for President George Bush during a visit to Somalia . In December 1992 , Special Forces assets in Kenya moved to Somalia and joined Operation Restore Hope . January 1993 , a Special Forces command element deployed to Mogadishu as the Joint Special Operations Forces @-@ Somalia ( JSOFOR ) that would command and control all special operations for Restore Hope . JSOFOR 's mission was to make initial contact with indigenous factions and leaders ; provide information for force protection ; and provide reports on the area for future relief and security operations . Before redeploying in April , JSOFOR elements drove over 26 @,@ 000 miles ( 42 @,@ 000 km ) , captured 277 weapons , and destroyed over 45 @,@ 320 pounds ( 20 @,@ 560 kg ) of explosives .
In August 1993 , Secretary of Defense Les Aspin directed the deployment of a Joint Special Operations Task Force ( JSOTF ) to Somalia in response to attacks made by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid 's supporters upon U.S. and UN forces . The JSOTF , named Task Force ( TF ) Ranger , was charged with a mission named Operation Gothic Serpent to capture Aidid . This was an especially arduous mission , for Aidid had gone underground , after several Lockheed AC @-@ 130 air raids and UN assaults on his strongholds .
While Marines from the 24th MEU provided an interim QRF ( Force Recon Det and helicopters from HMM @-@ 263 ) , the task force arrived in the country , and began training exercises . The Marines were asked to take on the Aidid snatch mission , but having the advantage of being in the area for more than two months , decided after mission analysis that the mission was a " no @-@ go " due to several factors , centered around the inability to rescue the crew of a downed helicopter ( re : the indigenous forces technique of using RPGs against helicopters and blocking the narrow streets in order to restrict the movement of a ground rescue force ) . This knowledge was not passed on to the Rangers , due to the Marines operating from the USS Wasp and the Rangers remaining on land . TF Ranger was made up of operators from Delta Force , 75th Ranger Regiment , 160th SOAR , SEALs from the Naval Special Warfare Development Group , and Air Force special tactics units . During August and September 1993 , the task force conducted six missions into Mogadishu , all of which were successes . Although Aidid remained free , the effect of these missions seriously limited his movements .
On 3 October , TF Ranger launched its seventh mission , this time into Aidid 's stronghold the Bakara Market to capture two of his key lieutenants . The mission was expected to take only one or two hours . Helicopters carried an assault and a ground convoy of security teams launched in the late afternoon from the TF Ranger compound at Mogadishu airport . The TF came under increasingly heavy fire , more intense than during previous missions . The assault team captured 24 Somalis including Aidid 's lieutenants and were loading them onto the convoy trucks when a MH @-@ 60 Blackhawk was hit by a rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) . A small element from the security force , as well as an MH @-@ 6 assault helicopter and an MH @-@ 60 carrying a fifteen @-@ man combat search and rescue ( CSAR ) team , rushed to the crash site . The battle became increasingly worse . An RPG struck another MH @-@ 60 , crashing less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south of the first downed helicopter . The task force faced overwhelming Somali mobs that overran the crash sites , causing a dire situation . A Somali mob overran the second site and , despite a heroic defense , killed everyone except the pilot , whom they took prisoner . Two defenders of this crash site , Master Sergeant Gary Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall Shughart , were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . About this time , the mission 's quick reaction force ( QRF ) also tried to reach the second crash site . This force too was pinned by Somali fire and required the fire support of two AH @-@ 6 helicopters before it could break contact and make its way back to the base .
The assault and security elements moved on foot towards the first crash area , passing through heavy fire , and occupied buildings south and southwest of the downed helicopter . They fought to establish defensive positions so as not to be pinned down by very heavy enemy fire , while treating their wounded , and worked to free the pilot 's body from the downed helicopter . With the detainees loaded on trucks , the ground convoy force attempted to reach the first crash site . Unable to find it amongst the narrow , winding alleyways , the convoy came under devastating small arms and RPG fire . The convoy had to return to base after suffering numerous casualties , and sustaining substantial damage to their vehicles .
Reinforcements , consisting of elements from the QRF , 10th Mountain Division soldiers , Rangers , SEALs , Pakistan Army tanks and Malaysian armored personnel carriers , finally arrived at 1 : 55 am on 4 October . The combined force worked until dawn to free the pilot 's body , receiving RPG and small arms fire throughout the night . All the casualties were loaded onto the armored personnel carriers , and the remainder of the force was left behind and had no choice but to move out on foot . AH @-@ 6 gunships raked the streets with fire to support the movement . The main force of the convoy arrived at the Pakistani Stadium @-@ compound for the QRF @-@ at 6 : 30 am , thus concluding one of the bloodiest and fiercest urban firefights since the Vietnam War . Task Force Ranger experienced a total of 17 killed in action and 106 wounded . Various estimates placed Somali casualties above 1 @,@ 000 . Although Task Force Ranger 's few missions were successes , the overall outcome of Operation Gothic Serpent was deemed a failure because of the Task Force 's failure to complete their stated mission , capturing Mohamed Farrah Aidid . Most U.S. forces pulled out of Somalia by March 1994 . The withdrawal from Somalia , was completed on March 1995 . Even though Operation Gothic Serpent failed , USSOCOM still made significant contributions to operations in Somalia . SOF performed reconnaissance and surveillance missions , assisted with humanitarian relief , protected American forces and conducted riverine patrols . Additionally , they ensured the safe landing of the Marines and safeguarded the arrival of merchant ships carrying food .
= = = Iraq = = =
USSOCOM 's 10th Special Forces Group , elements of JSOC and CIA / SAD Paramilitary Officers linked up again and were the first to enter Iraq prior to the invasion . Their efforts organized the Kurdish Peshmerga to defeat Ansar Al Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion . This battle was for control of a territory in Northeastern Iraq that was completely occupied by Ansar Al Islam , an ally of Al Qaeda . This was a very significant battle and led to the termination of a substantial number of terrorists and the uncovering of a chemical weapons facility at Sargat . These terrorists would have been in the subsequent insurgency had they not been eliminated during this battle . Sargat was the only facility of its type discovered in the Iraq war . This battle may have been the Tora Bora of Iraq , but it was a sound defeat for Al Qaeda and their ally Ansar Al Islam . This combined team then led the Peshmerga against Saddam 's northern Army . This effort kept Saddam 's forces in the north and denied the ability to redeploy to contest the invasion force coming from the south . This effort may have saved the lives of hundreds if not thousands of coalition service men and women .
At the launch of the Iraq War dozens of 12 @-@ member Special Forces teams infiltrated southern and western Iraq to hunt for Scud missiles and pinpoint bombing targets . Scores of Navy SEALs seized oil terminals and pumping stations on the southern coast . Air Force combat controllers flew combat missions in MC @-@ 130H Combat Talon IIs and established austere desert airstrips to begin the flow of soldiers and supplies deep into Iraq . It was a far cry from the Persian Gulf war of 1991 , where Special Operations forces were kept largely on the sidelines . But it would not be a replay of Afghanistan , where Army Special Forces and Navy SEALs led the fighting . After their star turn in Afghanistan , many special operators were disappointed to play a supporting role in Iraq . Many special operators felt restricted by cautious commanders . From that point , USSOCOM has since killed or captured hundreds of insurgents and Al @-@ Qaeda terrorists . It has conducted several foreign internal defense missions successfully training the Iraqi security forces .
= = Current role = =
United States Special Operations Command played a pivotal role in fighting the former Taliban government in Afghanistan in 2001 and toppling it thereafter , as well as combating the insurgency and capturing Saddam Hussein in Iraq . USSOCOM in 2004 was developing plans to have an expanded and more complex role in the global campaign against terrorism , and that role continued to emerge before and after the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011 . In 2010 , " of about 13 @,@ 000 Special Operations forces deployed overseas , about 9 @,@ 000 [ were ] evenly divided between Iraq and Afghanistan . "
= = = War in Afghanistan = = =
In the initial stages of the War in Afghanistan , USSOCOM forces linked up with CIA Paramilitary Officers from Special Activities Division to defeat the Taliban without the need for large @-@ scale conventional forces . This was one of the biggest successes of the global War on Terrorism . These units linked up several times during this war and engaged in several furious battles with the enemy . One such battle happened during Operation Anaconda the mission to squeeze life out of a Taliban and Al @-@ Qaeda stronghold dug deep into the Shah @-@ i @-@ Kot mountains of eastern Afghanistan . The operation was seen as one of the heaviest and bloodiest fights in the War in Afghanistan . The battle on an Afghan mountaintop called Takur Ghar featured special operations forces from all 4 services and the CIA . Navy SEALs , Army Rangers , Air Force Combat Controllers , and Pararescuemen fought against entrenched Al @-@ Qaeda fighters atop a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) mountain . Subsequently , the entrenched Taliban became targets of every asset in the sky . According to an executive summary , the battle of Takur Ghar was the most intense firefight American special operators have been involved in since 18 U.S. Army Rangers were killed in Mogadishu , Somalia , in 1993 . During Operation Red Wings on 28 June 2005 , four Navy SEALs , pinned down in a firefight , radioed for help . A Chinook helicopter , carrying 16 service members , responded but was shot down . All members of the rescue team and three of four SEALs on the ground died . It was the worst loss of life in Afghanistan since the invasion in 2001 . The Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell alone survived . Team leader Michael P. Murphy was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the battle .
= = = Global presence = = =
SOC chief Olson said in 2011 that SOCOM " is a microcosm of the Department of Defense , with ground , air , and maritime components , a global presence , and authorities and responsibilities that mirror the Military Departments , Military Services , and Defense Agencies . " In 2010 , special operations forces were deployed in 75 countries , compared with about 60 at the beginning of 2009 . In 2011 , SOC spokesman Colonel Tim Nye ( Army ) was reported to have said that the number of countries with SOC presence will likely reach 120 and that joint training exercises will have been carried out in most or all of those countries during the year . One study identified joint @-@ training exercises in Belize , Brazil , Bulgaria , Burkina Faso , Germany , Indonesia , Mali , Norway , Panama , and Poland in 2010 and also , through mid @-@ year 2011 , in the Dominican Republic , Jordan , Romania , Senegal , South Korea , and Thailand , among other nations . In addition , SOC forces executed the high profile killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in 2011 .
In November 2009 The Nation reported on a covert JSOC / Blackwater anti @-@ terrorist operation in Pakistan .
In 2010 , White House counterterrorism director John O. Brennan said that the United States " will not merely respond after the fact " of a terrorist attack but will " take the fight to al @-@ Qaeda and its extremist affiliates whether they plot and train in Afghanistan , Pakistan , Yemen , Somalia and beyond . " Olson said , " In some places , in deference to host @-@ country sensitivities , we are lower in profile . In every place , Special Operations forces activities are coordinated with the U.S. ambassador and are under the operational control of the four @-@ star regional commander . "
The conduct of actions by SOC forces outside of Iraq and Afghan war zones has been the subject of internal U.S. debate , including between representatives of the Bush administration such as John B. Bellinger III , on one hand , and the Obama administration on another . The United Nations in 2010 also " questioned the administration 's authority under international law to conduct such raids , particularly when they kill innocent civilians . One possible legal justification – the permission of the country in question – is complicated in places such as Pakistan and Yemen , where the governments privately agree but do not publicly acknowledge approving the attacks , " as one report put it .
= = Subordinate Commands = =
= = = Joint Special Operations Command = = =
Joint Special Operations Command is a component command of the USSOCOM and is charged to study special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization , plan and conduct special operations exercises and training , and develop Joint Special Operations Tactics . It was established in 1980 on recommendation of Col. Charlie Beckwith , in the aftermath of the failure of Operation Eagle Claw .
Units
The U.S. Army 's 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment @-@ Delta , popularly known as Delta Force , is the first of the two primary counter @-@ terrorist units of JSOC and SOCOM . Modeled after the British Special Air Service , Delta Force is regarded as one of the premier special operations forces in the world . This is because of Delta 's stringent training and selection process . Delta recruits primarily from the most talented and highly skilled operators in the Army Special Forces and the 75th Ranger Regiment although Delta will take anyone and everyone that can pass their screening . Recruits must pass a rigid selection course before beginning training . Delta has received training from numerous U.S. government agencies and other tier one SOF and has created a curriculum based on this training and techniques that it has developed . Delta conducts clandestine and covert special operations all over the world . It has the capability to conduct myriad special operations missions but specializes in counter @-@ terrorism and hostage rescue operations .
The Intelligence Support Activity ( ISA , The Activity ) is the support branch of JSOC and USSOCOM . Its primary missions are to provide Human Intelligence ( HUMINT ) and Signal Intelligence ( SIGINT ) mainly for Delta and DEVGRU 's operations . Before the establishing of the Strategic Support Branch in 2001 , the ISA needed the permission of the CIA to conduct its operations , which sometimes caused it to be less effective in its support of JSOC 's primary units .
The Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU , SEAL Team Six ) is the second of the two primary counter @-@ terrorist units of JSOC and SOCOM . DEVGRU is Naval Special Warfare 's counterpart to Delta . Like Delta , DEVGRU recruits the best operators from the best units in its branch , the Navy SEALs . DEVGRU is capable of performing any type of special operations mission , but trains especially for counter @-@ terrorist and hostage rescue operations .
The Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron ( 24th STS ) is the AFSOC component of JSOC . The 24th STS usually operates with Delta and DEVGRU because of the convenience of 24th STS ability to synchronize and control the different elements of air power and enhance air operations deep in enemy territory .
Portions of JSOC units have made up the constantly changing special operations task force , operating in the U.S. Central Command area of operations . The Task Force 11 , Task Force 121 , Task Force 6 @-@ 26 and Task Force 145 are creations of the Pentagon 's post @-@ 11 September campaign against terrorism , and it quickly became the model for how the military would gain intelligence and battle insurgents in the future . Originally known as Task Force 121 , it was formed in the summer of 2003 , when the military merged two existing Special Operations units , one hunting Osama bin Laden in and around Afghanistan , and the other tracking Sadaam Hussein in Iraq .
= = = Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities = = =
Special Operations Command – Joint Capabilities ( SOC @-@ JC ) was transferred to USSOCOM from the soon to be disestablished United States Joint Forces Command in 2011 . Its primary mission was to train conventional and SOF commanders and their staffs , supports USSOCOM international engagement training requirements , and supports implementation of capability solutions in order to improve strategic and operational Warfighting readiness and joint interoperability . SOC @-@ JC must also be prepared to support deployed Special Operations Joint Task Force ( SOJTF ) Headquarters ( HQ ) .
The Government Accountability Office wrote that SOC @-@ JC was disestablished in 2013 , and positions were to be zeroed out in 2014 .
= = = Army = = =
On 1 December 1989 the United States Army Special Operations Command ( USASOC ) activated as the 16th major Army command . These special operations forces have been America 's spearhead for unconventional warfare for more than 40 years . USASOC commands such units as the well known Special Forces ( SF , or the " Green Berets " ) and Rangers , and such relatively unknown units as the Psychological Operations Group ( PSYOP ) and Civil Affairs Brigade ( CA ) . These are one of the USSOCOM 's main weapons for waging unconventional warfare and counter @-@ insurgency . The significance of these units is emphasized as conventional conflicts are becoming less prevalent as insurgent and guerrilla warfare increases .
Units
The 75th Ranger Regiment ( U.S. Army Rangers ) is the premier light @-@ infantry unit of the United States Army and is headquartered at Fort Benning , Georgia . The 75th Ranger Regiment 's mission is to plan and conduct special missions in support of U.S. policy and objectives . The Rangers are a flexible and rapid @-@ deployable force . Each battalion can deploy anywhere in the world within 18 hours notice . The Army places much importance on the 75th Ranger Regiment and its training ; it possesses the capabilities to conduct conventional and most special operations missions . Rangers are capable of infiltrating by land , sea , or air and direct action operations such as conducting raids or assaulting buildings or airfields .
United States Army Special Forces ( SF ) aka Green Berets perform several doctrinal missions : unconventional warfare , foreign internal defense , special reconnaissance , direct action and counter @-@ terrorism . These missions make Special Forces unique in the U.S. military , because they are employed throughout the three stages of the operational continuum : peacetime , conflict and war . Foreign internal defense operations , SF 's main peacetime mission , are designed to help friendly developing nations by working with their military and police forces to improve their technical skills , understanding of human rights issues , and to help with humanitarian and civic action projects . Special Forces unconventional warfare capabilities provide a viable military option for a variety of operational taskings that are inappropriate or infeasible for conventional forces . Special Forces are the U.S. military 's premier unconventional warfare force . Foreign internal defense and unconventional warfare missions are the bread and butter of Special Forces soldiers . For this reason SF candidates are trained extensively in weapons , engineering , communications and medicine . SF soldiers are taught to be warriors first and teachers second because they must be able to train their team and be able to train their allies during a FID or UW mission . Often SF units are required to perform additional , or collateral , activities outside their primary missions . These collateral activities are coalition warfare / support , combat search and rescue , security assistance , peacekeeping , humanitarian assistance , humanitarian de @-@ mining and counter @-@ drug operations .
The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment ( Night Stalkers ) headquartered at Fort Campbell , Kentucky provides aviation support to units within USSOCOM . The Regiment consists of MH @-@ 6 and AH @-@ 6 light helicopters , MH @-@ 60 helicopters and MH @-@ 47 heavy assault helicopters . The capabilities of the 160th SOAR ( A ) have been evolving since the early 1980s . Its focus on night operations resulted in the nickname , the " Night Stalkers . " The primary mission of the Night Stalkers is to conduct overt or covert infiltration , exfiltration , and resupply of special operations forces across a wide range of environmental conditions .
4th Military Information Support Group ( Airborne ) and 8th Military Information Support Group ( Airborne ) Soldiers use persuasion to influence perceptions and encourage desired behavior . PSYOP soldiers supports national objectives at the tactical , operational and strategic levels of operations . Strategic psychological operations advance broad or long @-@ term objectives ; global in nature , they may be directed toward large audiences or at key communicators . Operational psychological operations are conducted on a smaller scale . 4th PSYOP Gp is employed by theater commanders to target groups within the theater of operations . 4th PSYOP Gp purpose can range from gaining support for U.S. operations to preparing the battlefield for combat . Tactical psychological operations are more limited , used by commanders to secure immediate and near @-@ term goals . In this environment , these force @-@ enhancing activities serve as a means to lower the morale and efficiency of enemy forces .
95th Civil Affairs Brigade ( Airborne ) specialists identify critical requirements needed by local citizens in war or disaster situations . They also locate civilian resources to support military operations , help minimize civilian interference with operations , support national assistance activities , plan and execute noncombatant evacuation , support counter @-@ drug operations and establish and maintain liaison with civilian aid agencies and other nongovernmental organizations . In support of special operations , these culturally oriented , linguistically capable Soldiers may also be tasked to provide functional expertise for foreign internal defense operations , unconventional warfare operations and direct action missions .
Sustainment Brigade ( Special Operations ) ( Airborne ) ( SBSO ( A ) ) has a difficult mission supporting USASOC . In their respective fields , signal and support soldiers provide supplies , maintenance , equipment and expertise allowing Special Operation Forces to " shoot , move and communicate " on a continuous basis . Because USASOC often uses Special Operations Forces @-@ unique items , soldiers assigned to these units are taught to operate and maintain a vast array of specialized equipment not normally used by their conventional counterparts . SBSO ( A ) also provides the USASOC with centralized and integrated material management of property , equipment maintenance , logistical automation and repair parts and supplies .
John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center ( USAJFKSWCS ) trains USSOCOM and Army Special Operations Forces through development and evaluation of special operations concepts , doctrines and trainings .
= = = Marine Corps = = =
In October 2005 , the Secretary of Defense directed the formation of United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command , the Marine component of United States Special Operations Command . It was determined that the Marine Corps would initially form a unit of approximately 2500 to serve with USSOCOM . On February 24 , 2006 MARSOC activated at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . MARSOC initially consisted of a small staff and the Foreign Military Training Unit ( FMTU ) , which had been formed to conduct foreign internal defense . FMTU is now designated as the Marine Special Operations Advisor Group ( MSOAG ) .
As a service component of USSOCOM , MARSOC is tasked by the Commander USSOCOM to train , organize , equip , and deploy responsive U.S. Marine Corps special operations forces worldwide , in support of combatant commanders and other agencies . MARSOC has been directed to conduct foreign internal defense , direct action and special reconnaissance . MARSOC has also been directed to develop a capability in unconventional warfare , counter @-@ terrorism , and information operations . MARSOC deployed its first units in August 2006 , six months after the group 's initial activation . MARSOC reached full operational capability in October 2008 .
Units
Marine Raider Regiment ( Marine Raiders ) consists of a Headquarters Company and three Marine Raider Battalions , the 1st , 2nd and 3rd . The Regiment provides tailored military combat @-@ skills training and advisor support for identified foreign forces in order to enhance their tactical capabilities and to prepare the environment as directed by USSOCOM as well as the capability to form the nucleus of a Joint Special Operations Task Force . Marines and Sailors of the MRR train , advise and assist friendly host nation forces – including naval and maritime military and paramilitary forces – to enable them to support their governments ' internal security and stability , to counter subversion and to reduce the risk of violence from internal and external threats . MRR deployments are coordinated by MARSOC , through USSOCOM , in accordance with engagement priorities for Overseas Contingency Operations .
Marine Intelligence Battalion ( MIB ) trains , sustains , maintains combat readiness , and provides intelligence support at all operational levels in order to support MARSOF training and operations worldwide with mission @-@ specific intelligence capability .
Marine Special Operations Support Group ( MSOSG ) trains , equips , structures , and provides specially qualified Marine forces , including , operational logistics , intelligence , Military Working Dogs , Firepower Control Teams , and
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runners @-@ up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semifinal against Germany in 2014 , and Spain , which reached the second round on home soil in 1982 . England ( 1966 ) and France ( 1998 ) won their only titles while playing as host nations . Uruguay ( 1930 ) , Italy ( 1934 ) and Argentina ( 1978 ) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again , while Germany ( 1974 ) won their second title on home soil .
Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament . Switzerland ( quarter @-@ finals 1954 ) , Sweden ( runners @-@ up in 1958 ) , Chile ( third place in 1962 ) , South Korea ( fourth place in 2002 ) , and Mexico ( quarter @-@ finals in 1970 and 1986 ) all have their best results when serving as hosts . So far , South Africa ( 2010 ) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round .
= = Attendance = =
• QF
= Quarter @-@ Finals ( top 8 ) ; Group =
did not advance beyond first round ( group play )
[ Solna borders Stockholm , Pasadena borders Los Angeles and Saint @-@ Denis is a suburb of Paris . ]
The best @-@ attended single match , shown in the last two columns , has been the final in only about half of the twenty World Cup series so far . Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1938 , 1954 , 1966 – 1982 , 1990 and 2006 .
Source : FIFA
= = Broadcasting and promotion = =
The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world . The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26 @.@ 29 billion . 715 @.@ 1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament ( a ninth of the entire population of the planet ) . The 2006 World Cup draw , which decided the distribution of teams into groups , was watched by 300 million viewers . The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca @-@ Cola , McDonald 's and Adidas . For these companies and many more , being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands . Host countries typically experience a multimillion @-@ dollar revenue increase from the month @-@ long event . It is predicted that Brazil will bring in more than $ 11 billion in revenue for the 2014 World Cup .
Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo . World Cup Willie , the mascot for the 1966 competition , was the first World Cup mascot . Recent World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each World Cup .
The World Cup even has a statistically significant effect on birth rates , the male / female sex ratio of newborns , and heart attacks in nations whose national teams are competing . Hosting the World Cup or a home team 's win tends to increase male births and total birth rate , and heart attacks are more common when home teams are on the field .
= = Results = =
a.e.t. : after extra time
p : after penalty shoot @-@ out
Notes
In all , 77 nations have played in at least one World Cup . Of these , eight national teams have won the World Cup , and they have added stars to their badges , with each star representing a World Cup victory . ( Uruguay , however , choose to display four stars on their badge , representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950 . )
With five titles , Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup ( 20 ) to date . Italy ( 1934 and 1938 ) and Brazil ( 1958 and 1962 ) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles . West Germany ( 1982 – 1990 ) and Brazil ( 1994 – 2002 ) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals . Germany has made the most top @-@ four finishes ( 13 ) , medals ( 12 ) , as well as the most finals ( 8 ) .
= = = Teams reaching the top four = = =
= = = Best performances by continental zones = = =
To date , the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA ( Europe ) and CONMEBOL ( South America ) confederations . European nations have won eleven titles , while South American have won nine . Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi @-@ finals of the competition : USA ( North , Central America and Caribbean ) in 1930 and South Korea ( Asia ) in 2002 . The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter @-@ finals : Cameroon in 1990 , Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010 . Only one Oceanian qualifier , Australia in 2006 , has advanced to the second round .
Brazil , Argentina , Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation ; Brazil came out victorious in Europe ( 1958 ) , North America ( 1970 and 1994 ) and Asia ( 2002 ) , Argentina won a North American World Cup in 1986 , while Spain won an Africa in 2010 . Germany was the first European team to win in South America in 2014 . Only on four occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent , and currently it is the first time with three champions in a row from the same continental confederation . Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively , while Italy 's triumph in 2006 has been followed by Spain 's in 2010 and Germany 's in 2014 . Currently , it is also the first time that one of the currently winning continents ( Europe ) is ahead of the other ( South America ) with two championships .
= = Awards = =
At the end of each World Cup , awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament . There are currently six awards :
The Golden Ball for the best player , determined by a vote of media members ( first awarded in 1982 ) ; the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively ;
The Golden Boot ( sometimes called the Golden Shoe ) for the top goalscorer ( first awarded in 1982 , but retrospectively applied to all tournaments from 1930 ) ; most recently , the Silver Boot and the Bronze Boot have been awarded to the second and third top goalscorers respectively ;
The Golden Glove Award ( formerly the Yashin Award ) for the best goalkeeper , decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group ( first awarded in 1994 ) ;
The Best Young Player Award for the best player aged 21 or younger at the start of the calendar year , decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group ( first awarded in 2006 ) ;
The FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team with the best record of fair play , according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee ( first awarded in 1978 ) ;
The Most Entertaining Team for the team that has entertained the public the most during the World Cup , determined by a poll of the general public ( first awarded in 1994 ) ;
An All @-@ Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1998 .
= = Records and statistics = =
Two players share the record for playing in the most World Cups ; Mexico 's Antonio Carbajal ( 1950 – 1966 ) and Germany 's Lothar Matthäus ( 1982 – 1998 ) both played in five tournaments . Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall , with 25 appearances . Brazil 's Djalma Santos ( 1954 – 1962 ) , West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer ( 1966 – 1974 ) and Germany 's Philipp Lahm ( 2006 – 2014 ) are the only players to be named to three Finals All @-@ Star Teams .
Miroslav Klose of Germany ( 2002 – 2014 ) is the all @-@ time top scorer at the finals , with 16 goals . He broke Ronaldo of Brazil 's record of 15 goals ( 1998 – 2006 ) during 2014 semi @-@ final match against Brazil . West Germany 's Gerd Müller ( 1970 – 1974 ) is third , with 14 goals . The fourth placed goalscorer , France 's Just Fontaine , holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup ; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament .
In November 2007 , FIFA announced that all members of World Cup @-@ winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals . This made Brazil 's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners ' medals ( 1958 , 1962 , and 1970 , although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury ) , with 20 other players who have won two winners ' medals . Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals ( winners ' , runner- ups ' , and third @-@ place ) ; five players were from West Germany 's squad of 1966 – 1974 including Franz Beckenbauer , Jürgen Grabowski , Horst @-@ Dieter Höttges , Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath ( 1966 – 1974 ) , Italy 's Franco Baresi ( 1982 , 1990 , 1994 ) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany ( 2002 – 2014 ) with four consecutive medals .
Brazil 's Mário Zagallo and West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach . Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach . Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach . Italy 's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups ( 1934 and 1938 ) . All World Cup winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory .
Among the national teams , Germany has played the most World Cup matches ( 106 ) and appeared in the most finals ( 8 ) , semi @-@ finals ( 13 ) , quarter @-@ finals ( 16 ) as well as scoring the most World Cup goals ( 224 ) , while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups ( 20 ) . The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup , in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi @-@ final .
= = = Top goalscorers = = =
= = = All @-@ time table for champions = = =
= Typhoon Brian ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Brian was the first in a series of tropical cyclones to impact southern China and northern Vietnam in October 1989 . Originating from an area of low pressure associated with a monsoon trough in late @-@ September , Brian quickly organized into a tropical storm over the South China Sea on September 30 . Tracking along a general west @-@ southwest to westerly course , the storm attained typhoon status on October 1 before making landfall along the southern coast of Hainan Island the following day . Slight weakening occurred during Brian 's brief passage of Hainan Island before the system entered the Gulf of Tonkin . The storm ultimately struck Vietnam on October 3 before dissipating the next day over Laos .
Across Hainan Island , Brian caused extensive damage to property and infrastructure . Nearly 185 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed by the storm 's high winds or flash flooding . Communications were severely disrupted as 2 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ) of power and telephone lines were downed . Brian killed 40 people and inflicted 837 million Renminbi ( US $ 222 million ) in damage throughout Hainan before impacting Vietnam and causing further damage . Significant losses were reported in Vietnam as well ; however , the rapid succession of Brian and two other typhoons made it difficult to differentiate the losses caused by each storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late September 1989 , an active monsoon trough over the South China Sea spawned a tropical disturbance near northern Luzon . By September 28 , a broad band of convection associated with a weak area of low pressure developed within the trough . Later that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . Aided by a well @-@ defined anticyclone , the low quickly organized , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Initially steered westward by a subtropical ridge , the depression became quasi @-@ stationary on September 30 about 360 km ( 225 mi ) southeast of Hong Kong as the ridge weakened . Shortly after the system stalled , the JTWC also began warning on it as a tropical depression .
Following a reintensification of the ridge later on September 30 , the depression resumed a west @-@ southwesterly track . During this time , the depression attained tropical storm status and was given the name Brian by the JTWC . Over the following 24 hours , Brian continued to intensify and ultimately reached typhoon strength late on October 1 . After developing a large eye , Brian reached its peak intensity on October 2 with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ; one @-@ minute sustained ) . The JMA also classified Brian as a typhoon around this time , estimating the storm to have attained peak ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) as well as a minimum pressure of 970 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Now tracking due west , the typhoon moved towards Hainan Island and ultimately made landfall along the southeastern coast of the island around 1500 UTC .
Only slight weakening took place as the typhoon skirted along the southern coast of Hainan Island . By October 3 , Brian had entered the Gulf of Tonkin and struck Vietnam later that day near Vinh with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 km / h ) . Rapid dissipation ensued once onshore and Brian eventually dissipated on October 4 over the mountainous terrain of Laos .
= = Impact = =
Striking Hainan Island as a strong typhoon , Brian caused widespread wind damage in the region . Approximately 700 km ( 430 mi ) of power lines and 2 @,@ 100 km ( 1 @,@ 300 mi ) of telephone lines were downed by the storm , severely disrupting communications . Many homes in southern areas of Hainan either collapsed or lost their roofs amidst hurricane @-@ force winds . About 15 @,@ 900 homes collapsed throughout the island and another 169 @,@ 000 were damaged . Over 25 million lumber and rubber trees were snapped or uprooted by the typhoon . Heavy rains accompanying the storm triggered significant flash flooding . Many rivers across the island overtopped their banks and inundated surrounding areas , including an estimated 194 @,@ 000 acres of rice paddies . Across Hainan , 40 people were killed and 529 others were injured by the storm . Losses throughout the region reached 837 million Renminbi ( US $ 222 million ) .
Although Hong Kong was not in the direct path of the storm , the Hong Kong Observatory issued storm signals on September 30 as high winds associated with the typhoon were expected to impact the city . On October 2 , the storm passed 270 km ( 170 mi ) south of the city . Wind gusts associated with the storm reached 124 km / h ( 77 mph ) on Waglan Island ; however , no damage was reported . Along the coast , a storm surge of 0 @.@ 62 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) occurred on Waglan .
Due to the severe damage caused by Typhoon Brian , the provincial flood control headquarters urged the Chinese Government to organize relief efforts at all levels . By October 8 , the Government of Hainan Island deployed two relief teams to the hardest hit areas . Additionally , 5 million Renminbi in aid was supplied to the region .
In Vietnam , heavy rains produced by the typhoon caused widespread flooding in northern provinces . Early assessments from the Vietnamese flood control committee indicated that 60 @,@ 000 hectares ( 148 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice fields were submerged and 6 @,@ 700 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 400 short tons ) of grain were soaked . High winds also caused extensive damage . At least 29 @,@ 000 homes collapsed and 119 @,@ 000 others were left roofless . Additionally , 572 hospitals or clinics were damaged . Several fatalities were reported in the region ; however , they had yet to be verified by October 12 . Within two weeks of Brian 's passage , Typhoons Angela and Dan struck the country , causing further damage and loss of life . Due to the rapid succession of storms , losses resulting from the three typhoons are difficult to differentiate . Because of the widespread damage caused by the storms , the Vietnamese Government appealed for international assistance .
= Nyala =
The nyala ( Tragelaphus angasii ) , also called inyala , is a spiral @-@ horned antelope native to southern Africa . It is a species of the family Bovidae and genus Nyala , also considered to be in the genus Tragelaphus . It was first described in 1849 by George French Angas . The body length is 135 – 195 cm ( 53 – 77 in ) , and it weighs 55 – 140 kg ( 121 – 309 lb ) . The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles , but grows a dark brown or slate grey , often tinged with blue , in adult males . Females and young males have ten or more white stripes on their sides . Only males have horns , 60 – 83 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) long and yellow @-@ tipped . It exhibits the highest sexual dimorphism among the spiral @-@ horned antelopes .
The nyala is mainly active in the early morning and the late afternoon . It generally browses during the day if temperatures are 20 – 30 ° C ( 68 – 86 ° F ) and during the night in the rainy season . As a herbivore , the nyala feeds upon foliage , fruits and grasses , with sufficient fresh water . A shy animal , it prefers water holes rather than open spaces . The nyala does not show signs of territoriality , and individuals areas can overlap each others . They are very cautious creatures . Old males live alone , but single sex or mixed family groups of up to 10 individuals can be found . These inhabit thickets within dense and dry savanna woodlands . The main predators of the nyala are lion , leopard and Cape hunting dog , while baboons and raptorial birds hunt for the juveniles . Mating peaks during spring and autumn . Males and females are sexually mature at 18 and 11 – 12 months of age respectively , though they are socially immature until five years old . After a gestational period of seven months , a single calf is born .
The nyala 's range includes Malawi , Mozambique , South Africa , Swaziland , and Zimbabwe . It has been introduced to Botswana and Namibia , and reintroduced to Swaziland , where it had been extinct since the 1950s . Its population is stable and it has been listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . The principal threats to the species are poaching and habitat loss resulting from human settlement . The males are highly prized as game animals in Africa .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The nyala was first described by George French Angas , an English naturalist , in 1849 . The scientific name of nyala is Tragelaphus angasii . The name angasii is attributed to Angas , who said that Mr. Gray had named this species after Angas ' father , George Fife Angas , Esq. of South Australia . But , according to Article 50 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature , this is insufficient to state Gray as the author . The name " nyala " is the Swahili name for this antelope , which itself comes from the Zulu " inyala " . Its first known use was in 1899 . The word has a Bantu origin , similar to the Venda word dzì @-@ nyálà ( nyala buck ) .
The nyala is the second taxon to branch off from the tragelaphine family tree just after the lesser kudu . As the nyala line has remained separate for a considerable amount of time ( over 5 million years ) , it has now been placed in its own monotypic genus Nyala . Nyala was proposed in 1912 by American zoologist Edmund Heller , the one who had also proposed Ammelaphus ( lesser kudu ) . but not widely recognized , and was only re @-@ established as a valid genus in 2011 by Peter Grubb and Colin Groves . While Nyala is the accepted genus , it is still considered as a species of Tragelaphus .
In 2005 , Sandi Willows @-@ Munro ( of the University of KwaZulu @-@ Natal ) and colleagues carried out a mitochondrial analysis of the nine Tragelaphus species. mtDNA and nDNA data were compared . The results showed that the tribe Tragelaphini is monophyletic with the lesser kudu ( T. imberbis ) basal in the phylogeny , followed by the nyala . On the basis of mitochondrial data , studies have estimated that the lesser kudu separated from its sister clade around 13 @.@ 7 million years ago . On the other hand , the nuclear data shows that lesser kudu and nyala form a clade , and collectively separated from the sister clade 13 @.@ 8 million years ago .
= = = Genetics and evolution = = =
The nyala has 55 male chromosomes and 56 female chromosomes . The Y chromosome has been translocated onto the 14th chromosome , as in other tragelaphids , but no inversion of the Y chromosome occurs . Cranial studies have shown that the mountain nyala and nyala , though sharing a common name , are actually distant relatives .
Fossil evidence suggests that the nyala has been a separate species since the end of the Miocene ( 5 @.@ 8 million years ago ) . Genetic evidence suggests that the proto @-@ nyala had some early hybridization with the proto @-@ lesser kudu , but the two have remained separate long after this crossing .
= = Physical description = =
The nyala is a spiral @-@ horned and middle @-@ sized antelope , between a bushbuck and a kudu . It is considered the most sexually dimorphic antelope . The nyala is typically between 135 – 195 cm ( 53 – 77 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length . The male stands up to 110 cm ( 43 in ) , the female is up to 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) tall . Males weigh 98 – 125 kg ( 216 – 276 lb ) , while females weigh 55 – 68 kg ( 121 – 150 lb ) . Life expectancy of the nyala is about 19 years .
The coat is rusty or rufous brown in females and juveniles . But it grows a dark brown or slate grey in adult males , often with a bluish tinge . Females and young males have ten or more white vertical stripes on their sides . Other markings are visible on the face , throat , flanks and thighs . Stripes are very reduced or absent in older males . Both males and females have a white chevron between their eyes , and a 40 – 55 cm ( 16 – 22 in ) long bushy tail white underside . Both sexes have a dorsal crest of hair running right from the back of the head to the end of the tail . Males have another line of hair along the midline of their chest and belly .
Only the males have horns . Horns are 60 – 83 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) long and yellow @-@ tipped . There are one or two twists . The spoor is similar to that of the bushbuck , but larger . It is 5 – 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . The feces resemble round to spherical pellets . The nyala has hairy glands on its feet , which leave their scent wherever it walks .
The condition of the nyala often varies between the sexes . According to a study , this can be attributed to the differences in their body sizes . It was noted that during nutritional stress , old adults died in more numbers , of which most were males . During an attempt of blood sampling in the nyala , it was found that Vitamin E levels varied during stress .
= = Parasites = =
A study of the helminths from 77 nyalas from four game reserves in Natal revealed the presence of ten nematode species and four nematode genera , a trematode species and paramphistomes ( members of superfamily Paramphistomoidea ) , and two cestode genera . The research discovered new parasites that the nyala was host of - namely a Cooperia rotundispiculum race , Gaigeria pachyscelis , a Gongylonema species , Haemonchus vegliai , Impalaia tuberculata , an Oesophagostomum species , a Setaria species , Trichostrongylus deflexus , Trichostrongylus falculatus , the larval stage of a Taenia species , a Thysaniezia species and Schistosoma mattheei . Ostertagia harrisi and C. rotundispiculum were the most dominant nematodes in the antelope .
Another study of 97 blood samples of South African nyalas revealed the presence of tick @-@ borne hemoparasites ( blood parasites ) . The methods used were polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) and reverse line blot ( RLB ) hybridization . The dominant parasites were Theileria species , T. buffeli , T. bicornis , Ehrlichia species , Anaplasma marginale and A. bovis . Ten tick species , two louse species and a louse fly species were recovered in a study of 73 nyalas at Umfolozi , Mkuzi and Ndumu Game Reserves in northeastern KwaZulu @-@ Natal in 1983 and 1984 and an additional six individuals in 1994 . It was found that nyalas were hosts to all stages of development in Boophilus decoloratus , Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and R. muehlensi and the immature stages of Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus maculatus . Adult males served hosts to more number of ticks and lice than adult females did . Also , a trypanosome was isolated from a nyala , wild @-@ caught in Mozambique , which was diagnosed and found as akin to Trypanosoma vivax , based on biological , morphological and molecular data .
= = Diseases = =
The nyala can also suffer from myopathy . In between January 1973 and June 1981 , 21 nyalas succumbed to the disease . The main symptoms were stiffness , inability to rise , and failure to suckle in newborns . Necrosis ( that is , the premature death of cells in a living tissue ) and mineralization were found in the skeletal muscle after a histological analysis . In the juveniles there was acute necrosis of the cardiac muscle . In adults , there was interstitial fibrosis of the cardiac muscle , along with arteriosclerosis .
In a report published in 1994 entitled " Epidemiological observations on spongiform encephalopathies in captive wild animals in the British Isles " it was noted that spongiform encephalopathy ( BSE ) had been diagnosed in one nyala captive in a zoo . The nyala was formerly affected by
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met by various elements of TF115 ; including U.S. Navy aircraft and vessels , RVN junks , U.S. Air Force aircraft , and U.S. Army helicopters . In addition , there were several Owasco @-@ class cutter cutters from Coast Guard Squadron Three – Androscoggin , Winona , and Minnetonka – as well as Point Grey , Point Hudson , and Point Welcome from Squadron One . As a result of this action , three North Vietnamese trawlers were destroyed and a fourth was turned back before it could reach the coast . After this action the incidence of smuggling by trawler was decreased and Communist forces had to resort to shipments along the Ho Chi Minh trail or through the port of Sihanoukville in Cambodia .
While on patrol just south of the DMZ in the early morning hours of 16 June 1968 Point Dume reported seeing two rockets fired from an unidentified source hit U.S. Navy PCF @-@ 19 , which sank very quickly with the loss of five crew . Shortly thereafter , Point Dume came under fire from an unidentified aircraft along with the heavy cruiser USS Boston and the Royal Australian Navy destroyer HMAS Hobart . The duration of the attack was about one hour with little damage to the cutter and Boston but considerable damage to Hobart with two sailors killed and eight wounded . Evidence during a board of inquiry later showed that it was a friendly fire incident involving U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy aircraft mistaking the ships for enemy targets . This incident and the 11 August 1966 friendly fire incident involving Point Welcome caused several procedures for the identification of naval vessels by U.S. Navy , U.S. Marine and U.S. Air Force aircrews to change .
Operations conducted by South Vietnamese Regional Force troops on Phu Quoc Island in September were assisted by Market Time assets . Point Partridge and Point Banks assisted with naval gunfire support on 9 September which destroyed three bunkers , killing four and wounding several others . Ten Viet Cong were captured . On 20 September , Point Cypress and RVN MSC @-@ 116 assisted Regional Forces troops that had been ambushed by Viet Cong forces by lending naval gunfire support . Point Hudson , Point Kennedy , and U.S. Navy PCF @-@ 50 and PCF @-@ 3 arrived shortly after the action started and joined in the gunfire support . Small boats from the cutters helped evacuate wounded Regional Force troops .
Heavy weather in the form of monsoons in the northern half of South Vietnam reduced indigenous coastal traffic during October 1968 and the U.S. Navy 's PCF support of Market Time was limited by heavy seas ; however , Market Time units including Squadron One cutters fired a record number of naval gunfire missions for the sixth month in a row . The 1 @,@ 027 missions conducted during October was 19 percent higher than the previous record .
On 5 December 1968 , three crewmen operating the small boat from Point Cypress in a small stream on the Ca Mau Peninsula were ambushed , severely wounding two and killing the third , Fireman Heriberto S. Hernandez . Zumwalt awarded a Bronze Star Medal with " V " Device posthumously to Hernandez for his heroic actions in saving his fellow crewmen 's lives .
= = = = 1969 = = = =
In February 1969 , Squadron One personnel began training RVN engineers in the maintenance and repair of the Point class cutters that would eventually be turned over to the South Vietnamese government under the " Vietnamization " program .
On 22 March during routine operations involving the inspection of fishing craft for contraband arms and supplies , the chief engineer , Chief Engineman Morris S. Beeson of the Point Orient was killed by ambush fire from three shore positions while attempting to board a sampan near Qui Nhon .
On 27 March , Point Dume was notified by a unit of the U.S. Army 's 173rd Airborne Brigade that a Viet Cong unit was located at a village 40 miles ( 64 km ) north of Qui Nhon and Point Dume was requested to perform a blocking patrol while the brigade 's troops conducted a sweep . Point Dume assisted with naval gunfire support . Additionally , in the aftermath , a landing party helped to destroy 41 sampans that had been used to transport Viet Cong supplies .
The first turnover of Squadron One cutters occurred on 16 May with the transfer of Point League and Point Garnet to the South Vietnamese Navy under the Vietnamization plan . An elaborate ceremony was held at the RVN Base in Saigon with dignitaries from many area naval activities witnessing the turnover of the two cutters . On 5 June , Division 11 was disestablished and its cutters were transferred to Division 13 . The need for Squadron One cutters had been supplanted by the shallower draft PCFs and PBRs that were being concentrated in the Delta region for use in Operation Sealords . With better foul weather stationkeeping abilities than the U.S. Navy craft , the Point @-@ class cutters of the Squadron were shifted for use during the northeast monsoon season in the northern half of the country .
On 9 August while conducting a harassment and interdiction mission aboard Point Arden , a misfire occurred with the mortar killing Lieutenant Junior Grade Michael W. Kirkpatrick , the cutter 's executive officer , and Engineman First Class Michael H. Painter .
= = 1970 – Vietnamization and disestablishment = =
With the growing dissatisfaction of the American electorate about Vietnam in 1969 , high officials in the Nixon Administration sought a way to disengage the United States from the war . Part of the strategy to placate public opinion was termed " Vietnamization " and it included plans to remove most U.S. combat troops from Vietnam and the turnover of supplies and equipment to the South Vietnamese military . Other parts of the plan , referred to as Accelerated Turnover to Vietnamese ( ACTOV ) , included the training of Vietnamese in the use of equipment that was to be turned over to them and a gradual phase @-@ in of responsibilities for the conduct of the war by the South Vietnamese government . The first assets turned over to the Vietnamese under ACTOV occurred on 1 February 1969 when 25 mostly smaller U.S. Navy vessels were transferred to the RVN to be used in supporting Operation Sealords in the Mekong Delta .
– Admiral John J. Hyland , USN , Commander , Pacific Fleet ,
25 August 1970
= = = ACTOV = = =
The naval assets portion of the ACTOV plan consisted of two parts : SCATTOR ( Small Craft Assets , Training , and Turnover of Resources ) and VECTOR ( Vietnamese Engineering Capability , Training of Ratings ) . While SCATTOR trained Vietnamese replacement crews for the patrol boats of Squadron One , VECTOR trained and prepared Vietnamese repair personnel to maintain them .
= = = = Background = = = =
Since the patrol boats of Squadron One were an essential part of the blockade of war supplies entering South Vietnam from North Vietnam , it was decided that they would be transferred to the South Vietnamese navy after crews had been trained to operate them effectively . On 2 November 1968 , Zumwalt , Commander , Naval Forces Vietnam , presented a plan to General Creighton W. Abrams , Commander , MACV to turn over all U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard resources to the RVN by 30 June 1970 . Abrams approved the Navy 's plan with the caveat that any equipment turned over to the Vietnamese would have to be in first @-@ class condition and that they would have to be properly trained in its use . The Navy plan called for the enlisted Vietnamese personnel to report aboard vessels for training first with the officers finally reporting aboard after the crews were trained . In a recommendation made 14 January 1969 , the Commander , Coast Guard Activities Vietnam , Captain Ralph W. Niesz , suggested that English speaking Vietnamese officers report aboard first and be given the chance to receive extensive procedural training with Coast Guard crews before any junior personnel report aboard . Neisz cited cultural imperatives that required seniors to be more knowledgeable than subordinates and that it would be very difficult for officers to accept instruction from junior personnel without losing face . Zumwalt agreed with the Coast Guard plan enthusiastically and ordered it implemented immediately .
On 3 February 1969 the first RVN officers reported aboard Point Garnet and Point League for an 18 @-@ week pilot training program . Each cutter 's executive officer was relieved and assigned staff duties ashore with the commanding officer assuming his duties . The two spare bunks on each cutter were utilized by the new Vietnamese personnel reporting on board . As experience was gained by the Vietnamese crew members , new junior personnel reported in pairs replacing Coast Guardsmen that were then assigned ashore to assist with the VECTOR phase of training . The first transfer of Squadron One cutters occurred at the RVN Base in Saigon during joint decommissioning and commissioning ceremonies held 16 May 1969 by the Coast Guard and the RVN . Point Garnet and Point League were the first cutters transferred under the ACTOV plan .
= = = = Problems = = = =
SCATTOR training was not easy for either the trainers or the trainees . Cultural differences and language barriers had to be breached by both . English – Vietnamese dictionaries were used extensively and Vietnamese sailors who spoke even broken English were often pressed into service to help translate the training syllabus for each job on the cutter . Coast Guardsmen that had maintained their cutters with pride could not understand the Vietnamese sailors seeming lack of care about housekeeping chores . Orders dictated that any cutter entering the ACTOV Program had to be ready for turnover within four months . Often after a return from patrol duties the Vietnamese sailors would just leave the cutter as soon as it reached homeport , leaving maintenance , cleanup , and re @-@ provisioning to the Coast Guardsmen . AWOL rates for Vietnamese sailors often interfered with training schedules as well as patrol operations . Morale of the Coast Guardsmen charged with the training of the replacement Vietnamese crew was often very low and this caused friction between the two parts of the crew . Because of political pressures in the United States to end involvement in the war as soon as possible , the SCATTOR program of training was accelerated to a 15 @-@ week program and eventually an 11 @-@ week program . This caused overcrowding on the cutters and further problems with the mixed crews .
All of the Squadron One cutters eventually completed training of the Vietnamese crews and as cutters were transferred to the RVN each division shrunk in size until they were consolidated with other divisions . Division 11 was disestablished on 5 June 1969 with the remaining cutters in the division moving to Cat Lo . Division 12 was consolidated with Division 13 at Cat Lo 16 March 1970 .
= = = = Last patrols = = = =
After Point Grey and Point Orient were turned over to the RVN on 14 July only Point Cypress and Point Marone were left in Division 13 . On that day the remaining two cutters were given orders to report to the lower Mekong Delta and provide support for operations in the Than Phu Secret Zone . On 19 and 20 July the crews of both cutters consisted of a full complement of 13 RVN sailors and 5 Coast Guardsmen including the commanding officers . Kit Carson Scouts were also embarked , making the decks very crowded . The Scouts were put ashore on a search and destroy mission and the cutters backed them up with gunfire from their decks and the cutter small boats . The raid was successful , netting several captured Viet Cong troops and boxes of documents . A week later both cutters with Australian Army explosive ordnance disposal soldiers aboard cruised the My Thanh River and destroyed fortifications .
On 4 August 1970 , coincidentally Coast Guard Day , the pair of cutters set out on what would prove to be their last combat patrol . Each cutter had 25 Kit Carson Scouts embarked for a patrol of the Co Chien River . While following a narrow canal leading off the main channel , Point Marone was the target of a command detonated mine . The blast killed two of the RVN sailors instantly ; all five Coast Guardsmen were injured along with 10 Kit Carson Scouts . After the mine explosion , Point Marone listed to starboard but managed to get underway while Point Cypress laid down suppressing fire and escorted the damaged cutter back to base at Cat Lo . Point Marone suffered three shrapnel holes at the starboard waterline as well as extensive damage to the bridge windows and damage to the watertight door between the mess deck and the forward berthing space . The deck aft of the bridge was covered with three inches of mud . After patching and painting , Point Marone was prepared for a final Operational Readiness Inspection to check the RVN crew readiness for the pending turnover of both Point Marone and Point Cypress .
= = = = Last turnover = = = =
With the turnover of Point Cypress and Point Marone to South Vietnamese navy on 15 August 1970 , Squadron One and its remaining division , Division 13 , were decommissioned . Over 3 @,@ 000 Coast Guardsmen had served with Squadron One in Vietnam since May 1965 . Administrative and liaison functions that had been carried out by the Squadron One staff were turned over to the Office of the Senior Coast Guard Officer , Vietnam ( SCGOV ) . Several officers of Squadron One were assigned temporary duties as advisors to former Squadron One cutters to further assist the new RVN commanding officers in their new duties . The Coast Guard continued to provide technical assistance and training under the SCATTOR / VECTOR programs for the SVN after Squadron One was disestablished through the formation of four Technical Assistance Groups . Each group was composed of an officer and eight to eleven engineers reporting to SCGOV . The groups were located at Da Nang where there were six cutters assigned ; Cam Ranh Bay , six cutters ; Vung Tau , eight cutters ; and An Thoi , six cutters . As tours of duty for each Coast Guardsman ended , U.S. Navy personnel gradually took over the training duties .
= = Civic action = =
U.S. Coast Guard personnel stationed in Vietnam were encouraged by their commands to donate off duty time to assist in various civic action programs supporting the Vietnamese people . Squadron One personnel participated as time permitted in an island adoption program that was designed to provide educational materials and medical treatment to inhabitants of the many coastal islands in their area of operation . This program was offered to counter Viet Cong propaganda and promote a better understanding of the South Vietnamese government and USAID rural development programs . Since medical personnel were normally not a part of the make @-@ up of the Squadron One patrol boat crews , medical corpsmen were borrowed from Squadron Three cutters or nearby U.S. Navy units . Division 11 crews constructed a fresh water well and distribution system in addition to constructing voting booths on Hon Thom Island . Division 12 cutters helped evacuate refugees from the vicinity of Cape Batangan when military operations intensified during 1967 . Division 13 personnel spent many hours of off duty time at the children 's ward of the U.S. Army 36th Medevac Hospital and gave games , toys , clothing and candy to injured Vietnamese children . During the Christmas holidays , at local orphanages all squadron personnel distributed gifts of candy and toys as well as clothing , soap and toothpaste that had been donated by Coast Guard families in the United States and brought to Vietnam on the Commandant 's airplane . Squadron One crews arranged for transportation of a small girl by an U.S. Air Force helicopter to USS Sanctuary for eye surgery while the squadron commander personally delivered a cornea for transplant .
= = Legacy and impact = =
The cutters of Squadron One made a significant contribution to the success of Operation Market Time by forcing the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces to rely on the difficult Ho Chi Minh trail for most of their supplies and reinforcements . During the period between 27 May 1965 and 15 August 1970 the squadron cruised 4 @,@ 215 @,@ 116 miles ( 6 @,@ 783 @,@ 572 km ) and boarded 236 @,@ 396 vessels while detaining 10 @,@ 286 persons . During 4 @,@ 461 naval gunfire missions they damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 811 enemy vessels and killed or wounded 1 @,@ 232 enemy personnel .
= = Unit and service awards = =
Presidential Unit Citation
The Presidential Unit Citation ( Navy ) was awarded for extraordinary heroism and outstanding performance to units participating in Operation Sealords for the period 18 October to 5 December 1968 and included the Squadron One cutters Point Cypress , Point White , Point Grace , Point Young , Point Comfort , Point Mast , Point Marone , Point Caution , and Point Partridge .
Navy Unit Commendation
The Navy Unit Commendation was awarded for exceptionally meritorious service to the United States Navy Coastal Surveillance Force ( Task Force 115 ) which included the administrative staff of Squadron One and Division 11 for service during period 1 January 1967 to 31 March 1968 ; Division 12 , 1 January to 28 February 1967 ; and Division 13 , 1 January to 10 May 1967 .
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
The Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation was awarded for meritorious service to units of the United States Navy Coastal Surveillance Force ( Task Force 115 ) which included the following Squadron One cutters : Point White , Point Arden , Point Dume , Point Glover , Point Jefferson , Point Kennedy , Point Young , Point Partridge , Point Caution , Point Welcome , Point Banks , Point Lomas , Point Grace , Point Mast , Point Grey , Point Orient , Point Cypress , and Point Marone .
Vietnam Service Medal
Although the Vietnam Service Medal is a personal service award , it is permissible and customary under Coast Guard regulations for cutters to display service awards on the port and starboard bridge wings . Squadron One cutters were entitled to display the VSM by virtue of having served in Vietnam for more than thirty days during the eligibility period of 15 November 1961 to 30 April 1975 .
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm
All units serving under MACV were awarded the Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm by South Vietnam . Because U.S. Navy units serving in Vietnam were subordinate to MACV this included all Coast Guard Squadron One cutters .
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
The Vietnam Campaign Medal was an award of South Vietnam for those individuals who served in Vietnam for a period of at least six months . Although it was a personal award , Coast Guard regulations permitted its display on a cutter 's port and starboard bridge wings since Squadron One 's cutters served during the eligibility period of 1 March 1961 to 28 March 1973 .
= = Cutter assignment and disposition information = =
Legend :
Denotes initial assignment to Division 11
Denotes initial assignment to Division 12
Denotes initial assignment to Division 13
= Tiktaalik =
Tiktaalik / tɪkˈtɑːlᵻk / is a monospecific genus of extinct sarcopterygian ( lobe @-@ finned fish ) from the late Devonian period , about 375 Ma ( million years ) ago , having many features akin to those of tetrapods ( four @-@ legged animals ) .
Tiktaalik has a possibility of being a representative of the evolutionary transition from fish to amphibians . It is an example from several lines of ancient sarcopterygian fish developing adaptations to the oxygen @-@ poor shallow @-@ water habitats of its time , environmental conditions which are thought to have led to the evolution of tetrapods .
It and similar animals may possibly be the common ancestors of the broad swath of all terrestrial fauna : amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . The first well @-@ preserved Tiktaalik fossils were found in 2004 on Ellesmere Island in Nunavut , Canada .
= = Etymology = =
The name Tiktaalik is an Inuktitut word meaning " burbot " , a freshwater fish related to true cod . The " fishapod " genus received this name after a suggestion by Inuit elders of Canada 's Nunavut Territory , where the fossil was discovered . The specific name roseae cryptically honours an anonymous donor . Taking a detailed look at the internal head skeleton of Tiktaalik roseae , in the October 16 , 2008 ,
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initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
The 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 Japanese personnel present on the islands were taken by surprise , and by nightfall on August 8 the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops , under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift , secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The Allies later renamed the airfield Henderson Field . Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the US Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point . Additional reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of US troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20 @,@ 000 .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake , the task of retaking Guadalcanal . Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on August 19 to drive Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were rarely able to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The Japanese attempted several times between August and November 1942 to recapture Henderson Field and drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal , to no avail . The last attempt by the Japanese to deliver significant additional forces to the island failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal of November 12 – 15 .
On November 26 , Japanese Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the newly formed Eighth Area Army at Rabaul . The new command encompassed both Hyakutake 's 17th Army in the Solomons and the 18th Army in New Guinea . One of Imamura 's first priorities upon assuming command was the continuation of the attempts to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal . The Allied offensive at Buna in New Guinea , however , changed Imamura 's priorities . Because the Allied attempt to take Buna was considered a more severe threat to Rabaul , Imamura postponed further major reinforcement efforts to Guadalcanal to concentrate on the situation in New Guinea .
= = = Supply crisis = = =
Due to a combination of the threat from CAF aircraft , US Navy PT boats stationed at Tulagi , and a cycle of bright moonlight , the Japanese had switched to using submarines to deliver provisions to their forces on Guadalcanal . Beginning on November 16 , 1942 , and continuing for the next three weeks , 16 submarines made nocturnal deliveries of foodstuffs to the island , with one submarine making the trip each night . Each submarine could deliver 20 to 30 tons of supplies , about one day 's worth of food , for the 17th Army , but the difficult task of transporting the supplies by hand through the jungle to the frontline units limited their value to sustain the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal . At the same time , the Japanese tried to establish a chain of three bases in the central Solomons to allow small boats to use them as staging sites for making supply deliveries to Guadalcanal , but damaging Allied airstrikes on the bases forced the abandonment of this plan .
On November 26 , the 17th Army notified Imamura that it faced a critical food crisis . Some front @-@ line units had not been resupplied for six days and even the rear @-@ area troops were on one @-@ third rations . The situation forced the Japanese to return to using destroyers to deliver the necessary supplies .
Eighth Fleet personnel devised a plan to help reduce the exposure of destroyers delivering supplies to Guadalcanal . Large oil or gas drums were cleaned and filled with medical supplies and food , with enough air space to provide buoyancy , and strung together with rope . When the destroyers arrived at Guadalcanal they would make a sharp turn , the drums would be cut loose , and a swimmer or boat from shore could pick up the buoyed end of a rope and return it to the beach , where the soldiers could haul in the supplies .
The Eighth Fleet 's Guadalcanal Reinforcement Unit , based in the Shortland Islands and under the command of Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka , was tasked by Mikawa with making the first of five scheduled runs using the drum method on the night of November 30 . Tanaka 's unit was centered on the eight ships of Destroyer Squadron ( Desron ) 2 , with six destroyers assigned to carry from 200 to 240 drums of supplies apiece , to Tassafaronga at Guadalcanal . Tanaka 's flagship Naganami along with Takanami acted as escorts . The six drum @-@ carrying destroyers were Kuroshio , Oyashio , Kagerō , Suzukaze , Kawakaze , and Makinami . To save weight , the drum @-@ carrying destroyers left their reloads of Type 93 torpedoes ( Long Lances ) at the Shortlands , leaving each ship with eight torpedoes , one for each tube .
After the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , US Vice Admiral William Halsey , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific , had reorganized US naval forces under his command , including , on November 24 , the formation of Task Force 67 ( TF67 ) at Espiritu Santo , comprising the heavy cruisers USS Minneapolis , New Orleans , Pensacola , and Northampton , the light cruiser Honolulu , and four destroyers ( Fletcher , Drayton , Maury , and Perkins ) . US Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright replaced Thomas Kinkaid as commander of TF67 on November 28 .
Upon taking command , Wright briefed his ship commanders on his plan for engaging the Japanese in future , expected night battles around Guadalcanal . The plan , which he had drafted with Kinkaid , stated that radar @-@ equipped destroyers were to scout in front of the cruisers and deliver a surprise torpedo attack upon sighting Japanese warships , then vacate the area to give the cruisers a clear field of fire . The cruisers were then to engage with gunfire from 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) to 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . The cruisers ' floatplanes would scout and drop flares during the battle .
On November 29 , Allied intelligence personnel intercepted and decoded a Japanese message transmitted to the 17th Army on Guadalcanal alerting them to Tanaka 's supply run . Informed of the message , Halsey ordered Wright to take TF67 to intercept Tanaka off Guadalcanal . TF67 , with Wright flying his flag on Minneapolis , departed Espiritu Santo at 27 knots ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) just before midnight on November 29 for the 580 miles ( 930 km ) run to Guadalcanal . En route , destroyers Lamson and Lardner , returning from a convoy escort assignment to Guadalcanal , were ordered to join up with TF67 . Lacking the time to brief the commanding officers of the joining destroyers of his battle plan , Wright assigned them a position behind the cruisers . At 17 : 00 on November 30 , Wright 's cruisers launched one floatplane each for Tulagi to drop flares during the expected battle that night . At 20 : 00 , Wright sent his crews to battle stations .
Tanaka 's force departed the Shortlands just after midnight on November 30 for the run to Guadalcanal . Tanaka attempted to evade Allied aerial reconnaissance aircraft by first heading northeast through Bougainville Strait before turning southeast and then south to pass through Indispensable Strait . Paul Mason , an Australian coastwatcher stationed in southern Bougainville , reported by radio the departure of Tanaka 's ships from Shortland and this message was passed to Wright . At the same time , a Japanese search aircraft spotted an Allied convoy near Guadalcanal and communicated the sighting to Tanaka who told his destroyer commanders to expect action that night and that , " In such an event , utmost efforts will be made to destroy the enemy without regard for the unloading of supplies . "
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
At 21 : 40 on November 30 , Tanaka 's ships sighted Savo Island from Indispensable Strait . The Japanese ships were in line ahead formation , interval 600 metres ( 660 yd ) , in the order of Takanami , Oyashio , Kuroshio , Kagero , Makinami , Naganami , Kawakaze , and Suzukaze . At this same time , TF67 entered Lengo Channel en route to Ironbottom Sound . Wright 's ships were in column in the order Fletcher , Perkins , Maury , Drayton , Minneapolis , New Orleans , Pensacola , Honolulu , Northampton , Lamson , and Lardner . The four van destroyers led the cruisers by 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and the cruisers steamed 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) apart .
At 22 : 40 , Tanaka 's ships passed south of Savo about 3 miles ( 5 km ) offshore from Guadalcanal and slowed to 12 knots ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) as they approached the unloading area . Takanami took station about 1 mile ( 2 km ) seaward to screen the column . At the same time , TF67 exited Lengo Channel into the sound and headed at 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) towards Savo Island . Wright 's van destroyers moved to a position slightly inshore of the cruisers . The night sky was moonless with between 2 miles ( 3 km ) and 7 miles ( 11 km ) of visibility . Because of extremely calm seas which created a suction effect on their pontoons , Wright 's cruiser floatplanes were delayed in lifting off from Tulagi harbor , and would not be a factor in the battle .
At 23 : 06 , Wright 's force began to detect Tanaka 's ships on radar near Cape Esperance on Guadalcanal about 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) away . Wright 's destroyers rejoined the column as it continued to head towards Savo . At the same time , Tanaka 's ships , which were not equipped with radar , split into two groups and prepared to shove the drums overboard . Naganami , Kawakaze , and Suzukaze headed for their drop @-@ off point near Doma Reef while Makinami , Kagero , Oyashio , and Kurashio aimed for nearby Tassafaronga . At 23 : 12 , Takanami 's crew visually sighted Wright 's column , quickly confirmed by lookouts on Tanaka 's other ships . At 23 : 16 , Tanaka ordered unloading preparations halted and " All ships attack . "
= = = Action = = =
At 23 : 14 , operators on Fletcher established firm radar contact with Takanami and the lead group of four drum @-@ carrying destroyers . At 23 : 15 , with the range 7 @,@ 000 yards ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) , Commander William M. Cole , commander of Wright 's destroyer group and captain of Fletcher
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stand yielded 105 runs in only 95 minutes . Harvey was out for 112 from 183 balls , bowled by Laker while playing a cross @-@ batted sweep . His shot selection prompted Bradman to throw his head back in disappointment . Nevertheless , it was an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket , and Harvey 's fast scoring helped to wrest the match back from England 's firm control . O 'Reilly said the innings was one of " no inhibitions ... completely unspoiled by any preconceived plan to eliminate any particular shot " . He added that it was " the very mirror of truth in the batting art " , " delightfully untrammeled by the scourage of good advice or any other handicapping influence " , and deemed Harvey 's innings to be most pleasing he had seen since Stan McCabe 's 232 at Trent Bridge in 1938 .
Harvey 's departure at 294 / 5 brought the first of the bowlers , Johnson , to the crease . This did not deter Loxton , who was particularly severe on Laker , lifting the off spinner for four more sixes , two over the leg side followed by consecutive off drives into the gallery . On each occasion , umpire Chester walked to the edge of the playing field and tried to inspect where the ball landed amongst the crowd , trying to see if the point of impact was beyond the original playing arena . They were ruled as sixes in any case and some thought Chester 's actions to be more for theatrical than umpiring purposes . Laker refused to be deterred by the aggressive batting and continued to bowl normally by pursuing defensive off or leg theory . Johnson scored 10 before falling with the score at 329 / 6 , hitting Laker to Cranston .
Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall replaced Johnson at the crease . Fifteen runs later , Yardley bowled Loxton for 93 , who appeared disappointed at playing such a wild cross @-@ batted swing with a maiden Test century beckoning . Saggers came in and only managed five in his first Test innings before being stumped after being lured out of his crease by Laker , who was still bowling in an attacking manner and flighting his deliveries , undeterred by the sixes Loxton had hit from him , rather than bowling leg theory . This left Australia at 355 / 8 ten minutes before tea , with only Johnston and Toshack remaining .
Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 in an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively . He particularly liked to use his feet to get to the ball on the half @-@ volley so he could hit lofted drives . Of the 103 added for the last two wickets , Johnston and Toshack managed only 25 between them . Johnston accompanied Lindwall for 80 minutes , before Toshack lasted the last 50 minutes until stumps , with Johnston as his runner . Australia were 457 / 9 at stumps , with Lindwall on 76 and Toshack on 12 . During Lindwall 's partnership with Johnston , Yardley bowled himself for over an hour , failing to bring on a frontline bowler in his stead despite being unable to dislodge the batsmen . Lindwall farmed the strike by trying to hit boundaries and twos during the over , but Yardley did not resort to the tactic of setting a deep field to yield a single to Lindwall to get the tailenders on strike . Despite Toshack and Johnston 's lack of familiarity with having and acting as a runner respectively , and the resulting disorders in running between the wickets , Lindwall was able to manipulate the strike so he faced most of the balls . Lindwall 's partners were able to survive against the English pacemen , leading O 'Reilly to lament the absence of leg spinner Doug Wright , whose guile and flight was held in high regard by the Australians . O 'Reilly thought Yardley may have bowled himself in an attempt to contain the Australians rather than dismiss them before the close of play , so his openers would not have to bat for a short period before stumps when the visitors ' attack could have made inroads . However , Yardley was neither able to contain nor dismiss the Australian tail .
= = 26 July : Day Four = =
Sunday was a rest day , and the match resumed on Monday morning . In the third over of the day , Lindwall was the last man out at 458 , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Bradman 's men had added only one run to its overnight score of 457 / 9 . Bedser took the final wicket as Lindwall edged , and Crapp took the catch low down in the slips with his left hand . Bedser ended with 3 / 92 and Laker 3 / 113 , while Pollard and Yardley ended with two wickets each . England 's use of Cranston as an all rounder had not been successful ; he conceded almost four runs per over without taking a wicket . Although England only had a slight lead , Australia had the disadvantage of being a bowler short due to Toshack 's injury . This meant Johnston and Johnson among the slower bowlers were left to exploit the wearing pitch .
For the remainder of the fourth day , England set about extending their lead . Early in the innings , the capacity crowd encroached substantially onto the ground and the umpires spent eight minutes trying to force them back to the edge of the official playing area , but they again spilled over . Initially , Hutton and Washbrook played cautiously to see off the new ball before trying to lift the run rate . Lindwall 's first two overs were maidens , but Hutton and Washbrook scored 21 runs from his next five overs , while taking only five from Miller 's six overs . The English batsmen attacked the bowling and reinforced their aggressive strokeplay with quick running . England reached lunch at 72 / 0 with Hutton on 40 and Washbrook on 28 . Washbrook was particularly confident and Bradman decided to not risk Johnson in the morning session .
The afternoon session continued with further spectator encroachments . After lunch , Bradman set defensive fields with the intent of restricting the scoring , and used his remaining bowlers in short spells to conserve their energy , expecting a long day in the field . The absence of Toshack also meant Loxton had a substantial workload with the ball . The English batsmen continued to accelerate , and when Bradman finally brought Johnson into the attack , they targeted him . Washbrook hit a straight six from Johnson , and Hutton followed suit to take England from 98 to 104 . For the second time in the match , the English openers had put on a century stand , and the shot also brought up Hutton 's 50 in 125 minutes . This feat made Hutton and Washbrook the first pair to make century opening partnerships in both innings of a Test on two occasions ; they had done this for the first time against Australia in the Fourth Test at the Adelaide Oval in 1946 – 47 . Bradman replaced Johnson with Lindwall immediately , and Washbrook responded by cutting the paceman for four to reach his half @-@ century . Lindwall responded with two bouncers . Washbrook then hooked one a short ball from Johnston and got a top edge , but Bradman failed to take the catch .
Washbrook then attempted another hook from Johnston towards deep square leg . Connecting with the middle of the bat , he imparted much power on the ball , which flew flat and never went more than six metres above the ground . Harvey quickly moved in across the outfield from the square leg fence and bent over to catch the ball at his ankles while still on the run . Fingleton called it " the catch of the season — or , indeed , would have been had Harvey not turned on several magnificent aerial performances down at The Oval [ in an earlier match against Surrey ] " . O 'Reilly doubted " whether any other player on either side could have made the distance to get to the ball , let alone make a neat catch of it " . He further said the " hook was a beauty and the catch was a classic " .
Johnson then removed Hutton for 57 without further addition to the total , caught by Bradman on the run , leaving England at 129 / 2 . The Yorkshire batsman went for a lofted shot and mistimed it high in the air after being beaten in flight , and the Australian captain ran backwards from mid @-@ on to complete the catch . This meant the two new batsmen at the crease , Edrich and Compton , were still yet to score , and the second new ball was only six overs away , so they had to preserve their wickets while conditions were at their most favourable for Australia 's fast bowlers . During a slow period in which only 15 runs came in half an hour , Edrich and Compton were pinned down by defensive field settings with no slips in place . After 45 minutes , Compton premeditated a charge down the pitch and hit Johnson to the leg side for a boundary . The pair accelerated , Compton taking risks in cutting Johnson against the spin . Australia took the new ball and each batsman hit a boundary to bring up the fifty partnership , which took an hour . Worried by the substantial and hazardous craters he and the other bowlers had created in the pitch while following through on the left @-@ hand side of the crease , Lindwall changed to bowling from around the wicket and was warned by umpire Baldwin for running on the pitch , before reverting to over the wicket , although he delivered from the edge of the crease to avoid the holes . O 'Reilly said Baldwin 's warning to Lindwall had played into Australia 's hands as the bowler 's follow through from around the wicket was accentuating a rough patch outside the right @-@ hander 's off stump , which the English bowlers could target when Bradman 's men had to chase the target . Compton then hit boundaries with hooks and pulls from Lindwall and Johnston and England went to tea at 209 / 2 . Compton was on 42 and Edrich 33 .
After the interval , Bradman continued with his strategy of rotating his bowlers in short spells , and set a defensive , well @-@ spread field for Johnson 's bowling . Edrich hit three consecutive boundaries from Johnson before lofting a fourth ball into the crowd for six . He then passed his half @-@ century — his fourth consecutive Test score in excess of 50 — before Lindwall trapped him lbw for 51 to leave England at 232 / 3 , ending a third @-@ wicket partnership of 103 . Crapp came in and added 18 before he was bowled by Lindwall , inside edging an attempted forcing stroke through the off side from the back foot . This left England at 260 / 4 , and precipitated a mini @-@ collapse . Yardley deliberately lifted Lindwall over the vacant slips region and reached seven before he fell to Johnston , caught by a leaping Harvey while attempting a lofted shot . Johnston then had Cranston caught behind for a duck with only a further run added to leave England at 278 / 6 , a lead of 316 . Evans came in and edged his first ball through the slips at a catchable height for four . Compton drove Lindwall for a boundary but then fell to Johnston for 66 , caught by Miller at cover . England were 293 / 7 with no recognised batsmen remaining , having lost 4 / 33 . Wicket @-@ keeper Evans was joined by Bedser , and the pair added 37 before Miller removed the latter . Laker came in and helped Evans to add a further 32 as England reached 362 / 8 at the close of the fourth day . Evans — mainly through boundaries — had helped England to add 69 runs in the last 45 minutes of play .
= = 27 July : Day Five = =
England batted on for five minutes during the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 365 / 8 , with Evans unbeaten on 47 . Johnston had the pick of the bowling figures , with 4 / 95 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller at the start of the morning , which would help break up the wicket and make it more likely to spin . Bradman had done a similar thing during the previous Ashes series in Australia before setting England a target . The hosts needed to beat Australia to avoid a series defeat . Bradman elected to not have the pitch rolled at all , demonstrating his opinion that such a device would make the surface less
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season , but after top scoring with 47 and taking two wickets in a non @-@ premiership match against Fitzroy , Wilson was selected for the third match , against North Melbourne . Wilson took 1 / 72 in the first innings against North , the wicket being that of Isaac Drape , and scored 27 runs batting an number 10 . He was not called upon to bat or bowl in the second innings . Wilson was retained in the side for the next match against Carlton . He batted at 11 in the first innings and was on 0 not out when the innings closed . Wilson was not required to bowl or bat again in what ended up being his final match for the MCC . In total , he played 14 matches for Melbourne for a return of 138 runs at a batting average of 10 @.@ 61 and 15 wickets at a bowling average of 30 @.@ 73 .
= = = Post @-@ cricket retirement = = =
According to Observer , Wilson almost retired from football too , and it was only " with difficulty " that he was persuaded to continue training . He missed the first four games of the 1894 premiership season , during which Melbourne struggled and lost two . Wilson made his first appearance that year in round 5 against Richmond ; Observer wrote that Wilson 's return was an " agreeable surprise " and that his marking in particular was impressive . He kicked one goal in a game Melbourne won nine goals to eight . The Redlegs faced Essendon the next week , who were again top of the table . Melbourne lost by four goals to six , largely due to their inaccuracy kicking for goal . Wilson was said by Markwell to " come under favourable notice " while playing in defence that match . Melbourne responded the next week to defeat Port Melbourne in game where Wilson 's leadership and direction was praised and Observer commented that he was " as useful a man as Melbourne had " . He was switched into attack for the round 8 victory over Carlton and Markwell wrote that Wilson was " frequently troublesome " .
Melbourne continued on their winning way with a round 11 win against South Melbourne . Wilson played forward and kicked three of Melbourne 's nine goals in a comprehensive victory . The Redlegs ' winning streak stretched to eight games ; during this time Wilson 's forward play was at various times described as " clever " , " busy " and a " shining example of unselfishness " . Melbourne 's good form came to a grinding halt in the reverse fixture against Essendon . They were comprehensively defeated by the Same Olds who secured their fourth consecutive premiership . The Reds ' forwards were roundly criticised by Observer , but Wilson was praised as the " only one of them who played a decent game " . Melbourne won two of their remaining three games to finish runners @-@ up for the second consecutive year .
Wilson began the 1895 season much as he had finished 1894 , playing in the forward line and often receiving praise from football journalists . Melbourne defeated South Melbourne in their first game of the season and Markwell wrote that he did " a lot of serviceable work " . In round 3 , the Reds were finally able to defeat Essendon after falling short four times in the previous two years , although the match was said to be of poor quality . Wilson was one of the Redlegs ' goalkickers . The club 's vice @-@ captain , O 'Loughlin , returned to Queensland in June and Wilson was elected to replace him . In his first match after being appointed , against North Melbourne in round 6 , Wilson was said to do " every honour to the distinction " as he played his best game of the season and kicked a goal to help Melbourne remain undefeated . Melbourne played Richmond the next week and won again with Wilson this time described as a " brilliantly consistent worker " . Their winning run continued through to round 9 as the Reds defeated Williamstown by a goal ; Wilson was " the pick of Melbourne 's forwards " that match according to Markwell . Melbourne 's undefeated run came to an end the next week , in a loss to Fitzroy . Due to the absence of many of Melbourne 's regular followers in round 14 against Essendon , Wilson was required to play in that position . The Redlegs lost the match , but Wilson was named one of Melbourne 's best on the day .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Eddie Fox , who had been Melbourne 's captain for six of the last seven seasons , retired from football in late August . Wilson was named captain in his stead at what was a difficult time , the Redlegs having lost their last two matches . In his first game in charge , against North Melbourne , Wilson was said to have " showed much judgment in disposing his men " . Melbourne won the match four goals to two and Wilson also had a good individual game playing in a variety of positions . The Reds finished the season having won three of their four games under Wilson 's captaincy , which was enough to finish third on the ladder , two wins away from Fitzroy in top spot .
Wilson remained captain for the 1896 season , though he missed the first four matches of the year due a suspension he had incurred at the end of the previous season . He returned to the side for round 5 against Williamstown and played up forward in a comfortable 11 @-@ goal win . In Melbourne 's round 7 win over St Kilda , Markwell wrote that Wilson was " distinctly at his best " . And in a round 11 victory against North Melbourne , the same journalist wrote that he had the " soundest judgement " of all forwards on the field . Wilson played " excellently " in the Reds ' defeat of Carlton the next week ; Markwell remarked upon his desire " to annihilate the men in blue " . He kicked his first goal of the season in round 15 , a two @-@ goal win over Collingwood , and finished the day with two majors . Markwell observed that Wilson 's " judgment and coolness " went a long way to Melbourne winning their round 16 encounter with Essendon . Melbourne finished the season in fourth place on the ladder . Though they never seriously challenged for the premiership , it was noted that the club had bad luck through suspension and injury , and when they got their best team on the field they could challenge anyone . In his review of the season , Markwell named Wilson one of Melbourne 's best half dozen players .
Wilson retired from football at the conclusion of the 1896 season . In 1897 he played bowls instead of football . After his retirement , he was remembered as being " solidity itself " for Melbourne . In his native state he was mentioned alongside Fred McGinis , William Smith , Colin Campbell and George Vautin as players who left Tasmania and more than held their own against the mainland 's best .
= = Later life = =
Wilson worked for the National Bank of Australasia for 23 years at various suburban Melbourne branches , including East Collingwood , Clifton Hill , Boort and finally Footscray . He had a unique record of never missing a morning 's work with the bank . Wilson was married to Elizabeth Mackey , the daughter of a wine and spirits merchant . On 7 December 1912 , Wilson died at his home in Footscray of a heart ailment he had been suffering from for a year . He was survived by his wife and a child . He was buried at Footscray Cemetery .
= SM U @-@ 22 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 22 or U @-@ XXII was a U @-@ 20 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) during the First World War . The design for U @-@ 22 was based on submarines of the Royal Danish Navy 's Havmanden class ( three of which had been built in Austria @-@ Hungary ) , and was largely obsolete by the beginning of the war .
U @-@ 22 was just over 127 feet ( 39 m ) long and was armed with two bow torpedo tubes , a deck gun , and a machine gun . The submarine was laid down in mid 1915 and launched in January 1917 . The still unfinished U @-@ boat sank in the harbor at Fiume in June but was raised , repaired , and relaunched in October . After her commissioning in November , U @-@ 22 patrolled off the Po River estuary and , later , in the northern Adriatic out of Trieste .
After undergoing months of repairs for her failed electric motor in mid 1918 , U @-@ 22 returned to duty and patrolled off the Montenegrin coast out of Cattaro in August . At Cattaro at the end of World War I , U @-@ 22 was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . U @-@ 22 had no wartime successes .
= = Design and construction = =
When it became apparent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that the First World War would not be a short one , they moved to bolster their U @-@ boat fleet by seizing the plans for the Danish Havmanden class submarines , three of which had been built at Whitehead & Co. in Fiume . Although the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was not happy with the design , which was largely obsolete , it was the only design for which plans were available and which could be begun immediately in domestic shipyards . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy unenthusiastically placed orders for U @-@ 22 and her three sister boats on 27 March 1915 .
U @-@ 22 was one of two boats of the class to be built at the Hungarian UBAG yard in Fiume . Due to demands by the Hungarian government , subcontracts for the class were divided between Hungarian and Austrian firms , and this politically expedient solution worsened technical problems with the design , resulting in numerous modifications and delays for the class in general .
U @-@ 22 was an ocean @-@ going submarine that displaced 173 tonnes ( 191 short tons ) surfaced and 210 tonnes ( 231 short tons ) submerged and was designed for a complement of 18 . She was 127 feet 2 inches ( 38 @.@ 76 m ) long with a beam of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . For propulsion , she featured a single shaft , a single 450 bhp ( 340 kW ) diesel engine for surface running , and a single 160 shp ( 120 kW ) electric motor for submerged travel . She was capable of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) while surfaced and 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 22 , the Havmanden class , upon which the U @-@ 20 class was based , had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) , surfaced , and 23 nautical miles ( 43 km ) at 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) submerged .
U @-@ 22 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes located in the front and carried a complement of two torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
U @-@ 22 was laid down at Fiume in mid 1915 and launched on 27 January 1917 , the last of the four U @-@ 20 @-@ class boats to be launched . On 10 June , while not yet complete , the U @-@ boat sank in the harbor at Fiume . Raised from her resting point at a depth of 9 meters ( 30 ft ) the following day , U @-@ 22 underwent four months of repairs . She was launched again on 6 October .
= = Service career = =
On 18 November 1917 the U @-@ boat sailed for Pola , where she was commissioned as SM U @-@ 22 on 23 November under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Josef Holub . The 31 @-@ year @-@ old Galician had been assigned to U @-@ 22 in February and had been in charge of sister boat U @-@ 21 from June 1916 until his assignment to U @-@ 22 .
Holub led U @-@ 22 out on her first patrol when they departed Pola on 5 December for duty off the Po estuary . After returning to Pola on 10 December , Holub led U @-@ 22 on another Po estuary tour from 15 to 17 December . On 29 December , Holub was transferred to U @-@ 27 . His replacement was Linienschiffsleutnant Friedrich Sterz . It was the first U @-@ boat command of the 25 @-@ year @-@ old native of Pergine , Tyrolia ( in present @-@ day Italy ) .
On 3 January 1918 , Sterz returned U @-@ 22 to the Po estuary for a third patrol there . While in the area , an enemy submarine was spotted but no attack could be made because of bad weather ; the same bad weather forced U @-@ 22 to put in at Rovigno the following day . Setting out from Rovigno on 5 January , U @-@ 22 unsuccessfully attacked an Italian torpedo boat and two steamships . After a return to Rovigno on 6 January , Sterz steered his boat to the submarine base at Brioni . Ten days later , U @-@ 22 headed to Trieste , where she conducted patrols in the northern Adriatic . On 5 February , U @-@ 22 avoided being hit by seven bombs dropped by an enemy airplane . Departing the northern Adriatic in late April , U @-@ 22 was headed for Cattaro when her electric motor failed . After a quick stop at Cattaro , U @-@ 22 returned to Pola for three months of repairs .
After returning to service in August , U @-@ 22 operated out of Catttaro , patrolling off the Montenegrin coast over the next two months . On 17 October , the boat returned to Cattaro , where she remained until the war 's end . She was ceded to France as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920 . Like all of her sister boats , U @-@ 22 had no wartime successes .
= Boardwalk Empire ( episode ) =
" Boardwalk Empire " is the pilot episode of the HBO crime drama Boardwalk Empire . Written by series creator Terence Winter and directed by Martin Scorsese with a budget of $ 18 million , the episode introduces the character of Nucky Thompson , played by Steve Buscemi , as the corrupt treasurer of Atlantic City who is involved in gambling and bootlegging in 1920 . The show used a large ensemble cast and a specially constructed boardwalk set to re @-@ create the Prohibition and Jazz Era , and was based on Boardwalk Empire : The Birth , High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City by Nelson Johnson . Filming for the pilot took place at various locations in and around New York City in June 2009 . The episode first aired in the United States on September 19 , 2010 .
The episode opens with bootleggers being ambushed , and then moves to a Temperance rally two days earlier during which Nucky Thompson attracts the attention of a pregnant woman who later seeks assistance from Thompson for her husband , Schroeder . In a night club the day after the rally , we are introduced to other characters , including Thompson 's brother , Eli , the town sheriff , and Jimmy Darmody , a political assistant . Thompson makes a deal to supply alcohol to four gangsters , including Arnold Rothstein who agrees to use his own men to transport the alcohol . Meanwhile Schroeder drunkenly tangles with Thompson , and then beats his ( Schroeder 's ) wife into a miscarriage . The next day , Darmody plots with Al Capone to rob Rothstein 's incoming whiskey shipment . The episode returns to the ambush and we see Capone and Darmody shoot all the bootleggers and run off with the whiskey , with Darmody later giving Thompson a share of the heist .
David Hinkley of the New York Daily News awarded the episode five stars , saying " Watching HBO 's new ' Boardwalk Empire ' is like sitting in your favorite tavern and hearing someone say , ' Drinks are on the house . ' Friends , it doesn 't get much better . " Paige Wiser of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it " ... an event not to be missed , " and praised Buscemi in particular , calling his performance " fascinating . " The episode gained a 2 @.@ 0 / 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 – 49 and garnered 4 @.@ 81 million viewers . This was the highest rated premiere for a HBO series since the pilot of Deadwood in March 2004 . Following this successful debut , HBO immediately renewed the series for a second season .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in the year 1920 . A group of bootleggers smuggle Canadian Club whisky from boats into the United States but two men in ski masks later ambush their trucks and hold them at gunpoint . The scene then cuts to three days prior , as Atlantic County treasurer Enoch " Nucky " Thompson delivers the keynote address at a Women 's Temperance League rally on the eve of Prohibition . He inspires the all @-@ female audience with his rags @-@ to @-@ riches story and anti @-@ alcohol rhetoric .
Nucky leaves the rally early and promptly heads to Babette 's Supper Club , where a raucous gathering of elected officials , including Atlantic City 's mayor and Nucky 's brother , Sheriff Elias " Eli " Thompson , are celebrating the onset of Prohibition and the lucrative bootlegging opportunities it will bring . Nucky lays out the logistics and introduces his driver James " Jimmy " Darmody , who has just returned after serving in World War I , and appoints him an assistant to Paddy Ryan , a young ward boss who is part of Nucky 's political machine . As midnight strikes and Prohibition officially goes into effect , the partygoers in the club all toast the " death " of alcohol and merrily continue the party . Moody and uncomfortable , Jimmy quickly leaves .
The following morning , Jimmy and Angela , his common @-@ law wife , discuss their future . She wants him to return to his studies at Princeton , but he believes this will take too long and decides to continue working for Nucky . Meanwhile , Thompson meets Margaret Schroeder , a pregnant member of the Temperance League . When she asks about a job for her husband , Nucky gives her a wad of money and has Jimmy drive her home .
As night falls , Jimmy and Nucky visit Mickey Doyle 's funeral parlor , a front for distilling alcohol . Mickey pranks Jimmy by giving him a drink of formaldehyde , and Jimmy attacks him , nearly compromising the operation . Scolded by Nucky , Jimmy demands more important work and implies that the war has matured him . Nucky at first cajoles him but ultimately challenges Jimmy to make his own opportunities .
Afterwards , Nucky dines with four major mob figures , New York 's Arnold Rothstein and Lucky Luciano and Chicago 's Big Jim Colosimo and Johnny Torrio , who agree to start buying Nucky 's seaborne liquor shipments . Rothstein requests some alcohol for a friend 's wedding and Nucky agrees to sell him his latest shipment , on the condition that Rothstein 's own men pick it up . Rothstein asks to defer payment until the next day . As Jimmy waits for Nucky outside , he befriends Torrio 's driver , Al Capone .
The next day , Rothstein , a well @-@ known card shark and cheat , takes Nucky 's casino for over $ 90 @,@ 000 . Nucky arrives and gets Rothstein to leave with his winnings , less the cost of the whiskey shipment . As he leaves , Hans Schroeder , Margaret 's jealous and abusive husband , confronts Nucky . When Nucky sees Hans gambling with the money he had given Margaret earlier , he beats him and has him thrown out . That night , the drunken Hans severely beats Margaret , causing her to miscarry .
The day of the heist arrives . Jimmy recruits Capone to hijack Rothstein 's whiskey shipment . The episode returns to the conclusion of the opening robbery , in a montage interspersed with scenes from a comedy routine performed by Eddie Cantor attended by Nucky and his mistress . Capone , startled by a deer , opens fire on the surrendering smugglers . Jimmy and Capone kill them all and flee with the stolen trucks . At the same time , only three miles away , a team of federal agents raid Mickey 's funeral parlor .
With Eli 's help , Nucky deduces that Jimmy had met with agents the day before and informed on Mickey and therefore must also be involved in the simultaneous robbery . When confronted , Jimmy admits that he counted on Nucky 's forgiveness and again asks for his help with more aggressive criminal enterprises , claiming that the war has left him with no future other than violence . Jimmy seals Nucky 's complicity by presenting him with a share of the take and warns Nucky that Nucky can no longer afford to be " half a gangster . "
Nucky learns about Margaret 's hospitalization . He has Eli kidnap Hans . Scenes showing Eli and his deputies taking Hans out to sea and beating him to death are interspersed with the assassination of Colosimo in his Chicago restaurant . A radio reports that the police have named Hans as the suspect in the murder of Rothstein 's men , implying that Nucky will continue to protect Jimmy . The episode ends with Nucky delivering flowers to a recovering and widowed Margaret .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Emmy Award winner Terence Winter , who had served as executive producer and writer on the critically acclaimed HBO series The Sopranos , was hired to adapt the novel Boardwalk Empire : The Birth , High Times , and Corruption of Atlantic City on June 4 , 2008 . Winter had been interested in creating a series set in the 1920s , feeling that it had never properly been explored before . It was for this reason that he decided to focus his adaption of the novel on the Prohibition era section . On September 1 , 2009 , it was announced that Academy Award @-@ winning director Martin Scorsese would direct the pilot . It would be the first time he had directed an episode of television since an episode of Steven Spielberg 's Amazing Stories in 1986 . The production would be very ambitious , with some even speculating it would be too large scale for television . " I kept thinking ' This is pointless . How can we possibly afford a boardwalk , or an empire ? ' " says creator Terence Winter . " We can 't call it ' Boardwalk Empire ' and not see a boardwalk . " The production would eventually build a 300 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 91 m ) boardwalk in an empty lot in Brooklyn , New York at the cost of five million dollars . Despite a reported budget of up to $ 50 million , the pilot 's final budget came in at $ 18 million .
On why he chose to return to television , Scorsese said " What 's happening the past 9 to 10 years , particularly at HBO , is what we had hoped for in the mid @-@ Sixties with films being made for television at first . We 'd hoped there would be this kind of freedom and also the ability to create another world and create longform characters and story . That didn 't happen in the 1970s , 1980s and in the 1990s I think . And of course ... HBO is a trailblazer in this . I 've been tempted over the years to be involved with them because of the nature of long @-@ form and their development of character and plot . " He went on to praise network HBO by saying , " A number of the episodes , in so many of their series , they 're thoughtful , intelligent [ and ] brilliantly put together ... It 's a new opportunity for storytelling . It 's very different from television of the past . "
= = = Casting = = =
" Scorsese is an actor magnet , " commented Winter . " Everybody wants to work with him . I had all these pictures on my wall and I thought , ' I 'd really better write some good stuff for these people . ' " In casting the role of Nucky Thompson ( based upon real @-@ life Atlantic City political boss Enoch L. Johnson ) , Winter wanted to stray from the real life Johnson as much as possible . " If we were going to cast accurately what the real Nucky looked like , we 'd have cast Jim Gandolfini . " The idea of casting Steve Buscemi in the lead role came about when Scorsese mentioned wanting to work with the actor , whom Winter knew well having worked with him on The Sopranos . Winter sent the script out to Buscemi , who responded very enthusiastically . " I just thought , ' Wow . I 'm almost sorry I 've read this , because if I don 't get it , I 'm going to be so sad . ' My response was ' Terry , I know you 're looking at other actors ' ... and he said , ' No , no , Steve , I said we want you . ' " Explained Scorsese , " I love the range he has , his dramatic sense , but also his sense of humor . "
The casting of Buscemi was soon followed by Michael Pitt , best known for his role in the Bernardo Bertolucci film The Dreamers . He was soon joined by Kelly Macdonald , Vincent Piazza and Michael Shannon , who had just received an Oscar nomination for his role in the Sam Mendes film Revolutionary Road .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the pilot took place at various locations in and around New York City in June 2009 . In creating the visual effects for the series , the company turned to Brooklyn @-@ based effects company Brainstorm Digital . Says Glenn Allen , visual effects producer for Boardwalk Empire and co @-@ founder of Brainstorm , " It 's our most complex job to date . Everything is HD now , so we have to treat it like a feature film . " " Anytime you get to work on a period piece , it 's more fun , " comments visual effects artist Chris " Pinkus " Wesselman , who used archival photographs , postcards , and architectural plans to recreate the Atlantic City boardwalks as accurately as possible . " We got to explore what the old Atlantic City was really like . The piers were one of the toughest parts because every summer they would change – new houses , new advertisements . " It took two months for the firm to complete all the visual effects for the pilot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The pilot episode received acclaim from television critics . TV Guide 's Matt Roush praised the marriage of Scorsese and Winter , saying it " ... brilliantly marries Martin Scorsese 's virtuosic cinematic eye to Terence Winter 's panoramic mastery of rich character and eventful story , " and finished his review by stating " It 's the most purely — and impurely — enjoyable storytelling HBO has delivered in ages , like a movie that you never want to end . " Variety 's Brian Lowry praised the show for returning network HBO to top form , saying " This is , quite simply , television at its finest , occupying a sweet spot that — for all the able competition — still remains unique to HBO : An expensive , explicit , character @-@ driven program , tackling material no broadcast network or movie studio would dare touch ... For those wondering when the channel would deliver another franchise to definitively put it on top of the world , Ma , the wait is over : Go directly to " Boardwalk . " " " One of the unexpected joys of " Boardwalk Empire , " though , lies
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of ten to twelve thousand men and set out to meet the Rus ' . The two armies met near Arcadiopolis ( modern Lüleburgaz in Turkish Thrace ) , some 80 km west of Constantinople . The two primary accounts on the Byzantine side differ on the preliminaries of the battle : Leo the Deacon reports that Skleros sent a scouting detachment ahead under the patrikios John Alakaseus , and then gave battle after only a day , but the later chronicle of Skylitzes reports that for a few days , Skleros with his men remained within the walls of Arcadiopolis as the Rus ' encamped nearby , and refused to come out and meet them in battle despite their repeated challenges for him to do so . According to Skylitzes , the Rus ' quickly became convinced that the imperial army was too afraid to face them ; consequently they roamed about the countryside plundering , neglected their camp defences and spent their nights in heedless revelry .
Skleros eventually set out from the city , and divided his forces into three groups : two divisions were placed in ambush on the wooded sides of the road leading towards the Rus ' camp , while another , probably some 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 men , was placed under himself ( or Alakaseus in Skylitzes ' account ) and went forth to attack the Rus ' host . The Byzantine detachment quickly came into contact with the Rus ' army , and charged the Pecheneg contingent . The Byzantines executed a gradual orderly retreat , turning at intervals to charge back at the pursuing Pechenegs , who had thus become separated from the main body of the Rus ' army . This conflict was fierce and bloody , taxing the discipline and endurance of the small Byzantine force . According to Leo the Deacon , at one point one of the Pechenegs charged Bardas himself and delivered a sword blow on his helmet , which was deflected by the metal without doing harm . Bardas ' young brother Constantine came to his rescue , killing the Pecheneg .
When the two opposing forces reached the place of the ambush , Bardas ordered the trumpets blown and the two concealed Byzantine divisions attacked the Pechenegs from the flanks and the rear . Cut off from aid and surrounded , the Pechenegs began to panic and flee . One of their leaders tried to rally his men , but he was attacked by Bardas Skleros himself , who killed him with a single sword @-@ blow that reportedly cut him in two from his head down to the waist , through the Pecheneg 's helmet and cuirass . The loss of the Pecheneg commander turned the battle into a complete rout , and panic spread to the Bulgarian contingent following behind the Pechenegs , which also suffered heavy casualties in the general chaos . The Byzantine casualties in the battle were low ( Skylitzes speaks of 25 dead and Leo of 55 ) although they lost many horses to the Pecheneg arrows , while the losses of the Rus ' force , although certainly lower than Leo 's claimed 20 @,@ 000 , were still significant , probably running into several thousands .
= = Aftermath = =
The Byzantines were unable to exploit this victory or pursue the remnants of the Rus ' army , since Bardas Phokas rose in revolt in Asia Minor . Bardas Skleros and his men were consequently withdrawn to Asia Minor , whilst Sviatoslav restricted his forces to the north of the Balkan Mountains . In the spring of the next year , however , with Phokas ' rebellion subdued , Tzimiskes himself , at the head of his army , advanced north into Bulgaria . The Byzantines took the Bulgarian capital Preslav , capturing the Bulgarian tsar Boris II , and confined the Rus ' in the fortress of Dorostolon ( modern Silistra ) . After a three @-@ month siege and a series of pitched battles before the city walls , Sviatoslav conceded defeat and abandoned Bulgaria .
= Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga =
Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga , known in Japan as Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner ( Digital Devil Saga アバタール ・ チューナー , Dejitaru Debiru Sāga Abatāru Chūnā ) is a duology of role @-@ playing video games developed by Atlus for the PlayStation 2 . They are a spin @-@ off of the Megami Tensei series . The first Digital Devil Saga was released in Japan in 2004 , North America in 2005 and Europe in 2006 . Its direct sequel , Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga 2 ( Digital Devil Saga アバタール ・ チューナー2 , Dejitaru Debiru Sāga Abatāru Chūnā Tsū , lit . Digital Devil Saga : Avatar Tuner 2 ) , released in 2005 in Japan and North America , and 2007 in Europe . The games were published in Europe by Ghostlight and in other regions by Atlus .
Digital Devil Saga follows the Embryon , a tribe who fight against six other tribes in a digital world called the Junkyard . After being infected with a demon virus that grants them demonic powers , the Embryon must fight with and devour the other tribes to ascend to " Nirvana " . During the conflict , they shelter a woman named Sera , who has the power to calm their demonic powers . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , having escaped into the devastated real world , the Embryon are caught up in the fight against the Karma Society , who are intimately linked to the source of the disaster . The gameplay of both titles feature third @-@ person navigation of playble characters around to @-@ scale environments , and turn @-@ based gameplay against demonic monsters and human enemies .
Digital Devil Saga began development pre @-@ 2002 under the working title New Goddess . The game 's concept and original draft were written by Japanese author Yu Godai , but she withdrew from the project for personal reasons , and was replaced by Atlus scriptwriter Tadashi Satomi . The gameplay concept of the characters transforming into demons was based on an unused idea for Shin Megami Tensei . The second game began development immediately after the first , with the main development effort going into refining and improving the gameplay . While their commercial performances varied , both games were praised by critics for their story , graphics and gameplay . Since release , the game has inspired a mobile prequel , and Godai wrote a series of novels based on her original premise for the story .
= = Gameplay = =
In the Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga role @-@ playing games , players take control of the characters Serph , Heat , Argilla , Gale and Cielo , with the characters Sera and Roland becoming playable in Digital Devil Saga 2 . These characters are able to transform into a demon form , which is their main form in battle . Characters navigate to @-@ scale environments , fighting enemies in both random encounters and story @-@ focused boss battles . After each battle , experience points are awarded to characters . Character abilities are governed by Mantra Grids , a system where Mantras are bought using the in @-@ game currency Macca , then mastering them using gaining Atma Points gained from defeated enemies . The maximum number of abilities that a character can learn is eight . If two or more characters equip a certain ability , they can perform a stronger version of it through a combo . Each character can learn abilities from one of four categories : Physical , Magic , Shield and Auto .
The Digital Devil Saga games use a turn @-@ based battle system , with three allied characters fighting in battle . Both player characters and enemies are governed by a mechanic called the Press Turn system : each character has a symbol representing a turn . The character can forfeit a turn to allow the next character an action ; turns cannot be passed more than once . If an enemy 's weakness is exploited or a character lands a critical hit , an extra turn is gained ; if a character resists an attack , a turn is lost . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , characters will sometimes enter battle in a half @-@ transformed " berserk " mode , which increases attack power while locking away magic skills and lowering a character 's defense . While battle is focused around strengthening characters ' demon forms , they can also fight in their human forms using conventional weapons , and can equip ammunition . A human character can perform a combo with one in demon form . The magic system uses nine magic attributes . Ice and Lightning magic have a chance of causing the " freeze " and " stun " status , while Expel magic reduces an enemy 's hit points by a certain percentage , and Death magic causes an instant kill . Status magic can inflict status effects on enemies .
Each time a character 's experience level raises , they receive stat boosts . While the protagonist can assign stat points at will , the other main characters each have certain specializations . Money is also dropped , which can be used to buy supplies from merchants . Atma is gained after each battle , but a greater amount is gained from eating enemies . If an enemy is " frightened " , the amount of Atma is further increased . Characters can also be afflicted with a status ailment if they overeat . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , special Karma Ring items can be assigned to characters to grant stat boosts . Fitting different gems dropped from defeated enemies granting specific stat boosts and effects . Effects range from granting free status buffs on the player party to casting ailments on enemies . Importing save data from the first game enables some skills and abilities learned during the first game to be transferred to the characters that learned them .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The first Digital Devil Saga takes place in the Junkyard , a combat simulator program divided between six tribes where it always rains : the Embryon , Vanguards , Solids , Maribel , Brutes and Wolves . Each tribe holds a particular territory , and initially are devoid of emotions : the only common ground is a great tower at the Junkyard 's center called the Karma Temple , which acts as a meeting place for all the tribe leaders . The following game is set on Earth , which has been devastated by a phenomenon known as the " Black Sun " , a manifestation of God 's anger . The survivors of humanity are ruled by the Karma Society .
The main protagonists of the Digital Devil Saga duology are silent protagonist Serph ( サーフ , Sa @-@ fu ) , leader of the Embryon ; and Sera ( セラ ) , a woman who can commune with God . The other Embryon are the kind Argilla ( アルジラ , Arujira ) ; the hot @-@ tempered Heat ( ヒート , Hito ) the light @-@ hearted Cielo ( シエロ , Shiero ) ; and the highly logical Gale ( ゲイル , Geiru ) . The main antagonist is Angel ( エンジェル ) , who is Sera 's intersexual biological parent . In Digital Devil Saga 2 , two new main characters are introduced : Rolad , the alcoholic leader of the Lokapala resistance group ; and Madame Margot Cuvier , head of the Karma Society . All the main characters barring Cuvier become infected with the demon virus , a condition that causes them to turn into demonic beings and lust after human flesh .
= = = Plot = = =
During a border skirmish between the Embryon and the Vanguards , a demon virus is introduced that infects everyone in the Junkyard : branded with a mark representing their " Atma " and gradually awakening to basic emotions , the people of the Junkyard must devour their foes to satiate their demonic hunger or risk going berserk . Sera , a so @-@ called cyber shaman , arrives suffering from amnesia and is taken in by the Embryon , revealing herself capable of calming their hunger with her singing . The Embryon first become conscious of their new powers when they meet the surviving Vanguard : during their time there , they are forced to kill the Vanguards ' leader Harley . Serph is then summoned to the Karma Temple along with the surviving tribe leaders . Once they are assembled there , a female being calling itself Angel orders the tribes to conquer their neighbors and ascend the Temple 's tower to " Nirvana " , bringing Sera as proof of their achievements . The Embryon decide to ally with the Maribel as a means of defeating the stronger tribes .
After gaining the trust of the Maribel 's leader Jinana , they are betrayed by her second @-@ in @-@ command Bat , who allies with the Brutes along with the Solids ' leader Mick . Jinana , having refused to eat as she needed to , goes berserk and must be killed . The Solids then capture Sera , leading the Embryon into a fight to the death against Mick . They also successfully trick the Brutes ' forces and Bat into a booby @-@ trapped ship , killing them . During this time , the Wolves are subdued by the Brutes , whose leader Varin has awakened memories of a former life where he was known as " Colonel Beck " , and unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Angel to release him from the Junkyard . With help from the Wolves ' deposed leader Lupa , the Embryon infiltrate the Brutes ' castle , but Lupa is killed after going berserk . After fighting Varin , he accuses Sera of being a monster before he dies . Sera regains her memories and runs to the Karma Temple with the Embryon in pursuit . There , Sera faces the human form of Angel , who threatens to delete the Junkyard with a computer virus if Sera does not return to the real world with her . The Embryon arrive and successfully fight Angel , but in the process release the computer virus . The Embryon , Sera and Angel only just escape as the Junkyard is destroyed .
In Digital Devil Saga 2 , the Embryon appear in the real world , which is slowly being destroyed by the Black Sun : the only ones able to survive the sun 's rays are those infected with the demon virus . Serph , Cielo , Argilla and Gale learn that Sera is the captive of Angel and Madame Cuvier at the Karma Society headquarters . With the help of Roland and a young by named Fred , the group infiltrate the Karma Society 's building . While they attempt to rescue Serah , Angel plans to subvert Cuvier and use the demon virus to create a society ruled by the strong . The Embryon are also faced by Heat , who is working with Cuvier on the promise of Sera 's safety . Reaching the EGG , a man @-@ made replica of God , the party rescue Sera , but Heat appears and wounds Serph . Both fall into the EGG , and God begins absorbing the Earth 's data : in the chaos , Angel kills Cuvier , while the remaining Embryon and Sera , now able to assume a demon form herself , shut down the Power Plant in an unsuccessful attempt to stop the EGG . In the process , both Roland and Argilla are killed by a powerful demon . Returning to the EGG so Sera can speak with God , they are confronted by Heat , who has fused with the EGG and gone berserk . Inside the EGG , Serph is met by a higher being calling itself Schrödinger , who reveals the truth about what happened .
The Karma Society was founded to study God , who was losing his faith in humanity due to their behavior . Sera was the only survivor of a group of children with the ability to communicate with God . To hide from the pain of the experiments , Sera created an artificial environment that would become the Junkyard , populating it with benign versions of Karma Society staff : these artificial beings would become the Junkyard 's five tribes . The original Serph manipulated Sera for his own ends while the original Heat attempted to protect her : when Sera saw Serph killing Heat when linked to the EGG , God felt her pain and attacked Earth . The original Serph was overwhelmed by a flood of data and became a demon before being killed . Now knowing the truth , Serph escapes from the EGG , killing Heat in the process . Sera then decides to head for a secondary Karma facility to communicate with God : on the way , Gale dies defeating Angel , and Cielo sacrifices himself so Sera and Serph can reach the transmission site . As Sera begins transmission , the base is destroyed , killing her and Serph . Their data travels to the sun and merges into a new being called Seraph . Aided by the data of the Embryon , Seraph confronts God , fighting an avatar of him to prove humanity 's worth . Upon victory , Seraph achieves enlightenment and travels with Schrödinger to new worlds , while God restores the sun and Earth . At the game 's end , it is shown that the Embryon , Angel , and aspects of Sera and Serph have reincarnated , with a grown Fred acting as their caretaker .
= = Development = =
Production on the initial Digital Devil Saga started prior to the beginning of active development on Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne in 2002 . During production , it was known under the working title New Goddess . The project was formed in part to make the Megami Tensei series accessible to a broader audience while staying true to its roots . The games were directed by Katsura Hashino , a new director who had worked in lesser roles in previous Megami Tensei titles . The design director was Makoto Kitano , while the movie director was Ichirō Itano , a noted anime director . Itano was responsible for storyboarding and character movement choreography . The team was divided into multiple divisions , each in charge of different aspects of the game 's design . The original story was written by Japanese novelist Yu Godai , but due to personal reasons she withdrew from the project before the full scripts were written . Her role was filled by Tadashi Satomi , who had previously written scripts for the first three Persona games . Satomi 's role as story writer necessitated discussions with other teams assigned to the game . Due to characters having dialogue in the field , the team needed to have extensive notes prepared . The battle system was taken from that used in Nocturne , but with elements added to both differentiate it from other Megami Tensei games and incorporate the game 's themes . During development of Digital Devil Saga , the team were faced with repeated problems with fitting the entire experience on a single DVD : the amount of data was estimated to be two times that of Nocturne .
Production of Digital Devil Saga 2 began immediately after the release of the first game . To tease it prior to its official announcement , a large number of unfinished plot threads and vague hints relating to the main characters ' previous lives were incorporated into the first game . For Digital Devil Saga 2 , the team expanded upon the systems implemented in the first game . Due to extra features added , the team sometimes felt that they could not fit it all on a single disc . The main priority was to ensure smooth motion and a quick transfer into battles and cutscenes . The game 's setting
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989 , on the 25MHz 386 @-@ DX computer that publisher Psygnosis granted him , alongside a Personal Development System . Jones saw Blood Money as a " further development " of the concept used in Menace . Jones was heavily inspired by the " cuteness " of Mr. Heli ( 1987 ) during the development of Blood Money . The game 's cover art was designed by British artist Peter Andrew Jones for the novel Protector ( 1973 ) by Larry Niven , and was adapted for the game 's cover .
With Blood Money , Jones was determined to utilise the full colour range of the Amiga , opting to use the blitter as opposed to the hardware scrolling ; the blitter allowed graphics to be drawn quickly . Tony Smith , who had worked on Menace , produced the graphics for Blood Money , while Jones began work on a new scrolling system . While developing his own game , Talisman , Mike Dailly created a compact method to move enemies on @-@ screen , which Jones incorporated into Blood Money . The game 's animations fascinated Jones ' friend Gary Timmons , who then began experimenting with Deluxe Paint ; his work on the program led to his employment at DMA Design , and inspired some of the animations used in DMA 's next game , Walker ( 1993 ) . The game 's introduction required a star field , which Jones took from a quick demonstration that Dailly had been working on .
The game was ported to the PC by Tim Ansell of Creative Assembly , and to Atari ST by Jones ' friend Wayne Smithson , while Dailly began porting the game to the Commodore 64 following the Personal Computer World Show in September 1989 . Dailly used the code from the Talisman demo , and wrote a new sprite system . He also re @-@ worked the multi @-@ directional scrolling , and wrote his own tape loading routines , wanting one that allowed players to play a simple game while Blood Money loaded . Smith designed the graphics for the port , and became confused by the limitations of the hardware : he had to draw double pixels in Deluxe Paint , and was limited to sixteen colours . Dailly finished developing the Commodore 64 version of Blood Money on 12 March 1990 .
= = Reception = =
Blood Money received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release , particularly for its gameplay , graphical design , and sound . Gary Barrett of ST / Amiga Format wrote that the game is the best shoot ' em up game on the Amiga . Zzap ! 64 listed Blood Money as the best Amiga game of the 1980s , and ST Format named it the second @-@ best shoot ' em up game of 1990 . The game sold 40 @,@ 000 copies , which is double the sales of Menace .
Stuart Wynne of Zzap ! 64 found the game " superb to play " , while Robin Hogg of the same publication wrote that it " measures up " to the game 's " brilliant " graphics . The One found the game to be among the " most challenging and technically accomplished " shoot ' em ups , while ACE called it " compelling " . Conversely , Mike Pattenden of CU Amiga criticised the difficulty , noting its lack of rewards .
Critics praised the game 's graphical qualities . Paul Glancey of Computer and Video Games lauded the game 's opening sequence , and called the sprites among " the best designed and most fluidly animated " in an Amiga game . The Games Machine found the graphics " utterly impressive " , and Barrett of ST / Amiga Format wrote that the game is " in a class of its own " , praising the sprite animations . Zzap ! 64 's Hogg commended the animation and backgrounds . Conversely , CU Amiga 's Pattenden felt that the graphics lack depth .
The game 's use of sound received positive reactions . Phil King of Zzap ! 64 was impressed by the soundtrack , particularly praising the introductory music . The Games Machine echoed similar remarks , writing that the game features " excellent " sound , and Glancey of Computer and Video Games wrote that the sound chip was " put ... to bloomin ' good use " . Barrett of ST / Amiga Format preferred the sound effects over the music , though felt that they were inferior to those in Menace . Pattenden of CU Amiga felt that the sound is " a poor tune and some average effects " , while ACE called it " a little weedy " .
= Great Britain at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland competed as Great Britain at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The United Kingdom was represented by the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) , and the team of selected athletes was officially known as Team GB . Britain is one of only five NOCs to have competed in every modern Summer Olympic Games since 1896 . The delegation of 547 people included 311 competitors – 168 men , 143 women – and 236 officials . The team was made up of athletes from the whole United Kingdom including Northern Ireland ( whose people may elect to hold Irish citizenship and are able to be selected to represent either Great Britain or Ireland at the Olympics ) . Additionally some British overseas territories compete separately from Britain in Olympic competition .
Great Britain 's medal performance at the 2008 Summer Olympics was its best in a century ; only its performance at the 1908 Summer Olympics , which Britain hosted in London , resulted in more gold medals being awarded . The total medal count , 47 , is also the third highest Great Britain has ever achieved , with only the 1908 and the 2012 Games resulting in more medals .
Great Britain finished 4th overall in the medal tables , a target previously set by UK Sport , the public body responsible for distributing funding to elite sport , for the 2012 Games . UK Sport considered whether to target 3rd place in the 2012 Games , which was hosted by the United Kingdom in London .
Because London was the host city of the 2012 Summer Olympics , a segment of their culture was performed during the closing ceremony .
= = Medallists = =
The following British competitors won medals at the Games , all dates are August 2008 . In the ' by discipline ' sections below , medallists ' names are in bold .
= = = Multiple medallists = = =
The following Team GB competitors won multiple medals at the 2008 Olympic Games .
= = Targets = =
In June 2008 , UK Sport , which distributes National Lottery funding to elite sport , published its expectations for the Games . It identified 41 potential medals to target and expected to win 35 of them , including 10 to 12 gold medals and to finish 8th in the overall medal table . Team GB exceeded the gold medal expectations on 19 August when Paul Goodison earned Britain 's 13th gold medal in the men 's Laser class . The minimum medal target , of 35 medals , was passed on 20 August when they claimed their 36th medal — a bronze in the women 's RS : X , won by Bryony Shaw . The total medal target was equalled when canoeist Tim Brabants took gold in the men 's 1000 m K @-@ 1 claiming Britain 's 41st physical medal ( three further medals were guaranteed in boxing at the time ) . They later exceeded the total number of targeted medals when Heather Fell secured the silver in women 's modern pentathlon .
It should be noted that the medals claimed were not all ones that had been targeted , with Team GB falling short of targets in some disciplines whilst exceeding them in others . Nine out of seventeen disciplines met their targets . The British cyclists , for example doubled their medal target on 19 August when Victoria Pendleton won Britain 's 12th cycling medal , a gold in the women 's sprint . A further two medals were already guaranteed at this stage in the men 's individual sprint , where gold and silver were soon won by Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny respectively . In all Team GB won seven of the ten gold medals up for grabs at the velodrome . The swimmers also managed to double the targeted number of medals in their sport when David Davies won the team 's sixth swimming medal — a silver medal in the men 's 10 km open water marathon on 21 August . Despite the men 's and women 's archery teams having come second and third respectively at the 2007 world championships , British archers were unable to win either of their targeted medals . This led to criticism of the tactics used by head coach Peter Suk from members of the team .
= = Archery = =
At the 2007 World Outdoor Target Championships , Great Britain 's men 's team placed second and its women 's team placed third . This qualified the nation to send full teams of three men and three women to the Olympics .
Men
Women
= = Athletics = =
The initial squad was selected for the British team on 14 July ; however , the final team was not confirmed until the outcome of a courtcase involving Dwain Chambers . Under the rules of the BOA , Chambers had been banned from future Games after testing positive for the steroid THG in 2003 . His appeal to overturn that ban , on the grounds that it was an unfair restraint of trade , failed and he was omitted from the squad . The team included former Olympic medal winners Marlon Devonish and Kelly Sotherton , as well as former Olympic individual finalists Joanne Pavey , Paula Radcliffe , Helen Clitheroe and Tasha Danvers . Women 's marathon world record holder Paula Radcliffe faced a battle to be fit for the Games due to a stress fracture in her left thigh . She eventually proved fit enough to start the race but struggled to finish in 23rd position .
A total of four medals were won , one gold , two silver and one bronze . UK Athletics performance director Dave Collins stood down after the Games . This was due in part to the team 's failure to meet the UK Sport target of winning five medals ,
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Track & road events
* Qualified for the team , but did not compete in any of the rounds
Field events
Combined events – Decathlon
Women
Track & road events
* Qualified for the team , but did not compete in any of the rounds
Field events
Combined events – Heptathlon
* The athlete who finished in second place , Lyudmila Blonska of the Ukraine , tested positive for a banned substance . Both the A and the B tests were positive , therefore Blonska was stripped of her silver medal , and both British heptathletes moved up a position .
= = Badminton = =
Six British badminton players went to the Games , competing in four out of the five badminton events . They did not win any medals , thus failing to reach the one medal target set by UK Sport . The mixed doubles pairing of Gail Emms and Nathan Robertson , who won silver in the 2004 tournament , progressed furthest amongst the British athletes , reaching the quarterfinals .
= = Boxing = =
A total of eight boxers
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h Khan gives a fabulous performance , redefining the Lover for the 1990s with great panache " , and called Kajol a " real @-@ as @-@ life actress bringing warmth and credulity " to her role . Sen called the film well balanced and said only the fight scene and some mother @-@ daughter dialogue can wear after multiple viewings . Omer M. Mozaffar , writing for Roger Ebert 's website in 2012 , likened the film to a Disney Princess story , saying , " the young princess feeling trapped by the traditional patriarchy , seeking freedom through discovering the world , but finally finding it through silent , but inappropriate love . The Little Mermaid . Beauty ( of the Beast ) . Jasmine ( friends with Aladdin ) . Pocahontas . Aurora ( Sleeping Beauty ) . And here , Simran . " Scott Jordan Harris , also writing for Roger Ebert in 2014 , called it " one of the world 's favorite films " , and said it plays as a masterful soap opera , with one of the best screen couples ever seen .
= = = Accolades = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was ranked among The Times of India 's list of the " 10 Bollywood movies you must see before you die " . It was one of three Hindi films in the film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die , the others being Mother India ( 1957 ) and Deewaar ( 1975 ) . It was placed twelfth on the British Film Institute 's list of top Indian films of all time . It is one of the films on Box Office India 's list of " Biggest Blockbusters Ever in Hindi Cinema " . The film won a National Film Award and 10 Filmfare Awards , setting the record at the time for the most Filmfare trophies .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historic box office run = = =
In 2001 , Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge overtook Sholay ( 1975 ) , which had run for over five years at the Minerva theatre , as the longest @-@ running film in Indian cinema history . It has been showing at the Maratha Mandir theatre ( which was famous for having shown Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) for three years ) since its original release in 1995 . There are often people in the audience who have seen the film 50 or more times , but still clap , cheer , mouth the dialogues and sing along with the songs , raising comparisons with The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , the longest running film in America .
When a theatre strike in early 2011 threatened the film 's uninterrupted run , the producer Yash Chopra contacted theatre owners to try and ensure the film would continue . He hoped the film would continue to run for at least 1 @,@ 000 weeks , which it achieved in December 2014 . To commemorate the event , cast members including Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol , Anupam Kher , Farida Jalal , Mandira Bedi and Pooja Ruparel appeared on the television show Comedy Nights with Kapil . Shah Rukh Khan , Kajol and director Aditya Chopra also attended a live chat with fans and a black tie event at the theatre on 12 December . The same day , they launched a coffee table book written by Aditya Chopra about the making of the film . Also in December , Yash Raj Films announced the availability of a collection of commemorative , licensed merchandise from various suppliers to mark the event . The Maratha Mandir 's management ended the film 's run after 1 @,@ 009 weeks on 19 February 2015 because of low attendance ( the last show was viewed by 210 people ) . However , after an outpouring of support from fans , and talks with the production company , they decided to reinstate the film .
= = = Influence = = =
Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge spawned many imitators of its story and style , especially throughout the 1990s . According to the Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema , it and a handful of other films and young directors started a trend for " designer " films . The authors said that these were " a carefully packaged and branded product in which every little visual and physical detail ... is of utmost importance " . In Bollywood 's Top 20 : Superstars of Indian Cinema , Namrata Joshi said Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge " reinvented Bollywood romances so decisively that we can neatly divide them into two eras — before DDLJ and after DDLJ " .
Yash Raj Films was previously known for using locations outside India for item numbers in its films . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge started the trend for films designed to appeal to the Indian diaspora , which have foreign locations as integral parts of the story . The characters are themselves diaspora and tend to be able to move with ease between India and the West . Some later films that followed this trend include Pardes ( 1997 ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , Kal Ho Naa Ho ( 2003 ) , Salaam Namaste ( 2005 ) , Neal ' n ' Nikki ( 2005 ) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ( 2006 ) . Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge became the first Hindi film blockbuster to feature NRIs as main characters . It helped to establish the diaspora market as a vital source of revenue for the industry ; that market was seen as a safer financial investment than the desi market .
Several later films have paid homage to Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . The Karan Johar @-@ produced Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania ( 2014 ) was directly inspired by it . The films Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , Bodyguard ( 2011 ) , Chalo Dilli ( 2011 ) , Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) and Chennai Express ( 2013 ) include scenes similar to the climactic train sequence , wherein a woman is running to catch a moving train and is helped aboard by a man with his outstretched arm . The British film Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) contained a similar train scene , and its final dance sequence was partially shot at the same railway station as the Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge finale .
= = = Impact = = =
Audiences appreciated the screen chemistry between Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol , who later worked together in several successful films including Kuch Kuch Hota Hai ( 1998 ) , Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) , My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , and Dilwale ( 2015 ) , and are often referred to as Indian cinema 's most loved on @-@ screen couple . Shah Rukh Khan credits this film with making him a star , and says it " changed the entire scene for romantic movies of the 90s " . During an interview in 2002 , he said " Whatever I 'll stand for as an actor , in the whole of my career , whenever it ends , it will start with and end at Dilwale " . The actress Farida Jalal said the film gave her career a boost , saying she got many offers and " could quote any price " . It also helped the young careers of Pooja Ruparel , who received advertising offers , and of Sharmistha Roy .
The British Film Institute ( BFI ) commissioned a book about Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . It was the first Hindi film chosen for a series of studies on international films , called " BFI Modern Classics " . The author was Anupama Chopra and the book was released in 2002 . It was reissued in paperback by Harper @-@ Collins as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge : The Making of a Blockbuster in 2004 . After an unexpectedly long delay , the film was released on DVD by Yash Raj Films in 2002 . The release included The Making and 300 Weeks Celebration documentaries , Success Story ( highlights from the film 's premiere ) , clips from the 41st Filmfare Awards ceremony and other interviews .
In 2006 , members of the film crew were honoured at a dinner event to celebrate the film 's 500th week since release . It was hosted by the Consulate General of Switzerland in Mumbai and by Switzerland Tourism . In 2010 , Yash Raj Films signed an agreement with Indian and Swiss tour companies to provide a tour package called " YRF Enchanted Journey " , to allow visitors to Switzerland to view filming locations used for famous Yash Raj films including Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge . In 2014 , Yash Raj Films released Aditya Chopra Relives ... Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( As Told to Nasreen Munni Kabir ) , an attractive but expensive book about the making of the film . In response to Indian prime minister Narendra Modi quoting the line " May the force be with you " from the American film franchise Star Wars during a visit to the U.S. , President Barack Obama decided to quote a line from a Hindi film during his visit to India in January 2015 . He chose a line from this film , " Senorita , bade bade deshon mein ... " ( Miss , in large countries ... ) , and added " you know what I mean " .
= United States v. Cotterman =
United States v. Cotterman , ( 9th Cir. en banc 2013 ) , is a United States court case in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that property , such as a laptop and other electronic storage devices , presented for inspection when entering the United States at the border may not be subject to forensic examination without a reason for suspicion , a holding that weakened the border search exception of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution .
= = Background = =
On April 6 , 2007 at approximately 10 AM , Howard and Maureen Cotterman drove from Mexico to the Lukeville Port of Entry ( POE ) . Upon arrival , the inspector checked the U.S. Customs and Border Protection electronic database and found a computer @-@ generated alert , based upon Howard Cotterman 's prior conviction for child sex crimes in 1992 . The alert advised the inspector to be on the lookout for child pornography and due to the warning , the Cottermans were sent to a secondary inspection area .
During the vehicle search , two CBP officers discovered two laptops and three digital cameras . The officers were unable to find any contraband , but did discover a number of password protected files . During this time , the ICE case was assigned to Agent Riley , who then drove with her supervisor Agent Brisbane from Sells , Arizona to Lukeville . During the drive , the two agents decided that they would detain the laptops for forensic examination .
After arriving at Lukeville POE at 3 or 3 : 30 PM , the two agents interviewed Howard and Maureen Cotterman separately . Howard Cotterman offered to help the agents with the computer , but the offer was declined . At 6 PM , the two agents left with both laptops and one digital camera . The devices were taken to Tucson and delivered to John Owens , an ICE Computer Forensic Examiner at 11 PM that night . The camera was returned to the Cottermans as there was no evidence of contraband found . However , on April 8 , Agent Owens ' forensic examination turned up approximately 75 images of child pornography on Howard Cotterman 's computer . Agent Owens called the Cottermans that night , asking Howard Cotterman for assistance opening the password protected files . Howard Cotterman agreed to come in the next day , but only his wife showed up to pick up the other laptop .
It was later discovered that Howard Cotterman boarded a flight to Mexico on April 9 , 2007 , with a final destination of Sydney , Australia . On April 11 , 2007 , Agent Owen was able to break the computer security and discovered 378 more images of child pornography . Cotterman was indicted on June 27 , 2007 for several charges related to child pornography and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution . He was arrested by Australian law officials and delivered to the U.S. Marshals Service on March 31 , 2008 .
Cotterman filed a motion to suppress all evidence seized by Customs officials and argued that the search of his laptop 170 miles from the port of entry over a period of four days was a non @-@ routine border search requiring reasonable suspicion . " The motion was granted by the District Court in Cotterman 's favor . The government appealed , and stated that the border search doctrine justified the initial search and the transport of the computer to Tucson to adequately conduct the search . The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the lower court 's ruling , in favor of the Government .
= = Opinion en banc = =
Reversing the reasoning of the panel , the Ninth Circuit held that forensic examination of a computer seized at the border requires reasonable suspicion . The court also held that there was reasonable suspicion in this case because there was an alert informing the seizing officer of
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" .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack album and background score were composed by Bharathwaj . Since making his entry into Tamil films with Saran 's directorial debut Kaadhal Mannan , he has scored the music for most films directed by Saran . The lyrics were written by poet @-@ lyricist Vairamuthu .
" O Podu " was a popular expression among college students in Tamil Nadu . When the director wanted a catchphrase for a song , Vairamuthu suggested using the term and building on it . On the director 's insistence , the term was then incorporated into and mixed with the title song , resulting in the item number " O Podu " . The song was conceived by AVM as a way of reaching out to the masses . The track , picturised on Rani and Vikram and choreographed by Ashok Raja , was sung by Anuradha Sriram . For the song , Vikram performed " savu koothu " , a type of funeral dance common in Tamil Nadu . The lyrics of " Deewana " , sung by Sadhana Sargam , had some Hindi words as it was picturised on the heroine , a typical Marwari woman from Sowcarpet for whom Hindi comes naturally . In an interview with The Hindu , Vairamuthu revealed that the track " Naattu Katta " was based on a folk song .
The songs were well received by the audience and the track " O Podu " , in particular , was a hit . Following the song 's success , Vikram was greeted everywhere with screams of " O Podu " . He was overwhelmed by the response and , having already worked as a voice artist and singer , offered to sing his version of the song to which the producers agreed . According to Vikram , the song was recorded and filmed the same morning , and was added to the soundtrack album a month after its initial release . The film had been completed by then and the additional track was featured during the closing credits . Initially , a small footage featuring Vikram and Kiran was sent to the cinemas for screening during the end credits . However , the audience were dissatisfied with the shortened version of the song and forced theatre owners to rewind the song and play it again . After receiving calls from distributors and theatre owners , the makers eventually sent the entire song .
The album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 cassettes even before the film released despite rampant piracy . It was one of the biggest hits in Bharathwaj 's career and earned him his first Filmfare Award . The music also attracted some unexpected reactions . The high @-@ energy track " O Podu " drove youngsters insane ; some resorted to violence , enraging villagers in Tamil Nadu and damaging public property in Malaysia for fun . The lyrics by Vairamuthu , which are typically in pure Tamil , contained slang and words from other languages like " Deewana " ( Hindi ) . This departure was criticised by film journalist Sreedhar Pillai , who derided the lyrics of " O Podu " as " pure gibberish " .
The music received positive reviews from critics . Sify wrote that Bharadwaj 's music was the film 's only saving grace . Writing for Rediff , Pearl stated that the music director was " impressive " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said that the song by Anuradha Sriram has given the term " O ! Podu ! " , which has been part of the " local lingo " for years , a " new , crazy dimension " . The song enjoyed anthem @-@ like popularity and according to V. Paramesh , a dealer of film music for 23 years , sold like " hot cakes " . It earned Rani — on whom the song was picturised — the moniker " O Podu Rani " . However , the song 's picturisation attracted criticism . In an article that scrutinised and decried the high level of vulgarity depicted in south Indian films , Sudha G. Tilak of Tehelka wrote that hit tracks like " O Podu " were " obvious in their debauched suggestiveness " .
In 2009 , Mid Day wrote , " O podu is still considered the cornerstone of the rambunctious koothu dance " . In 2011 , The Times of India labelled the song an " evergreen hit number " . Following the internet phenomenon of " Why This Kolaveri Di " in 2011 , " O Podu " was featured alongside " Appadi Podu " , " Nakka Mukka " and " Ringa Ringa " in a small collection of South Indian songs that are considered a " national rage " in India .
= = Release and reception = =
The film , which was supposed to be released on 14 April 2002 coinciding with the Tamil New Year , was released two days early on 12 April , apparently to capitalise on weekend collections . Gemini was released alongside Vijay 's Thamizhan , Prashanth 's Thamizh and Vijayakanth 's Raajjiyam . The film was released across Tamil Nadu with 104 prints , the most for a Vikram film at the time of release . On the day of release , the film premiered in Singapore with the hero , heroine , director and producer in attendance . AVM sold the film to distributors for a " reasonable profit " and marketed it aggressively . They organised promotional events at Music World in Chennai 's Spencer Plaza , Landmark and Sankara Hall , where Vikram publicised the film signing autographs . Since " O Podu " was such a hit among children , AVM invited young children to write reviews , and gave away prizes . In 2006 , Saran revealed in a conversation with director S. P. Jananathan that his nervousness rendered him sleepless for four days until the film was released .
= = = Critical response = = =
Gemini received mixed reviews from critics . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu wrote that the " Vikram style " action film was more of a stylised fare as realism was a casualty in many sequences . She added that while the credibility level of the storyline was low , Saran had tried to strike a balance in making a formulaic film . Pearl of Rediff.com lauded Saran 's " racy " screenplay but found the plot " hackneyed " and reminiscent of Saran 's Amarkalam . The critic declared , " Gemini is your typical masala potboiler . And it works . " In contrast , Sify was critical of the film and wrote , " Neither exciting nor absorbing Gemini is as hackneyed as they get . [ ... ] Saran should be blamed for this inept movie , which has no storyline and has scant regard for logic or sense . "
The performance of the lead also earned mixed response . Malathi Rangarajan analysed , " Be it action or sensitive enactment , Vikram lends a natural touch [ ... ] helps Gemini score . [ .. ] With his comic streak Mani makes himself a likeable villain . " Kalabhavan Mani 's mimicry and portrayal of a villain with a comic sense received acclaim from the critics and audience alike . Rediff said , " The highlight in Gemini is undoubtedly Kalabhavan Mani 's performance . [ ... ] As the paan @-@ chewing Gemini , Vikram , too , delivers a convincing performance . " However , Sify found the cast to be the film 's major drawback and scrutinised , " Vikram as Gemini is unimpressive [ ... ] Kalabhavan Mani an excellent actor hams as he plays a villain [ ... ] Top character actor Murali is also wasted in the film . "
Following the film 's success , Vikram was compared with actor Rajinikanth . D. Govardan of The Economic Times wrote , " The film 's success has catapulted its hero , Vikram as the most sought after hero after Rajinikanth in the Tamil film industry today " . Rajinikanth , who saw the film , met Vikram and praised his performance . Saran told in an interview that Rajinikanth was so impressed with the songs , he predicted the film 's success in addition to considering Rathod for a role in his film Baba ( 2002 ) . The film 's premise of an outlaw reforming his ways was appreciated . D. Ramanaidu of Suresh Productions — the co @-@ producer of the Telugu remake — said , " The story of a rowdy sheeter turning into a good man is a good theme " . In August 2014 , Gemini was featured in a list of " Top 10 Tamil Gangster Films " compiled by Saraswathi of Rediff.com.
In an article discussing the rise of the gangster @-@ based film becoming a genre in itself , Sreedhar Pillai wrote in a reference to Gemini :
The hero is an all out villain , who is daringly different but the director makes him dream of those lush Switzerland songs ( our hero then is clad in designer wear ) . The rowdies in the film have very highly educated girls from affluent family lusting after them ... Bachchan of " Deewar " or Shah Rukh of " Baazigar " took to crime because they were wronged . Nowadays the Geminis and Nandas of Tamil cinema indulge in crime for the heck of it .
= = = Box office = = =
Gemini was a box office success and became the biggest hit of the year in Tamil . Made on an estimated budget of ₹ 40 million ( equivalent to ₹ 110 million or US $ 1 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) , the film grossed more than ₹ 200 million ( equivalent to ₹ 530 million or US $ 7 @.@ 9 million in 2016 ) . The film 's success was largely attributed to the popularity of the song " O Podu " . D. Govardan of The Economic Times stated , " A neatly made ' masala ' ( spice ) film , with the song O Podu .. as its USP , it took off from day one and has since then not looked back " . Vikram , who was a struggling actor for almost a decade , credited Gemini as his first real blockbuster . Sreedhar Pillai said that a good story , presentation and peppy music made it a " winning formula " and declared " Gemini has been the biggest hit among Tamil films in the last two years " . However , the sceptics in the industry dismissed the film 's success as a fluke .
The film ran successfully in theatres for more than 125 days . Since most Tamil films released on the preceding Diwali and Pongal were not successful , Gemini helped the industry recover . Outlook wrote , " Gemini has single @-@ handedly revived the Tamil film industry . " The box office collections revived the fortunes of theatres that were on the verge of closure . AVM received a letter from the owner of New Cinema , a theatre in Cuddalore , who repaid his debts with the revenue the film generated . Abirami Ramanathan , owner of the multiplex Abhirami Mega Mall , said that Gemini 's success would slow down the rapid closure of theatres from 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 . Following the success of the film , Saran named his production house " Gemini Productions " , under which he produced films including Aaru ( 2005 ) , Vattaram ( 2006 ) and Muni ( 2007 ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Legacy = =
Encouraged by the film 's success and wide @-@ reaching popularity , Saran remade it in Telugu as Gemeni . It is the only film Saran made in a language other than Tamil . The remake starred Venkatesh and Namitha in the lead roles , while Kalabhavan Mani and Murali reprised their roles from the Tamil version . Most of the crew members were retained . Posani Krishna Murali translated the dialogues to Telugu . The soundtrack was composed by R. P. Patnaik , who reused most of the tunes from the original film . Released in October 2002 , the film received lukewarm response and failed to repeat the success of the original . In 2013 , a Kannada remake was reported to have been planned with Upendra in the lead , but he dismissed the reports as rumours .
In September 2002 , Gemini was screened as part of a six @-@ day workshop jointly conducted by the Department of Journalism and Communication and the Mass Communication Alumni Association of the University of Madras ; it focussed on the impact of cinema on society . A game @-@ based reality show for children , which was aired between 2003 @-@ 2004 , was titled " O Podu " . AVM was involved in the show , which was produced by Vikatan Televistas and directed by Gerald . The show was broadcast for 26 weeks on Sun TV on Sundays with Raaghav as its anchor . In September 2003 , physical trainer Santosh Kumar played " O Podu " among a range of popular music as part of a dance aerobics session in a fitness camp held for the Indian cricket team at Bangalore .
When Vikram was signed up as the brand ambassador of Coca @-@ Cola in April 2005 , the commercials featured him playing characters from different walks of life . One among them was a " rowdy role " , the essence for which was taken from the character Gemini . During the run @-@ up to the 2006 assembly election , Chennai @-@ based journalist Gnani Sankaran began a social awareness movement to prevent electoral fraud and named it " O Podu " as a short form of " Oatu Podu " meaning " cast your vote " . The movement urged the electorate to exercise the right to reject candidates under Section 49 @-@ O of The Conduct of Election Rules , 1961 , wherein a voter , who has decided not to vote for anyone , can record the fact . For this purpose , the people behind " O Podu " also urged the election commission to facilitate a separate button on the electronic voting machine .
During the 2010 Asia Cup , a Sri Lankan band performed " O Podu " at the India vs. Pakistan cricket match held in Dambulla . In July 2011 , Vikram inaugurated " Liver 4 Life " , an initiative launched by MIOT Hospitals to create awareness of the Hepatitis B virus . As the campaign was targeted at school and college students , the organisers tweaked the term " O Podu " into
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eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo @-@ Norman barons . The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages , with castles enabling them to control the newly conquered territories . The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions , many of these were motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions ; in Louth at least 23 of these were built . It remains uncertain how many ringwork castles were built in Ireland by the Anglo @-@ Normans . Other castles , such as Trim and Carrickfergus , were built in stone as the caput centres for major barons . Analysis of these stone castles suggests that building in stone was not simply a military decision ; indeed , several of the castles contain serious defensive flaws . Instead the designs , including their focus on large stone keeps , were intended both to increase the prestige of the baronial owners and to provide adequate space for the administrative apparatus of the new territories . Unlike in Wales the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period .
= = 13th – 14th centuries = =
= = = Military developments = = =
Castle design in Britain continued to change towards the end of the 12th century . After Henry II mottes ceased to be built in most of England , although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches . Square keeps remained common across much of England in contrast to the circular keeps increasingly prevailing in France ; in the Marches , however , circular keep designs became more popular . Castles began to take on a more regular , enclosed shape , ideally quadrilateral or at least polygonal in design , especially in the more prosperous south . Flanking towers , initially square and latterly curved , were introduced along the walls and gatehouses began to grow in size and complexity , with portcullises being introduced for the first time . Castles such as Dover and the Tower of London were expanded in a concentric design in what Cathcart King has labelled the early development of " scientific fortification " .
The developments spread to Anglo @-@ Norman possessions in Ireland where this English style of castles dominated throughout the 13th century , although the deteriorating Irish economy of the 14th century brought this wave of building to an end . In Scotland Alexander II and Alexander III undertook a number of castle building projects in the modern style , although Alexander III 's early death sparked conflict in Scotland and English intervention under Edward I in 1296 . In the ensuing wars of Scottish Independence castle building in Scotland altered path , turning away from building larger , more conventional castles with curtain walls . The Scots instead adopted the policy of slighting , or deliberately destroying , castles captured in Scotland from the English to prevent their re @-@ use in subsequent invasions – most of the new Scottish castles built by nobles were of the tower house design ; the few larger castles built in Scotland were typically royal castles , built by the Scottish kings .
Some of these changes were driven by developments in military technology . Before 1190 mining was used rarely and the siege engines of the time were largely incapable of damaging the thicker castle walls . The introduction of the trebuchet began to change this situation ; it was able to throw much heavier balls , with remarkable accuracy , and reconstructed devices have been shown to be able to knock holes in walls . Trebuchets were first recorded in England in 1217 , and were probably used the year before as well . Richard I used them in his sieges during the Third Crusade and appears to have started to alter his castle designs to accommodate the new technology on his return to Europe . The trebuchet seems to have encouraged the shift towards round and polygonal towers and curved walls . In addition to having fewer or no dead zones , and being easier to defend against mining , these castle designs were also much less easy to attack with trebuchets as the curved surfaces could deflect some of the force of the shot .
Castles saw an increasing use of arrowslits by the 13th century , especially in England , almost certainly linked to the introduction of crossbows . These arrowslits were combined with firing positions from the tops of the towers , initially protected by wooden hoarding until stone machicolations were introduced in England in the late 13th century . The crossbow was an important military advance on the older short bow and was the favoured weapon by the time of Richard I ; many crossbows and vast numbers of quarrels were needed to supply royal forces , in turn requiring larger scale iron production . In England , crossbows were primarily made at the Tower of London but St Briavels Castle , with the local Forest of Dean available to provide raw materials , became the national centre for quarrel manufacture . In Scotland , Edinburgh Castle became the centre for the production of bows , crossbows and siege engines for the king .
One result of this was that English castle sieges grew in complexity and scale . During the First Barons ' War from 1215 to 1217 , the prominent sieges of Dover and Windsor Castle showed the ability of more modern designs to withstand attack ; King John 's successful siege of Rochester required an elaborate and sophisticated assault , reportedly costing around 60 @,@ 000 marks , or £ 40 @,@ 000 . The siege of Bedford Castle in 1224 required Henry III to bring siege engines , engineers , crossbow bolts , equipment and labourers from across all of England . The Siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266 , during the Second Barons ' War , was larger and longer still . Extensive water defences withstood the attack of the future Edward I , despite the prince targeting the weaker parts of the castle walls , employing huge siege towers and attempting a night attack using barges brought from Chester . The costs of the siege exhausted the revenues of ten English counties . Sieges in Scotland were initially smaller in scale , with the first recorded such event being the 1230 siege of Rothesay Castle where the besieging Norwegians were able to break down the relatively weak stone walls with axes after only three days . When Edward I invaded Scotland he brought with him the siege capabilities which had evolved south of the border : Edinburgh Castle fell within three days , and Roxburgh , Jedburgh , Dunbar , Stirling , Lanark and Dumbarton castles surrendered to the king . Subsequent English sieges , such as the attacks on Bothwell and Stirling , again used considerable resources including giant siege engines and extensive teams of miners and masons .
= = = Economy and society = = =
A number of royal castles , from the 12th century onwards , formed an essential network of royal storehouses in the 13th century for a wide range of goods including food , drink , weapons , armour and raw materials . Castles such as Southampton , Winchester , Bristol and the Tower of London were used to import , store and distribute royal wines . The English royal castles also became used as gaols – the Assize of Clarendon in 1166 insisted that royal sheriffs establish their own gaols and , in the coming years , county gaols were placed in all the shrieval royal castles . Conditions in these gaols were poor and claims of poor treatment and starvation were common ; Northampton Castle appears to have seen some of the worst abuses .
The development of the baronial castles in England were affected by the economic changes during the period . During the 13th and 14th centuries the average incomes of the English barons increased but wealth became concentrated in the hands of a smaller number of individuals , with a greater discrepancy in incomes . At the same time the costs of maintaining and staffing a modern castle were increasing . The result was that although there were around 400 castles in England in 1216 , the number of castles continued to diminish over the coming years ; even the wealthier barons were inclined to let some castles slide into disuse and to focus their resources on the remaining stock . The castle @-@ guard system faded into abeyance in England , being replaced by financial rents , although it continued in the Welsh Marches well into the 13th century and saw some limited use during Edward I 's occupation of Scotland in the early 14th century .
The remaining English castles became increasingly comfortable . Their interiors were often painted and decorated with tapestries , which would be transported from castle to castle as nobles travelled around the country . There were an increasing number of garderobes built inside castles , while in the wealthier castles the floors could be tiled and the windows furnished with Sussex Weald glass , allowing the introduction of window seats for reading . Food could be transported to castles across relatively long distances ; fish was brought to Okehampton Castle from the sea some 25 miles ( 40 km ) away , for example . Venison remained the most heavily consumed food in most castles , particularly those surrounded by extensive parks or forests such as Barnard Castle , while prime cuts of venison were imported to those castles that lacked hunting grounds , such as Launceston .
By the late 13th century some castles were built within carefully " designed landscapes " , sometimes drawing a distinction between an inner core of a herber , a small enclosed garden complete with orchards and small ponds , and an outer region with larger ponds and high status buildings such as " religious buildings , rabbit warrens , mills and settlements " , potentially set within a park . A gloriette , or a suite of small rooms , might be built within the castle to allow the result to be properly appreciated , or a viewing point constructed outside . At Leeds Castle the redesigned castle of the 1280s was placed within a large water garden , while at Ravensworth at the end of the 14th century an artificial lake was enclosed by a park to produce an aesthetically and symbolically pleasing entrance to the fortification . The wider parklands and forests were increasingly managed and the proportion of the smaller fallow deer consumed by castle inhabitants in England increased as a result .
= = = Welsh principalities and Edwardian castles = = =
During the 13th century the native Welsh princes built a number of stone castles . The size of these varied considerably from smaller fortifications , such as Dinas Emrys in Snowdonia , to more substantial castles like Deganwy Castle and the largest , Castell y Bere . Native Welsh castles typically maximised the defensive benefits of high , mountainous sites , often being built in an irregular shape to fit a rocky peak . Most had deep ditches cut out of the rock to protect the main castle . The Welsh castles were usually built with a relatively short keep , used as living accommodation for princes and nobility , and with distinctive rectangular watch @-@ towers along the walls . In comparison to Norman castles the gatehouses were much weaker in design , with almost no use of portcullises or spiral staircases , and the stonework of the outer walls was also generally inferior to Norman built castles . The very last native Welsh castles , built in the 1260s , more closely resemble Norman designs ; in the case of Dinas Brân including a round keep and Norman gatehouse defences .
In 1277 Edward I launched a final invasion of the remaining native Welsh strongholds in North Wales , intending to establish his rule over the region on a permanent basis . As part of this occupation he instructed his leading nobles to construct eight new castles across the region ; Aberystwyth and Builth in mid @-@ Wales and Beaumaris , Conwy , Caernarfon , Flint , Harlech and Rhuddlan Castle in North Wales . Historian R. Allen Brown has described these as " amongst the finest achievements of medieval military architecture [ in England and Wales ] " . The castles varied in design but were typically characterised by powerful mural towers along the castle walls , with multiple , over @-@ lapping firing points and large and extremely well defended barbicans . The castles were intended to be used by the king when in the region and included extensive high @-@ status accommodation . Edward also established various new English towns , and in several cases the new castles were designed to be used alongside the fortified town walls as part of an integrated defence . Historian Richard Morris has suggested that " the impression is firmly given of an elite group of men @-@ of @-@ war , long @-@ standing comrades in arms of the king , indulging in an orgy of military architectural expression on an almost unlimited budget " .
James of Saint George , a famous architect and engineer from Savoy , was probably responsible for the bulk of the construction work across the region . The castles were extremely costly to build and required labourers , masons , carpenters , diggers , and building resources to be gathered by local sheriffs from across England , mustered at Chester and Bristol , before being sent on to North Wales in the spring , returning home each winter . The number of workers involved placed a significant drain on the country 's national labour force . The total financial cost cannot be calculated with certainty , but estimates suggest that Edward 's castle building programme cost at least £ 80 @,@ 000 – four times the total royal expenditure on castles between 1154 and 1189 .
The Edwardian castles also made strong symbolic statements about the nature of the new occupation . For example , Caernarvon was decorated with carved eagles , equipped with polygonal towers and expensive banded masonry , all designed to imitate the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople , then the idealised image of imperial power . The actual site of the castle may also have been important as it was positioned close to the former Roman fort of Segontium . The elaborate gatehouse , with an excessive five sets of doors and six portcullises , also appears to have been designed to impress visitors and to invoke an image of an Arthurian castle , then believed to have been Byzantine in character .
= = = Palace @-@ fortresses = = =
In the middle of the 13th century Henry III began to redesign his favourite castles , including Winchester and Windsor , building larger halls , grander chapels , installing glass windows and decorating the palaces with painted walls and furniture . This marked the beginning of a trend towards the development of grand castles designed for elaborate , elite living . Life in earlier keeps had been focused around a single great hall , with privacy for the owner 's family provided by using an upper floor for their own living accommodation . By the 14th century nobles were travelling less , bringing much larger households with them when they did travel and entertaining visitors with equally large retinues . Castles such as Goodrich were redesigned in the 1320s to provide greater residential privacy and comfort for the ruling family , while retaining strong defensive features and a capacity to hold over 130 residents at the castle . The design influenced subsequent conversions at Berkeley and by the time that Bolton Castle was being built , in the 1380s , it was designed to hold up to eight different noble households , each with their own facilities . Royal castles such as Beaumaris , although designed with defence in mind , were designed to hold up to eleven different households at any one time .
Kings and the most wealthy lords could afford to redesign castles to produce palace @-@ fortresses . Edward III spent £ 51 @,@ 000 on renovating Windsor Castle ; this was over one and a half times Edward 's typical annual income . In the words of Steven Brindle the result was a " great and apparently architecturally unified palace ... uniform in all sorts of ways , as to roof line , window heights , cornice line , floor and ceiling heights " , echoing older designs but without any real defensive value . The wealthy John of Gaunt redesigned the heart of Kenilworth Castle , like Windsor the work emphasised a unifying , rectangular design and the separation of ground floor service areas from the upper stories and a contrast of austere exteriors with lavish interiors , especially on the 1st floor of the inner bailey buildings . By the end of the 14th century a distinctive English perpendicular style had emerged .
In the south of England private castles were being built by newly emerging , wealthy families ; like the work at Windsor , these castles drew on the architectural themes of earlier martial designs , but were not intended to form a serious defence against attack . These new castles were heavily influenced by French designs , involving a rectangular or semi @-@ rectangular castle with corner towers , gatehouses and moat ; the walls effectively enclosing a comfortable courtyard plan not dissimilar to that of an unfortified manor . Bodiam Castle built in the 1380s possessed a moat , towers and gunports but , rather than being a genuine military fortification , the castle was primarily intended to be admired by visitors and used as a luxurious dwelling – the chivalric architecture implicitly invoking comparisons with Edward I 's great castle at Beaumaris .
In the north of England improvements in the security of the Scottish border , and the rise of major noble families such as the Percies and the Nevilles , encouraged a surge in castle building at the end of the 14th century . Palace @-@ fortresses such as Raby , Bolton and Warkworth Castle took the quadrangular castle styles of the south and combined them with exceptionally large key towers or keeps to form a distinctive northern style . Built by major noble houses these castles were typically even more opulent than those built by the nouveau riche of the south . They marked what historian Anthony Emery has described as a " second peak of castle building in England and Wales " , after the Edwardian designs at the end of the 14th century .
= = = Introduction of gunpowder = = =
Early gunpowder weapons were introduced to England from the 1320s onwards and began to appear in Scotland by the 1330s . By the 1340s the English Crown was regularly spending money on them and the new technology began to be installed in English castles by the 1360s and 1370s , and in Scottish castles by the 1380s . Cannons were made in various sizes , from smaller hand cannons to larger guns firing stone balls of up to 7 @.@ 6 inches ( 19 cm ) . Medium @-@ sized weapons weighing around 20 kg each were more useful for the defence of castles , although Richard II eventually established 600 pound ( 272 kilo ) guns at the Tower of London and the 15 @,@ 366 pound ( 6 @,@ 970 kilo ) heavy Mons Meg bombard was installed at Edinburgh Castle .
Early cannons had only a limited range , were unreliable and in addition early stone cannonballs were relatively ineffective when fired at stone castle walls . As a result , early cannon proved most useful for defence , particularly against infantry assaults or to fire at the crews of enemy trebuchets . Indeed , early cannons could be quite dangerous to their own soldiers ; James II of Scotland was killed besieging Roxburgh Castle in 1460 when one of his cannons , called " Lion " , exploded next to him . The expense of early cannons meant that they were primarily a weapon deployed by royalty rather than the nobility .
Cannons in English castles were initially deployed along the south coast where the Channel ports , essential for English trade and military operations in Europe , were increasingly threatened by French raids . Carisbrooke , Corfe , Dover , Porchester , Saltwood and Southampton Castle received cannon during the late 14th century , small circular " keyhole " gunports being built in the walls to accommodate the new weapons . Carisbrooke Castle was subject to an unsuccessful French siege in 1377 , the Crown reacting by equipping the castle with cannon and a mill for producing gunpowder in 1379 . Some further English castles along the Welsh borders and Scotland were similarly equipped , with the Tower of London and Pontefract Castle acting as supply depots for the new weapons . In Scotland the first cannon for a castle appears to have been bought for Edinburgh in 1384 , which also became an arsenal for the new devices .
= = 15th – 16th centuries = =
= = = Decline of English castles = = =
By the 15th century very few castles were well maintained by their owners . Many royal castles were receiving insufficient investment to allow them to be maintained – roofs leaked , stone work crumbled , lead or wood was stolen . The Crown was increasingly selective about which royal castles it maintained , with others left to decay . By the 15th century only Windsor , Leeds , Rockingham and Moor End were kept up as comfortable accommodation ; Nottingham and York formed the backbone for royal authority in the north , and Chester , Gloucester and Bristol forming the equivalents in the west . Even major fortifications such as the castles of North Wales and the border castles of Carlisle , Bamburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne saw funding and maintenance reduced . Many royal castles continued to have a role as the county gaol , with the gatehouse frequently being used as the principal facility .
The ranks of the baronage continued to reduce in the 15th century , producing a smaller elite of wealthier lords but reducing the comparative wealth of the majority. and many baronial castles fell into similar decline . John Leland 's 16th @-@ century accounts of English castles are replete with descriptions of castles being " sore decayed " , their defences " in ruine " or , where the walls might still be in good repair , the " logginges within " were " decayed " . English castles did not play a decisive role during the Wars of the Roses , fought between 1455 and 1485 , which were primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists .
= = = Renaissance palaces = = =
The 15th and 16th centuries saw a small number of British castles develop into still grander structures , often drawing on the Renaissance views on architecture that were increasing in popularity on the continent . Tower keeps , large solid keeps used for private accommodation , probably inspired by those in France had started to appear in the 14th century at Dudley and Warkworth . In the 15th century the fashion spread with the creation of very expensive , French @-@ influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps at Wardour , Tattershall and Raglan Castle . In central and eastern England castles began to be built in brick , with Caister , Kirby Muxloe and Tattershall forming examples of this new style . North of the border the construction of Holyrood Great Tower between 1528 and 1532 picked up on this English tradition , but incorporated additional French influences to produce a highly secure but comfortable castle , guarded by a gun park .
Royal builders in Scotland led the way in adopting further European Renaissance styles in castle design . James IV and James V used exceptional one @-@ off revenues , such as the forfeiture of key lands , to establish their power across their kingdom in various ways including constructing grander castles such as Linlithgow , almost invariably by extending and modifying existing fortifications . These Scottish castle palaces drew on Italian Renaissance designs , in particular the fashionable design of a quadrangular court with stair @-@ turrets on each corner , using harling to giving them a clean , Italian appearance . Later the castles drew on Renaissance designs in France , such as the work at Falkland and Stirling Castle . The shift in architectural focus reflected changing political alliances , as James V had formed a close alliance with France during his reign . In the words of architectural historian John Dunbar the results were the " earliest examples of coherent Renaissance design in Britain " .
These changes also included shifts in social and cultural beliefs . The period saw the disintegration of the older feudal order , the destruction of the monasteries and widespread economic changes , altering the links between castles and the surrounding estates . Within castles , the Renaissance saw the introduction of the idea of public and private spaces , placing new value on castles having private spaces for the lord or his guests away from public view . Although the elite in Britain and Ireland continued to maintain and build castles in the style of the late medieval period there was a growing understanding through the Renaissance , absent in the 14th century , that domestic castles were fundamentally different from the military fortifications being built to deal with the spread of gunpowder artillery . Castles continued to be built and reworked in what cultural historian Matthew Johnson has described as a " conscious attempt to invoke values seen as being under threat " . The results , as at Kenilworth Castle for example , could include huge castles deliberately redesigned to appear old and sporting chivalric features , but complete with private chambers , Italian loggias and modern luxury accommodation .
Although the size of noble households shrank slightly during the 16th century , the number of guests at the largest castle events continued to grow . 2 @,@ 000 came to a feast at Cawood Castle in 1466 , while the Duke of Buckingham routinely entertained up to 519 people at Thornbury Castle at the start of the 16th century . When Elizabeth I visited Kenilworth in 1575 she brought an entourage of 31 barons and 400 staff for a visit that lasted an exceptional 19 days ; Leicester , the castle 's owner , entertained the Queen and much of the neighbouring region with pageants , fireworks , bear baiting , mystery plays , hunting and lavish banquets . With this scale of living and entertainment the need to find more space in older castles became a major issue in both England and Scotland .
= = = Tower houses = = =
Tower houses were a common feature of British and Irish castle building in the late medieval period : over 3 @,@ 000 were constructed in Ireland , around 800 in Scotland and over 250 in England . A tower house would typically be a tall , square , stone @-@ built , crenelated building ; Scottish and Ulster tower houses were often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn , a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely , but not necessarily intended for serious defence . Many of the gateways in these buildings were guarded with yetts , grill @-@ like doors made out of metal bars . Smaller versions of tower houses in northern England and southern Scotland were known as Peel towers , or pele houses , and were built along both sides of the border regions . In Scotland a number were built in Scottish towns . It was originally argued that Irish tower houses were based on the Scottish design , but the pattern of development of such castles in Ireland does not support this hypothesis .
The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault , leading historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as " defensible rather than defensive " . Gunports for heavier guns were built into some Scottish tower houses by the 16th century but it was more common to use lighter gunpowder weapons , such as muskets , to defend Scottish tower houses . Unlike Scotland , Irish tower houses were only defended with relatively light handguns and frequently reused older arrowloops , rather than more modern designs , to save money .
Analysis of the construction of tower houses has focused on two key driving forces . The first is that the construction of these castles appears to have been linked to periods of instability and insecurity in the areas concerned . In Scotland James IV 's forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an immediate burst of castle building across the region and , over the longer term , an increased degree of clan warfare , while the subsequent wars with England in the 1540s added to the level of insecurity over the rest of the century . Irish tower houses were built from the end of the 14th century onward as the countryside disintegrated into the unstable control of a large number of small lordships and Henry VI promoted their construction with financial rewards in a bid to improve security . English tower houses were built along the frontier with Scotland in a dangerous and insecure period . Secondly , and paradoxically , appears to have been the periods of relative prosperity . Contemporary historian William Camden observed of the northern English and the Scots , " there is not a man amongst them of a better sort that hath not his little tower or pile " , and many tower houses seem to have been built as much as status symbols as defensive structures . Along the English @-@ Scottish borders the construction pattern follows the relative prosperity of the different side : the English lords built tower houses primarily in the early 15th century , when northern England was particularly prosperous , while their Scottish equivalents built them in late 15th and early 16th centuries , boom periods in the economy of Scotland . In Ireland the growth of tower houses during the 15th century mirrors the rise of cattle herding and the resulting wealth that this brought to many of the lesser lords in Ireland .
= = = Further development of gunpowder artillery = = =
Cannons continued to be improved during the 15th and 16th centuries . Castle loopholes were adapted to allow cannons and other firearms to be used in a defensive role , but offensively gunpowder weapons still remained relatively unreliable . England had lagged behind Europe in adapting to this new form of warfare ; Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles , built in the 1490s to defend the River Dart , and Bayard 's Cover , designed in 1510 to defend Dartmouth harbour itself , were amongst the few English castles designed in the continental style during the period , and even these lagged behind the cutting edge of European design . Scottish castles were more advanced in this regard , partially as a result of the stronger French architectural influences . Ravenscraig Castle in Scotland , for example , was an early attempt in the 1460s to deploy a combination of " letter box " gun @-@ ports and low @-@ curved stone towers for artillery weapons . These letter box gun @-@ ports , common in mainland Europe , rapidly spread across Scotland but were rarely used in England during the 15th century . Scotland also led the way in adopting the new caponier design for castle ditches , as constructed at Craignethan Castle .
Henry VIII became concerned with the threat of French invasion during 1539 and was familiar with the more modern continental designs . He responded to the threat by building a famous sequence of forts , called the Device Forts or Henrician Castles , along the south coast of England specifically designed to be equipped with , and to defend against , gunpowder artillery . These forts still lacked some of the more modern continental features , such as angled bastions . Each fort had a slightly different design , but as a group they shared common features , with the fortification formed around a number of compact lobes , often in a quatrefoil or trefoil shape , designed to give the guns a 360 degree angle of fire . The forts were usually tiered to allow the guns to fire over one another and had features such as vents to disperse the gunpowder smoke . It is probable that many of the forts were also originally protected by earth bulwarks , although these have not survived . The resulting forts have been described by historian Christopher Duffy as having " an air at once sturdy and festive , rather like a squashed wedding cake " .
These coastal defences marked a shift away from castles , which were both military fortifications and domestic buildings , towards forts , which were garrisoned but not domestic ; often the 1540s are chosen as a transition date for the study of castles as a consequence . The subsequent years also marked almost the end of indigenous English fortification design – by the 1580s English castle improvements were almost entirely dominated by imported European experts . The superiority of Scottish castle design also diminished ; the Half Moon battery built at Edinburgh Castle in
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owner and 21 patrons .
The Albion Brewery was first established at the eastern end of Whitechapel Road in 1808 by Richard Ivory , landlord of the Blind Beggar . In 1860 , the brewery was rebuilt , producing an average of 133 @,@ 000 barrels of beer a year . It closed in 1979 .
The Eastern District Post Office is based at the eastern end of Whitechapel Road , on the south side . This was the eastern terminus for the former London Post Office Railway ( colloquially known as the " Mail Rail " ) , built to allow fast mail transfers across London . It closed in 2003 . Beyond this is Mile End Gate – where the road becomes Mile End Road ; and was the site of the former toll gate .
= = Community = =
The road has the been the centre of several ethnic minority groups in London . In the 1840s , many Irish emigrated to avoid the potato famine and began street selling at Whitechapel Market and along Whitechapel Road .
The Jewish community settled on and around Whitechapel Road from the 1850s onwards . In the 1880s , the community expanded rapidly as Ashkenazi Jews fled to Britain and took over many of the shops and market stalls on the street . For the remainder of the century and much of the 20th , the road was the focal point of the community . The nearby Jewish Free School was , at one point , the largest educational establishment in the world , with over 4 @,@ 300 pupils . A fountain opposite the Royal London Hospital in memory of King Edward VII has the inscription " erected from subscriptions raised by Jewish inhabitants of East London " . On 4 October 1936 , British Union of Fascists leader Oswald Mosley organised an anti @-@ Jewish parade through the East End that included passing through Whitechapel Road , but was stopped by a crowd of protesters . The sentiment against Jews in Whitechapel Road caused the community to dissolve from the 1930s onwards ; the Pavilion Theatre closed and the Jewish Free School was destroyed in the Blitz during World War II . The Yiddish newspaper The Jewish Times ( Die Zeit ) was produced at No. 135 Whitechapel Road from 1913 to 1936 .
Towards the end of the 20th century , the street , along with nearby Brick Lane became the centre of the British Bangladeshi community . The East London Mosque on Whitechapel Road was opened by Shaykh Abdullah bin Subayl in 1985 and can accommodate over 3 @,@ 000 worshippers , with dedicated facilities for women . The nearby London Muslim Centre opened in 2003 . Whitechapel Market caters well for the community , with stalls stocking Asian fruit and vegetables including okra and mangoes , clothing such as tunics and pashminas , and mobile phone cards for cheap long @-@ distance calls . A racially motivated attack on local worker Altab Ali near Whitechapel Road in May 1978 was a significant event for the local Asian community , and his life is now commemorated in Altab Ali Park at the western end of the road , which was built on the former St Mary 's church grounds .
= = Events = =
The area around Whitechapel Road is notorious for the 19th @-@ century Whitechapel Murders , which are believed to be linked to Jack The Ripper . One of the first victims was Martha Tabram , who was found with multiple stab wounds on George Yard Buildings , Whitechapel Road on 7 August 1888 .
Joseph Merrick , the Elephant Man , moved to Whitechapel Road in 1884 . Visitors paid to see him in the back room of a shop owned by showman Tom Norman . The shop was directly opposite the Royal London Hospital , and Merrick was frequently visited by doctors . Merrick later moved to the hospital permanently , where he spent the last years of his life .
The Blind Beggar is at No. 337 and was the founding point of the Salvation Army following a meeting outside the pub by William Booth in 1865 . On 9 March 1966 , the venue became notorious after Ronnie Kray fatally shot George Cornell at the pub . The premises remains open for business , though it has been refurbished several times . The Kray Twins also used the Blackwall Buildings , by then dilapidated , as a form of punishment by locking a victim in a flat alone with Ronnie 's German Shepherd dog .
= = Cultural references = =
Whitechapel Road is the equal cheapest property location on the British version of the Monopoly game board . Both it and the Old Kent Road are priced at £ 60 . In reality , increasing property prices across London meant that the average house price on Whitechapel Road in 2013 was £ 295 @,@ 082 .
= Bookends ( album ) =
Bookends is the fourth studio album by American music duo Simon & Garfunkel . Produced by Paul Simon , Roy Halee and Art Garfunkel , the album was released on April 3 , 1968 in the United States by Columbia Records . The duo had risen to fame two years prior with hit albums such as Sounds of Silence and Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme , radio singles , and touring colleges . In 1967 , Simon was approached by director Mike Nichols to write songs for his next film , The Graduate . Released several weeks prior to Bookends , the soundtrack album propelled the band further into stardom .
Bookends , in contrast to the soundtrack album , follows a unified concept , exploring a life journey from childhood to old age . Side one of the album marks successive stages in life , the theme serving as literal bookends to the life cycle . Side two largely consists of unused material for The Graduate soundtrack . Simon 's lyrics largely revolve around youth , disillusionment , relationships , old age , and mortality . Much of the material was crafted alongside producer John Simon , who joined the recording process when Paul Simon suffered from writer 's block . As a result , the album was recorded gradually over the period of a year , with production speeding up around the later months of 1967 .
Initial sales for Bookends were substantial in the US , and the album produced the number one hit single , " Mrs. Robinson " . The album was mainly a hit in the duo 's native country as well as the United Kingdom , where in both countries it peaked at number one . Bookends was considered a breakthrough for the group , placing them on the same level as artists such as The Beatles , Bob Dylan and The Rolling Stones at the forefront of the cultural movement in the 1960s . The album has continued to receive critical acclaim in recent years as one of the duo 's finest efforts .
= = Background = =
Simon & Garfunkel first burst onto the national scene when their hit single " The Sound of Silence " made waves on radio in 1965 , during a period in which the duo had broken up due to the failure of their debut release , Wednesday Morning , 3 AM ( 1964 ) . Following another release , Sounds of Silence ( 1965 ) , the duo recorded and released Parsley , Sage , Rosemary and Thyme ( 1966 ) , which brought new critical and commercial success to the duo . Simon , then 27 , felt he had finally " made it " into an upper echelon of rock and roll , while most importantly retaining artistic integrity ( " making him spiritually closer to Bob Dylan than to , say , Bobby Darin " , wrote biographer Marc Eliot ) . The duo chose William Morris as their booking agency after a recommendation from Wally Amos , a mutual friend through their producer , Tom Wilson .
During the sessions for Parsley , the duo cut " A Hazy Shade of Winter " and decided to release it as a single then , where it peaked at number 13 on the national charts . Similarly , they recorded " At the Zoo " for single release in early 1967 ( it charted lower , at number 16 ) . Simon began work for Bookends around this time , noting to a writer at High Fidelity that " I 'm not interested in singles anymore " . He had hit a dry spell in his writing , which led to no Simon & Garfunkel album on the horizon for 1967 . Artists at the time were expected to release two , perhaps three albums each year and the lack of productivity from the duo worried executives at Columbia Records . Amid concerns for Simon 's idleness , Columbia Records chairman Clive Davis arranged for up @-@ and @-@ coming record producer John Simon to kick @-@ start the recording . Simon was distrustful of " suits " at the label ; on one occasion , he and Garfunkel brought a tape recorder into a meeting with Davis , who was giving a " fatherly talk " on speeding up production , in order to laugh at it later .
Meanwhile , director Mike Nichols , then filming The Graduate , had become fascinated with the duo 's past two efforts , listening to them nonstop before and after filming . After two weeks of this obsession , he met with Clive Davis to ask for permission to license Simon & Garfunkel music for his film . Davis viewed it as a perfect fit and envisioned a best @-@ selling soundtrack album . Simon was not as immediately receptive , viewing movies akin to " selling out " , creating a damper on his artistic integrity . However , after meeting Nichols and becoming impressed by his wit and the script , he agreed to write at least one or two new songs for the film . Leonard Hirshan , a powerful agent at William Morris , negotiated a deal that paid Simon $ 25 @,@ 000 to submit three songs to Nichols and producer Lawrence Turman . Several weeks later , Simon re @-@ emerged with two new tracks , " Punky 's Dilemma " and " Overs " , neither of which Nichols was particularly taken with . The duo offered another new song , which later became " Mrs. Robinson " , that was not as developed . Nichols loved it .
= = Recording and production = =
Bookends was recorded in fits and starts from 1966 to 1968 . John Simon 's first session with the group was for " Fakin ' It " in June 1967 . The duo were signed under an older contract that specified the label pay for sessions ( " As a folk duo , how much could recording costs be ? " said John Simon ) . Simon & Garfunkel took advantage of this indulgence , hiring viola and brass players , as well as percussionists . When the viola players arrived , the duo were so intrigued with the sound of the musicians tuning their instruments before recording that they spent nearly all night ( at Columbia 's expense ) trying to find the random sound .
The record 's brevity reflects its concise and perfectionistic production . The team spent over 50 studio hours recording " Punky 's Dilemma " , for example , and re @-@ recorded vocal parts , sometimes note by note , until they were satisfied . Simon payed close attention to his vocal takes , and he strived to get each line perfect . He took a bigger role in all aspects of production , and harmonies for which the band was famous gradually disappeared in favor of songs sung solo by each member . Although the album had been planned long in advance , work did not begin in earnest until the late months of 1967 .
John Simon 's work with the duo produced several tracks that ended up on Bookends , such as " Punky 's Dilemma " , " Save the Life of My Child " , and " Overs " . In October 1967 , Morgan Ames , writer for High Fidelity magazine , attended a recording session with the duo , Simon , Halee and an assistant engineer at Columbia 's recording studio on 52nd Street in New York City . Her observations were reported in the November edition of the magazine :
The team 's working relationship is built upon listening to each other , asking advice , taking it , building each other 's morale . Though it 's obvious they enjoy working with John Simon , the last word seems to come from one partner to the other [ … ] Ideas are tried , accepted , rejected . Time passes . Too much time . Too little headway [ … ] " Punky 's Dilemma " is put aside for the moment and Simon begins work on the title song for the new album , Bookends .
Work on Bookends slowed by the beginning of the new year , with John Simon 's departure from Columbia . The duo and Halee completed production themselves , recording " America " on February 1 , the final version of " Mrs. Robinson " on February 2 , and " Old Friends " and the closing " Bookends Theme " on March 8 . Simon felt the album " had the most use of the studio " of all of the duo 's albums .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The " Bookends Theme " that opens and closes side one is played on the acoustic guitar , with no additional instruments . An audio sample of the band 's first hit , " The Sound of Silence " , softly plays during a cacophony of sounds near the end of the second track , " Save the Life of My Child " . John Simon , who was credited with production assistance on the song , created the bassline by playing a Moog synthesizer with help from Bob Moog himself . James Bennighof , author of The Words and Music of Paul Simon , finds that " textural elements are variously supported by a churning groove , percussive , and distorted electronic sounds " that complement the song 's subject matter , suicide suburban youth . " Overs " explores a more jazz @-@ oriented style , with a larger selection or chords and looser form than the group 's previous styles .
" Voices of Old People " is a sound collage , and was recorded on tape by Garfunkel at the United Home for Aged Hebrews and the California Home for the Aged at Reseda . The collection of audio recordings of the elderly find them musing on treasured photographs , illness and living conditions . In " Old Friends " , the title generally conveys the introduction or ending of sections through repetition , and the song builds upon a " rather loose formal structure " that at first includes an acoustic guitar and soft mood . An additional element is introduced midway through the track : an orchestral arrangement conducted by Jimmie Haskell , dominated by strings and xylophone notes . Horns and other instruments are added when the duo cease singing , creating a turbulence that builds to a single high , sustained note on the strings . The song then segues into the final song of side one , the reprise of the " Bookends Theme " .
Side two consists of miscellaneous unrelated songs unused for The Graduate , with many possessing a more rock @-@ based sound than the unified folk songs that precede it . Simon felt the album 's second side were composed of throwaway tracks : " They didn 't mean a lot . They weren 't well recorded . " In " Fakin ' It " , melodies are occasionally deleted to suit lyrics , but the song generally follows a similar chord structure and melodic outline over a " funky rock beat " that sonically references the Beatles ' " Tomorrow Never Knows " . " Punky 's Dilemma " is breezy and minimal musically , with a soft jazz @-@ style percussion and seemingly improvised guitar lines dominated by seventh chords . " Mrs. Robinson " opens with an " instantly recognizable " pop rock guitar hook that carries throughout the track . The first verse consists only of syllables — " dee @-@ dee @-@ dee " and " doo @-@ doo @-@ doo " — that form stable harmonic foundation . The inclusion of the meaningless syllables arises from the unfinished nature of the song when pitched to director Mike Nichols , who particularly liked the verse . " A Hazy Shade of Winter " follows a more rock @-@ tinged sound , with a fairly straightforward verse @-@ refrain structure . " At the Zoo " uses a rock groove that settles into the key of G major .
= = = Lyrics = = =
According to disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale , the album perhaps shares thematic qualities with another concept album , the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , released ten months prior . He equates " At the Zoo " and " Old Friends " to " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! " and " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " , respectively . Fornatale notes , however , that while Sgt. Pepper was notable for sonically colorful , psychedelic shapes , Bookends is starkly contrasted by moody , " black @-@ and @-@ white and gray " sounds . While concept albums were fairly common among rock groups at this time — such as The Rolling Stones ' Their Satanic Majesties Request , The Byrds ' Sweetheart of the Rodeo and Iron Butterfly 's In @-@ a @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida — Bookends enjoyed massive success with the format not unlike the Beatles nearly one year before . Garfunkel confirmed the influence of Sgt. Pepper 's in a 2015 interview , commenting , " We were terribly impressed , and that shone a light on the path that led to Bookends . " Simon often smoked hashish when writing , and he was convinced he must be high to write . He felt the drug had a negative effect and caused him to " retreat more into myself . " He often found himself alone while on tour , and his thoughts grew dark during these times . He attributed " the pain that comes out in some of the songs is due to the exaggeration of being high . "
Bookends contains many of Paul Simon 's major themes , including " youth , alienation , life , love , disillusionment , relationships , old age , and mortality " . Simon 's work on Bookends is loosely autobiographical , designed to function as both a personal and artistic statement . Simon , " feeling especially auteurist in the Dylan style of the day " , had planned out the album 's concept before he began writing , telling Garfunkel " I 'm going to start writing a whole side of an album — a cycle of songs . I want the early ones to be about youth and the last song to be about old age , and I want the feel of each song to fit . " Bookends , originally released primarily on the vinyl LP , opens and closes side one of the disc with the " Bookends Theme " , a brief acoustic piece ( once compared to English rock band the Moody Blues ) that evokes " a time of innocence " . " Save the Life of My Child " is a dramatic story involving drugs , violence and a mother and child relationship . According to James Bennighof , the song " deals with individual crises in crowded urban settings , along with references to larger societal forces and at least a hint of some transcendent perspective " . The song crossfades into " America " , which follows two young lovers — " an apparently impromptu romantic traveling alliance " — as they board a Greyhound bus " to look for America " . It is a protest song that " creates a cinematic vista that tells of the singer 's search for a literal and physical America that seems to have disappeared , along with the country 's beauty and ideals " . " Overs " includes themes regarding the disintegration of love and marriage . " Old Friends " paints a portrait of two old men reminiscing on the years of their youth . The two men " sit on a park bench like bookends " , and ponder how strange it feels to be nearing their lifetime . The song is joined with the " Bookends Theme " , this time with vocal accompaniment from the duo . The piece closes the entire suite with the " resigned admonition " to " Preserve your memories / They 're all that 's left you " .
" Fakin ' It " opens side two and finds the protagonist mulling over his insecurities and shortcomings . It has been suggested that " Fakin ' It " may be an allegory for Simon 's relationship with Art Garfunkel . " Punky 's Dilemma " employs breakfast @-@ food images to lampoon Hollywood and the film industry . It improbably takes an " abrupt left turn " in its third verse , when the singer begins to fantasize himself an admired soldier . " Mrs. Robinson " collects wide @-@ ranging images to address social milieu , with a constant reassurance that Jesus loves the eponymous character , God will bless her , and heaven will welcome her . The song includes a famous reference to athlete Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees , one of Simon 's favorite baseball teams . It also features an explicit homage to the Beatles , with Simon uttering the meaningless phrase " coo @-@ coo @-@ ca @-@ choo " that John Lennon sings in " I Am the Walrus " . " A Hazy Shade of Winter " is an older track that dates back to Simon 's days in England in 1965 . The song follows a hopeless poet , with " manuscripts of unpublished rhyme " , unsure of his achievements in life . In sharp contrast , the whimsical , Orwellian " At the Zoo " both concludes the album and what Simon described as the " cycle of life " . The song indicates that the personalities of certain zoo animals may represent particular walks of people . The song was originally intended as a possible children 's book . According to rock journalist Bud Scoppa , " the record is a meditation on the passage of life and the psychological impact of life 's irreversible , ever @-@ accumulating losses " . The song cycle also describes the life and death of the romantic ideal of the American Dream .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
Prior to release , the band helped put together and performed at the Monterey Pop Festival , which signaled the beginning of the Summer of Love on the West Coast . " Fakin ' It " was issued as a single that summer and found only modest success on AM radio ; the duo were much more focused on the rising FM format , which played album cuts . In January 1968 , the duo appeared on a Kraft Music Hall special , Three for Tonight , performing ten songs largely culled from their third album . Richard Avedon , regarded then as one of the best photographers , was commissioned to shoot the album cover . When viewed up close , one can see Avedon 's reflection in Simon 's irises .
Bookends was released by Columbia Records on April 3 , 1968 . In a historical context , this was just 24 hours before the assassination of Civil Rights Movement activist Martin Luther King , Jr . , which spurred nationwide outrage and riots . Fornatale opines that the album served as " comfort food " during rather tumultuous times within the nation . The album debuted on the Billboard Pop Album Chart in the issue dated April 27 , 1968 , climbing to number one and staying at that position for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it remained on the chart for a total of 66 weeks . Bookends received such heavy orders weeks in advance of its release that Columbia was able to apply for award certification before copies left the warehouse , a fact it touted in magazine ads . The record became the duo 's best @-@ selling album to date : it fed off the buzz created by the release of The Graduate soundtrack album ten weeks earlier , creating an initial combined sales figure of over five million units . In the United Kingdom , Bookends was a number one hit . Likewise , the album charted highly in both Australia and France , where it peaked in both countries at number three .
The duo held a complicated relationship with Davis ; Simon was particularly outraged when he suggested raising the list price of Bookends by one dollar to $ 5 @.@ 79 , above the then standard retail price . Davis explained that by including the large poster with each copy , an extra dollar would be necessary to cover the cost . Simon instead scoffed and viewed it as charging a premium on " what was sure to be that year 's best @-@ selling Columbia album " . According to biographer Marc Eliot , Davis was " offended by what he perceived as their lack of gratitude for what he believed was his role in turning them into superstars " . Rather than implement Davis ' price increase plan , Simon & Garfunkel signed a contract extension with Columbia that guaranteed them a higher royalty rate .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews of Bookends upon its release in 1968 were largely positive . Allen Evans of the British publication New Musical Express ( NME ) gave the record four out of five stars and called it " inspiring , descriptive music , " while noting the album is " Imaginative and at times confusing to know what the composer is getting at , if anything . " Rival newspaper Melody Maker did not use a ratings system , but called Bookends a " thoughtful , clever and well @-@ produced album . " Reviewer Chris Welch criticized the songs as " not particularly tuneful , " but performed with " Beatles fervour and Beatles conviction , " praising the lyricism , opining that " The words capture part of America today , a lot of its sickness and tragedy . " In the US , Rolling Stone reviewer Arthur Schmidt wrote that " The music is , for me , questionable , but I 've always found their music questionable . It is nice enough , and I admit to liking it , but it exudes a sense of process , and it is slick , and nothing too much happens . "
Later reviews were more positive . " In just over 29 minutes , Bookends is stunning in its vision of a bewildered America in search of itself " , said AllMusic writer Thom Jurek , who gave it five stars out of five . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen M. Deusner called Bookends the moment in which the duo " were settling into themselves , losing their folk revival pretensions and emphasizing quirky production techniques to match their soaring vocals " . The A.V. Club called it the group 's " most musically and conceptually daring album " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Mrs. Robinson " became the first rock and roll song to win Record of the Year at the 11th Annual Grammy Awards in 1969 ; it also nabbed the honor of Best Contemporary Pop Performance by a Duo or Group .
( * ) designates unordered lists .
= = Legacy = =
The album , alongside The Graduate soundtrack , propelled Simon & Garfunkel to become the biggest rock duo in the world . Simon was approached by numerous film producers who desired for him to write music for their films or license a track ; he turned down Franco Zeffirelli , who was preparing to film Brother Sun , Sister Moon , and John Schlesinger , who likewise was readying to shoot Midnight Cowboy . In addition to Hollywood proposals , producers from the Broadway show Jimmy Shine ( starring Simon 's friend Dustin Hoffman , also the lead in Midnight Cowboy ) asked for two original songs and Simon declined . He eventually paired with Leonard Bernstein , with whom he collaborated for a short time on a sacred mass ( he eventually withdrew from the project , " finding it perhaps too far afield from his comfort zone " . )
Disc jockey and author Pete Fornatale writes that Bookends represents " a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ career convergence of musical , personal , and societal forces that placed Simon & Garfunkel squarely at the center of the cultural zeitgeist of the sixties " . Rolling Stone credited the record with striking a chord among lonely , adrift young adults near the end of the decade , writing that a lyric in " A Hazy Shade of Winter " — " Time , time , time , see what ’ s become of me ... " — " defined the moment for a generation on the edge of adulthood " . Many viewed Bookends as the band 's most accomplished work at the time , a breakthrough in production and songwriting . " Bookends was our first serious piece of work , I 'd say " , said Simon in a 1984 interview with Playboy .
In 2010 , a line from the song " America " — " All gone to look for America " — began appearing spray @-@ painted on vacant buildings and abandoned factories in the town of Saginaw , Michigan , which is mentioned in the song . A loose group of artists , who eventually became known as " Paint Saginaw " , began duplicating the phrase after the city 's population had dwindled vastly , noting that the song now encapsulated a sense of nostalgia for a bygone era among the city 's residents .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Paul Simon , except where noted .
Tracks 1 , 3 , 5 @-@ 7 & 10 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel & Roy Halee Tracks 2 , 4 , 8 & 9 Produced by John Simon Track 11 Produced by Bob Johnston Track 12 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel & Bob Johnston
Track 13 Produced by John Simon Track 14 Produced by Paul Simon , Arthur Garfunkel , Roy Halee
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Bookends adapted from AllMusic .
= = Chart positions = =
= Morden tube station =
Morden is a London Underground station in Morden in the London Borough of Merton . The station is the southern terminus for the Northern line and is the most southerly station on the Underground network . The next station north is South Wimbledon . The station is located on London Road ( A24 ) , and is in Travelcard Zone 4 . Nearby are Morden Hall Park , the Baitul Futuh Mosque and Morden Park .
The station was one of the first modernist designs produced for the London Underground by Charles Holden . Its opening in 1926 contributed to the rapid development of new suburbs in what was then a rural part of Surrey with the population of the parish increasing nine @-@ fold in the decade 1921 – 1931 .
= = History = =
In the period following the end of First World War , the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL ) began reviving a series of prewar plans for line extensions and improvements that had been postponed during the hostilities . Finance for the works was made possible by the government 's Trade Facilities Act , 1921 , which , as a means of alleviating unemployment , provided for the Treasury to underwrite the value of loans raised by companies for public works .
One of the projects that had been postponed was the Wimbledon and Sutton Railway ( W & SR ) , a plan for a new surface line from Wimbledon to Sutton over which the UERL 's District Railway had control . The UERL wished to maximise its use of the government 's time @-@ limited financial backing , and , in November 1922 , presented bills to parliament to construct the W & SR in conjunction with an extension of the UERL 's City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) south from Clapham Common through Balham , Tooting and Merton .
The C & SLR would connect to the W & SR route south of Morden station and run trains to Sutton and the District Railway would run trains between Wimbledon and Sutton . Under these proposals , the station on the C & SLR extension would have been named " North Morden " and the station on the W & SR route would have been called " South Morden " ( now Morden South ) . The proposals also included a depot at Morden for use by both District Railway and C & SLR trains .
The Southern Railway objected to this encroachment into its area of operation and the anticipated loss of its passenger traffic to the C & SLR 's more direct route to central London . The UERL and SR reached an agreement in July 1923 that enabled the C & SLR to extend as far as Morden in exchange for the UERL giving up its rights over the W & SR route .
Once the station was opened , the UERL established Morden , the southernmost on the system , as the hub for numerous bus routes heading further into suburban south London and northern Surrey . These routes had a significant impact on the Southern Railway 's main line operations in the area , with the SR estimating in 1928 that it had lost approximately four million passengers per year . The UERL though was able to demonstrate that its passenger numbers on its buses to Sutton station were actually more than double those for Morden . Across the road from the station , the UERL opened its own petrol station and garage where commuters with cars could leave their vehicles during the day . The opening of the C & SLR and the Wimbledon to Sutton line led to rapid construction of suburban housing throughout the area . The population of the parish of Morden , previously the most rural of the areas through which the lines passed , increased from 1 @,@ 355 in 1921 to 12 @,@ 618 in 1931 and 35 @,@ 417 in 1951 .
= = Station building = =
Construction of the C & SLR extension was rapidly carried out and Morden station was opened on 13 September 1926 . Morden in 1926 was a rural area and the station was built on open farmland , giving its architect , Charles Holden , more space than had been available for the majority of the stations on the new extension which were located in already built @-@ up areas . The stations on the Morden extension were Holden 's first major project for the Underground . He was selected by Frank Pick , general manager of the UERL , to design the stations after he was dissatisfied with designs produced by the UERL 's own architect , Stanley Heaps .
In a letter to his friend Harry Peach , a fellow member of the Design and Industries Association ( DIA ) , Pick explained his choice of Holden : " I may say that we are going to build our stations upon the Morden extension railway to the most modern pattern . We are going to discard entirely all ornament . We are going to build in reinforced concrete . The station will be simply a hole in the wall , everything being sacrificed to the doorway and some notice above to tell you to what the doorway leads . We are going to represent the DIA gone mad , and in order that I may go mad in good company I have got Holden to see that we do it properly . "
Built with a range of shops to both sides , the modernist design of the entrance vestibule takes the form of a double @-@ height box clad in white Portland stone with a three @-@ part glazed screen on the front façade divided by columns of which the capitals are three @-@ dimensional versions of the Underground roundel . The central panel of the screen contains a large version of the roundel . The ticket hall beyond is octagonal with a central roof light of the same shape . The ticket hall originally had a pair of wooden ticket booths ( passimeters ) from which tickets were issued and collected , but these were removed when modern ticketing systems made them redundant .
The main structure of the station and the shops to each side was designed with the intention of taking upward development on its roof , though this did not come until
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was sometimes called the directeur de l 'arrière ( director of the rear [ lines ] ) . In addition GQG was responsible for co @-@ ordination with allied armies .
= = First World War = =
= = = Activation of GQG = = =
The French Chief of Staff , General Joseph Joffre , was convinced of the inevitability of the outbreak of the First World War and , on 30 July 1914 , began organising the personnel for his GQG staff . Joffre persuaded the French government to enact mobilisation on 1 August and at 14 @.@ 00 the next day parliament , following the violation of the French borders by German military patrols , gave Joffre full wartime powers and activated the GQG . The zone of army control was initially limited to just 8 departments of France , but on 10 August was expanded to 33 departments out of 86 in Metropolitan France . In this area Joffre was the absolute authority and no civilian , not even President Poincaré or his ministers , could enter it without his permission . Joffre used this authority to exclude the press and his own government 's parliamentary commission on military affairs from his zone of control .
Upon activation the major @-@ général of GQG was General Emile Belin and the two aides @-@ majors were General Henri Berthelot and General Céleste Deprez . Each aide @-@ major had responsibility for two of the bureaus ; Berthelot oversaw the Second and Third Bureaus , Deprez oversaw the First and Fourth Bureaus . Each bureau was under the day @-@ to @-@ day control of a lower ranking officer , upon activation the Third Bureau was headed by Colonel Ferdinand Auguste Pont , the Fourth Bureau by General Étienne Édouard Laffon de Ladébat and the president 's liaison officer was General Pénélon . The other officers were generally selected by Joffre from those who had excelled at the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre ( French Army staff college ) . Representatives from the allied powers were also present within the GQG structure and at various times included officers from the United Kingdom , Russia , USA , Japan , Italy , Belgium , Serbia and Romania .
The GQG established its physical headquarters at Vitry @-@ le @-@ François , in the Marne department , on 5 August . The location had been chosen as it was halfway between Paris and Nancy and roughly equidistant ( at around 80 to 90 miles ) to the headquarters of each of the five French armies . The staff occupied a school building with the second bureau located in the classrooms and the third bureau in the gymnasiu , with the sports equipment pushed up against one wall . The staff at GQG had the use of a detachment of the 8th Engineer Regiment , a company of the 19th Railway Squadron , two companies of the 68th Territorial Infantry Regiment , a company of Forestry Chasseurs , two anti @-@ aircraft sections , up to two carrier pigeon units , a unit of cyclist messengers , a medical detachment and a military police escort squadron .
= = = GQG during the war = = =
GQG played a key role at the start of the war . Due to illness Belin had delegated much of his role to Berthelot , further increasing the power of his influential Third Bureau . The officers in that department , particularly the recent staff college graduates who were known as the Young Turks , favoured strong offensive action . Having failed to initially perceive the German advance through Belgium , it was these officers who were key in persuading Joffre to attack the exposed German right flank during the Great Retreat from Mons . As a result of the German advances in late 1914 GQG was forced to relocate its headquarters progressively westwards . It moved to Bar @-@ sur @-@ Aube on 31 August , Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Seine on 6 September , Romilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine on 28 September 1914 and , on 29 November , to Chantilly , within the Paris metropolitan area , where it was to remain for the next few years . This location was suited to GQG operations due to its proximity to the seat of government and the ministries in Paris .
Joffre found his new command difficult ; while he was able to dismiss army commanders at will ( he limogered 54 generals by the time of the First Battle of the Marne ) he seemed unable to remove officers from GQG . The reasons for Joffre 's lack of action are unknown but historian Alistair Horne speculated that it was due to the vast power granted to the GQG staff or to Joffre 's desire not to be upstaged by his staff . The GQG officers , isolated from the direct effects of the war , engaged in intrigue on a grand scale and there was little co @-@ operation between the rival departments . The Second Bureau was often incapable of estimating the strength of the German forces committed to action . At the start of the war it took until 24 August for the Second Bureau to realise that each German army corps deployed alongside a correspondingly numbered reserve corps , effectively doubling the strength of that corps in the field . Throughout the war it maintained an inadequate means of calculating German casualty figures , simply assuming that for each two Frenchmen killed in battle three Germans must have fallen . In reality the figures were almost the reverse . By means of such estimations they calculated that Germany would run out of manpower reserves by early 1916 . Thus the Third Bureau found itself directing French generals to undertake military operations based on wholly inaccurate assessments of the strength of opposing units .
French set @-@ backs in 1915 forced Joffre to reorganise GQG — on 11 December he replaced Belin with General Noël de Castelnau — and expand its remit . Three entirely new bureaus were formed , that of the North Army ( Armée du Nord ) , the North @-@ East Army ( Armée du Nord @-@ Est ) and for external theatres of war bringing GQG direct control of French armies in the field . Two major @-@ générals were appointed , General Maurice Janin for the two army bureaus and General Maurice Pellé for the Bureau for External Theatres of War . The Second Bureau was also reformed with its censorship , counter @-@ espionage and intelligence gathering duties being passed to a new Fifth Bureau ; though the Second Bureau retained some of its former intelligence responsibilities .
Despite this reorganisation GQG remained dysfunctional with the Second Bureau , described as " perennial optimists " by Horne , again responsible for providing deceptive assessments of German casualties , at one point in the Battle of Verdun simply adding " a hundred thousand or thereabouts " every fortnight to the figures . The confused responsibility for intelligence between the Second and Fifth Bureaus , the Ministry of the Interior and the police also led to delays in providing intelligence to the armies in the field during the battle . The Third Bureau was responsible for withdrawing two and a half batteries of artillery from the fortresses of Verdun in the months leading up to that close @-@ fought battle , despite receiving requests for reinforcements from the local commander General Frédéric @-@ Georges Herr , who stated he could not hold if attacked in force .
The autonomy and power afforded to GQG worried Minister for War Joseph Gallieni and after his death , one of his successors , Hubert Lyautey , ordered a reorganisation of GQG by ministerial decree on 13 December 1916 . Joffre was sidelined to a position as " technical adviser to the government " , with few defined responsibilities , which led to his resignation on 27 December 1916 and replacement by General Robert Nivelle . Such was Joffre 's fall from grace that , entitled to take three staff officers from GQG with him to his new post , he could find only one volunteer . The North Army and North @-@ East Army were also removed from the direct control of GQG . This course of action was justified by the Ministry of War as an essential step in restoring the independence of the two armies , a key pre @-@ war policy that had been established in a ministerial decree on 28 October 1913 .
Nivelle ordered his own reorganisation on 1 January 1917 , returning control of external theatres to the Ministry of War . In February the 2nd and 5th Bureaus were re @-@ united , though there remained an informal division and intense rivalry between the officers of the " old " and " new " 2nd Bureau . This division remained until the arrival of Georges Clemenceau as Prime Minister and Minister of War in November 1917 .
Nivelle moved the GQG headquarters forward to Beauvais in Picardy on 10 January and to Compiègne in Oise on 4 April . At this stage the GQG staff numbered 450 officers and 800 enlisted personnel . However , the failure of the Nivelle Offensive of April 1917 led to his downfall and replacement by General Philippe Pétain on 17 May . Pétain expanded GQG 's operations , establishing a new Section for Relations with the Civil Authorities and a Bureau for Aeronatics , Telegraphy and Aviation . He later reformed the Second Bureau , absorbing into it the newly formed section for relations with the civil authorities and a new responsibility for cryptography . A minor change in February 1918 saw the expansion of the Third Bureau , gaining telegraphy and liaison from the Bureau for Aeronautics and cryptography from the Bureau for Special Services . In March the Bureau for Aeronautics gained control of anti @-@ aircraft matters and the army medical departments under their own Bureau of Health Services . This organisation would last until after the armistice with Germany in 1918 .
At 19 @.@ 00 on 16 February 1918 the offices of the Third Bureau on Algiers Street in Compiègne were hit by a bomb from a squadron of three German bombers . Serious damage was caused to the building and two officers were killed , Commandant Mathis and Captain Mallet . The dead officers were buried at the Saint @-@ Jacques Church in Compiègne . Fourteen additional officers were injured by flying glass , two of whom were hospitalised .
The GQG headquarters moved further eastwards to Provins in Seine @-@ et @-@ Marne on 26 March 1918 . After the armistice GQG moved to Metz in the newly reacquired Moselle department on 1 December
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1918 and returned to Chantilly on 29 January 1919 . GQG was dissolved on 20 October 1919 in accordance with a request from the War Ministry on 14 October which also abolished the zone of army control . The powers previously delegated to GQG were returned to the chief @-@ of @-@ staff of the army . During the Second World War the German army took control of the GQG First World War archives and sent many of the most secret documents to Berlin for analysis . These documents were recovered by the USSR at the end of the war and taken back to Moscow for processing . They were not returned to France until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s .
Equivalent bodies in the other nations of the war were the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) of the British , Italian and American armies , the Oberste Heeresleitung of the German army and the Stavka of the Russian forces . Though one was allowed for in the constitution , the Japanese army did not operate a General Headquarters during the war . After April 1918 all Allied troops on the Western Front were placed under the command of the Grand Quartier Général des Armées Alliées ( GQGA ) , a multi @-@ national general staff that developed from the Supreme War Council . The GQGA was on similar lines to the GQG and came under General Ferdinand Foch , who had overall command of all Allied troops .
= = = Evolution of responsibilities = = =
= Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do ( 리태권도 ; 李跆拳道 ) , also known as Rhee Tae Kwon @-@ Do , Rhee Tae Kwon Do , or Rhee Taekwondo , is a martial art school in Australia and New Zealand teaching the Korean martial art of taekwondo . Its full name is " Rhee International Taekwon @-@ Do " with " ( Australia ) " or " ( New Zealand ) " appended . Chong Chul Rhee , one of the original masters of taekwondo , founded the school in the mid @-@ 1960s . Two of Rhee 's brothers , Chong Hyup Rhee and Chong Yoon Rhee , later came to assist him in the 1970s .
C. C. Rhee claims the title ' Father of Australian Taekwondo ' and Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is widely publicised as being Australia 's first and biggest taekwondo school . It has at least 294 publicly listed dojang ( training halls ) in Australia ( and at least five such dojang in New Zealand ) , with perhaps around 1 @,@ 400 dojang in total at its peak . Several Australian martial art school founders received their foundational taekwondo training in Rhee 's school .
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is an independent martial art organisation . It was once affiliated to the International Taekwon @-@ Do Federation ( ITF ) , but has had no relation to the World Taekwondo Federation ( WTF ) .
= = Chong Chul Rhee = =
Chong Chul Rhee , 8th dan , is the founder and head of Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do . He holds the title ' World Master ' and claims the title ' Father of Australian Taekwondo . ' Rhee is one of the twelve original masters of taekwondo selected from the South Korean military to develop taekwondo under Choi Hong Hi in the Korea Taekwon @-@ Do Association ( KTA ) . Rhee is a former unarmed combat instructor in the Korean Marines , and helped introduce taekwondo to Southeast Asia ( notably in Malaysia and Singapore ) before becoming the first taekwondo master sent to Australia by the Republic of Korea .
Rhee has worked towards the reunification of Korea , serving as a member during the third through ninth terms — and as Chairman for the eighth term — of the Oceania Division of the Advisory Council on Democratic and Peaceful Unification . He has also served as Chairman of the Seoul Olympics Supporting Committee and founding President of the Korean Community Hall Construction Supporting Committee . The Republic of Korea awarded Rhee the Dongbaeg Medal ( 동백장 ) in 2003 for promoting taekwondo and Korean culture over the past 33 years .
Two of Rhee 's brothers , Chong Hyup Rhee and Chong Yoon Rhee , also hold the title of ' Master ' in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do and assist him in managing parts of the school . Chong Hyup Rhee , 7th dan , is in charge of operations in Melbourne . He appears on the right in the school 's logo . C. H. Rhee is also one of the twelve original masters of taekwondo , and helped introduce the art of taekwondo to Malaysia and Singapore before arriving in Australia in 1970 . He conducts grading examinations in Melbourne and Darwin . Chong Yoon Rhee , 9th dan , is in charge of operations in parts of Sydney . He trained under Nam Tae Hi during the late 1950s , served as a South Korean army officer , and helped introduce the art of taekwondo to Vietnam in the late 1960s . C. Y. Rhee retired from military service at the rank of Major , and moved to Australia in January 1976 .
C. C. Rhee and C. H. Rhee are listed as pioneers in Asia ( 1950s and 1960s ) and Australia ( 1970s ) in Chang Keun Choi 's list of taekwondo pioneers , while C. Y. Rhee came to Australia some time later .
= = Significance = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do occupies a prominent place in Australian taekwondo history . This is reflected in three key claims : ( 1 ) Chong Chul Rhee is the Father of Australian Taekwondo , ( 2 ) Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is the first taekwondo school in Australia , and ( 3 ) Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is the biggest taekwondo school in Australia . The school has widely publicised these claims since at least the 1980s .
= = = Father of Australian Taekwondo = = =
No one has challenged C. C. Rhee 's claim as the Father of Australian Taekwondo . The title might be debated , however , based on claims made about five other martial art masters :
Chan Yong Kim , 9th dan , was the first tang soo do instructor in Australia . He arrived in the early 1960s , sponsored by the Silvertop Taxi Karate Club or the Judo Federation of Australia , and stayed for one or two years before moving overseas . Kim might be considered the first taekwondo instructor in Australia if tang soo do were recognised as taekwondo retrospectively , and so might lay claim to the title . Kim did not establish a taekwondo school in Australia .
Jack Rozinsky , 9th dan ( Jidokwan ) , founded the Shuto Karate Club in 1963 ; it later became the Melbourne Taekwondo Centre . As Rozinsky taught tang soo do there , he might be considered the first taekwondo school founder in Australia ( again , if tang soo do were recognised as taekwondo retrospectively ) , and so might lay claim to the title . Rozinsky did not introduce taekwondo outside Victoria .
Ke Hyung No , 8th dan ( WTF ) , was invited to Australia by the Victoria Judo Federation in 1965 , and taught taekwondo alongside judo . If tang soo do were not recognised as taekwondo retrospectively , No might lay claim to the title . He travelled back to South Korea for further training , returned to Australia in 1971 , and established his own martial arts centre at that time . As with Rozinsky , No did not introduce taekwondo outside Victoria .
Terence Walsh , 8th dan ( World Kido Federation ) , claims to have introduced taekwondo to New South Wales in 1969 . If he was the first to introduce taekwondo to Australia 's most populous state , then he might lay claim to the title . Walsh did not introduce taekwondo outside the eastern states .
Young Ku Yun , 8th dan ( ITF ) , has been described as having introduced taekwondo to Sydney in 1971 . If he was the first to introduce taekwondo to Australia 's largest city , then he might lay claim to the title . Yun arrived around five years after Rhee , however , and himself claimed to be the first ITF instructor ( rather than the first taekwondo instructor ) in Australia .
Kim and No would have been in the lower dan ranks , and would not yet have held the title of ' Master , ' when they were invited to teach in Australia . A biography of No indicates that he had four years ' training when he arrived . Rozinsky and Walsh would have held 1st dan ranking in the 1960s . Both Rhee ( KTA ) and Yun ( ITF ) would have been in the middle dan ranks and held the title of ' Master ' when they arrived , as they were sent to Australia by their respective Korean governing bodies .
= = = First taekwondo school in Australia = = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do was the first Australian martial art school founded by a Korean master and using the name of taekwondo . Rhee 's school was also the first nationwide taekwondo school in Australia , having operated in South Australia from its founding in the mid @-@ 1960s , Western Australia from at least 1970 , Victoria from at least 1971 , the Australian Capital Territory from 1971 , Queensland from at least 1973 , New South Wales from 1973 , and Tasmania from at least 1983 . The first Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do class was held in the Adelaide YMCA centre .
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 's position as the first taekwondo school in Australia might be challenged by the Melbourne Taekwondo Centre ( originally the Shuto Karate Club ) , as tang soo do was one of the arts taught there . Such status would , however , involve recognising tang soo do as taekwondo retrospectively . The Melbourne Taekwondo Centre incorporated taekwondo into its name in the 1970s .
= = = Biggest taekwondo school in Australia = = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 's position as the biggest taekwondo school in Australia is supported by independently verifiable listings of dojang . It has at least 294 publicly listed dojang in Australia , with perhaps around 1 @,@ 400 dojang in total at its peak . The claim might be disputed if the Australian member schools of the ITF and the WTF were considered as ' schools ' as a whole , whether in terms of numbers of dojang or numbers of members . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do is , however , a single school under the direct leadership of Rhee while both the ITF and WTF are groups of schools ( each with its own head ) under a larger governing body .
= = Ex @-@ Rhee members = =
At least 25 founders of Australian martial art schools ( and at least one in New Zealand ) received their foundational taekwondo training in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do or are former Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructors . Of these ex @-@ members , the highest @-@ ranked was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 6th dan instructor when he left Rhee 's school .
= = = International Taekwon @-@ Do Federation = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded ITF schools include some of the most senior ITF instructors in Australia . Ming Tuck Low , 8th dan , was promoted to Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan in 1971 , and was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructor at the University of Western Australia in 1972 . Peter Wong , 7th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Western Australia in the early 1970s . Jamie Moore , 8th dan , commenced Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do training in Queensland in 1976 . Several other ex @-@ members have founded ITF schools across Australia .
= = = Other taekwondo styles = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded non @-@ ITF taekwondo schools include some of the more expansionist instructors in Australia . John Ivanov , 7th dan , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do regional instructor in Queensland in 1995 . Robert Frost , 6th dan , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do regional instructor in New South Wales in 2003 . Lesley Hicks , 6th dan , commenced Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do training in the late 1970s , and was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 3rd dan regional instructor in New South Wales in 2003 . Vernon Low , 6th dan , was the Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do State Master Instructor of South Australia , was the first Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructor promoted to 5th dan , and had been ranked at 4th dan as early as 1974 , prior to establishing his own school . Several other ex @-@ members have founded non @-@ ITF taekwondo schools .
= = = Other martial arts = = =
Ex @-@ members who founded schools teaching martial arts other than taekwondo include three instructors with an eclectic martial arts history . Hans Fricke , 8th dan , first met Rhee in Perth in 1970 ( with Fricke bearing an introductory letter from the ITF , as he had trained briefly in South Korea ) , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 2nd dan instructor in Sydney during the 1970s , and now teaches battodo . Christopher Nasilowski , 10th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Adelaide from 1972 to 1984 , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 2nd dan instructor , and now teaches
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arnis and jujitsu . Graham Healy , 7th dan , trained in Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do in Queensland from 1977 to 1982 , was a Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan instructor , and now teaches boxing and taekwondo . Several other ex @-@ members have founded other martial art schools .
= = Training = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do teaches the military style of taekwondo , closer to traditional martial art than modern martial sport in nature . Training consists of exercises that may be classified as : basics ( group drill exercises ; similar to kihon in karate ) , destruction ( breaking ) , hyung ( patterns or forms ) , self @-@ defence , and sparring . Basics , destruction , hyung , and self @-@ defence are similar to equivalent exercises in other traditional martial art schools . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do teaches the Chang Hon hyung .
Sparring takes three forms : three @-@ step sparring , one @-@ step sparring , and free sparring . Three @-@ step sparring and one @-@ step sparring are similar to equivalent exercises in ITF and WTF schools , but free sparring is different , having more in common with traditional karate sparring . Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do free sparring is unscored , unarmoured , and usually ' non @-@ contact ' in principle . Members typically achieve non @-@ contact sparring by two methods , whether separately or in combination :
The attacker consciously stops just short of hitting the training partner , while still executing attacks with full speed and power . The attacker has primary responsibility for non @-@ contact , at a given moment during sparring , and this typically occurs when one training partner has more experience than the other . This is normally the practice when one training partner is a beginner .
The defender actively avoids or blocks an incoming attack executed by the training partner . The defender has primary responsibility for non @-@ contact , at a given moment during sparring , and this typically occurs with training partners of similar experience . This is normally the practice when both training partners are in the senior ranks .
= = Ranks = =
Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do ranks are denoted by coloured belts , which indicate a member 's level of experience and responsibility within the school . There are ten coloured belt grades , or kup ranks ( 급 ) , and nine black belt degrees , or dan ranks ( 단 ) . Members start with white belts and progress through yellow , green , blue , brown , and then black .
Non @-@ black belts , from white through to brown , denote the kup ranks . ' Tips ' denoting odd @-@ numbered kup ranks are marked by a stripe of the higher colour near the right end ( from the wearer 's point of view ) of a belt of the lower colour . Black belts denote the dan ranks . A specific dan rank is represented by the number of white bars embroidered on the black belt . A black belt with no bars is a Junior Black Belt , a rank assigned to members considered too young ( typically 15 years or younger ) for 1st dan . Junior Black Belt members are tested for 1st dan when they reach 18 years of age . One bar denotes 1st dan , two bars denote 2nd dan , and so on . The end of the belt bearing the dan rank also carries embroidery noting the name of the master issuing the promotion ( Chong Chul Rhee , Chong Hyup Rhee , or Chong Yoon Rhee ) .
To attain Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do 1st dan ranking typically takes around four to five years of regular training . Progression through the school 's dan ranks is by invitation , and is usually slower than in other taekwondo schools . Invitation appears to be based on a combination of technique and knowledge . Promotion to 2nd dan might come after 10 – 15 years , in which time someone might have reached 4th dan ( ITF ) or 5th dan ( WTF ) . Promotion to 3rd dan might come after 20 – 25 years , in which time someone might have reached 6th dan ( ITF ) or 7th dan ( WTF ) . Several former Rhee Taekwon @-@ Do instructors who joined other taekwondo organisations received new ranks consistent with these approximations .
= Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is a single written and recorded by American singer Michael Jackson . Released under Epic Records on August 10 , 1979 , the song is the first single from Jackson 's fifth studio album , titled Off the Wall . The song was the first solo recording over which Jackson had creative control .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was Jackson 's first single to hit # 1 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart in seven years , and his first solo # 1 on the Soul singles chart . It remained at # 1 for six weeks on Billboard 's Soul chart . The song was a worldwide success . Within a few months of release , the 45 was certified Gold , and eventually earned a Platinum certification for sales in excess of two million US copies .
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was well received by contemporary music critics . An accompanying music video for the song was released in October 1979 . The video shows Jackson dancing , as well as being shown in a triplicate , in different color backgrounds . The song also won Jackson his first solo Grammy and American Music Awards . " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " is considered to be the first song to showcase Jackson 's talent as a solo artist , both as a singer and songwriter . Since the song 's release , it has been covered by numerous musicians .
= = Background and production = =
In 1978 , Jackson starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz , an urbanized retelling of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . After the filming , Jackson , who was still a member of The Jacksons , approached the film 's musical director , Quincy Jones , to ask if he knew of any producers to help with Jackson 's future solo endeavors . Jones suggested himself , and the two began work on Off the Wall . After listening to hundreds of demos , the two decided upon the ones to record . These included " Workin ' Day and Night " , " Get on the Floor " and " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . The song was recorded in Los Angeles recording studios . Jackson claimed that when the melody of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " came to him , he couldn 't shake it off . He found himself humming and singing it while walking through the Jacksons ' Encino home . As Michael could not play , he had his brother Randy perform the melody on a piano in the family 's recording studio . When Jackson 's mother , Katherine Jackson , a devout Jehovah 's Witness , heard the song , she was shocked by the lyrical content , and felt that the title could be misconstrued as pertaining to sexual activity . Jackson reassured her that the song was not a reference to sex , but could mean whatever people wanted it to . Upon playing the recording to Jones , it was agreed that the song would be featured on Off the Wall .
= = Composition = =
Musically " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is credited as a disco @-@ funk song . The song 's full length on Off The Wall is just over 6 minutes . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " introduced Jackson 's falsetto voice and vocal hiccups , which would become one of Jackson 's signature techniques . Along with Jackson 's vocal hiccups , Jackson 's voice in the song was described as having vocal tics — from the hiccups , a " grunt " , and " the ' oho ! ' " . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " is played in the key of B Mixolydian and in common time signature . In the song , Jackson 's voice range is from G # 3 to F # 5 . Instruments for " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " are a 6 piece horn section ( 2 trumpets , alto sax , tenor sax , trombone , and baritone sax ) , string section ( arranged by Ben Wright ) , and 2 guitars , keyboards , bass , drums and percussion . The song 's tempo is upbeat at 120 beats per minute . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " begins with Jackson speaking , before singing the song 's lyrics .
= = Release and reception = =
" Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was released on August 10 , 1979 , under Epic Records ; Jackson 's first solo album away from Motown Records . It was well received by contemporary critics . Stephen Holden , of Rolling Stone , described the song as " one of a handful of recent disco releases that works both as a dance track and as an aural extravaganza comparable to Earth , Wind and Fire 's ' Boogie Wonderland ' " . Within three months of its release , the song was at the top of the charts and had been certified gold . Reaching number one on Billboard 's Hot 100 and Hot Soul Singles charts in the United States ; it was Jackson 's first solo number one single since " Ben " , seven years prior . It remained atop of the Billboard Hot 100 for one week . It also reached the top of the charts in Australia , New Zealand , Norway and South Africa , and peaked at number three in the United Kingdom . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s was awarded platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1989 .
In 2006 , " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " reached number 17 in the United Kingdom , following the Visionary campaign , whereby 20 of Jackson 's hit singles were reissued in several European countries . Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music saw an increase in popularity . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " peaked at number seven on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart , peaking at number nine on the charts issue date July 11 , 2009 . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " charted within the top ten , placing at number nine , in France , and charted within the top 20 in Portugal and Switzerland , placing at number 18 and 20 . The song also charted at number 21 in Australia , 38 in the United Kingdom , and 50 in Sweden , respectively . " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " s least successful country was Japan , peaking at number 77 . " Don ’ t Stop ' til You Get Enough " was certified gold in Australia by Australian Recording Industry Association in 2009 for the shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units .
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " earned Jackson his first solo Grammy Award , winning Best Male R & B Vocal Performance at the 1980 Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Best Disco Recording . The song also received Favorite Soul / R & B Single at the 1980 American Music Awards .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " was directed and produced by Nick Saxton and made its world premiere in October 1979 . It was Jackson 's first music video as a solo artist . The music video shows a smiling Jackson dancing and singing " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " in a black and white tuxedo with a black bow tie while appearing chroma keyed over a background of abstract geometric figures . At one stage , Jackson is seen dancing in triplicate , which was considered innovative at the time .
The music video was included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits - HIStory , Number Ones and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Live performances = =
Michael Jackson performed this song on The Jacksons ' Destiny Tour on the second leg , as well as the Triumph Tour . During the ' ' Victory Tour ' ' and the first leg of the Bad Tour , Michael would sing lines from the song while performing " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " . Michael also performed this song as part of the " Off the Wall Medley " on his HIStory World Tour , but only on certain concerts . Jackson was also going to perform it for the This Is It concert series , but the shows were cancelled due to his death .
= = Michael Jackson : The Experience = =
The song is featured in the video game Michael Jackson : The Experience .
= = Cover versions = =
" Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " has been covered by multiple artists since its release in 1979 .
In 1980 : A reggae version was released by Derrick Laro & Trinity as a 12 " single .
In 1985 : the song was included in the second album of Dominican Juan Luis Guerra & 440 , Mudanza y Acarreo . This version is a merengue based on disco and rock sounds and was titled " Dame " ( Give me ) .
In 1999 : The song was covered by BB Band in 1999 on their album entitled , The Detroit Sound .
Chris Tucker and Adrienne Bailon recorded a new version of the song for the 2001 film Rush Hour 2 , which stars also Tucker .
In 2005 : Westlife performed the song live on their The Number Ones Tour .
In 2005 : The song was also covered by James Chance on his 2005 album , which included a recorded and live version .
In 2005 : " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " was covered by Melissa Forbes on her 2005 album entitled , No More Mondays .
In 2007 : American pop @-@ rock band Shivaree covered " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " on their 2007 album of cover versions , entitled , Tainted Love : Mating Calls and Fight Songs .
The song was covered by Rod Hanna , on his album of covers entitled Rod Hanna Live : Discofesta 70 's Superhits - Rod Hanna .
In 2009 : Following Jackson 's death in June 2009 , the band U2 began their world tour , entitled U2 360 ° Tour , with renditions of two of Jackson 's songs , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Man In The Mirror " ( from Jackson 's 1987 album Bad ) on June 30 , 2009 .
Also in 2009 , Egyptian singer Tamer Hosny heavily sampled " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " in his song , " Howa Fein ( Don 't Stop ) , which is featured on his album , " Haeesh Hayati " .
Cookin Soul did a remix cover of the track , entitled , " Don ’ t Stop ‘ til You Get Enough feat . Jay @-@ Z " . The remixed version was performed during Cookin Souls Shade45 show , and the track was made available as a digital download track . Amos Barshad and Nick Catucci , of NYMag.com , commented that the remix version was a " surprisingly great meeting of music and lyrics , connecting MJ and rap without overstating the shared DNA " .
Former rival Prince covered it on his 2011 " Welcome 2 America " tour .
Usher performed the song and a few other mix of songs as a tribute to Jackson on his OMG Tour .
Maroon 5 incorporated the song in its set list on the U.S. Overexposed Tour following the band 's opening song " Payphone " and is prior to the next song , " Makes Me Wonder . "
Anthony Strong 's jazzy version appears on the album On a Clear Day ( 2015 ) .
= = Legacy = =
James Montgomery of MTV noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " , along with Off the Wall 's other three singles , " showcased ( or , more specifically , unleashed ) Jackson 's talents as a [ sic ] entertainer , a vocalist , a writer and , most importantly , as a leading man . " After Jackson 's death , AOL 's Radio Blog released a list , entitled " 10 Best Michael Jackson Songs " , which placed " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " at number ten on the list .
William Ruhlmann , author of The All @-@ Music Guide to Rock , praised " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " as an " irresistible dance track " . John Lewis , author of 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , noted that the " jittery , frenetic opening track " is the centerpiece of Off the Wall . He concluded that " Jackson 's falsetto hollers and frisky yelps serve as an obbligato to the lead line , punctuating Ben Wright 's thrilling string arrangement and Jerry Hey 's tight horn charts " . Jason Elias , a writer for Allmusic , noted that " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " presents a " new Michael Jackson " that was " sexual , [ an ] adult , and aggressive . Elias commented that " Like the best of Jones ' late- ' 70s , early- ' 80s work , this [ song ] wasn 't quite disco , couldn 't be hardcore funk - it was an amalgam of styles with the all @-@ important pop accessibility . "
Jackson 's biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli described Jackson 's unveiling of a " sexy , playful falsetto " that " no one had ever heard from him before " . Nelson George stated that the argument for Jackson 's greatness began with the arrangements of " Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough " . He noted that the percussion and backing vocals were " artfully choreographed " to " create drama and ecstasy on the dance floor " . He concluded , " It 's one thing to make a dance record — it is another to instill that track with an epic , celebratory quality as Michael does here " . James Montgomery of MTV noted that Off The Wall contained a " masterful mixture of fiery disco tracks " , specifying " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " and " Workin ' Day and Night " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami =
The 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami occurred on July 17 at 15 : 19 local time along a subduction zone off the coast of west and central Java , a large and densely populated island in the Indonesian archipelago . The shock had a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 and a maximum perceived intensity of IV ( Light ) in Jakarta , the capital and largest city of Indonesia . There were no direct effects of the earthquake 's shaking due to its light to moderate intensity , and the large loss of life from the event was due to the resulting tsunami , which inundated a 300 km ( 190 mi ) portion of the Java coast that had been unaffected by the earlier 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that was off the coast of Sumatra . The July 2006 earthquake was also centered in the Indian Ocean , 180 kilometers ( 110 mi ) from the coast of Java , and had a duration of more than three minutes .
An abnormally slow rupture at the Sunda Trench and a tsunami that was unusually strong relative to the size of the earthquake were both factors that led to it being categorized as a tsunami earthquake . Several thousand kilometers to the southeast , surges of several meters were observed in northwestern Australia , but in Java the tsunami runups ( height above normal sea level ) were typically 5 – 7 meters ( 16 – 23 ft ) and resulted in the deaths of more than 600 people . Other factors may have contributed to exceptionally high peak runups of 10 – 21 m ( 33 – 69 ft ) on the small and mostly uninhabited island of Nusa Kambangan , just to the east of the resort town of Pangandaran , where damage was heavy and a large loss of life occurred . Since the shock was felt with only moderate intensity well inland , and even less so at the shore , the surge arrived with little or no warning . Other factors contributed to the tsunami being largely undetected until it was too late and , although a tsunami watch was posted by an American tsunami warning center and a Japanese meteorological center , no information was delivered to people at the coast .
= = Tectonic setting = =
The island of Java is the most densely populated island on earth , and is vulnerable to both large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions , due to its location near the Sunda Trench , a convergent plate boundary where the Australian tectonic plate is subducting beneath Indonesia . Three great earthquakes occurred in the span of three years to the northwest on the Sumatra portion of the trench . The 2004 M9.15 Sumatra – Andaman , the 2005 M8.7 Nias – Simeulue , and the 2007 M8.4 Mentawai earthquakes produced the largest release of elastic strain energy since the 1957 / 1964 series of shocks on the Aleutian / Alaska trench .
The southeastern ( Java ) portion of the Sunda Trench extends from the Sunda Strait in the west to Bali Basin in the east . The convergence of relatively old oceanic crust is occurring at a rate of 6 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) per year in the west portion and 4 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) per year in the east , and the dip of the Benioff Zone ( the angle of the zone of seismicity that defines the down @-@ going slab at a convergent boundary ) is around 50 ° and extends to a depth of approximately 600 kilometers ( 370 mi ) . Historical events that occurred before seismometers were operating in the region were the large to very large events of 1840 , 1867 , and 1875 , but unlike the northwestern Sumatra segment , no megathrust earthquake has occurred on the Java segment of the Sunda Trench in the last 300 years .
= = Earthquake = =
The earthquake was the result of thrust faulting at the Sunda Trench . A rupture length of approximately 200 kilometers ( 120 mi ) ( and an unusually low rupture velocity of 1 – 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 0 @.@ 93 mi ) per second ) resulted in a duration of about 185 seconds ( just over three minutes ) for the event . The shock was centered 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) from the trench , and about 180 kilometers ( 110 mi ) from the south coast of the island . A comparison was made with the earlier 2002 Sumatra earthquake , a M7.5 underdea earthquake of a similar size that also occurred along the Sunda Arc and at a shallow depth , but one that did not result in a tsunami .
The large and damaging tsunami that was generated was out of proportion relative to the size of the event , based on its short @-@ period body wave magnitude . The Indonesian Meteorological , Climatological , and Geophysical Agency assigned a magnitude of 6 @.@ 8 , and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) reported a similar value of 6 @.@ 1 ( both body wave magnitude ) that were calculated from short @-@ period seismic waves ( 1 – 2 seconds in the case of the USGS ) . The USGS then presented a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 that was calculated from 5 – 100 @-@ second surface waves , and Harvard University subsequently revealed that a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 7 had been resolved based on even longer 150 @-@ second surface waves .
= = = Intensity = = =
In tsunami prone regions , strong earthquakes serve as familiar warnings , and this is especially true for earthquakes in Indonesia . Previous estimates of the tsunami hazard for the Java coastline may have minimized the risk to the area , and to the northwest along the Sumatran coast , the risk is substantially higher for tsunami , especially near Padang . Previous events along the coast of Java in 1921 and again in 1994 illustrate the need for an accurate assessment of the threat . The July 2006 earthquake had an unusually slow rupture velocity which resulted in minor shaking on land for around three minutes , but the intensity was very light relative to the size of the tsunami that followed .
The earthquake produced shaking at Pangandaran ( where the M6.3 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake was felt more strongly ) of intensity III – IV ( Weak – Light ) , intensity III at Cianjur , and II ( Weak ) at Yogyakarta . Further inland and farther from the epicenter , intensity IV shaking made tall buildings sway in Jakarta , but at some coastal villages where many of the casualties occurred , the shaking was not felt as strong . An informal survey of 67 people that were present at the time revealed that in at least eight cases , individuals stated that they did not feel the earthquake at all ( a typical M7.7 earthquake would have been distinctly noticed at those distances ) . The unusually low felt intensities , along with the short period body wave magnitudes , were components of the event that narrowed its classification into that of a tsunami earthquake .
= = = Type = = =
Tsunami earthquakes can be influenced by both the presence of ( and lack of ) sediment at the subduction zone , and can be categorized as either aftershocks of megathrust earthquakes , like the M7 June 22 , 1932 Cuyutlán event in Mexico , or as standalone events that occur near the upper portion of a plate interface . Northwestern University professor Emile Okal imparts that in the aftershock scenario , they can occur as a result of stress transfer from a mainshock to an accretionary wedge or a similar environment with " deficient mechanical properties " , and as standalone events they can occur in the presence of irregular contacts at the plate interface in a zone that lacks sediment .
One of the initial characterizations of tsunami earthquakes came from seismologist Hiroo Kanamori in the early 1970s , and additional clarity materialized following the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake and tsunami , which was evaluated to have a surface wave magnitude of 7 @.@ 0 when analyzing short period seismic signals . When longer period signals of around 250 seconds were investigated , the shock was reevaluated to have a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 6 , with a hypothesis that the slow nature of the slip of the event may have concealed its substantial extent . Sediment was thought to have contributed to a slower rupture , due to a lubrication effect at the plate interface , with the result being an earthquake signature that had abundant long period seismic signals , which could be an important factor in the tsunami @-@ generation process .
= = = Warning = = =
A tsunami warning system was not in operation at the time of the shock , but the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center ( operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Hawaii ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency posted a tsunami watch , based on the occurrence of a M7.2 earthquake . The bulletin came within 30 minutes of the shock , but there was no means to transmit the warning to the people on the coast that needed to know . Many of those who felt the earthquake responded by moving away from the shore , but not with any urgency . The withdrawal of the sea that exposed an additional 5 – 10 meters ( 16 – 33 ft ) of beach created an even more significant warning sign , but in some locations wind waves on the sea effectively concealed the withdrawal that signalled the approach of the tsunami .
= = Tsunami = =
The earthquake and tsunami came on a Monday afternoon , a day after many more people were present on the beach , due to a major national holiday . The waves came a few tens of minutes after the shock ( and were a surprise , even to lifeguards ) and occurred when the sea level was approaching low tide which , along with the wind waves , masked the initial withdrawal of the sea as the tsunami drew near . Most portions of the south Java coast saw runup heights of 5 – 7 meters ( 16 – 23 ft ) , but evidence on the island of Nusa Kambangan indicated that a peak surge measuring 21 meters ( 69 ft ) had occurred there , suggesting to researchers that the possibility of a submarine landslide had contributed to the magnitude of the tsunami in that area .
= = = Runup = = =
A 300 km ( 190 mi ) portion of the southwest and south @-@ central Java coast was affected by the tsunami , and resulted in around 600 fatalities , with a high concentration in Pangandaran . Two thousand kilometers ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) to the southeast at the Steep Point area of western Australia , a runup of 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) was measured , which was comparable to a similar runup in northern Oman from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , though in that case it was at a much greater distance of 5 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) . Within three weeks of the event , scientists from five different countries were on the ground in Java performing a survey of the affected areas , including gathering runup ( height above normal sea level ) and inundation ( distance the surge moved inland from the shore ) measurements .
The island of Nusa Kambangan ( 30 km × 4 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi × 2 @.@ 5 mi ) ) sits on the south coast of Java and is separated from the main island by a narrow strait . It is a large and mostly uninhabited nature reserve , and is referred to as the Alcatraz of Indonesia , due to the three high security prisons that are located at the town of Permisan . Of all the measurements taken during the post @-@ tsunami survey , the highest runup heights ( 10 – 21 m ( 33 – 69 ft ) ) were seen on the island behind a beach , where hibiscus and pandanus plants , and large coconut trees were mangled and uprooted up to 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) from the shore . The ( sea floor ) bathymetry in the area supported a proposition that a canyon slope failure or an underwater landslide may have contributed to or focused the tsunami energy at that location . Nineteen farmers and one prisoner were killed there , but the deep water port of Cilacap ( just to the east ) was protected by the island , although one large moored vessel made ground contact during the initial 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) withdrawal .
= = = Damage = = =
Since the earthquake caused only minor ground movement , and was only lightly felt , all the damage that occurred on the island was due to the tsunami . Types of buildings that were affected were timber / bamboo , brick traditional , and brick traditional with reinforced concrete . Semi @-@ permanent timber or bamboo structures that were based on a wooden frame were the most economical style of construction that were assessed following the disaster . A tsunami flow depth of 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) usually resulted in complete destruction of these types of structures . A group of scientists that evaluated the damage considered the unreinforced brick construction as weak , because the performance of homes constructed in that style did not fare much better than the timber / bamboo variety . Hotels and some houses and shops that were of reinforced brick construction were far better off , because units that were exposed to a flood depth of 3 – 4 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) were considered repairable .
Many wooden cafes and shops within 20 meters ( 66 ft ) of the shore were completely removed by the tsunami at Pangandaran , and severe damage still occurred to unreinforced masonry that was within several hundred meters , but some hotels that were constructed well held up better . The villages of Batu Hiu and Batu Kara , both to the west of Pangandaran , experienced similar damage . Other severe damage was seen at Marsawah village , Bulakbenda , where all buildings had been removed down to their foundation within 150 meters ( 490 ft ) of the water line , and even 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) further inland there were many buildings that were totally destroyed . Witnesses reported that waves were breaking several hundred meters inland at that location .
= = = Response = = =
Officials in Indonesia received information regarding the tsunami in the form of bulletins from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the Japan Meteorological Agency , but wanted to avoid panic , and did not attempt to disseminate the advisories to the public . Virtually no time was available to make that sort of effort ( had the intention been to communicate the danger with the public ) because some community leaders were sent text messages with pertinent information only minutes prior to the arrival of the first waves . The tsunami affected the coast of Java comprising mostly fishing villages and beach resorts that were unscathed following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and was also only several hundred kilometers distant from the region that saw heavy destruction just several months prior during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake , where more than 6 @,@ 000 were killed .
Trained research teams were already on the ground on Java responding to the May earthquake and began a survey of more than one hundred Muslim farmers ,
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ingested drug combinations that synergistically increase synaptic serotonin . It may also occur as a symptom of overdose of a single serotonergic agent . The combination of MAOIs with precursors such as l @-@ tryptophan or 5 @-@ htp pose a particularly acute risk of life @-@ threatening serotonin syndrome . The case of combination of MAOIs with tryptamine agonists ( commonly known as ayahuasca ) can present similar dangers as their combination with precursors , but this phenomenon has been described in general terms as the " cheese effect " . Many MAOIs irreversibly inhibit monoamine oxidase . It can take at least four weeks for this enzyme to be replaced by the body in the instance of irreversible inhibitors .
Many medications may have been incorrectly thought to cause serotonin syndrome . For example , some case reports have implicated atypical antipsychotics in serotonin syndrome , but it appears based on their pharmacology that they are unlikely to cause the syndrome . It has also been suggested that mirtazapine has no significant serotonergic effects , and is therefore not a dual action drug . Bupropion has also been suggested to cause serotonin syndrome , although as there is no evidence that it has any significant serotonergic activity , it is thought unlikely to produce the syndrome . In 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration issued an alert suggesting that the combined use of SSRIs or SNRIs and triptan medications or sibutramine could potentially lead to severe cases of serotonin syndrome . This has been disputed by other researchers as none of the cases reported by the FDA met the Hunter criteria for serotonin syndrome . The condition has however occurred in surprising clinical situations , and because of phenotypic variations among individuals , it has been associated with unexpected drugs , including mirtazapine .
The relative risk and severity of serotonergic side effects and serotonin toxicity , with individual drugs and combinations , is complex . Serotonin syndrome has been reported in patients of all ages , including the elderly , children , and even newborn infants due to in utero exposure . The serotonergic toxicity of SSRIs increases with dose , but even in over @-@ dose it is insufficient to cause fatalities from serotonin syndrome in healthy adults . Elevations of central nervous system serotonin will typically only reach potentially fatal levels when drugs with different mechanisms of action are mixed together . Various drugs , other than SSRIs , also have clinically significant potency as serotonin reuptake inhibitors , ( e.g. tramadol , amphetamine , and MDMA ) and are associated with severe cases of the syndrome .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in multiple states including aggression , pain , sleep , appetite , anxiety , depression , migraine , and vomiting . In humans the effects of excess serotonin were first noted in 1960 in patients receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) and tryptophan . The syndrome is caused by increased serotonin in the central nervous system . It was originally suspected that agonism of 5 @-@ HT1A receptors in central grey nuclei and the medulla was responsible for the development of the syndrome . Further study has determined that overstimulation of primarily the 5 @-@ HT2A receptors appears to contribute substantially to the condition . The 5 @-@ HT1A receptor may still contribute through a pharmacodynamic interaction in which increased synaptic concentrations of a serotonin agonist saturate all receptor subtypes . Additionally , noradrenergic CNS hyperactivity may play a role as CNS norepinephrine concentrations are increased in serotonin syndrome and levels appear to correlate with the clinical outcome . Other neurotransmitters may also play a role ; NMDA receptor antagonists and GABA have been suggested as affecting the development of the syndrome . Serotonin toxicity is more pronounced following supra @-@ therapeutic doses and overdoses , and they merge in a continuum with the toxic effects of overdose .
= = = Spectrum concept = = =
A postulated " spectrum concept " of serotonin toxicity emphasises the role that progressively increasing serotonin levels play in mediating the clinical picture as side effects merge into toxicity . The dose @-@ effect relationship is the effects of progressive elevation of serotonin , either by raising the dose of one drug , or combining it with another serotonergic drug which may produce large elevations in serotonin levels .
= = Diagnosis = =
There is no laboratory test for serotonin syndrome . Therefore , diagnosis is by symptom observation and investigation of the patient 's history . Several diagnostic criteria have been proposed . The first rigorously evaluated criteria were introduced in 1991 by Harvey Sternbach , a professor of psychiatry at UCLA . Researchers in Australia later developed the Hunter Toxicity Criteria Decision Rules , which have better sensitivity and specificity , 84 % and 97 % , respectively , when compared with the gold standard of diagnosis by a medical toxicologist . As of 2007 , Sternbach 's criteria were still the most commonly used .
The most important symptoms for diagnosing serotonin syndrome are tremor , extreme aggressiveness , akathisia , or clonus ( spontaneous , inducible and ocular ) . Physical examination of the patient should include assessment of deep @-@ tendon reflexes and muscle rigidity , the dryness of the oral mucosa , the size and reactivity of the pupils , the intensity of bowel sounds , skin color , and the presence or absence of sweating . The patient 's history also plays an important role in diagnosis , investigations should include inquries about the use of prescription and over @-@ the @-@ counter drugs , illicit substances , and dietary supplements , as all these agents have been implicated in the development of serotonin syndrome . To fulfill the Hunter Criteria , a patient must have taken a serotonergic agent and meet one of the following conditions :
Spontaneous clonus , or
Inducible clonus plus agitation or diaphoresis , or
Ocular clonus plus agitation or diaphoresis , or
Tremor plus hyperreflexia , or
Hypertonism plus temperature > 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) plus ocular clonus or inducible clonus
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Serotonin toxicity has a characteristic picture which is generally hard to confuse with other medical conditions , but in some situations it may go unrecognized because it may be mistaken for a viral illness , anxiety , neurological disorder , anticholinergic poisoning , sympathomimetic toxicity , or worsening psychiatric condition . The condition most often confused with serotonin syndrome is neuroleptic malignant syndrome ( NMS ) . The clinical features of neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndrome share some features which can make differentiating them difficult . In both conditions , autonomic dysfunction and altered mental status develop . However , they are actually very different conditions with different underlying dysfunction ( serotonin excess vs dopamine blockade ) . Both the time course and the clinical features of NMS differ significantly from those of serotonin toxicity . Serotonin toxicity has a rapid onset after the administration of a serotonergic drug and responds to serotonin blockade such as drugs like chlorpromazine and cyproheptadine . Dopamine receptor blockade ( NMS ) has a slow onset and typically evolves over several days after administration of a neuroleptic drug and responds to dopamine agonists such as bromocriptine .
Differential diagnosis may become difficult in patients recently exposed to both serotonergic drugs and neuroleptic drugs . Features that are classically present in NMS , that are useful for differentiating the two , are bradykinesia and extrapyramidal " lead pipe " rigidity , whereas serotonin syndrome causes hyperkinesia and clonus .
= = Management = =
Management is based primarily on stopping the usage of the precipitating drugs , the administration of serotonin antagonists such as cyproheptadine , and supportive care including the control of agitation , the control of autonomic instability , and the control of hyperthermia . Additionally , those who ingest large doses of serotonergic agents may benefit from gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal if it can be administered within an hour of overdose . The intensity of therapy depends on the severity of symptoms . If the symptoms are mild , treatment may only consist of discontinuation of the offending medication or medications , offering supportive measures , giving benzodiazepines for myoclonus , and waiting for the symptoms to resolve . Moderate cases should have all thermal and cardiorespiratory abnormalities corrected and can benefit from serotonin antagonists . The serotonin antagonist cyproheptadine is the recommended initial therapy , although there have been no controlled trials demonstrating its efficacy for serotonin syndrome . Despite the absence of controlled trials , there are a number of case reports detailing apparent improvement after people have been administered cyproheptadine . Animal experiments also suggest a benefit from serotonin antagonists . Cyproheptadine is only available as tablets and therefore can only be administered orally or via a nasogastric tube ; it is unlikely to be effective in people administered activated charcoal and has limited use in severe cases . Additional pharmacological treatment for severe case includes administering atypical antipsychotic drugs with serotonin antagonist activity such as olanzapine . Critically ill people should receive the above therapies as well as sedation or neuromuscular paralysis . People who have autonomic instability such as low blood pressure require treatment with direct @-@ acting sympathomimetics such as epinephrine , norepinephrine , or phenylephrine . Conversely , hypertension or tachycardia can be treated with short @-@ acting antihypertensive drugs such as nitroprusside or esmolol ; longer acting drugs such as propranolol should be avoided as they may lead to hypotension and shock . The cause of serotonin toxicity or accumulation is an important factor in determining the course of treatment . Serotonin is catabolized by monoamine oxidase in the presence of oxygen , so if care is taken to prevent an unsafe spike in body temperature or metabolic acidosis , oxygenation will assist in dispatching the excess serotonin . The same principle applies to alcohol intoxication . In cases of serotonin syndrome caused by monoamine oxidase inhibitors oxygenation will not help to dispatch serotonin . In such instances hydration is the main concern until the enzyme is regenerated .
= = = Agitation = = =
Specific treatment for some symptoms may be required . One of the most important treatments is the control of agitation due to the extreme possibility of injury to the person themselves or caregivers , benzodiazepines should be administered at first sign of this . Physical restraints are not recommended for agitation or delirium as they may contribute to mortality by enforcing isometric muscle contractions that are associated with severe lactic acidosis and hyperthermia . If physical restraints are necessary for severe agitation they must be rapidly replaced with pharmacological sedation . The agitation can cause a large amount of muscle breakdown . This breakdown can cause severe damage to the kidneys through a condition called rhabdomyolysis .
= = = Hyperthermia = = =
Treatment for hyperthermia includes reducing muscle overactivity via sedation with a benzodiazepine . More severe cases may require muscular paralysis with vecuronium , intubation , and artificial ventilation . Succinylcholine is not recommended for muscular paralysis as it may increase the risk of cardiac dysrhythmia from hyperkalemia associated with rhabdomyolysis . Antipyretic agents are not recommended as the increase in body temperature is due to muscular activity , not a hypothalamic temperature set point abnormality .
= = Prognosis = =
Upon the discontinuation of serotonergic drugs , most cases of serotonin syndrome resolve within 24 hours , although in some cases delirium may persist for a number of days . Symptoms typically persist for a longer time frame in patients taking drugs which have a long elimination half @-@ life , active metabolites , or a protracted duration of action .
Cases have reported muscle pain and weakness persisting for months , and antidepressant discontinuation may contribute to ongoing features . Following appropriate medical management , serotonin syndrome is generally associated with a favorable prognosis .
= = Epidemiology = =
Epidemiological studies of serotonin syndrome are difficult as many physicians are unaware of the diagnosis or they may miss the syndrome due to its variable manifestations . In 1998 a survey conducted in England found that 85 % of the general practitioners that had prescribed the antidepressant nefazodone were unaware of serotonin syndrome . The incidence may be increasing as a larger number of pro @-@ serotonergic drugs ( drugs which increase serotonin levels ) are now being used in clinical practice . One postmarketing surveillance study identified an incidence of 0 @.@ 4 cases per 1000 patient @-@ months for patients who were taking nefazodone . Additionally , around 14 to 16 percent of persons who overdose on SSRIs are thought to develop serotonin syndrome .
= = Notable cases = =
The most widely recognized example of serotonin syndrome was the death of Libby Zion in 1984 . Zion was a freshman at Bennington College at her death on March 5 , 1984 , at age 18 . She died within 8 hours of her emergency admission to the New York Hospital Cornell Medical Center . She had an ongoing history of depression , and came to the Manhattan hospital on the evening of March 4 , 1984 , with a fever , agitation and " strange jerking motions " of her body . She also seemed disoriented at times . The emergency room physicians were unable to diagnose her condition definitively , but admitted her for hydration and observation . Her death was caused by a combination of pethidine and phenelzine . A medical intern prescribed
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almost uncanny skill " . To that end , Warner orchestrated the appointment of Douglas Jardine as England captain in 1931 , as a prelude to Jardine leading the 1932 – 33 tour to Australia , with Warner as team manager . Remembering that Bradman had struggled against bouncers during his 232 at The Oval in 1930 , Jardine decided to combine traditional leg theory with short @-@ pitched bowling to combat Bradman . He settled on the Nottinghamshire fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce as the spearheads for his tactics . In support , the England selectors chose another three pacemen for the squad . The unusually high number of fast bowlers caused a lot of comment in both countries and roused Bradman 's own suspicions .
Bradman had other problems to deal with at this time ; among these were bouts of illness from an undiagnosed malaise which had begun during the tour of North America , and that the Australian Board of Control had initially refused permission for him to write a column for the Sydney Sun . Bradman , who had signed a two @-@ year contract with the newspaper , threatened to withdraw from cricket to honour his contract when the board denied him permission to write ; eventually , the paper released Bradman from the contract , in a victory for the board . In three first @-@ class games against England before the Tests , Bradman averaged just 17 @.@ 16 in 6 innings . Jardine decided to give the new tactics a trial in only one game , a fixture against an Australian XI at Melbourne . In this match , Bradman faced the leg theory and later warned local administrators that trouble was brewing if it continued . He withdrew from the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground amid rumours that he had suffered a nervous breakdown . Despite his absence , England employed what were already becoming known as the Bodyline tactics against the Australian batsmen and won an ill @-@ tempered match .
The public clamoured for the return of Bradman to defeat Bodyline : " he was the batsman who could conquer this cankerous bowling ... ' Bradmania ' , amounting almost to religious fervour , demanded his return " . Recovered from his indisposition , Bradman returned to the side in Alan Kippax 's position . A world record crowd of 63 @,@ 993 at the MCG saw Bradman come to the crease on the first day of the Second Test with the score at 2 / 67 . A standing ovation ensued that delayed play for several minutes . Bradman anticipated receiving a bouncer as his first ball and , as the bowler delivered , he moved across his stumps to play the hook shot . The ball failed to rise and Bradman dragged it onto his stumps ; the first @-@ ball duck was his first in a Test . The crowd fell into stunned silence as he walked off . However , Australia took a first innings lead in the match , and another record crowd on 2 January 1933 watched Bradman hit a counter @-@ attacking second innings century . His unbeaten 103 ( from 146 balls ) in a team total of 191 helped set England a target of 251 to win . Bill O 'Reilly and Bert Ironmonger bowled Australia to a series @-@ levelling victory amid hopes that Bodyline was beaten .
The Third Test at the Adelaide Oval proved pivotal . There were angry crowd scenes after the Australian captain Bill Woodfull and wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield were hit by bouncers . An apologetic Plum Warner entered the Australian dressing room and was rebuked by Woodfull . Woodfull 's remarks ( that " ... there are two teams out there and only one of them is playing cricket " ) were leaked to the press , and Warner and others attributed this to Fingleton , however for many years ( even after Fingleton 's death ) a bitter war of accusation passed between Fingleton and Bradman as to who was the real source of the leak . In a cable to the MCC , the Australian Board of Control repeated the allegation of poor sportsmanship directed at Warner by Woodfull . With the support of the MCC , England continued with Bodyline despite Australian protests . The tourists won the last three Tests convincingly and regained the Ashes . Bradman caused controversy with his own tactics . Always seeking to score , and with the leg side packed with fielders , he often backed away and hit the ball into the vacant half of the outfield with unorthodox shots reminiscent of tennis or golf . This brought him 396 runs ( at 56 @.@ 57 ) for the series and plaudits for attempting to find a solution to Bodyline , although his series average was just 57 % of his career mean . Jack Fingleton was in no doubt that Bradman 's game altered irrevocably as a consequence of Bodyline , writing :
Bodyline was specially prepared , nurtured for and expended on him and , in consequence , his technique underwent a change quicker than might have been the case with the passage of time . Bodyline plucked something vibrant from his art .
The constant glare of celebrity and the tribulations of the season forced Bradman to reappraise his life outside the game and to seek a career away from his cricketing fame . Harry Hodgetts , a South Australian delegate to the Board of Control , offered Bradman work as a stockbroker if he would relocate to Adelaide and captain South Australia ( SA ) . Unknown to the public , the SA Cricket Association ( SACA ) instigated Hodgetts ' approach and subsidised Bradman 's wage . Although his wife was hesitant about moving , Bradman eventually agreed to the deal in February 1934 .
= = = Declining health and a brush with death = = =
In his farewell season for NSW , Bradman averaged 132 @.@ 44 , his best yet . He was appointed vice @-@ captain for the 1934 tour of England . However , " he was unwell for much of the [ English ] summer , and reports in newspapers hinted that he was suffering from heart trouble " . Although he again started with a double century at Worcester , his famed concentration soon deserted him . Wisden wrote :
... there were many occasions on which he was out to wild strokes . Indeed at one period he created the impression that , to some extent , he had lost control of himself and went in to bat with an almost complete disregard for anything in the shape of a defensive stroke .
At one stage , Bradman went 13 first @-@ class innings without a century , the longest such spell of his career , prompting suggestions that Bodyline had eroded his confidence and altered his technique . After three Tests , the series was one – one and Bradman had scored 133 runs in five innings . The Australians travelled to Sheffield and played a warm up game before the Fourth Test . Bradman started slowly and then , " ... the old Bradman [ was ] back with us , in the twinkling of an eye , almost " . He went on to make 140 , with the last 90 runs coming in just 45 minutes . On the opening day of the Fourth Test at Headingley ( Leeds ) , England were out for 200 , but Australia slumped to 3 / 39 , losing the third wicket from the last ball of the day . Listed to bat at number five , Bradman would start his innings the next day .
That evening , Bradman declined an invitation to dinner from Neville Cardus , telling the journalist that he wanted an early night because the team needed him to make a double century the next day . Cardus pointed out that his previous innings on the ground was 334 , and the law of averages was against another such score . Bradman told Cardus , " I don 't believe in the law of averages " . In the event , Bradman batted all of the second day and into the third , putting on a then world record partnership of 388 with Bill Ponsford . When he was finally out for 304 ( 473 balls , 43 fours and 2 sixes ) , Australia had a lead of 350 runs , but rain prevented them from forcing a victory . The effort of the lengthy innings stretched Bradman 's reserves of energy , and he did not play again until the Fifth Test at The Oval , the match that would decide the Ashes .
In the first innings at The Oval , Bradman and Ponsford recorded an even more massive partnership , this time 451 runs . It had taken them less than a month to break the record they had set at Headingley ; this new world record was to last 57 years . Bradman 's share of the stand was 244 from 271 balls , and the Australian total of 701 set up victory by 562 runs . For the fourth time in five series , the Ashes changed hands . England would not recover them again until after Bradman 's retirement .
Seemingly restored to full health , Bradman blazed two centuries in the last two games of the tour . However , when he returned to London to prepare for the trip home , he experienced severe abdominal pain . It took a doctor more than 24 hours to diagnose acute appendicitis and a surgeon operated immediately . Bradman lost a lot of blood during the four @-@ hour procedure and peritonitis set in . Penicillin and sulphonamides were still experimental treatments at this time ; peritonitis was usually a fatal condition . On 25 September , the hospital issued a statement that Bradman was struggling for his life and that blood donors were needed urgently .
" The effect of the announcement was little short of spectacular " . The hospital could not deal with the number of donors , and closed its switchboard in the face of the avalanche of telephone calls generated by the news . Journalists were asked by their editors to prepare obituaries . Teammate Bill O 'Reilly took a call from King George V 's secretary asking that the King be kept informed of the situation . Jessie Bradman started the month @-@ long journey to London as soon as she received the news . En route , she heard a rumour that her husband had died . A telephone call clarified the situation and by the time she reached London , Bradman had begun a slow recovery . He followed medical advice to convalesce , taking several months to return to Australia and missing the 1934 – 35 Australian season .
= = = Internal politics and the Test captaincy = = =
There was off @-@ field intrigue in Australian cricket during the antipodean winter of 1935 . Australia , scheduled to make a tour of South Africa at the end of the year , needed to replace the retired Bill Woodfull as captain . The Board of Control wanted Bradman to lead the team , yet , on 8 August , the board announced Bradman 's withdrawal from the team due to a lack of fitness . Sur
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prisingly , in the light of this announcement , Bradman led the South Australian team in a full programme of matches that season .
The captaincy was given to Vic Richardson , Bradman 's predecessor as South Australian captain . Cricket author Chris Harte 's analysis of the situation is that a prior ( unspecified ) commercial agreement forced Bradman to remain in Australia . Harte attributed an ulterior motive to his relocation : the off @-@ field behaviour of Richardson and other South Australian players had displeased the South Australia Cricket Association ( SACA ) , which was looking for new leadership . To help improve discipline , Bradman became a committeeman of the SACA , and a selector of the South Australian and Australian teams . He took his adopted state to its first Sheffield Shield title for 10 years , Bradman weighing in with personal contributions of 233 against Queensland and 357 against Victoria . He finished the season with 369 ( in 233 minutes ) , a South Australian record , made against Tasmania . The bowler who dismissed him , Reginald Townley , would later become leader of the Tasmanian Liberal Party .
Australia defeated South Africa 4 – 0 and senior players such as Bill O 'Reilly were pointed in their comments about the enjoyment of playing under Richardson 's captaincy . A group of players who were openly hostile toward Bradman formed during the tour . For some , the prospect of playing under Bradman was daunting , as was the knowledge that he would additionally be sitting in judgement of their abilities in his role as a selector .
To start the new season , the Test side played a " Rest of Australia " team , captained by Bradman , at Sydney in early October 1936 . The Test XI suffered a big defeat , due to Bradman 's 212 and a haul of 12 wickets taken by leg @-@ spinner Frank Ward . Bradman let the members of the Test team know that despite their recent success , the team still required improvement . Shortly afterwards , Bradman 's first child was born on 28 October , but died the next day . He took time out of cricket for two weeks and on his return made 192 in three hours against Victoria in the last match before the beginning of the Ashes series .
The Test selectors made five changes to the team who had played in the previous Test match . Significantly , Australia 's most successful bowler Clarrie Grimmett was replaced by Ward , one of four players making their debut . Bradman 's role in Grimmett 's omission from the team was controversial and it became a theme that dogged Bradman as Grimmett continued to be prolific in domestic cricket while his successors were ineffective — he was regarded as having finished the veteran bowler 's Test career in a political purge .
Australia fell to successive defeats in the opening two Tests , Bradman making two ducks in his four innings , and it seemed that the captaincy was affecting his form . The selectors made another four changes to the team for the Third Test at Melbourne .
Bradman won the toss on New Year 's Day 1937 , but again failed with the bat , scoring just 13 . The Australians could not take advantage of a pitch that favoured batting , and finished the day at 6 / 181 . On the second day , rain dramatically altered the course of the game . With the sun drying the pitch ( in those days , covers could not be used during matches ) Bradman declared to get England in to bat while the pitch was " sticky " ; England also declared to get Australia back in , conceding a lead of 124 . Bradman countered by reversing his batting order to protect his run @-@ makers while conditions improved . The ploy worked and Bradman went in at number seven . In an innings spread over three days , he battled influenza while scoring 270 off 375 balls , sharing a record partnership of 346 with Jack Fingleton , and Australia went on to victory . In 2001 , Wisden rated this performance as the best Test match innings of all time .
The next Test , at the Adelaide Oval , was fairly even until Bradman played another patient second innings , making 212 from 395 balls . Australia levelled the series when the erratic left @-@ arm spinner " Chuck " Fleetwood @-@ Smith bowled Australia to victory . In the series @-@ deciding Fifth Test , Bradman returned to a more aggressive style in top @-@ scoring with 169 ( off 191 balls ) in Australia 's 604 and Australia won by an innings . Australia 's achievement of winning a Test series after outright losses in the first two matches has never been repeated in Test cricket .
= = = End of an era = = =
During the 1938 tour of England , Bradman played the most consistent cricket of his career . He needed to score heavily as England had a strengthened batting line @-@ up , while the Australian bowling was over @-@ reliant on O 'Reilly . Grimmett was overlooked , but Jack Fingleton made the team , so the clique of anti @-@ Bradman players remained . Playing 26 innings on tour , Bradman recorded 13 centuries ( a new Australian record ) and again made 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs before the end of May , becoming the only player to do so twice . In scoring 2 @,@ 429 runs , Bradman achieved the highest average ever recorded in an English season : 115 @.@ 66 .
In the First Test , England amassed a big first innings score and looked likely to win , but Stan McCabe made 232 for Australia , a performance Bradman rated as the best he had ever seen . With Australia forced to follow @-@ on , Bradman fought hard to ensure McCabe 's effort was not in vain , and he secured the draw with 144 not out . It was the slowest Test hundred of his career and he played a similar innings of 102 not out in the next Test as Australia struggled to another draw . Rain completely washed out the Third Test at Manchester .
Australia 's opportunity came at Headingley , a Test described by Bradman as the best he ever played in . England batted first and made 223 . During the Australian innings , Bradman backed himself by opting to bat on in poor light conditions , reasoning that Australia could score more runs in bad light on a good wicket than on a rain affected wicket in good light , when he had the option to go off . He scored 103 out of a total of 242 and the gamble paid off , as it meant there was sufficient time to push for victory when an England collapse left them a target of only 107 to win . Australia slumped to 4 / 61 , with Bradman out for 16 . An approaching storm threatened to wash the game out , but the poor weather held off and Australia managed to secure the win , a victory that retained the Ashes . For the only time in his life , the tension of the occasion got to Bradman and he could not watch the closing stages of play , a reflection of the pressure that he felt all tour : he described the captaincy as " exhausting " and said he " found it difficult to keep going " .
The euphoria of securing the Ashes preceded Australia 's heaviest defeat . At The Oval , England amassed a world record of 7 / 903 and their opening batsman Len Hutton scored an individual world record , by making 364 . In an attempt to relieve the burden on his bowlers , Bradman took a rare turn at bowling . During his third over , he fractured his ankle and teammates carried him from the ground . With Bradman injured and Fingleton unable to bat because of a leg muscle strain , Australia were thrashed by an innings and 579 runs , which remains the largest margin in Test cricket history . Unfit to complete the tour , Bradman left the team in the hands of vice @-@ captain Stan McCabe . At this point , Bradman felt that the burden of captaincy would prevent him from touring England again , although he did not make his doubts public .
Despite the pressure of captaincy , Bradman 's batting form remained supreme . An experienced , mature player now commonly called " The Don " had replaced the blitzing style of his early days as the " Boy from Bowral " . In 1938 – 39 , he led South Australia to the Sheffield Shield and made a century in six consecutive innings to equal CB Fry 's world record . Bradman totalled 21 first @-@ class centuries in 34 innings , from the beginning of the 1938 tour of England ( including preliminary games in Australia ) until early 1939 .
The next season , Bradman made an abortive bid to join the Victoria state side . The Melbourne Cricket Club advertised the position of club secretary and he was led to believe that if he applied , he would get the job . The position , which had been held by Hugh Trumble until his death in August 1938 , was one of the most prestigious jobs in Australian cricket . The annual salary of £ 1 @,@ 000 would make Bradman financially secure while allowing him to retain a connection with the game . On 18 January 1939 , the club 's committee , on the casting vote of the chairman , chose former Test batsman Vernon Ransford over Bradman .
The 1939 – 40 season was Bradman 's most productive ever for SA : 1 @,@ 448 runs at an average of 144 @.@ 8 . He made three double centuries , including 251 not out against NSW , the innings that he rated the best he ever played in the Sheffield Shield , as he tamed Bill O 'Reilly at the height of his form . However , it was the end of an era . The outbreak of World War Two led to the indefinite postponement of all cricket tours , and the suspension of the Sheffield Shield competition .
= = = Troubled war years = = =
Bradman joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 28 June 1940 and was passed fit for air crew duty . The RAAF had more recruits than it could equip and train and Bradman spent four months in Adelaide before the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Lord Gowrie , persuaded Bradman to transfer to the army , a move that was criticised as a safer option for him . Given the rank of Lieutenant , he was posted to the Army School of Physical Training at Frankston , Victoria , to act as a divisional supervisor of physical training . The exertion of the job aggravated his chronic muscular problems , diagnosed as fibrositis . Surprisingly , in light of his batting prowess , a routine army test revealed that Bradman had poor eyesight .
Invalided out of service in June 1941 , Bradman spent months recuperating , unable even to shave himself or comb his hair due to the extent of the muscular pain he suffered . He resumed stockbroking during 1942 . In his biography of Bradman , Charles Williams expounded the theory that the physical problems were psychosomatic , induced by stress and possibly depression ; Bradman read the book 's manuscript and did not disagree . Had any cricket been played at this time , he would not have been available . Although he found some relief in 1945 when referred to the Melbourne masseur Ern Saunders , Bradman permanently lost the feeling in the thumb and index finger of his ( dominant ) right hand .
In June 1945 , Bradman faced a financial crisis when the firm of Harry Hodgetts collapsed due to fraud and embezzlement . Bradman moved quickly to set up his own business , utilising Hodgetts ' client list and his old office in Grenfell Street , Adelaide . The fallout led to a prison term for Hodgetts , and left a stigma attached to Bradman 's name in the city 's business community for many years .
However , the SA Cricket Association had no hesitation in appointing Bradman as their delegate to the Board of Control in place of Hodgetts . Now working alongside some of the men he had battled in the 1930s , Bradman quickly became a leading light in the administration of the game . With the resumption of international cricket , he was once more appointed a Test selector , and played a major role in planning for post @-@ war cricket .
= = = " The ghost of a once great cricketer " = = =
In 1945 – 46 , Bradman suffered regular bouts of fibrositis while coming to terms with increased administrative duties and the establishment of his business . He played for South Australia in two matches to help with the re @-@ establishment of first @-@ class cricket and later described his batting as " painstaking " . Batting against the Australian Services cricket team , Bradman scored 112 in less than two hours , yet Dick Whitington ( playing for the Services ) wrote , " I have seen today the ghost of a once great cricketer " . Bradman declined a tour of New Zealand and spent the winter of 1946 wondering whether he had played his last match . " With the English team due to arrive for the 1946 – 47
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